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THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN   INTERNATIONAL   WORK   OF   REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,    DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHASLES  G.  HERBERMANN,  P11.D.,  LLD. 

EDWARD  A.  PACE,  PH.D.,  D.D.        CONDE  B.  FALLEN.  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN  J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED  BY   NUMEROUS  COLLABOKATOKS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  X 


Dew  lIMcA 
THE  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOUNDATION,   INC. 


J 


THE  HEW  YORK 

PUBUC  LIBRARY 

ABTVR.X^OX  if  MO 

TtLDEH  FOUKOATtONB 
R         t933 


Nihil  ObsteU,  Feitmiary  1 ,  1911 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


CBNSOB 


IrnpHnuduT 

*JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 


ARCHBISHOP  OF  NSW  TOBK 


•    •    • 


Copyright,  1911 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright,  191S 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

Hie  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
^  Encydpp^U  .and  are  protected  by  copyright.     All  rights,  indud- 
;  \ .  in^  ;ihe  ri^tf,  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


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PNCeeWONK  AND  eiNDINQ   BY  J.    •.    LYON  CO  .  ALSANY.    N.   Y..    U.   8.   A. 


Contributors  to  the  Tenth  Volume 


AIKEN,  CHARLES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Provbssob  or 
Apolooxticb,  Cathouc  Universitt  or  Amer- 
ica, Washington:  Mendus;  MoDotheism;  Ndve, 
F^lix-Jean-Baptiste-Joseph. 

AlDASY,    ANTAL,    Ph.D.,    Abchivist   or   thb 

LiBBABT  OF  THE  NATIONAL  MuSEUM,  BUDAPEST: 

Matthias    Corviniis;    Munkdcs,    Dioceee    of; 
Neusohl,  Diocese  of;  Neutra,  Diocese  of. 

ALMOND,  JOSEPH  CUTHBERT,  O.S.B.,  Supb- 
RioB  OF  Park's  Hall,  Oxford  :  Mechitar;  Mech- 
itarists. 

ALSTON,  G.  CYPRIAN,  O.S.B.,  Downside  Abbet, 
Bath,  England:  Monasteries,  Double. 

AMADO,  RAMON  RUIZ,  8.J.,  LL.D.,  Ph.L., 
College  or  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona, 
Spain:  Minorca,  Diocese  of;  Mondoliedo,  Dio- 
cese of. 

ARENDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (Cantab.), 
PBorBssoR  or  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Edmttnd's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Messalians;  Mith- 
raism;  Nasonuins. 

AUCLAIR,  fiLIE  J.,  B.A..  S.T.D.,  J.C.D.,  Univeb- 
BiTT  or  Laval,  Montbeal,  Canada:  Montreal, 
Archdiocese  of. 

AUGUSTINE,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C.,  Fbanoiscan 
Capuchin  Monastebt,  Dublin:  Mathew,  Theo- 
bald. 

AUSTIN,  SISTER  MARY  STANISLAUS,  St. 
Cathabine's  Convent  or  Mebct,  New  Yobx: 
Mercy,  Sisters  of. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Matter; 
Mivart,  Sir  George  Jackson. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Oba- 
tobt,  Bibmingham,  England:  Mennas;  Mo- 
nasticism,  II.  Eastern  Monastidsm  Before 
Chalcedon. 

BARNES,  Mgb.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A., 
(OxoN.  AND  Cantab.),  Cambbidoe,  England: 
Neophyte. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  St.  Michael's 
Abbey,  Fabnbobough,  England:  Melrose, 
Abbey  of. 

BARRY,  WILLIAM,  S.T.D.,  Leamington,  Eng- 
land: Newman,  John  Henty. 

BAUMGARTEN,  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D.,  S.T.D., 
Domestic  Pbelate,  Rome:  Mirabilia  Urbis 
Ronue;  Monsignor. 

BEECHER,  PATRICK  A.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  PBorEssoB 
or  Pastobal  Theology  and  Sacbed  Elo- 
quence, Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  Mo- 
riarty,  David. 


BENIGNI,  UMBERTO,  Pbofbssob  or  Ecclesias- 
tical HisTOBY,  Pont.  Collsgio  Ubbano  di 
Pbopaganda,  Rome:  Massa  Carrara,  Diocese 
of;  Massa  Marittima,  Diocese  of;  Mazsara  del 
Vallo,  Diocese  of;  Melfi  and  Rapolla,  Diocese  of; 
Messina,  Archdiocese  of;  Mezzofanti,  Giuseppe; 
Milan,  Archdiocese  of;  Mileto,  Diocese  of;  Mint, . 
Papal;  Modena,  Archdiocese  and  University  of; 
Modigliana,  Diocese  of;  Molfetta,  Terlissi  and 
Giovinazzo,  Diocese  of;  Monaco,  Principality 
and  Diocese  of;  Mondovt,  Diocese  of;  Monopoli, 
Diocese  of;  Monreale,  Archdiocese  of;  Montal- 
cino.  Diocese  of;  Montalto,  Diocese  of;  Monte- 
feltro.  Diocese  of;  Montefiascone,  'Diocese  of; 
Montepulciano,  Diocese  of;  Monies  Pietatis; 
Moroni,  Gaetano;  Muro  Lucano,  Diocese  of; 
Naples;  Nardo,  Diocese  of;  Nami  and  Temi, 
United  Dioceses  of;  Nepi  and  Sutri. 

BERTRIN,  GEORGES,  Lrrr.D.,  Fellow  or  the 
Univebsity,  PBorEssoB  OF  Fbench  Liteba- 
TUBE,  Instttut  Cathouque,  Pabis:  Miracle 
Plays  and  Mysteries;  Molidre  (Jean-Baptiste 
Poquelin);  Montaigne,  Michael  Eyquen  de. 

BESSE,  J.  M.,  O.S.B.,  Dibbctob,  "Revue  Mabil- 
lon",  Chevetogne,  Belgium:  Mendes  de 
Silva,  Jofto;  Meroedarians;  Monasteries,  Suppres- 
sion of. 

BESTE,  KENELM  DIGBY,  S.J.,  St.  Beuno's  Col- 
LEGE,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Menevia,  Diocese  of. 

BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Pbofbssob  of  Chubch  Music, 
Maynooth  College,  Dublin:  Neum. 

« 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lectob  or  EccuBSLkSTi- 

CAL    EElBTOBY,    CoLLEGIO    SaN    BoNAVENTUBA, 

QuABACcm,  Flobbnce:  Matteo  of  Aquasparta; 
Myron,  Francis. 

BOUDINHON,  AUGUSTE-MARIE,  S.T.D.,  D.C.L., 
DiBECTOB,  "Canoniste  Contempobain  ",  Pbo- 
rEssoB  or  Canon  Law,  Institut  Cathouque, 
Pabis:  Mensa,  Mensal  Revenue;  Metropolitan; 
Minor;  Minor  Orders;  Monseigneur. 

BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Bellevue,  Luxembubg; 
Mitre;  Morse;  Mozzetta. 

BR£HIER,  L0UIS-REN£,  PBorsssoB  or  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  Histoby,  Univebsity  or  Cleb^ 
mont-Febband,  Pxty-de-DAme,  Fbance:  Mi- 
chaud,  Joseph-Francis;  Montfaucon,  Bernard  de. 

6R0CK,  HENRY  M.,  S.J.,  Obe  Place,  Hastings, 
England:  Mayer,  Christian;  Moigno,  Frangois. 

BROSNAHAN,  TIMOTHY,  S.J.,  PBorsssoB  oi 
Psychology  and  Ethics,  Woodstock  College, 
Mabyland:  Mazzella,  Camillo. 


J 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


BURKE,  EDMUND,  B.A,  Instbuctor  in  Latin, 

COLLBGK  OF  THE  CiTT  OP  NeW  YoRK:  MuBUIOB, 

MarkoB. 

BURTON,  EDWIN,  8.T.D.,  F.R.  Hwr.  Soc.,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmttnd'b  Colubgb,  Ware, 
England:  Matthew,  Sir  Tobie;  Mile,  Crispin; 
Monsell,  William;  Montfort,  Simon  de;  Morton, 
John;  Mnah.  (alias  Ratcliffe),  John. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's,  Farnborough,  England:  Matins. 

CAMPBELL,  THOMAS  J.,  S.J.,  Editor-in-Chief, 
"America",  New  York:  Mass^,  Enemond; 
Menard,  Ren^. 

CANGIANO,  VICTOR,  C.8.C.B.,  Mibsionart  Apos- 
tolic, Vice-Rector,  St.  Joachim's  Church, 
New  York:  Missionaries  of  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  Congregation  of. 

CASANOVA,  GERTRUDE,  O.S.B.,  Stanbrook 
Abbet,  Worcester,  England:  Mechtilde, 
Saint. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior 
OF  St.  Thomas's  Abbet,  Erdington,  Birming- 
ham, England:  Maximus  of  Constantinople, 
Saint;  Melchisedechians;  Monarchians;  Mo- 
nophysites  and  Monophysitism;  Monothelitism 
and  Monothelites;  Montanists;  Nestorius  and 
Nestorianism. 

CHARLES,  BROTHER,  Principal,  Cathedral 
School,  Natchez,  Mississippi  :  Natchez,  Diocese 
of. 

CLEARY,  GREGORY,  O.F.M.,  J.C.D.,  J.Civ.D., 
S.T.L.,  sometime  Professor  of  Canon  Law 
AND  Moral  Theologt,  St.  Isidore's  College, 
Rome:  Mastrius,  Bartholomew;  Medina,  Juan 
de;  Medina,  Miguel  de;  Molloy  (O'Molloy), 
Francis;  Mullock,  John  T. 

CLUGNET,  JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,  Lrrr.L., 
Paris:  Medaidus,  Saint. 

COGHLAN,  DANIEL,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Dog- 
matic Theologt,  Matnooth  College,  Dublin: 
Murray,  Patrick. 

CORDIER,  HENRI,  Professor  at  the  School  for 
Oriental  Living  Languages,  Paris:  Mongolia. 

CORLEY,  JOHN  LOUIS,  LL.B.,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Missouri,  State  of. 

CRAM,  RALPH  ADAMS,  F.R.G.S.,  F.  Am.  Inbt. 
Architects,  President,  Boston  Socibtt  of 
Architectb,  Boston:  Narthex;  Nave. 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
General  History,  Instituto  CiENiiFioo, 
Cnr  OF  Mexico:  Mendfburu,  Manuel  de;  Men- 
dieta,  Jer6nimo;  Mexico;  Molina,  Alonso  de; 
Morelos,  Jos6  Maria;  Motolinfa,  Toribio  de 
Benavente. 

CUSICK,  PETER  F.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Chemistrt 
AND  Gbologt,  Boston  College,  Boston, 
Massachusetts:  Molloy,  Gerald. 


CUTHBERT,  FATHER.  O.S.F.C.,  Crawlet, 
Sussex,  England:  Massaia,  Guglielmo. 

lyALTON,  E.  A.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Athbnrt, 
Ireland:  Moore,  Arthur;  Moylan,  Francis; 
Murray,  Daniel. 

DEGERT,  ANTOINE,  Lrrr.D.,  Editor,  "La  Revue 

DE  LA  GaSCOIGNE",  PrOFESSOR  OF  LaTIN  LIT- 
ERATURE, Instttut  Cathouque,  Toulouse: 
Massillon,  Jean-Baptiste;  Mathieu,  FrangoLs- 
D6sir6;  Montesquieu,  Charles-Louis  de  Secondat. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Mercy, 
Corporal  and  Spiritual  Works  of;  Negligence. 

DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  St.  Paul's  Retreat, 
Mount  Argus,  Dublin:  Miracles,  Gift  of. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Member  of  the  Belgian 
Academy,  Professor  of  Logic  and  .Esthet- 
ics, Univbrsitt  of  Louvain:  Neo-Scholasti- 
cism. 

DOHERTY,  CHARLES  J.,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 
Montreal,  Canada:  Masses,  Bequests  fo*- 
(Canada). 

DOLAN,  JOHN  GILBERT,  O.S.B.,  The  Priort, 
LnTLB  Malvern,  England:  Muri  (Muri- 
Gries). 

DOMANIG,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Honorary  Imperial 
Councillor,  Chief  Director  of  the  Imperial 
Collection  of  Coins,  Klobterneuburo,  Aus- 
tria: Molo,  Gasparo. 

DONOVAN,  STEPHEN  M.,  O.F.M.,  Franciscan 
Convent,  WAsmNoroN:  Michael  of  Cesena. 

DOUCERfi,  VICTOR,  S.M.,  Titular  Bishop  of 
Ternutt,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  New  Heb- 
RiDBs:  New  Hebrides,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochelle, 
New  York:  Media  and  Medes;  Moses  Bar 
Cephas;  Nabo  (Nebo);  Nathan;  Nathanael. 
Nathinites;  Nasarene;  Nasarite;  Nebo,  Mount, 
Nemrod. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  T.,  M.A.,  S.T.L.,  Fonda,  New 
York:  Miracle;  Naturism. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.  J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Massorah,  Mathathias;  Menochio, 
Giovanni  Stefano. 

DUBRAY,  CHARLES  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Marist  College, 
Washington:  Mersenne,  Marin;  Naturalism: 
Nature;  Necromancy. 

DUFFY,  PATRICK  EDWARD,  S.T.L.,  Mullin- 
GAR,  Ireland:  Meath,  Diocese  of. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  of  Theoretical 
Physics,  University  of  Bordeaux:  Nemore, 
Jordanus  de. 

DUTTON,  JOSEPH  M.  F.,  Kalawao,  Molokax, 
Hawau:  Molokai. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


EATON,  THOMAS  J.,  M.A.,  Mobile,  Alabama: 
MobOe,  Diocese  of. 

ELGUERO,  FRANCISCO,  Morelia,  Mexico: 
Michoacan,  Archdiocese  of. 

ELLIOT,  WALTER,  C.S.P.,  New  York:  Mission- 
ary Society  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Watbon- 
viLLE,  California:  Membre,  Zenobius;  Mon- 
terey and  Los  Angeles,  Diocese  of. 

ENGELKEMPER,  WILHELM,  8.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis, 
Universitt  of  Mt^NSTER:  MtUttter,  University 
of. 

ESPINOSA,  AURELIO  MACEDONIO,  M.A., 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Spanish,  Lsland  Stan- 
ford Uniyersitt,  California:  Nevada. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  Histort  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
Universitt,  St.  Louis,  Missouri:  Medicine 
and  Canon  Law;  Midwives;  Monastery,  Ca- 
nonical Erection  of  a. 

FISHER,  J.  H.,  S.J.,  Woodstock  College,  Mart- 
land:  M6daille,  Jean-Paul. 

FLAHERTY,  MATTHEW  J.,  M.A.  (Harvard), 
Concord,  Massachusetts:  Moore,  Thomas. 

FORBES-LEITH,  WILLIAM,  S.J.,  Boscombe, 
Bournemouth,  England:  Melrose,  Chronicle 
of. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Spanish  and  French,  Harvard  Uni- 
versitt, Cambridge,  Massachusetts:  Mena, 
Juande;  Menzini,  Benedetto;  Metastasio,  Pietro; 
Morales,  Ambrosio. 

FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Thsologt  and  the  Striac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, Universitt  of  Louvain:  Melchers, 
Paul. 

PORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Mass,  Nup- 
tial; Maurice,  Roman  Emperor;  Melchites; 
Men^on;  Metaphrastes,  Symeon;  Methodius  I; 
Metrophanes  of  Smyrna;  Michael  Cffirularius; 
Monasticism,  III.  Eastern  Monasticism;  Necta- 
rius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

FOURNET,  PIERRE  AUGUSTE,  S.S.,  M.A., 
Professor  of  Histort,  CoLiisGE  de  Montreal, 
Montreal,  Canada:  Montboissier,  Peter  of. 

POX,  WILLIAM,  B.S.,  M.E.,  Associate  Professor 
OF  Phtsics,  College  of  the  Citt  of  New 
York:  Matteucci,  Carlo;  Montgolfier,  Joseph- 
Michel. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  Cmr  of  New  York:  Medrano, 
Francisco;  Mel^ndes  Vald^,  Juan;  Mendafia  de 
Neyra,  Alvaro  de;  Mendoza,  Diego  Hurtado  de; 
Montemayor,  Jorge  de;  Moratfn,  Leandro  Fer- 
nandez de;  Moreto  y  Cabafia,  Agustln;  Nava- 
nete,  Martin  Femindes  de. 


GASQUET,  FRANCIS  AIDAN,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D., 
Abbot  President  of  the  English  Benbdictini 
Congregation,  London:  Monasteries,  Sup- 
pression of,  in  England  under  Henry  VIII. 

GANCEVIC,  ANTHONY  LAWRENCE,  O.F.M., 
Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Zaostrog,  Dalmatia:  Meduli6, 
Andreas;  Miridite,  Abbey  of. 

GARDNER,  EDMUND  GARRETT,  M.A.  (Cam- 
bridge), Barlow  Lecturer  on  Dante,  Uni- 
versitt College,  London:  Medici,  House  of; 
Melt,  Giovanni;  Nardi,  Jaoopo. 

GARESCHfi,  EDWARD  FRANCIS,  S.J.,  St. 
Louis  Universitt,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Nacchiante,  Giacomo;  Nepveu,  Francis;  Neu- 
mayr,  Franz. 

GEDDES,  LEONARD  WILLIAM,  8.  J.,  St.  Bbuno's 
College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Messias. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Monito 
Secreta. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  C.R.P.,  Abbot 
Titular  of  Barlings,  Corpus  ChribtiPriort, 
Manchester,  England:  Newhouse,  Abbey  of. 

GEETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  Teacher  of  Clas- 
sical Languages  and  ^Esthetics,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Michelozzo 
di  Bartolommeo;  Miller,  Ferdinand  von;  Mohr, 
Christian;  Mtdler,  Karl;  Muac,  Ecclesiastical; 
Neumann,  Johann  Balthasar. 

GIGOT,  FRANCIS  E.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Joseph's  SEsaNART, 
DuNWOODDB,  New  York:  Maimoury,  Auguste- 
Fran^ois;  Memeptah  I;  Midrashim;  Moab, 
Moabites;  Moloch. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Massys,  Quentin;  Meis- 
sonier,  Ernest;  Melozzo  da  Forll;  Memling, 
Hans;  Mignard,  Pierre;  Millet,  Jean-Francis; 
Montagna,  Bartolomeo;  Mflntz,  Eugdne;  Mu- 
rillo,  Bartolom6  Esteban. 

GLASS,  JOSEPH  S.,  CM.,  S.T.D.,  President,  St. 
Vincent's  College,  Los  Angeles,  California: 
Medal,  Miraculous. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  EDrroR,  "Revue 
DES  Dextx  Mondes'',  Paris:  Mazarin,  Jules; 
Meaux,  Diocese  of;  Medici,  Maria  de';  Mende, 
Diocese  of;  Molai  (Molay),  Jacques  de;  Mon- 
strelet,  Enguerrand  de;  Montalembert,  Charles- 
Forbes-Ren6  de;  Montauban,  Diocese  of;  Mont- 
morency, Anne,  First  Duke  of;  Montor,  Alexis- 
Francis  Artaud  de;  Montpellier,  Diocese  and 
University  of;  Moulins,  Diocese  of;  Namur,  Dio- 
cese of;  Nancy,  Diocese  of;  Nantes,  Diocese  of; 
Napoleon  I;  Napoleon  III;  Nevers,  Diocese  of. 

GRATTAN-FLOOD,  W.  M.,  M.R.I.A.,  Mus.D., 
Rosemount,  Enniscortht,  Ireland:  Messing- 
ham,  Thomas;  Monteverde,  Claudio;  Motet; 
Mura,  Saint. 

GREY,  J.  C,  New  York:  Medellin,  Archdiocese  of; 
Monte  Vergine. 


vu 


/5 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


GUTBERLET,  OONSTANTINE,  8.T.D.,  Protho- 
NOTABT  ApoerouCi  Profbsbor  of  Thxologt, 
ApoLOGvncB  AND  PmLoeoPHT,  Sbminart  of 
FuLDA,  Gbbmant:  Materifllkm. 

GUTHRIE,  W.  B.,  Assistant  Pbofbssob,  Dbfabt- 

MBNT  OF  PounCAL  ECONOMT,  COLLBOB  OF  THB 

Cttt  OF  Nbw  York:  Migration. 

HAGEN,  JOHN  G.,  Vatican  Obskrvatort,  Rom: 
Mailer  (Regiomontanus)i  Johann. 

HAMILTON,  GEORGE  E.,  Washington.'  Morris, 
Martin  Ferdinand. 

HANDLEY,  MARIE  LOUISE,  New  York:  Mon- 
tafi^,  Juan  Martinez. 

HARRINGTON,  THOMAS  P.,  M.D.,  Boston, 
Massachitsrtts:  Massachusetts. 

HARRIS,  WILLIAM  RICHARD,  S.T.D.,  LL.D., 
EnrroR  of  "Intbriiountain  Caihouc'',  Salt 
Lakb  Cmr,  Utah:  Mormons. 

HARTIG,  OTTO,  Assistant  Librarian  of  thr 
RoTAL  TiiBRART,  Munich:  NavaiTe. 

HASSETT,  Mgr.  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Harris- 
burg,  Pennsylvania:  Matricula;  Monogram  of 
dirist. 

HEALY,  JOHN,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Arch- 
bishop OF  TuAM,  Senator  of  the  National 
Universitt  of  Ireland:  Mayo,  School  of. 

HENRY,  HUGH  T.,  Lrrr.D.,  Rector  of  Roman 
Cathouc  High  School  for  Bots,  Professor 
OF  English  Ltterature  and  of  Gregorian 
Chant,  St.  Charles  Seminart,  Overbrook, 
Pennsylvania:  Mass,  Music  of  the;  Miserere. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Edpfor,  "  VoLxszErruNG" 
AND  "Akademthche  Mon  atsbiJLttbr",  Cologne  : 
Maxentius,  Marcus  AureKus;  Maximianus,  Mai^ 
cus  Aurelius  Valerius;  Maximinus,  Caius  Vale- 
rius Daja;  Maximinus  Thrax,  Ouus  Julius  Verus; 
Nero. 

HOGAN,  JOHN  F.  CANON,  Professor  of  Mod- 
ern Languages,  Maynooth  College,  Dub- 
lin: Maynooth  College. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERIC  G.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri: 
Maternity  of  the  Blessed  Viigin  Mary,  Feast  of 
the;  Michael  the  Archangel;  Months,  Special 
Devotions  for;  Most  Pure  Heart  of  Mary,  Feast 
of  the;  Mount  Carmel,  Feast  of  Our  Lady  of; 
Name  of  Mary,  Feast  of  the  Holy;  Nativity  of 
the  Blessed  Viigin  Mary,  Feast  of  the. 

HOWLEY,  MICHAEL  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  Arch- 
bishop OF  St.  John's,  Newfoundland:  New- 
foundland. 

HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B.,  Down- 
bide  Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Mellitus,  Saint; 
Monasticism,  IV.  Western  Monasticism;  Monte 
Cassino,  Abbey  of;  MontreuU,  Charterhouse  of 
Notre-Dame-des-Pt^;  Montreuil  Abbey ;  Mont- 
8t-M]oheL 


HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  SJ.,  Editor,  "The  Exam- 
iner", Bombay,  India:    Mysore,  Diocese  of; 
.  Nagpur,  Diocese  of. 

HUNT,  LEIGH,  Professor  of  Art,  College  of 
THE  Cmr  OF  New  York:  Morg^en,  Raffaello; 
Nanteuil,  Robert;   Navarrete,  Juan  Ferniindei. 

INGOLD,  A.  M.  P.,  Director,  "Revue  d'Aisace", 
CoLMAR,  Germany:  Morin,  Jean. 

JACQUIER,  EUGENE,  S.T.D.,  PBoraasoR  of 
Sacred  Scripture,  University  of  Lyons: 
Matthew,  Saint;  Matthew,  Gospel  of  Saint; 
Matthias,  Saint. 

JENNER,  HENRY,  F.S.A.,  Late  of  the  British 
Museum,  London:  Moiarabic  Rite. 

JOHNSTON,  FRANK,  Ex-Attorney  General  of 
Mississippi,  Jackson,  Mississippi:  Mississippi. 

JONES,  ARTHUR  EDWARD,  S  J.,  Correspond- 
ing Member  of  the  Minnesota,  Ontario,  and 
Chicago  Historical  Societies;  Hon.  Member 
of  THE  Missouri  HisToi&CAL  Society;  Member 
OF  THE  International  Congress  of  American- 
ists; Archivist  of  St.  Mary's  College, 
Montreal:  Millet,  Piene. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales: 
Morality;  Mystical  Body  of  the  Church. 

KEARNS,  WILLIAM  J.,  LL.B.,  Newark,  New 
Jersey:  New  Jersey. 

EEILY,  JARVIS,  M.A.,  Grantwood,  New  Jersey: 
Miles,  George  Henry;  Moylan,  Stephen. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York r  Mercy,  Broth- 
ers of  Our  Lady  of. 

KELLY,  LEO  A.,  Ph.B.,  Rochester,  New  York: 
Mouchy,  Antoine  de. 

KEMPENEER,  ALBERT  CANON,  Ph.D.,  Lrrr.D., 
Professor  of  Church  History  at  the  Semi- 
nary, Inspector  of  Episcopal  Colleges, 
Mechlin,  Belgium:  Mechlin,  Archdiocese  of. 

KENDAL,  JAMES,  S.J.,  Bulawayo,  Rhodesia, 
South  Africa:  Monomotapa. 

KENNEDY,  DANIEL  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.M.,  Professor 
OF  Sacramental  Theology, 'Cathouc  Univer- 
sity of  America,  Washington:  Massouli^, 
Antoine;  Maszolini,  Sylvester;  Medina,  Barthol- 
omew. 

KENNEDY,  THOMAS,  B.A.  (National  Univer- 
sity OF  Ireland),  London:  Matthew  of  Cracow; 
Mayhew,  Edward;  Mihier,  Robert,  Venerable; 
Missions,*^  Catholic;  Mozambique;  Nagasaki, 
Diocese  of;  New  Caledonia,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of;  New  Guinea. 


C50NTRIBUT0RS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


EIBSCH,  JOHANN  PETER,  S.T.D.,  Dokestic 
Prblatb,  Professor  of  Patroloot  and  Chris- 
tian Archjboloot,  Uniyerbitt  of  Fribourq: 
Matilda  of  Canossa;  Methodius  of  Olympus, 
Saint;  Micrologus;  Migne,  Jacques-Paul;  Mil- 
lennium and  Millenarianism;  Miltiades,  Saint, 
Pope;  Mombritius,  Bonino;  Monarchia  Sicula; 
Muratori,  Luigi  Antonio;  Muratoiian  Canon; 
Nabor  and  Felix,  Saints;  Nasarius,  Saint;  Naza- 
rius  and  Celsus,  Saints  and  Martyrs;  Nasarius 
and  Companions,  Saints;  Neckam,  Alexander  of; 
Neher,  Stephan  Jakob;  Nereus  and  Achilleus, 
Domitalla  and  Pancratius,  Saints  and  Martyrs; 
Neugart,  Trudpert. 

KLEINSCHMIDT,  BEDA,  O.F.M..  Rector,  St. 
Ludwio'b  College,  Harrbveld,  Holland: 
Metal-Work  in  the  Service  of  the  Church. 

KURTH,  GODEFROID,  Director,  Belgian  Hi&. 
TORiCAL  Institute,  Robie:  Netherlands,  The. 

LACY,  RICELARD,  Bishop  of  Middlebrrougb, 
England:  Middlesbrough,  Diocese  of. 

LAGARDE,  ERNEST,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Engush  and  Modern  Languages,  Mount 
St.  Mart's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland: 
Mount  St.  Mary's  College. 

LANGOUET,  A.,  O.M.I.,  Kimbbrlbt,  South 
Africa:  Natal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen: 
Middendorp,  Jakob;  Miletus  (MtUler),  "^tus; 
Moufang,  Frans  Chiistoph  Ignaz;  Movers,  Frans 
Karl;  MQller,  Adam  Heinrich. 

LECLERCQ,  HENRI,  O.S.B.,  London:  Maundy 
Thursday;  Meletius  of  Antioch;  Meletius  of  Ly- 
oopolis. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  UNivERsnT  of 
France,  Professor,  Catholic  Institute, 
Paris:  Minuoius  Felix;  Mirandola,  Giovanni 
Francesco  Pico  deUa;  Mirandola,  Giovanni  Pico 
della;  Muret,  Maro-Antoine. 

LENNOX,  PATRICK  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  Professor 
OF  English  and  Literaturb,  Cathouc  Uni- 
VBRSiTT  OF  America:  Moore  (Moor),  Michael. 

LE  ROY,  ALEXANDER  A.,  C.S.Sp.,  Bishop  of 
Alinda,  Superior  General  of  the  Congrega- 
tion OF  THE  Holt  Ghost,  Paris:  Mayotte, 
NoaBi-B6,  and  Comoro,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of; 
Morocco,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc.,  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouvelle  France", 
QuEREc:  Meilleur,  Jean-Baptiste;  Mercier, 
Louis-Honor6;  Montcalm-Goaon,  Louis-Joseph; 
Montmagny,  Charles  Huault  de. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  .Freibxtrg,  Germany:  Mecklen- 
burg; Mehrerau;  Meissen;  Mets;  Minden,  Dio- 
cese of;  Minsk,  Diocese  of;  Misocoo  and  Calanca, 
Prafecture  Apostolic  of;  Mohileff,  Archdiocese  of; 
Montenegro;  Moravia;  Munich-Freidiig,  Arch- 
dioeese  of;  MQnster,  Diocese  of. 


LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D,  Librarian,  Uni- 
VERSiTT  OF  Breslau:  Melanchthon,  Philipp; 
Mone,  Frans. 

LORIGAN,  JAMES  T.,  Knozville,  Tennessee: 
Nashville,  Diocese  of. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Maurus,  Sylvester. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  MeUto, 
Saint;  Melo,  Diocese  of;  M^ndes  and  Guala- 
quisa.  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Meredith,  Edward; 
M6rida,  Diocese  of;  Metcalf,  Edward;  Ming, 
John;  Montevideo,  Archdiocese  of;  Morris,  John 
Brande;  Motu  Proprio;  Mozzi,  Luigi;  Neville, 
Edmund. 

McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio:  Mercy,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Borromeo; 
Michael,  MiUtary  Orders  of  Saint;  Michelis,  Ed- 
ward; Mount  Calvaiy,  Congregation  of;  Name  of 
Jesus,  Religious  Communities  of. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  A.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Lector  of  Phi- 
losophy, Dominican  House  of  Studies,  Wash- 
ington: Mystery. 

McNEAL,  J.  PRESTON,  B.A.,  LL.B.,  BAi;nMORE: 
Neale,  Leonard. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Massa  Can- 
dida; Meignan,  Guillaume-Ren6. 

MADDEN,  MARIE  REGINA,  Brookltn,  New 
York:  Names  of  Jesus  and  Maiy,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy. 

MAERE,  R.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Christian 
Archaologt,  Universitt  of  Louvain:  Mon- 
tault,  Xavier  Barbier  de;  Museums,  Christian. 

MAES,  CAMILLUS  P.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Coving- 
ton, Kentucky:  Moye,  John  Martin,  Venerable; 
Nerinckx,  Charles. 

MAH£,  CELESTIN,  Monroe,  Louisiana:  Natchi- 
toches, Diocese  of. 

MAHER,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Lrrr.D.,  M.A.  (Lon- 
don), Director  of  Studies  and  Professor  of 
Pedagogics,  Stonthurst  College,  Black- 
RX7RN,  England:  Metempsychosis;  Mind. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Mercad^,  Eustache;  Meun,  Jean  Clopinel  de; 
Michel,  Jean;  Montyon,  Antoin&Jean-Baptiste- 
Robert  Auget,  Baron  de;  Mor6ri,  Loms. 

MAXWELL-SCOTT,  Hon.  Mrs.,  London:  Max- 
well, William;  Maxwell,  Winifred. 

MEEHAN,  THOMAS  F.,  New  York:  Meagher, 
Thomas  Francis;  Monroe,  James;  Mulhall, 
Michael  George ;  Mulholland,  St.  Clair  Augustine; 
Mullanphy,  John;  Newark,  Diocese  of. 

MEISTERMANN,  BARNABAS,  O.S.F.,  Ijdotor, 
Convent  of  S.  Salvator,  Jbrubauui:  Nairn; 
Nasareth. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


MENARD,  SISTER  MARIE,  Nasabbth,  Ejbn- 
tuckt:  Nazareth,  Sistera  of  Charity  of. 

MERSHMAN,   FRANCIS,   O.S.B.,   S.T.D.,   Pbo- 

FBBSOB  OF  MOBAL  ThBOLOOT,  CaNON  LaW,  AND 

LrruROT,  St.  John's  Collbos,  Collbqbyillb, 
Minnbbota:  Massuet,  Ren6;  Maurice,  Saint; 
Maurus,  Saint;  Meinwerk,  Blessed;  M6nard, 
Nicolas-Hugues;  Menas,  Saint;  Nausea,  Fred- 
eric. 

MOELLER,  CH.,  Professor  of  General  His- 
tory, Uniyersitt  of  Louvain:  Militaiy  Or- 
ders, The;  Montesa,  Military  Order  of. 

MOLLOY,  JOSEPH  VINCENT,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  New 
Haven,  Connecticut:  Mathusala. 

MONTES  DE  OCA  Y  OBREGON,  JOSfi  M.  I., 
S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  San  Luis  Porosf, 
Administrator  Apostolic  of  Tamauufas, 
Domestic  Prelate  to  His  Holiness  and 
Assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne,  Knight 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Holt  Sepulchre,  Knight 
OF  Isabella  the  Cathouc,  K.  C.  of  Charles 
THE  Third,  Member  of  the  Madrid  Academy 
OF  Languages  and  History,  San  Luis  Porosf, 
Mexico:  Mexico,  Archdiocese  of. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  United  States  Ethnologist, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Mataco  Indians;  Maya  Indians;  Mayo  In- 
dians; Mayoruna  Indians;  Mazatec  Indians; 
Mbaya  Indians;  Mengarini,  Gregorio;  Menom- 
inee Indians;  Miami  Indians;  Mission  In- 
dians (of  California) ;  Missions,  Catholic  Indian, 
of  the  United  States;  Mixe  Indians;  Mixteca 
Indians;  Mooovf  Indians;  Montagnais  Indians 
(Quebec);  Moxos  Indians;  Mosetena  Indians. 

MOORE,  THOMAS  V.,  C.S.P.,  St.  Thomas's  Col- 
lege, Washington:  Memory. 

MORICE,  A.  G.,  O.M.I.,  Editor  of  "Lb  Patriots 
DE  l'Ouest",  Duck  Lake,  Saskatchewan, 
Canada:  Mazenod,  Charles  Joseph  Eugtoe  de; 
Micmacs;  Missions,  Catholic  Indian  (Canada); 
Montagnais  Indians  (Chippewayans);  Nahanes. 

MUNNYNCK,  MARK  P.  DE,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Philosophy,  University  of  Fribouro: 
Mechanism. 

NOLAN,  RICHARD  S.,  B.A.  (Trinity  College, 
Dublin),  London:  Masses,  Bequests  for  (Eng- 
land). 

NYS,  DfiSIRfi,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  President,  SAmi- 
NAiRE  L£on  XIII,  University  of  Louvain: 
Minkelers,  Jean-Pierre. 

OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M,,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of 
Gethsemani  Abbey,  Kentucky:  Melleray; 
Mellifont,  Abbey  of;  Molesme,  Notre-Dame  de; 
Montmirail,  John  de;  Morimond,  Abbey  of; 
New  Abbey;  Newbattle. 

O'CONNOR.  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS,  M.A.,  LL.B., 
Manchester,  New  Hampshibb:  New  Hamp- 
shire. 


OLIGER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Church 
History,  College  S.  Antonio,  Rome:  Mendi- 
cant Friars;  Minimi  (Minims). 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the 
History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  College, 
College ville,  Minnesota:  Matilda,  Saint; 
Maximilian  (Martyrs);  Maximinus,  Saint; 
Maximus  of  Turin,  Saint;  Mayor,  John; 
Majrr,  Beda;  Mechtild  of  Magdeburg;  M^e, 
Antoine-Joseph;  Mendoisa,  Francisco  Sarmi- 
ento  de;  Mendoza,  Pedro  Gonzales  de;  Mezger, 
Francis,  Joseph,  and  Paul;  Michael  de  Sanctis, 
Saint;  Milic,  Jan;  Mirseus  (Le  Mire),  Aubert; 
Mittarelli,  Nicola  Giacomo;  Molina,  Antonio 
de;  Molitor,  Wilhelm;  Moschus,  Johannes; 
Mundwiler,  Fintan;  Muzzarelli,  Alfonso. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  PrrrsBURGH,  Pennsylvania: 
Mohr,  Joseph;  Mozart,  Johann  Chrysostomus 
Wolfgang  Amadeus;  Musical  Ixistruments  in 
Church  Services. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Early  Christian  Lit- 
erature, AND  Biblical  Archjbology,  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York: 
Mecca;  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism; 
Moses  of  Chorene. 

PACIFIQUE,  FATHER,  O.M.Cap.,  Micmac  Mis- 
SIGN,  Rbstigouchb,  Canada:  MembertoD  In- 
dians. 

PfiREZ  GOYENA,  ANTONIO,  S.J.,  Editor. 
"Rax6n  y  Fe",  Madrid:  Molinos,  Miguel  de. 

P£TRIDI:S,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  professor,  Greek 
Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui,  Constan- 
tinople: Metellopolis;  Miletopolis;  Mocissus; 
Modra;  Musti;  Myndus;  NacoUa;  Nazianzus. 

PHELAN,  PATRICK,  Vicar  General  and  Dean 
OF  the  Archdiocese  of  Melbourne,  Aus- 
tralia: Melbourne,  Archdiocese  of. 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  C,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Neil,  Antonio. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Profes- 
sor OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  of 
Brbslau:  Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the;  Merit;  Molina, 
Luisde;  Molinism. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  HUNGERFORD,  S.J.,  London: 
Molyneux,  Sir  Caryll;  More,  Henry;  Morris, 
John. 

POPE,  HUGH,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  S.S.D.,  Professor  of 
New  Testament  Exegesis,  Collegio  Ange- 
Lico,  RoBiE:  Monica,  Saint. 

POULAIN,  AUGUSTIN,  S.J.,  Paris:  Mohammedan 
Confratemities. 

RAINER,  Mgr.  JOSEPH,  V.G.,  P.A.,  Rector,  St. 
Francis  Provincial  Seminary,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Hebrew,  St.  Francib. 
Wisoonsin:  MilwaukeOi  Archdiocese  of. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


RANDOLPH,    BARTHOLOMEW,    CM.,    MA.,  SHIPMAN,   ANDREW   J.,   M.A.,   LL.M.,    Niw 

TsACHEB  OF  Phiumopht  AND  Chubch  Hibtort,  Yobk:  Moscow. 

St.  John's  Ck)LLBQB,  Brooklyn,  Nrw  York:  sILLARD,    PETER    A.,    Nbw    York:    Median, 

Misfflon,  Congregation  of  Priests  of  the.  Charles  Patrick. 

REILLY,  THOMAS  i  K.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.>  8.S.L.,  Pro-  SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  Sr.  Bbuno's  Collbgr,  St.  Asaph, 

FsasoR    of    Sacrbd    Scripture,    Doionican  Wales:  Mental  Reservation. 

HouM  OF  ^iBS,  WASHmoTON:  Medices  (de  SLOANE.    CHARLES   WILLUM,    N«w   Yoia: 

Medicis),     Hieronymus;    Mosaic    Legislation;  m  rt 


Moses. 


SMITH,  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J.,  London:  Mortification. 


REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct- 
Professor  of  Germanic  Philology,  Colum-    SMITH,  WALTER  GEORGE,  M.A.,  LL.B.   (U. 


BiA  UNiYBRsnT,  Nbw  York:  Miracle  Plays  and 
Mysteries;  MOnch-Bellinghausen,  Baron  Eligius 
Frans  Joseph  von. 

REZEK,  ANTOINE  IVAN,  Houghton,  Michigan: 
Mrak,  Ignatius. 

ROMPEL,  JOSEF  HEINRICH,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Stella 
Matutina  College,  Feldkirch,  Austria: 
Motina,  Juan  Ignacio;  Mutis,  Jos6  Celestino. 


OF  P.),  Philadelphia,  Pennstlyania:  Masses, 
Devises  and  Bequests  for  (United  States). 

SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S.M.,  8.T.D.,  San 
Francisco,  California:  Mdrode,  Fr6d6rio- 
Fran^ois-Xavier  Ghishun  de. 

SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Assistant  EnrroR, 
"Etudes",  Paris:  Matteo  da  Siena;  Messina, 
Antonello  da;  Morales,  Luis  de;  Moroni,  Gio- 
vanni Battista. 


nesota:  Monopoly,  Moral  Aspects  of. 

SAINT  BEATRICE,  SISTER,  Sisters  of  the  Mis- 
ERicoRDE,  Montreal:  Misericorde,  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Sisters  of. 

BALAVILLE,  S£v£RIEN,  A.A.,  Professor  of 
Leturgt,  Greek  Cathouc  Sbiunart  of  Kadi- 
Keui,  Constantinople:  Memphis;  Methymna; 
Miletus;  Mitylene;  Mylasa;  Myra. 

SAUVAGE,  G.M.,  C.S.C.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Profbb- 


FEssoR,  Sacred  Scripture,  Hebrew,  and 
Liturgy,  Kenrick  Seminart,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Nabuchodonosor;  Nahum;  Names,  He- 
brew; Nephtali. 

STAGE,  FRANCIS  A.,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan: 
Michigan. 

SULLIVAN,  WILLIAM  CLEARY,  LL.B.,  Secre- 
tary, Cathouc  Young  Men's  National 
Union,  Washington:  National  Union,  Catholic 


Young  Men's. 
80B  OF  Dogmatic  TmoLooT,  Holt  Cross  Coi.    SUTTON,  JOHN  P.,  Linooln.  Nbbbaska:  Ne- 
I4B6B,  Washington:  Mysticism;  Necessity.  braska 

SCANNELI^  THOMMB.  CANON,  8T.D.,  Edi-    tALLON,  WILLIAM  THOMAS,  S.J.,  Woowm>OK 

CoLUBGE,  Maryland:  Melia,  Pius. 

TARNOWSKI,  COUNT  STANISLAUS,  Presidbnt, 
Imperial  Academy  op  Scdencbs,  Propessor, 
Polish  Lftbrature,  University  op  Krakow: 
Mickiewicz,  Adam. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Medals, 
Devotional;  Menologium;  Minister;  Missal; 
Monk;  Morone,  Giovanni;  Nails,  Holy;  Names, 
Christian;  Natal  Day;  Necrologies. 

TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Propbssor  op 
Sacred  Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt. 
St.  Mart's  College,  Emmitbburo,  Maryland: 
Melohisedech;  Mesa. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAWRENCE, 
BA.,  Stratton-on-Fosse,  Bath,  England: 
Maurists,  The;  Melk,  Abbey  and  Congregation 


TOR,    "Catholic    Dictionary",    Weybridgb, 
England:  Maury,  Jean-Siffrein. 

8CHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Sfella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Morel,  Gall;  Morell,  Juli- 
ana; Mumer,  Thomas. 

SCHLAGER,  HEINRICH  PATRICIUS,  O.F.M., 
St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalheim,  Germany: 
Matthias  of  Neuburg;  Mechtel,  Johann;  M^ 
nazd,  L6on;  Mennillod,  Gaspard;  Miltis,  Kail 
Ton;  Mohler,  Johann  Adam;  Moncada,  Fran- 
daco  de;  Moy  de  Sons,  Karl  Ernst;  Muchar, 
Albert  Anton  von. 

8CHLITZ,  CHARLES,  S.J.,  Bonn,  Germany: 
Melania,  Saint  (the  Younger). 

8CHR0EDER,  JOSEPH,  O.P.,  Dominican  House 
OP  Studies,  Washington:  Mensing,  John;  Mis- 
sions, Catholic  Parochial;  Moneta;   Monsabr^, 


of. 
Jacques-Mane-Louis;  Montesino,  Antonio;  Mon-    TURNER,  WILLIAM,  B.A.,  S.T.D.,  Propessor  op 

Logic  and  the  History  op  Philosophy,  Catho- 
lic  University   op   America,    Washington: 


tesino,  Luis  de;  Morales,  Juan  Bautista;  Navar- 
rete,  Domingo  Fem^dez;  Nazarius,  John  Paul. 

8ENFELDER,  LEOPOLD,  M.D.,  Teacher  op  the 
History  op  Medicine,  Untverstty  op  Vienna: 
Medicine,  History  of. 


Megarians;  Melissus  of  Samos;  Metaphysics; 
Michael  Scotus;  Monad;  Monism;  Neo-Plato- 
nism;  Neo-Pythagorean  Philosophy. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  TENTH  VOLUME 


VAILHfi,  SIMfiON,  A.  A.,  Mbmbeb  op  thb  Russian 

AbCHJBOLOOICAL      InSTTTUTB      of      CoNBTAMn- 
NOPLBi   PBOFBBBOR  OF  SaCRBD   ScRIFTUBB   AND 

History,  Gbbbk  Cathouc  Sbminart  of  Kadi« 
Kauiy  Constantinoplb:  Mater;  Maxiinian- 
opolis;  MazimopoliB:  Medea;  Me^ara;  Melitene; 
Mek)s;  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Armenia, 
Delegation  Apostolic  of;  Messene;  Metropolis; 
Milevum;  Milopotamos;  Mopsuestia;  Mossul; 
Mosynoupolis;  Mush;  Myrina;  Myriophytum; 
NeocsBsarea;  Neociesarea  (Pontus  Polemonia- 
cus);  Neve. 

VALLUET,  LOUIS,  Missionabt  of  Sr.  Fbxncib  di 
Salbb  of  Annbct,  Wii/ts,  England:  Mission- 
aries of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Annecy. 

VAN  HOONACKER,  A.,  Profbbsor  of  Critical 

HiSTORT  OF  THB  OlD  TESTAMENT  AND  ORIENTAL 

Languages,  UNivERsiTr  of  Louyain:  Micheas; 
Nehemias,  Book  of. 

VASCHALDE,  A.A.,  C.S.B.,  Cathouc  Unitersitt 
OF  America,  Washington:  Mesrob;  Nerses, 
I-IV;  Nerses  of  Lambron. 

VERMEERSCH,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Doctor 
OF  Social  and  Political  Sciences,  Professor 
OF  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  Lou- 
vain:  Modernism. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(OxoN.),  London:  Maxfield,  Thomas,  Vener- 
able; Mayne,  Cuthbert,  Blessed;  Metham,  Sir 
Thomas;  Morgan,  Edward,  Venerable;  Morse, 
Henry,  Venerable;  Morton,  Robert,  Venerable; 
Napper,  George,  Venerable. 

WALLAU,  HEINRICH  WILHELM,  Mainx,  Ger- 
many:  Mentelin,  Johannes. 

WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Dean  of 
the  Medical  School,  Fordham  Uniyersity, 
New  York:  Mercuriali,  Geronimo;  Mondino 
dei  Lucci;  Morgagni,  GioYanni  Battista;  MOller, 
Johann;  N61aton,  Auguste. 

WALSH,  REGINALD,  O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  S.  Clements,  Robie:  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace. 

WALSH,  T.  J.,  Helena,  Montana:  Montana. 

WARD,  MoR.  BERNARD  CANON,  President, 
St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware,  England: 
Milner,  John. 


WARREN,  KATE  MARY,  Lecturer  in  English 
Literature  under  Uniyersity  of  London 
AT  Westfield  College,  Hampstead,  London: 
Moralities  (Moral  Plays). 

WEBER,  ANSELM,  O.F.M.,  St.  Michael's,  Ari- 
zona: NaYajo  Indians. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Fun- 
damental Theology  and  Church  History, 
Marist  College,  Washington:  Maxentius, 
Joannes;  Mennonites;  Men  of  Understanding; 
Methodism;  Michelians;  Morcelli,  Stefano  An- 
tonio. 

WELD-BLUNDELL,  EDWARD  BENEDICT, 
O.S.B.,  Stanbrook,  England:  More,  Helen 
(Dame  Grertrude). 

WESTLAKE,  N.  H.  J.,  F.S.A.,  Hon.  Member, 
British  and  American  Archjbol.  Soc.  of 
Rome;  Member  of  the  Archjbol.  Assoc,  of 
London  and  of  L'Union  Internationale  des 
Beaux-Arts,  London:  Mosaics. 

WILHELM,  J.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Battle,  England: 
Mediator. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Lrrr.D., 
London:  Mazzolini,  Ludovico;  Maizuchelli, 
Pietro  Francesco;  Melsi,  Francesco;  Meneses, 
Osorio  Francisco;  Mengs,  Anthon  Rafael;  Mor 
(Moor),  Antonis  Van  Dashorst;  Morigi  (Cara- 
Yaggio),  Michelangelo. 

WILLIS,  JOHN  WILLEY,  M.A.,  St.  Paul,  Min- 
nesota: Minnesota. 

WINDLE,  BERTRAM  C.  A.,  M.B.,  Sc.D.,  M.D., 
B.Ch.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  Vice-President, 
R.S.A.I.,  Senator,  N.  U.  I.,  President,  Uni- 
yersity College,  Cork:  Mendel,  Mendelism. 

WISSEL,  JOSEPH,  CSS.R.,  Philadelphia,  Penn- 
bylyania:  Neumann,  John  Nepomucene,  Ven- 
erable. 

WITTMANN,  PIUS,  Ph.D.,  Rbichbarchivrat, 
BtoiNGEN,  Germany:  Maximilian  I,  Duke  of 
Bavaria. 

WOLFSGRUBER,  COELESTIN,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Mettemich,  Klemens  Lothar  Wenzel,  Piince 
von;  Migazzi,  Christoph  Anton;  Milde,  Vincens 
Eduard;  Mostar  and  Markana-Trebinje,  Diocese 
of;  Muhlbacher,  Engelbert. 

ZIMMERMANN,  BENEDICT,  O.D.C.,  St.  Luke's 
Priory,  Wincanton,  Somersetshire,  England: 
Netter,  Thomas. 


la 


Tables  of  Abbreviations 

The  followizig  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  Thb  Catholic  Enctclopedia  Id 
XDterpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  woik«    For  more  general  infoimation  see  the  article  Abbreviatignb,  EocLBBiAanoAX* 


L — Genxral  Abbbxvzations. 

a. article. 

ad  an. at  the  year  (Lat.  oJ  annum), 

an.,  ann. the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  anntta^ 

anni)» 

ap in  (Lat.  apudi» 

art article. 

Assyr* Assyrian. 

A.  8 Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V. Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Anglican  Church — ^the  so-called 
'«Eing  James";  or  "Protestant" 
Bible). 

b bora. 

Bk. Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa)}  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie, 

can. canon. 

c^. chapter  (Lat.  caput — used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf. compare  (Lat.  confer). 

cod. codex. 

ool column. 

oond conclusion* 

const.,  ooDStit.  • .  .Lat.  constitutuK 

curft by  the  industiy  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dicUonnaire). 

disp Lat.  diajndoHo, 

diss. Lat.  disaertatio. 

dist Lat.  duHndio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

£p.,  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  epiatola), 

Fr. French. 

gen.  • .  • genus. 

Gr. Greek. 

H.  £.,  Hist.  Ecd.  .Ecdedastical  Histoiy. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.»  ibid. in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id. the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf. below  (Lat.  infra). 

It. Italian. 

L  c,  loc.  eit. at  the  place  quoted  (Lat.  loco 

citato), 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  Uber). 

long longitude. 

Hon Lat.  Monumenta, 

MS.,  MSS manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament 

Nat. NationaL 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr. . .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

cikUo), 

Ord Older. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page*  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) para  (part). 

par. paragraph. 

paaaim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly    (a    periodical),    e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  qusBst question,  questions  (Lat.  qtueatio), 

q.  y which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.    Sanctua,   SancH,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — ^used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess. Session. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following  page,  sr  pages  (Lat. 

aequena). 

St.,  Sts. Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  aupra), 

s.  V Under   the   corresponding   title 

(Lat.  aub  voce), 

torn volume  (Ijat.  tomiia). 


xiii 


TABLES  OF  ABBREVIATIONS. 


tr. translation  or  translated.  By  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion"! or  '^  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  ".  Where  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

y see  (Lat.  vide). 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

U. — ^Abbrsviationb  op  TrrLBB. 

Acta  SS Ada  BandUmim  (BoUandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuaire  ponHfical 

cathoUque. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.G]llow,  Bibliographical  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq... Smith    and   Cheetham    (ed.), 

Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Waoe  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  chr6t..  .Cabrol  (ed.),  Didumnaire  d'tW" 

chMogie  chritienne  et  de  lUiar- 
gie. 

Diet,  de  th^l.  cath.  .Vacant  and   Mangenot  (ed.), 

Didionnaire      de      th^ologie 

cathoUque, 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen    (ed.),   Dictionary   of 

National  Biography. 
Hast.,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 
Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Welto,  Kirchenlexir- 

con, 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patres  QtmcL 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  PatreB  LaHni. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Didumnaire  de 

la  Bible. 


NOTB  I. — Loige  Roman  numerals  standinc  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standinc  alooe  indicate 
ohaptexs.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  iMiges.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  **  Rashdall. 
Universities  of  Europe,  I.  ix"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  pace  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Nora  II. — ^Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"Summa  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophis").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  TbadL"  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  foUowinc  example:  **  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  ^un  »  refers  the  reader  to  the  •eventh  article  of  tha 
9ixih  question  in  the  fint  part  of  the  seopvul  part,  in  the  response  to  the  second  objection. 

NoTB  III. — ^The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Ecdemastious  is  indicated  by 
Beclu9.^  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecdesiastes  (EcdiM.),  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V.;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Clhronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  ptoptr  name,  there  is  a  marked  dii 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A.  V.,  the  form  founc  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parenthana 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  X 

Frontispiece  in  Ck)loiir  page 

St.  Matthew 56 

Maya — ^Tablet  with  Hieroglyph  Inscription,  etc 84 

Cardinal  Mazarin — Philippe  de  Champagne 92 

Cosimo  de'  Medici — Laurentian  Library 120 

Adoration  of  the  Magi — Memling 174 

St.  David's  Cathedral,  St.  David's  Wales 186 

Messina  (1907) 216 

Metal  Work 220 

Bronze  Doors,  RaveUo  (1179)— Barifano  of  Trani 224 

Cathedral,  City  of  Mexico 250 

Cathedral,  Milan 300 

The  Angelas— Millet 312 

MLssal 356 

Mitres  of  Bl.  Nicold  Albergati,  etc 404 

Piet^ — ^Montagna 510 

Mount-Saint-Michel 552 

Mosaic  Map  of  Christian  Palestine  and  Egypt 590 

Moses 596 

Munich 632 

MuriUo 644 

Naples — ^Drying  Macaroni,  etc 686 

Napoleon — ^Paul  Delaroche 694 

Nam! 704 

John  Henry,  Cardinal  Newman 796 


Maps 


Mexico 268 

Ecclesiastical  Provinces  of  Montreal,  Ottawa,  Toronto,  Kingston 546 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


M 

Mau»  Music  of  the. — ^Under  this  heading  will  be  tuo  to  the  Dominus  voblscum  prccedine  the  praverS: 

consideTed  exclusively  the  texts  of  the  Mass  (and  not,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Preface.    Both  of  these  choir  re^ 

therefore,  the  Asperges,  Vidi  aquam,  Litanies,  Prophe-  sponses  vary  from  the  usual  monotone  when  occurring 

cies,  etc.,  which  m  the  Roman  Missal  are  found  more  before  the  Preface;  and  the  Amen  receives  an  upward 

or  less  closely  associated  with  the  Mass  in  certain  inflection  before  the  Pax  Domini,  etc.    Indeed,  the 

seasons  of  the  Church  Year),  which  receive  a  musical  Dominus  vobiscum  and  its  response  vary  in  melody 

treatment.    These  texts  comprise  those  which  are  for  all  the  three  forms  of  the  Preface  (the  Tonus 

sung  (that  is,  recited  in  musical  monotone  with  occa-  Solemms,  the  Tonus  FeriaUs,  the  Tonus  Solemnior 

sioiuJ  cadences  or  inflections)  by  the  celebrant  and  the  foimd  in  the  **  Cantus  Missalis  Romani"),  as  do  also  the 

sacred  ministers  (who  will  be  referred  to  as  priest,  chants  and  responses  of  the  Sursum  corda,  etc.,  pre- 

deaoon,  and  sub-deacon)  and  which  are  styled  "Ac-  ceding  the  Preface.    It  would  be  highlv  desirable  that 

centua  " ;  and  those  which  are  assigned  to  the  choir  and  choirs  be  well  practised  in  these  special ' '  tones "  since 

which  are  styled  "  Concentus".    For  the  sake  of  con-  exact  correspondence  with  the  form  used  by  the  priest 

venience  of  reference  the  Concentus  may  be  divided  is  not  only  of  sesthetic  but  of  practical  value;  for  any 

into  the  following  classes:  first,  those  which  are  foimd  deviation  from  one  of  the  "tones"  into  anotiier  may 

in  the  section  of  the  Roman  Missal  under  the  heading  easily  lead  the  priest  astray  and  produce  a  lamentable 

"Ordinarium Missao  "  (namely,  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Oedo,  confusion  of  forms  which  ought  to  be  kept  distinct. 

Sanctus,  Benedictus,  Agnus  Dei)  and  which  will  be  At  the  end  of  the  priest's  chant  of  the  Pater  noster 

brie^  referred  to  as  tne  Ordinary:   second,  those  ( the  choir  responds  with  Sed  libera  nos  a  malo.    Tlie 

texts  which  are  found  under  the  headings  "  Proprium  sub-deacon  chants  the  Epistle,  the  deacon  the  Gospel, 

de  Tempore",  "Proprium  Sanctorum  ,  "Gommune  The  respective  responses  (Deo  Gratias  and  Laus  tibi 

Sanctorum"    (namely,    Introit,    Gradual,    Alleluia-  Christe)  are  merely  to  be  said  by  the  ministers  of  the 

Verse,  Sequence,  Tract,  Offertory,  Gommunion)  and  Mass,  and  are  not  to  be  sung  or  recited  by  the  choir, 

which  will  be  referred  to  briefly  as  the  Proper,  a  ser-  This  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  "  Roman  Gradual " 

viceable  but  ambiguous  term  frequently  uJ9ed  to  does  not  assign  ansr  notation  to  these  responses  (see 

describe  these  texts.  " Ecclesiastical  Review",  Nov.,  1903,  p.  539).    To  the 

The  "Graduale  Romanum"  (together  with  the  deacon's  chant  of  the  Ite  missa  est  (or  Benedicamus 

Miasal)  provides  plain-song  melodies  for  all  the  texts  Domino)  the  choir  responds  with  Deo  gratias.    A 

styled  Aocentus  or  Goncentus.    The  Accentus  must  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  permits 

be  plain-song,  and  must  be  that  plain-song  which  is  the  organ  to  supply  for  this  response  wherever  this  if 

found  in  the  present  typical  edition,  styled  the  Vati-  customary  (see  "Cfhurch  Music",  May,  1909,  175-6), 

can  Edition,  of  the  "  Roman  Gradual".    The  Gonccn-  provided  the  response  be  "recited"  m  a  clear  voice 

tus,  if  sung  to  plain-song  melodies,  must  also  be  in  the  (see  "Ghurch  Music",  May,  1907,  229).    The  chant 

approved  form  found  m  the  Vatican  Edition  of  the  melodies  for  all  these  choir-responses  are  given  in  the 

"Gradual";  but  these  texts  may  emplov  "modem"  Vatican  "Gradual"  imder  the  heading  "Toni  Gom- 

(as  opposed  to  "  medieval ")  music,  provided  the  musi-  mimes  Missse  ".    It  is  customary  in  many  churches  to 

cai  treatment  is  in  every  wav  appropriate  as  indicated  harmonize  the  chant-responses  and  even  to  depart  in 

in  the  "Instruction  on  Sacred  Music",  commonly  styled  some  details  from  the  melodies  officiallv  assi^ed  to 

the  "  Motu  Proprio",  issued  by  Pius  X  on  the  Feast  of  the  chant-responses.    In  simmiing  up  the  legislation 

St.  Oecilia,  Patron  of  Ghurch  Music  (22  Nov.,  1903).  in  this  matter,  the  "Motu  Propno'^  says  (No.  12): 

This  "modem"  or  "figured"  music  is  customarily  "With  the  exception  of  the  melodies  proper  to  the 

styled  in  CSiurch  decrees  simplv  musica,  and  the  plain  celebrant  at  the  altar  and  to  the  ministers,  which 

chiEuit  or  plain-son^  is  styled  cantus  (chant).    The  must  be  alwa3rs  sung  only  in  Gregorian  chant,  and 

serviceable  distinction  will  be  employed  throughout  without  the  accompaniment  of  the  organ,  all  the  rest 

this  article:  chart,  chanting,  chanted,  will  rel^r  to  of  the  liturgical  chant  belongs  to  the  choir  of  Levites 

plain-song  melodies;  music,  musical,  to  figured  music,  and,  therefore,  singers  in  church,  even  when  they  are 

I.  AccBNTUS. — ^Iliese  chants  should  never  be  ac-  laymen,  are  really  taking  the  place  of  the  ecclesiastical 

eompaniedlby  the  organ  or  any^  other  instrument.  The  choir.    Hence  the  music  rendered  by  them  must,  at 

priest  intones  the  Gloria  (Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo)  and  least  for  the  greater  part,  retain  tiie  character  of 

the  Credo  ((>edo  in  unum  Deum).    The  choir  must  choral  music. "    But  while  the  choir  is  thus  permitted 

not  repeat  these  words  of  the  intonation,  but  must  be-  to  respond  in  music  or  in  harmonised  chant,  good 

gin  with  Et  in  terra  pax,  etc.,  and  Patrem  omnipo-  taste  might  sugeest  the  desirability  of  respondii^  in 

tentem,  etc.,  respectively.    The  priest  also  sings  the  unharmonised  chant  according  to  the  exact  melodies 

Collects  and   post-Communions  and  the   Dominus  provided  in  the  "Toni  Commimes  Missse". 

vobiscum  and  Oremus   preceding  them.    Amen  is  Inasmuchasthe  Vatican  "Gradual"  ismeantmerely 

sung  by  the  choir  at  the  end  of  these  prayers,  as  also  for  the  use  of  the  choir,  the  complete  Accentus  of  the 

after  the  Per  omnia  ssecula  sseculorum  preceding  the  celebrant  and  ministers  will  not  be  found  there.    The 

Preface,  the  Pater  noster  and  the  Pax  Domini  .  .  .  Missal  contains  these  chants  in  full  (except,  of  course, 

fobiscum.    The  choir  responds  with  £t  cum  spiritu  the  chants  for  the  prayers,  prophecies,  etc.,  which  are 

X.— X  1 


to  be  recited  or  sung  acoording  to  certain  ceneral 
forms  which  are  indicated  in  the  *'Toni  Com.  Mis.")- 
However,  a  number  of  changes  made  in  the  Missal 
melodies  oy  order  of  the  Vatican  Commission  on  Chant 
have  been  comprised  in  a  separate  publication  entitled 
"CantuB  Miflsalis  Roman!"  (Rome,  Vatican  Press, 
1007),  which  has  been  edited  in  various  styles  by  com- 
petent publishers  of  liturgical  books.  Henceforth  no 
publisher  is  permitted  to  print  or  publish  an  edition  of 
the  Bfissal  containing  the  melodies  in  use  heretofore, 
but  must  insert  the  new  melodies  according  to  the 
scheme  found  in  the  "Cantus  Missalis  Romani". 
Some  of  the  new  melodic  forms  are  to  appear  in  the 
places  occupied,  in  the  typical  edition  of  the  Missal 
(1900),  by  tne  forms  hitherto  in  use,  while  some  are  to 
be  placed  in  an  Appendix. 

The  Decree  of  8  June,  1907,  contains  the  following 
clauses:  (1)  Dating  from  this  day,  the  proofs  contain- 
ing the  new  typical  chant  of  the  Missal  are  placed  by 
the  Holv  See  without  special  conditions,  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  publishers,  who  can  no  longer  print  or 
publish  the  chiuit  of  the  Missals  in  use  at  present.  (2) 
The  new  typical  chant  must  be  inserted  in  the  new 
editions  exactly  in  the  same  place  as  the  old.  (3)  It 
may,  however,  be  published  separately  or  it  may  be 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  older  Missals  now  in  print,  and 
m  both  of  these  cases  may  bear  the  general  title, "  Can- 
tus  miiwalia  Romani  iuxta  editionem  Vaticanam". 
(4)  The  Tract  Sicut  oervus  of  Holy  Satinxlay  must  here- 
after be  printed  with  the  words  only,  without  chant 
notation.  (5)  The  intonations  or  chants  ad  lilnhim, 
Asperges  me,  Gloria  in  excelsis,  and  the  more  solemn 
tones  of  the  Prefaces  must  not  be  placed  in  the  body 
of  the  Missal,  but  only  at  the  end,  in  the  form  of  a 
supplement  or  appendix;  to  them  (the  ad  lUntum  in- 
tonations or  chants)  may  be  added,  either  in  the  Mis- 
sals or  in  separate  publications  of  the  chanted  parts, 
the  chants  oi  the"  Toni communes  *\  already  published 
in  the  "Gradual",  which  have  reference  to  the  sacred 
ministers.  (6)  No  change  is  made  in  the  words  of  the 
text  or  in  the  rubrics,  which,  therefore,  must  be  re- 
produced without  modification,  as  in  the  last  typical 
edition  (1900). 

In  the  midst  of  the  perplexities  inevitably  asso- 
ciated with  such  modifications  of  or  additions  to  the 
former  methods  of  rendering  the  Accentus,  Dom 
Johner,  O.S.B.,  of  the  Beuron  Congregation,  hss  come 
to  the  assistance  of  clerics,  by  collecting  into  one  con- 
veniently arranged  manual  ("Cantus  Ecclesiastici 
iuxta  editionem  Vaticanam",  Ratisbon,  1909:  146 
pages,  12  mo.)  fdl  of  the  Accentus  (including  the  re- 
sponses) found  in  the  "Toni  Communes  Miss®"  of  the 
''Graduale  Romanum"  (1908)  and  in  the  "Cantus 
Missalis  Romani"  (1908).  These  he  has  illustrated 
with  appropriate  extracts  from  the  "  Rubricie  Missalis 
Romam",  and  has  added  comments  and  explanations 
of  his  own  in  brackets  in  order  to  distinguish  them 
from  official  matter  (e.  g.  pp.  14,  15,  when  discussing 
the  festal  tone  of  the  Oratio).  WhUe  such  a  volume 
is  appropriate  for  the  study  or  the  class-room,  the  in- 
tonations of  the  priest  and  deacon  have  been  issued 
for  use  in  the  sanctuary,  io  various  forms.  At 
Toumai,  Bel^um,  is  published  "  Intonationes  cele- 
brantis  in  Missa  ad  exemplar  editionis  Vaticanse" 
(containing  the  Asperges,  Vidi  a(|uam,  Gloria,  Credo, 
Ite  Missa  est,  Benedicamus  Domino,  for  all  the  masses 
contained  in  the  "  Kyriale  ")  on  seven  cards  of  Bristol- 
board  which  are  enclosed  in  a  case  and  also  in  f  onn  of 
a  pamphlet  bound  in  cloth.  At  DQsseldorf  is  is- 
sued a  collection  of  the  intonations  (under  the  title  of 
"Tabula  Intonationum")  of  the  Gloria  (15),  Credo 
(4),  Ite  Missa  est  and  Benedicamus  (17),  and  Requies- 
cant  in  pace,  pasted  on  thin  but  strong  cardboard 
(cloth-covered)  of  four  pages.  These  are  given  here 
merely  as  illustrations  oi  the  practical  means  at  hand 
for  actually  inaugurating  the  reform  of  the  Accentus; 
other  publishers  of  the  official  editions  of  the  chant 


books  may  be  consulted  for  other  forms  for  use  in  the 
sanctuary. 

Some  of  these  forms  of  chant-intonations  are  for  use 
ad  libitum.  The  various  intonations  of  the  Gloria  and 
Credo  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  succeeding  chant  of 
the  choiCj  while  those  of  the  Ite  Missa  est  or  Benedica- 
mus are  frequently  identical  in  melody  with  the  chant 
of  the  Kyrie  eleison.  Nominally,  these  chants  and  in- 
tonations are  assigned  to  definite  seasons  of  the 
Church  Year  or  to  peculiar  kinds  of  rite  (solemn, 
double,  semi-double,  ferial,  etc.),  but  inasmuch  asper- 
mission  has  been  given  to  use  the  chants  of  the  "  Kyri- 
ale" indifferently  for  anv  rite  or  season,  the  only  re- 
quirement to  be  met  by  the  priest  is  the  artistic  one,  of 
singinff  the  intonation  of  the  Mass  which  the  choir  will 
actualrjr  render  in  chant.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
many  mtonations  furnished  do  not  represent  an  ob- 
ligatory burden  but  merely  a  laige  liberty  of  choice. 
The  chant  of  the  Ite  missa  est  by  the  deacon  would 
seem  similarly  to  be  a  matter  of  artistic  appropriate- 
ness rather  than  of  lituigical  law. 

II.  The  Concbntus. — ^These  texts  may  be  sung  in 
chant  or  in  music.  If  chant  be  used,  it  must  be  elSier 
that  contained  in  the  "Vatican  Gradual,"  or  some 
other  approved  form  of  the  "traditional  melodies" 
(toe  "Motu  Proprio"  of  25  April,  1904,  d:  the  De- 
cree of  the  S.  R.  C,  11  August,  1905,  VI;  the  Decree 
prefixed  to  the  "  Kyriale '%  dated  14  August,  1905, 
closing  paragraph) ;  if  the  setting  be  musical,  it  must 
meet  all  the  requirements  summarily  indicated  in  the 
"Motu  Proprio^'  of  22  November,  1903  (see  Music, 
Ecclesiastical).  Under  the  heading  of  Concentus 
.must  be  considered  (a)  the  Ordinary,  (b)  the  Proper.  \ 
\  (a)  The  Ordinary. — ^The  texts  are  those  of  the  Kyrie,. 
\the  Gloria,  the  Credo,  the  Sanctus,  the  Benedictus, 
the  Agnus  Dei.  A  collection  of  these,  or  a  portion  of 
them,  is  styled  simply  a  "Mass".  When  several 
"Masses"  are  written  bv  the  same  composer,  they  are 
differentiated  numericafly  (e.  g.  Mosart  s  No.  1,  No.  2, 
No.  17)  or  by  dedication  to  some  particular  feast  (e.  g. 
Gounod's  "  Messe  de  Paques  "),  or  saint  (e.  g.  Gounod  s 
"St.  Cecilia"  Mass),  or  devotion  (e.  g.  Goimod's 
"Messe  du  SacrS  Coeur"),  or  musical  association  (e.  g. 
Gounod's  "Messe  desOrph6onistes",  Nos.  I,  II),  or 
musical  patron  (e.  g.  Palestrina's  "Missa  Pape  Mar- 
celli"),  or  special  occasion  (e.  g.  Cherubini's  "Third 
Mass  in  A"  entitled  the  "Coronation  Mass",  as  it  was 
composed  for  the  coronation  of  King  Charles  X).  The 
title  Missa  Brevis  is  sometimes  employed  for  a  Mass 
reauiring  only  a  moderate  time  for  its  rendition  (e.  g. 
Palestrina's"  Missa  Brevis  "  *  Andrea  Gabrieli's  printed 
in  Vol.  I.  of  Proske's  "Musica  Divina")  although  the 
term  scarcely  applies,  save  in  another  sense^  to  J.  S. 
Bach's  "  Missa  crevis  "  (in  A)  comprising  in  its  forty- 
four  closely  printed  pases  only  the  music  of  the  Kyrie 
and  Gloria.  In  some  Masses  the  place  of  the  Benedic- 
tus is  taken  by  an  O  Salutaris.  A  polyphonic  Mass 
composed,  not  upon  themes  taken  from  chant  melo- 
dies (as  was  the  custom),  was  styled  "sine  nomine". 
Those  founded  upon  chant  subjects  were  thus  styled 
(e.  g.  Palestrina's  "Ecce  Sacerdos  Magnus",  "Virtute 
Ma^pa  ",  etc.)  or  when  founded  on  secular  song  themes 
unblushingly  bore  the  appropriate  title  (e.  g.  Pale&- 
trina's  "lyhomme  arm^  ;.  Masses  were  sometimes 
styled  by  the  name  of  the  chant-mode  in  which  they 
were  composed  (e.  g.  "Primi  Toni")  or.  founded  on 
the  hexachordal  ^stem,  were  styled  *^  Missa  super 
voces  musicales"  (Missa  Ut,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La);  or 
bore  as  title  the  number  of  voices  employed  (e.  g. 
"Missa  Quatuor  Vociim"). 

This  is  not  the  place  to  rehearse  the  story  of  the 
gradual  development  and  corruption  of  ecclesiastical 
music,  of  the  many  attempts  at  reform,  and  of  the 
latest  pronouncements  of  tne  Holy  See  which  oblige 
consciences  with  all  the  force  of  uturgical  law.  An 
excellent  summary  of  this  history  is  given  by  Dr. 
Rockstro  in  Grove's  "Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musi* 


MASS 


MASS 


cians"  (a.  v.  Mass),  which  may  be  supplemented  by 
tike  recent  abund&at  literature  of  the  reform-move- 
ment in  Church  Music.  It  is  of  more  immediate  and 
practioftl  importance  to  indicate  the  various  cata- 
logues or  lists  of  music  compiled  bv  those  who  are 
seekiDg  to  reform  the  music  of  the  Mass.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  reflect  that  in  lus  earlier  le^slation  on  this 
subject,  Leo  XIU  recommended  a  diocesan  commis- 
sion to  draw  up  a  diocesan  Index  of  Repertoires,  or  at 
least  to  sanction  the  performance  of  pieces  therein  in- 
dicate, whether  puolished  or  impuolished.  In  the 
later  Regoiamenio  of  6  July,  1894,  the  S.  C.  of  Rites 
does  not  refer  to  any  such  index  but  merely  requires 
bishops  to  exercise  appropriate  supervision  over  the 
pastors  so  that  inappropriate  music  may  not  be  heard 
m  their  churches.  The  present  pope  has  nowhere  in- 
dicated the  necessity,  or  even  the  aavisability,  of  com- 
piling such  an  index  or  catalogue,  but  has  required  the 
ai>pomtment,  in  every  diocese,  of  a  competent  com- 
mission which  shall  supervise  musical  matters  and  see 
that  the  legi^tion  of  tne  **  Motu  Proprio"  be  properly 
carried  out. 

Nevertheless,  it  was  the  stimulus  of  the  Regoiamenio 
of  1894  which  led  to  the  compilation,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Cincinnati,  of  a  highly  informing  "First  Official  Cata- 
logue" of  that  diocesan  commission,  which  was  made 
obiigatofy  by  Archbishop  Elder  in  a  letter  dated  26 
July,  1899,  and  which  was  to  go  into  operation  on  the 
First  Sunday  of  Advent  (3  Dec.)  of  tnat  year.  The 
commission  requested  pastors  to  submit  the  music 
used,  for  inspection  b^  the  commission.  The  cata- 
logue does  not  content  itself  with  approving  certain  of 
these  compositions,  but  takes  the  trouble  both  to  mark 
"  rejected  after  the  various  titles  and  to  give,  usuaU]^, 
the  reason  for  the  rejection.  In  the  following  year  it 
issued  its  "Second  Official  Catalogue '\  Both  cata- 
logues are  important  as  illustrating  the  exact  musical 
conditions  of  one  great  diocese,  and  show  forth  more 
searchingly  than  many  arguments  the  need  of  reform. 
These  catalogues  have  been  rendered  obsolete  by  the 
more  stringent  recent  I^ipslation. 

But,  although  that  legislation  has  not  prescribed  the 
compilation  of  lists  of  approved  music,  many  such 
catalogues  or  lists  have  been  compiled.  They  all  pay 
great  attention  to  the  music  of  tne  Mass,  and  should 
prove  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  choir-masters  [see 
""Church  Music",  Dec.,  1905,  80-92;  March,  1906, 
157-168;  Sept.,  1906,  541-545,  for  an  account  of  the 
two  Cincinnati  catalogues,  and  for  those  of  Salford, 
Eng.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  Pittsbuigr  Pa«»  Water- 
fora  and  Lismore,  Ireland,  Covington,  Ky.,  Liverpool, 
£^g.,  and  Mets.  These  should  oe  supplemented  by 
Singenbexger,  "  Guide  to  Catholic  Church  Music  "  (St. 
Francis,  Wisconsin,  1905);  Terry.  "Catholic  Church 
Music"  (London.  1907),  201-21 3;  the  lists  of  publishers 
who  understand  and  respect  the  provisions  of  the 
*'Motu  Proprio",  and  the  review-pages  of  the  many 
magaxinee,  in  various  lands,  devoted  to  the  reform 
movement  in  sacred  music].  Correct  and  appropriate 
music  for  Mass,  for  all  degrees  of  musical  abihty  or 
choral  attainment  and  of  tne  greatest  abundance  and 
freshness  and  individuality  of  style,  can  now  be  easily 
obtained. 

In  selecting  a  Mass  it  is  always  advisable  to  read  the 
text  in  order  to  see  that  it  is  both  complete  and  lituigi- 
caliy  coirect;  that  there  should  be  no  alteration  or  in- 
version of  the  words,  no  undue  repetition,  no  breakii^ 
of  syllables.  In  addition,  the  "Motu  Proprio"  speci- 
fies [No.  11  (a)]:  "The  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  etc.,  of 
the  Mass  must  preserve  the  unity  of  composition 
proper  to  their  text.  It  is  not  lawful,  therefore,  to 
compoae  them  in  separate  pieces,  in  such  a  way  that 
each  €i  those  pieces  may  form  a  complete  composition 
in  itself,  and  be  capable  of  being  detached  from  the 
rest,  and  substituted  by  another".  It  further  re- 
marks (No.  22) :  "It  is  not  lawful  to  keep  the  priest  at 
Ibe  altar  waiting  on  account  of  the  chant  or  toe  music 


for  a  length  of  time  not  allowed  by  the  lituiic|r.  Ao- 
cording  to  the  ecclesiastical  prescriptions  theSanctus 
of  the  Mass  should  be  over  before  the  Elevation  and 
therefore  the  priest  must  have  regard  to  the  singers. 
The  Gloria  and  Credo  ought,  according  to  the  Grego- 
rian tradition,  to  be  relatively  short." 

Something  remains  to  be  said  of  the  chant  of  the 
Ordinaiy  which  is  foimd  in  the  separate  small  volume 
entitled  "Kyriale".  It  is  issued  oy  the  various  com- 
petent publishers  in  all  styles  of  printmg,  paper,  binding, 
m  lar^  and  small  forms;  in  medieval  and  in  modem 
notation;  with  and  without  certain  "rhythmical 
signs '\  (See  "Church  Music",  passim,  for  review- 
notices  of  the  various  issues;  and  particularly  March, 
1906,  pp.  235-249,  for  an  elaborate  article  on  the 
earlier  issues.)  The  eighteen  "Masses"  it  contains 
are  nominally  assigned  to  various  <^ua]ities  of  rite; 
but,  in  accordance  with  ancient  tradition  and  with  the 
unanimous  agreement  of  the  pontifical  Commission  on 
the  Chant,  liberty  has  been  granted  to  select  any 
"Mass"  for  any  quality  of  rite  (see  the  note  "Quoft- 
libet  cantus"  etc.,  p.  64  of  the  Vatican  Edition  of  the 
"Kyriale":  "Any  chant  assigned  in  this  Ordinarium 
to  one  Mass  may  be  used  in  any  other;  in  the  same 
way,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  Mass  or  the  de- 
cree of  solemnity,  any  one  of  those  which  follow  [that 
is,  in  the  section  styled  "Cantus  ad  libitum'^  may  be 
tiiken")-  The  decrees  relating  to  the  publishing  of 
editions  based  on  this  typical  edition,  and  to  its  pro- 
mulgation, are  given  in  Latin  and  English  translation 
in  "Church  Music",  March,  1906,  pp.  250-256. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  this  tjipicEU  edition  gives  no 
direction  about  singing  the  Benedictus  alter  liie 
Elevation,  but  prints  both  chants  in  such  juxtaposi- 
tion aa  to  surest  that  the  Benedictus  mig)it  be  sung 
before  the  Elevation.  In  the  "Revue  du  Chant 
Gr^gorien"  (Aug.-Oct.,  1905),  its  editor,  Canon  Groa- 
pellier,  who  was  one  of  the  Consultors  of  the  Gregorian 
Commission,  said  that  he  was  inclined  to  think  that, 
where  time  allows,  the  Benedictus  mi^t  be  simg  im- 
mediately after  tne  Sanctus.  Tlie  Pontifical  Com- 
mission at  its  meeting  at  Appuldurcombe.  in  1904, 
unanimously  accepted  a  resolution  to  this  effect,  llie 
preface  to  the  Vatican  "Gradual",  while  giving 
minute  directions  for  the  ceremonial  rendering  of  the 
chants  merely  says:  "When  the  Preface  is  miished, 
the  choir  goes  on  with  the  Sanctus.  etc."  At  the 
elevation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  tne  choir  is  silent 
like  every  one  else.  Nevertheless,  inasmuch  as  the 
"Gradual"  does  not  declare  that  the  Benedictus  is  to 
be  chanted  after  the  Elevation,  the  "etc."  is  imder- 
stood  to  imply  that  it  should  be  simg  immediately 
after  the  Sanctus.  The  "  Csremoniale  Episooporum  ". 
however,  directs  that  it  be  sung  "  after  the  elevation  or 
the  chalice".  The  apparent  conflict  of  authorities 
may  be  harmonized  by  supposing  that  the  "Csere- 
moniale ' '  legislated  for  the  case  of  musically  developed 
(e.  g.  polyphonic)  settings  of  the  Sanctus  and  the 
Benedictus,  whose  length  would  necessitate  their 
separation  from  each  other;  while  the  "Gradual" 
contemplates,  of  course,  the  much  briefer  settings  of 
the  plain-song  (see  "  Church  Music  ",  Jan.,  1909,  p.  87). 

(b)  The  fVopcr.— While  the  texts  of  the* Ordinaiy. 
do  not  (with 'the  exception  of  the  Agnus  Dei,  which  is 
altered  in  Requiem  Mass)  change,  those  which  com- 
monly, but  somewhat  ambiguously,  are  called  the 
"Proper",  change  in  accordance  witli  the  character  of 
the  feast  or  Simoay  or  ferial  day.  These  texts  are  the 
Introit,  Gradual,  Alleluia-Verse,  Sequence.  Tract. 
Offertory,  Communion.  Not  all  of  these  will  oe  found 
in  any  one  Mass.  Thus,  e.  g.  Holy  Saturday  has  no  In- 
troit. Gradual,  Offertoiy,  Communion;  from  Low 
Sunday  to  Trinity  Simday,  the  Gradual  is  replaced  by 
an  Alleluia- Verse;  from  Septuagesima  to  Easter,  as 
well  as  on  certain  penitential  days,  the  Alleluia- Verse, 
which  ordinarily  follows  the  Gradual,  is  replaced  by  a 
Tract;  in  only  a  few  Masses  is  a  Sequence  used;  there 


MASS                                   4  liASS 

is  no  Introit  on  Whitsiin  Eve,  while  the  customaiy  in  "Church  Music"  Jan.,  1907.  127-128; Mar.,  1908, 

Gloria  Patri  after  the  Introit  is  omitted  durinjg  Passion-  171-178;  see  also  June,  1906,  ''One  Outcome  of  tlie 

tide.    In  Requiem  Masses  the  Gloria  Patri  is  omitted  Discussion",  409-415,  including  a  specimen-four-page 

after  the, Introit,  a  Tract  and  a  Sequence  follow  the  of  Dr.  Tozer's  method  of  treatment  of  the  Proper  text. 

Gradual. «  Nor  do  the  texts  differ  for  every  feast,  as  is  A  third  volume  which  will  comprise  various  local  texts 

iliustrated  by  the  division  of  the  Sanctorale  into  the  is  in  coiuse  of  preparation.    Another  method  is  that 

''Proprium  de  Sanctis"  and  the  "Commune  Sane-  imdertaken  by  Maroello  Capra.  of  Turin,  ItsJy,  which 

torum",  this  latter  division  grouping  the  feasts  into  provides  musical  settings  for  tne  Proper  of  the  princi- 

dasses,  such  as  the  feasts  of  confessors-bishops,  con-  pal  feasts,  for  one  or  two  voices,  and  with  easy  organ 

fes&ors-not-bishope,  martyrs,  virgins,  etc.,  in  which  accompaniment.    Still   another  method  is  that  of 

the  texts  of  the  "Proper"  serve  for  many  feasts  of  Giulio  Bas,  who  has  compiled  a  volume,  ''Gradualis, 

the  "Propers"  in  many  chiut^hes.    They  are,  how-  Versus  Alleluia ticietTractus"  (DQsseldorf,  1910),  of 

ever,  an  mtegral  part  of  the  duty  of  the  choir,  and  plain -song  settings  from  the  Ambrosian,  Aqmleian, 

must  be  sung,  or  at  least  "recited",  in  a  clear  and  Greek,  Mozarabio  chant,  for  Sundays  and  Double 

intelligible  voice,  the  organ  meanwhile  sustaining  Feasts,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  rendering  of  the 

appropriate  chords.  more  difficult  portions  of  the  Proper. 

In  a  Rescript  dated  8  August,  1906,  the  S.  R.  C,  However  rendered,  these  chants  of  the  Proper  must 
answeringquestions  proposed  by  the  Abbot  of  Santa  not  be  omitted  or  curtailed.  But  apart  from  this 
Maria  Maggiore  in  Naples,  declares  that  in  solemn  liturgical  necessity,  they  challenge  admiration  because 
Mass,  when  the  organ  is  used,  the  Gradual,  Offertory,  of  their  devotional,  poetic,  lesthetic  perfection:  "If 
Communion,  when  not  sung,  must  be  recited  in  a  hi^  we  pass  in  review  before  our  musical  eye  the  wonderful 
and  intelligiDle  voice,  and  that  the  Deo  Gratias  follow-  thoughts  expressed  in  the  Introits,  Graduals,  Alleluia 
ing  the  Ite  missa  est  should  receive  the  same  treat-  Verses,  Tracts,  Offertories,  and  Communions  of  the 
ment  (see  "Church  Music",  May,  1907,  229-23^).  whole  ecclesiastical  year,  from  the  first  Sunday  in  Ad- 
Previous  answers  of  the  S.  R.  C.  were  of  similar  tenor,  vent  to  the  last  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  as  wc^  as  those 
Thus  (Ooimbra,  14  April,  1753):  in  a  "Community  of  the  numerousMassesof  the  saints,  apostles, martyis. 
Mass"  it  is  always  necessary  to  sing  the  Gloria,  Credo,  confessors,  virgins,  we  must  feel  that  in  the  Roman 
all  of  the  Gradual,  the  Preface,  Pater  noster ;  so,  too,  a  Church  we  have  an  anthology  worthy  of  our  hifliiest 
question  from  Chiogsia  in  1875,  as  to  whether  the  cua-  admiration"  (Rev.  H.  Bewenmge,  "  Address  at  Lon- 
tom  introduced  into  that  diocese  of  omitting  the  chant  don  Eucharistio  Congress ") .  It  should  be  a  iiart  of  a 
of  the  Gradual,  the  Tract,  the  Sequence,  the  Offertory,  choirmaster's  business  to  teanslate  and  ^q>lain  these 
the  Benedictus,  the  Commimion  was  contrary  to  the  texts  to  his  choir,  that  they  may  be  recited  or  sung 
rubrics  and  decisions  of  the  S.R.C.,  was  answered  affir-  with  the  understanding  as  well  as  with  the  voice.  To 
matively,  and  the  questioner  was  remitted  to  the  Coim-  this  end  the  "  Missal  for  the  Laity",  with  its  Latin  and 
bra  decision.  A  specific  difficulty  was  offered  for  parallel  English  version,  migjit  l>e  used.  Tlie  spirit  of 
solution  by  a  bishop  who  declared  that  in  his  diocese  the  liturgy  might  also  be  largely  acquired  from  the 
where  a  sin^e  chanter  was  used,  and  where  the  people  volumes  of  Dom  Gu^ranger's  "Liturgical  Year".  As 
had  to  hurry  to  their  daily  work,  the  custom  had  ob-  this  is,  however,  such  an  extensive  work,  the  much 
tained  (throughout  almost  the  Wnole  diocese)  of  omit-  briefer  and  more  direct  treatments  of  the  texts  of  the 
ting,  in  stipendiary  Masses,  the  Gloria,  Gradual,  Tract,  Proper  with  comment  on  the  spirit,  which  ran  serially 


Sequence,  Credo.    He  was  answered  (29  Dec.,  1884)  through  the  issues  of  "Churcn  Music",  would  prove 

that  the  custom  was  an  abuse  that  must  be  absolutely  hi^ly  serviceable. 

eliminated.    The  spirit  of  the  Church  le^lation  is  With  respect  to  the  plain-soxig  settinj^,  two  typical 

summed  up  in  the  "Motu  Proprio"  (22  Nov.,  1903,  chants  should  be  studied  carefully  (see  Dom  Eudme's 

No.  8):  "As  the  texts  that  may  be  rendered  in  music,  articles  in  "Church  Music".  Marcn,  1906,  222-235,  on 

and  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  rendered,  are  "  the  Gradual  for  Easter",  ^'the  Habc  dies",  and  June, 

determined  for  every  fimction,  it  is  not  lawful  to  con-  1906,  360-373,  on  "the  Introit  Gaudeamus",  which 

fuse  this  order  or  to  change  the  |>rescribed  texts  for  give  the  plain-son«;  notation  with  transcription  into 

othera  collected  at  will,  or  to  omit  them  entirely  or  modem  notation,  rnythniical  and  dynamical  analyses, 

even  in  part,  except  when  the  rubrics  allow  that  some  etc.).    Such  a  study  will  encourage  the  present  day 

versicles  of  the  text  be  supplied  with  the  organ  while  musician  to  acquire  a  greater  familiarity  with  the 

these  vereicles  are  simply  recited  in  choir.    It  is  per-  plain-song  of  the  Proper  which  present-day  choira 

missible,  however,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  should  have:   "First,  there  is  the  Gregorian  Chant. 

Roman  Church,  to  sing  a  motet  to  the  Blessed  Sacra-  The  more  one  studies  these  ancient  melodies  the  more 

ment  after  the  Benedictus  in  a  solemn  Mass.    It  is  also  one  is  imoressed  by  their  variety  and  rare  beauty. 

germitted  after  the  Offertoiy  prescribed  for  the  Mass  Take  the  oistinctiveness  of  their  forms,  the  character- 
as  been  sung,  to  execute  during  the  time  that  istic  style  which  distinguishes  an  Introit  from  a  Grad- 
remains  a  brief  motet  to  words  approved  by  the  ual.  an  Offertory  from  a  Communion.  Then  within 
durdi."  eacn  class  what  variety  of  expression,  what  amazing 
A  practical  difficulty  is  encoimtered  in  the  fact  that  interpretation  of  the  words,  and  above  all  what  sub- 
many  choirs  have  met  ihe  limit  of  their  capacity  in  lime  beauty  and  mystical  spirit  of  prayer!  Certainly, 
preparing  the  chant  or  music  of  the  Ordinary,  whose  anyone  who  has  tasted  the  sweetness  of  these  chants 
texts  are  fixed  and  repeated  freauently.  How  shall  must  envy  the  few  privileged  places  where  there  is 
such  choirs  prepare  for  a  constantly  chan^g  series  of  high  Mass  every  day  and  thus  a  chance  is  given  of 
Proper  texts,  whether  in  chant  or  in  music?  Several  hearing  all  of  these  divine  strains  at  least  once  a  year" 
practical  solutions  of  the  difficulty  have  been  offered.  (Bewerunge). 

Thereis,  first  of  all,  the  easy  device  of  recitation.    For  There  is  a  lanre  body  of  settings  of  the  classical 

an  elaborate  discussion  of  the  times  when  it  may  be  polyphonic  schools,  and  of  modem  polyphony,  as  also 

used,  the  character  it  should  assume,  the  legal  aspects  mucn  illustration  of  modem  homopnonic  music,  of  the 

and  decisions  concerning  it,  see  the  Rev.  LudwigBon-  proper  texts.    Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 

vin's  article  in  "Church  Music,  "March,  1906,  pp.  146-  texts  thus  treated  are  verbally  correct.    For  in  the 

156.    Then  there  is  the  solution  offered  in  the  excel-  return  to  the  traditional  melodies  of  the  chants,  the 

lent  and  laborious  work  of  Dr.  Edmund  Tozer,  who  comxmssion  foimd  it  necessary  to  restore,  in  very 

prepared  simple  psalm-like  settings  which  could  be  many  instances,  omitted  portions  of  text,  and  in 

easuy  mastered  by  a  fairly  equipped  choir.    The  work  various  ways  to  restore  to  use  the  more  ancient 

"The  Proper  of  the  Mass  for  Sundays  and  Holidays"  forms  of  the  texts.    In  the  "Proprium  de  Tem- 

CNew  York,  1907-1908,  Vol.  n,  No.  2926)  is  reviewed  pore",  for  instance,  there  are  about  200  textual 


MA88                                  5  MA88 

dumges.  A  summary  view  of  their  general  character  Mass,  Nuptmll^  ' '^fissa  pro  8ix>nso  et  bponsa ",  the 
is  given  in  ''Church  Music"  (July,  1908),  pp.  232-235.  last  among  the  votive  Masses  in  the  Missal.  It  is 
Since  these  altered  texts  differ  from  those  still  retained  composed  of  lessons  and  chants  suitable  to  the  Sacra- 
in  the  Missal,  choirs  which  "recite"  the  texts  will  do  ment  of  Matrimony,  contains  prayers  for  persons  just 
so  from  the  Vatican  "Gradual",  and  not  from  the  married  and  is  interwoven  with  part  of  tne  marriage 
Missal.  When  the  "  Gradual"  was  first  issued,  it  was  rite,  of  which  in  the  complete  form  it  is  an  element, 
noticed  that  the  Propers  of  some  American  feasts  (as  As  the  Mass  was  looked  upon  as  the  natural  accompani- 
also,  of  course,  the  Propers  of  many  foreign  dioceses  ment  of  any  solemn  function  (ordination,  consecration 
as  well)  were  omitted  (see  "Church  Music,"  March,  of  churches,  etc.),  it  was  naturally  celebrated  as  part 
1908,  132-134).  Some  publishers  have  added  these  ,  of  the  marriage  service.  Tertullian  (d.  about  220;  ad 
Propers  for  America,  in  an  appendix  bound  in  with  the  Uxor.,  II,  9)  mentions  the  oblation  that  confirms 
volume.  Doubtless  a  similar  process  will  be  adopted  marriage  (matrimonium  ouod  ecclesia  conciliat  et  con- 
in  tJbe  case  of  many  foreign  dioceses.  firmat  obLatio).  All  theltoman  Sacramentaries  con- 
Many  questions  which  touch  the  musical  part  of  the  tain  the  nuptial  Mass  (The  Leonine,  ed.  Feltoe, 
services  at  Mass  belong  to  the  general  subject  of  the  140-142;  The  Gelasiaxi.  ed.  Wilson,  265-267;  The 
reform  movement  in  Church  Music,  and  will  be  more  Gregorian,  P.  L.,  i;JCXVIII,  261-264),  with  our 
appropriately  treated  under  the  heading  Mttbic.  present  prayers  and  others  (a  special  Hone  Igiiur  and 
ESccLBBiAflTiCAii.  Such  are,  e.  g.  the  long  debated  Preface).  The  Gelasian  Sacramentary  (loc.cit.)  con- 
matter  of  the  use  of  women's  voices  in  our  gallery-  tains,  moreover,  the  blessing  now  said  after  the  Ite 
choirs;  the  capabilities  of  chorister  boys  for  the  proper  missa  est,  then  said  after  the  Communion,  a  Galilean 
rendition  of  the  Ordinaiy  and  the  Proper;  the  use  of  addition  (Duchesne,  "Origines  du  Culte",  Paris,  ed. 
chants  with  rhvthmical  signs  added;  the  characterof  2,  1898,  p.  417).  Pope  Nicholas  I  (858-867)  in  his 
the  rhythm  to  be  used  ("  oratorical "  or  "  measured  ") ;  instruction  for  the  Bulgars,  in  866,  describes  the  whole 
the  character  of  accompaniment  best  suited  to  the  rite  of  marriage,  including  the  crowning  of  the  man 
chant;  the  use  of  musical  instruments  in  chanted  or  and  wife  that  is  still  the  prominent  feature  of  the  rite 
musical  Masses;  the  status  of  women  as  organists;  the  in  the  Bysantine  Church;  this  rite  contains  a  Mass  at 
adoption  of  a  sanctuarv  choir,  whether  in  place  of,  or  which  the  married  persons  make  the  offertory  and  re- 
in conjunction  with,  the  gallery  choir.  Historically  oeive  communion  (Resp.  ad  cons.  Bulgarorum,  iii, 
the  reform  movement  in  tne  chiemt  was  signalised  by  quoted  by  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  413-414). 
the  issuance,  first  of  fdl,  df  the  "  Kyriale",  which  con-  The  present  rules  for  a  nuptial  Mass  are:  first,  that 
tains  the  Otdinary  chants,  and  then  of  the ' '  Graduale  ",  it  may  not  be  celebrated  in  tne  closed  time  for  marri- 
which  comprises  all  the  chants  for  Mass;  but  this  ages,  that  is  from  Advent  Sundaytill  after  the  octave 
matter  also  belongs  to  a  more  general  treatment.  of  the  Epiphany  and  from  Ash  Wednesday  till  after 
DocLos.  8a  Sainuu  Pie  X  €i  la  muaique  Rdiffietue  (Rome.  Low  Sunday.    During  these  times  no  reference  to  a 


nrammar  of  Plain-»ano  ( Woroester,  1905) :  see  Index;  Mrrr«RBR,  ^-."^ uuFviai  um  m^ouiixm    ,  i v  uiDpu*«u  ut  uouaujr  w>  uuc 

EceUnaMieal  PrecntB  vn  Reference  to  Church  Mueic  (London,  closed  season.     During  the  rest  of  the  Vear  the  nuptial 

1901);  Waowsr  (BouR  tr.),  Oriffined  DHdopenumt  duChanu  ^f^ss  may  be  said  at  a  wedding  any  day  except  Sun- 

i?S!2M»2&i*2f3^'lti£'1&^^^^  dayB  •«/ feast,  of  obligation,  doubles  of  fee  f,t  and 

1910:  ViaxfUAHH.  Kaii  Pmeke,  der  ReeiaunUor  der  klaeeUchien  second  class  and  such  privileged  fenas  and  octaves  as 

Kirekemuaik  (RAtwbon.  1909).  The  tonomnginChwchMune:  exclude  a  double.    It  may  not  displace  the  Rogation 

Sf  IS?  ^2.^^909?  '&^^^^::^^JnrciJ2SSl'  l^  ^  at  which  the  procession  is  made  nor  ma^lt  dk- 

Modem  Polmthmy  in  Europe  (March.  1908),  147-151;  Idem,  place  at  least  one  Requiem  on  All  Souls'  day.     On 

TA*  Prteent  Statue  o/Plait^wno  "» ^~*»P&V^*"nf  andPnutiee  these  occasions  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Mass  of  the 

li^Kl2rroi2S;'i»  day  to  wWch  conmiemorationsof  the 

(March.  1908).  161 ;  New  Ceremonial  Pointe  for  the  Choir  (Sept.,  added  in  the  last  place  and  at  which  the  blessings  are 

1908).  275;   Daiee  of  the  KyriaieChanie  (^pt..  1908).  281;  inserted  in  their  place.    The  nuptial  blessing  is  con- 

Variant  Texta  of  the  Mteaal  and  Gradual  (Sent.,  1908),  305;  -:jp-^  --  r^^rf  nf  iht*  nnnfiAl  UoLi       Tf  mlvnpvc^r  Ka 

Repetition  of  the  veree  in  the  Gradual  (Jan.,  1900),'  88;  Vatican  BMlerea  as  part  01  tne  nuptial  Mass.    It  may  never  De 

Gradual  (May,  1908).  199-201  (3  artt.);  De  Ritibue  Servandie  in  given  except  dunng  this  Mass  or  dunng  a  MaSS  that 

Cantu  Miaam  (Mar..  190^,  108;  JPre/ace  to.  Gradual  (July,  replaces  it  (and  commemorates  it)  when  it  cannot  be 

Wasdknschwilxr,  Applied  Meneuraliem  (May,  1909).  171;  be  celebrated  after  the  closed  time  for  people  mamed 

HuBouB.  Fr.  Bonvtn'e'^Mieea  pro  Defwufie'  (JwyiiJ?®).  i**;  during  it.    So  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  always  go  to- 

'»S^r'ZS2i.t:«'7iKj2^S^te'SVi  fcr^  ^i^-.   eith^  involves  the  oth<^.  "Sne  iLe  and 

iaiionM  to  Applied  Meneuraliem  Examined  (July,  1909),  223.  blessing  may  be  held  for  several  pairs  of  mamed  people, 

Theae  refermees  to  Mensuraliam  are  made  here  for  historical  ^^o  must  all  be  present.     The  forms,  however,  re- 

IXrif '•aS'lfert^iSdlf  r4f.^?Tt.!?  ^cTt^^  S*'"  ^^^  ""J*^  "  ^l^ ,? .t»ilMia8aI.    The 

Haberl.  18  Feb.,  1910.  declaring  **  absolutely  falae  in  iteelf  and  Mass  and  blessmg  may  not  be  held  if  the  woman  has 

hieUy  prejudicial  to  the  uniform  natoration  of  tt»e  chapt  already  received  this  blessing  in  a  former  marriage. 

throuchout  the  Church    the  ppuupn  which  has  held  that  choir^  rp,  .        i         i    offpotj*  thp  wnmAn  f nr  whom  th«  hlmmir 

mastera  may  give  what  rhythm  they  please  to  the  chant,  and  >  °^  ""®  ^^^Jl  anecis  tne  woman,  lor  wnom  tne  DieSSin^ 

appealing  to  the  evidence  of  the  preface  to  the  "Gradual"  to  IS  more  specially  mtended  (see  the  prayer  Dew  qu% 

prove  the  neceatity  of  "free"  (as  it  is  technically  styled)  poiestcUe),     It  must  be  understood  exactly  as  stated, 

rhythm,  or  that    advocated  in  general  by  the   Benedictmes.  ^l  formpr  mArriAirp  withnnf  this  hlMninir   nr  fhp  fanf 

Moisuralism.  or  "  measured "  rhythm,  is  not  free.    For  a  trans-  ^  lOrmer  mama^e  Wltnout  tms  Dl^mg,  or  tne  lact 

latloQ  of  Card.  Martinelli's  letter  into  English  together  with  that  children  had  been  bom  before  the  marriage,  IS  no 

comment,  see  Eccleeiatiieal  Review  ^J^^ie,  1910),  734-738.  hindrance.     Nor  may  the  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  be 

Schmidt- WBmNO,  i2egiiMmAf««,  reviewed.  (May,  1909),  197,  l  i  j   •      nooAa  of  TnixcKl  mArrimrAfi   (ntixin.  rdAnij^  in 

illustrates  the  necessity  of  continued  caution  in  purehasing  even  °^^  m  cases  01  mixea  marriages  jmtwa  ruwxo)  m 

recently  issued  editions  of  Masses:  Much  omission  of  text.    No  spite  of  any  dispensation.     According  to  the  (Jon- 

Graduale.  no  Communio,  no  libera.    The  Introit  omits  exoudt  stitution  "  Etsi  sanctissunus  Dominus  "  of  Pius  IX  (15 

SSSSSSi^TTeen'^h^^^^^^^           i^i2i."V&"Li"?i5  Nojemtor,  1858),  mixed  marriaps  must  be  celebrated 

nnitsiforty-two  lines  of  text.    The , Offertory  omits  tu  euecipe,  outside  the  church  (m  England  and  Amenca  this  is 

tums/bcetijinto/acuur  and /beeos  (with  propvoxytonerhjrthm),  understood  as  meaning  outside  the  sanctuary  and 

^od  superfluously  adds  Amen  at  the  oad.    The  Sanctus  omits  olu>ir^  wit hnnf  f  ho  KlAnaincr  nf  f  Ha  rinir  nr  nf  f  hn  arviiiflmi 

DominSe,    For  various  editions  of  the  Vatican  chant  books  con-  C'WU';,  Wlinout  tne  Dl«BSing  01  tne  nng  or  of  tne  spouses 

suit  Chwth  Mueie  (passun).  Without  any  ecclesiastical  nte  or  vestment,  without 

H.  T.  Henry.  proclamation  of  banns. 


MAM  6  MA88 

The  rite  of  the  nuptial  Mass  and  blessing  is  this:  gatio),  "the  Mysteries",  and  (since  Augustine)  "the 
The  Mass  has  neither  Gloria  nor  Creed.  It  counts  as  a  Sacrament  of  the  Altar".  With  the  name  "Love- 
votive  Mass  not  for  a  grave  matter;  therefore  it  has  Feast"  (dydvii)  the  idea  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass 
tJbree  collects,  its  own,  9ie  commemoration  of  the  day,  was  not  necessarily  connected  (see  Aqape).  Etymo* 
and  the  third  which  is  the  one  chosen  for  semi-doubles  logically,  the  word  mi89a  is  neither  (as  Baronius 
at  that  time^^ef'tliFTeaPy.jmless  there  be  two  com-  states)  from  the  Hebrew  HDD  nor  from  the  Greek 
memoratioilBr  At  the  eiidB^rmliicamta  Domino  and  /i^tt,  but  is  simply  derived  from  misnOf  just  as 
the  Gospel  of  St.  John  are  said.  TK^^lour  is  white.  obkUa  is  derived  from  oblaJtio,  coUecta  from  eoUecHOf  and 
The  bridegroom  and  bride  assist  near^bhealtar  (just  uUa  from  ulHo  (Du  Cange,  "Glossar.",  s.  v.  "Missa"). 
outside  the  sanctuary),  the  man  on  the  righL  After  ,  The  reference  was  howeyer  not  to  a  Divine  "mission", 
thePaternottertheceiebrant genuflects andgo^^othe  but  simply  to  a  "dismissal"  (dimxMio),  as  was  also 
epistle  side.  Meanwhile  the  bridegroom  and  oh^e  customary  in  the  Greek  rite  (cf.  "Canon.  Apost.", 
come  up  and  kneel  before  him.  Turning  to  them  heV^^I,  xv:  dvokhaBt  4w  e/pt^in),  and  as  is  still  echoed 
says  the  two  prayers  Propitiare  Domine  and  Deus  otii  intik^hrase  Ite  missa  est.  This  solemn  form  of  leave- 
potestate  (as  m  the  Missal)  with  folded  hands.  He  takiiiff>r«s  not  introduced  by  the  Church  as  something 
then  goes  back  to  the  midme  and  continues  the  Mass.  new,  out  was  adopted  from  the  ordinary  lan^^uage  of 
The^r  go  back  to  their  places.  He  gives  them  Com-  the  day,  as  is  shown  by  Bishop  Avitus  of  Vienna  as 
munion  at  the  usual  time.  This  impues  that  thev  are  late  as  a.  d.  500  (Ep.  1  in  P.  L.,  LIX,  199):  "In 
fasting  and  explains  the  misused  name  "wedding  churches  and  in  the  emperor's  or  the  prefect's  courts, 
breakfast"  afterwards.  But  the  Communion  is  not  a  Missa  est  is  said  when  the  people  are  released  from 
strict  law  (S.  R.  C.,no.  5582,21  March,  1874).  Imme-  attendance."  In  the  sense  of  "dismissal",  or  rather 
diately  after  the  BenetlicamiM  DomtTto  and  its  answer  "close  of  prayer",  missa  is  used  in  the  celebrated 
the  celebrant  asain  goes  to  the  Epistle  side  and  the  "  Peregrinatio  Silvise"  at  least  seventy  times  (Corpus 
bridegroom  and  bride  kneel  before  him  as  before,  scriptor.  ecdes.  latinor.,  XXXVIII,  ^66  sq.),  and  the 
The  celebrant  tumii^C  to  them  says  the  prayer  Deiis  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  places  after  Hours,  Vespers,  and 
Abraham  (without  Oremits),  He  is  then  told  to  Compline,  the  regular  formula:  Etmisscefiant  (pmy era 
warn  them  "with  grave  words  to  be  faithful  to  one  an-  are  ended).  Popular  speech  gradually  apphed  the 
other".  The  rest  of  the  ad  vice  suggested  in  the  rubric  ritual  of  dismissal,  as  it  was  expressed  in  ooth  the 
of  the  Missal  is  now  generally  left  out.  He  sprinkles  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  and  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful, 
them  with  holy  water;  they  retire,  he  ^oes  back  to  the  by  svnecdoche  to  the  entire  Eucharistic  Sacrifice,  the 
middle  of  the  altar,  says  Piaceat  Hbi,  gives  the  blessing  whole  being  named  after  the  part.  The  first  certain 
and  finishes  Mass  as  usual.  trace  of  such  an  application  is  found  in  Ambrose  (Ep. 

In  the  cases  in  which  the  "Missa  pro  sponso  et  xx,  4,  in  P.  L.,  XVl,  995).    We  will  use  the  word  in 

sponsa"  may  not  be  said  but  may  be  commemorated,  this  sense  in  our  consideration  of  the  Mass  in  its  (1) 

tne  special  prayers  and  blessing  are  inserted  in  the  existence,  (2)  essence,  and  (3)  causality. 
Mass  in  the  same  way.    But  the  colour  must  be  that        (1)  The  E»stenoe  of  the  Mass. — ^Before  dealing 

of  the  day.    During  the  closed  time  it  is,  of  course,  with  the  proofs  of  revelation  afiforded  by  the-Bible  and 

quite  possible  for  the  married  people  to  have  a  Mass  tradition,  certain  preliminary  points  must  first  be 

said  for  their  intention,  at  which  they  receive  Holy  decided.    Of  these  the  most  important  is  that  the 

Communion.    The  nuptial  Blessing  in  this  Mass  is  Church  intends  the  Mass  to  be  regarded  as  a  "true  and 

Quite  a  different  thing  from  the  actual  celebration  of  proper  sacrifice",  and  will  not  tolerate  the  idea  that 

the  marriage,  which  must  always  precede  it.    The  the  sacrifice  is  identical  with  Holy  Communion.   That 

blessing  is  eiven  to  people  already  married,  as  the  is  the  sense  of  a  clause  from  the  Council  of  Trent  (S»ss. 

pravers  imply.    It  need  not  be  given  (nor  tne  Mass  XXII,  can.  i):  "If  any  one  saith  that  in  the  Mass  a 

said)  by  the  priest  who  assisted  at  the  marria^.    But  true  and  proper  sacrifice  is  not  offered  to  God ;  or,  that 

both  tnese  functions  (assistance  and  blessing)  are  to  be  offered  is  nothing  else  but  that  Christ  isgiven  us 

rights  of  the  parish  priest,  which  no  one  else  may  to  eat;  let  him  be  anathema"  (Densincer,  "j£ichir.'\ 

undertake  without  delegation  from  him.    Generally  10th  ed.,  1908,  n.  948).    When  Leo  ^11  in  the  dog* 

they  are  so  combined  that  the  marriage  takes  place  matic  Bull  "ApostoliciB  Cune"  of  13  Sept.,  1896. 

immediately  before  the  Mass;  in  this  case  the  priest  based  the  invalidity  of  the  Anglican  form  of  consecra- 

may  assist  at  the  marriage  in  Mass  vestments,  but  tion  on  the  fact  amons  others,  that  in  the  consecrating 

without  the  maniple.  In  England  and  other  countries  formula  of  Edward  Vl  (that  is,  since  1549)  there  is  no- 

where  a  civil  declaration  is  required  by  law,  this  is  where  an  unambiguous  declaration  re^;araing  the  Sac- 

usually  made  in  the  sacristy  between  the  marriage  rifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Anglican  archbishops  answered 

and  the  Mass.    Canon  Law  in  England  orders  that  with  some  irritation:  "First,  we  offer  the  Sacrifice  of 

marriages  be  made  only  in  churches  that  have  a  district  praise  and  thanksgiving ;  next,  we  plead  and  represent 

with  the  cure  of  souls  (Cone.  prov.  Westm.  I,  deer,  before  the  Father  the  »Etcrifice  of  the  Cross  .  .  .  and, 

XXII,  4) .    This  implies  as  a  eeneral  rule,  but  does  not  lastly,  we  offer  the  Sacrifice  of  ourselves  to  the  Creator 

command  absolutely,  that  the  nuptial  Mass  also  be  of  all  things,  which  we  have  already  signified  by  the 

celebrated  in  such  a  church.  oblation  ofHis  creatures.  This  whole  action,  in  wliich 

See  Rubrics  of  the  Misaa  pro  mnao  et  sponaa  in  the  MtMol;  the  people  has  necessarily  to  take  part  with  the  priest , 

^l^^^niTnJlU  '22;4L,T??SS:  ^^r^t^;  we  ««,  accuatomed  to  call  the  Euclmristic  Rifice.'' 

DB  HKR2)T,<SoertiLiiurvuKi'nu;w,  III  (Louvaln,  1894),  361-^77.  In  regard  to  this  last  contention.  Bishop  Hedley  of 

Adrian  Fortebcue.  Newport  declared  his  belief  that  not  one  Anglican  in  a 

thousand  is  accustomed  to  call  the  communion  the 

Mass,  Sacrifice  OF  THE. — ^A.  The  Dogmatic  Doc-  "Eucharistic  Sacrifice".    But,  even  if  they  were  all  so 

trine  of  the  Mass, — ^The  word  Mass  (missa)  first  estab-  accustomed,  they  would  have  to  interpret  the  terms  in 

fished  itself  as  the  general  designation  for  the  Euchar-  the  sense  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  which  deny  both 

istic  Sacrifice  in  the  West  after  the  time  of  Pope  the  Real  Presence  and  the  sacrificial  power  of  tho 

Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604),  the  early  Church  having  priest,  and  thus  admit  a  sacrifice  in  an  unreal  or 

used  the  expression  the  "breaking  of  bread''  (fractio  figurative  sense  only.    Leo  XIII,  on  the  other  hand, 

Sinis)  or  "liturgy''  (Acts,  xiii,  2,  XeirovpyoOpTet);  the  in  imion  with  the  whole  Christian  past,  had  in  mind  iu 

reek  Church  has  employed  the  latter  name  for  al-  the  above-mentioned  Bull  nothing  else  than  the  Eu- 

most  sixteen  centuries.    There  were  current  in  the  charistic  "SEMsrifice  of  the  true  Body  and  Blood  of 

early  days  of  Christianity  other  terms:  "The  Lord's  Christ"  on  the  altar.    This  Sacrifice  u  certainly  not 

Supper"  (e<Bnadominica),  the  "Sacrifice"  (wpoa^pd,  identical  with  the  Anglican  form  of  celebration  (see 

obCaiio),  "the  gathering  together"  (c^hl^u,  eongrc'  Anglicanism)* 


MASS 


The  simple  fact  that  numerous  heretics,  such  as 
Wy  clif  and  Luther,  repudiated  the  Mass  as  *'  idolatry  ". 
while  retaining  the  Sacrament  of  the  true  Body  and 
Blood  of  Chnst,  proves  that  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Eucharist  is  something  essentially  different  from  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  In  truth,  the  Eucharist  per- 
forms at  once  two  fimctions:  that  of  a  sacrament  and 
that  of  a  sacrifice.  Though  the  inseparableness  of  the 
two  is  most  clearly  seen  in  the  fact  tnat  the  consecrat- 
ing and  sacrificial  powers  of  the  priesst  coincide,  and 
conaequentlv  that  the  sacrament  is  produced  only  in 
and  througn  the  Mass,  the  real  difference  between 
them  is  shown  in  that  the  sacrament  is  intended  pri- 
marily for  the  sanctification  of  the  soul,  whereas  the 
sacrifice  serves  primarily  to  glorify  God  by  adoration, 
thanksgiving,  praver,  and  expiation.  The  recipient  of 
the  one  is  God,  wno  receives  the  sacrifice  of  His  only- 
begotten  Son;  of  the  other,  man,  who  receives  the 
sacrament  for  his  own  good.  Furthermore,  the  im- 
bloody  Samfice  of  the  Eucharistic  Christ  is  in  its 
nature  a  transient  action,  while  the  Sacrament  of  the 
Altar  continues  as  something  permanent  after  the  sac- 
rifice, and  can  even  be  preserved  in  monstrance  and 
ciborium.  Finally,  this  difference  also  deserves  men- 
tion :  communion  imder  one  form  only  is  the  reception 
of  the  whole  sacrament,  whereas,  without  the  use  of 
the  two  forms  of  bread  and  wine  (the  symbolic  separa- 
tion of  the  Bodv  and  Blood),  the  mystical  slaying  of 
the  Victim,  and  therefore  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass, 
does  not  take  place. 

The  definition  of  the  Council  of  Trent  supposes  as 
self-evident  the  proposition  that,  along  with  the  "true 
and  real  Sacrifice  ofthe  Blass",  there  can  be  and  are  in 
Christendom  figurative  and  unreal  sacrifices  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  prayers  of  praise  and  thanksgiving, 
alms,  mortification,  obedience,  and  works  of  penance. 
Such  offerings  are  often  referred  to  in  Holv  Scripture, 
e.  g.  in  Ecclus.,  xxxv,  4:  ''And  he  that  doth  mercy, 
offered  sacrifice '' ;  and  in  Ps.  cxl,  2:  "  Let  my  prayer 
be  directed  as  incense  in  th^  sight;  the  lifting  up  of 
Doy  hands  as  evening  sacrifice."     These  figurative 
offerings,  however,  necessarily  presuppose  the  real  and 
true  offering,  just  as  a  picture  presupposes  its  subject 
and  a  portrait  its  original.   The  Biblical  metaphors — a 
"sacrifice  of  jubilation"  (Ps.  zxvi,  6),  the  "calves  of 
our  Ups"  (Osee,  ziv,  3),  the  " sacrifice  of  praise"  (Heb., 
ziii,  15>— -expressions  which  apply  sacrificial  terms  to 
simple  prayer — ^would  be  without  application  or  mean- 
ing if  there  were  not,  or  there  had  not  been,  a  true  and 
real  sacrifice  O^ostia,  Owrta).    That  there  was  such  a 
sacrifice,  ibid  whole  sacrificial  system  of  the  Old  Law 
bears  witness.    It  is  true  that  we  may  and  must  rccog-  <. 
niae.  with  St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  bcxxv,  a.  3,  ad  2um), , 
as  the  principale  sacrificium  the  sacrificial  intent 
which,  embodied  in  the  spirit  of  prayer,  inspires  and 
animates  the  external  offering  as  the  |x)dy  animates 
the  soul,  and  without  which  even  the  most  perfect 
offering  has  neither  worth  nor  effect  before  God. 
Hence,  the  holy  psalmist  says:  *'  For  if  thou  hadst  de- 
sired sacrifice,  I  would  indeed  have  given  it:  with  burnt- 
offerings  thou  wilt  not  be  delighted.    A  sacrifice  to 
God  is  an  afflicted  spirit"  (Ps.  1,  18  sq.).    This  indis- 
pensable re<)uirement  of  an  internal  sacrifice,  however, 
by  no  means  makes  the  external  sacrifice  superfluous 
in  Christianity;  indeed,  without  a  perpetual  oblation 
deriving  its  value  from  the  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the 
CrossTChristianity,  the  perfect  religion,  would  be  in- 
ferior not  only  to  the  Old  Testcmient,  but  even  to  the 
poorest  form  of  natural  religion.   Since  sacrifice  is  thus 
essential  to  reli^on,  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  for 
Christianity,  which  cannot  otherwise  fulfil  its  duty  of 
showing  outward  honour  to  God  in  the  most  perfect 
way.    Thus,  the  Church,  as  the  mystical  Christ,  de- 
sires and  must  have  her  own  permanent  sacrifice, 
which  vuxeW  cannot  be  either  an  independent  addition 
to  that  of  Grolgotha  or  its  intrinsic  complement;  it  can 
only  be  the  one  s^lf-saine  saorifioe  of  toe  Cross,  whose 


fruits,  by  an  unbloody  offering,  are  daily  made  avail- 
able for  believers  and  imbeuevers  and  sacrificially 
applied  to  them. 

If  the  Mass  is  to  be  a  true  sacrifice  in  the  literal 
sense^  it  must  realize  the  philosophical  conception  of 
sacrifice.    Thus  the  last  preliminary  question  arises: 
What  is  a  sacrifice  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term? 
Without  attempting  to  state  and  establish  a  compre- 
hensive theory  of  sacrifice  (q.  v.^,  it  will  suffice  to  show 
that,  according  to  the  comparative  history  of  religions, 
four  things  are  necessary  to  a  sacrifice:  a  sacnfidal 
gift  (rea  oblata)^  a  sacrificing  minister  {minister  UgiH^ 
mu9)f  a  sacrificial  action  {cbctio  sacrifica),  and  a  sacri- 
ficial end  or  object  (finis  sacrificit).    In  contrast  with 
sacrifices  in  the  figurative  or  less  proper  sense,  the 
sacrificial  gift  must  exist  in  physical  substance,  and 
must  be  really  or  virtually  destroyed  (animals  slain, 
libations  poured  out,  other  things  rendered  unfit  for 
ordinary  uses),  or  at  least  really  transformed,  at  a 
fixed  place  of  sacrifice  (ara,  altare),  and  offered  up  to 
God.    As  regards  the  person  offering,  it  is  not  permit- 
ted that  any  and  eveiy  individual  should  offer  sacrifioe 
on  his  own  account.    In  the  revealed  religion,  as  in 
nearly  all  heathen  religions,  only  a  qualified  person 
(usuallv  called  Driest,  sacerdos,  le/>ctft),  who  has  been 
given  the  power  by  commission  or  vocation^  may  offer 
up  sacrifice  in  the  name  of  the  commumty.    After 
Moses,  the  priests  authorized  by  law  in  the  Old  Tester 
ment  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  more  espe- 
cially to  the  house  of  Aaron  (Heb.,  v,  4).    But,  since 
Christ  Himself  received  and  exercised  His  hig^  priest- 
hood, not  by  the  arrog^tion  of  authority  but  in  virtue 
of  a  Divine  call,  there  is  still  greater  need  that  priests 
who  represent  Him  should  receive  power  and  author- 
ity through  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  orders  to  offer  up 
the  sublime  Sacrifice  of  the  New  Law.     Sacrifioe 
reaches  its  outward  culmination  in  the  sacrificial  act, 
in  which  we  have  to  distinguish  between  the  proid- 
mate  matter  and  the  real  form.   The  form  lies,  not  in 
the  real  transformation  or  complete  destruction  of  the 
sacrificial  gift,  but  rather  in  its  sacrificial  oblation,  in 
whatever  way  it  may  be  transformed.    Even  where  a 
real  destruction  took  place,  as  in  the  sacrificial  slay- 
ings  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  act  of  destroying  was 
performed  by  the  servants  of  the  Temple,  whereas  the 
proper  oblation^  consisting  in  the  "spilling  of  blood " 
(aspersio  sanguinis) ,  was  the  exclusive  function  of  Uie 

griests.  Thus,  the  real  form  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
ross  consistea  neither  in  the  killing  of  Christ  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  nor  in  an  imaginary  self-destruction 
on  the  part  of  Jesus,  but  in  His  voluntaxj  surrender  of 
His  blood  shed  by  another's  hand,  and  m  His  offering 
of  His  life  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  Consequently,  the 
destruction  or  transformation  constitutes  at  most  the 
proximate  matter;  the  sacrificial  oblation,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  the  physical  form  of  the  sacrifioe. 
Finally,  the  object  of  the  sacrifioe,  as  significant  of  its 
meaning,  lifts  the  external  offering  beyond  any  mere 
mechamcal  action  into  the  sphere  of  the  spiritual  and 
Divine.  The  object  is  the  soul  of  the  sacrifice,  and,  in 
a  certain  sense,  its  "  metaphysicial  form  ".  In  all  reli- 
gions we  £nd,  as  the  essential  idea  of  sacrifice^  a  com- 
Slete  surrender  to  God  for  the  purpose  of  umon  with 
[im;  and  to  this  idea  there  is  added,  on  the  part  of 
those  who  are  in  sin,  the  desire  for  pardon  and  reoon- 
dilation.  Hence  at  once  arises  the  (ustinction  between 
sacrifioes  of  praise  and  expiation  (sacrificium  kUreuH- 
cum  et  propiUatorium)f  and  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving 
and  petition  (sacrificium  eucharisHcum  et  impetrato- 
rtum);  hence  also  the  obvious  inference  that,  under 
pain  of  idolatry,  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered  to  God  alone 
as  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  things.  Rightly  does 
St.  Augustine  remark  (De  civit.  Dei,  X,  iv):  "Who 
ever  thoui^t  of  offering  sacrifice  except  to  one  whom 
he  either  knew,  or  thought,  or  imagined  to  be  God?" 
If  then  we  combine  the  four  constituent  ideas  in  a 
definition,  we  may  say : "  Sacrifioe  is  the  external  obbh 


BIA88 


8 


MASS 


lion  to  God  by  an  authorized  minister  of  a  sense- 
peroeptible  object,  either  through  its  destruction  or  at 
least  through  its  real  transformation,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  God's  supreme  dominion  and  for  the  appeas- 
ing of  His  wrath.  We  shall  demonstrate  the  applica- 
bility of  this  definition  to  the  Mass  in  the  section 
devoted  to  the  nature  of  the  sacrifice,  after  settling  the 
question  of  its  existence. 

(a)  Scriptural  Proof. — ^It  is  a  notable  fact  that  the 
Divine  institution  of  the  Mass  can  be  established,  one 
might  almost  say,  with  greater  certainty  by  means  of 
the  Old  Testament  than  by  means  of  the  ^few. 

(1)  The  Old  Testament  prophecies  are  recorded 
partly  in  types,  partly  in  woras.  Following  the  prece- 
dent of  many  Fathers  of  the  Church  (see  Bellarmine, 
"De  Euchar.",  v,  6),  the  Council  of  Trent  especially 
(Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i)  laid  stress  on  the  prophetical  rela^ 
tion  that  imdoubtedly  exists  between  the  offering  of 
bread  and  wine  by  Melchisedech  and  the  Last  Supper 
of  Jesus.  The  occurrence  was  briefly  as  follows:  Alter 
Abraham  (then  still  called  '*  Abram '')  with  his  armed 
men  had  rescued  his  nephew  Lot  from  the  four  hostile 
kings  who  had  fallen  on  him  and  robbed  him,  Mel- 
chisedech, King  of  Salem  (Jerusalem), "  bringing  forth 
\vroferenSj  Heb.  K^y^n,  Hiphil  of  t<y]  bread  and  wine, 
for  he  was  a  priest  of  the  Most  ELigh  God,  blessed  him 
[Abraham]  and  said:  Blessed  be  Abram  by  the  Most 
High  God  .  .  .  And  he  [Abraham]  gave  him  the  tithes 
of  all "  (Gen.,  xiv,  18-20).  Catholic  theologians  (with 
very  few  exceptions)  have  from  the  beginmng  rightlv 
emphasized  the  circumstance  that  Melchisedech 
brought  out  bread  and  wine,  not  merely  to  provide 
refreshment  for  Abram's  followers  weaned  after  the 
battle,  for  they  were  well  supplied  with  provisions  out 
of  the  booty  they  had  taken  (Gen.,  xiv,  11, 16),  but  to 
present  bread  and  wine  as  f ood-onerings  to  Almightv 
God.  Not  as  a  host,  but  as  "priest  of  the  Most  Sign 
God  ",  he  brought  forth  bread  and  wine,  blessed  Abra- 
ham, and  received  the  tithes  from  him.  In  fact,  the 
very  reason  for  his  "  bringing  forth  bread  and  wine  "  is 
expressly  stated  to  have  been  his  priesthood:  "for  he 
was  a  priest".  Hence,  yroferre  must  necessarily  be- 
come offerref  even  if  it  were  true  that  XIP  in  Hiphil  is 
not  an  hieratic  sacrificial  term;  but  even  this  is  not 
quite  certain  (cf.  Judges,  vi,  18  sq.).  Accordingly. 
Melchisedech  made  a  real  food-offering  of  bread  ana 
wine.  Now  it  is  the  express  teaching  of  Scripture  that 
Christ  is  "  a  priest  for  ever  according  to  the  order  [Kari^ 
T^w  rd^iv]  of  Alelchisedech ''  (Ps.  cix,  4;  Heb.,  v.  5  sq.; 
vii,  1  sqq.).    Christ,  however,  in  no  way  resembled  ms 

Eriestly  prototype  in  His  bloody  sacrifice  on  the  Cross, 
ut  only  and  solely  at  His  Last  Supper.  On  that  occa- 
sion He  likewise  made  an  unbloody  food-offexing,  only 
that,  as  Antitype,  He  accomplished  something  more 
than  a  mere  oDiation  of  bread  and  wine,  namely  the 
sacrifice  of  His  Body  and  Blood  imder  the  mere  forms 
of  bread  and  wine.  Otherwise,  the  shadows  cast  be- 
fore by  the  "  good  things  to  come "  would  have  been 
more  perfect  than  the  things  themselves,  and  the  anti- 
type at  any  rate  no  richer  in  reality  than  the  type. 
Since  the  Mass  is  nothing  else  than  a  continual  repeti- 
tion, commanded  by  C&ist  Himself,  of  the  Sacrifice 
accomplished  at  the  Last  Supper,  it  follows  that  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  partakes  of  the  New  Testament 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of  Melchisedech.  (Concern- 
ing the  Paschal  Lamb  as  the  second  type,  of  the  Mass, 
see  Bellarmine,  "De  Euchar.**  V,  vu*  cf.  also  von 
Cichowski,  "  Das  altestamentl.  rascha  m  seinem  Ver- 
haltnis  zum  Opfer  Christi",  Munich^  1849.) 

Passing  over  the  more  or  less  distmct  references  to 
the  Mass  in  other  prophets  (Ps.  xxi,  27  sqq.;  Is.,  Ixvi, 
18  sqq.),  the  best  and  clearest  prediction  concerning 
the  Mass  is  undoubtedly  that  of  Malachias,  who  makes 
a  threatening  announcement  to  the  Levite  priests  in 
the  name  of  God:  "  I  have  no  pleasure  in  you,  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts:  and  I  will  not  receive  a  gift  of  your 
hand.  For  from  the  rising  of  the  sun  even  to  the  going 


down,  my  name  is  great  among  the  Gentiles  [D^, 
heathens,  non-Jews],  and  in  every  place  there  is  sacri- 
fice, and  there  is  offered  to  my  name  a  clean  oblation: 
for  my  name  is  great  amohg  the  Gentiles^  saith  the 
Lord  of  hosts''  (Mai.,  i,  10-11).  Accordmg  to  the 
unanimous  interpretation  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
fsee  Petavius,  "De  incam.",  xii,  12),  the  prophet  here 
foretells  the  everlasting  Sacrifice  of  the  New  dispensa- 
tion. For  he  declares  that  these  two  things  will  cer- 
tainly come  to  pass:  (1}  The  abolition  of  aU  Levitical 
sacrifices,  and  (2)  the  institution  of  an  entirely  new 
sacrifice.  As  God 's  determination  to  do  away  with  the 
sacrifices  of  the  Levites  is  adhered  to  consistently 
throughout  the  denunciation,  the  essential  thing  is  to 
specify  correctly  the  sort  of  sacrifice  that  is  promised 
in  their  stead .  In  regard  to  this,  the  following  proposi- 
tions have  to  be  established :  ii)  that  the  new  sacrifice 
is  to  come  about  in  the  days  of  the  Messiah ;  (2)  that  it 
is  to  be  a  true  and  real  sacrifice,  and  (3)  that  it  does  not 
coincide  formally  with  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  the  sacrifice  referred  to  by 
Malachias  did  not  signify  a  sacrifice  of  his  time,  but 
was  rather  to  be  a  future  sacrifice  belonging  to  the  age 
of  the  Messiah.  For  though  the  Hebrew  participles  of 
the  original  can  be  translated  by  the  present  tense 
(there  is  sacrifice;  it  is  offered),  tne  mere  universality 
of  the  new  sacrifice — "from  the  rising  to  the  set- 
ting ",  "  in  every  place  ",  even  "  among  the  Gentiles  ", 
i.  e.  heathen  (non-Jewish)  peoples — is  irrefragable 
proof  that  theprophet  beheld  as  present  an  event  of 
the  future.  Wherever  Jahwe  speaks,  as  in  this  case, 
of  His  glorification  by  the  "  heathen  ",  He  can,  accord- 
ing to  Old  Testament  teaching  (Ps.  xxi,  28;  Ixxi,  10 
sqq. :  Is.,  xi,  9;  xlix,  6:  Ix,  9;  Ixvi,  18 sqq.;  Amos,  ix, 
12;  Mich.,  iv,  2,  etc.),  nave  in  mind  only  the  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah  or  the  future  Church  of  Christ;  ever>' 
other  explanation  is  shattered  by  the  text.  Least  of 
all  could  a  new  sacrifice  in  the  time  of  the  prophet 
himself  be  thought  of.  Nor  could  there  be  any  idea  of 
a  sacrifice  among  the  genuine  heathens,  as  Hitzi^  has 
suggested,  for  the  sacnfices  of  the  heathen,  associative! 
with  idolatry  and  impurity,  are  unclean  and  displeas- 
ing to  God  (I  Cor.,  X,  20).  Again,  it  could  not  be  a 
sacrifice  of  the  dispersed  Jews  {Diaspora) ;  for  apart 
from  the  fact  that  the  existence  of  such  sacrifices  in 
the  Diaspora  is  rather  problematic,  they  were  cer- 
tainly not  offered  the  world  over,  nor  did  they  possess 
the  unusual  significance  attaching  to  special  modes  of 
honouring  God.  Consequently,  the  reference  is  un- 
doubtedly to  some  entirely  distinctive  sacrifice  of  the 
future.  But  of  what  future?  Was  it  to  be  a  future 
sacrifice  among  genuine  heathens,  such  as  the  C)M 
Mexicans  or  the  Congo  negroes?  This  is  as  impossii>le 
as  in  the  case  of  other  heathen  forms  of  idolatry.  Per- 
haps then  it  was  to  be  a  new  and  more  perfect  sacrifice 
among  the  Jews?  This  also  is  out  of  the  question,  for 
since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (a.  d.  70), 
the  whole  system  of  Jewish  sacrifice  is  irrevocably  a 
thing  of  the  past;  and  the  new  sacrifice,  moreover,  is 
to  be  performed  by  a  priesthood  of  an  origin  other  thtiii 
Jewisn  (Is.,  Ixvi,  21).  Everything,  therefore,  points  to 
Christianity,  in  which,  as  a  matttcr  of  fact,  the  Mes- 
siah rules  over  non-Jewish  peoples. 

The  second  question  now  presents  itself:  Is  the 
universal  sacrifice  thus  promised  "in  every  place"  to 
be  only  a  purely  spiritual  offering  of  prayer,  in  other 
words  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  such  as 
Protestantism  is  content  with;  or  is  it  to  oe  a  true 
sacrifice  in  the  strict  sense,  as  the  Catholic  Chureh 
maintains?  It  is  forthwith  clear  that  abolition  and 
substitution  must  correspond,  and  accordingly  tliat 
the  old  real  sacrifice  cannot  be  displaced  by  a  i:ew 
unreal  sacrifice.  Moreover,  prayer,  adoration,  thanks- 
giving, etc.,  are  far  from  being  a  new  offering,  for  tliey 
are  permanent  realities  common  to  every  age,  and 
constitute  the  indispensable  foundation  of  every  reli- 
gion whether  before  or  after  the  Messiah.    The  last 


9 


MASS 


doubt  is  dispelled  by  the  Hebrew  text,  which  has  no 
fewer  than  three  classic  sacerdotal  declarations  refer- 
ring to  the  promised  sacrifice,  thus  desi^edly  doin^ 
away  with  the  possibility  of  interpreting  it  metaphon- 
cally.  Especially  important  is  the  substantive  nn^. 
Although  m  its  origin  the  generic  term  for  every  sacri- 
fice, the  bloody  included  (cf.  Gen.,  iv,  4  sq.;  I  Kings, 
ii,  17),  it  was  not  only  never  used  to  indicate  an  unreal 
sacrifice  (such  as  a  prayer  offering),  but  even  became 
the  technical  term  for  an  unblocSy  sacrifice  (mostly 
food  offerings),  in  contradistinction  to  the  bloody 
sacrifice  which  is  given  the  name  of  nSTy  Sebach  (see 
Knabenbauer,  "Cbmmentar.  in  Prophet,  minor.",  II, 
Paris,  1886,  pp.  430  sqq.). 

As  to  the  third  and  last  proposition,  no  len^y 
demonstration  is  needed  to  show  that  the  sacrifice 
of  Malachias  cannot  be  formally  identified  with  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Ooss.  This  interpretation  is  at  once 
contradicted  by  the  Minchah,  i.  e.  unbloodv  (food) 
offering.  Then,  there  are  other  cogent  considerations 
based  on  fact.  Though  a  real  sacrifice,  belonging  to 
the  time  of  the  Messitm  and  the  most  powerful  means 
conceivable  for  glorifvins  the  Divine  name,  the  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Cross,  so  far  from  being  offered  "in  every 
place''  and  among  non-Jewish  peoples,  was  confined 
to  Golgotha  and  the  midst  of  the  Jewish  people.  Nor 
can  the  Sacrifice  of  the  C!ross,  which  was  accomplished 
by  the  Saviour  in  person  wiliiout  the  help  of  a  human 
representative  priesthood,  be  identified  with  that  sac- 
rifice for  the  offering  of  which  the  Messiah  makes  use 
of  priests  after  the  manner  of  the  Levites,  in  every 

&lace  and  at  all  times.  Furthermore,  he  wilfully  shuts 
is  eyes  against  the  light,  who  denies  that  the  proph- 
ecy of  Ifalachias  is  f ulmled  to  the  letter  in  the  Sacrifice 
of  the  Blass.  In  it  are  united  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  promised  sacrifice:  its  unbloodjr  sacrificial  rite  as 
genuine  Minchah,  its  universality  m  regard  to  place 
and  time,  its  extension  to  non-Jewish  peoples,  its  dele- 
gated priesthood  differing  from  that  of  the  Jews,  its 
essential  unity  by  reason  of  the  identity  of  the  C^ef 
Priest  and  the  victim  (CJhrist),  and  its  intrinsic  and 
essential  purity  which  no  Levitical  or  moral  undeanli- 
neas  can  defile.  Little  wonder  that  the  Council  of 
Trent  should  say  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i):  "This  is  that 
pure  oblation,  which  cannot  be  defiled  by  unworthi- 
ness  and  impiety  on  the  part  of  those  who  offer  it,  and 
concerning  which  God  has  predicted  through  Mala- 
chias, that  there  would  be  offered  up  a  clean  oblation 
in  every  place  to  His  Name,  which  would  be  great 
among  the  Gentiles"  (see  Denzinger,  n.  939). 

(il)  Passing  now  to  the  proofs  contained  in  the  New 
Testament,  we  may  begin  hy  remarking  that  many 
dogmatic  writers  see  in  the  dialogue  of  Jesus  with  the 
Samaritan  woman  at  Jacob's  well  a  prophetic  refer- 
ence to  the  Mass  (John,  iv,  21  sqq.) :  *' Woman,  believe 
me,  that  the  hour  cometh,  when  you  shall  neither  on 
this  mountain  [Ganzim]  nor  in  Jerusalem,  adore  the 
Father.  .  .  •  But  the  hour  cometh,  and  now  is,  when 
the  true  adorers  shall  adore  the  Father  in  spirit  and  in 
truth."  Since  the  point  at  issue  between  the  Samari- 
tans and  the  Jews  related,  not  to  the  ordinazy,  private 
offering  of  prayer  practised  everywhere,  but  to  the 
solemn,  public  worship  embodied  in  a  real  sacrifice, 
Jesus  really  seems  to  refer  to  a  future  real  sacrifice  of 
praise,  which  would  not  be  confined  in  its  llturgv  to 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  but  would  captivate  the  whole 
world  (see  Bellarmine,  ''De  Euchs^.",  v,  11).  Not 
without  ^ood  reason  do  most  commentators  appeal  to 
Heb.,  xiii,  10:  "  We  have  an  altar  [6v<rMurr^/>coy,  altare], 
whereof  they  have  no  power  to  eat  [♦a7«J^,  edere]  who 
serve  the  tabernacle.  Since  St.  raul  has  just  con- 
trasted the  Jewish  food  offering  (ftpd/uiaiWf  escia)  and 
the  Christian  attar  food,  the  partaking  of  which  was 
denied  to  the  Jews,  the  inference  is  obvious:  where 
there  is  an  altar,  there  is  a  sacrifice.  But  the  Eucluu^ 
ist  is  the  food  which  the  Christians  alone  are  permitted 
to  eat:  therefore  there  is  a  Eucharistic  sacrmoe.  The 


objection  that,  in  Apostolic  times,  the  term  dUar  was 
not  yet  used  in  the  sense  of  the  "Lord's  table"  (cf. 
I  Cor.,  X,  21)  is  clearly  a  begging  of  the  question,  since 
Paul  might  well  have  been  the  first  to  introduce  the 
name,  it  oeing  adopted  from  him  by  later  writers  (e.  g 
Ignatius  of  Antiocn,  died  a.  d.  107). 

It  can  scarcelv  be  denied  that  the  entirely  mystical 
explanation  of  the  *'  spiritual  food  from  the  altar  of  the 
cross",  favoured  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Estius,  and 
Stentrup,  is  far-fetched  (cf .  Thalhofer, "  Das  Opfer  des 
A.  und  N.  Bundes  ",  Ratisbon,  1870,  pp.  233  sqq.) .  It 
might  on  the  other  hand  appear  still  more  strange  that 
in  the  passage  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  where 
Christ  and  Melchisedech  are  compared,  the  two  food 
offerings  should  be  not  only  not  placed  in  prophetical 
relation  with  each  other,  but  not  even  mentioned. 
The  reason,  however,  is  not  far  to  seek:  such  a  parallel 
lay  entirely  outside  the  scope  of  the  argument.  All 
that  St.  Paul  desired  to  show  was  that  the  high  priest- 
hood of  Christ  was  superior  to  the  Levitical  priesthood 
of  the  Old  Testament  (cf.  Heb.,  vii,  4  sqq.),  and  this  he 
fully  demonstrated  by  proving  that  Aaron  and  his 

Sriesthood  stood  far  below  the  unattainable  height  of 
[elchisedech.  So  much  the  more,  therefore,  must 
Christ  as  "priest  according  to  the  order  of  Melchise- 
dech" excel  the  Levitical  priesthood.  The  peculiar 
dignity  of  Melchisedech,  however,  was  manifested  not 
through  the  fact  that  he  made  a  food  offering  of  bread 
and  wine,  a  thing  which  the  Levites  also  were  able  to 
do,  but  chiefly  through  the  fact  that  he  blessed  the 
great  *'  Father  Abraham  and  received  the  tithes  from 
him".  (For  the  proofs  relating  to  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  m  I  Cor.,  x,  16-21,  see  Al.  Sch&fer,  "Erklilrung 
der  beiden  Briefe  an  die  Korinther",  MUnster,  1903, 
pp.  195  s<)q.) 

The  mam  testimony  of  the  New  Testament  lies  in  the 
account  of  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  and  most 
clearly  in  the  words  of  consecration  spoken  over  the 
chalice.  For  this  reason  we  shall  consider  these  words 
first,  since  thereby,  owing  to  the  analogy  between  the 
two  formulae,  clearer  light  will  be  thrown  on  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words  of  consecration  pronounced  over  the 
bread.  For  the  sake  of  clearness  and  easy  comparison 
we  subjoin  the  four  passages  in  Greek  and  English: 

(1)  Matt.,  xxvi,  28:  ToOro  ydp  i^rip  rb  atfiii  ftov  t6  tt^s 
[jmci^f]  diaB^iPifs  rb  wtpl  woWQy  iicxvinfbfiepop  §ls  d^wip 
iftapriQp. 

For  this  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which 
shall  be  shed  for  many  unto  remission  of  sins. 

(2)  Mark,  xiv,  24:  ToOrb  i^rip  rb  aXftd  fuu  r^t  xaiy^ 
SiaS^mit  rb  (hrip  voXK^w  iicxvpybfuvov. 

This  is  my  blood  of  the  new  testament,  which  shall 
be  shed  for  man^. 

(3^  Luke,  xxii,  20:  Tovro  rb  voriipiow  ^  kcuj^  HiaSifini 
iw  rtp  atftarl  ftov^  rb  ihr^/>  it/iiap  iicxvpvbfjbepop. 

This  is  the  chalice,  the  new  testament  in  my  blood, 
which  shall  be  shed  for  you. 

(4)  I  Cor.,  xi,  25:  ToOro  rb  wor'^pwp  if  xaipif  dtaOi/jicTi 
iirrlp  iv  T$  ifup  at/uLTi, 

This  chalice  is  the  new  testament  in  my  blood. 

The  Divine  institution  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar  is 
proved  by  showing  (1)  that  the  "shedding  of  blood" 
spoken  of  in  the  text  took  place  there  and  then  and 
not  for  the  first  time  on  the  cross;  (2)  that  it  was  a 
true  and  real  sacrifice;  (3)  that  it  was  considered  a 
permanent  institution  in  the  Church.*  The  present 
form  of  the  participle  iKxvvp6f/£pop  in  conjunction  with 
the  present  icrlp  establishes  the  first  point.  For  it  is  a 
grammatical  rule  of  New  Testament  Greek,  that,  when 
the  double  present  is  used  (that  is,  in  both  the  parti- 
ciple and  the  finite  verb,  as  is  the  case  here),  the  time 
denoted  is  not  the  distant  or  near  future,  but  strictly  the 
present  (see  Fr.  Blass,  "Grammatik  des  N.  T.  Griech- 
isch",  p.  193,  Gottingen,  1896).  This  rule  does  not 
apply  to  other  constructions  of  the  present  tense,  as 
when  Christ  says  earlier  (John,  xiv,  12):  "I go  (iropc^ 
o/uu)  to  the  father".    Alleged  exceptions  to  the  rule 


MAM 


10 


are  not  such  in  reality,  as,  for  instance,  Matt.,  vi,  30: 
"  And  if  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  is  to-day  and  to- 
morrow is  CMt  into  the  oven  (ftaWifuvow)  God  doth 
so  clothe  (ifi^4ywvatw) :  how  much  more  you,  O  ye  of 
little  faith?''  For  in  this  passage  it  is  a  question  not 
of  something  in  the  future  out  of  something  occurnne 
every  day.  For  other  examples  see  Chr.  Pesch,  "  PrjeL 
domn.",  VI,  396  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908).  When  the 
Vulgate  truis]ate«  the  Greek  participles  by  the  future 
(efifundetur,  fundetur),  it  is  not  at  variance  with  facts, 
considering  that  the  mystical  shedding  of  blood  in  the 
chalice,  if  it  were  not  brought  into  intimate  relation 
with  the  physical  shedding  of  blood  on  the  cross, 
would  be  unpossible  and  meaningless;  for  the  one  is 
the  essential  presupposition  and  foundation  of  the 
other.  Still,  from  the  standpoint  of  philology,  effun- 
ditur  (f  unditur)  oueht  to  be  translated  into  the  strictly 
present,  as  is  really  done  in  many  ancient  codices. 
The  accuracy  of  this  exegesis  is  finally  attested  in  a 
striking  way  by  the  Greek  wording  in  St.  Luke:  r6 
T9T^ptop  ...  itcxvvp^fupoy.  Here  the  shedding  of  blood 
appears  as  'taking  place  directly  in  the  chalice,  and 
therefore  in  the  present.  Oversealous  critics,  it  is 
true,  have  assumed  that  there  is  here  a  grammatical 
mistake,  in  that  St.  Luke  erroneously  connects  the 
''shedding"  witii  the  chalice  (vor^/xor),  instead  of 
with  "blood"  (r$  atfMTi)  which  is  in  the  dative. 
Rather  than  correct  this  highly  cultivated  Greek,  as 
though  he  were  a  school  boy,  we  prefer  to  assume  that 
he  intended  to  use  synecdoche,  a  figure  of  speech 
known  to  everybody,  and  therefore  put  the  vessel  to 
indicate  its  oontente  (Winer-Moulton.  ''Grammar  of 
New  Testament  Greek",  p.  791,  Edinburgh,  1882). 

As  to  the  establishment  of  our  second  proposition, 
believing  Protestants  and  Anglicans  readily  admit 
that  the  phrase:  "to  shed  one's  blood  for  others  unto 
the  remission  of  sins"  is  not  only  genuinely  Biblical 
languaffe  relating  to  sacrifice,  but  also  designates  in 
particular  the  sacrifice  of  expiation  (cf.  Lev.,  vii,  14; 
xiv,  17;  xvii.  11;  Rom.,  iii,  25,  v,  9;  Heb.,  ix,  10, 
etc.).  They,  nowever,  refer  this  sacrifice  of  expiation, 
not  to  what  took  place  at  the  Last  Supper,  but  to  the 
Crucifixion  tiie  dav  after.  From  the  demonstration 
given  above  that  Christ,  by  the  double  consecration  of 
bread  and  vrine,  mystically  separated  His  Blood  from 
His  Body  and  thus  in  the  chahce  itself  poured  out  this 
Blood  in  a  sacramental  way,  it  is  at  once  clear  that  he 
wished  to  solemnise  the  jJast  Supper  not  as  a  sacra- 
ment merely  but  also  as  s^lSucharistic  sacrifice.  If  the 
"  pouring  out  of  the  chalice  "  is  to  mean  nothing  more 
than  the  sacramental  drinking  of  the  Blood,  the  result 
is  an  intolerable  tautology:  '"Drink  ye  all  of  this,  for 
this  is  my  Blood,  which  is  being  drunk".  As,  how- 
ever, it  really  reads:  "Drink  ye  all  of  this,  for  this  is 
my  blood,  which  is  shed  for  many  (you)  unto  remis- 
sion of  sins,"  the  double  character  of  the  rite,  as 
sacrament  and  sacrifice,  is  evident.  The  sacrament  is 
shown  forth  in  the  "drinkine",  the  sacrifice  in  the 
"shedding  of  blood".  "The  olood  of  the  new  testa- 
ment ",  moreover,  of  which  all  the  four  passages  speak, 
has  its  exact  parallel  in  the  analogous  institution  of 
the  Old  Testament  through  Moses.  For  by  Divine 
command  he  sprinkled  the  people  with  the  true  blood 
of  an  animal  and  added,  as  Christ  did,  the  words  of 
institution  (Ex.,  xxiv,  8):  "This  is  the  blood  of  the 
covenant  (Sept.:  ISod  rb  alfaa  rift  dte^mis)  which  the 
Lord  hath  made  with  you".  St.  Paul,  however  (Heb.,  ix, 
18  sq.),  after  repeating  this  passage,  solemnly  demon- 
strates (ibid.,  ix,  11  so  J  the  institution  of  the  New  Law 
through  the  blood  sned  by  Christ  at  the  crucifixion; 
and  the  Saviour  Himself,  with  eoual  solemnity,  sa3r8  of 
the  chalice:  "This  is  My  Blood  ot  the  new  testament ". 
It  follows  therefore  that  Christ  had  intended  His  true 
Blood  in  the  chalice  not  only  to  be  imparted  as  a  sacra- 
ment, but  to  be  also  a  sacrifice  for  the  remission  of 
sins.  With  the  last  remark  our  third  statement,  viz. 
as  to  the  permanency  of  the  institution  in  the  Church, 


is  also  established.  For  the  duration  of  the  Eucfaar- 
istic  Sacrifice  is  indissolubly  bound  up  with  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sacrament.  Christ's  last  supper  thus  takes 
on  the  significance  of  a  Divine  institution  whereby  the 
Mass  is  established  in  His  Church.  St.  Paul  (I  Cor., 
xi,  25),  in  fact,  puts  into  the  mouth  of  the  Saviour  the 
words:  "This  do  ye,  as  often  as  you  shall  drink,  for 
the  commemoration  of  me." 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  appreciate  in  their 
deeper  sense  Christ's  words  of  consecration  over  the 
bread.  Since  only  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul  have  made 
additions  to  the  sentence,  "This  is  My  Body",  it  is 
only  on  them  that  we  can  base  our  demonstration. 

(1)  Luke,  xxii,  19:  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  quod  pro 
vobis  datur;  Tovr6  4ari  rft  vQfjui  ftov  r6  inrk^  0/mp 
SMfuPoy;   This  is  nw  body  which  is  given  for  you. 

(2)  I  Cor.,  xi,  24:  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,  quod  pro 
vobis  tradetur^  to0t6  funi  ivrt  t6  vQita  rb  Mp  ifuiv 
[xXtifuPoy];  This  is  my  body  which  shall  be  broken 
for  you.  Once  more,  we  maintain  that  the  sacrificial 
"giving  of  the  body"  (in  organic  unity  of  course  with 
the  "pouring  of  blood"  in  the  chalice)  is  here  to  be 
interpreted  as  a  present  sacrifice  and  as  a  permanent 
institution  in  the  Church.  Regmxiing  the  decisive 
point,  i.  e.  indication  of  what  is  actually  taking  place, 
it  is  again  St.  Luke  who  speaks  with  greatest  cl^rness, 
for  to  ffufta  he  adds  the  present  participle,  M6fuwop^ 
by  which  he  describes  the  "giving  of  tne  body"  as 
something  happening  in  the  present,  here  and  now, 
not  as  something  to  oe  done  in  the  near  future. 

The  reading  jrXi&/ici>or  in  St.  Paul  is  disputed.  Ac- 
cording to  the  best  critical  reading  (Tischendorf .  Lach- 
mann)  the  participle  is  dropped  altogether,  so  that  St. 
Paul  probably  wrote:  t6  vQ/ul  rb  6«-^/>  ^/utw  (the  body 
for  you,  i.  e .  for  your  sal  vation) .  There  ia  good  reason, 
however,  for  regarding  the  word  K)nift£Pop  (from  tcK&p, 
to  break)  as  Pauline,  since  St.  Paul  shortly  before 
spoke  of  the  "  breaking  of  bread "  (I  Cor.,  x,  16),  which 
for  him  meant  "to  offer  as  food  the  true  body  of 
Christ".  From  this  however  we  may  conclude  that 
the  "  breaking  of  the  body  "  not  only  confines  Christ's 
action  to  the  strictly  present,  especially  as  His  natural 
Body  could  not  be  "  broken"  on  the  cross  (cf.  Ex.,  xii, 
46;  John,  xix,  32  sq.),  but  also  implies  the  intention  of 
offering  a  "  body  broken  for  you  (vwip  ipuap)  i.  e.  the 
act  constituted  in  itself  a  true  food  offering.  All  doubt 
as  to  its  sacrificial  character  is  removed  by  the  expre»> 
sion  di66fiepop  in  St.  Luke,  which  the  Vulgate  thia  time 
quite  correctly  translates  into  the  present:  "quod  pro 
vobis  datur. "  But "  to  give  one's  body  for  otners  is 
as  truly  a  Biblical  expression  for  sacrifice  (cf .  John,  vi. 
52;  Rom.,  vii,  4;  Col.,  i,  22;  Heb.,  x,  10,  etc.)  as  the 
parallel  phrase,  "the  shedding  of  blood".  Christ, 
therefore,  at  the  !^^ast  Supper  offered  up  His  Body  as 
an  unbloody  sacrifice.  Finally,  that  He  commanded 
itie  renewal  for  all  time  of  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice 
through  the  Church  is  clear  from  the  addition:  "Do 
this  for  a  commemoration  of  me"  (Luke,  xxxii,  19; 
I  Cor.,  xi,  24). 

(b)  Proof  from  Tradition. — ^Harnack  is  of  opinion 
that  the  early  Church  up  to  the  time  of  Cyprian  (d. 
258)  contented  itself  with  the  purely  spiritual  sacri- 
fices of  adoration  and  thanksgiving  and  that  it  did  not 
possess  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  as  Catholicism  now 
understands  it.  In  a  scries  of  writings,  Dr.  Wieland, 
a  Catholic  priest,  likewise  maintained  in  the  face  of 
vigorous  opposition  from  other  theologians,  that  the 
early  Christians  confined  the  essence  of  the  Christian 
sacrifice  to  a  subjective  Eucharistic  prayer  of  thanks- 
giving, till  Irensus  (d.  202)  brought  forward  the  idea 
of  an  objective  offering  of  gifts,  and  especially  of  bread 
and  wine.  He,  according  to  this  view,  was  the  first  to 
include  in  his  expanded  conception  of  sacrifice,  the 
entirely  new  idea  of  material  offerings  (i.  e.  the  Eu- 
charistic elements)  which  up  to  that  time  the  early 
Church  had  formally  repudiated.  Were  this  assertion 
correct,  the  doctrine  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sesa. 


BIA88 


11 


MA88 


XXH,  c.  ii),  according  to  which  in  the  Mass  "the 
priests  offer  up,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of 
Christ,  His  Body  and  Blood''  (see  Denxinger,  "En- 
!:hir/',  n.  ^9),  could  hardly  take  its  stand  on  Apos- 
tolic tradition;  the  bridge  between  antiquity  and  the 
present  would  thus  have  been  broken  by  the  abrupt 
intrusion  of  a  completely  contrary  view.  An  impartial 
study  of  the  earliest  texts  seems  indeed  to  make  this 
much  clear,  that  the  early  Church  paid  most  attention 
to  the  spiritual  and  subjective  side  of  sacrifice  and  laid 
chief  stress  on  prayer  and  thanksgiving  in  the  Eucha- 
ristic  function. 

This  admission,  however,  is  not  identical  with  the 
statement  that  the  early  Church  rejected  out  and  out 
the  objective  sacrifice,  and  acknowledged  as  genuine 
only  the  spiritual  sacrifice  as  express^  in  the  "Eu- 
charistic  thanksgiving".  That  there  has  been  an  his- 
torical dogmatic  development  from  the  indefinite  to 
the  definite,  from  the  implicit  to  the  explicit,  from  the 
■eed  to  the  fruit,  no  one  familiar  with  the  subject  will 
deny.  An  assumption  so  reasonable,  the  only  one  in 
fact  consistent  with  Christianity,  is,  however,  funda- 
mentally different  from  the  hypothesis  that  the  Chris- 
tian idea  of  sacrifice  has  v^red  from  one  extreme  to 
the  other.  This  is  a  priori  improbable  and  unproved 
in  fact.  In  the  Didache  or* "Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles",  the  oldest  post-Biblical  literanr  monument 
(c.  A.  D.  96),  not  onlv  is  the  "breaking  of  bread"  (cf. 
Acts,  XX,  7)  referred  to  as  a  "sacrifice"  (Buala)  and 
mention  made  of  reconciliation  with  one's  enemy  be- 
fore the  sacrifice  (cf.  Matt.,  v,  23),  but  the  whole 
passage  is  crowned  with  an  actual  quotation  of  the 
prophecy  of  Malachias,  which  referred,  as  is  well 
Known,  to  an  objective  and  real  sacrifice  (Didache,  c. 
xiv).  The  early  Christians  gave  the  name  of  "sacri- 
fice" not  only  to  the  Eucharistic  "  thanks^ ving,"  but 
aLso  to  the  entire  ritual  celebration  including  the  litur- 
gical "breaking  of  bread",  without  at  furst  distin- 
guishing clearly  between  the  prayer  and  the  ijift 
(Bread  and  Wine;  Body  and  Blood).  When  Ignatius 
of  Antioch  (d.  107),  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles,  says  of 
the  Eucharist:  "There  is  onl^  one  flesh  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  only  one  chahce  containing  His  one 
Blood,  one  altar  (ip  Btwiarr-^putw),  as  also  only  one 
bishop  with  the  priesthood  and  the  deacons"  (Ep.,  ad. 
Philad.,  iv),  he  here  gives  to  the  lituxgical  Eucharistic 
celebration,  of  which  alone  he-speaks,  by  his  reference 
to  the  "altar"  an  evidentlv  sacrificial  meaning,  often 
as  he  may  use  the  word  " altar"  in  other  contexts  in  a 
metaphorical  sense. 

A  heated  controversv  had  raged  round  the  concep- 
tion of  Justin  Martyr  (d.  166)  from  the  fact  that  in  his 
**  Dialogue  with  Tryphon"  (c.  117)  he  characterises 
''prayer and  thanksgiving"  (e^al  xal  wdxttpwrlai)  as 
the  "one  perfect  sacrifice  acceptable  to  (jod"  {t^€uu 
itJbmA  ml  cMpcrrpc  Bvctw).  Did  he  intend  by  thus 
emphasising  the  interior  spiritual  sacrifice  to  exclude 
the  exterior  real  sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist?  Clearly  he 
did  not,  for  in  the  same  "  Dialogue"  (c.  xli:  P.  G.,  VT, 
564)  he  savs  the  "food  offering"  of  the  lepers,  assur- 
edly a  real  gift  offering  (cf.  Levit.,  xiv),  was  a  figure 
(v^rof)  of  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist,  which  Jesus 
commanded  to  be  offered  (vomSf)  in  commemoration 
of  His  sufferings  " .  He  then  goes  on : "  of  the  sacrifices 
which  you  (the  Jews)  formerly  offered,  God  through 
Malachias  said : '  I  have  no  pleasure,  etc.'  By  the  sacri- 
fices (^iwifif),  however,  wnich  we  Crentiles  present  to 
Him  in  ever^  place,  that  is  (rovr^rt)  of  the  bread  of 
the  Euchanst  ana  likewise  of  the  chalice  of  the 
Eucharist,  he  then  said  that  we  glorify  his  name, 
while  you  dishonour  him."  Here  "  bread  and  chalice" 
are  by  the  use  of  rwricn  clearly  included  as  objective 
gift  offerings  in  the  idea  of  the  Christian  sacrince.  If 
the  other  apolonsts  (Aristides,  Athenagoras,  Minucius 
Felix,  Amboiui)  vary  the  thought  a  great  deal — God 
has  no  need  of  sacrifice;  the  best  sacrifice  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Creator;  sacrifice  and  altars  are  unknown 


to  the  Christians — ^it  is  to  be  presumed  not  only  that 
under  the  restraint  imposed  by  the  ditcipltna  areard 
they  withheld  the  whole  trutn,  but  also  that  they 
rightly  repudiated  all  connexion  with  pagan  idolatry, 
the  sacrince  of  animals,  and  heathen  altars.  Tertiu- 
Han  bluntly  declared:  "We  offer  no  sacrifice  (non 
sacrificamus)  because  we  cannot  eat  both  the  Supper 
of  God  and  that  of  demons"  (De  spectac.,  c,  xui). 
And  yet  in  another  passa^  (De  orat.,  c,  xix)  he  calls 
Holy  Conununion  *' participation  in  the  sacrifice" 
(participatio  sacrificii),  which  is  accomplished  "on  the 
altar  of  God  "  (ad  aram  Dei) ;  he  speaks  (De  cult,  fern., 
II,  xi)  of  a  real,  not  a  mere  metapnorical,  "  offering  up 
of  sacrifice"  (sacrificium  offertur);  he  dwells  still  fur- 
ther as  a  Montanist  (de  pudicit,  c,  ix)  as  well  on  the 
"nourishing  power  of  tne  Lord's  Body"  (opimitate 
dominici  corporis)  as  on  the  "renewal  of  the  immola- 
tion of  Christ"  (rursus  illi  mactabitur  Christus). 

With  Irenseus  of  Lyons  there  comes  a  turning-point, 
inasmuch  as  he,  wiui  conscious  clearness,  first  puts 
forward  "bread  and  wine"  as  objective  gift  offerings, 
but  at  the  same  time  maintains  that  these  elements 
become  the  "body  and  blood"  of  the  Word  through 
consecration;  and  thus  by  simply  combining  these 
two  thoughts  we  have  the  Cathouc  Mass  of  to-day. 
According  to  him  (Adv.  hser.,  iv,  18, 4)  it  is  the  dSiurch 
alone  "that  offers  the  pure  oblation"  (oblationem 
puram  offert),  whereas  the  Jews  "did  not  receive  the 
Word,  which  is  offered  (or  through  whom  an  offering 
is  made)  to  God"  (non  recepenmt  Verbum  quod 
[aliter,  per  quod]  offertur  Deo).  Passing  over  the 
teaching  of  the  Alexandrine  Clement  and  ()ri^en, 
whose  love  of  allegoxy,  together  with  the  restrictions 
of  the  disciplina  arcanif  involved  their  writings  in  a 
mystic  obscurity,  we  make  particular  mention  of  Hip* 
polytus  of  Rome  (d.  235)  whose  celebrated  fragment 
Achelis  has  wrongly  characterised  as  spurious.  He 
writes  (Frofm.  in  Prov.,  ix,  i;  P.  G.,  LXXX,  693), 
"The  Word  prepared  His  Precious  and  immaculate 
Body  (ffQfta)  and  His  Blood  (aZ)tM),  that  daily  (m^ 
ixdirrriv)  are  set  forth  as  a  sacrifice  (hrirtKoOrrw,  Mimva) 
on  the  mystic  and  Divine  table  {rpawil^)  as  a 
memorial  of  that  ever  memorable  first  table  of  the 
mysterious  supper  of  the  Lord".  Since  according  to 
the  judgment  of  even  Protestant  historians  of  doKma, 
St.  Cynl  (d.  258)  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  "herald"  of 
Catholic  doctrine  on  the  Mass,  we  may  likewise  pass 
him  over,  as  well  as  Cvril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386)  and 
Chrysostom  (d.  407)  who  have  been  charaed  with  ex- 
aggerated "realism",  and  whose  plain  oiscourses  on 
the  sacrifice  rival  those  of  Basil  (d.  379),  Gregory  of 
Nyssa  (d.  c.  394)  and  Ambrose  (d.  397).  Only  about 
Augustine  (d.  430)  must  a  word  be  said,  since,  in  re- 
(^ara  to  liie  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  he 
IS  cited  as  favouring  the  * '  symbolical "  theory.  Now  it 
is  precisely  his  teacning  on  sacrifice  that  best  serves  to 
cl^r  away  the  suspicion  that  he  inclined  to  a  merely 
spiritual  interpretation. 

For  Augustme  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that 
eveiy  religion,  whether  true  or  false,  must  have  an 
exterior  form  of  celebration  and  worship  (contra 
Faust.,  xix,  11).  Tliis  applies  as  well  to  Christians 
(1.  c,  XX,  18),  who  "commemorate  the  sacrifice  con- 
summated (on  the  cross)  by  the  holiest  oblation  and 
participation  of  tiie  Body  and  Blood  of  CSirist"  (cele- 
orant  sacrosancta  oblatione  et  participatione  coiporis 
et  sanguinis  Christi).  The  Mass  is,  in  ms  eyes  (de  civ. 
Dei,  X,  20),  the  "highest  and  true  sacrifice"  (sum- 
mum  verumque  sacrificium),  Christ  being  at  once 
"priest  and  victim"  (ipse  offerens,  ipse  et  oblatio); 
and  he  reminds  the  Jews  (Adv.  Jud.,  ix,  13)  that  the 
sacrifice  of  Malachias  is  now  made  in  every  place  (in 
omni  loco  offerri  sacrificium  Christianorum).  He  re- 
lates of  his  mother  Monica  (Confess.,  ix,  13)  that  she 
had  asked  for  prayers  at  the  altar  (ad  altare)  for  her 
soul  and  had  attended  Mass  daily.  From  Augustine 
onwards  the  current  of  the  dJhuroh's  tradition  flows 


12  MASS 

smoothly  along  in  a  well-ordered  channel,  without  150).    The  moet  convincing  evidence,  however,  from 

check  or  disturbance,  through  the  Middle  Ages  to  our  those  early  days  is  furnished  by  the  liturgies  of  the 

own  time.    Even  the  powerful  attempt  made  to  stem  West  and  the  East,  the  basic  principles  of  which  reach 

it  through  the  Reformation  had  no  ^ect.  back  to  Apostolic  times  and  in  wnich  the  sacrificial 

A  briefer  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  the  Mass  idea  of  the  Eucharistic  celebration  found  unadui- 

is  the  so-called  proof  from  prescription,  which  is  thus  terated  and  decisive  expression  (see  Liturgies).    We 

formulated:  A  sacrificial  nte  in  tne  Church  which  is  have  therefore  traced  the  Mass  from  the  present  to  the 

older  than  the  oldest  attack  made  on  it  by  heretics  earliest  times,  thus  establishing  its  Apostolic  origin, 

cannot  be  decried  as  ''idolatry",  but  must  be  referred  which  in  turn  goes  back  again  to  the  Last  Supper, 
back  to  the  Founder  of  Cm*i8tianity   as  a   rightful         On  the  idea  oT  Sacrifice  cf.  Becakus.  De  triplid  aaaiAcio 

heritage  of  which  He  was  .the  originator     Now  the  SSSS'i^-S^Jinrja'  ilS^^^^'y^i'^'^l 

Church's  legitimate  possession  as  regards  the  Mass  can  Pnuter  und  Opfervabt  (Maim.  1886) ;  for  scripture  pnmf.  cf .  the 

be  traced  CAck  to  the  beginnings  of  Christianity;  it  exegetical  commentaries  of  Knabbnbauer.  Scbanz.  ScbXfer. 

follows  that  the  MasB  waa  Divinebr  instituted  by  ^^fg^ilSr^^iJ^t^fZJti^^r^l^^  ffifS 

Christ.    Hegardmg  the  mmor  proposition,  the  proof  of  earodhrt  rdiffieux  de  la  SainU  Cine  in  Revue  chrHienne,  LVI 

which  alone  concerns  us  here,  we  may  begin  at  once  i^^h  *1®/  ^'SSF*^^™*  ^"^  ^iST^  ^  iui9^K9  im  Hebraer- 

with  the  B«fomation.  the  only  movement  Sujt  utterly  SStfa^Hil,?^'?:  r  "'if-fc}'^ 

did  away  with  the  Mass.    Psychologically,  it  is  quite  Sxpoeitor,  JCOX  (1903),  370  so.;  Mackintosh.  rA«  Objective 

intelligible  that  men  like  Zwingli,  Karlstadt  and  C£co-  4«p«c«  of  the  LnxPe  Supper  m  The  Expositor,  XXIX,  180  sq. ; 

lampadius  should  tear  do^  the  altars,  for  they  denied  ^h%iS^:i5i^::%!^!!t.'^^^^ 

Chnsts  real  presence  m  the  Sacrament.    Calvinism  and  the  Cup  of  the  Demoru  m  The  Expo9itor,XXXlll{i90»).  290 

also    in    revihng    the    "papistical    mass"    which    the  "S^   Bamsa,  Die  moderne  protee^antia^  AbendmahUforsehunff 

Heidelberg  catechism  characteri«d  as  "cursed  idota-  23"(J<S,  ??' C"±?  ^S^lSSEJS^'iSK'  ^535 

try"  was    merely    self-consistent    Smce  it   adnutted  rMunich,  1006);  Idkm,  Der  vorirenAieche  Opferhegnf  (Munich, 

only  a  **  dvnamic  "  presence.     It  is  rather  strange  on  1?W).    For  a  contrary  view  see  DoRscn^er  gpfercharalder  der 

the  other  hand  that^  in  spite  of  his.beUef  in  the Iteral  f  JS&rS.7Jr7J^?S(,23.°?SS,t .'{^j:  'k^TSS'S^ 

meamng  of  the  words  of  consecration,  Luther,  after  a  eharokter  der  Eueharietie  naeh  der  Lehre  der  VAter  und  Kirchm- 

violent  "nocturnal  disputation  with  the  devil",   in  fchrifteteUer  der  erUen  drei  JahrhunderU  (Paderbpm.    1892); 

1521   should  have  repu«Uated  the  Mass.    But  it  is  giSSfi^f'&iiS^^  '^iJaTrnT'Sr  ST^T 'i 

exactly  these  measures  of  violence  that  best  show  to  Jahrhunderten  (2nd  ed..  Fribouiv.  lOlO);   Brxdoeit.  a  Hie- 

what  a  depth  the  institution  of  the  Mass  had  taken  tory  of  the  Holu  Eueharut  in  Oreat  Britain  (London,  1908); 

root  bythat  time  in  Churdh,  and  people.    How  long  fc^l-J*  ,%  fX^J]^^  S^iri^ti^^^ 

had  it  been  taking  root?    The  answer,  to  begin  with,  London,  1909);  Nabolb,  DU  EueharietieUhre  dee  hi.  Chryeoeto- 

is:  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  back  to  Photius,  the  •»»•«  (Fribours,  1900);  Wildbn.  Die  Lehre  dee  fd.  Au(nutinue 

V^^^'  T^  Eastemlchism   (869)      Though  ^^"^'k'^J^^'^ ^^^SS^^' i^^^V,: 

Wycline  protested  against  the  teaching  of  the  Council  deri>om,  1907);   Adam,  DU  BuchariaUeUhre  dee  hi.   AuguMin 

of  Constance  (1414^18),  which  maintained  that  the  (Padertwm.  1906);  Frani.  Die  AfeM«  imdndechen  MiUelalter 

Mass  could  be  pi^ved  from  Scnptm^;  and  though  the  I^)^&r^lLl'i^^S;c£l^^^^  JC^S^ur'at^ 

Alblgenses  and  Waldenses  claimed  for  the  laity  also  bewahrten  Bueharietie  (Freibui^.  1908) :   Probst,  Die  Liturffie 

the  power  to  offer  sacrifice  (cf .  Densinger,  "  Enchir.",  ^  ^riten  drei  chriMlidien  Jahrhunderte  (TQbingen.  1870) ;  Idem, 

6S5.  and  .430).  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  even  the  ?SS2iffSiLX*A£S!Si:StSii  IS^L^ 

schismatic  Greeks  held  fast  to  the  EuchanstlC  sacrifice  hundeH  (Monster,  1896) :    Monk.  Lateinieehe  und  Griechieche 

as  a  precious  heritage  from  their  Catholic  past.     In  MeeBmauedemS.biee.JahrhufuleH  (Fnwnkfurt,  1850);  Swain* 

tiie  negotiations  for  reunion  at  Ljons  (1^)  and  jgS^j^S^^^r?.  {S&°)1""8.iSl:  ^T^'^'^ 

Florence  (1439)  they  showed  moreover  that  they  had  ttona  e  nei  auoi  SimboK  (2nd  ed..  Rome.   1907);    Ebmoni, 

kept  it  intact:  and  they  have  faithfully  safeguarded  it  I^Euehari^  dane  VEgliee  ©rimiliw  <5th  ed.,  Paris,   1908); 

to♦^ll«  rlav      Fmm  aH  which  it  in  rlpar  t>iA+  fh«»  Ma.<«  CABaoL,  Origxnee  Mttiyurties  (Pans,  1906);  Baumstarx,  Lttur- 

tniS  day.    ^rom  an  wnicn  it  is  Ciear  tnat  tne  Mass  ^  Homana  e  Liturgia  dkl*  Eaarcato  (Rome,  1904);  Idem.  Die 

existed  m  both  Churches  long  before  Photius,  a  con-  2ieeee  im  Morvenland  (Kempten,  1906):   Drews,  Unterauch' 

elusion  borne  out  by  the  monuments  of  Christian  jgv^*  *^.4*«  *V«»-   CUmmtiniaeho  LUuroie  (Letpsjc,  1906); 

■> ry* ; niii'f  <ir  WxLPBBT,    Froctio  panxa    oder  dte  dlteete  Daratellung  dee  euchar. 

antlClUlty.  ^      ,      ,  ,    ,  *u       s   au  x     au  Opfere  m  der  Cappdla  Greea  (Freiburg,   1895);    Idem,  Die 

Taking  a  long  step  backwards  from  the  ninth  to  the  lUmiechen  Katakon&en  (Freibui«,  1903). 
fourth  century,  we  come  upon  the  Nestorians  and 

Monophvsites  who  were  driven  out  of  the  Church        (2)  The  Nature  of  the  Mass. — In  its  denial  of  the 

during  the  fifth  century  at  Ephesus  (431)  and  Chalce-  true  Divinity  of  Christ  and  of  every  supernatural  insti- 

don  (451).    From  that  day  to  this  they  have  cele-  tution,  modem  unbelief  endeavours,  by  means  of  the 

brated  in  their  solemn  liturgy  the  sacrifice  of  the  New  so-called  historico-religious  methoa,  to  explain  the 

Law,  and  since  thev  could  only  haVe  taken  it  with  character  of  the  Eucharist  and  the  Eucharistic  sacri- 

them  from  the  old  Christian  Church,  it  follows  that  the  fice  as  the  natural  result  of  a  spontaneous  process  of 

Mass  ^oes  back  in  the  Church  beyond  the  time  of  development  in  the  Christian  religion.    In  this  con- 

Nestonanism  and  Monophysitism.     Indeed,  the  first  nexion  it  is  interesting  to  observe  how  these  dififerent 

Nicene  Council  (325)  m  its  celebrated  eig;hteenth  and  conflicting  hypotheses  refute  one  another,  with 

canon  forbade  priests  to  receive  the  Eucharist  from  Uie  rather  startling  result  at  the  end  of  it  all  that  a 

the  hands  of  deacons  for  the  verv  obvious  reason  that  new,  great,  and  insoluble  problem  looms  up  for  in vesti- 

"neither  the  canon  nor  custom  have  handed  down  to  gation.    While  some  discover  the  roots  of  the  Mass  in 

us,  that  those,  who  have  not  the  power  to  offer  sacri-  the  Jewish  funeral  feasts  (O.  Holtzmann)  or  in  Jewish 

fice  (wpoff^peiw)  may  «ve  Christ's  body  to  those  who  Essenism  (Bousset,  HeitmQlIer,  Wernle),  others  delve 

offer  (irpoff4>4povffi) ".    Hence  it  is  plain  that  for  the  in  the  undergroimd  strata  of  pagan  religions.    Hert\ 

celebration  of  the  Mass  there  was  required  the  dignitv  however,  a  rich  variety  of  hypotheses  is  placed  at  their 

of  a  special  priesthood,  from  which  the  deacons  as  such  disposal.    In  this  age  of  Pan-Babylonism  it  is  not  at  all 

were  excluaed.    Since,  however,  the  Nicene  Council  suiprisin^  that  the  germinal  icleas  of  the  Christian 

speaks  of  a  "custom'',  that  takes  us  at  once  into  the  communion  should  be  located  in  Babylon,  where  in 

third  century,  we  are  already  in  the  age  of  the  Catacombs  the  Adapa  myth  (on  the  tablet  of  Tell  Amama)  men- 

(q.  V.)  with  their  Eucharistic  pictures,  which  accord-  tion  has  been  found  of  "water  of  life''  and  "food  of 

ing  to  the  best  founded  opinions  represent  the  litur-  life"  (Zimmem).    Others  (e.  g.  Brandt)  fancy  they 

gical  celebration  of  the  Mass.    According  to  Wilpert,  have  found  a  still  more  striking  analog  in  the  '*'  bread 

^he  oldest  representation  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  is  in  the  and  water"  (PathA  and  Mambiihd)  of  the  Mand«>an 

"Greek  Chapel"  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla  (c.  religion.    The  view  most  widely  held  to-day  ^oiig 

/ 

/ 

; 


BIA88  13  BIAS8 

opfaolders  of  the  historico-religious  theory  is  that  the  as  the  li vins  realisation,  representation  and  renewal  of 

Eiicharist  and  the  Mass  originated  in  the  practices  of  the  past.    Only  the  Last  Supper,  standing  midway  as 

the  Persian  Mitnraism  (Dieterich.  H.  T.  Moltsmann,  it  were  between  liie  figure  and  its  fulfilment,  still 

Pfleiderer,  Robert^xi^  etc.) .  ' '  In  the  Mandiean  mass  **,  looked  to  the  future,  in  so  far  as  it  was  an  antici^tory 

writes  Cixmont  C'Mysterien  des  Mithra".  Leipzig,  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross.    In  the 

1903,  p.  118),  "the  celebrant  consecrated  oreaa  and  discourse  in  which  the  Eucharist  was  instituted,  the 

water,  which  he  mixed  with  perfimied  Haoma-juice,  "giving  of  the  body  "  and  the  "  shedding  of  the  Blood " 

and  ate  this  food  while  performing  the  functions  of  were  of  necessity  related  to  the  physical  separation  of 

divine  aervice".    Tertullian  in  anger  ascribed  this  the  blood  from  the  body  on  the  Crass,  without  which 

mimicking  of  Christian  rites  to  the  "  devil"  and  ob-  the  sacramental  immolation  of  Christ  at  tiie  Last  Sup- 


served  in  astonishment  (De  prsBscript  hseret,  C.  xl) :  per  would  be  inconceivable.     The  Fathers  of  the 

"  Gelebrat  (Mithras)  et  p^us  oolationem."  This  is  not  Church,  such  as  Cyprian  (Ep.,  1^11,  9,  ed.  Hartel,  11, 

the  place  to  criticise  in  detail  these  wild  creations  of  708),  Ambrose  (De  offic,  I,  xlviii),  Augustine  (Contra 

an  overheated  phantasy.   Let  it  sufiice  to  note  that  all  Faiut.,  XX,  xviii)  and  Gregory  the  Great  (Dial.,  IV, 

these  explanations  necessarily  lead  to  impenetrable  Iviii^,  indst  that  the  Mass  in  its  essential  nature  must 

nighty  as  Ions  as  men  refuse  to  believe  in  the  true  be  tnat  which  Christ  Himselfcharacterized  as  a" com- 

Divinity  of  Cnrist,  who  commanded  that  His  bloody  memoration"  of  Him  (Luke,  xxii,  19)  and  Paul  as  the 

sacrifice  on  the  Cross  should  be  daily  renewed  by  an  ''showing  of  the  death  of  the  Lora''  (I  Cor.,  xi,  26). 
unbloody  sacrifice  of  His  Bodv  and  Blood  in  the  Mass        Kegarding  the  other  aspect  of  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

under  the  simple  elements  of  bread  and  wine.    This  C^ss,  vis.  uie  impossibility  of  its  renewal,  its  single- 

ak>De  is  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  Mass.  ness  and  its  power,  Paul  again  proclaimed  yrith.  energy 

(a)  The  Physical  CSiaracter  of  the  Blass. — ^In  regard  that  Christ  on  the  Cross  definitively  redeemed  the 

to  the  physical  character  there  arises  not  only  the  whole  world,  in  that  he  "by  His  own  Blood,  entered 

question  as  to  the  concrete  i)ortions  of  the  liturgy,  in  once  into  the  holies,  having  obtained  eternal  redemp- 

which  the  real  offering  lies  hidden,  but  also  the  ques-  tion''  (Heb.,  ix,  12).   This  does  not  mean  that  man- 

tion  regarding  the  relation  of  the  Mass  to  the  bloody  kind  is  suddenly  and  without  the  action  of  its  own  will 

of  the  Cross.    To  begin  with  the  latter  ques-  brought  back  to  the  state  of  innocence  in  Paradise  and 


tion  as  much  the  more  important.  Catholics  and  belie  v-  set  above  the  necessitjr  of  working  to  secure  for  itself 

ing  Protestants  alike  acknowlecwe  that  as  Christians  the  fruits  of  redemption.    Otherwise  children  would 

we  venerate  in  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  the  be  in  no  need  of  baptism  nor  adults  of  justifying  faith 

one,  universal,  absolute  Sacrifice  for  the  salvation  of  to  win  eternal  happmess.    The  "completion"  spoken 

the  world.    And  this  indeed  is  true  in  a  double  sense:  of  by  Paul  can  therefore  refer  only  to  the  objective 

first,  because  among  all  the  sacrifices  of  the  past  and  side  of  redemption,  which  does  not  disi)en8e  with,  but 

future  ^e  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross  alone  stands  without  on  the  contra^  requires,  the  proper  subjective  disposi- 

any  relation  to,  and  absolutely  independent  of,  anv  tion.   The  sacrifice  once  offered  on  the  Cross  filled  the 

other  sacrifioe,  a  complete  totality  and  unity  in  itself;  infinite  reservoirs  to  overflowing  with  healing  waters; 

second,  because  every  grace,  means  of  srace  and  sacri-  but  those  who  thirst  after  justice  must  come  with  their 

fioe,  whether  belozs^^ing  to  the  Jewisn,  Christian  or  chalices  and  draw  out  what  they  need  to  quench  their 

pagan  economy,  derive  tneirwholeimdivided  strength,  thirst.    In  this  important  distinction  between  objec- 

value,  and  efficacy  singlyand  alone  from  this  abt^Tute  tive  and  subjective  redemption,  which  belongs  to  Uie 

sacrifice  on  the  Cross.    The  first  consideration  implies  essence  of  Christianity,  lies  not  merely  the  possibility, 

that  all  Uie  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  but  also  the  justification  of  the  Mass.   But  nere  unfor- 

the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  bear  the  essential  mark  of  tunately  C!atholics  and  Protestants  part  company, 

relativi^  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessarily  related  to  The  latter  can  see  in  the  Mass  only  a  "denial  of  the  one 

theSacnfieeoftheCro6S,astheperipher}rofacircIeto  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ".   This  is  a  wrong  view;  for  if 

the  centre.    From  the  second  consideration  it  follows  the  Mass  can  do  and  does  no  more  than  conve^r  the 

that  all  other  sacrifices,  the  Mass  included,  are  empty,  merits  of  Christ  to  mankind  by  means  of  a  sacrifice, 

barren  and  void  of  effect,  so  far  and  so  long  as  they  are  exactly  as  the  sacraments  do  it  without  the  use  of  sao- 

not  supplied  from  the  mainstream  of  merits  (due  to  rifice,  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  Mass  is  neither  a 

the  sunering)  of  the  Crucified.  Let  us  deal  briefly  with  second  independent  sacrifice  alongside  of  the  sacrifice 

this  double  relationisdiip.  on  the  Cross,  nor  a  substitute  whereby  the  sacrifice  on 

Regarding  the  qualification  of  relativity,  which  ad-  the  Cross  is  completed  or  its  value  enhanced. 
heres  to  everj^  sacrifice  other  than  the  sacrifice  of  the        The  only  distinction  between  the  Mass  and  the  sao- 

CroBs,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  rament  lies  in  this:  that  the  latter  applies  to  the  indi- 

Testament  b^  their  figurative  forms  and  prophetic  si^-  vidual  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross  by  simple 

nificanoe  pomt  to  the  sacrifioe  of  the  Cross  as  their  distribution,  the  other  by  a  specific  offering.   In  both, 

eventual  fulfillment.    The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  Church  draws  upon  the  one  Sacrifice  on  the  Cross, 

(viii-x)  in  particular  develops  grandlv  ihe  figurative  This  is  and  remains  the  one  Sun,  that  gives  life,  light, 

character  <n  the  sacrifices  of  the  Old  Testament.   Not  and  warmth  to  everything;  the  sacraments  and  the 

only  was  the  Levitic  priesthood,  as  a  "shadow  of  the  Mass  are  only  the  planets  that  revolve  round  the  cen- 

things  to  come"  a  famt  type  of  the  high  priesthood  tral  body.   Take  the  Sun  away  and  the  Mass  is  anni- 

of  ^rist;  but  the  ocnnplex  sacrificial  cult,  broadly  hilated  not  one  whit  less  than  the  sacraments.   On  the 

spread  out  in  its  parts,  prefigured  the  one  sacrifice  of  other  hand,  without  these  two  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

the  Cross.    Serving  onl^  the  legal  "cleansing  of  the  Cross  would  reign  as  independently  as,  conceivably, 

flesh "tibeLeviticaTsacnfices  could  effect  no  true  "for-  the  sun  without  the  planets.    The  CV)uncil  of  Trent 

givenesB  of  sins";  l^  their  very  inefficacy  however  (Sess.  XXII,  can.  iv^  therefore  rightly  protested 

they  point  prophetically  to  the  perfect  sacrifice  of  against  the  reproach  that  "the  Mass  is  a  blasphemy 

propitiation  on  Golgotha.    Just  for  that  reason  their  against  or  a  derogation  from  the  Sacrifice  on  the 

continual  repetition  as  well  as  their  great  diversity  was  Cross  "  (cf .  Denzinger, "  Enchir.",  951).   Must  not  the 

essential  to  them,  as  a  means  of  keeping  alive  in  the  same  reproach  be  cast  upon  the  Sacraments  also? 

Jews  the  yearning  for  Uie  true  sacxince  of  expiation  Does  it  not  apply  to  baptism  and  communion  among 

which  the  future  was  to  brine.    This  longing  was  sati-  Protestants?    And  how  can  Christ  Himself  put  blas- 

ated  only  by  the  single  SacriSce  of  the  Cross,  which  was  phemy  and  darkness  in  the  way  of  His  Sacrifice  on  the 

never  again  to  be  repeated.  Naturall]^  the  Mass,  too,  if  Cross  when  He  Himself  is  the  I^h  Priest,  in  whose 

it  is  to  have  the  cnaracter  of  a  legitimate  sacrifice, '  name  and  by  whose  commission  Mis  human  represen- 

must  be  in  accord  witJi  this  inviolable  rule,  no  longer  tative  offers  sacrifice  with  the  words:  "This  is  my 

indeed  as  a  type  prophetic  of  future  things,  but  rather  Body,  this  is  my  Blood  "?    It  is  the  express  teaching 


MASS 


14 


MA88 


(applicatio)  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross.  When  indeed 
me  Roman  Catechism  (II,  c.  iv,  Q.  70),  as  a  fourth 
relation,  adopts  the  daily  rej^tition  (instauratio),  it 
means  that  such  a  repetition  is  to  be  taken  not  in  the 
sense  of  a  multiplication,  but  simply  of  an  application 
of  the  merits  of  the  passion.  Just  as  the  Church  repu- 
diates nothing  so  much  as  the  suggestion  that  by  the 
Mass  the  sacrifice  on  the  Cross  is  as  it  were  set  aside,  so 
she  goes  a  step  farther  and  maintains  the  essential 
identity  of  botn  sacrifices,  holding  that  Uie  main  dif- 
ference between  them  is  in  the  different  manner  of 
sacrifice — ^the  one  bloody,  the  other  unbloody  (TVent, 
Sess.  XXII,  ii) : "  Una  enim  eademcjue  est  hostia,  idem 
nunc  offerens  sacerdotum  ministerio,  qui  seipsum  tunc 
in  cruce  obtulit,  sola  offerendi  ratione  diversa."  Inas- 
much as  the  sacrificing  priest  (offerens)  and  the  sacri- 
ficial victim  (hostia)  in  ooth  sacrifices  are  (Christ  Him- 
self, their  sameness  amounts  even  to  a  numerical  iden- 
tity. In  regard  to  the  manner  of  the  sacrifice  (offerendi 
ratio)  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  naturally  a  question 
only  of  a  specific  identity  or  imity  that  includes  the 
possibility  of  ten,  a  hundred,  or  a  uiousand  masses. 

(b)  Turning  now  to  the  other  question  as  to  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  liturgv  of  the  Blass  in  which 
the  real  sacrifice  is  to  be  looked  for,  we  need  only  take 
into  consideration  its  three  chief  parts;  the  Offertory, 
the  Consecration  and  the  Communion.  The  antiquated 
view  of  Johann  Eck,  according  to  which  the  act  of  sac- 
rifice was  comprised  in  the  prayer  "  Unde  et  memores 
.  .  .  offerimus'',  is  thus  excluded  from  our  discussion, 
as  is  also  the  opinion  of  Melchior  Canus,  who  held  that 
the  sacrifice  is  accomplished  in  the  symbolical  cere- 
mony of  the  breaking  of  the  Host  and  its  commingling 
wilJi  the  Chalice.  The  Question  therefore  arises  first: 
Is  the  sacrifice  comprised  in  the  Offertory?  From  the 
wording  of  the  prayer  this  much  at  least  is  clear,  that 
bread  and  wine  constitute  the  secondary  sacrificial 
elements  of  the  Mass,  since  the  priest,  in  the  true  lan- 
guage of  sacrifice,  offers  to  Ood  bread  as  an  "un- 
spotted host"  (immaculatam  hostiam)  and  wine  as 
tne  "chalice  of  salvation"  (calicem  salutaris).  But 
the  very  significance  of  liiis  language  proves  that  at^ 
tention  is  mainly  directed  to  the  prospective  transub- 
stantiation  of  the  Eucharistic  elements.  Since  the 
Mass  is  not  a  mere  offering  of  bread  and  wine,  like  the 
figurative  food  offering  of  Melchisedech,  it  is  clear  that 
only  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  can  be  the  primary 
matter  of  the  sacrifice,  as  was  the  case  at  tne  Last 
Supper  (cf.  IVent,  Sess.  XXII,  i,  can.  2;  Denzinger, 
n.  938,  949).  Consequently,  the  sacrifice  is  not  in  the 
Offertory.  Does  it  consist  then  in  the  priest's  Com- 
munion? There  were  and  are  theologians  who  favour 
that  view.  They  can  be  ranged  in  two  classes,  accord- 
ing as  they  see  in  the  Communion  the  essential  or  the 
oo-essential. 

Those  who  belong  to  the  first  category  (Dominicus 
Soto,  Renz,  Bellora)  had  to  beware  of  the  heretical 
doctrine  proscribed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII,  can.  I),  viz.,  that  Mass  and  Communion  were 
identical.  In  American  and  English  circles  the  so- 
called  "banquet-theory"  of  the  LGite  Bishop  Bellord 
once  created  some  stir  (cf .  The  Ecclesiastical  Review, 
XXXIII,  1905,  258  sq.).  Accordmg  to  that  view,  the 
essence  of  the  sacrifice  was  not  to  he  looked  for  in  the 
offering  of  a  gift  to  God,  but  solely  in  the  Communion. 
Without  communion  there  was  no  sacrifice.  Regard- 
ing pagan  sacrifices  Dollinger  ("Heidentum  und 
Judentum",  Ratisbon,  1857)  had  already  demon- 
strated the  incompatibility  of  this  view.  With  the 
complete  shedding  of  blooa  pagan  sacrifices  ended,  so 
that  the  supper  which  sometimes  followed  it  was  ex- 
pressive merely  of  the  satisfaction  felt  at  the  reconcil- 
iation with  the  f^ods.  Even  the  horrible  human  sacri- 
6ce9  bad  M  tbeir  pbject  the  death  of  the  victim  only 


and  not  a  cannibal  feast  (cf.  Mader,  "Die  Mensehen- 
opfer  der  alten  Hebrfter  und  der  benaohbarten  Vdlker", 
freiburg,  1909).  As  to  the  Jews^  onlv  a  few  Levitical 
sacrifices,  such  as  the  peace  offering,  nad  feastinx;  con- 
nected with  them;  most,  and  especially  the  burnt 
offerings  (holocausta),  were  accomplished  without 
feastinff  (cf.  Levit.,  vi,  9  sq.).  Bishop  Bellord,  having 
cast  in  nis  lot  with  the  "  banquetF>theoxy  ",  could  natu- 
rally find  the  essence  of  the  Mass  in  the  priests'  Com- 
munion only.  He  was  indeed  logically  bound  to  allow 
that  the  Oucifixion  itself  had  the  character  of  a  sacri- 
fice only  in  conjunction  with  the  hast  Supper,  at  which 
alone  food  was  taken;  for  the  Crucifixion  excluded 
any  ritual  food  offering.  These  disquieting  conse- 
quences are  all  the  more  serious  in  that  they  are  devoid 
of  any  scientific  basis  (see  Pesch,  "Pnel.  dogmat.", 
VI,  379  sq.,  Freiburg,  1908). 

Harmless,  even  though  improbable,  is  that  other 
view  (Bellarmine,  De  Lugo,  Toumely,  etc.)  which  in- 
cludes the  Communion  as  at  least  a  co-essential  factor 
in  the  constitution  of  the  Mass;  for  the  consumption 
of  the  Host  and  of  the  contents  of  the  QiaUoe,  beuig  a 
kind  of  destruction,  would  appear  to  accord  with  Uie 
conception  of  the  sacrifice  developed  above.  But  only 
in  appearance;  for  the  sacrificial  transformation  of  the 
victim  must  take  place  on  the  altar,  and  not  in  the 
body  of  the  celebrant,  while  the  partaking  of  the  two 
elements  can  at  most  represent  the  burial  and  not  the 
sacrificial  death  of  Christ.  The  Last  Supper  alao 
would  have  been  a  true  sacrifice  only  on  condition  that 
Christ  had  given  the  Communion  not  only  to  His  apos- 
tles but  also  to  Himself.  There  is  however  no  evidence 
that  such  a  Conamunion  ever  took  place,  probable  as  it 
may  appear.  For  the  rest,  the  Communion  of  the  priest 
is  not  the  sacrifice,  but  only  the  completion  ot,  and 
participation  in,  the  sacrifice;  it  belongs  therefore  not 
to  the  essence,  but  to  the  integrity  of  the  sacrifice. 
And  this  integrity  is  also  preserved  absolutely  even  in 
the  so-called  "private  Mass"  at  which  tiie  priest  alone 
communicates;  private  Masses  are  allowed  for  that 
reason  (cf.  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  can.  8).  When  the 
Jansenist  S3rnod  of  Pistoia  (1786),  proelaiminf  the 
false  principle  that  "participation  in  the  sacrince  is 
essential  to  the  sacrifice",  demanded  at  least  the  mak- 
ing of  a  "spiritual  communion"  on  the  pprt  of  the 
faithful  as  a  condition  of  allowing  private  Masses,  it 
was  denied  by  Pius  VI  in  his  Bufi  "Auctorem  fidei'* 
(1796)  (see  Denxinger,  n.  1528). 

After  the  elimination  of  the  Offertory  and  Com- 
munion, there  remains  only  the  Consecration  as  the 
part  in  which  the  true  sacrifice  is  to  be  songht.  In 
realltjr,  that  part  alone  is  to  be  r^arded  as  the  ]m>per 
sacrificial  act  which  is  such  by  Christ's  own  institu- 
tion. Now  the  Lord's  words  are:  "This  is  my  Body; 
this  is  my  Blood."  The  Oriental  Epiklesis  (q.  v.)  can- 
not be  considered  as  the  moment  of  consecration  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  absent  in  the  Mass  In  the  West  and 
is  known  to  have  first  come  into  practice  after  Apos- 
tolic times  (see  Euchasiot).  The  sacrifice  must  akK> 
be  at  the  point  where  Christ  personally  appears  as 
High  Priest  and  the  human  celebrant  acts  only  as  his 
representative.  The  priest  does  not  however  assume 
the  personal  part  of  Christ  either  at  the  Offertory  or 
Communion.  He  only  does  so  when  he  speaks  the 
words :  "This  is  My  Body;  this  is  My  Blood ' .  in  which 
there  is  no  possible  reference  to  the  body  and  blood  of 
the  celebrant.  While  the  Consecration  as  such  can  be 
shown  with  certainty  to  be  the  act  of-&crifioe,  the 
necessity  of  the  twofold  consecration  can  be  demon- 
strated onlv  as  highly  probable.  Not  only  older  theo- 
logians such  as  Frassen,  Gotti,  and  Bonacina,  but  also 
later  theologians  such  as  Schouppen,  Stentrup  and  Fr. 
Schmid,  have  supported  the  imtenable  theorv  that 
when  one  of  the  consecrated  elements  is  invalia,  such 
as  barley  bread  or  cider,  the  consecration  of  the  valid 
element  not  onl^  produces  the  Sacrament,  but  also  the 
(mutilated)  sacrince.  Their  chief  argument  is  that  th« 


BCABS 


15 


MASS 


sacrftnant  in  the  Eucharist  is  inaeparable  in  idea  from 
the  sacrifice.  But  they  entirelv  overiooked  the  fact 
that  Christ  positively  prescribed  the  twofold  consecra- 
tion for  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (not  for  the  sacra- 
meni),  and  especially  the  fact  that  in  the  consecration 
of  onR  element  only  the  intrinsically  essential  relation 
of  the  Hass  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  Cross  is  not  symboli- 
cally represented.  Since  it  was  no  mere  death  from 
suffocation  that  Christ  suffered,  but  a  bloody  death, 
in  which  His  veins  were  emptied  of  their  Blood,  this 
condition  of  separation  must  receive  visible  represen- 
tation on  the  altar,  as  in  a  sublime  drama.  This 
condition  is  fulfilled  only  by  the  double  consecration, 
which  brings  before  our  eyes  the  Body  and  the  Blood 
in  the  state  of  separation,  and  thus  represents  the 
mystical  shedding  of  blood.  Consequently,  the  double 
consecration  is  an  absolutely  essential  element  of  the 
Mass  as  a  relative  sacrifice. 

(b)  The  Metaphysical  Character  of  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass. — ^The  physical  essence  of  the  Mass  having 
been  established  m  the  consecration  of  the  two  species, 
the  metaphysical  question  arises  as  to  whether  and  in 
what  degree  tiie  scientific  concept  of  sacrifice  is  real- 
ized in  this  double  consecration!  Since  the  three  ideas, 
sacrificing  priest,  sacrificial  gift,  and  sacrificial  object, 

{>re8ent  no  difficulty  to  the  understanding,  the  prob- 
em  is  finally  seen  to  lie  entirely  in  the  determination 
of  the  real  sacrificial  act  (actio  som/lca),  and  indeed 
not  so  much  in  the  form  of  this  act  as  in  the  matter, 
since  the  glorified  Victim,  in  consequence  of  Its  impas- 
sibility, cannot  be  really  transformed,  much  less  de- 
stroyea.  In  their  investigation  of  the  idea  of  destruc- 
tion, the  post-Tridentine  theologians  have  brought 
into  play  all  their  acuteness,  often  with  brilliant  re- 
sults, and  have  elaborated  a  series  of  theories  concern- 
ing the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  of  which,  however,  we  can 
discuss  only  the  most  notable  and  important.  But 
first,  that  we  may  have  at  hand  a  reliable,  critical 
standard  wherewith  to  test  the  validity  or  invalidity 
of  the  various  theories,  we  maintain  that  a  sound  and 
satisfactory  theory  must  satisfy  the  following  four 
conditions:  (1)  the  twofold  consecration  must  show 
not  only  the  relative,  but  also  the  absolute  moment  of 
sacrifice,  so  that  the  Mass  will  not  consist  in  a  mere 
relation,  but  will  be  revealed  as  in  itself  a  real  sacrifice ; 
(2)  the  act  of  sacrifice  (<ictio  8acnfica)f  veiled  in  the 
double  consecration,  must  refer  directly  to  the  sacri- 
ficial matter — ^i.  e.  the  Eucharistic  Christ  Himself — 
not  to  the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  or  their  unsub- 
stantial species;  (3)  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  must  some- 
how result  in  a  kenosis,  not  in  a  glorification,  since  this 
latter  is  at  most  tiie  object  of  the  sacrifice,  not  the 
sacrifice  itself;  (4)  since  this  postulated  kenosis,  how- 
ever, can  be  no  real,  but  only  a  mystical  or  sacramen- 
tal one,  we  must  appraise  intelligently  those  moments 
which  approximate  in  any  degree  the  "mystical  slay- 
ing" to  a  real  exinanition,  instead  of  rejecting  them, 
mth  the  aid  of  these  four  criteria  it  is  comparatively 
easy  to  arrive  at  a  decision  concerning  the  probability 
or  otherwise  of  the  different  theories  concerning  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 

(i)  The  Jesuit  Gabriel  Vasques,  whose  theory  was 
supported  by  Perrone  in  the  last  century,  reauires  for 
the  essence  of  an  absolute  sacrifice  only — ana  thus,  in 
the  present  case,  for  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross — a  true 
destruction  or  the  real  slaying  of  Christ,  whereas  for 
the  idea  of  the  relative  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  it  suffices 
that  the  former  slaying  on  the  Cross  be  visibly  repre- 
sented in  the  separation  of  Body  and  Blood  on  the 
altar.  This  view  soon  found  a  keen  critic  in  Cardinal 
de  Lugo,  who,  appealing  to  the  Tridentine  definition 
of  theMaaa  as  a  true  and  proper  sacrifice,  upbraided 
Vasqoes  for  reducing  the  Afass  to  a'  purely  relative 
saermce.  Were  Jephta  to  arise  again  to-dav  with  his 
daughter  from  the  grave,  he  argues  (De  Euchar.,  disp. 
xix,  sect.  4,  n.  58),  and  present  oeforo  our  e^es  a  living 
diwnatic  reproduction  of  the  slaying  of  his  daughter 


after  the  fashion  of  a  tragedy,  we  woiild  undoubtedly 
see  before  us  not  a  true  sacrifice,  but  a  historic  or 
dramatic  representation  of  the  former  bloody  sacrifice. 
Such  may  indeed  satisfv  the  notion  of  a  relative  sacri- 
fice, but  certainly  not  the  notion  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  which  includes  in  itself  both  the  relative  and  the 
absolute  (in  opposition  to  the  merely  relative)  sacrifi- 
cial moment.  If  the  Mass  is  to  be  something  more 
than  an  Ober-Ammer^u  Passion  Play,  then  not  only 
must  Christ  appear  in  His  real  personality  on  the  altar, 
but  He  must  also  be  in  some  manner  really  sacrificed 
on  that  very  altar.  The  theory  of  Vasques  thus  fails 
to  fulfil  the  first  condition  which  we  have  named 
above. 

To  a  certain  extent  the  opposite  of  Vasquez's  theory 
is  that  of  Cardinal  Cienfuegos,  who,  while  exaggerating 
the  absolute  moment  of  the  Mass,  imdervalues  the 
equally  essential  relative  moment  of  the  sacrifice.  The 
sacrificial  destruction  of  the  Eucharistic  (Christ  he 
would  find  in  the  voluntary  suspension  of  the  powers 
of  sense  (especially  of  sight  and  hearing),  which  the 
sacramental  mode  of  existence  implies,  and  which  lasts 
from  the  consecration  to  the  mingling  of  the  two  Spe- 
cies. But,  apart  from  the  fact  that  one  may  not  con- 
stitute a  hypothetical  theologumenon  the  basis  of  a 
theory,  one  can  no  longer  from  such  a  standpoint  suc- 
cessfully defend  the  mdispensabiiity  of  the  double 
consecration.  Equally  difficult  is  it  to  find  in  the 
Eucharistic  Christ's  voluntary  surrender  of  his  sensi- 
tive functions  the  relative  moment  of  sacrifice,  i.  e.  the 
representation  of  the  bloody  sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 
The  standpoint  of  Suarez,  adopted  by  Scheeben,  is 
both  exalting  and  imposing;  the  real  transformation 
of  the  sacrificial  gifts  he  refers  to  the  destruction  of  the 
Eucharistic  elements  (in  virtue  of  the  transubstantia- 
tion)  at  their  conversion  into  the  Precious  Bod^  and 
Blood  of  Christ  (immutatio  vej^ectiva),  just  as,  m  the 
sacrifice  of  incense  in  the  Ola  Testament,  the  grains  of 
incense  were  transformed  by  fire  into  the  higher  and 
more  precious  form  of  the  sweetest  odour  and  frar 
grance.  But,  since  the  antecedent  destruction  of  the 
substance  of  oread  and  wine  can  by  no  means  be  re- 
garded as  the  sacrifice  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ,  Suarez  is  finally  compelled  to  identify  the  sub- 
stantial production  of  the  Eucharistic  Victim  with  the 
sacrificing  of  the  same.  Herein  is  straightway  re- 
vealed a  serious  weakness,  already  clearly  perceived 
by  De  Lugo.  For  the  production  of  a  thing  can  never 
be  identical  with  its  sacrifice;  otherwise  one  might 
declare  tiie  gardener's  production  of  plants  or  the 
farmer's  raising  of  cattle  a  sacrifice.  Thus,  the  idea  of 
kenosis,  which  in  the  minds  of  all  men  is  intimately 
linked  with  the  notion  of  sacrifice,  and  which  we  have 
given  above  as  our  third  condition,  is  wanting  in  the 
theory  of  Suarez.  To  offer  something  as  a  sacrifice 
always  means  to  divest  oneself  of  it,  even  though  tlus 
self-divestment  may  finally  lead  to  exaltation. 

In  Germany  theprofound,  but  poorly  developed 
theory  of  Valentin  Tnalhofer  found  great  favour.  We 
need  not,  however,  develop  it  here,  especially  since  it 
rests  on  the  false  basis  of  a  supposed  "  neavenly  sacri- 
fice" of  Christ,  which,  as  the  virtual  continuation  of 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  becomes  a  temporal  and 
spatial  phenomenon  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  But, 
as  practically  all  other  theologians  teach,  the  existence 
of  this  heavenly  sacrifice  (in  the  strict  sense)  is  only  a 
beautiful  theological  dream,  and  at  any  rate  caimot  be 
demonstrated  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

(ii)  Disavowing  the  above-mentioned  theories  con- 
cerning the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  theologians  of  to-day 
are  again  seeking  a  closer  approximation  to  the  pre- 
Tridentine  conception,  having  realized  that  post- 
Tridentine  theology  had  perhaps  for  polemical  reasons 
needlessly  exaggerated  the  idea  of  aestruction  in  the 
sacrifice.  The^^Mmtt||jipn,  which  our  catechinxis 
even  to-day  ifl^lHII^UHMB^  ^  ^^  ^^^  ^^t- 
uralaod'  ^■iMi^y  declared  tli0 


BIA88 


16 


BIA88 


I>atristic  and  traditional  view;   its  restoration  to  a 

Sjsition  of  general  esteem  is  the  service  of  Father 
illot  (De  sacram.,  I,  4th  ed.,  Rome,  1907,  pp.  567 
saq.).  Since  this  theory  refers  the  absolute  moment 
Of  sacrifice  to  the  (active)  *'  sacramental  mystical  slay- 
ing", and  the  relative  to  the  (passive)  *' separation  of 
Body  and  Blood  ",  it  has  indeed  made  the  '^ two-edged 
Bword"  of  the  double  consecration  the  cause  from 
which  the  double  character  of  the  Mass  as  an  absolute 
(real  in  itself)  and  relative  sacrifice  i)roceeds.  We 
have  an  absolute  sacrifice,  for  the  Victim  is — ^not  in- 
deed in  specie  propria,  but  in  specie  aliena — sacramen- 
tally  slain;  we  have  also  a  relative  sacrifice,  since  the 
sacramental  separation  of  Body  and  Blood  represents 
^ptibly  the  former  shedding  of  Blood  on  the 


While  this  view  meets  every  requirement  of  the 
metaphysical  nature  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Maas,  we 
do  not  think  it  right  to  reject  offhand  the  somewhat 
more  elaborate  theory  of  Lessius  instead  of  utilizing  it 
in  the  spirit  of  the  traditional  view  for  the  extension  of 
the  idea  of  a  ''mystical  slaving ".  Lessius  (De  perfect, 
moribusque  div.,  XII,  xiii)  goes  beyond  the  old  ex- 
planation by  adding  the  not  untrue  observation  that 
the  intrinsic  force  of  liie  double  consecration  would 
have  as  result  an  actiial  and  true  shedding  of  blood  on 
the  altar,  if  this  were  not  per  accidens  impossible  in 
consequence  of  the  impassibility  of  the  transfigured 
Body  of  Christ.  Since  ex  vi  verhorum  the  consecration 
of  the  bread  makes  reallypresent  only  the  Body,  and 
the  consecration  of  the  Cnalice  only  the  Blooia,  the 
tendencv  of  the  double  consecration  is  towards  a  for- 
mal exclusion  of  the  Blood  from  the  Body.  The  mys- 
tical slaving  thus  approaches  nearer  to  a  real  destruc- 
tion and  the  absolute  sacrificial  moment  of  the  Mass 
receives  an  important  confim^tion.  In  the  light  of 
this  view,  the  celebrated  statement  of  St.  Gregory  of 
Nasianxus  becomes  of  special  importance  (*'  Ep.  clxxi, 
ad  Amphil."  in  P.  G.,  XXXVII,  282):  "Hesitate  not 
to  pray  for  me  .  .  .  when  with  bloodless  stroke 
[duai/idirry  ro/ii]  thou  separatest  [rifivtis]  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  tne  Lord,  naving  speech  as  a  sword 
l^piip  Mx"^^  '^  ('0o>]-''  As  an  old  pupil  of  Cardinal 
Franselin  (De  Euchar.,  p.  II,  thes.  xvi,  Rome,  1887), 
the  present  writer  may  perhaps  speak  a  good  word  for 
the  once  popular,  but  recently  combatted  theonr  of 
Cardinal  De  Lugo,  which  Framselin  revived  after  a  long 
period  of  neglect;  not  however  that  he  intends  to 
proclaim  the  theory  in  its  present  form  as  entirely 
satisfactory,  since,  with  much  to  recommend  it,  it  has 
also  serious  defects.  We  believe,  however,  that  this 
theory,  like  that  of  Lessius,  might  be  most  profitably 
utilised  to  develop,  supplement,  and  deepen  the  tradi- 
tional view.  Starting  from  the  principle  that  the 
Eucharistic  destruction  can  be,  not  a  physical,  but 
only  a  moral  one,  De  Liigo  finds  this  exinamtion  in  the 
voluntary  reduction  of  Christ  to  the  condition  of  food 
{reducHo  ad  statum  cibi  et  potus),  in  virtue  of  which  the 
Saviour,  after  the  fashion  of  lifeless  food,  leaves  him- 
self at  the  mercy  of  mankind.  That  this  is  really 
equivalent  to  a  true  kenosis  no  one  can  deny.  Herein 
the  Christian  pulpit  has  at  its  disposal  a  truly  inex- 
haustible source  of  lofty  thoughts  wherewith  to  illus- 
trate in  glowing  language  the  humility  and  love,  the 
destitution  and  defencelessness  of  Our  Saviour  under 
the  sacramental  veil,  His  magnanimous  submission  to 
Irreverence,  dishonour,  and  sacrilege,  and  wherewith 
to  emphasise  that  even  to-day  that  nre  of  self-sacrifice, 
which  once  burned  on  the  Cross,  still  sends  forth  its 
tongues  of  flame  in  a  mysterious  manner  from  the 
Heart  of  Jesus  to  our  altars.  While,  in  this  incompre- 
hensible condescension,  the  absolute  moment  of  sacri- 
fice is  disclose  in  an  especially  striking  manner,  one 
is  reluctantly  compelled  to  recognise  tne  absence  of 
two  of  the  other  requisites:  in  the  first  place,  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  double  consecration  is  not  rnade  properly 
apparent,  since  a  single  consecration  would  suffice  to 


produce  the  condition  of  food,  and  would  therefore 
achieve  the  sacrifice;  secondlv,  the  reduction  to  the 
state  of  articles  of  food  reveals  not  Uie  faintest  anal- 
ogy to  the  blood-shedding  on  the  Cross,  and  thus  the 
relative  moment  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  not 
properly  dealt  with.  De  Lugo's  theonr  seems,  there- 
fore, of  no  service  in  this  connexion,  tt  renders,  how- 
ever, the  most  useful  service  in  extending  the  tra- 
ditional idea  of  a  "mystical  slaying",  since  indeed 
the  reduction  of  Christ  to  food  is  and  purports  to  be 
nothixi|^  else  than  the  preparation  of  the  mystically 
slain  Victim  for  the  sacrificial  feast  in  the  Communion 
of  the  priest  and  the  faithfuL 

Conceminc  meareh  in  history  of  rdiskms  ne  Anuch,  Da» 
afi|iib«  Mytienenwtaen  m  weinem  Binfiun  auf  daa  ChrUUmlum 
(G6ttingea,  1804):  HzmiOLLBB,  Tauft  u.  AbtndmahlbeiPatdua 
(Q6ttixkgen,  1904):  Andbrsen,  Dm  Abeniknahl  in  dtn  noei 
trtttfi  Jahrh,  n.  Chr.  (2nd  ed.,  Giwen,  1006);  BAMonicAinr, 
UebBT  Reform  dt»  AbendmahUa  (TabinMn,  1004) ;  O.  HoLRMAMir, 
Dob  Abendmahl  tm  UrchriaUntum  in  ZeiUehr.  fUr  neuUatamemO. 
WiuoMchafi  (1904).  204  sqq.;  Dexumann.  Lieht  xom  Ostm 
(Tabinsen,  1008);  Gbffckbn,  A%u  der  Wtrdaeii  det  CkriMUn- 
haiu  (Leipiis,  1004);  Clmmkh,  DU  rtliaian^fteh.  Mtikodm  in 
der  ThmL  (Bonn,  1004);  Idbm,  RtliqionaatacK,  ErkUknma  dem  N. 
T.  (GieHen«  1009) ;  RiviLLB  J[^  ongmta  de  rEuekariaUe  (Paria, 
1008).     For  an  answer  to  Radicalum  ne  Rahlbivbbcx,  DU 
EinMdauna  dtr  TauU  u.  de»  AbendmahU  u,  die  modeme  KriHk 
(GOteralon,  1007):  BiOUBS,  Die  modeme  proL  AbendtnakUfiff 
aehwuf  (Txier,  1010);  GOn.  DiekeuHoe  AbendmahUfm  in  ihrer 
ffeaehu:htL  Entwicklung  (2nd  ed.,  Leipiis,  1006).     Gonceminc 
the  Anglican  view  see  Gobb,  The  Bo<nf  ofChriM  (5th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1007);  Nbwbolt,  The  Sacrameni  of  the  Attar  ^iondon, 
1008).     Conoeminc  the  nature  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Maaa,  ef. 
TON  Labaulx,  Dae  8€knopfer  der  Oriechma  u.  R6mer  «.  ikr  Vm^ 
hAUnie  bu  dem  ei$%en  aufGoigaiha  (WOnbuis,  1841):  BRumt- 
RUCBBii,  Die  Sakramente  u.  doe  hL  Meeeopfer  (Schaffhauaen, 
1860);  Tankbr,  Cruenhim  Chriaii  eaerifieiiim,inertienhan  Mie- 
em  eaeri/ieiwH  explieaium  (Prague,  1660);  CtmnwtQom,  K«ta 
abeetmdUa  aub  apeeiebua  veUUa  (Rome,  1728);  WaaTXRicATB, 
Die  Meaae  in  ihran  Weeen  oder  daa  veMArte  Kreuaeeopfer  (Ratas- 
bon,  1868) ;  Thaiaopbb,  Daa  Ovfer  deaA,u,N.  Bundea  (Ratis- 
bon,  1870);  I>ibpolobr.  Daa  Weaen  daa  euehariaL  OpUra  u.  die 
vortQ4^iehen  kath.  Theotogen  der  drei  IcMcn  Jahrh,  ^kti^Mm, 
1877);    ScBWANB,    Die   euehariaL    Opferhandluno    (Freibuig, 
1880):  HuMPBRBT,  The  One  Mediator  or  Sacrifice  and  Sacra- 
ment (London,  1890);  Vacant,  Hiat.  de  la  Conception  du  Sacrir 
fieedela  Meaae  done  VBpUae  latine  (Pazis,  1804);  van  Wbbsch, 
Daa  hi.  Mvmofj^er  m  seiner  Weoenhai  tt.  tn  aemer  FeUr  (St: 


bun,  1805);  (^barrb.  La  Saerifiee  de  rHomme-Dieu  (Paris. 
1800) ;  ScHBBBBN,  Die  Myaterien  dee  Chrialentwna,  172  (2nd  ed.. 
Freibuxg.  1808);  G&ibmann.  Daa  euehariti,  Ojtjer  nach  der 
Lehre  der  iUteren  SeholaaHk  (Fraibuif,  1001);  Hbinbxch-Gut- 
bbrlbt.  Dogmat.  Theol.,  IX  (Mama,  1001) ;  Rbnb.  Die  Oeack,  dee 
Meeeopferbeifriffee  oder  der  alte  Olaube  u.  die  neuen  Theorien 
Hber  daa  Weaen  dea  unUutiqen  Op/era  (2  vols.,  Freisinf ,  1001-3); 
MoRiTiiBR,  The  Eueharialic  Saaylce,  An  kiatoriooT  and  theo' 
logical  Jnveatiaaiion  of  the  SaerQieial  Conception  of  the  Hohi 
Euchariat  m  the  Catholic  Church  (Loudon,  1001). 

(3)  The  Causality  of  the  Mass. — ^In  this  section  we 
shfiill  treat:  (a)  the  efifects  (effechis)  of  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  which  practically  coincide  with  the  various 
ends  for  which  the  Sacrifice  is  offered,  namely  adora* 
tion,  thanksgiving,  impetration,  and  expiation:  ^b) 
the  manner  of  its  efficacy  {modtts  effidendi),  which  lies 
in  part  objectively  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  itaelf 
(ex  opere  aperato),  and  partly  depends  subjectively  on 
the  personal  devotion  and  piety  of  man  (ex  opere  op^ 
rantis), 

(a)  The  Effects  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.— The 
Reformers  found  themselves  compelled  to  reject  en- 
tirely the  Sacrifice  of  the  Blass,  since  they  recognised 
the  Eucharist  merely  as  a  sacrament.  Both  their 
views  were  founded  on  the  reflection,  properly  ap- 
praised above,  that  the  Bloody  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross 
was  the  sole  Sacrifice  of  Christ  and  of  Christendom, 
and  thus  does  not  admit  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
As  a  sacrifice  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  in  the  sym- 
bolical or  figurative  sense,  they  had  earlier  approved 
of  the  Mass,  and  Melanchtnon  resented  the  charge  that 
Protestants  had  entirely  abolished  it.  What  they 
most  bitterly  opposed  was  the  Catholic  doctrine  that 
the  Mass  is  a  sacrifice  not  only  of  praise  and  thanka- 
giving,  but  also  of  impetration  and  atonement,  whose 
fruits  may  benefit  others,  while  it  is  evident  that  a 
sacrament  as  such  can  profit  merely  the  recipient. 
Here  the  Council  of  Trent  inteiposed  with  a  definition 
of  faith  (Sess.  XXII,  can.  iii) :  ^  If  any  one  saith,  that 


MASS                                    17  BCASS 

the  MasB  is  only  a  sacrifioe  of  praiae  and  thanksgiving  had  their  prototype  among  the  primitive  ChrisUao^ 
....  but  not  a  propitiatory  sacrifioe;  or,  that  it  prof-  and  for  this  view  we  likewise  find  other  testimonies — 
its  only  the  recipient,  and  that  it  ought  not  to  be  of-  e.  g.  Tertullian  (De  Cor.,  iii)  and  Cyprian  (£p.  ^'^^^ 
fered  for  the  living  and  the  dead  for  sins,  punishments,  n.  3).  By  a  Samt's  Blass  is  meant,  not  the  offering 
satisfactions,  and  other  necessities;  let  him  be  anath-  up  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  a  saint,  which  would 
ema"  (I>ensineer,  n.  950).  In  this  canon,  which  be  impossible  without  most  shameful  idolatry,  but  a 
gives  a  summary  of  all  the  sacrificial  effects  in  order,  sacrifice,  which^  while  offered  to  God  alone,  on  the  one 
the  synod  emphasises  the  propitiatory  and  impetra-  hand  thanks  Hun  for  the  triumphal  coronation  of  the 
torv  nature  of  the  sacrifice.  Propitiation  (propmaHo)  saints,  and  on  the^  other  aims  at  procuring  for  us  the 
and  petition  (impetraiio)  are  distmguishable  from  each  saint's  efficacious  intercession  witn  God.  Such  is  the 
other,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  appeals  to  the  goodness  authentic  explanation  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (So». 
and  the  former  to  the  mercy  of  God.  Naturally,  XXII,  cap.  iii,  in  Densinger,  n.  941).  With  this 
therefore,  they  differ  also  as  regards  their  objects,  threefoldlunitation,  Masses*' in  honour  of  the  saints" 
since,  while  petition  is  directed  towards  our  spiritual  are  certainly  no  base  *' deception",  but  are  morallv  al- 
and temporal  concerns  and  needs  of  every  kind,  propi-  lowable,  as  the  Council  of  Trent  specifically  dedares 
tiation  refers  to  our  sins  (veccata)  and  to  the  temporal  (loo.  dt.,  can.  v) ;  "  If  any  one  saith,  that  it  is  an  im- 
punishments  (posme),  wnich  must  be  expiated  b^  posture  to  celebrate  masses  in  honour  of  the  saints, 
works  of  penance  or  satisfaction  {saHafacUoneB)  in  this  and  for  obtaining  their  intercession  with  God,  as  the 
life,  or  otnerwise  by  a  corresponding  suffering  in  Pur^  Church  intends,  let  him  be  anathema  ".  The  general 
gatory.  In  all  these  respects  the  impetratoiy  and  ex-  moral  permissibility  of  invoking  the  intercession  of  the 
piatory  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  saints,  concerning  which  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak, 
Doth  for  the  living  and  the  dead.  is  of  course  assumed  in  the  present  instance. 

Should  a  Biblical  foundation  for  the  Tridentine  doo-  While  adoration  and  thanksgiving  are  effects  of  the 

trine  be  asked  for,  we  might  first  of  all  argue  in  gen-  Mass  which  relate  to  God  alone,  the  success  of  impe- 

era  las  follows:  Just  as  there  were  in  the  Old  Testament,  tration  and  expiation  on  the  other  hand  reverts  to 

in  addition  to  sacrifices  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  man.    These  last  two  effects  are  thus  also  called  by 

propitiatory  and  impetratory  sacrifices  (cf.  Lev.,  iv  theologians  the  ''fruits  of  the  Mass"  ^fnuitia  misscB), 

sqq.;  II  Kmgs,  xxiv,  21  sqo.,  etc.),  the  New  Testa-  and  this  distinction  leads  us  to  the  discussion  of  the 

ment,  as  its  antitype,  must  also  have  a  sacrifice  which  difficult  and  frequently  asked  question  as  to  whether 

serves  and  suffices  for  all  these  objects.    But,  accord-  we  are  to  impute  infinite  or  finite  value  to  the  Sacrifice 

ing  to  the  prophecy  of  Malachias,  this  is  the  Mass,  of  the  Blass.    This  question  is  not  of  the  kind  which 

which  is  to  De  celebrated  by  the  Church  in  all  places  may  be  answered  witli  a  simple  yes  or  no.    For,  apart 

and  at  all  times.    Consequently,  the  Mass  is  the  im-  from  the  already  indicated  oistinction  between  adora- 

petratory  and  propitiatory  sacrifice.    As  for  special  tion  and  thanksgiving  on  the  one  hand  and  impetra- 

reference  to  the  propitiatory  character,  the  record  of  tion  and  expiation  on  the  other,  we  must  also  sharply 

institution  states  expressly  that  the  Blood  of  Christ  is  distinguish  between  the  intrinsic  and  the  extrinsic 

shed  in  the  chaUce    unto  remission  of  sins"  (Matt.,  value  of  the  Mass  {valor  intrinaecus,  eoctririMciu),    As 

xxvi,  28).                                   ^  for  its  intrinsic  value,  it  seems  beyond  doubt  that,  in 

The  chief  source  of  our  doctrine,  however,  is  tradi-  view  of  the  infinite  worth  of  Christ  as  the  Victim  and 

tion,  which  from  the  earliest  times  declares  the  impe-  High  Priest  in  one  Person,  the  sacrifice  must  be  re- 

tratory  value  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.    Accordmg  garaed  as  of  infinite  value,  just  as  the  sacrifice  of  tiie 

to  Tertullian  (Ad  scapul.,  ii),  the  Christians  sacrificed  Last  Supper  and  that  of  the  Cross.    Here,  however, 

"for  the  welfare  of  tne  emperor"  (pro  salute  impera^  we  must  once  more  strongl]^  emphasize  the  fact  that 

Unis);  according  to  Chrysostom  (Hom.  xxi  in  Act.  the  ever-continued  sacrificial  activity  of  Christ  in 

Apost..  n.  4),  "for  the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  other  Heaven  does  not  and  cannot  serve  to  accumulate 

needs   .    St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (d.  386)  describes  the  fresh  redemptory  merits  and  to  assume  new  objective 

liturgy  of  the  Mass  of  his  day  as  follows  {"  Catech.  value;  it  simply  stamps  into  current  coin,  so  to  speak, 

myst/',  V,  n.  8,  in  P.  G.,  XXaIII,  1115):  "After the  the  redemptory  merits  definitively  and  perfectly  ob- 

spiritual  sacrifice  [wwmfiarucii  9wtd],  the  unbloody  ser-  tained  in  tne  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  and  sets  them  into 

vice  [dptklsiaKTos  Xarptla]  is  completed ;  we  pray  to  God  circulation  among  mankind.    This  also  is  the  teaching 

over  this  sacrifice  of  propitiation  [4vl  r^  Svatat  Udinit  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  ii) : "  Of  which 

rov  IXa^/100]  for  Uie  umversal  peace  of  the  churches,  for  blood v  oblation  the  fruits  are  most  abundantly  ob- 

the  proper  guidance  of  the  world,  for  the  emperor,  sol-  tained  through  this  unbloody  one  [the  Mass]."    For. 

diers  and  companions,  for  the  infirm  and  the  sick,  for  even  in  its  character  of  a  sacrifice  of  adoration  ana 

those  stricken  with  trouble,  and  in  general  for  all  in  thanksgiving,  the  Mass  draws  its  whole  value  and  all 

need  of  help  we  pray  and  offer  up  this  sacrifice  [ra&nfp  its  power  only  from  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  which 

vpoa^poftgp  r^r  $vfftdp].    We  then  commemorate  the  Chnst  makes  of  unceasing  avail  in  Heaven  (cf .  Rom., 

patriar^,  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  that  God  may,  viii,  34;  Heb.^  vii,  25).    There  is,  however,  no  reason 

at  their  prayers  and  mtercession,  graciously  accept  our  why  this  intnnsic  value  of  the  Blass  derived  from  ths 

supplication.    We  afterwards  pray  for  the  deaa  .  •  .  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  in  so  far  as  it  represents  a  sacri- 

sinoe  we  believe  that  it  will  be  of  the  greatest  advan-  fice  of  adoration  and  thanksgiving,  should  not  also 

tage  [ft^yl^ryfp  6innffip  Uw9ai]^  if  we  in  the  sight  of  the  operate  outwardly  to  the  full  extent  of  its  infinity,  for 

holy  and  most  awesome  Victim  [r^  Ay  tat  koX  ^puaadw"  it  seems  inconceivable  that  the  Heavenly  Father  could 

rdnfff  Bwtas]  discharge  our  prayers  for  them.    The  accept  with  other  than  infinite  satisfaction  the  sacri- 

Christ,  who  was  slain  for  our  sins,  we  sacrifioe  [Xpiffrbp  fice  of  His  only  begotten  Son.    Consequentlv  God,  as 

iff^yftdwop  ^kp  tQp  iifinifittp  A/Mprjiftdnap  vpoffi>4pofigp],  Malachias  had  alr^Eidy  prophesied,  is  in  a  trulv  infinite 

to  propitiate  the  merdfiU  God  for  those  who  are  gone  degree  honoured,  glorified,  and  praised  in  the  Mass; 

before  and  for  ourselves."    This  beautiful  passage,  through  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  he  is  thanked  by  men 

whidi  reads  like  a  modem  prayer-book,  is  of  interest  for  all  His  benefits  in  an  infinite  manner,  in  a  manner 

in  more  than  one  connexion.    It  proves  in  the  first  worthy  of  God. 

place  that  Christian  antiquity  recognised  the  offering  But  when  we  turn  to  the  Mass  as  a  sacrifice  of  im- 

up  of  the  Mass  for  the  deceased,  exactly  as  the  Chureh  petration  and  expiation,  the  case  is  different.  ^  While 

tCHlay  recognises  requiem  Masses — a  fact  which  is  we  must  always  regard  its  intrinsic  value  as  infinite, 

confirmed  by  other  independent  witnesses,  e.  g.  Tertul-  since  it  is  the  sacrifioe  of  the  God-Man  Himself,  its  ex- 

lian  (De  r                v    ^      .       ^^     •     ..   _    «v    __j  >._•    •       i            l               h..  i„  ^_ix- .• 

Augustine 
informs  us 

X.— 2 


18 


MAM 


wood  cannot  collect  within  it  the  wh<Ae  energy  of  the 
9un,  80  also,  and  in  a  still  greater  degree,  is  man  in- 
capable of  converting  the  boundless  value  of  the  im- 
petratoiy  and  expiatory  sacrifice  into  an  infinite  effect 
tor  his  soul.  Wherefore,  in  practice,  the  impetrsttory 
value  of  the  sacrifice  is  always  as  limited  as  is  its  pro- 
pitiatory and  satisfactory  value.  The  greater  or  less 
measure  of  liie  fruits  derived  will  naturally^  depend 
very  much  on  the  personal  efforts  and  worthmess,  the 
devotion  and  fervour  of  those  who  celebrate  or  are 
present  at  Mass.  This  limitation  of  the  fruits  of  the 
Mass  must,  however,  not  be  misconstrued  to  mean  that 
the  presence  of  a  large  congregation  causes  a  diminu- 
tion of  the  benefits  derived  from  the  Sacrifice  by  the 
individual,  as  if  such  benefits  were  after  some  fashion 
divided  into  so  many  aliauot  parts.  Neither  the  Church 
nor  the  Christian  people  has  anv  tolerance  for  the 
false  principle:  "The  less  the  nimiDer  of  the  faithful  in 
the  cnurch,  the  richer  the  fruits".  On  the  contrary, 
the  Bride  of  Christ  desires  for  every  Mass  a  crowded 
church,  being  rightly  convinced  that  from  the  unlim- 
ited treasures  of  the  Mass  much  more  grace  will  result 
to  the  individual  from  a  service  participated  in  by  a 
full  congregation,  than  from  one  attended  merely  by  a 
few  of  the  faithful.  This  relative  infinite  value  refers 
indeed  only  to  the  general  fruit  of  the  Mass  (fructua 
generalis)^  and  not  to  the  spedal  (fructus  specudis) — 
two  terms  whose  distinction  will  be  more  clearly  char^ 
acterised  below.  Here,  however,  we  may  remark  that 
by  the  special  fruit  of  the  Mass  is  meant  that  for  the 
application  of  which  according  to  a  special  intention  a 
pnest  may  accept  a  stipend. 

The  ouestion  now  arises  whether  in  this  connexion 
the  applicable  value  of  the  Bfass  is  to  be  regarded  as 
finite  or  infinite  (or,  more  accurately,  unlimited). 
This  question  is  of  importance  in  view  of  the  practical 
consequences  it  involves.  For,  if  we  decide  m  favour 
of  the  unlimited  value,  a  single  Mass  celebrated  for  a 
hundred  persons  or  intentions  is  as  efficacious  as  a 
htmdred  Masses  celebrated  for  a  single  person  or  inten- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  clear  that,  if  we  incline 
towards  a  finite  value,  the  special  fruit  is  divided  pro 
rata  among  the  hundred  persons.  In  tJieir  quest  for  a 
solution  of  this  question,  two  classes  of  theologians  are 
distinguished  according  to  their  tendencies:  the  mi- 
nority (Gotti,  Billuart,  Antonio  Bellarini,  etc.)  are  in- 
clinea  to  uphold  the  certainty  or  at  least  the  probabil- 
itv  of  the  former  view,  arguing  that  the  infinite  dignity^ 
of  the  Hi^h  Priest  Christ  cannot  be  limited  by  the  n- 
nite  sacrificial  activity  of  his  human  representative. 
But,  since  the  Church  has  entirely  forbidden  as  a 
breach  of  strict  justice  that  a  priest  should  seek  to  ful- 
fil, by  reading  a  single  Blass,  the  obligations  imposed 
by  several  stipends  (see  Densinger,  n.  1110),  these 
theologians  hasten  to  admit  that  their  theory  is  not  to 
be  translated  into  practice,  unless  the  priest  applies  as 
many  individual  Masses  for  all  the  intentions  of  the 
stipend-given  as  he  has  received  stipends.  But  inas- 
much as  the  Church  has  spoken  of  strict  justice  (justC-' 
Ha  commtUaHva),  the  overwhelming  majority  of  theo- 
logians incline  even  theoretically  to  the  conviction  that 
the  satisfactory — and,  according  to  many,  also  the 
propitiatory  and  impetratory — value  of  a  Mass  for 
which  a  stipend  has  been  taken,  is  so  strictly  circum- 
scribed and  limited  from  the  outset,  that  it  accrues  pro 
rata  (according  to  the  greater  or  less  number  of  the 
living  or  the  dead  for  whom  the  Bfass  is  offered)  to  each 
of  ^e  individuals.  Only  on  such  a  hypothesis  is  the 
custom  prevailing  among  the  faithful  of  having  sev- 
eral Masses  celebrated  for  the  deceased  or  for  their  in- 
tentions intelligible.  Only  on  such  a  hypothesis  can 
one  explain  tSs  widely  established  "Msss  Associa- 
tion", a  pious  union  whose  members  voluntarily  bind 
themselves  to  read  or  get  read  at  least  one  Biass  annu- 
ally for  the  poor  souls  in  pui^tory.  As  early  as  the 
eighth  centiuy.  we  find  in  Germany  a  so-called  "  Toten- 
bund''  (see  Perti,  "Monum.  Oermani»  hist.:  Leg.", 


II,  i,  221).  But  probably  the  greatest  of  such  sooifr 
ties  IS  the  Messbund  of  Ingolstadt,  founded  in  1724;  it 
was  raised  to  a  confraternity  (Cionfratemitv  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception)  on  3  Feb.,  1874,  and  at  pres- 
ent counts  680,000  memben  (cf.  fieringer,  *'Die  Ab- 
Iflsse,  ihr  Wesen  u.  ihr  Gebrauch",  13Ui  ed.,  Fader- 
born,  1906,  pp.  610  sqq.).  Toumely  (De  Euch.  q. 
viii,  a.  6)  has  also  sought  in  favour  of  this  view  imfwr- 
tant  internal  grounds  of  probability^,  for  example  by 
adverting  to  the  visible  course  of  Divine  Providence: 
all  natural  and  supernatural  effects  in  general  are  aeen 
to  be  slow  and  gradual,  not  sudden  or  desultoiy, 
wherefore  it  is  also  the  most  holy  intention  of  God  that 
man  should,  W  his  personal  exertions,  strive  through 
the  medium  of  the  greatest  possible  number  of  Mfi^^^^g 
to  participate  in  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 
(b)  The  Manner  of  Efficacy  of  the  Mass. — In  theo- 
logical phrase  an  effect  **  from  the  work  of  the  action  " 
(ex  opere  opercUo)  signifies  a  grace  conditioned  exclu- 
sively by  the  objective  bringing  into  activity  of  a  cause 
of  the  supernatural  order,  in  connexion  with  which 
the  proper  disposition  of  the  subject  comes  subse- 
quently into  account  only  as  an  indispensable  ante- 
cedent condition  {amdiiio  nne  qua  non),  but  not  aa  a 
real  joint  cause  {concauaa).  Thus,  for  example,  bap- 
tism by  its  mere  ministration  produces  ex  opere  operato 
interior  grace  in  each  recipient  of  the  sacrament  who 
in  his  heart  opposes  no  obstacle  (obex)  to  the  reception 
of  the  graces  of  baptism.  On  the  other  hand,  all  su- 
pernatural effects,  which,  presupposing  ib»  state  of 
grace,  are  accomplished  by  the  personal  actions  and 
exertions  of  the  subject  (e.  g.  everything  obtained  by 
simple  praver),  are  called  effects  *'from  the  work  of 
the  agent  (ex  opere  overanHs).  We  are  now  con- 
fronted with  the  difficult  question:  In  what  manner 
does  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  accomplish  its  effects 
and  fruits?  As  the  early  scholastics  gave  scarcelv  any 
attention  to  this  problem,  we  are  indebted  for  almost 
all  the  lif  ht  thrown  upon  it  to  the  later  scholastics. 

(i)  It  IS  first  of  all  necessary  to  make  clear  that  in 
every  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  four  distinct  categories  of 
persons  really  participate.  At  the  head  of  au  stands 
of  course  the  High  Pnest,  Christ  Himself;  to  make  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Cross  fruitful  for  us  and  to  secure  its  ap- 
plication, He  offers  Himself  as  a  sacrifice,  which  is 
Suite  independent  of  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the 
hurch,  the  celebrant  or  the  faithful  present  at  the 
sacrifice,  and  is  for  these  an  opue  opiratum.  Next 
after  Christ  and  in  the  second  place  comes  the  Church 
as  a  juridical  person,  who,  according  to  the  express 
teaching  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Seas.  XXII,  cap.  i), 
has  received  from  the  hands  of  her  Divine  Founder  the 
institution  of  the  Mass  and  also  the  commission  to  or^ 
dain  constantly  priests  and  to  have  celebrated  by 
these  the  most  venerable  Sacrifice.  This  intermediate 
stage  between  Christ  and  the  celebrant  may  be  neither 
pa^ed  over  nor  eliminated,  since  a  bad  and  immoral 
priest,  as  an  ecclesiastical  official,  does  not  offer  up  his 
own  sacrifice — ^which  indeed  could  only  be  impure — 
but  the  immaculate  Sacrifice  of  Christ  and  his  spotless 
Bride,  which  can  be  soiled  b^  no  wickedness  of  the 
celebrant.  But  to  this  special  sacrificial  activity  of 
the  Church,  offering  up  the  sacrifice  together  with 
Christ,  must  also  correspond  a  special  ecclesiastioo- 
human  merit  as  a  fruit,  which,  although  in  itself  an 
opu8  operanHs  of  the  Church,  is  yet  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  worthiness  of  the  celeorant  and  the  faithful, 
and  therefore  constitutes  for  these  an  opus  operatum. 
When,  however,  as  De  Lufo  rightly  points  out,  an  ex- 
communicated or  suspended  priest  celebrates  in  defi« 
ance  of  the  prohibition  of  the  Church,  this  ecclesiasti- 
cal merit  is  always  lost,  since  such  a  priest  no  longer 
acts  in  the  name  and^  with  the  commission  of  the 
Church.  His  sacrifice  is  nevertheless  valid,  since,  by 
virtue  of  his  priestly  ordination,  he  celebrates  in  the 
name  of  C!hnst,  even  thotiffh  in  opposition  to  His 
wishes,  and,  as  the  self-sacrifice  of  Christ,  even  such  a 


BCA88 


19 


BIA88 


Haas  remains  essentially  a  spotless  and  untarnished 
■acrifice  before  God. 

We  are  thus  compelled  to  concur  in  another  view  of 
De  Lugo,  namely  that  the  greatness  and  extent  of  this 
ecclesiastical  service  is  dependent  on  the  greater  or  less 
holinc^ss  of  the  reigning  pope,  the  bishops,  and  the 
clsz^y  throughout  uxe  world,  and  that  for  tnis  reason 
in  times  of  ecclesiastical  decay  and  laxity  of  morals 
(especially  at  the  papal  court  and  among  the  episco- 

gate)  the  fruits  of  the  Mass,  resulting  from  the  sacri- 
cial  activity  of  the  Church,  mieht  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances easily  be  very  smaU.  With  Christ  and 
His  Church  is  associated  in  the  third  place  the  celebrat- 
ing priest,  since  he  is  the  representative  through 
whom  the  real  and  the  mystical  Christ  offer  up  the 
sacrifice.  If,  therefore,  the  celebrant  be  a  man  of 
grejit  personal  devotion,  holiness,  and  purity,  there 
will  accrue  an  additional  fruit  which  will  benefit  not 
himaeif  alone,  but  also  those  in  whose  favour  he  ap- 
plies the  Mass.  The  faithful  are  thus  guided  by  sound 
instinct  when  they  prefer  to  have  Mass  celebrated  for 
their  intentions  by  an  upright  and  holy  priest  rather 
than  by  an  unworthy  one,  since,  in  adaition  to  the 
chief  fruit  of  the  Mass,  they  secure  this  special  fruit 
which  springs  ex  apere  operantUj  from  the  piety  of  the 
celebrant. 

Finally,  in  4he  fourth  place,  must  be  mentioned 
those  who  participate  actively  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass,  e.  g.  the  servers,  sacristan,  organist,  singers,  and 
the  whole  congregation  joining  in  the  sacrifice.  The 
priest,  therefore,  prays  also  in  their  name:  Offerimta 
(i.  e.  We  offer).  That  the  effect  resulting  from  this 
(metaphorical)  sacrificial  activity  is  entirely  depend- 
ent on  the  worthiness  and  piety  of  those  taking  part 
therein  and  thus  results  exclusively  ex  opere  operantis, 
is  evident  without  further  demonstration.  The  more 
fervent  the  pra^rer,  the  richer  the  fruit.  Most  inti- 
mate is  the  active  participation  in  the  Sacrifice  of 
those  who  receive  Holy  Communion  diving  the  Mass, 
since  in  their  case  the  special  fruits  of  the  (Communion 
are  added  to  those  of  tne  Mass.  Should  sacramental 
Communion  be  impossible,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXII,  cap.  vi)  advises  the  faithful  to  make  at  least  a 
*' spiritual  communion"  [spiriitudi  effectu  communi- 
care),  which  consists  in  the  ardent  aesire  to  receive 
the  Eucharist.  However,  as  we  have  already  empha- 
sised, the  omission  of  real  or  spiritual  Ck)mmunion  on 
the  part  of  the  faithful  present  does  not  render  the 
Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  either  invalid  or  unlawful,  where- 
fore the  Qiurch  even  permits  ''private  Masses'',  which 
mav  on  reasonable  grounds  be  celebrated  in  a  chapel 
with  closed  doors. 

(ii)  In  addition  to  the  active,  there  are  also  passive 
participators  in  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  These  are 
the  persons  in  whose  favour — ^it  may  be  even  without 
their  knowlcd^  and  in  opposition  to  their  wishes — ^the 
Holy  Sacrifice  is  offered.  They  fall  into  three  catego- 
ries: the  coQununity,  the  celebrant,  and  the  person  (or 
persons)  for  whom  the  Mass  is  specially  applied.  To 
each  of  these  three  classes  corresponds  ex  opere  operato 
a  special  fruit  of  the  Mass,  whether  the  same  be  an  im- 
petratory  effect  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Petition  or  a  propi- 
tiatory and  satisfactory  effect  of  the  Sacrifice  of  Ex- 
piation. Although  the  development  of  the  teaching 
concerning  the  threefold  fruit  of  the  Mass  begins  only 
with  Scotus  (Quffist.  quodlibet,  xx),  it  is  nevertheless 
based  on  the  very  essence  of  the  Sacrifice  itself.  Since, 
according  to  the  wording  of  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  (q. 
v.),  prayer  and  sacrifice  is  offered  for  all  those  present, 
the  whole  diurch,  the  pope,  the  diocesan  bishop,  the 
faithful  living  and  deaa,  and  even  "for  the  salvation 
of  the  whole  world",  there  must  first  of  all  result  a 
"general  fruit"  {Jructus  generalia)  for  all  mankind,  the 
bortowal  of  which  lies  immediately  in  the  will  of 
Christ  and  His  Church,  and  can  thus  be  frustrated  b^ 
no  contrary  Intention  of  the  celebrant.  In  this  fnut 
even  the  excommunicated,  heretics^  and  infidels  par- 


ticipate, mainly  that  their  conversion  may  thus  be  ef- 
fected. The  second  kind  of  fruit  (fructue  pereonalia, 
epecialiseimus)  falls  to  the  personal  share  of  the  cele- 
brant, since  it  were  unjust  that  he — apart  from  his 
wortfaihess  and  piety  {opus  operand)— should  come 
empty-handed  from  the  sacrifice.  Between  these  two 
frmts  lies  the  third,  the  so-called  "special  fruit  of 
the  Mass"  (fruchis  apecialis,  mediuSf  or  ministeriaUa), 
which  is  usually  applied  to  particular  living  or  de- 
ceased persons  accoitiing  to  the  intention  of  the  cele- 
brant or  the  donor  of  a  stipend.  This  "application " 
rests  so  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  priest  that 
even  the  prohibition  of  the  Church  cannot  render  it  in- 
efficacious, although  the  celebrant  would  in  such  a  case 
sin  through  disoTOdience.  For  the  existence  of  the 
special  fruit  of  the  Mass,  rightly  defended  by  Pius  VI 
against  the  Jansenistic  Synod  of  Pistoia  (1786),  we 
have  the  testimony  also  of  Christian  antiauity,  which 
offered  the  Sacrifice  for  special  persons  ana  intentions. 
To  secure  in  all  cases  the  certain  effect  of  this /ruclu« 
specialis,  Suarez  (De  Euch.,  disp.  Ixxix.  sect.  10)  gives 
priests  the  wise  advice  that  Hiey  should  always  add  to 
the  firsta ''  second  intention"  (irUenHo  eecunda),  which, 
should  the  first  be  inefficacious,  will  take  its  place. 

(iii)  A  last  and  an  entirely  separate  problem  is 
afforded  by  the  special  mode  of  efficacy  of  tne  Sacrifice 
of  Expiation.  As  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  ike  Mass  has 
the  double  fimction  of  obliterating  actual  sins,  espe- 
cially mortal  sins  (effecius  stride  propiHaloriue),  and 
also  of  taking  awav,  m  the  case  of  those  already  in  the 
state  of  grace,  such  temporal  punishments  as  may  stlQ 
remain  to  be  endured  (effecius  satis/actorius).  The 
main  question  is:  Is  this  double  effect  ex  opere  operato 
produced  mediately  or  immediately?  As  regards  the 
actual  forgiveness  of  sin,  it  must,  in  opposition  to  ear- 
lier theolo|;ians  ( Araron,  Casalis,  Greg;ory  of  Valentia), 
be  maintained  as  unaoubtedly  a  certain  principle,  that 
the  expiatory  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  can  never  accom- 
plish tne  forgiveness  of  mortal  sins  otherwise  than  by 
way  of  contrition  and  penance,  and  therefore  only 
mediately  throiigh  procuring  the  grace  of  conversion 
(cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXIl,  cap.  ii:  "donum 
poenitentiffi  concedens").  With  this  limitation,  how- 
ever, the  Mass  is  able  to  remit  even  the  most  grievous 
sins  (Council  of  Trent,  1.  c,  "  Crimina  et  peccata  etiam 
ingentia  dimittit").  Since,  according  to  the  present 
economy  of  salvation,  no  sin  whatsoever,  grievous  or 
triffing,  can  be  forgiven  without  an  act  of  sorrow,  we 
must  confine  liie  emcacy  of  the  Mass,  even  in  the  case 
of  venial  sins,  to  obtaining  for  Christians  the  grace  of 
contrition  for  less  serious  sins  (Sess.  XXII,  cap.  i). 
It  is  indeed  this  purely  mediate  activity  which  consti- 
tutes the  essential  distinction  between  the  sacrifice 
and  the  sacrament.  Could  the  Mass  remit  sins  im- 
mediately ex  opere  operatOj  like  Baptism  or  Penance,  it 
would  be  a  sacrament  of  the  dead  and  cease  to  be  a 
sacrifice  (see  Sacrament).  Concerning  the  remission 
of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin,  however,  which 
appears  to  be  effected  in  an  immediate  manner,  our 
juo^ent  must  be  different.  The  reason  lies  in  the 
intrinsic  distinction  between  sin  and  its  punishment. 
Without  the  personal  co-operation  and  sorrow  of  the 
sinner,  all  foi^veness  of  sin  by  God  is  impossible;  this 
cannot  however  be  said  of  a  mere  remission  of  pimish- 
ment.  One  person  may  validly  discharge  the  debts  or 
fines  of  another,  even  without  apprising  the  debtor  of 
his  intention.  The  same  rule  may  be  applied  to  a  just 
person,  who,  after  his  justification,  is  still  burdened 
with  temporal  pimishment  consec^uent  on  his  sins.  It 
is  certain  that,  onlv  in  this  immediate  way,  can  assist- 
ance be  ^ven  to  the  poor  souls  in  pui^tory  through 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  since  they  are  henceforth 
powerless  to  perform  personal  works  of  satisfaction 
(cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXV,  de  purgat.).  From 
this  consideration  we  derive  b^  analogy  the  legiti- 
mate conclusion  that  the  case  is  exactly  the  same  as 
regards  the  living. 


MASS                                   20  MASS 

See  Bkllarminb.  De  Suc/mt.,  ji,  2  sqq.;  Sdaru,  d»  Buehar,,  already  name  "the  Lord's  day  ".  Justin  himself  seems 

IS5<i:rSy.frt'  i(rJ^l^J^fs^^^?l^^  to  be  ^y^  only  of  the  Suniiy  oelebnition.  but  Ter- 

Miata  (iBgoldstadt.  1620):  Q&nuAsv,  Dot  euehar.  Opfer  naeh  tullian  adds  the  fast-davs  On  Wednesday  and  Fnday 

der  l^re  der  aUerenSchoiaatik  (Jfreibui^.  1901).    ^K5s-  and  the  anniversaries  of  the  martyis  ("De  oor.  mil.  , 

ficedela  Meme  (Paris,  1873);  Specht.  Die  Wirkungm  det  eu-  paschal  Season  (until  Pentecost)  "one  long  feast",  we 

char.  Ovfern  (Aupbure.  1876) ;  M<;ller.  The  Holy  Mom,  the  Sae-  nxay  conclude  with  some  justice  that  during  this  period 

'^^S:^'S^ui^pi^^'S^'^.^jflbihLS^  the  faithful  not  only  communicated  dai^  butSrere 

BfklArunQ  dee  KL  Meeaopjen  (Dansic,   1892);  Rohauut  db  also  present  at  the  Euchanstic  Liturgy.    As  regards 

Fleurt.  LeeSaifUe  de  la  y««  (JO  v^..  Pans.  1893-^) :  Wai^  the  tune  of  the  day,  there  existed  in  the  Apostolic  afe 

TER,  ute  hi.  Mesee,  der  grdaale  SehaU  der  Wdt  (6th  ed.,  Bnxen,  -,-.  fi^*wl   w««#Mkv«4^a  vM^miwIlni*  ^Ka  t«o«i.  •»  «»l«:«»k  Tu^ 

1901);  OiHR.  Dae  hi.  Aeeeopfer  dogmoHech,  liiurffieeh  «.  o«e!  5?  fixed  ppccepts  regardmg  the  hOUr  at  whlch  the 

tiech  erkiAH  (10th  ed.»  Freiburg,  1907);  6th  ed.  tr.  (St.  Louis.  Eucharistic  celebration  should  take  place.    The  Apoe- 

^^^)-  tie  Paul  appears  to  have  on  occasion  "  broken  bruui  " 

about  midni^t  (Acts,  xx,  7) .   But  Pliny  the  Younger, 

B.  Practiad  Questiona  Concerning  the  Maes. — From  Governor  ofBithynia  (diea  a.  d.  114),  already  states 

the  exceedingly  high  valuation,  which  the  Church  in  his  official  report  to  Em^ror  Trajan  that  ti^e  Chria- 

places  on  the  Mass  as  the  unbloody  Sacrifice  of  the  tians  assembled  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  and 

God-Man,  issue,  as  it  were  spontaneously,  all  those  bound  themselves  by  a  eacramentum  (oath),  by  which 

practical  precepts  of  a  positive  or  a  negative  nature,  we  can  understand  to-day  only  the  celebration  of  the 

which  are  given  in  the  Rubrics  of  the  lAaas,  in  Canon  mysteries.    Tertullian  gives  as  the  hour  of  the  assem- 

Law,  and  in  Moral  Theology.    They  may  be  conven-  bly  the  time  before  dawn  (De  cor.  mil.,  iii:  antelucanis 

iently  divided  into  two  categories,  according  as  thev  catibua).    When  the  fact  was  adverted  to  that  the 

are  intended  to  secure  in  the  highest  degree  possible  Saviour's  Resurrection  occurred  in  the  morning  before 

the  objective  dignity  of  the  Sacrifice  or  the  subjective  sunrise,  a  change  of  the  hour  set  in,  the  celebration  of 

worthiness  of  the  celebrant.  Mass  being  postponed  until  this  time.    Hius  Cyprian 

(1)  Precepts  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Dignity  of  the  writes  of  the  Sunday  celebration  (Ep.,  Ixiii):  "We 

Sacrifice. — (a)  One  of  the  most  important  requisites  celebrate  the  Resurrection  of  the  Lord  in  the  mom- 

for  the  worthy  celebration  of  the  Mass  is  that  the  place  ing."    Since  the  fifth  century  the  "  third  hour"  (i.  e. 

in  which  the  all-holy  Mystery  is  to  be  celebrated,  9  a.  m.)  was  regarded  as  "canonical"  for  the  Solemn 

should  be  a  suitable  one.    Since,  in  the  days  of  the  Mass  on  Sundays  and  festivals.     When  the  Little 

Apostolic  Church,  there  were  no  churches  or  chapels.  Hours  (Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None)  began  in  the  Middle 

private  houses  with  suitable  accommodation  were  Ages  to  lose  their  significance  as  "canonical  hours", 

appointed  for  the  solemnization  of  "the   breaking  the  precepts  govermng  the  hour  for  the  conventual 

of  bread"  (cf.  Acts,  ii,  46;  xx,  7  sq.;  Col.,  iv,  15;  Mass  received  a  new  meaning.   Thus,  for  example,  the 

Philem.,  2).    During  the  era  of  the  persecutions  the  precept  that  the  conventual  Mass  should  be  held  after 

Eucharistic  services  in  Rome  were  transferred  to  the  None  on  fast  days  does  not  signify  that  it  be  held 

catacombs,  where  the  Christians  believed  themselves  between  midday  and  evening,  but  only  that  "  the 

secure  from  government  agents.    The  first  "houses  of  recitation  of  None  in  choir  is  followed  by  the  Mass". 

God"  reach  back  certainly  to  the  end  of  the  second  It  is  in  general  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  priest  to 

century,  as  we  learn  from  Tertullian  (Adv.  Valent.,  iii)  celebrate  at  any  hour  between  dawn  and  miaday  (ab 

and  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  i).    In  the  sec-  aurora  ueque  ad  meridiem).   It  is  proper  that  he  snould 

ond  half  of  the  fourth  century  (a.  d.  370),  Optatus  of  read  beforehand  Matins  and  Lauds  from  his  breviarv. 

Mileve  (De  Schism.  Donat.,  II,  iv)  could  already  The  sublimity  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  demanos 

reckon  more  than  forty  basilicas  which  adorned  the  that  the  priest  should  approach  the  altar  wearing  the 

city  of  Rome.    From  this  period  dates  the  prohibition  sacred  vestments  (amice,  stole,  cincture,  maniple,  and 

of  the  Synod  of  Laodicea  (can.  Iviii)  to  celebrate  Mass  chasuble).    WTiether  the  priestly  vestments  are  his- 

in  private  houses.    Thenceforth  the  public  churches  torical  developments  from  Judaism  or  pa^nism,  is  a 

were  to  be  the  sole  places  of  worship.    In  the  Middle  Question  still  discussed  by  archsologists.   In  any  case 

Ages  the  synods  granted  to  bishops  the  right  of  allow-  tne  "Canones  Hippolyti"  require  that  at  Pontifical 

ing  house-chapels  within  their  dioceses.    According  to  Mass  the  deacons  and  priests  appear  in  "white  vest- 

the  law  of  to-day  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  de  ments",  and  that  the  lectors  also  wear  festive  ^ar- 

reform.),  the  Mass  may  be  celebrated  only  in  chapels  ments.    No  priest  may  celebrate  Mass  without  hght 

and  public  (or  semi-public)  oratories,  which  must  be  (usually  two  candles),  except  in  case  of  uigent  neces- 

consecrated  or  at  least  blessed.    At  present,  private  sity  (e.  g.  to  consecrate  a  Host  as  the  Vatlcum  for  a 

chapels  may  be  erected  only  in  virtue  of  a  special  papal  person  seriously  ill) .    The  altar-cross  is  also  necessary 

indult  (S.  C.  C,  23  Jan.,  1847;  6  Sept.,  1870).    In  the  as  an  indication  that  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  noth- 

latter  case,  the  real  place  of  sacrifice  is  the  consecrated  ing  else  than  the  unbloodv  reproduction  'of  the  Sacri- 

altar  (or  altar-stone),  which  must  be  placed  in  a  suit-  fice  of  the  Cross.    Usually,  also,  the  priest  must  be 

able  room  (cf.  Missale  Romanum,  Rubr.  gen.,  tit.  xx).  attended  at  the  altar  by  a  server  of  the  male  sex.   The 

In  times  of  great  need  (e.  g.  war,  persecution  of  Cath-  celebration  of  Mass  without  a  server  is  allowed  onlv 

olics) ,  the  priest  may  celebrate  outside  the  church,  but  in  case  of  need  (e.  g.  to  procure  the  Viaticum  for  a  sick 

naturally  only  in  a  becoming  place,  provided  with  the  person,  or  to  enable  the  faithful  to  satisfy  their  obliga- 

most  necessary  utensils.    On  reasonable  grounds  the  tion  of  hearing  Mass).    A  person  of  the  female  sex  mav 

bishop  may,  in  virtue  of  the  so-called  "quinquennial  not  serve  at  the  altar  itself,  e.  g.  transfer  the  missal, 

faculties",  allow  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  tne  open  present  the  cruets,  etc.  (S.  R.  C.,  27  August,  1836). 

air,  but  the  celebration  of  Mass  at  sea  is  allowed  only  Women  (especially  nuns)  may,  however,  answer  the 

by  papal  indult.    In  such  an  indult  it  is  usually  pro-  celebrant  from  their  places,  if  no  male  server  be  at 

vided  that  the  sea  be  calm  during  the  celebration,  hand.    During  the  celebration  of  Mass  a  simple  priest 

and  that  a  second  priest  (or  deacon)  be  at  hand  to  may  not  wear  any  head-covering — whether  biretta, 

prevent  the  spilling  of  the  chalice  in  case  of  the  rock-  pileolus,  or  full  wig  (comcB  fictitue) — but  the  bishop 

mg  of  the  ship.  may  allow  him  to  wear  a  plain  pemique  as  a  protection 

(b)  For  the  worthy  celebration  of  Mass  the  circum-  for  his  hairless  scalp, 

stance  of  time  is  also  of  ^reat  importance.    In  the  (c)  To  preserve  untarnished  the  honour  of  the  most 

Apostolic  age  the  first  Christians  assembled  regularly  venerable  sacrifice,  the  Church  has  surrounded  with  a 

on  Sundays  for  "the  breaking  of  bread"  (Acts,  xx,  7:  strong  rampart  of  special  defensive  regulations  the  in- 

"on  the  first  day  of  the  week"),  which  day  the  *'Di-  stitution  of  "mass-stipends";  her  intention  is  on  the 

dache"  (o.xiv),  and  later  Justin  Martyr  (I  Apol.,lxvi),  one  hand  to  keep  remote  from  the  altar  all  base  ava- 


MASS                                  21  MASS 

rioe,  and  on  the  other  to  ensure  and  safeguard  the  right  oondltions  of  an  important  character  (e.  g.  the  ap- 
of  the  faithful  to  the  conscientious  celebration  of  the  pointed  day,  altar,  etc.)-  Should  some  obstacle 
Itlasses  bespoken.  By  a  mass-stipend  is  meailt  a  cer-  arise,  the  money  must  either  be  returned  to  the  donor, 
tain  monetary  offering  which  anyone  makes  to  the  or  a  substitute  procured.  In  the  latter  case,  the  sub- 
priest  with  the  accompanying  obligation  of  celebrating  stitute  must  be  given,  not  the  usual  stipend,  but  the 
a  Mass  in  accordance  with  the  intentions  of  the  donor  whole  offering  received  (cf.  Prop,  ix  damn.  1666  ab 
{ad  intenHonem  dantis).  The  obligation  incurred  con-  Alex.  VIII  in  Denzinger,  n.  1109),  unless  it  be  indis- 
sists,  concretely  speakinz,  in  the  application  of  the  putably  clear  from  the  circumstances  that  the  excess 
"  special  fruit  of  the  Mass  (fructus  spectailis),  the  na-  over  the  usual  stipend  was  meant  by  the  donor  for  the 
ture  of  which  we  have  already  descnbed  in  detail  (A,  first  priest  alone.  There  is  a  tacit  condition  which  re- 
.3).  The  idea  of  the  stipend  emanates  from  the  earli-  quires  the  reading  of  the  stipulated  Mass  as  soon  as 
est  ages,  and  its  justification  lies  incontestably  in  the  possible.  According  to  the  common  opinion  of  moral 
axiom  of  St,  Paul  (I  Cor.,  ix,  13) rj^' They  that  serve  the/  theologians,  a  postponement  of  two  months  is  in  less 
altar,  partake  with  the  altar ''^Originally  consisting  urgent  cases  admissible,  even  thou^  no  lawful  im- 
of  the  necessaries  of  life,  the  stipend  was  at  first  con-  pediment  can  be  brought  forward.  Should,  however, 
sidered  as  ''alms  for  a  Mass"  {eteemoayna  missarum),  a  priest  postpone  a  Mass  for  a  happy  delivery  until 
the  object  being  to  contribute  to  the  proper  support  of  after  the  event,  he  is  bound  to  retiun  the  stipend, 
the  clergy.  The  character  of  a  pure  alms  bias  been  However,  since  all  these  precepts  have  been  imposed 
since  lost  by  the  stipend,  since  such  may  be  accepted  solely  in  the  interests  of  the  stipend-giver,  it  is  evident 
by  even  a  wealthy  priest.  But  the  Pauline  principle  that  he  enjoys  the  right  of  sanctioning  all  unusual 
applies  to  the  wealthy  priest  just  as  it  does  to  the  poor,  delavs. 

The  now  customary  money-offering,  which  was  intro-  (d)  To  the  kindred  question  of  "mass-foundations" 
duced  about  the  eighth  century  and  was  tacitly  ap-  the  Church  has,  in  the  interests  of  the  founder  and  in 
proved  by  the  Church,  is  to  be  regarded  merely  as  tne  her  high  regard  for  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  devoted  the 
substitute  or  commutation  of  the  earlier  presentation  same  anxious  care  as  in  the  case  of  stipends.  Mass- 
of  the  necessaries  of  life.  In  this  very  point,  also,  a  foundations  (fundaUonea  mismrum)  are  fixed  bequests 
change  from  the  ancient  practice  has  been  introduced,  of  funds  or  real  property,  the  interest  or  income  from 
since  at  present  the  individual  priest  receives  the  sti-  which  is  to  procure  for  ever  the  celebration  of  Mass  for 
pend  personally,  whereas  formerly  all  the  clergy  of  the  the  founder  or  according  to  his  intentions.  Apart 
particular  church  shared  among  them  the  total  obla-  from  anniversaries,  foundations  of  Masses  are  divided, 
tions  and  gifts.  In  their  present  form,  the  whole  mat-  according  to  the  testamentary  arrangement  of  the 
ter  of  stipends  has  been  omcially  taken  by  the  Church  testator,  mto  monthly,  weekly,  and  daily  foundations, 
entirely  under  her  protection,  both  by  the  Council  of  As  ecclesiastical  property,  mass-foundations  are  sub- 
Trent  (Sess.  XXII^  de  ref .)  and  by  the  dogmatic  Bull  ject  to  the  administration  of  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
"Auctorem  fidei"  (1796)  of  Pius  VI  (Denzinger,  n.  ties,  especially  of  the  diocesan  bishop,  who  must 
1554).  Siaoe  the  stipend,  in  its  origin  and  nature,  grant  his  permission  for  the  acceptance  of  such  and 
claims  to  be  and  can  be  nothing  else  than  a  lawful  con-  must  appoint  for  them  the  lowest  rate.  Only  when 
tribution  tow^ards  the  proper  support  of  the  clergy,  the  episcopal  approval  has  been  secured  can  the  founda- 
f alse  and  foolish  views  of  the  ignorant  are  shown  to  be  tion  be  regarded  as  completed ;  thenceforth  it  is  unal- 
without  foundation,  when  they  suppose  that  a  Ma^s/^  terable  for  ever.  In  places  where  the  acquirement  of 
may  be  simoniacally  purchased  with  money ?(cf.  St?  >  ecclesiastical  property  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Thomas,  II-II,  Q.  c,  art.  2).  To  obviate  all  abuses  State  (e.  g.  in  Austria),  the  establishment  of  a  mass- 
concemmg  the  amount  of  the  stipend,  there  exists  in  foundation  must  also  be  submitted  to  the  secular  au- 
each  diocese  a  fixed  "  mass-tax  "  (settled  either  by  an-  thorities.  The  declared  wishes  of  the  founder  are 
dent  custom  or  by  an  episcopal  regulation),  which  no  sacred  and  decisive  as  to  the  manner  of  fulfilment. 
priest  may  exceed,  unless  extraordinary  inconven-  Should  no  special  intention  be  mentioned  in  the  deed  of 
lenoe  (e.  g.  long  fasting  or  a  long  journey  on  foot)  foundation,  the  Mass  must  be  applied  for  the  founder 
justifies  a  somewhat  larger  sum.  To  eradicate  all  un-  himself  (S.C.  C,  18  March,  1668).  To  secure  punc- 
worthy  greed  from  among  both  laity  and  clergv  in  con-  tuality  in  the  execution  of  the  foundation,  Iimocent 
nexion  with  a  thing  so  sacred,  Pius  IX  in  his  Constitu-.  XII  ordered  in  1697  that  a  list  of  the  mass-founda- 
tion "ApostoHcffi  Sedis''  of  12  Oct.,  1869,  forbade  tions,  arranged  according  to  the  months,  be  kept  in 
under  penalty  of  excommunication  the  commercial  each  church  possessing  such  endowments.  The  ad- 
tni&c  m  Btij>end8  {mercimoniummisBCB  atipendiorum).  ministrators  of  pious  foundations  are  bound  under 
The  traffidong  consists  in  reducing  the  larger  stipend  pain  of  mortal  sin  to  forward  to  the  bishop  at  the  end 
collected  to  the  level  of  the  "tax",  and  appropriating  of  each  year  a  list  of  all  founded  Masses  left  uncele- 
the  surplus  for  oneself.  Into  the  category  of  shame-  brated  together  with  the  money  therefor  (S.  C.  C,  25 
ful  tram c  in  stipends  also  falls  the  reprehensible  prao-  May,  1893). 

tioe  of  book-sellers  and   tradesmen,  who   organize  The  celebrant  of  a  founded  Mass  is  entitled  to  the  full 

public  collections  of  stipends  and  retain  the  money  con-  amount  of  the  foundation,  unless  it  is  evident  from  the 

tributlons  as  payment  for  books,  merchandise,  wines,  circumstances  of  the  foundation  or  from  the  wording 

etc.,  to  be  delivered  to  the  clergy  (S.C.  C,  31  Aug.,  of  the  deed  that  an  exception  is  justifiable.    Such  is 

1874 ;  25  May,  1893) .    As  special  punishment  for  this  the  case  when  the  foundation  serves  also  as  the  endow- 

offence,  suspenHo  a  divinis  reserved  to  the  pope  is  mentof  a  benefice,  and  consequently  in  such  a  case  the 

proclaimed  against  priests^  irregularity  against  other  beneficiary  is  bound  to  pay  his  substitute  only  the 

clerics,  and  excommunication  reserved  to  the  bishop,  regular  tax  (S.C.C.,  25  July,  1874).    Without  urgent 

against  the  laity.  reason,  founded  Masses  may  not  be  celebrated  in 

Another  bulwark  against  avarice  is  the  strict  regu-  churches  (or  on  altars)  other  than  those  stipulated 

lation  of  the  Church,  binding  under  pain  of  mortal  sin,  by  the  foundation.     Permanent  transference  of  such 

that  priests  shall  not  accept  more  intentions  than  Masses  is  reserved  to  the  pope,  but  in  isolated  in- 

they  can  satisfy  within  a  reasonable  period  (S.  C.  C.,1  stances  the  dispensation  of  tne  bishop  suffices  (cf. 

1904).    This  regulation  was  emphasized  by  the  addi-  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI  de  ref.;  Sess.  XXV  de 

tional  one  which  forbade  stipends  to  be  transferred  to  ref.) .    The  unavoidable  loss  of  the  income  of  a  f ounda- 

priests  of  another  diocese  without  the  knowledge  of  tion  puts  an  end  to  all  obligations  connected  with  it. 

their  ordinaries  (S.  C.  C.,  22  May,  1907).    The  accept-  A  serious  diminution  of  the  foundation  capital,  owing  to 

anoe  of  a  stipend  imposes  under  pain  of  mortal  sin  the  the  depreciation  of  money  or  property  in  value,  also 

obligation  not  only  of  reading  the  stipulated  Mass,  but  the  necessary  increase  of  the  mass-tax,  scarcity  of 

also  of  fulfilling  conscientiously  all  other  appointed  priests,  poverty  of  a  church  or  of  the  clergy  may  con- 


22 


MASS 


stitute  just  groundB  for  the  reduction  of  the  number  of 
Masses,  since  it  may  be  reasonably  presumed  that  the 
deceased  founder  would  not  under  such  difficult  cir- 
cumstance insist  upon  the  obligation.  On  21  June. 
1025,  the  right  of  reduction,  which  the  Council  ol 
TVent  had  conferred  on  bishops,  abbots,  and  the  gen- 
erals of  religious  orders,  was  again  reserved  by  Urban 
VIII  to  the  Holy  See. 

Consult  Pabquauoo,  De  waeriAcio  Novm  LegU  qivtmtL  tKtolo' 
gic9»  moraUBt  iuridioB  (2  vols.,  Zijroiis,  1662) :  Bona,  De  waerijicio 
mtMaa  tract.  tueeHetu  (new  ed..  Frriburp,  1006;  Ratbbon,  1009); 
BBrKDicr  XIV,  De  m.  Miaaa  merifiew  in  Miqnb,  TheoL  Cum. 
CompUt.,  XXIII;  Kfiesnfo*  LUurg.  BrkUtnmo  tUr  hi.  Meem  (3id 
ed..  HOnster,  1869):  THALBonsB,  Htmdhueh  derkatkol  Litwjfik 
(2  vols.,  FreibuiSt  i870);  BuATmBR,  Le  aaenfioe  dan*  U  doffme 
eathoL  et  done  la  vie  ehrU.  (Paxis.  1889):  Hii.arxub  a  Sbztbn. 
Tract,  paeloralie  de  aacramerUie  (Mains,  1895);  Qasparri,  Tract, 
eanonicua  de  ae.  Evcharittia  (Paris,  1897);  Qiordaico,  Dae  eueh. 
Leben  u.  doe  ewioe  KOniatum  Chrieti,  tr.  from  Italian  (Freibuis, 
1900);  PRUNBR,  Lehrtueh  der  PaetoraUKeoL,  I  (2d  ed.,  Frel- 
buis*  1904) ;  Baz/tbabar,  Dae  OAeimnie  oiler  OAeimnieee  m  hL 
SakramerU  dee  AUare  (FreibuTSf  1906);  Ttbrbzx-Qrbbn,  The 
Buchariett  Detfotional  Addreeeea  on  tte  chief  Aepeele  (London, 
1908) ;  KiNANB.  Dove  of  the  Tabernacle;  or.  The  Love  of  J  emu  m 
the  Moet  Holy  Suehariet  (Dublin).  CSennan  tr.  (Freibuis,  1910). 
On  particxilar  points  consult  Kraub,  ReaUneyld.  derchrietL  AUer- 
tamer  (2  vols.,  Freibuis,  1879-86);  Wxbland,  Menea  u.  Con- 
feeeio,  I  (Munich,  1906);  Raxblb,  Der  Tabemakd  einti,  u.  jetet 
(Freiburg.  1908);  Braun,  Die  wieetcri.  Gewdnder  dee  Abend- 
landee  naeh  ihrer  geeehichtL  Entwtekluno  (Freiburv.  1807) ;  Idbm, 
Die  Utiarg.  Oewandung  tm  Occident  u.  Orient  naeh  Ureprung  u. 
Bntwickltmg  (Freiburg,  1907)  Concerning  msi  stipends,  see 
Bbrlbndxb,  De  oblationibue  et  etipendiie  (Venice,  1743) ;  Scbmid, 
Meeaopfer,  MeeeappUkaOon  u.  Meeatipendien  (Passau,  1834); 
Lbxnb.  Die  Sinumie,  eine  kanoniatiaehe  Shtdie  (Freibuig,  1902). 
C(»sult  further  Phxulxps,  Lehrbveh  dee  Kirchenrechte  (2d  ed., 
Ratisbon,  1871),  549  sag.;  Lbbiucuhl,  TheoL  moralie,  II  (10th 
ed.,  Freibuig,  1902) :  QOprBRT,  Moraltheologie,  III  (6th  ed., 
Paderbom.  1906).  C>n  mass-foundations  see  Bbnbdxct  XIV, 
De  aynod.  diocea.,  V,  z;  XII,  zxv;  Eubbt,  Nature  juridique  de  la 
fondation  de  Meaaee  (Paris,  1906);  Dbjdst,  Dee  fmdatione  de 
Meaaee  (Paris.  1908);  Tbdrbtok  in  The  Month  (1908),  13-27. 

(2)  Precepts  to  secure  the  Worthiness  of  the  Cele- 
brant.— AJtnough,  as  declared  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sees.  XXII,  cap.  i),  the  venerable,  pure,  and  sublime 
Sacrifice  of  the  God-man  **  cannot  be  stained  by  any 
unworthiness  or  impiety  of  the  celebrant",  still  ec- 
clesiastical legislation  has  long  regarded  it  as  a  matter 
<^  special  concern  that  priests  should  fit  themselves  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  by  the  cultivation 
of  integrity,  purity  of  heart,  and  other  qualities  of  a 
personal  nature. 

(a)  In  the  first  place  it  may  be  asked:  Who  may 
celebrate  Mass?  Smce  for  the  validity  of  the  sacrifice 
the  office  of  a  special  priesthood  is  essential,  it  is  dear, 
to  begin  with,  that  only  bishops  and  priests  (not  dea- 
cons) are  qualified  to  offer  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice  (see 
Eucharist).  The  fact  that  even  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  the  regular  officiator  at  the  Eu- 
charistic  celebration  seems  to  have  been  the  bishop 
will  be  more  readily  understood  when  we  remember 
that  at  this  early  period  there  was  no  strict  distinc- 
tion between  the  offices  of  bishop  and  priest.  Like 
the  "Didache"  (xv),  Clement  ci  Rome  (Ad  Cor.,  xl- 
xlii)  speaks  only  of  the  bishop  and  his  deacon  in  con- 
nexion with  the  sacrifice.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  in- 
deed, who  bears  irrefutable  testimony  to  the  existence 
of  the  three  divisions  of  the  hierarchy — ^bishop  (hrl^Ko- 
Tot).  priests  (wfMofi&rtpot)  and  deacons  (StdKopot) — 
connnes  to  the  bishop  the  privilege  of  celebrating  the 
Divine  Service,  when  he  says:  **  It  is  unlawful  to  bap- 
tize or  to  hold  the  agape  {d7dTiyr]  without  the  bishop." 
The  "Canones  Hippolyti",  composed  probably  about 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  first  contain  the  regula- 
tion (can.  xxxii) :  "  If,  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  a 
priest  be  at  hand,  all  shall  devolve  upon  him,  and  ne 
shall  be  honoured  as  the  bishop  is  honoured."    Subse- 

Suent  tradition  recognises  no  other  celebrant  of  the 
[ystery  of  the  Eucharist  than  tl^  bishops  and  priests, 
who  are  validly  ordained  "  according  to  the  keys  of  the 
Church"  {secundum  davea  Ecdesia),  (Cf.  Lateran  lY, 
cap.  ''Firmiter"  in  Densinger,  n.  430.) 

But  the  Church  demands  still  more  by  insisting  also 
on  the  personal  moral  worthiness  of  the  celebrant. 


This  connotes  not  alone  freedom  from  all  ecclesiastical 
censures  (excommunication,  stispension,  interdict), 
but  also  a  becoming  preparation  of  the  soul  and  body 
of  the  priest  before  ne  approaches  the  altar.  To  cele- 
brate m  the  state  of  mortal  sin  has  always  been 
recarded  by  the  Church  as  an  infamous  8acriieg;e  (cf . 
I  Cor.,  xi,  27  sqa.) .  For  the  worthy  (not  for  the  valid) 
celebration  of  the  Bfass  it  is,  therefore,  especially  re- 
quired that  the  celebrant  be  in  the  state  of  grace.  To 
place  him  in  this  condition,  the  awakening  of  perfect 
sorrow  is  no  longer  sufficient  since  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XIII,  cap.  vii  in  Densinger,  n.  880),  for  there  is 
a  strict  ecclesiastical  precept  that  the  reception  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance  must  precede  the  celebration  of 
Mass.  This  rule  applies  to  all  priests,  even  whea  they 
are  bound  by  their  office  (ex  officio)  to  read  Mass,  e.  g. 
on  Sunda3rs  for  their  parishioners.  Only  in  instances, 
when  no  confessor  can  be  procured,  may  they  content 
themselves  with  reciting  an  act  of  perfect  sorrow 
(conintio)^  and  they  then  incur  the  obligation  of  going 
to  confession  ''as  early  as  possible"  (quam  primum), 
which,  in  canon  law,  signifies  within  three  days  at 
furthest.  In  addition  to  the  pious  preparation  for 
Mass  (occessus),  there  is  prescribed  a  correspondingly 
long  thanksgiving  after  Mass  (recessiu),  whose  length 
is  meed  by  moral  theologians  between  fifteen  minutes 
and  half  an  hour,  although  in  this  connexion  the  par- 
ticular official  engagements  of  the  priest  must  be  con- 
sidered. As  regutu  the  length  of  the  Mass  itself,  the 
duration  is  naturally  variable,  according  as  a  Solemn 
High  Mass  is  sung  or  a  Low  Mass  celebrated.  To  per- 
form worthily  all  the  ceremonies  and  pronounce  clearly 
all  the  prayers  in  Low  Mass  requires  on  an  average 
about  half  an  hour.  Moral  theologians  justly  declare 
that  the  scandalous  haste  necessary  to  finish  Mass  in 
less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  is  impossible  without 
grievous  sin. 

With  regard  to  the  more  immediate  preparation  of 
the  body,  custom  has  declared  from  time  immemorial, 
and  positive  canon  law  since  the  Coimdl  of  Constance 
(1415),  that  the  faithful,  when  receiving  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar,  and  priests,  when  celebrating  the 
Holy  Sacrifice,  must  be  fasting  (jejunium  naturaU). 
which  means  that  they  must  have  partaken  of  no  food 
or  drink  whatsoever  from  midnight.  Midnii^t  begins 
with  the  first  stroke  of  the  hour.  In  calculating  the 
hour,  the  so-called  *'  mean  time  "  (or  local  time)  must 
be  used:  according  to  a  recent  decision  (S.  C.  C,  12 
July,  1893).  Central-European  time  may  be  also  em- 
ployed, ana,  in  North  America,  "sone  time".  The 
movement  recently  begun  among  the  German  clergy, 
favouring  a  mitigation  of  the  strict  regulation  for  weak 
or  overworked  priests  with  the  obligation  of  duplicat- 
ing, has  serious  objections,  since  a  general  relaxation 
of  tne  ancient  strictness  might  easily  result  in  lessening 
respect  for  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  in  a  harmful 
reaction  among  thoughtless  members  of  the  laity. 
The  granting  of  mitigations  in  general  or  in  exceptional 
cases  belongs  to  the  Holy  See  alone.  To  keep  away 
from  the  altar  irreverent  adventurers  and  unworthv 
priests,  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  de  ref.) 
issued  the  decree,  made  much  more  stringent  in  later 
times,  that  an  unknown  priest  without  the  Celebret 
(q.  V.)  may  not  be  allowea  to  say  Mass  in  any  church. 

(b)  A  second  Question  may  be  asked:  "who  must 
say  Blass?  "  In  tne  first  place,  if  this  question  be  con- 
sidered identical  with  the  enquiiy  as  to  whether  a  gen- 
eral obligation  of  Divine  Law  binds  every  priest  by 
reason  of  his  ordination,  the  old  Scholastics  are  divided 
in  opinion.  St.  Thomas,  Durandus,  Paludanus,  and 
Antnony  of  Bolo^ia  certainly  maintained  the  exist- 
ence of  such  an  obligation ;  on  the  other  hand,  Richard 
of  St.  Victor.  Alexander  of  Hales,  Bonaventure,  Ga- 
briel Biel,  and  Cardinal  Cajetan  declared  for  the  oppo> 
site  view.  Canon  law  teaches  nothing  on  the  subiect. 
In  the  absence  of  a  decision,  Suares  (De  Euchar.,  diap. 
Izxx,  sect.  1,  n.  4)  believes  that  one  who  conforms  to 


MASS  23  MASS 

the  negative  view,  may  be  declared  free  from  grievous  question  must  be  touched  on  in  this  seetioQ:  Fot 
sin.  Of  the  ancient  hermits  we  know  that  they  did  whom  ma^  Mass  be  celebrated?  In  general  the  answer 
not  celebrate  the  Holy  Sacrifice  in  the  desert,  and  St.  may  be  given:  For  all  those  and  for  those  only,  whe 
Ignatius  Loyola,  guided  by  high  motives,  abstained  are  fitted  to  particii>ate  in  the  fruits  of  the  Mass  as  an 
for  a  whole  year  from  celebrating.  Cardinal  De  Lugo  impetratory,  propitiatory,  and  satisfactory  sacrifice. 
(De  Euchar.,  disp.  xx,  sect.  1,  n.  13)  takes  a  middle  From  this  is  unmediately  derived  the  rule  that  Mass 
course,  by  adoptmg  theoretically  the  milder  opinion,  may  not  be  said  for  the  damned  in  Hell  or  the 
while  declaring  that,  in  practice,  omission  through  blessed  in  Heaven,  since  they  are  incapable  of  receiv- 
lukewarmness  and  neglect  may,  on  account  of  the  ing  the  fruits  of  the  Blass;  for  the  same  reason  children 
scandal  caused,  easily  amount  to  mortal  sin.  This  who  die  unbaptised  are  excluded  from  the  benefits  of 
consideration  explains  the  teaching  of  the  moral  theo-  the  Mass.  Thus^  there  remain  as  the  possible  partid- 
lo^ans  that  every  priest  is  bound  under  pain  of  mortal  pants  only  the  hving  on  earth  and  the  poor  souls  in 
sin  to  celebrate  at  least  a  few  times  each  year  (e.  g.  at  purgatory  (cf .  Trent,  Sess.  XXII,  can.  iii;  Sess.  XXV, 
£aster,  Pentecost,  Christmas,  the  Epipnany).  The  decret.  de  purgatO*  Partly  out  of  her  great  venera- 
obligation  of  hearing  Mass  on  all  Sunaays  and  holy  tion  of  the  Sacrifice,  however,  and  i>artly  to  avoid 
days  of  obligation  is  of  course  not  abrogated  for  sucn  scandal,  the  Church  has  surrounded  with  certain  con- 
priests.  The  spirit  of  the  Church  demands — and  it  is  ditions,  which  priests  are  bound  in  obedience  to  ob- 
to-day  the  practically  universal  custom — that  a  priest  serve,  the  application  of  Mass  for  certain  classes  of  the 
should  celebrate  daily,  unless  he  prefers  to  omit  his  living  and  aead.  The  first  class  are  non-tolerated  ex- 
Mass  occasionally  through  motives  of  reverence.  communicated  persons^  who  are  to  be  avoided  by  the 

Until  far  into  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  left  to  the  die-  faithful  {exccnnmunicaH  vUandt),  Although,  according 

cretion  of  the  priest,  to  his  personal  devotion  and  his  to  various  authors,  the  priest  is  not  f orbidaen  to  offer 

zeal  for  souls,  whether  he  should  read  more  than  one  up  Mass  for  such  unhappy  persons  in  private  and  with 

Mass  on  the  same  day.   But  since  the  twelfth  century  a  merely  mental  intention,  still  to  announce  publicly 

canon  law  declares  that  he  must  in  general  content  such  a  Mass  or  to  insert  the  name  of  the  excommum- 

bimself  with  one  daily  Mass,  and  the  synods  of  the  cated  person  in  the  prayere,  even  though  he  may  be  in 

thirteenth  century  allow,  even  in  case  of  necessity,  at  the  state  of  grace  owing  to  perfect  sorrow  or  may  have 

most  a  duplication  (see  Bination).    In  the  course  of  died  truly  repentant,  would  be  a  '' communicatio  in 

time  this  privilege  of  celebrating  the  Holy  Sacr^ce  divinis",  ancl  is  strictly  forbidden  \mder  penalty  of 

twice  OQ  toe  same  day  was  more  and  more  curtailed,  excommunication  (cf .  C.  28,  de  sent,  excomm.,  Y,  t. 

According  to  the  existing  law,  duplication  is  allowed,  39).   It  is  likewise  forbidden  to  offer  the  Mass  publiclv 

under  special  conditions,  only  on  Sundays  and  holv  and  solemnly  for  deceased  non-Catholics,  even  though 

days,  and  then  only  in  the  interests  of  the  faithful,  they  were  princes  (Innoc.  HI.  C.  12,  X,  1.  3^  tit.  28). 

that  thev  may  be  enabled  to  fulfil  their  obligation  oi  On  the  other  hand  it  is  aDowea,  in  consideration  of  the 

hearing  Mass.    For  the  feast  of  Christmas  alone  have  welfare  of  the  state,  to  celebrate  for  a  non-Catholic 

priests  universall^r  been  allowed  to  retain  the  privilege  living  ruler  even  a  public  Solemn  Mass.    For  living 

of  three  Masses;  in  Spain  and  Portugal  this  privilege  heretics  and  schismatics,  also  for  the  Jews,  Turks,  and 

was  extended  to  All  Souls'  Dav  (2  Nov.)  by  special  heathens,  Mass  mav  be  privately  applied  (and  even  a 

Indult  of  Benedict  XIV  (1746).    Such  customs  are  stipend  taken)  with  the  object  of  procuring  for  them 

unknown  in  the  East.  the  grace  of  conversion  to  the  true  Faith.    For  a  de- 

This  general  obligation  of  a  priest  to  celebrate  Mass  ceased  heretic  the  private  and  hypothetical  applica- 

must  not  be  confounded  with  the  special  obligation  tion  of  the  Mass  is  allowed  only  when  the  priest  has 

which  results  from  the  acceptance  of  a  Mass-stipend  good  founds  for  believing  that  the  deceased  held  his 

(Mtgatio  ex  stipenaio)  or  from  the  cure  of  souls  (Mir  error  m  good  faith  (bona  jute.    Cf .  S.  C.  Officii,  7  April, 

gaHo  ex  cura  animarum).  Concerning  the  former  suffi-  1875).   To  celebrate  Mass  privately  for  deceased  cate- 

cient  has  been  already  said.    As  regards  the  claims  of  chumens  is  permissible,  smce  we  may  assume  that 

the  cure  of  souls,  the  obligation  of  Divine  Law  that  thev  are  alr^dy  justified  by  their  desire  of  Baptism 

parish  priests  and  administratore  of  a  parish  should  and  are  in  purgatory.    In  hke  manner  Mass  may  be 

from  time  to  time  celebrate  Mass  for  their  parish-  celebrated  privately  for  the  souls  of  deceased  Jews  and 

ioners,  arises  from  the  relations  of  pastor  ana  flock.  heaUiens,  who  have  led  an  upright  life,  since  the  sacri- 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII.  de  ref .)  has  speci-  fice  is  intended  to  benefit  all  who  are  in  pui]gatory. 

fied  this  duty  of  application  more  dosely,  by  directing  For  further  details  see  Gopfert, "  Moraltheologie  ",  III 

that  the  parish  priestsbould  especially  apply  theMass.  (5th  ed.,  Paderbom,  1906). 

for  which  no  stipend  may  be  taken,  for  his  flock  on  all  .In  addiUon  to  the  speoUl  bibUosraphy  gi  vcm  under  eadi  see- 

Sundays  and  holy  days  (d;  Benedict  XIV   "Cum  tSSi:t^'S^:!:^^^^iSSi/fS?)f{S!:^l£^ 

semper  oblatas",  19  Aug.,  1744).     The  obhgation  to  Hadten  Begeiehnunpm  Jems,  ChrUU  aU  Siloe,  SehiJodi  u.  PiacU, 


114  eqq.  ^  Coa- 
the  whole  sub- 


remain  •'canonicaUy  fixed  feast  days'*,  although  the  bom.  1907);  XoiAoWfc.  II  (l90n,  ^9;  I  (1908).  l 

Wthful  are  dispensed,  from  the  obfigation  of  hearin/j  SSS^^^&^^ESL&j;-  '^^^  .„...  ™- 

Mass  and  may  engage  m  servile  works.  The  same  obh-  ject:  Summa  Theol,,  HI.  Q.  bgcdii;  Innogbnt  ni.  De  men 

gation  of  applying  the  Mass  falls  likewise  on  bishops,  aUans  rnvMerM  in  P.  L..  CCXXVII,  773  sqq.;  Bxti^uART,  1)« 

«i  pastom  of  ^>eir  dioowes.  and  on  tho«.  abbota  wVo  fi"r^S:l!?i,\,V  Si  ^!2S?S:'D*."r5SS'.^J^Wfc 

exercise  over  clergy  and  people  a  quasi-epiSCOpal  juna-  itadt,  1580) ;  Suarxs,  De  Buchar.  el  de  Miaem  musri/icio  (new  ed.. 

diction.   Titular  bishops  alone  are  excepted,  although  Pa™,  isei);  Dp  Luoo,  Deee.  Bvcharidia,  IV,  ed.  Fourniaub; 

even  in  their  ca«e  the  applioition  is  toje  desiml  (rf^  St^'i2:,";^''1gS!Si^^kii^;  ^^'J^SSS 

Leo  Xin,    In  suprema",  10  June,  1882).    As  the  ob-  eta  my^twio  (Cunbx^,  1876):  Framsbun.  De  m.  BuchariHim 

ligation  itself  is  not  only  personal,  but  also  real,  the  •«»«»»»2»'<'.^  «acri«c»o  (4«h  ML»,Rome,  i884)LKATBaBTHAUBR, 

applic^ioa  murt.  in  oa«  of  an  impedim^t  arising.  ^i^^iSSS^  ^^F^ii&^'S^liJ^l:  teSScS" it 

either  be  made  soon  afterwards,  or  be  effected  through  ekariatim   (fnuBbnick.    1889);    Many,  Prcaeaionee  de  Miaaa 

a  substitute,  who  has  a  right  to  a  mass  stipend  as  (P<^ris.  l9m):Qjymi,  The  Sacrifice  of  the  MaeaChondon,  1903); 

regulated  by  the  t«.    Con«rning  tWs  whoGTue?-  ^'^^l^t/^f.'t^S^'^^^.l^:  I&^^^^i 

Uon,  see  Heuser,  "Die  Yerpfliohtunf  der  Pfarrer,  die  SiouR,  Die  hi  Meaee  (Maini,  1874);  Cappbllassi,  L'^iieAarit- 

hL  Messe  fOr  die  Gemeinde  SU  appluaeren"  (Dtlissel-  tia  come  aacramento  e  come  eaerifieio  (Turin,  1898):  Hbrgbn- 

Anmf   MlMl\  rAthbr.  Die  BueharieHe  aie  Opfer  (Ratisbon.  1808);  HoLn- 

aon    l»w;.  wabth.  Briefe  Hberdaehl.  Meeeopfer  (Mbuii,  1873):  Mbnnb, 

(C)  For  the  mfJd  Ol  CtmpleteneSS  a  thud  and  last  Da9hl8akrwnerUdeeAUareaUOpfer^mdeihom,li79);l^B' 


MA8SA 


24 


MASSAOHirSERS 


ftKBiNo,  Da»  hi.  Jtf  eMop/«r  (Etnsiedein,  1880);  Businobr,  Das 
unblutioe  Opfer  dea  Neuen  Bundea  (Solothum,  1890);  Sauter, 
Dtu  hi.  Meaaopfer  (3rd  ed.,  Paderbom,  1910);'Lormann,  Daa 
Opfer  dea  Neuen  Buridea  (2nd  ed..  Paderbom,  1909);  also  the 
varioua  text-books  of  dogmatic  theology,  e.  c.  Pesch,  Prcdec- 
tionaa  dogmat.^Vl  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908):  Pohlb.  Daomatik, 
III  (4th  ed.,  Paderbom,  1910).  See  alao  Dibliography  under 
EXJCSAJUST.  J.  PoHLE. 

Massa  Candida. — Under  the  date  24  August,  the 
"Martyrologium  Romanum''  records  this  commem- 
oration :  "At  Carthage,  of  three  hundred  holy  martvrs 
in  the  time  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus.  Among  otner 
torments,  the  governor,  ordering  a  Hmekiln  to  be 
lighted  and  live  coals  with  incense  to  be  set  near  by, 
said  to  these  confessors  of  the  Faith: '  Choose  whether 
you  will  offer  incense  to  Jupiter  or  be  thrown  down 
mto  the  lime.'  And  they,  armed  with  faith,  con- 
fessing Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  with  one  swift  impulse 
hurled  themselves  into  the  fire,  where,  in  the  fumes  of 
the  burning  lime,  they  were  reduced  to  a  powder. 
Hence  this  band  of  blessed  ones  in  white  raiment  have 
been  held  worthy  of  the  name,  White  Mass"  The  date 
of  this  event  may  be  placed  between  a.  d.  253,  when 
Gallienus  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  imperial 
office,  and  a.  d.  260,  when  Valerian  was  entrapped  and 
made  prisoner  by  Sapor,  King  of  Persia.  As  to  the 
exact  place,  St.  Augustine  [Ser.  cccvi  (al.  cxii),  2]  calls 
these  martyrs  the  ''White  Mass  of  Utica",  indicating 
that  there  they  were  specially  commemorated.  Utica 
was  only  25  miles  from  the  city  of  Carthage,  which  was 
the  capital  of  a  thickly  populated  district,  and  the 
three  hundred  may  have  been  brought  from  Utica  to 
be  judged  by  the  procurator  (Galenus  Maximus). 

The  fame  of  the  Massa  Candida  has  been  perpetuated 
chiefly  through  two  early  references  to  them:  that  of 
St.  Augustine,  and  that  of  the  poet  Prudentius  (q.  v.). 
The  latter,  in  the  thirteenth  hymn  of  his  xept  ffT€^dpt9P 
collection,  has  a  dozen  lines  describing  **  the  pit  dug  in 
the  midst  of  the  plain,  filled  nearly  U>  the  brim  with 
lime  that  emitted  choking  vapours  ",  how  the  "  stones 
vomit  fire,  and  the  snowy  dust  bums. "  After  telling 
how  they  faced  this  ordeal,  he  concludes:  "  Whiteness 
[candor]  possesses  their  bodies;  purity  [candor]  bears 
their  nunds  [or,  souls]  to  heaven.  Hence  it  [the ' '  head- 
long swarm"  to  which  the  poet  has  referred  in  a 
S receding  line]  has  merited  to  be  forever  called  the 
fossa  Candida.'*  Both  St.  Augustine  and  Pruden- 
tius were  at  the  height  of  their  activity  before  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  Moreover,  St.  Augustine 
was  a  native  and  a  resident  of  this  same  Province  of 
Africa,  while  Prudentius  was  a  Spaniard.  It  is  natu- 
ral to  suppose  that  the  glorious  tale  of  the  three  him- 
dred  of  Carthage  had  become  familiar  to  both  writers 
through  a  fresh  and  vivid  tradition — ^no  older  than  the 
traditions  of  the  Revolutionary  War  now  are  in,  say, 
New  England.  It  is  not  even  probable  that  either  of 
them  originated  the  metaphor  imder  which  the  mar- 
tyrs of  the  limekiln  have  been  known  to  later  genera- 
tions :  the  name  Massa  Candida  had,  most  likely,  been 
lonf  in  use  among  the  faithful  of  Africa  and  Spain. 
As  Christians,  they  would  have  been  reminded  of  Apoc, 
vii,  13  and  14,  by  every  commemoration  of  a  martyr- 
dom; as  Romans — at  least  in  language  and  habit  of 
thou^t — ^they  were  aware  that  candidates  (candidati) 
for  office  were  said  to  have  been  so  called  in  Republi- 
can Rome  from  the  custom  of  whitening  the  toga  with 
chalk  or  lime  {caix)  when  canvassing;  for  votes.  Given 
the  Apocalyptic  imaee  and  the  Latm  et3rmolofi^  {can- 
dor— candidus — candidaius;  of.  in  the  "Te  Deum'*, 
"Candidatus  martyrum  exercitus'^,  it  was  almost  in- 
evitable that  this  united  body  of  witnesses  for  Christ, 
together  winning  their  heavenly  white  raiment  in  the 
incandescent  lime,  which  reduced  their  bodies  to  a 
homogeneous  mass,  should,  by  the  peculiar  form  of 
their  agony,  have  suggested  tms  name  to  the  African 
and  Spanish  Christians. 

(For  the  casuistry  of  the  self-destruction  of  the 
Massa  Candida,  see  Sxhcide.) 


HaiionnifiTBBR,  Kirchmgaaeh.,  Frenoh  tr.  Belst,  I  (Paris. 
1901);  MoRom,  Diaionanc  di  Erudiaione  Storica-Eedea.,  XLEI 
(Venioe,  1847),  100. 

E.  Macphbrson. 

Massa 0arrara,DiocE8E of  (Mabsensis),  in  Central 
Italy  (Lunigiana  and  Garfagnana).  The  city  is  located 
on  the  Frigido,  in  a  district  rich  in  various  mines  but 
especially  famous  for  its  pure  white  marble  ^hich  the 
Romans  preferred  to  those  of  Paros  and  Pentelicus. 
Massa  Carrara  is  the  "  Mansio  ad  Tabema  Frigida  "  of 
the  "Tabula  Peutingeriana ".  In  the  ninth  century 
it  belonged  to  the  bishops  of  Luni,  and  was  confirmed 
to  them  by  Otto  I  and  by  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
though  really  at  that  time  subject  to  the  Malaspina, 
counts  of  Lunigiana.  It  passed  from  Lucca  to  Pisa, 
was  held  by  the  Visconti  and  the  Fieschi,  again  by 
Lucca,  and  was  later  a  free  commune  under  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Florence.  In  1434,  it  took  the  marquis 
Antonio  Alberico  Malaspina  for  its  lord;  in  154S  the 
marquisate  passed  to  the  House  of  Cyb6j  through  the 
marriage  of  Lorenzo  of  that  name  with  Riccarda 
Malaspina.  In  1568,  Carrara  became  a  principality, 
and  in  1664  a  duchy.  The  most  famous  prince  of  the 
house  of  Cyb6  was  Alberico  I,  who  endowed  his  little 
state  with  a  model  code  of  laws.  The  daughter  of 
Alderamo,  the  last  of  the  Cybds,  married  Rinaldo 
Ercole  d'Este,  and  by  this  marriage  the  duchy  became 
united  with  that  of  Modena;  in  1806  it  was  given  to 
Elisa  Bacciochi,  and  in  1814  to  Maria  B^itrice,  daugh- 
ter of  Rinaldo  Ercole,  at  whose  death  the  duchy 
returned  to  Modena.  The  name  of  Carrara  comes  from 
Carraria,  a  stone  quarry.  An  academy  of  sculpture 
founded  by  Duchess  Maria  Teresa  (1741)  has  its  seat 
at  Carrara  in  the  old  but  magnificent  ducal  palace. 
The  fine  cathedral  dates  from  1300.  Corrara  is  the 
birthplace  of  the  sculptors  Tacca.  Baratta,  Finelli,  and 
Tenerani,  and  of  the  statesman  Pellegrino  Rossi.  The 
see  was  created  in  1822  at  the  instance  of  Duchess 
Maria  Beatrice,  and  its  first  bishop  was  Francesco 
Maria  Zappi;  it  was  then  suffragan  of  Pisa,  but  since 
1855  has  been  suffragan  of  Modena.  The  sanctuary 
of  Santa  Maria  dei  Quercioli,  founded  in  1832,  is  in  the 
Diocese  of  Carrara.  The  latter  has  213  parishes, 
155,400  inhabitants,  one  religious  house  of  men,  seven 
of  women,  and  four  educational  institutes  for  male 
students,  and  as  many  for  girls. 

CAPPELLirm,  Le  Chieae  d'ltalia,  XV  (Venice.  1857):  Fab- 
BBTTX,  Ragionamento  atorieo  iniomo  aUa  eiUit  di  Modena;  Viami, 
Memoria  deUa  famiglia  Cybb^ 

U.  Bbnioki. 

Massachasetts,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  United 
States  of  America.  The  Commonwealth  of  Massachu- 
setts covers  part  of  the  territory  originally  granted  to 
the  Plymouth  Company  of  England.  It  grew  out  of 
the  consolidation  (in  1692)  of  the  two  original  colonies, 
Plymouth  and  Massachusetts  Bay.  The  settlement  at 
Plymouth  began  with  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  22 
December,  1620;  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
was  established  under  John  Endicott  at  Salem  in  1628. 
The  royal  province  created  by  this  consolidation  in- 
cluded also  the  District  of  Maine  and  so  remained 
imtil  the  present  State  of  Maine  was  set  off  from 
Massachusetts  by  Congress,  3  March,  1820.  No  au- 
thentic and  complete  survey  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts exists,  but  it  is  generally  believed  to  include 
an  area  of  about  8040  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  rather  more  than  three  millions.  Of  tliis  number 
1,373,752  are  Catholics,  distributed  among  the  three 
Dioceses  of  Boston  (the  Archdiocese),  Fall  River,  and 
Springfield,  which  are  the  actual  ecclesiastical  divi- 
sions of  the  state.  Classified  by  nationalities,  this 
Catholic  population  comprises  more  than  7000  Ger- 
mans, 60,000  Portuguese,  100,000  Italians,  150,000 
French  Canadians,  10,000  Lithuanians,  3000  Syrians, 
25,000  Poles,  1000  Negroes,  81  Chinese,  3000  Bravas, 
the  remainder — more  than  1,000,000 — being  princi- 
pally Irish  or  of  Irish  parentage.      « 


BUSSAOHUSKTTB  2 

I.  CoLONiAi.  HiSTORT  .—A .  SeUiejnenl . — The  explora- 
tiooa  and  settlements  of  the  Northmen  upon  the  shores 
of  Maasachuaetta,  the  voyages  of  the  Cabots,  the  tem- 
porary settlement  (1602)  of  theGosnoldpartyononeof 
the  Elizabeth  lekads  of  Biuxard*H  Bay^  and  the  eT- 

Eloratioos  and  the  mapping  of  the  New  England  coast 
y  Captain  John  Smithare  usually  passed  over  as  more 
or  less  ctMijectural.    The  undisputed  history  of  Massa- 
ehuaetts  begins  with  the  ajrival  of  the  "Mayflower" 
in  December,  1S20.     Nevertheless  the  due  apprecia- 
tion of  these  previous  eveats  gives  a  ready  and  logical 
explanation  of  maoy  acts,  customs,  and  laws  of  the 
founders  of  this  commonwealth  which,  in  general,  are 
imperfectly  understood.   The  early  maps  (15S2)  mark 
the  present  territory  of  New  England  under  the  name 
"  Norumbe^  ",  and  show  that  the  coast  had  been  vis- 
ited by  Chnstian  mariners— whether  by  fishermen  in 
search  of  the  fisheries  set  forth  by  Cabot,  or  by  the 
daring  Drakes.  Frobishers,  and  liiwkinseB  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  does  not  seem  clear.    It  is  an  accepted 
fact  that,  when  Gosnold  set  out  in  1602^  there  was  not 
a  single  English  settlement  on  the  Continent.    France 
did  not  a<&iowledge  the  claim  of  England  over  the 
whole  of  the  territory,     A 
French  colony  bad    been 
established  where  now  is 
northern  Virginia,  und  er  the 
name    of   "New  France". 

SThia  was  after  Veraiiano's 
expedition  mode  by  order 
of  Fmncis  I.  A  French 
explorer,  too,  the  Huguenot 
Sieur  de  Monts,  had  been 
to  Canada,  and  knew  much 
about  the  resources  of  that 
country,  especially  the  fur 
trade  of  the  Indian  tribes. 
Henry  IV  had  given  De 
MonU  a  patent  to  all  the 
Co>t-ov~Abks  country   now   included    in 

roBiflHaPABTorTinBiALoTNew  England,  also  a  mo- 
M»«i»cBu»tTT«  nopoly   of  the    fur    trade. 

All  this  is  important,  because  it  entered  into  the  con- 
ditions of  tius  early  permanent  settlement  here. 

For  a  quarter  of  a  century  prior  to  the  coining  of  the 
Pilgrims,  the  French  and  the  Dutch  resented  the  en- 
croachments of  the  English.  "The  Great  Patent  for 
New  England",  of  1620,  granted  to  Gorges  and  bis 
forty  associates,  has  been  called  a  "  despotic  as  well  as 
a  gigantic  commercial  monopoly".  This  grant  in- 
cluded the  New  Netherlands  o(  the  Dutch,  the  French 
Acadia  and,  indeed,  nearly  oU  the  present  inhabited 
British  possessions  in  North  America,  besides  all  New 
England,  the  State  of  New  York,  half  of  New  Jersey, 
nearly  all  of  Pennsytvania,  and  the  country  to  the 
west — in  short,  all  the  territory  from  the  fortieth  de- 
gree of  north  latitude  to  the  forty-eighth,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  English  had  in- 
creased the  enmity  of  the  French  by  destroying  the 
Catholic  settlements  at  Ste-Croix  and  at  Port-Royal, 
and  had  aroused  the  suspicion  and  hostility  of  the 
Indians  by  the  treachery  of  Hunt,  an  act  described  by 
Mather  as  "one  which  constrained  the  English  to  sus- 
pend their  trade  and  abandon  their  prospects  of  a 
settlement  in  New  England". 

The  religious  conditions  were  no  less  ominous  for 
the  Pil^ms.  At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  centurv, 
all  Christian  Europe,  with  shght  exceptions,  was  Cattt- 
oUc  and  loyal  to  the  papacy^  at  the  close  of  that  cen- 
tury England  herself  was  the  mother  of  three  anti- 
papacy  sects:  the  State  Church  and  its  two  divisions; 
the  Nonconformists,  or  Puritans;  and  the  Separatists, 
or  Pilgrims.  At  the  time  of  the  sailing  of  the  "May- 
flower", the  Puritans  had  liecome  as  fully  disenfran- 
chised by  the  Anglican  Church  as  the  Pilgrims  had 
estranged  themselves  from  both;  each  distrusted  the 
others;  all  three  hated  the  Church  of  Rome.    Gtrf^ 


;  HAaSAOHUSSTTS 

and  hii  associates  bad  found  the  French  and  thrar 

Jesuit  missionaries  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  o( 
securing  fiw-Jrading  privileges  from  the  Indians.  The 
alleged  gold  and  copper  mines  of  Smith  and  of  Gosnold 
were  now  regarded  as  myths;  unless  something  could 
be  done  at  once,  the  opportunities  offered  by  their 
charter  monopoly  would  be  worthless.  A  permanent 
English  settlement  in  America  was  the  only  sure  way 
of  preventing  the  French  and  the  Dutch  from  aoquir- 
ingthe  Virginia  territory.  The  Gorges  company  knew 
of  the  cherished  hopes  otithe  Pilgrims  to  find  a  home 
away  from  their  English  peraecutora,  and,  after  much 
chicanery  on  the  port  of  tlie  promoters,  the  company 
agreed  to  found  a  home  for  the  Pilgrims  in  the  new 
world.  The  articles  of  agreement  were  wholly  com* 
mercial,  and  the  "Mayflower"  sailed  for  Virgiiua. 
History  differs  in  its  interpretation  of  the  end  of  that 
voyage,  but  all  agree  that  the  Pilgrims,  in  landing  at 
Plymouth,  22  December,  1S20,  were  outside  any  juris- 
diction of  their  patrons,  the  Virginia  Company.  The 
Pilgrims  themselves  recognised  their  difficulty,  and 
the  famous  "Compact"  was  adopted,  before  kmding, 


Gorges  r        ^     .  .,-. 

taining  from  James  I  the  new  charter  of  1620  which 
controlled,  on  a  commercial  basis,  all  religious  coloni- 
sation in  America.  The  struggle  of  race  against  race, 
tribe  against  tribe,  neighbour  against  neighbour  were 
oU  encouraged  so  long  as  the  warfare  brought  gain  to 
the  mercenary  adventurers  at  home.  The  Pilgrims, 
Ending  themselves  deserted  by  the  instigators  of  this 
ill-feehog,  were  forced  by  the  law  of  self-preservation 
to  continue  religious  intolerance  and  the  exterminar- 
tion  of  the  Indians.  Thus  it  is  that  we  find  the  laws, 
the  customs,  and  the  manners  of  these  first  English 
settlers  so  mterwoven  with  the  religiD-commercial 
principle.  The  coming  of  the  Puritans,  in  1829-30, 
added  the  factor  of  pohtics,  which  resulted  in  estab- 
lishing in  America  the  very  thing  against  which  these 
"Punsts"  had  fought  at  home,  namely,  the  union  of 
Church  and  State.  Here,  again,  at  Puritan  Salem, 
Gorges  and  Mason  cloaked  their  commercialism  under 
religion,  as  the  accounts  of  La  Tour  and  Winalow 
attest,  and  so  effective  were  their  machinations  that, 
as  early  as  16.35,  Endicotfs  seal  had  not  left  a  set  rf 
the  king's  colours  intact  with  the  red  cross  thereon — 
that  "  relic  of  popery  insufferable  in  a  Puritan  com- 
munity ". 

B.  Colonial  Le^XoHon.. — The  legality  of  the  early 
acts  of  the  colonists  depends,  to  a  great  decree,  oo 
whether  the  charters  granted  to  the  two  colonies  were 
tor  the  purpose  of  instituting  a  corporation  for  trading 
purposes,  or  whether  they  are  regarded  as  constitu- 
tions and  foundations  of  a  government.  This  much- 
controverted  point  has  never  been  settled  satisfacto- 
rily. The  repeated  demands  from  the  king,  often  with 
threat  of  prosecution,  for  the  return  of  the  charters 
were  ignored,  so  that,  until  I6S4,  the  colony  was  prao- 
tically  a  free  state,  independent  of  England,  and  pro- 
fessing httle,  if  any,  loyalty.  Judging  from  the  corre- 
spondence, it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  intention 
of  the  Crown  in  granting  the  charter  was  that  the  cor> 
poration  should  have  a  local  habftation  in  England, 
and  it  is  ecjually  evident  that  the  colony  did  not  pos- 
sess the  right  to  make  its  own  laws.  It  is  plamly 
stated,  in  the  patent  granted  to  the  Puritsjis,  who  tlie 
governor  and  other  officials  of  the  colony  should  be, 
showing  thereby  that  the  Crown  retainetl  the  right  ol 
governing.  A  new  charter  was  granted  in  1692,  cover- 
ing Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Maine,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  intervening  territory,  entitled  "The  Province 
of  Massachusetts  Bayin  New  England";  nevertheless 
it  was  not  until  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  in  ITl.'!,  that 
the  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  home  Government,    - 

the  Crown's  rights,  abated  notably.    During 

which  the  Puritans  ignored  the 
and  mode  laws  in  accordance 


MA88^HU8BTT8 


26 


BCAS&AUUUIUBTTB 


with  their  aim  selfiflh  interests,  many  of  those  acts 
occurred  which  histoiy  has  since  condemned.  At  the 
first  meeting  of  the  General  Court  held  30  August. 
1630,  it  was  voted  to  build  a  house  for  the  minister  and 
maintain  it  at  the  state's  expense — an  act  described 
by  Benedict,  in  his  '^  History  of  the  Baptists  ",  as  **  the 
first  dangerous  act  performed  by  the  rulers  of  this 
incipient  government  which  led  to  innumerable  evils, 
hardships,  and  privations  to  all  who  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  dissent  irom  the  ruling  power  in  after  times. — 
The  Viper  in  Embryo;  herfe  was  an  importation  and 
establisnment,  in  the  outset  of  the  settlement,  of  the 
odious  doctrine  of  Church  and  State  which  had  thrown 
empires  into  convulsions,  had  caused  rivers  of  blood 
to  be  shed,  had  crowded  prisons  with  innocent  victims, 
and  had  driven  the  Pilgnms  [he  means  Puritans]  them- 
selves, who  were  now  engaged  in  the  mistaken  legislar 
tion,  from  all  that  was  dear  in  their  native  homes." 
This  union  of  Church  and  State  controlled  the  elec- 
torate and  citizenship  of  the  colony,  made  the  school 
a  s)monym  of  both,  excluded  Cathohc  priests  and  pro- 
hibited the  entrance  of  Jesuits,  condemned  witches  to 
death,  banished  Roger  Williams  and  the  Quakers, 
estabushed  the  pillory,  and  in  other  ways  left  to  pos- 
terity many  chapters  of  uncharitableness,  intolerance, 
and  crueltv.  After  the  War  of  Independence,  the 
old  colonial  government  took  a  definite  constitutional 
form  under  the  Union,  in  1780,  and  the  first  General 
Court  of  the  sovereign  State  of  Massachusetts  con- 
vened in  October  of  that  year.  This  constitution  was 
revised  in  1820. 

C.  Catholic  ColonuaUon, — The  Plymouth  and 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colonies  were  composed  princi- 
pally of  English.  Near  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  however,  the  forced  emigration  of  the  Irish 
broiight  many  of  that  race  to  these  shores;  their  num- 
ber is  hard  to  estimate,  first,  because  the  law  made  it 
obligatory  that  all  sailings  must  take  place  from  Eng- 
lish ports,  so  that  there  are  no  records  of  those  who 
came  from  Ireland  with  English  sailing  registry; 
secondly,  because  the  law,  under  heavv  penalties, 
obliged  all  Irishmen  in  certain  towns  of  Ireland  to 
take  English  surnames — ^the  name  of  some  small 
town,  of  a  colour,  of  a  particular  trade  or  office,  or  of  a 
certain  art  or  craft.  Children  in  Ireland  were  sepor 
rated  forcibly  from  their  parents  and  under  new  names 
sent  into  the  colonies.  Men  and  women,  from  Cork 
and  its  vicinity,  were  openly  sold  into  slavei^  for 
America.  Connaught,  which  was  nine-tenths  Catholic, 
was  depopulated.  Tlie  frequently  published  state- 
ment in  justification  of  Cromwell's  persecution,  that 
the  victims  of  this  white  slave-traffic  were  criminals, 
finds  no  corroboration  in  the  existence  of  a  single  penal 
colony  in  this  country.  In  1034  the  General  Court 
of  Massachusetts  Bav  also  granted  land  for  an  Irish 
settlement  on  the  banks  of  the  Merrimac  River. 
(See  Boston,  Archdiocese  or;  Irish  in  Countries 

OTHER  THAN  IRELAND,  I.) 

II.  Modern  Massachxtsbtts. — A.  StaHsHes  of 
PomikUion.  In  1630  the  population  of  Plymouth 
ana  Massachusetts  Colonies  was  estimated  at  8000 
white  people;  in  1050,  at  16,000;  in  1700,  at  70,000; 
while  m  1750  it  was  placed  at  220,000.  In  1790  the 
population  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  was  378,787; 
m  1905  it  was  3,003,680.  The  density  of  population 
increased  from  47  to  the  square  mile,  m  1790,  to  373, 
in  1905.  In  1790  over  nine-tenths  of  the  population 
Uved  in  rural  communities,  while  in  1905  less  than 
one-fourth  (22.26  per  cent)  of  the  total  population 
lived  in  communities  of  8000  or  less.  The  great  tide 
of  Irish  immigration  began  in  1847.  This  nas  since 
conspicuously  modified  the  population  of  Massachu- 
setts. In  1905  the  ratio  of  increase  in  the  native  and 
in  the  foreign-bom  of  the  population  was  6.46  per 
cent  and  8.47  per  cent  respectively;  the  number  of 
native-bom  in  tne  total  population  being  2,085,636, 
ftDd  (bat  of  the  foreign-bom  oeing;  918,044,  an  increMC 


of  the  latter  of  450 . 7  per  cent  since  1860.  This  foreign- 
bom  population  is  mostly  (83 .  91  per  cent)  in  cities  and 
towns  with  populations  ot  more  than  8000.  Ireland 
has  furnished  25 .  75  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign-bom. 
Canada  (exclusive  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island)  is  second,  with  a  popular 
tion  of  12 .  88  per  cent  of  the  total  foreien-bom  popula- 
tion. At  present  Russia  supplies  the  laisest  increase 
in  foreign-bom,  having  risen  from  one-hiuf  of  one  per 
cent,  in  1885,  to  6.43  per  cent,  in  1905.  Italy's  con- 
tribution in  the  same  period  rose  from  .  76  per  cent  to 
5.51  per  cent.  Almost  sixty  per  cent  of  the  entire 
population  of  Massachusetts  is  now  of  foreign  parent- 
age. In  the  cities  of  Fidl  River  and  Lawrence  it  runs 
as  high  as  four-fifths  of  the  entire  population,  while  in 
Holyoke,  Lowell,  and  Chicopee  it  is  more  than  three- 
fourths.  In  Boston  the  population  of  foreim  parent- 
Sjse  forms  69.03  per  cent,  while  at  New  Beoford  it 
rises  to  72.34  per  cent,  at  Worcester  to  65.64  per 
cent,  at  Cambridge  to  65 .  16  per  cent,  at  Wobum  to 
63 .  63  per  cent,  and  at  Salem  to  61 .  10  per  cent.  The 
Greeks  have  increased  in  Massachusetts  1242.7  per 
cent  since  1895,  a  greater  rapiditv  of  increase  than  all 
peoples  of  foreign  parentage  in  the  population.  Aus- 
tria comes  next,  and  Ital^  is  thira.  In  the  city  of 
Boston,  Irish  parentage  gives  174,770  out  of  a  totsi 
census  of  410,960  persons  of  foreign  parentage,  and 
this  nationality  predominates  in  every  ward  except  the 
eighth,  where  Russian  parentage  stands  first.  The 
transformation  in  the  racial  and  national  population 
in  Massachusetts  has  likewise  changed  the  religious 
prominence    of    the    various    denominations.    The 

g resent  order  of  denominations  in  thiB  state  is :  Catho- 
c,  69.2  per  cent;  Congr^itionalists,  7.6  per  cent; 
Baptists,  5.2  per  cent;  Methodists,  4.2  per  cent; 
Protestant  Episcopalians,  3.3  per  cent. 

B.  Economic  Conditions. — ^Massachusetts  was  not 
favoured  by  nature  for  an  agricultural  centre.  The 
soil  is  sandy  in  the  level  areas  and  clayey  in  the  hilly 
sections.  The  valleys  of  the  streams  are  rich  in  soil 
favourable  to  vegetable-  and  fruit-production.  The 
early  industries  were  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  commerce  was  the 
most  profitable  occupation,  and  after  the  declaration 
of  peace.  Massachusetts  sent  its  ships  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  The  European  wars  helped  this  eom- 
meree  greatly  until  the  War  of  1812,  with  its  embargo 
and  non-intercourse  laws,  which  forced  the  American 
vessels  to  stay  at  home.  It  had  its  recompenses, 
however,  in  the  birth  of  manufactures,  an  industry 
attempted  as  early  as  1631  and  1644,  but  subse- 
quently suppressed  bv  the  mother  countr;^.  The  first 
cotton  mill  was  established  at  Beverlv  in  1787.  It 
was  not  until  1840,  however,  that  the  cotton  and 
leather  industries  attained  permanent  leadership. 
According  to  the  published  statistics  of  1908,  Massa- 
chusetts had  6044  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  yearly  product  valued  at  $1,172,808,782.  The 
boot  and  shoe  industrv  was  the  leading  industry  of 
the  State,  with  a  yearlv  production  of  1213,506,562. 
This  industry  producecl  18.2  per  cent  of  the  product 
value  of  the  State,  and  one-half  of  all  the  product  in 
this  line  in  the  United  States.  The  cotton  manu- 
factures were  13.51  per  cent  of  the  State's  total  prod- 
uct. The  total  capital  devoted  to  production  in  the 
State  was  $717,787,955.  More  than  480,000  wase- 
eamers  were  employed  (323,308  males;  156,826  fe- 
males) in  the  vanous  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
State,  the  two  leading  industries  employing  35.22  per 
cent  of  the  aggregate  average  number  of  aH  employees. 
The  average  yearly  eammg  for  each  operative  is 
$501.71.  The  Massachusetts  laws  prohibit  more 
than  fifty-eieht  hours'  weekly  employment  in  xnei- 
cantile  establishments,  and  limit  the  day's  labour  to 
ten  hours.  No  woman  or  minor  can  be  employed  for 
purposes  of  manufacturing  between  the  hours  of  ten 
o'clock  p.  in.  Mid  m  o'clock  ».  m.;  no  minor  under 


MA88A0HU81TT8                        27  MA88A0BV8STT8 

eighteen  years  and  no  woman  can  be  employed  in  any  achodb  and  gave  to  them  a  false  and  fictitious  sooialy 
textile  factoiy  between  six  o'clock  p.  m.  and  six  intellectual,  and  moral  standing.  ^  The  American  In- 
o'clock  a.  m.;  no  child  under  fourteen  years  of  ace  stitute  of  Instruction  was  formed  in  1830  at  Boston  as 
can  be  employed  during  the  hours  when  the  pubEc  a  protest  against  the  low  standard  of  teaching  in  the 
schools  are  in  session,  nor  between  seven  o'clock  p.  m.  public  schools.  Three  years  prior  to  this  (1^7)  the 
and  six  o'clock  a.  m.  Children  under  fourteen  j^ears,  Legislature  had  established  the  State  Board  of  Eauca- 
and  children  over  fourteen  years  and  under  sixteen  tion,  which  remained  unchanged  in  form  until  1900. 
years,  who  cannot  read  at  sijght  and  write  I^bly  That  same  year  was  made  historic  by  the  Legislature 
simple  sentences  in  the  English  language,  shui  oe  voting  to  make  it  unlawful  to  use  the  conmion  schools, 
permitted  to  work  on  SaturaiEi3rs  between  six  o'clock  or  to  teach  anything  in  the  schoolSj  in  order  to  turn 
a.  m.  and  seven  o'clock  p.  m.  only.  Transportation  the  children  to  a  belief  in  any  particular  sect.  This 
facilities  have  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  in-  was  the  first  abow  of  strength  Unitarianism  had  mani- 
dustries.  Two  main  railroad  systems  connect  with  fested  in  Massachusetts,  and  it  has  retained  its  con- 
the  West,  and,  by  means  of  the  interstate  branches,  trol  of  the  educational  policy  of  the  state  since  that 
these  connect  with  all  the  leading  industrial  cities,  date.  In  1835  the  civil  authorities  at  Lowell  author- 
One  general  railroad  system  with  its  sub-divisions  ised  the  establishment  of  separate  Catholic  schools 
connects  with  the  South,  via  New  York.  The  means  with  Catholic  teachers  and  with  all  text-books  subject 
of  transportation  by  water  are  no  less  complete  than  to  the  pastor's  approval.  The  municipalit^r  paia  all 
those  by  rail,  and  offer  every  facility  to  bring  coal  and  the  expenses  except  the  rent  of  rooms.  Tms  experi- 
other  supplies  of  the  worla  into  connection  with  the  ment  was  a  peat  success.  The  general  wave  of  reli- 
various  railroad  terminab  for  distribution.  gious  fanaticism,  which  swept  the  country  a  few  years 
C.  Edueatum, — AU  education  in  Massachusetts  was  later,  was  responsible  for  the  acceptance  of  the  refer> 
at  first  religious.  We  read  of  the  establishment  in  endum  vote  of  21  May,  1855,  which  adopted  the  con- 
1636  of  Harvard  College,  "lest  an  illiterate  ministry  stitutional  amendment  that  ''all  moneys  thus  raised 
might  be  left  to  the  churches",  and"  to  provide  for  the  by  taxation  in  towns,  or  appropriated  by  the  state, 
instruction  of  the  people  in  piety,  morality,  and  learn-  shall  never  be  appropriatea  to  any  religious  sect  for 
ing."  The  union  of  Churcn  and  State  was  accepted,  the  maintenance  exclusively  of  its  own  schools  ".  The 
and  the  General  Court  agreed  to  give  400  poimds  to-  Ci\il  War  resulted  in  a  saner  view  of  man^  questions 
wards  the  establishment  of  the  college.  Six  years  which  had  been  blurred  by  passion  and  prejudice,  and 
later  it  was  resolved,  "taking  into  consideration  the  in  1862  (and  again  in  1880)  the  statute  taw  was  modi- 
ereat  neglect  of  many  parents  and  guardians  in  train-  fied  so  that  "  Bible  reading  is  required,  but  without 
ing  up  their  children  in  leamiiu;  and  labor  and  other  written  note  or  oral  comment j  a  pupil  is  exempt  from 
emplojrment  which  may  be  promable  to  the  Common-  taking  part  in  any  such  exercise  if  his  parent  or  guar- 
wealth  .  .  .  that  chosen  men  in  eveiy  town  are  to  dian  so  wishes;  any  version  is  allowed,  and  no  commit- 
redress  this  evil,  are  to  have  power  to  take  account  of  tee  mav  purchase  or  order  to  be  used  in  any  public 
parents,  masters,  and  of  their  children,  especially  of  school  Books  calculated  to  favor  the  tenets  of  any  par- 
their  ability  to  read  and  imderstand  the  prmciples  of  ticular  sect  of  Christians." — ^This,  in  brief,  is  the  pro- 
religion  ana  the  capital  laws  of  the  countrpr".  This  cess  by  which  the  secularisation  of  the  public  schools 
was  the  origin  of  compulsory  education  m  Massa-  came  about,  a  complete  repudiation  of  the  law  of 
chusetts.     In  1647  every  town  was  ordered,  under  1642. 

penalty  of  a  fine,  to  build  and  support  a  school  for  the  Massachusetts  has  ten  state  normal  schools  with 

double  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and  of  citiaen-  over  2000  pupils  and  a  corps  of  130  teachers.    In  the 

ship;  every  large  town  of  one  hundred  families  to  build  17,566  public  schools  there  are  524,310  pupils  with  an 

a  grammar  school  to  fit  the  youths  for  the  univernty.  average  attendance  of  92  per  cent.    The  proportion  of 

Thus  was  established  the  common  free  school.    The  teachers  is  1281  male  and  13,497  female.    The  total 

union  of  Church  and  State  was  as  pronounced  in  support  of  the  public  schools  amounts  annually  to 

education  as  in  civic  affairs.    When  the  grants  from  $14,697,774.    There  are  forty-two  academies  with  an 

the  l^islature — colonial,  provincial,  and  state— failed  enrolment  of  over  6000pupils,  and  344  private  schools 
to  meet  the  (                        i-  •  -  -   j  —  •  x 

lotteries  were 
College  from 

gregationalism  had  controlled  education  and  l^gisla-  in  Massachusetts  is  $3,512,557,604.    There  are  within 

tion,  and  the  corporation  of  Harvard  College  was  the  state  eighteen  colleges  or  universities,  six  of  them 

limited  to  state  omcials  and  a  specified  number  of  Con-  devoted  to  the  education  of  women  only.    Massachu- 

gregational  oleiig}rmen.    It  was  not  until  1843  that  setts  has  also  ei^ht  schools  of  theology,  three  law 

other  than  Congregationalists  were  eligible  for  elec-  schools,  four  medical  schools,  two  dental  schools,  one 

tion  as  overseers  of  the  college.  school  of  pharmacy,  and  three  textile  schools.    The 

The  c»iginal  system  of  state  education,  as  outlined  only  colleges  in  Massachusetts  ^except  textile  schools) 

above,  was  uninterrupted  until  the  close  of  the  Revo-  receiving  state  or  federal  subsioies  are  the  State  Agri- 

lution.    The  burdens  of  the  war,  with  its  poverty  and  cultural  Colleges  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 

taxation,  reduced  the  "grammar  schoor'  to  a  very  Technology,  the  latter  receiving  both.    The  number  of 

low  standard.    Men  of  ability  found  a  more  lucrative  public  libraries  in  Massachusetts  exceeds  that  of  any 

occupation  than  teaching.    Private  schools  sprang  other  state.    The  list  includes  2586  libraries  with  10,- 

into  existence  about  this  time,  and  the  legacies  of  810,974  volumes  valued  at  $12,657,757.    There  are 

Dummer,  Phillips,  Williston,  and  others  made  their  623  reading  rooms,  of  which  301  are  free.    There  are 

foundations  the  preparatory  schools  for  Harvard.    In  thirty  schools  for  tne  dependent  and  the  afflicted. 

1789  the  legislature  passed^  an  act  substituting  six  The  growth  of  the  Catholic  schools  has  been  nota- 

months  for  the  constant  instruction  provided  for  ble.    Besides  Holy  Cross  CoUege  at  Worcester^  and 

towns  of  fifty  families;  and  the  law  required  a  gram-  Boston  College  at  Boston,  there  are  in  the  diocese 

mar-teacher  of  deteimined  qualifications  for  towns  of  of  Boston  seventy-nine  grammar  schools  and  twenty- 

200  families,  instead  of  the  similar  requirements  for  all  six  high  schools  with  a  teaching  sts^  of  1075  persons 

towns  of  half  that  population.    In  1797  the  Legisla-  and  an  enrolment  of  52,142.    This  represents  an  in- 

ture  formally  adopted  all  the  incorporated  academies  vestment  of  more  than  $2,700,000,  a  yearly  interest  of 

as  public  state  schools,  and  thus  denominational  edu-  $135,000.    More  than  a  third  of  the  parishes  in  this 

cation  almost  entirelv  replaced  the  grammar  schools  diocese  now  maintain  parochial  schools.    In  the  Dio- 

foonded  in  1647.    The  act  of  1789  was  repealed  in  cese  of  Fall  River  there  are  over  12,000  pupils  in  28 

1824.    This  aided  greatly  the  private  denominational  parochial  schools,  besides  a  commercial  sdiool  with 


1SA88A0HUSETT8 


28 


MASSAOHUSBTTS 


363  pupils.    In  the  Diooeae  of  Springfield  there  are 
24^2  pupils  in  56  parochial  schoob. 

D.  Laws  affecting  Religion  and  Morals. — ^Elsewhere 
in  this  article  we  have  traced  colonial  laws  and  legisla- 
tion. The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  gave 
religious  liberty.  The  State  Constitution  of  1780  im- 
posed a  religious  test  as  a  qualification  for  office  and  it 
authorized  the  legislature  to  tax  the  towns,  if  neces- 
sary, "  for  the  support  and  maintenance  of  public  Prot- 
estant teachers  ofpiety,  religion,  and  morality  ".  The 
former  law  was  repealed  in  1821,  and  the  latter  in 
1833.  Complete  religious  equality  has  existed  since 
the  latter  date.  The  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day  is 
amply  safeguarded,  but  entertainments  for  charitable 
puiposes  given  by  charitable  or  religious  societies  are 
permitted.  The  keeping  of  open  shop  or  engaging  in 
work  or  business  not  for  charitable  purposes  is  forbid- 
den. Many  of  the  rigid  laws  of  colonial  dajrs  are  yet 
unrepealed.  There  is  no  law  authorizing  the  use  of 
prayer  in  the  Legislature;  custom,  however,  has  made 
It  a  rule  to  open  each  session  with  prayer.  This  same 
custom  has  become  the  rule  in  opening  the  several  sit- 
tings of  the  higher  courts.  Catnolic  priests  have  offi- 
ciated at  times  at  the  former.  The  present  Arch- 
bishop of  Boston  offered  pra3rer  at  the  opening  of  at 
least  one  term  of  the  Superior  Court,  bemg  the  first 
Catholic  to  perform  this  office.  The  courts  and  the 
judiciary  have  full  power  to  administer  oaths. 

The  legal  holidays  in  Massachusetts  are  22  Feb- 
ruary, 19  April  (Patriots'  Day),  30  May,  4  July, 
the  first  Monday  in  Septembier  (Labor  Day),  12 
Oct.  (Columbus  Day),  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  Cluist- 
mas  Day.  The  hst  does  not  include  Good  Fri- 
day. The  seal  of  confession  is  not  recognized  by 
law,  although  in  practice  sacramental  confession 
is  generally  treated  as  a  privileged  conversation. 
Incor|}oration  of  churches  and  of  charitable  institu- 
tions is  authorized  by  statute.  Such  organizations 
may  make  their  own  laws  and  elect  their  own  officers. 
Every  religious  society  so  organized  shall  constitute  a 
bod^r  corporate  with  the  powers  given  to  corporations. 
Section  44,  chapter  36,  ot  the  Public  Statutes  provide 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  or  bishop,  the 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  and  the  pastor  of  the 
church  for  the  time  being,  or  a  majority  of  these^  may 
associate  with  themselves  two  laymen,  communicants 
of  the  church,  may  form  a  body  corporate,  the  signers 
of  the  certificate  of  incorporation  becoming  the  trus- 
tees. Such  corporations  may  receive,  hold,  and  man- 
age all  real  and  personal  property  belonging  to  the 
church,  sell,  transfer,  hold  truists,  bequests,  etc.,  but 
all  property  beion^g  to  any  church  or  parish,  or  held 
by  sucn  a  corporation,  shall  never  exceed  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  exclusive  of  church  buildings.  All 
church  property  and  houses  of  religious  worship  (ex- 
cept that  part  of  such  houses  appropriated  for  pur- 
poses other  than  religious  worship  or  instruction)  are 
exempt  from  taxation.  This  exemption  extends  to 
the  property  of  literary,  benevolent,  charitable,  and 
scientific  institutions,  and  temperance  societies;  also  to 
legacies,  cemeteries,  and  tomos.  Clerg3rmen  are  ex- 
empt from  service  as  constables,  from  jury  service, 
ana  service  in  the  militia.  Clergymen  are  permittea 
by  law  to  have  access  to  prisoners  after  death  sen- 
tence, and  are  among  those  designated  as  "officials" 
who  may  be  present  at  executions.  The  statutes  pro- 
hibit marriage  between  relatives,  and  recognize  mar- 
riage by  civil  authorities  and  by  nibbis.  The  statu- 
tory grounds  for  divorce  recognized  are  adultery, 
impotency,  desertion  continued  for  three  consecutive 
years,  coimrmed  habits  of  intoxication  by  liauor. 
opium,  or  drugs,  cruel  and  abusive  treatment;  also  it 
either  party  is  sentenced  for  life  to  hard  labour,  or 
five  or  more  years  in  state  prison,  jail,  or  house  of 
correction.  The  Superior  Court  hears  all  divorce  li- 
bels. After  a  decree  of  divorce  has  become  absolute, 
either  party  may  marry  again  as  if  the  other  were 


dead;  except  that  the  party  from  whom  th/A  decree 
was  granted  shall  not  marry  within  two  ypars.  The 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is  regulated  bv  /aw.  Each 
community,  city,  or  town  votes  annually  upon  the 
(Question,  whether  or  not  licence  to  sell  ]<quor  shall  be 
issued  in  that  municipality.  Special  'joards  are  ap- 
pointed to  regulate  tne  conditions  Oi  such  licences. 
The  number  of  licences  that  may  be  granted  in  each 
town  or  city  is  limited  to  one  to  each  thousand  per- 
sons, though  Boston  has  a  limitation  of  one  licence  to 
each  five  hundred  of  the  population.  The  hours  of 
opening  and  closing  bars  are  regulated  by  law.    Any 

Eerson  owning  property  can  object  to  the  granting  of  a 
cence  to  sell  mtoxicating  liquors  within  twenty-five 
'  feet  of  his  property.    A  licence  cannot  be  granted  to 
sell  intoxicating  liquors  on  the  same  street  as,  or  within 
four  hundred  feet  of,  a  public  school. 

E.  Religious  Libertt/. — In  the  beginning  Massachu- 
setts was  Puritan  agamst  the  Catholic  first,  against  all 
non-conformists  to  their  version  of  established  reli- 
gion next.  The  Puritan  was  narrow  in  mind  and  for 
the  most  part  limited  in  education,  a  type  of  man 
swa^red  easily  to  extremes.  England  was  at  that  pe- 
riod intensely  anti-papal.  In  Massachusetts,  however, 
the  antipatny  early  oecame  racial:  first  against  the 
French  Catholic,  later  against  the  Irish  Catholic.  This 
racial  religious  bigotry  has  not  disappeared  wholly  in 
Massachusetts.  Within  the  pale  of  tne  Church  racial 
schisms  have  been  instigated  from  time  to  time  in 
order  that  the  defeat  of  Catholicism  might  be  accom- 
plished when  open  antagonism  from  without  failed  to 
accomplish  the  end  sought.  In  politics  it  is  often 
the  effective  shibboleth.  Congregationalism  soon  took 
form  in  the  colony  and  as  early  as  1631  all  except  Puri- 
tans were  excluded  by  law  from  the  freedom  of  the 
body  politic.  In  1647  the  law  became  more  specific 
and  excluded  priests  from  the  colony.  This  act  was 
reaffirmed  in  1770.  Bowdoin  College  nreserves  the 
cross  and  Harvard  College  the  "  Indian  Dictionary  "  of 
Sebastian  Rasle,  the  priest  executed  under  the  provi- 
sion of  the  law.  In  1746  a  resolution  and  meeting 
at  Faneuil  Hall  bear  testimony  that  Catholics  must 
prove^  as  well  as  affirm,  their  loyalty  to  the  colony. 
Washmgton  himself  was  called  upon  to  suppress  the 
insult  of  Pope  Day  at  the  siege  of  Boston.  Each  of 
these  events  was  preceded  by  a  wave  of  either  French 
or  Irish  immigration,  a  circumstance  which  was  re- 
peated in  the  religious  fanaticism  of  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Cause  and  effect  seem  well  es- 
tablished and  too  constant  to  be  incidental.  In  all  the 
various  anti-CathoUc  uprisings,  from  colonial  times  to 
the  present,  there  is  not  one  instance  where  the  Catho- 
lics were  the  aggressors  by  word  or  deed:  their  pati- 
ence and  forbearance  have  always  been  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  conduct  of  their  non-Catholic  contem- 
poraries. In  every  one  of  the  North  Atlantic  group  of 
states,  the  Catholics  now  constitute  the  most  numerous 
religious  denomination.  In  Massachusetts  the  num- 
ber of  the  leading  denominations  is  as  follows:  Catho- 
lics 1,373  752;  Congregationaliste  119,196;  Baptists 
80,894;  Methodists  65,498;  Protestant  Episcopalians 
51,636;  Presbyterians  8559. 

F.  Catholic  Progress. — Throughout  the  account  of 
the  doings  among  the  colonists,  tncre  are  references  to 
the  coming,  short  stay,  and  departure  of  some  Irish 
priest  or  French  Jesuit.  In  the  newspaper  account  of 
the  departure  of  the  French  from  Boston,  in  1782,  it 
is  related  that  the  clergy  and  the  selectmen  paraded 
through  the  streets  preceded  by  a  cross-bearer.  It 
was  some  fifty  years  later  that  the  prosperity  and 
activity  of  the  Church  aroused  political  demagoguery 
and  religious  bieotry.  Massachusetts,  as  well  as  New 
York  and  Philadelphia,  experienced  the  storm:  a  con- 
vent was  burned,  churches  were  threatened,  monu- 
ments to  revered  heroes  of  the  Church  were  razed,  and 
cemeteries  desecrated.  The  consoling  memory,  how- 
ever, of  this  period,  is  that  Massachusetts  furnished 


29 


the  Otiaes,  the  Lees,  the  Perkinses,  EverettSt  and 
Lorings— flJl  non-Catnolics — whose  voices  and  pens 
were  enlisted  heartily  in  the  cause  of  justice,  tolera- 
tion, and  unity. 

In  1843,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut  were  set  off 
from  the  original  Diocese  of  Boston.  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire,  also  under  the  jimsdiction  of  Boston,  were 
made  a  new  diocese  ten  years  later,  with  the  episcopal 
see  at  Portland.  This  was  the  period  of  the  great 
Irish  immigration,  and  Boston  received  a  large  quota. 
This  new  influx  was,  as  in  the  previous  century,  looked 
upon  as  an  "intrusion"  and  tne  usual  result  followed. 
New  England  had  now  become  what  Lowell  was  pleased 
to  call  *  'New  Ireland  ".  This  religious  and  racial  tiuns- 
formation,  made  the  necessity  for  churches,  academies, 
schools,  asylums,  priests,  and  teachers  an  imperative 
one.  The  work  of  expansion,  both  material  and 
spiritual,  went  forward  apace.  The  great  influx  of 
Ganadian  Catholics  added  much  to  the  Catholic 
population,  which  had  now  reached  more  than  a 
million  souls — over  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the  total  re- 
ligious population  of  the  state.  The  era  was  not  with- 
out its  reli^ous  strife,  this  time  within  public  and 
charitable  institutions,  state  and  municipal.  This 
chapter  reads  like  those  efforts  of  proselytising  in  the 
colonial  days  when  names  of  Catholic  children  were 
changed,  paternity  denied,  maternity  falsified — all  in 
the  hope  of  destroying  the  true  reUgious  inheritance 
of  the  state's  wards.  The  influende  of  CathoUcs  in  the 
governing  of  institutions,  libraries,  and  schools  has 
since  then  increased  somewhat.  The  spiritual  necessi- 
ties of  the  vast  Catholic  communities  are  provided 
for  abundantly;  orphans  are  well  housed;  imfortu- 
nates  securely  protected;  the  i>oor  greatly  succoured; 
and  the  sick  have  the  sacraments  at  their  very  door. 
Schools,  academies,  colleges,  and  convents,  wherein 
Catholic  education  is  given,  are  now  within  the  reach 
of  all.  The  whole  period  of  Archbishop  Williams's 
administration  (1866-1907)  has  been  appropriately 
called  "the  brick  and  mortar  age  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  England''.  (See  Boston,  Archdiocese 

OF.) 

Upon  the  death  of  Archbishop  Williams,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1907,  his  coadjutor,  the  Most  Reverend  William 
H.  O'Connell,  D.D.  (the  present  archbishop),  was 
promoted  to  the  metropolitan  see.  This  arcnbishop 
invited  the  National  Convention  of  the  Federation  of 
CatlioUc  Societies  to  meet  in  Boston  with  resulting 
interest,  activity,  and  strength  to  that  society,  in 
which,  indeed,  he  has  shown  a  special  interest.  To 
develop  the  solidarity  of  priests  and  people,  of  races 
and  nations,  of  the  cultured  and  the  unlettered — a 
unity  of  all  the  interests  of  the  Church,  the  arch- 
bishop needed  a  free  press :  he  purchased ' '  The  Pilot", 
secured  able  and  fearless  writers  and  placed  it  at  a 
nominal  cost  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  dangers  to 
the  immigrant  in  a  new  and  fascinating  environment 
are  all  anticipated,  and  safeguards  are  ceing  strength- 
ened daily.  At  the  same  time,  the  inherited  mis- 
understanding of  Puritan  Massachusetts,  and  the 
evil  machinations  of  those  who  would  use  religion  and 
charity  for  selfish  motives  or  aggrandizement  are  still 
active.  The  Catholic  mind  is  aroused,  however,  and 
the  battle  for  truth  is  being  waged ;  Catholic  Massachu- 
setts moves  forward,  all  under  one  banner — French 
Canadian,  Italian,  Pole,  German,  Portuguese,  Greek, 
Scandinavian,  and  Irish — each  vying  with  the  other 
for  an  opportunity  to  prove  his  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  to  its  priests,  and  to  their  spiritual  leader. 
In  every  diocese  and  in  each  coimty  well-organized 
favaachoB  of  the  Federation  exist,  temperance  and 
church  sodeties  flourish,  educational  and  charitable 
associations  are  alive  and  active.  The  Churoh's 
ablest  laymen  are  enlisted,  and  all  are  helping  mightily 
to  accomplish  ^e  avowed  intention  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Boston,  to  make  Massachusetts  the  leading  Catholic 
state  in  the  country.    (See  also  Cheterub,  Jean 


Louis  de;  Boston,  Archdiocese  of;  Faix  Rtver, 
Diocese  op;  Springfield,  Diocese  of.) 

Austin,  Hidory  of  MaaBoehtuetta  (Boston,  1876);  BAircROPr, 
HiHoru  of  the  United  States,  I  (London,  1883-84);  Bariiy,  Hie- 
tory  of  New  Englandt  1  (Boston.  1856);   Boeton  Toten  Reeorda 

i Boston,  1772);  BRXDroRD,  Hietory  of  Plymouth  Plantation; 
)avib,  The  New  England  States,  III  (Boston,  1897);  Draxs, 
The  Making  of  New  England,  1684-1643  (New  York.  1886) ; 
D WIGHT,  Travels  in  New  England,  I  (New  Haven.  1821).  22: 
Emerson,  Education  in  Massachusetts,  Massachusetts  Historical 
Collection  CBoBtou,  1869);  'B.AiJ^,Reviewof  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Nunnery  Committee  (Boston.  1855);  Harrington,  Htstory  of 
Harvard  Medical  School,  III  (New  York,  1905);  /ruA  Historical 
Proceedings.  II  (Boston,  1899):  Lsahy.  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  New  England  States,  1  (Boston,  1899);  MassachusetU 
Historical  Society,  Collection,  Ist  ser.,  V  (Boston.  1788);  Pro- 
ceedings, 2d  ser.,  Ill  (Boston,  1810);  McGbb,  7A«  Irish  Settler* 
in  America  (Boston,  1851);  Parkbr,  The  First  Charter  and 
Vie  Early  Religious  Legislation  of  Massachusetts,  Massachusetts 
Historical  Collection  (1869);  Walsh.  TAs  Early  Irish  Catholic 
Schools  of  Lowell,  Mass,,  1856-1866  (Boston,  1901);  Idbm,  Am, 
Cath.  Q.  Rev,  (January,  1904). 

Thomas  F.  Harrington. 

Massaia,  Guglielmo,  Cardinal,  b.  9  June,  1809,  at 
Piova  in  Piedmont,  Italy;  d.  at  Cremona,  6  August. 
1889.  His  baptismal  name  was  Lorenzo;  that  ol 
Guglielmo  was  given  him  when  he  became  a  religious. 
He  was  first  educated  at  the  Collegio  Reale  at  Asti  un- 
der the  care  of  his  elder  brother  Guglielmo,  a  canon 
and  precentor  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city.  On  the 
death  of  his  brother  he  passed  as  a  student  to  the  dio- 
cesan seminary;  but  at  the  age  of  sixteen  entered  the 
Capuchin  Franciscan  Order,  receiving  the  habit  on  26 
September,  1825.  Immediately  after  his  ordination 
to  the  priesthood,  he  was  appointed  lector  of  theology; 
but  even  whilst  teaching  he  acquired  some  fame  as  a 
preacher  and  was  chosen  confessor  to  Prince  Victor 
Emmanuel,  afterwards  King  of  Italy,  and  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Genoa.  The  royal  family  of  Piedmont  would 
have  nominated  him  on  several  occasions  to  an  episco- 

Sal  see,  but  he  strenuously  opposed  their  project,  oeing 
esirous  of  joining  the  foreign  missions  of  his  order. 
He  obtained  his  wish  in  1846.  That  year  the  Con- 
gregation of  Propaganda,  at  the  instance  of  the  travel- 
er Antoine  d'Abbadie,  aetermined  to  establish  a  Vi- 
cariate-ApostoIic  for  the  Gallas  in  Abyssinia.  The 
mission  was  confided  to  the  Capuchins,  and  Massaia 
was  appointed  first  vicar-apostolic,  and  was  consecrated 
in  Rome  on  24  May  of  tnat  year.  On  his  arrival  in 
Abyssinia  he  found  the  country  in  a  state  of  religious 
agitation.  The  heretical  Coptic  bishop,  Cyril,  was 
dead  and  there  was  a  movement  amongst  the  Copts 
towards  imion  with  Rome.  Massaia,  who  had  re- 
ceived plenary  faculties  from  the  pope,  ordained  a 
number  of  native  priests  for  the  Coptic  Rite:  he  also 
obtained  the  appointment  by  the  Holy  See  of  a  vicar- 
apostolic  for  tne  Copts,  and  himself  consecrated  the 
missionary  Giustino  de  Jacobis  to  this  office.  But 
this  act  aroused  the  enmity  of  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of 
Effypt,  who  sent  a  bishop  of  his  own,  Abba  Salama,  to 
Abyssinia.  As  a  result  of  the  ensuing  political  agita- 
tion, Massaia  was  banished  from  the  country  and  had  to 
flee  under  an  assumed  name.  In  1850  he  visited  Europe 
to  gain  a  fresh  band  of  missionaries  and  means  to  develop 
his  work:  he  had  interviews  with  the  French  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Paris,  and  with  Lord  Palmerston 
in  London.  On  his  return  to  the  Gallas  he  founded  a 
larffe  number  of  missions;  he  also  established  a  school 
at  Marseilles  for  the  education  of  Galla  boys  whom  he 
had  freed  from  slavery;  besides  this  he  composed  a 
grammar  of  the  Galla  language  which  was  published  at 
Marseilles  in  1867.  Dunng Tus  thirty-five  years  as  a 
missionary  he  was  exiled  seven  times,  but  he  always 
returned  to  his  labours  with  renewed  vigour.  How- 
ever, in  1880  he  was  compelled  by  ill-health  to  resign 
his  mission.  In  recognition  of  his  merit,  Leo  XIlI 
raised  him  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of  Stauropolis, 
and  on  10  November,  1884,  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
of  the  title  of  S.  Vitalis.  At  the  command  of  the  pope 
he  wrote  an  account  of  his  missionary  labours,  under 
the  title,  "I  miei  trentacinque  anni  di  missione  nell' 


kite  EtiopiA  ",  the  firat  volume  of  which  was  publiahed 
simultaneously  at  Rome  and  Milan  in  1883,  and  the 
last  in  1895.  In  this  work  he  deals  not  only  with  the 
progresa  of  the  mission,  but  with  the  political  and 
economic  conditions  of  AbysHiDta  aa  he  Imew  them. 

K naa*ix.  r  min  IrtmJaaii^ut  ama  eto.;  AnalactaOr^mu  FF. 
ItHL  Capp..  V,  2B1  leq. 

Pather  Cuthbbbt. 

a  the 
ocw,  ui  Tuscany,  first  mention 
the  eighth  century.    It  grew  at  the  expense  of  Popu- 
Ionia,  an  ancient  city  of  the  Etruscans,  the  principal 
port  oi  that  people,  and  important  on  account  of  its 
&on,  tin,  mill  oopper  works.    Populonia  waA  besieged 
by  Sulla,  and  m  Strabo's  time  was  already  deca- 
dent: later  it  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Totila,  of  the 
Lombards,  and  in  817  of  a  Bysantine  fleet.   After  this, 
the  bi^op«  of  Populonia  abandoned  the  town,  and  in 
the  eleventh  century,  establislwd  their  lesidenae  at 
Hassa.      In   1226 
Hassa  became  a  com- 
mune under  the  pro- 
tection of  Pisa.     In 
1307  it  made  an  al- 
liance   with    Siena, 
which  was  the  cause 
of   many   wars  be- 
tween the   two    re- 
publics that  brought 
about  the  deudence 
of  MasHi.    The  town 
has  a  fine  cathedral. 
-  The  first  knownBish- 
op  of  Populonia  was 
Atellus  (about  495); 
another  was    Sunt 
Cerboniua  (646) ,  pro- 
tector of  the  city,  to 
whom  Saint  Gren>ry 
refers   in    his    Dia- 
logues.    Among  the 
bishops     of     Massa 


(Ngw  York.  leOB). 


T.  J.  Caupbeix. 


former  general  of  the 
Franciscans,  and 
k^le  of  Boniface  IX;  Leonardo  Dati  (1467),  author 
<rf  poetic  satires;  AlessandroPetrucci  (1601),  who  em- 
beOished  the  cathedral  and  the  episcopal  puaoe;  the 
Camaldolese  Eusebio  da  Ciani  (1719),  who  governed 
the  diocese  for  fifty-one  years.  This  see  was  at  first 
suffragan  of  Pisa,  but  since  1458  of  Siena.  It  has  29 
parishes.  66,200  inhabitants,  one  religious  house  of 
men  and  four  of  women, 

CuriLLBTTT,  L4  Chief  iTIIalia,  XVII  (Vsuob.  IM3). 

U.  BENiam. 

Hasi  Book.    See  Hissal. 

1Iub4,  Enbuond,  one  of  the  first  Jesuits  sent  to 
New  France;  b.  at  Lyons,  1574;  d.  atSilleiy,  12May, 
1646.  He  went  to  Acadia  with  Father  Biard,  and 
when  it  was  found  impoesible  to  effect  any  good  there, 
they  established  a  new  mission  at  tbe  present  Bar 
Harbor,  Maine,  which  was  soon  after  destroyed  by  the 
English—Ma^  bdnx  set  adrift  on  the  sea  in  an  open 
boat.  He  succeedea  in  reaching  a  French  ship  and 
returned  to  France,  In  1625  he  acain  set  sail  for 
Canada,  and  remained  there  until  the  fall  of  Quebec. 
He  returned  a  third  time  in  1632,  but,  as  be  was  then 
advanced  in  age,  he  no  longer  laboured  among  the 
savages,  but  lived  mostly  at  Sillery,  which  he  butlt  as 
a  reservation  for  the  converted  Indians,  A  monu- 
ment has  recently  been  erected  to  his  honour  at  this 
place  on  the  site  of  the  old  Jeeuit  ohureh  which  stood 
on  the  bank  of  the  St.  lAwrance  a  short  distance  above 
Quebec. 

n.  n — n,  £m  Jttuittt  It  ta  ''  •*  (X 


Mmsm,    Bbqcbotb    roR    (Canada.}— The    law 

governing  bequests,  being  concerned  with  "property 
and  civil  rights",  falls  within  the  l^slative   com- 

ency  of  the  provincEal  legislatures,  not  of  the 
union  Parliament.  The  basic  law  in  all  the  prov- 
inces is,  however,  not  the  same.  Any  question  con- 
cerning bequests  is,  thetefore,  one  of  provinciaJ,  not 
Dominion  law.  There  is  no  statute  enacted  by  any 
of  the  legislaturee  specially  affecting  bequests  for 

Quebec. — In  this  province  there  is  no  question  of 
the  validity  of  such  bequests.  The  b«sic  law  is  the 
French  law  aa  in  force  in  the  province  at  the  time  of 
the  cession  (1759-6.'!).  Whether  such  bequests  were 
or  are  valid  under  English  statutory  or  Common  Law, 
is  immaterial.  Under  article  869  of  the  Civil  Code  a 
testator  may  make 
bequest*  for  chari- 
table or  other  laic/vi 
Surposes.  The  free- 
om  of  the  practice 
of  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion being  not  only 
recogniied  but  guar- 
anteed, as  well  under 
theTreatyof  Cession 
(1763)  as  under  the 
terms  of  the  Quebec 
Act  (1774),  and  sub- 
sequent Provincial 
Legislation  (14  &  IS 
Vic,  Can.,  c.  175) 
having  confirmed 
that  freedom,  a  be- 
quest for  the  saj-ing 
of  Masses  is  clearly 
for  a  lawfvl  purpose. 
Ontorio,— In  this 
province  the  law  of 
England,  as  in  force 
on  15  October,  1792, 

,  introduced    "so   far 

as  it  was  not  from 
local  circumstances  inapplicable",  under  powers 
conferred  by  the  statute  of  1791,  which  divided 
the  old  Province  of  Quebec  into  Lower  and  Upper 
Canada,  is  the  basic  law.  That  Act  preserved  to 
Roman  Catholics  in  Upper  Canada  the  rights  as  re- 
gards their  religion  secured  to  them  under  the  Act  of 
1774.  The  provincial  legislation  dted  as  regards 
Quebec  being  enacted  after  the  reunion  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada,  was  also  law  in  this  province.  The 
validity  of  bequests  for  the  saying  of  Masses  was  up- 
held in  the  case  of  Elmsley  and  Madden  (18  Grant 
Chan.  R.  386).  The  court  held  that  the  English  law, 
as  far  as  under  it  such  dispositions  may  tmve  been 
invaUd,  was  inapplicable  under  the  circumstsjices  of 
the  province,  wherein  the  Catholic  religion  was  toler- 
ated. This  case  has  been  accepted  as  settUng  the  law. 
Britiah  Columbia,  Manitoba,  Alberta,  and  Saxkatche- 
imn. — In  British  Columbia  the  civil  law  of  England, 
as  it  existed  on  19  November,  1858,  and  in  the  three 
other  of  these  provinces,  that  law  as  it  existed  on  15 
July,  1870,  "so  far  as  not  from  local  circumstances 
inapplicable",  is  the  basic  law.  The  Ontario  judg- 
ment above  cited  is  in  practice  accepted  as  settling  the 
question  under  consideration. 

In  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunmrick,  and  Prince  Edward 
Island,  though  there  is  no  statutory  enactment  mak- 
ing the  English  law  applicable,  it  has,  since  the  acoui- 
sition  of  Acadia  by  Great  Britain,  been  recognized  aa 
being  in  force.  In  these  provinces,  however,  that  law 
in  so  far  as  it  may  treat  as  void  dispodtions  for  tbe 


Uasba  ILuuTTniA 


MASSES  31  MASSES 

• 

l^mrpoee  in  question  as  being  for  eruperstitiouB  uses,  has  reign  was  giTen  to  the  crown.    Hiere  is  a  series  of 

always  been  treated  as  inapplicable.    The  validity  of  cases  on  the  question  decided  under  Elisabeth,  nota- 

such  bequests  was  maintamed  in  an  elaborate  judg-  bly  that  of  Adams  v.  Lambert,  decided  in  1602,  in  the 

ment  of  Hodgins,  Master  of  the  RoUs,  in  an  unreported  report  of  which  the  other  cases  are  cited.    Some  of 

case  of  Gillis  and  Gillis  in  Prince  £dward  Ldand  in  these  decisions  are  sliditly  conflicting,  but  the  main 

1S94.  Chab.  J.  DoHEBTT.  points  to  be  drawn  mm  the  series  are,  first,   that 

X  «  *  -L  ^^^^  ^^^  Masses  or  prayers  for  the  dead  were  held  to 
MaB868,  Bequssts  for  (Engiand).— Before  the  be  superstitions  and  unlawful,  but,  second,  that  the 
Refonnation  dispositions  of  property,  whether  real  or  question  of  their  unlawfulness  was  considered  accord- 
personal,  for  the  purposes  of  Masses,  were  valid,  imless  ing  as  they  came  within  the  provisions  of  the  Statute 
where,  in  the  case  of  real  property,  they  mig^t  happen  i  Edward  VI,  c.  14.  In  that  and  the  following  cen- 
to conflict  with  the  Mortmam  laws  by  being  made  to  tury  the  Catholic  religion  was  proscribed  and  any  de- 
rdigious  congregations.  There  was  a  tenure  of  land  vise  or  bequest  for  the  promotion  of  it  was  illegal  and, 
known  as  tenure  by  divine  service,  an  incident  of  as  regarded  the  purpose  thereof,  void  (Re  Lady  Por- 


intestate  should  be  able  to  recover  by  action  debts  purposes  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Catholic  religion, 
due  to  the  intestate  and  that  they  should  administer  But  dispositions  for  Cat^oUc  poor  or  Catholic  schools 
and  dispense  for  the  soul  of  the  dead.  The  wills  of  or  other  Catholic  purposes  which  mi^t  come  under 
various  great  people  who  lived  in  those  ages  contain  the  general  construction  of  "diarity",^  passed  to  the 
bequests  for  Biasses.  Henry  VII  left  £260  for  10,000  crown  to  be  devoted  to  other  lawful  charitable  pur- 
Masses  to  be  said  for  his  and  other  souls.  The  will  of  poses  (Cary  v.  Abbot  above).  In  1829  the  Roman 
Henry  VIII,  made  on  30  December,  1646,  contains  a  Catholic  Relief  Act  was  passed,  which  contained,  how- 
provision  for  an  altar  over  his  tomb  in  St.  George's  ever,  in  some  of  its  sections  still  unrepealed,  certain 
Qiapel  in  Windsor,  where  daily  Mass  shall  be  said  '  as  penal  provisions  against  members  of  rehgious  orders  of 
long  as  the  worid  snail  indure'',  and  it  sets  out  a  grant  men  by  reason  of  which  ihe  status  of  t£ese  orders  in 
to  Sie  dean  and  canons  of  the  chapel  of  lands  to  the  the  United  Kingdom  is  illegal.  In  1832  the  Roman 
value  of  £600  a  year  for  ever  to  find  two  priests  to  say  Catholic  Charities  Act  (2  and  3  William  IV,  c.  1 15) 
Mass  and  to  keep  four  obits  yeariy  and  to  give  alms  for  was  passed.  By  it  Catholics  were,  as  re^rds  their 
the  King's  soul:  and  it  contains  other  provisions  for  charitable  purposes,  put  in  the  same  position  as  that 
requiem  masses  and  prayers  for  his  soul.  But  in  a.  d.  of  Protesttmt  dissenters.  Therefore  now,  seemingly, 
1531,  by  the  statute  23,  Henry  VIII,  c.  10,  all  subse-  a  bequest  for  the  celebration  of  Masses  with  no  inten- 
quent  assurances  or  dispositions  of  land  to  the  use  of  a  tion  tor  souls  departed  would  be  valid .  and,  moreover, 
perpetual  obit  (i.  e.  a  service  for  the  dead  to  be  cele-  it  would  constitute  a  good  charitable  bequest,  and  so, 
brated  at  certain  fixed  periods)  or  the  continual  ser-  it  woiild  be  valid  thou^  made  in  perpetuity  (Re 
vice  of  a  priest  were  to  be  void  if  the  use  was  to  extend  Michel's  Trusts,  1860,  28  Beav.  42).  But  it  has  been 
over  more  than  twenty  years,  but  if  the  use  was  lim-  held  that  the  act  has  not  validated  bequests  for  re- 
lied to  that  or  a  less  period  the  dispositions  were  to  be  quiem  Masses^that  the  law  still  regards  them  as  ''su- 
valid.  That  even  private  Masses  were  at  that  time  perstitious"  (West  v.  Shuttleworth  above),  that  thejr 
approved  by  the  state  is  shown  by  the  six  articles  do  not  constitute  charitable  bequests  and  that,  accora- 
passed  in  a.  d.  1639  (32  Heni^  VIII,  c.  14),  which  con-  ing^y,  the  property  j^ven  under  them  passes  to  the 
stituted  the  denial  of  their  expediency  a  felony,  person  otherwise  entitled  (Heath  v.  Chapman  above). 
Henry  VIII  died  28  January  a.  d.  1647.  The  This  is  the  position  of  the  law  to-day  with  the  ex- 
change of  religion  became  much  more  marked  in  the  oeption  made  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Charities  Act, 
following  reign,  and  the  government  fostered  the  es-  i860,  which  provides  that  no  lawful  devise  or  beouest 
tablii^iment  m  Eng^d  of  the  Protestant  doctrines  to  any  Catholic  or  Catholic  Charity  is  to  be  invalioated 
which  had  begun  to  spread  on  the  continent.  In  the  because  the  estate  devised  or  bequeathed  is,  also,  sub- 
Bame  year  the  Six  Articles  were  repealed  and  the  Stat-  ject  to  any  trust  deemed  to  be  superstitious  or  pro- 
ute  of  Chaimtries  (1  Edward  VI,  c.  14)  was  passed  hibited  through  being  to  religious  orders  of  men,  but 
from  whidi  the  invalidity  of  bequests  for  requiem  such  latter  trust  may  be  apportioned  by  the  Court  or 
Masses  has  been  deduced .  The  preamble  to  the  stat-  the  Charity  Commissioners  to  some  other  lawful  Catho^ 
ute  recites  that ''  a  great  part  of  the  superstition  and  lie  charitable  trust.  Thus,  a  trust  for  requiem  Masses 
errors  in  the  Christian  religion  hath  been  brought  into  is  as  such  invalid,  and  where  no  question  of  apportion- 
the  minds  and  estimation  of  men  by  reason  of  the  ment  can  arise,  for  instance,  where  there  is  a  roecific 
isnoranoe  of  their  very  true  and  perfect  salvation  legacy  of  money  for  the  purpose  only  of  such  Masses, 
iStou^  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ  and  by  devising  and  the  estate  which  is  subject  to  the  trust  does  not  pass  to 
phantasying  vain  opinions  of  purgatory  and  masses  any  charity  but  to  the  person  otherwise  entitled  to  it 
satisfactory  to  be  done  for  them  which  be  departed,  (Re  Fleetwood,  Sidgreaves  v.  Brewer,  1880, 16  Ch.  D. 
the  which  doctrine  and  vain  opinion  by  nothing  more  609).  Also,  a  legacy  for  requiem  Masses  is  invalid 
is  maintained  and  upholden  than  by  the  abuse  of  tren-  even  though  the  legacy  be  payable  in  a  countrv  where 
tals,chauntries  and  other  provisions  made  for  the  con-  it  would  be  legally  valid  (Re  Elliot,  1891,  39  W.  R. 
tinuanoe  of  the  said  blindness  and  ignorance. "  The  297).  The  grounas  on  which  this  position  of  the  law 
statute,  after  fiulher  reciting  that  the  property  given  is  based  appear  rather  unsatisfactory.  Admittedly, 
to  such  uses  ou^t  to  be  devoted  to  the  founding  of  there  is  no  direct  statutory  ill^lity.  In  the  case  of 
schools  and  other  good  purposes,  enacted  that  prop-  Heath  v.  Chapman  (above)  iundersley  V.  C.  stated 
erty  given  to  such  uses,  whicn  had  been  so  usedwithm  that  the  Statute  I  Edward  VI,  c.  14,  assumed  that 
the  preceding  five  years,  should  be  given  to  the  king,  trusts  for  Masses  were  already  iUeeal — ^that  they  were 
Hie  statute  only  applied  to  past  dispositions  of  prop-  in  fact  so — and  that  the  statute  Has  stamped  on  all 
erty  and  it  did  not  declare  the  general  illegality  of  be-  such  trusts,  whether  made  before  or  since  it,  the  char- 
quests  for  requiem  Masses,  nor  has  any  other  statute  acter  of  illegality  on  the  ground  of  being  superstitious, 
ever  so  declared  (Cary  v.  Abbot,  1802,  7  Ves.  496).  Seeing  that  the  statute  was  passed  in  tne  year  of  the 
NeverthdesB,  Uie  establishment  of  that  principle  has  death  of  Heni^y  VIII,  within  eig^t  years  of  the  passing 
been  deducea  from  it  (West  v.  Shuttleworth,  1836,  2  of  the  Six  Articles,  and  that  during  that  time  there  had 
M.  db  K.  679;  Heath  v.  CSiapman,  1864, 2  Drew  423).  been  no  statutory  abolition  of  the  Mass  or  condemna- 
Jhe  statute  was  not  repealed  under  Mary,  and  by  1  tion  of  the  doctrme  of  pui]gpatory,  it  is  not  easy  to  dis- 
QiSv  c*  94,  all  property  devoted  to  such  uses  in  Mary's  oem  bow  the  legal  invalidity  of  such  bequc9t9  hm)  at- 


MA88B8                                 32  MASSES 

ready  become  established.  In  West  ▼.  Shuttieworth  been  regarded  as  valid,  and,  by  a  recent  decision  given 
(above),  which  is  the  leading  case  on  the  subject,  ui)on  euiaustive  consideration  of  the  question  by  the 
Pepys  M.  R.  stated  that  it  was  by  analogy  to  the  stat-  Irish  Court  of  Appeal,  the  law  is  settled  that  such  be- 
ute  that  the  ill€^lity  of  these  bequests  had  become  es-  quests,  even  when  the  Masses  are  to  be  said  in  private, 
tablished.  This  would  seem  to  mean  that  their  ille-  constitute  good  charitable  gifts  and  so  may  be  made  in 
gality  was  based  upon  the  general  policy  of  the  law  perpetuity  (O'Hatdon  v.  Logue,  1906, 1  Ir.  247).  But 
and  upon  principles  resulting  from  such  a  change  in  the  m  Ireland,  also,  religious  orders  of  men  are  illegal 
national  system  as  must  have  arisen  in  that  age  from  and  any  bequest  for  Masses  to  such  an  order  which  is 
the  complete  chan^^e  in  the  national  chiurch.  In  that  to  go  to  the  benefit  of  tiie  order  is  illegal  and  void 
case,  since  the  policy  applied  to  the  whole  realm  in-  (Burke  v.  Power,  1905,  1  Ir.  123).  But  such  a  be- 
eluding  Ireland,  where  Protestantism  became  the  es-  quest  was  allowed  in  one  recent  case,  and  in  cases 
tablished  churdi  and  an  even  more  vigorous  anti-  where  the  bequest  for  Masses  contains  no  indication 
Catholic  policy  was  pursued  by  the  legislature,  one  that  the  money  is  to  go  to  the  order  itself  the  Court 
would  expect  to  find  the  ille^Jity  of  bequests  for  will  aUow  the  becuest  (Bradshaw  v.  Jackman,  1887, 
Masses  established  in  Ireland  also^^ou^  the  statute  21  L.  R.  Ir.  15).  The  decisions  show  a  strong  general 
itself  did  not  apply  to  Ireland.  Thus,  m  the  case  of  tendency  to  seek  any  means  of  escaping  those  penal 
theAttomey-Generalv.Power,  1809(lB.dbBen.  150)  provisions  of  the  Catholic  Relief  Act,  1829,  which, 
Lord  Manners,  Irish  Lord  Chancellor,  in  giving  judg-  though  never  actively  enforced,  still  remain  on  the 
ment  with  regard  to  a  bequest  to  a  scnool  oy  a  Catho-  statute  book.  This  statutory  illegality  of  any  be- 
lie testator,  stated  that  he  would  not  act  upon  the  pre-  ouest  to  a  religious  order  of  men  to  so  to  the  benefit  of 
sumption  ^at  it  was  for  the  endowment  of  a  Catholic  tne  order  applies,  of  course,  ecjual^  to  England  and 
school,  and  that  such  a  bequest  would  by  the  law  of  to  Scotland,  where  these  provisions  against  religious 
Kngland  be  deemed  void  either  as  being  contrary  to  orders  are  also  law,  but  there  does  not  appear  to  be 
the  provisions  of  the  statute  of  Edward  Vl  or  as  being  any  report  of  any  decision  on  the  point  m  either  of 
agamst  public  poli^.    Yet  the  same  Lord  Chancellor,  these  countries. 

in  the  case  of  the  (jommissioners  of  Charitable  Dona-  In  Scotland  the  position  seems,  otherwise,  to  be  as 
tions  V.  Walsh,  1823,  7  Ir.  Eq.  32,  after  a  prolonged  follows:  though,  in  the  centuries  succeeding  the  Ref- 
argument  before  him,  held  a  bequest  for  reqmem  ormation  the  public  policy  was  distinctly  anti-Catho- 
Maisses  to  be  good.  lie  and  there  was  legislation  (like  the  anti-Popery  Act 
The  ground  of  public  policy  in  respect  of  this  ques-  passed  in  1700,  which,  amongst  otiier  provisions, 
tion  seems  no  longer  to  holdjgood.  There  is  no  longer  penalised  the  hearing  of  Mass)  directed  against  the 
any  public  policy  against  Catholicism  as  such.  As  Cktholic  religion,  yet  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
mentioned  above,  seemingly,  a  bequest  for  the  mere  Statute  which  has  given  rise  to  the  question  of  "  super- 
celebration  of  Masses  with  no  intention  for  souls  de-  stition  "  on  the  special  point  of  gifts  for  prayers  for  tiie 
parted  would  be  valid.  Moreover,  seemingly,  a  bequest  dead.  By  an  Act  passed  in  1793  Catholics  in  Scotland, 
for  the  propagation  of  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  would  who  had  made  a  aeclaration  now  no  longer  required, 
be  a  good  charitable  bequest  (Thornton  v.  Howe,  were  put  upon  the  same  footing  as  other  persons.  The 
1862,  31  Beav.  19).  Thus,  since  the  Roman  CathoUc  Catholic  Charities  Act,  1832,  applied  also  to  Scotland. 
Charities  Act  1832,  putting  Catholics  as  regards  *'  their  The  torm  **  charity ''  is  even  rather  more  widely  intor- 
.  .  .  charitable  purposes  in  Uie  same  position  as  preted  in  Scottish  law  than  in  English  law.  Thus,  in 
other  persons,  the  holding  a  bequest  for  Masses  for  the  Scotland  through  the  repeal  of  the  legislation  against 
dead  to  be  invalid  appears  necessarily  to  imply  that  Catholics  and  the  legalisation  of  bequests  to  their 
tiie  bemiest  is  not  to  a  charitable  purpose  and  thereby  charitable  purposes,  legacies  for  requiem  Masses  seem 
to  involve  the  inconsistency  that  it  is  not  a  ''charity  '  to  pass  unquestioned.  There  is  little  doubt  that,  if 
to  practise  by  the  exereise  of  a  *' charity''  the  doctrme  they  were  to  be  challenged,  the  Courts  would  uphold 
which  it  is  a  *'  charity  "  to  propagato.  Yet  this  is  so  them.  In  a  recent  case  where  there  was  a  bequ^  for 
even  though,  by  the  bequest  being  for  Masses  to  be  the  celebration  of  Mass  in  perpetuity  (there  was  no 
said  for  the  departed  generally,  there  is  evidence  of  an  mention  of  any  intention  for  the  deam  the  validity  of 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  testator  of  promoting  the  bequest  was  not  in  any  way  called  in  question 
more  than  his  own  individual  welfare.  Thus,  appai^  (Marquess  of  Bute's  Trustees  v.  Marquess  of  Bute, 
ently,  the  real  basis  of  the  legal  view  of  these  bequests  1904,  7  F.  42).  The  law  as  to  superstitious  uses  pre- 
is  that  the  law  may  not  recogniase  the  purpose  of  a  vailing  in  England  is  not  taken  to  be  imported  into  tiie 
spiritual  benefit  to  one's  fellow-creatures  in  an  after  laws  of  British  colonies  or  possessions  (Yeap  v.  Ong, 
existence  intended  by  a  person  believing  in  the  possi-  1875,  L.  R.  6  C.  P.  396).  In  Australia,  though  by  an 
bility  of  such  a  benefit.  But  such  an  attitude,  apart  Act  of  the  British  Parliament  passed  in  1828,  all  the 
from  the  inconsistency  mentioned,  seems  to  be  op-  laws  and  statutes  in  foree  in  England  at  that  date  were, 
posed  to  the  present  policy  of  the  law  with  regard  to  as  far  as  possible,  to  be  appliedr  to  the  administration 
religious  opimons,  especially  when  the  act  of  wor^p  of  justice  m  the  ClJourts  of  the  new  Australasian  Colonies, 
directed  by  the  bequest,  when  viewed  apart  from  the  the  law  as  to  superstitious  uses  has  been  held  by  the 
particular  believed  effect,  is  approved  by  the  law  as  Supreme  Court  of  Victoria  not  to  apply  there  (In 
a  charity.  Doubt  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  present  ^e  Will  of  Purcell,  1895,  21,  V.  L.  R.  249).  This  de- 
law  on  the  subject  was  expressed  by  Romilly  M.  R.  in  cision  was  followed  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  South 
the  case  Re  Michels  Truste  (above),  where  he  upheld  a  Wales  in  1907  (Re  Hartnett,  7  S.  R.  463).  There  is 
beouest  for  a  Jewish  prayer  to  be  recited  on  the  testa-  little  doubt  that  the  law  which  these  cases  declare 
tor  s  anniversary  in  perpetuity,  there  being  no  evidence  would  be  followed  in  all  other  Australian  Colonies  and 
that  the  prayer  was  to  oe  recited  for  the  benefit  of  the  in  New  Zealand.  In  India  bequests  for  requiem 
testator's  soul,  and  in  the  case  re  Blundell's  Trusts,  Masses  are  valid  (Das  Merces  v.  Clones,  1864,  2  Hyde 
1861  (30  Beav.  362),  where  he  considered  himself  com-  65;  Judah  v.  Judah,  1870,  2  B.  L.  R.  433). 
pelled,  in  compliance  with  the  judgment  in  West  v.  ^  Coke  on  LiftUum  96  (b);  Kichol.  TFt«»  of  the  Kinoaand 
guttleworth  (above),  to  disallow  a  beciuest  by  a  8rJL'{S?^r'Hir?^;'i2;S^'j?lo1^ 

Catholic  testator  for  reqiuem  Masses,  Statmg  that  the  Hmruthe  Eiohthjwn  an  authentic  copy  in  the  Handa  of  an  Atior- 

law  declaring  such  bequests  to  be  invalid  had  now  be-  ♦J'y  Oondon.  1783):    Dukb  on  the  Law  of  Charitable  Uaee^ 

oome  so  established  that  only  ajudgment  of  the  House  edited  by  Bhidoman  (London.  1805).                   m^t**, 

of  Lords  could  alter  it.     It  would  be  desirable  that  the  "*  °-  wolan. 

decision  of  that  tribimal  should  be  obtained  on  this  Masses,  Devisbb  and  Bequests  fob  (Unttbd 

question.  States). — ^Prior  to  the  period  of  the  Reformation  in 

In  Ireland  bequests  for  requiem  Masses  have  long  England  in  1532,  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of 


33 


(he  donon  of  proper^  given  for  that  purpose  were 
upheld  in  Ensland,  but  during  that  vear  a  statute  was 
Dftssed  providing  that  thereafter  all  uses  declared  of 
land,  except  leaseholds  of  twenty  years,  to  the  in- 
tent to  have  perpetual  or  the  continued  service  of 
a  priest,  or  other  like  uses,  should  be  void.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI  (1547),  another  statute  was 
pasaed  declaring  the  kmst  entitled  to  all  real  and 
certain  specified  personal  property  theretofore  di»- 
poeed  of  tor  the  perpetual  finding  of  a  priest  or  main- 
tenance of  any  anniversary  or  obit,  or  other  like  thing, 
or  any  lizht  or  lamp  at  any  church  or  chapel.  These 
statutes  did  not  make  disposition  of  personal  property 
to  such  uses  void,  and  the  statute  ot  Henry  vlll  was 
prospective  and  applied  only  to  assurances  of  land  to 
churches  and  chapels,  and  that  of  Edward  VI  was 
limited  to  dispositions  of  property,  real  and  personal, 
theretofore  inade.  But  the  English  chancellors  and 
the  English  Judges,  in  the  absence  of  any  express  stat- 
ute, determmed  all  dispositions  of  property,  whether 
real  or  personal,  given  or  devised  for  uses  specified  in 
the  two  statutes,  to  be  absolutely  void  as  contrary  to 
public  policy,  being  for  superstitiotis  uses.  The  de» 
cision  covered  l^acies  such  as  to  priests  to  pray  for 
the  soul  of  the  oonor  or  for  the  bringing  up  of  poor 
children  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

It  has  been  expressly  decided  that  these  statutes 
and  the  doctrine  of  superstitious  uses  as  enunciated  by 
the  English  judges  do  not  apply  in  the  United  States, 
although  the  nrst  colonies  from  which  the  States 
grew  were  established  subsequentlv  to  the  dates  of 
the  adoption  of  the  statutes  referred  to,  and  this,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  in  some  of  the  states 
statutes  were  passed  adopting  the  common  law  and 
statutes  of  England  so  far  as  the  same  mieht  be  ap- 
plicable to  the  altered  condition  of  the  setUers  in  the 
colonies.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  it  is  a  maxim 
of  law  in  the  United  States  that  a  man  TOAy  do  what 
he  will  with  his  own,  so  long  as  he  does  not  violate  the 
law  by  so  doing  or  devote  ms  property  to  an  immoral 
purpose;  consequently,  since  there  is  a  legal  equality 
of  sects  and  all  are  thus  in  the  eyes  of  the  law  equally 
orthodox,  to  discriminate  between  what  is  a  pious  and 
what  a  superstitious  use  would  be  to  infringe  upon  the 
constitutional  guarantee  of  perfect  freedom  ana  equal- 
ity of  all  religions  (see  opinion  of  Tuley,  J.,  in  the  case 
oi  Kehoe  v.  Kehoe,  reported  as  a  note  to  Gilman  v. 
McArdle,  12  Abb.  N.  C,  427  New  York).  In  none  of 
the  states  of  the  Union,  therefore,  are  bequests  or  de- 
vises of  property  for  Masses  for  the  dead  invalid  on  the 
ground  of  being  superstitious,  but  there  is  a  diversity 
among  the  decisions  as  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  such  bequests  or  devises  will  be  sustained. 

In  New  York  the  law  of  England  on  the  subject  of 
charitable  and  religious  trusts  has  been  completely 
abrogated  by  statute,  it  being  intended  that  there 
should  be  no  system  of  public  charities  in  that  state 
except  through  the  medium  of  corporate  bodies.  The 
policy  has  been  to  enact  from  time  to  time  general  and 
special  laws  specifying  and  sanctioning  the  particular 
ODJect  to  be  promoted,  restricting  the  amoimt  of 
property  to  be  enjoyed,  carefully  keeping  the  subject 
unoer  legislative  control,  and  alwa3rs  providing  a  com- 
petent and  ascertained  donee  to  take  and  use  the 
charitable  gifts  (Levy  v.  Levy,  33  N.  Y.,  97;  Holland 
V.  Alcock,  108  N.  Y.,  312).  In  accordance  with  this 
policy  a  general  act  was  passed  regulating  the  incor- 
poration of  religious  bodies,  anof  empowering  the 
trustees  to  take  into  their  possession  property, 
whether  the  same  has  been  given,  granted  or  devised 
directly  to  a  church,  congregation  or  society,  or  to  any 
other  person  for  their  use  (Laws  of  1813,  c.  60,  s.  4,  III ; 
CumminflS  and  Gilbert, "  Gen.  Laws  and  other  Statutes 
of  N.  Y/',  p.  3401).  By  the  provisions  of  other 
statutes  Roman  Cauiolic  churches  come  imder  this 
act  (Laws  of  1862,  c.  45;  Cummings  and  Gilbert,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  3425).    Therefore  a  bequest  of  real  property 


for  Masses  will  be  upheld  if  it  comply  with  the  stato* 
tory  requirements,  which  are  (1)  that  Uie  gift  be  to 
a  corporation  duly  authorised  by  its  charter  or  b^ 
statute  to  teke  gifts  for  such  purpose  and  not  to  a  pri- 
vate person ;  (2)  that  the  will  oy  which  the  gift  is  made 
shall  nave  been  properlv  executed  at  least  two  months 
before  the  testators  oeath  (Cummings  and  Gilbert, 
loc.  dt.,  p.  4470;  Laws  of  1848,  c.  319;  Laws  of  1860, 
c.  360:  Lefevre  v.  Lefevre,  59  N.  Y.,  434),  and  (3)  that 
if  the  testetor  have  a  wife,  child,  or  parent,  the  be- 
quest shall  not  exceed  one-half  of  his  proper^  after 
his  debts  are  paid  (ibid.,  see  Ha2enmeyer*8  Will,  12 
Abb.  N.  C,  432).  Every  trust  of  personal  property, 
which  is  not  contrary  to  public  policy  and  is  not  m 
conflict  with  the  statute  regulating  the  accumulation 
of  interest  and  protecting  Sie  suspension  of  absolute 
ownership  in  property  of  that  character,  is  valid  when 
the  trustee  is  competent  to  take  and  a  trust  is  for  a 
lawful  purpose  well  defined  so  as  to  be  capable  of  beinc 
specifically  executed  by  the  court  (Holmes  v.  Meac^ 
52  N.  Y.,  332).  "If  then  a  Catholic  desire  to  make 
provision  by  will  for  saving  of  Masses  for  his  soul, 
there  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  but  that  every  court 
in  the  State  [New  York],  if  not  in  the  Union,  would  up- 
hold the  bequest  if  the  mode  of  making  it  were  affree- 
abletothelaw"  (see  careful  article  written  in  1886  by  F. 
A.  McCloskey  in  ''Albany  Law  Journal",  XXXII,  367). 

For  similar  reasons  in  Wisconsin,  where  all  trusts 
are  abolished  by  stetute  except  certain  specified 
truste  with  a  definite  beneficiarv,  a  gift  for  Masses,  to 
be  good,  must  not  be  so  wordeid  as  to  constitute  a 
trust.  Thus  a  bequest  in  the  following  lanffuitfe:  "I 
do  give  and  bequeath  unto  the  Roman  OLthoBc  Bishop 
of  uie  Diocese  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin,  the  sum  of 
$4150,  the  said  sum  to  be  used  and  applied  as  follows: 
For  Masses  for  the  repose  of  my  soul,  two  thousand 
dollars,  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  my  de- 
ceased wife,  ete. ,  ete."  The  court  held  that  a  trust  waa 
created  by  this  language,  and  savs:  ''It  is  evident 
that  such  a  trust  is  not  capable  of  execution,  and  no 
court  would  teke  cognisance  of  any  question  in  respect 
to  it  for  want  of  a  competent  pwrty  to  raise  and  liti« 
snte  any  question  of  abuse  or  perversion  of  the  trust." 
But  it  adds:  "  We  know  of  no  le^al  reason  why  any 
person  of  the  Catholic  faith,  believmg  in  the  efficacy  of 
Masses,  may  not  make  a  direct  gift  or  bequest  to  any 
bishop  or  priest  of  any  sum  out  of  his  property  or 
estate  for  Masses  for  the  repose  of  his  soul  or  the  s#ul8 
of  others,  as  he  may  choose.  Such  eifte  or  bequeste, 
when  made  in  clear,  direct,  and  legal  form,  should  be 
upheld;  and  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  im- 
peachable or  inviuid  under  the  rule  that  prevailed  in 
England  by  which  they  were  held  void  as  gifte  to 
superstitious  uses"  (72  N.  W.  Rep.,  631). 

The  same  view  was  taken  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Alabama,  where  a  bequest  to  a  church  to  be  used  in 
solenm  Masses  for  the  repose  of  the  soul  of  the  testa- 
tor was  held  invalid  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  respond  to 
any  one  of  the  following  teste:  (1)  that  it  was  a  direct 
bequest  to  the  church  for  ite  general  uses;  (2)  that  it 
created  a  chariteble  use;  or  (3)  that  it  created  a  valid 
private  trust.  It  was  not  a  charity  inasmuch  as  it 
was  "  for  the  benefit  alone  of  his  own  soul,  and  cannot 
be  upheld  as  a  public  charitv  without  offending  every 
principle  of  law  oy  which  such  charities  are  supported  , 
and  it  was  not  valid  as  a  private  trust  for  want  of  a 
living  benefici^y  to  support  it  (Festoraui  v.  St. 
Joseph's  R.  C.  Church  of  Mobile,  25  Law.  Rep.  Atir^ 
360). 

In  lUiiiois  an  opposite  conclusion  is  reached,  it  being 
held  distinctly  that  a  devise  for  Masses  for  the  repose 
of  the  soul  of  the  testetor,  or  for  the  repose  of  the  souls 
of  other  named  persons,  is  valid  as  a  charitable  use, 
and  the  devise  for  such  purpose  will  not  be  allowed  to 
fail  for  want  of  a  competent  trustee,  but  the  court  will 
appoint  a  trustee  to  take  the  gift  and  apply  it  to  the 
purposes  of  the  trust.    Such  a  be<}uest  is  distinctly 


BiASSZLIAHS                             34  1CA88ZXXON 

held  to  be  witkin  the  definition  of  charities  which  are  elements  of  such  a  trust,  as  much  as  it  would  if  the 
to  be  sustained  irrespective  of  the  indefiniteness  of  the  object  were  the  erection  of  a  monument  or  the  doing 
beneficiaries,  or  of  tne  lack  of  trustees,  or  the  fact  that  of  any  other  act  intended  alone  to  perpetuate  the 
the  trustees  appointed  are  not  competent  to  take ;  and  memory  or  name  of  the  testator.    But  even  if  there  is 
it  is  not  derived  from  the  Statute  of  Charitable  Uses  a  techmcsd  departure  because  of  no  living  beneficiary, 
(43  Elizabeth,  c.  4),  but  existed  prior  to  and  indepen-  still  the  bequest  is  valid.    We  have  also  said  that  it  is 
dent  of  that  statute.   The  court  quotes  with  approval  not  a  chanty,  and  we  can  discover  no  element  oi  a 
the  definition  of  a  charitv  as  given  by  Bfr.  Justice  Gray  charity  in  it.   It  seems  to  be  a  matter  entirely  personal 
of  Massachusetts:  "  A  charity  in  a  legal  sense  may  oe  to  the  testator.   In  one  or  more  csLBea  the  courts  have 
more  fuller  defined  as  a  gift,  to  be  applied  consistently  felt  the  necessity  in  order  to  sustain  such  a  bequest,  to 
with  existing  laws,  for  the  benefit  of  an  indefinite  num-  denominate  it  a  charity  because  charitable  bequests 
ber  of  persons,  either  by  bringing  their  hearts  under  have  had  the  sanction  of  the  law.  We  know  of  no  such 
the  influence  of  education  or  religion,  by  relieving  limitation  on  testamentary  acts  as  that  bequests  or 
their  bodies  from  disease,  suffering,  or  constraint,  by  devises  must  be  in  the  line  of  other  such  acts,  if  other- 
assisting  them  to  establish  themselves  for  life,  or  by  wise  lawful"  (Moran  v.  Moran,  73  N.  W.  Re|>.,  617). 
erecting  and  maintaining  public  buildings  or  works.  It  follows  then  that  there  is  no  legal  inhibition  on 
or  otherwise  lessening  the*  burthen  of  government.    It  bequests  for  Masses  in  any  of  the  United  States  either 
is  immaterial  whether  the  purpose  is  called  charitable  on  the  ground  of  public  policy  or  because  they  offend 
in  the  gift  itself,  if  it  be  so  described  as  to  show  that  it  against  any  inherent  principle  of  right.   But  care  must 
is  charitable  in  its  nature "  (Jackson  v.  Phillips,  14  be  taken  in  drafting  the  will  to  observe  the  statutes, 
Allen,  539).    The  court  proceeds  to  show  that  the  where  any  exist,  in  relation  to  devises  or  beauests  in 
Mass  is  intended  to  be  a  repetition  of  the  sacrifice  of  trust  for  any  puxpose  as  well  as  the  current  of  decisions 
the  Cross,  and  b  the  chief  and  central  act  of  worship  where  cases  have  arisen.  The  language  should  be  dear 
in  the  Catholic  Church;  that  it  is  public.  It  points  out  and  drawn  in  accordance  with  legal  rules.    It  should 
the  Catholic  belief  on  the  subject  of  Purgatory,  and  not  be  left  to  the  chances  of  interpretation, 
holds  that  the  adding  of  a  particular  remembrance  in  See  the  authorittoB  quoted  ^ve. 
the  Mass  does  not  change  the  character  of  the  religious  Walter  Gborqb  Smith. 
service  and  render  it  a  mere  private  benefit;  and  fur-  Masaifians.    See  Semipblaqians. 
ther,  that  the  bequest  is  an  aid  to  the  support  of  the 
clergy  (Hoeffer  v.  Clogan,  49  N.  E.  Rep.,  527).  MassiUon,    Jean-Baptistb,    celebrated    French 

In  Pennsvlvania  bequests  and  devises  for  BCasses  preacher  and  bishop;  b.  24  June,  1663;  d.  28  Septem* 

are  distinctly  held  to  be  gifts  for  religious  uses,  the  ber,  1742.    The  son  of  Fran9oi8  Massillon,  a  notarv  of 

Supreme  Court  of  that  state  having  expressea  the  Hy^res  in  Provence,  he  began  his  studies  in  the  college 

same  view  of  the  law  subsequently  adopted  in  Illinois,  of  that  town  and  completed  them  in  the  college  of 

The  court  uses  the  following  language:  '' According  to  Marseilles,  both  imder  the  Oratorians.    He  entered 

the  Roman  Catholic  svstem  of  faith  there  exists  an  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  at  the  age  of  eighteen, 

intermediate  state  of  the  soul,  after  death  and  before  After  his  novitiate  and  theological  studies,  he  was  sent 

final  judgment,  during  which  guilt  incurred  during  life  as  professor  to  the  colleges  of  the  congregation  at 

and  unatoned  for  must  be  expiated;  and  the  tempo-  P^enas,  Marseilles,  Montbrison,  and,  lastly,  Vienne, 

rary  punishments  to  which  the  souls  of  the  penitent  where  he  taught  philosophy  and  theology  for  six  years 

are  tnus  subjected  may  be  mitigated  or  arrested  (1689-05). 

through  the  efficacy  of  the  Mass  as  a  propitiatory  sac-  Ordained  priest  in  1691,  he  commenced  preaching 
rifice.  Hence  the  practice  of  offering  Masses  for  the  in  the  chapel  of  the  Oratoiy  at  Vienne  and  in  the  vicin- 
d^arted.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that,  in  obeying  the  ity  of  that  city.  Upon  tJtte  death  of  Villeroy,  Arch- 
injunction  of  the  testator,  intercession  would  be  spe-  bishop  of  Lyons  (1693),  he  was  called  upon  to  deliver 
ciall^invokedinbehalf  of  the  testator  alone.  Theser-  the  funeral  oration,  and  six  months  later  that  of  M. 
vice  is  just  the  same  in  kind  whether  it  be  desimed  to  de  Villars,  Archbishop  of  Vienne.  Joining  the  Lyons 
prdbiote  the  spiritual  welfare  of  one  or  many.  Prayer  Oratory  in  1695,  and  summoned  to  Paris  in  the  foUow- 
tor  the  conversion  of  a  single  impenitent  is  as  purely  ing  year,  to  be  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Saint-Ma- 
a  religious  act  as  a  petition  for  the  salvation  ot  thou-  gloire,  he  was  thenceforward  able  to  devote  himself  ex- 
sands.  The  services  intended  to  be  performed  in  clusively  to  preaching.  As  director  of  this  seminary 
carrying  out  the  trust  created  by  the  testator's  will,  he  delivered  those  lectures  (conf fences)  to  young 
as  well  as  the  objects  designed  to  be  attained,  are  all  clerics  which  are  still  highlv  esteemed.  But  a  year 
essentially  religious  in  their  character"  (Rnymer's  later  he  was  removed  from  his  position  at  Saint-Ma- 
Appeal,  93  Pa.,  142).  In  Pennsylvania  care  must  be  gloire  for  having  occupied  himself  too  exclusively  with 
taken  to  observe  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  26  April,  preaching.  Having  preached  the  Lent  at  Montpellier 
1855^  P.  L.,  332,  whicn  prohibits  devises  or  legacies  for  m  1698,  he  preached  it  the  next  year  at  the  Oratory  of 
charitable  or  religious  uses,  unless  by  will  executed  at  Paris.  His  eloquence  in  this  series  of  discourses  was 
least  one  month  before  the  death  of  the  testator.  A  very  much  approved,  and,  although  he  aimed  at 
^t  to  be  expended  for  Masses,  being  a  religious  use,  preaching  in  a  style  unlike  that  of  his  predecessors, 
would  come  within  this  statute.  The  provisions  of  the  public  opinion  already  hailed  him  as  the  successor  of 
law  relating  to  attesting  witnesses,  requiring  two  cred-  bossuet  and  Bourdaloue  who  were  at  that  time  re- 
ible  and  di^terested  witnesses  wnen  any  ^t  is  made  duced  to  silence  by  age.  At  the  end  of  this  year  he 
by  will  for  religious  or  charitable  uses,  should  also  be  preached  the  Advent  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV — an 
noted.  honour  which  was  in  those  days  highlv  coveted  as  the 

In  Massachusetts  the  courts  take  the  same  view  as  consecration  of  a  preacher's  fame.    He  justified  every 

those  of  Pennsylvania,  that  gifts  for  Masses  are  to  be  hope,  and  the  Idne  wittily  declared  that,  where  he  had 

sustained  as  for  religious  uses  (Re  Schouler,  134  Mass.,  formerly  been  well  pleased  with  the  preachers,  he  was 

126).  now  very  ill  pleased  with  himself.    Massillon,  by  com- 

In  Iowa  the  Supreme  Court  has  sustained  a  bequest  mand,  once  more  appeared  in  the  chapel  of  Versailles 

"to  the  Catholic  priest  who  may  be  pastor  of  the  R.  for  the  Lent  of  1701.    Bossuet,  who,  according  to  his 

Catholic  Church  when  this  will  shall  be  executed,  three  secretary,  had  thought  Massillon  very  far  from  the 

hundred  dollars  that  Masses  may  be  said  for  me  ",  as  sublime  in  1699,  this  time  declared  himself  very  well 

^^ing  valid,  though  it  contains  no  element  of  a  chari-  satisfied,  as  was  the  kizig.    Massillon  was  summoned 

table  use.    The  court  says:  "We  have  said  that  this  a^ain  for  the  Lent  of  1704.    This  was  the  apogee  of 

be<iuest,  if  the  priest  should  accept  the  money,  is  a  his  eloquence  and  his  success.    The  king  assiduously 

private  trust:  and  we  think  it  possesses  the  essential  attended  his  sermons^  and  in  the  royal  presence  Maa^ 


ttASS6ftAft 


36 


MASSOftAfi 


sillon  delivered  that  discourse  "On  the  Fewness  of  the 
Elect",  which  is  considered  his  masterpiece.  Never- 
theless, whether  because  the  compromising  relations  of 
the  orator  with  certain  great  families  had  produced  a 
bad  impression  on  the  king,  or  because  Louis  ended  by 
believing  him  inclined — as  some  of  his  brethren  of  the 
Oratory  were  thought  to  be— to  Jansenism,  Massillon 
was  never  again  summoned  to  preach  at  the  Court  dur- 
ing the  life  of  Louis  XIV,  nor  was  he  even  put  forward 
for  a  bishopric.  Nevertheless  he  continued,  from 
17Q4  to  1718,  to  preach  Lent  and  Advent  discourses 
with  great  success  in  various  churches  of  Paris.  Only 
in  the  Advent  of  1715  did  he  leave  those  churches  to 
preach  before  the  Court  of  Stanislas,  King  of  Lorraine. 
In  the  interval  he  preached,  with  only  moderate 
success,  sermons  at  ceremonies  of  taking  the  habit, 

panegyrics,  and 
funeral  orations. 
Of  his  funeral  ora^ 
tions  that  on  Louis 
XIV  is  still  fa- 
mous, above  all  for 
its  opening:  "God 
alone  is  great" — 
uttered  at  the 
grave  of  a  prince 
to  whom  his  con- 
temporaries had 
yielaed  the  title  of 
"The  Great". 

After  the  death 
of  this  king  Mas- 
sillon returned  to 
favour  at  Court. 
In  1717  the  regent 
nominated  him  to 
the  Bishopric  of 
Clermont  (Au- 
vergne)  and  caused 


JSAIf-BAPTIBTS  MaBSILLON 


him  to  preach  before  the  yoimg  king,  Louis  XV,  the 
lenten  course  of  1718,  which  was  to  comprise  only  ten 
sermons.  These  have  been  published  under  the  title 
of  "Le  Petit  Car6me" — Massillon's  most  popular 
work.  Finally,  he  was  received,  a  few  months  later, 
into  the  French  Academy,  where  Fleury,  the  young 
king's  preceptor,  pronounced  his  eulogy. 

But  Massillon,  consecrated  on  21  December,  1719, 
was  in  haste  to  take  possession  of  his  see.  With  its  29 
abbeys,  224  priories,  and  758  parishes,  the  Diocese  of 
Clermont  was  one  of  the  largest  in  France.  The  new 
bishop  took  up  his  residence  there,  and  left  it  only  to 
assist,  by  order  of  the  regent,  in  the  negotiations  which 
were  to  decide  the  case  of  Cardinal  de  Noailles  (q.  v.) 
and  certain  bishops  suspected  of  Jansenism,  in  accept- 
ing the  Bull "  Unigenitus",  to  assist  at  the  coronation 
of  Louis  XV,  and  to  preach  the  funeral  sermon  of  the 
Duchess  of  Orleans,  the  regent's  mother. 

He  made  it  his  business  to  visit  one  part  of  his  dio- 
cese each  year,  and  at  his  death  he  haa  been  through 
the  whole  diocese  nearly  three  times,  even  to  the  poor- 
est and  remotest  parishes.  He  set  himself  to  re-^tab- 
l^h  or  maintain  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  good 
morals  among  his  clergy.  From  the  ^ear  1723  on,  he 
annually  assembled  a  synod  of  the  priests;  he  did  this 
once  more  in  1742,  a  few  days  before  his  death.  In 
these  synods  and  in  the  retreats  which  followed  them 
he  delivered  the  synodal  discourses  and  conf&encea 
which  have  been  so  much,  and  so  justly,  admired.  If 
he  at  times  displayed  energy  in  reforming  abuses,  he 
was  generally  tender  and  fatherly  towards  his  clergy; 
he  was  willing  t-o  listen  to  them;  he  promoted  their 
education,  by  attaching  benefices  to  his  seminaries, 
and  assured  them  a  peaceful  old  age  by  building  a 
house  of  retirement  for  them.  He  defended  his  clergy 
aeainst  the  king's  ministers,  who  wished  to  increase 
their  fiscal  burdens,  and  he  never  ceased  to  guard  them 
against  the  errors  and  subterfuges  of  the  Jansenists, 


who,  indeed,  assailed  him  sharply  in  their  journal  "Let 
Nouvelles  Eccl^siastiques". 

Thoroughly  devoted  to  all  his  diocesan  flock,  he 
busied  himself  in  improving  their  condition.  This  is 
apparent  in  his  correspondence  with  the  king's  intend- 
ants  and  ministers,  in  which  he  does  his  utmost  to  alle- 
viate the  lot  of  the  Auvergne  peasantry  whenever 
there  is  a  disposition  to  increase  tneir  taxation,  or  the 
scourge  of  a  bad  season  afflicts  their  crops.  Tne  poor 
were  always  dear  to  him:  not  only  dia  he  pleaa  for 
them  in  his  sermons,  but  he  assisted  them  out  of  his 
bounty,  and  at  his  death  he  instituted  the  hospital  of 
Clermont  for  his  universal  heirs,  the  poor.  His  death 
was  lamented,  as  his  life  had  been  blessed  and  admired 
by  his  contemporaries.  Posterity  has  numbered  him 
with  Bossu^t,  F^nelon,  F16chier,  and  Mascaron,  among 
the  greatest  French  bishops  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
As  an  orator,  no  one  was  more  appreciated  by  the 
eighteenth  century,  which  placed  him  easily — at  least 
as  to  preaching  properly  so  called — above  Bossuet  and 
Bourdaloue.  Our  age  places  him  rather  lower.  Mas- 
sillon has  neither  the  sublimity  of  Bossuet  nor  the 
logic  of  Bourdaloue:  with  him  the  sermon  neglects 
dogma  for  morality,  and  morality  loses  its  authority, 
and  sometimes  its  security,  in  the  eyes  of  Christians. 
For  at  times  he  is  so  severe  as  to  render  himself  suspect 
of  Jansenism,  and  again  he  is  so  lax  as  to  be  accused  of 
complaisancy  for  uie  sensibilities  and  the  philoso- 
phism  of  his  time.  His  chief  merit  was  to  have  ex- 
celled in  depicting  the  passions,  to  have  spoken  to  the 
heart  in  a  language  it  always  understood,  to  have 
made  the  great,  and  princes,  imderstand  the  loftiest 
teachings  of  the  Gospel,  and  to  have  made  his  own  life 
and  his  work  as  a  bishop  conform  to  those  teachings. 
During  Massillon 's  lifetime  onlv  the  funeral  oration  on 
the  Pnnce  de  Conti  was  publisned  (1709) ;  he  even  dis- 
avowed a  collection  of  sermons  which  appeared  under 
his  name  at  Ti^voux  (1705,  1706,  1714).  The  first 
authentic  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  1745,  pub- 
lished by  his  nephew.  Father  Joseph  Massillon,  of  the 
Oratory;  it  has  been  frequently  reprinted.  But  the 
best  edition  was  that  of  Blampignon,  Bar-le^Duc, 
1865-68,  and  Paris,  1886,  in  four  vols.  It  com- 
prises ten  sermons  for  Advent,  forty-one  for  Lent, 
eight  on  the  mysteries,  four  on  virtues,  ten  panegyrics, 
six  funeral  orations,  sixteen  ecclesiastical  conferences, 
twenty  synodal  discourses,  twenty-six  charges,  para- 
phrases on  thirty  psalms,  some  pensiea  chmsies,  and 

some  fifty  miscellaneous  letters  or  notes. 

d'Albmbert,  Eloffe  de  MaanUon  in  Hitioin  dea  membrea 
de  VAcadhnieJran^Ue  (Paris,  1787),  I;  V;  Baylb,  Maaeil' 
Ion  (Paris,  1867);  Blampignon,  MaasUlon  d'apr^a  dea  documetUa 
inidUa  (Paris.  1879);  L'ijnacopat  de  MaaaiUon  (Paris,  1884); 
Attaib,  Etude  aur  MaaaiUon  (Toulouse,  1882);  Cohkndt, 
Ccnreapondance  Mandementa  de  MaaaiUon  (Clermont,  1883); 
Pauthb,  MaaaiUon  (Paris,  1908).        AntOINE  D^GERT. 

Massorah,  the  textual  tradition  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  an  official  registration  of  its  words,  consonants, 
vowels  and  accents.     It  is  doubtful  whether  the 

word  should  be  pointed ri'lDD  (from  1D6(,  "to  bind") 
orn'ibp  (from  the  NewHebrew  verb,  IDD'*  to  hand 
down").  The  former  pointing  is  seen  in  Ezech.  xx, 
37;  the  latter  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  in  the  Mishna, 
the  word's  primary  meaning  is  'tradition".  Our 
chief  witness  to  Massorah  is  the  actual  text  of  MSS.  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible.  Other  witnesses  are  several  collec- 
tions of  Massorah  and  the  numerous  marginal  notes 
scattered  over  Hebrew  MSS.  The  upper  and  lower 
margins  and  the  end  of  the  MS.  contain  the  Greater 
Massorah,  such  as  lists  of  words;  the  side  mareins  con- 
tain the  Lesser  Massorah,  such  as  variants.  The  best 
collection  of  Massorah  is  that  of  Ginsburg,  "The  Masr 
Borah  compiled  from  MSS.  alphabetically  and  lexicallV 
arranged''  (3  vols.,  London,  1880-85).  This  articfti 
will  treat  (I)  the  history  and  (II)  the  critical  value  of 
Massorah.  For  tbe  number  and  worth  of  Massoretao 
MSS.,  see  MSS.  of  the  Bible. 


MASSO&AB 


36 


MASMftAfi 


I.  HxaroRT  of  Masborah. — ^Their  sacred  books  were 
to  the  Jews  an  inspired  code  and  record,  a  God-in- 
tended means  to  conserve  the  political  and  religious 
unity  and  fidelity  of  the  nation.  It  was  imperative 
upon  them  to  keep  those  books  intact.  So  far  back  as 
the  first  century  b.  c,  copyists  and  revisers  were 
trained  and  employed  to  fix  the  Hebrew  text.    All 

had  one  purpose, — to  copy  n'IDOn  *D  hv*  *•  c-  accord- 
ing to  the  face-value  of  the  Biassorah.  To  repro- 
duce their  exemplar  perfectly,  to  hand  down  the 
Massorah, — only  this  and  nothing  more  was  purposed 
by  the  official  copyist  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Every- 
thing new  was  shunned.  There  is  evidence  that  false 
pronunciations  were  fixed  by  Massorah  centuries  b^ 
fore  the  invention  of  points  such  as  are  seen  in  our 
present  Massoretic  text.  At  times  such  earlv  transla- 
tions as  those  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  the  LXX  and 
the  Peshitto  give  evidence  of  precisely  the  same  er- 
roneous pronimciation  as  is  found  in  the  pointed  He- 
brew text  of  to-day. 

(1)  The  C(m8onantal  Text. — Hebrew  had  no  vowels 
in  its  alphabet.  Vowel  sounds  were  for  the  most  part 
handed  down  by  tradition.  Certain  consonants,  M» 
1,  ^  and  sometimes  n,  were  used  to  express  some  long 
vowels;  these  consonants  were  called  AfcUree  lecUonis, 
because  they  determined  the  pronimciation.  The  ef- 
forts of  copyists  would  seem  to  have  become  more  and 
more  minute  and  detailed  in  the  perpetuation  of  the 
consonantal  text.  These  copyists  {ypa/AtuLrtU)  were 
at  first  called  Sopherim  (from  "ifiDi  "to  count"),  be- 
cause, as  the  Talmud  says, ''  they  counted  all  the  let- 
ters in  the  Torah''  (Kiddushin,  30a).  It  was  not  till 
later  on  that  the  name  Massoretes  was  ^ven  to  the 
preservers  of  Massorah.  In  the  Talmudic  period  (c. 
A.  D.  300-500),  the  rules  for  perpetuating  Massorah 
were  extremely  detailed.  Only  skins  of  clean  animals 
must  be  used  for  parchment  rolls  and  fastenings 
thereof.  Each  column  must  be  of  equal  length,  not 
more  than  sixty  nor  less  than  forty-eight  lines.  Each 
line  must  contain  thirty  letters,  written  with  black  ink 
of  a  prescribed  make-up  and  in  the  square  letters 
which  were  the  ancestors  of  our  present  Hebrew  text- 
letters.  The  copyist  must  have  before  him  an  authen- 
tic copy  of  the  text;  and  must  not  write  from  memory 
a  single  letter,  not  even  a  yod, — every  letter  must  he 
copied  from  the  exemplar,  letter  for  letter.  The  in- 
terval between  consonants  should  be  the  breadth  of  a 
hair;  between  words,  the  breadth  of  a  narrow  conson- 
ant; between  sections,  the  breadth  of  nine  consonants; 
between  books,  the  breadth  of  three  lines. 

Such  nimierous  and  minute  rules,  though  scrupu- 
lously observed,  were  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  zeal  to 
perpetuate  the  consonantal  text  fixed  and  unchanged. 
Letters  were  omitted  which  had  surreptitiously  crept 
in:  variants  and  conjectural  readings  were  indicated  m 
side-mai^ins, — words,  "read  but  not  written"  (Qerg), 
"written  but  not  reaa"  {Keihihh),  " read  one  way  but 
written  another  " .  These  marginal  critical  notes  went 
on  increasing  with  time.  Still  more  was  done  to  fix 
the  consonantal  text.  The  words  and  letters  of  each 
book  and  of  every  section  of  the  twenty-four  books  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  were  coimted.  The  middle  words 
and  middle  letters  of  books  and  sections  were  noted. 
In  the  Talmud,  we  see  how  one  rabbi  was  wont  to 
pester  the  other  with  such  trivial  textual  questions  as 
the  juxtaposition  of  certain  letters  in  this  or  that  sec- 
tion, the  half-section  in  which  this  consonant  or  that 
was,  etc.  The  rabbis  counted  the  number  of  times 
certain  words  and  phrases  occurred  in  the  several 
books  and  in  the  whole  Bible;  and  searehed  for  mystic 
meanings  in  that  number  of  times.  On  the  top  and 
bottom  mazvins  of  MSS.,  they  grouped  various  pecu- 
liarities of  the  text  and  drew  up  alphabetical  lists  of 
words  which  occurred  equally  often, — for  instance,  of 
those  which  appeared  once  with  and  once  without 
10810.  In  Cod.  Babylon.  Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916),  we 
have  many  critical  maiiginal  notes  of  such  and  of  other 


peculiarities,  v.  g.  a  list  of  fourteen  words  written  witli 
final  He  which  are  to  be  read  with  YFat0,  and  of  eight 
words  written  with  final  Waw,  which  are  to  be  read 
with  He.  Such  were  some  of  the  painstaking  means 
employed  to  preserve  the  consonantal  text  of  Uie  Mas- 
sorah. 

(2)  The  Points. — ^Rolls  that  were  destined  for  use  in 
the  synagogue  were  always  unpointed.  Rolls  that 
were  for  other  use  came  in  time  to  receive  vowel- 

e>ints,  and  accents;  these  latter  indicated  the  interre- 
tion  of  words  and  modulation  of  the  voice  in  public 
cantillation.  One  scribe  wrote  the  consonantal  text; 
another  put  in  the  vowel-points  and  accents  of  Mas- 
sorah. The  history  of  the  vocalisation  of  the  text  is 
utterly  unknown  to  us.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
dogmatic  interpretation  clearly  led  to  certain  pimctu- 
ations;  but  it  is  likelier  that  the  pronunciation  was 
part  of  Massorah  long  before  the  invention  of  punctu- 
ation. The  very  origin  of  this  invention  is  doubtful. 
Bleek  assigns  it  to  tne  eighth  century  (cf.  "Introd. 
to  O.  T."  I,  109,  London,  1894).  Points  were  cer- 
tainly imused  in  St.  Jerome's  time;  he  had  no  knowl- 
edge whatsoever  of  them.  The  punctuation  of  the 
traditional  text  was  just  as  certainly  complete  in  the 
ninth  century;  for  R.  Saadia  Gaon  h  942),  of  Fayum 
in  E^ypt,  wrote  treatises  thereon.  The  work  of  pimo- 
tuatmg  must  have  gone  on  for  years  and  been  done  by 
a  large  number  of  scholars  who  laboured  conjointly 
and  authoritatively.  Strack  (see  "Text  of  O.  T.",  in 
Hastings, "  Diet,  of  Bib.'')  says  it  is  practically  certain 
that  the  points  came  into  Massoran  by  Synac  influ- 
ence. Syrians  strove,  by  such  signs,  to  perpetuate  the 
correct  vocalisation  and  intonation  ot  their  Sacred 
text.  Their  efforts  gave  an  impulse  to  Jewish  sseal  for 
the  traditional  vocalisation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
Bleek  ("Introd.  to  O.  T.",  I,  110.  London,  1894)  and 
others  are  equally  certain  that  Hebrew  scholars  re- 
ceived their  impulse  to  pimctuation  from  the  Moslem 
method  of  preserving  tne  Arabic  vocalization  of  the 
Koran.  That  Hebrew  scholars  were  influenced  by 
either  Syriac  or  Arabic  punctuation  is  undoubted. 
Both  forms  and  names  of  the  Massoretic  points  indi- 
cate either  S3rriac  or  Arabic  origin.  What  surprises  us 
is  the  absence  of  any  vestige  of  opposition  to  this  in- 
troduction into  Massorah  of  points  that  were  most  de- 
cidedly not  Jewish.  The  Karaite  Jews  surprise  us 
still  more,  since,  during  a  very  brief  period,  they  trans- 
literated the  Hebrew  text  in  Arabic  characters. 

At  least  two  systems  of  punctuation  are  Massoretic : 
the  Western  ana  the  Eastern.  The  Western  is  called 
Tiberian,  after  the  far  famed  school  of  Massorah  at 
Tiberias.  It  prevailed  over  the  Eastern  system  and  is 
followed  in  most  MSS.  as  well  as  in  all  printed  editions 
of  the  Massoretic  text.  By  rather  complicated  and 
ingenious  combinations  of  dots  and  dashes,  placed 
either  above  or  below  the  consonants,  the  Massoretes 
accurately  represented  ten  vowel  sounds  (long  and 
short  a,  e,  i,  o,  u)  together  with  four  half-vowels  or 
Shewas.  These  latter  corresponded  to  the  very  much 
obscured  English  sounds  of  e,  a,  and  o.  The  Tiberian 
Massoretes  sklso  introduced  a  great  many  accents  to 
indicate  the  tone-syllable  of  a  word,  the  logical  corre- 
lation of  words  and  the  voice  modulation  in  public 
reading.  The  Eastern  or  Babylonian  system  of  punc- 
tuation shows  dependence  on  the  Western  and  is  found 
in  a  few  MSS. — chiefest  of  which  is  CJod.  Babylon. 
Petropolitanus  (a.  d.  916).  It  was  thepimctuation  of 
Yemen  till  the  eighteentn  century.  Tne  vowel  signs 
are  all  above  the  consonants  and  are  formed  from  the 
Matrea  lectionis  HX^-  Disjunctive  accents  of  this  su- 
pralinear  punctiiation  have  signs  like  the  first  letter 
of  their  name;  Ti  zaqeph;  c,  ^ha.  A  third  system 
of  punctuation  has  been  found  in  two  fragments  of  the 
Bible  lately  brought  to  light  in  Egypt  and  now  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  (cf.  Kahle  in  '^Zeitschrift  f(lr  die 
Alttestam.  Wissenschaft",  1901;  Friedl&nder,  "A 
third  fljyBtem  of  symbols  for  the  Hebrew  vowels  and 


MA&SOULZE                            37  MAS8TS 

accents"  in  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review",  1895).   The  oraiaon,  od  les  erreura  des  Qui^tistes  sont  r^fut^es" 

invention  of  points  greatly  increased  the  work  of  (Paris,  1699);  "Traits  de  ramour  de  Dieu"  (Paris, 

scribes;  they  now  set  themselves  to  list  words  with  a  1703). 

view  to  perpetuating  not  only  the  consonants  but  the  Qutmr-EcaAnD,  Script.  Ord.  Pned.,  IT,  769;  Touron,  Hitt. 

vowels.     Cod.  Babyl  PetropolitanUS  (a.  D.  916),  for  dethommes  Ulus.,  V,  761-73;  Hukter.  JVoiyn^tor. 

instance,  lists  eighteen  words  beginning  with  Lamed  '^"  •''  Kennedy. 

and  either  Shewa  or  Hirea  followed  by  Shewa;  eigh-        -- .    ti      jl    r%      j-a-  xi-^     #xi- 

teen  words  beginning  withXamed  and  Paihah;  together  ^  Maflsuet,  RENfe,  Benedictine  patrolo^,  of  ^e 

with  an  al^betiSl  list  of  words  ending  with  n,  ^'^^W'"''  *"»  ^•-  JJ^^J'   ^'  ^\^'^^''  ^^\^\  ^' 

which  occur  only  once                                                  '  Ouen  de  Mancelles  in  the  diocese  of  Evreux;  d.  11  Jan., 

II.  CRmcAi.  VALui  OF  MA880RAH.-During  the  ^J/^  **  ^\  Germain  des  Pr6s  in  Paris.     He  made  his 

seventeenth  century,  many  Protestant  theologians,  K>>mn  profe^ion  in  religion  m  1682  at  Notre  Dam 

such  as  the  Buxtorfs  defended  the  Massoretic  text  a^  Lne,  and  studied  at  Bonnenouvelle  m  Orleans,  where 

infallible;  and  considered  that  Esdras  together  with  he  showed  more  ^nordmary  ability^ 

the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue  had,  u^der  the  in-  m«  philosophy  m  the  Abbey  of  Bee  and  the^^^ 

spiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  not  only  determined  the  Stephen  s,  m  Caen,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the 

Hebrew  canon  but  fiied  fore  ver  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  J?^^."/*^.  ^^^  obtained  the  dM;rees  of  bachelor  and 

Bible,  its  vowel  points  and  accents,  its  division  mto  ^ce^tiate  in  law.    After  this  he  taught  a  year  at 

verses  and  paraphs  and  booki.     Modem  text-  Juini^^and  three  years  at  Fecamp.     Hespent^ 

critics  value  KsS)^^,  just  as  the  Itala  and  Peshitto,  7^  1702jn  Rome  in  the  study  of  Greek.    TWoDow- 

only  as  one  witness  U>  a  text  of  the  second  century.  P«  y^,^^  "^^  ^"^^  ^  ?*•  Geraiain  des  Pr6s  Md 

The  pointed  Massoretic  text  is  witness  to  a  text  which  **?«*!*  theology  there  to  the  end  of  his  life.     His 

is  not  certainly  earUer  than  the  eighth  century.    The  P"?if 'P!iT°'*^'  "^J^l^  ^®  undertookiather  reluctwitljr, 

consonantal  text  is  afar  better  witness;  unfortunately  f-*^®    a     ^?  °  r'^A^^^^u    ®*'  ^renaus,  Pans, 

the  tradition  of  this  text  was  ahnost  absolutely  uni-  ^^^^Li    i^/?iS^*  fSjj^S  ?\u  ®®^.7"**?*?  ^  *?! 

form.    There  were  different  schools  of  Massoretes,  but  Ep^  ^*  Oxford,  1702,  but  the  editor,  John  Ernest 

their  diflferences  have  left  us  very  few  variants  of  the  Grabe,  was  less  intent  on  an  accurate  rendering  of  the 

consonantal  text  (see  Manuscripts  op  the  Bible).  JJ^*  ^^  ^".  ™*r S?  ^^°?^  '^.Y^^  ^''l,  *^.  ^^T' 

The  Massoretes  were  slaves  to  Massorah  and  handed  Massuet  ennched  his  edition  with  valuable  disserta- 

down  one  and  one  only  text.    Even  textual  peculiari-  JjP^.P^  the  heresies  impumed  bv  St.  Irenaus  and  on 

ties,  clearly  due  to  error  or  accident,  were  perpetuated  Sti5®;i7^^'  i      ^iS^i  a       i  ^^  qHS      n 

by  rabbis  who  pussled  their  brains  to  f erret  oOt  mysti-  ®f  \J?l^^  fifth  volume  of  the/'  Annales  Ord  8.  Ben. 

cal  interpretations  of  these  peculiarities.    Broken  and  ^}  Mabillon.  with  some  additions  and  a  preface  mclu- 

in  verted  letters,  consonante  that  were  too  small  or  too  «*  ^^  ??  ^^  biographies  of  MabiUon  and  Rumart.     We 

large,  dots  that  were  out  of  place— aU  such  vagaries  ?^®  ?"^'  moreover,  aletter  to  John  B.  Langlois,  S.J., 

were  slavishly  handed  down  as  if  God-intendea  and  "^  defence  of  the  Benedictine  edition  of  ^.  Augustme, 

full  of  Divine  meanine  ^^°^  °^®  letters  addressed  to  Bernard  Pea  found  in 

MoRiNU».   BxereUaiiorStm    tnUiearum  de  Heimn  Gracique  Schelhorn's   "Amoenitates   Literari»".      He   left   in 

textuM  aineeniau  libri  duo  ([Paris,  i60d);  Kuenen,  Let  Oripinet  manuscript  a  Work  entitled  '  Augustmus  Graecus  ,  in 


!•*  *£?«.  ^,'S'''1*^i^?5S**  }?l^^*  JSl^^^\  ^?*»«'5  ^^ikv^  which  he  quotes  all  the  passages  of  St.  John  Chryso*- 

ike  Oriffinal  TcxU  of  the  Oid  and  New  Teatamerde  (London,  1891) ;  4.^^  ^_  _^«^  ^ .-w-«x>  j 

BuHu  Kamm  und  Text  dee  AUen  TeetamerUe  (Leipzig.  1891);  *°Sl^?g^??\    ^  .,,  ,o«o  -r«    .,. 

Lout.  HUtoirt  criiique  du  texU  el  dee  versions  de  la  BibU  (2  ^^^h  QuarteZac^riA  1833,  452;  Tabszn,  Conffr.von8t.Maur 


(Frankfurt,  1773)^  575:  Hurter,  NomencL,  IV  (Innsbniek. 
1910),  527;  Ktrehenlexikont  s.  v.;  Bucbbbrobr,  Kirdu, 
Handlez.,  s.  v. 

Fhancis  Mershmann. 


vob..  Para.  l892-4»5);  Kenton.  Our  BibU  and  the  Ancient  MSi 
(Londoa.  1896):  Kable.  Der  Maaoretiache  Text  dee  AUen  Teata- 
menla  nach  der  Veberlieferung  der  Bahuloniaehen  Juden  (Leipxiit, 
1902) ;  GiNSBURO,  Introduction  to  the  iiaaaoretieo'entical  edition 
of  the  HArmo  BiUe  (1897). 

Walter  Drum.  Masssrs  (Messtb,  Mstzts),  Quentin,  painter,  b.  at 

Lou  vain  in  1466;  d.  at  Antwerp  in  1630  (bet.  13  July 

MuBOoUA,  Antoine,  theologian,  b.  at  Toulouse,  28  and  16  September),  and  not  in  1529,  as  his  epitaph 

Oct.,  1632;  d.  at  Rome,  23  Jan.,  17()6.     At  an  early  states  (it  dates  from  the  seventeenth  century).    The 

age  he  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  in  which  he  life  of  this  great  artist  is  all  adorned,  or  obscured,  with 

held  many  important  offices;  but  above  all  these  he  legends.    It  is  a  fact  that  he  was  the  son  of  a  smith, 

prized  studv,  teaching,  and  writmg,  for  the  love  of  There  is  nothing  to  prove,  but  it  is  not  impossible  that 

which  he  refused  a  bishopric  and  asked  to  be  reUeved  he  first  followed  his  father's  trade.   In  any  case  he  was 

of  distracting  duties.     It  was  said  that  he  knew  by  a  "bronzier"  and  medallist.     On  29  March,  1528. 

heart  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas.    He  devoted  him-  Erasmus  wrote  to  Boltens  that  Massys  had  engraved 

self  with  such  earnestness  to  the  study  of  Greek  and  a  medallion  of  him  (Effigiem  meam  fudit  aere).    This 

Hebrew  that  he  could  converse  fluently  in  both  of  was  perhaps  the  medal  dated  1519,  a  copy  of  which  is 

these  languages.     His  knowledge  of  Hebrew  enabled  at  the  Museum  of  Basle.    In  1575  Molanas  in  his  his- 

him  to  overcome  in  public  debate  two  Jewish  Rabbis,  tory  of  Lou  vain  states  that  Quentin  is  the  author  of  the 

one  at  Avignon  in  1659,  the  other  at  Florence  in  1695.  standard  of  the  baptismal  fonts  at  St-Pierre,  but  his 

The  latter  became  an  exemplary  Christian,  his  con  ver-  account  is  full  of  errors.    As  for  the  wrought  iron  dome 

sion  being  modestly  ascribed  by  Massouli^  to  prayer  over  the  well  in  the  Biarch^aux-Gants  at  Antwerp, 

more  than  to  successful  disputation.     His  published  which  popular  tradition  attributes  to  him,  the  attribu- 

works  and  some  unpublished  manuscripts  (preserved  tion  is  purely  fanciful.    Tradition  also  states  that  the 

in  the  Casanatense  librarjr  at  Rome)  may  be  divided  voung  smith,  in  love  with  a  young  woman  of  Antwerp, 

into  two  classes:  those  written  in  defence  of  the  Tho-  became  a  painter  for  her  sake.    Indeed  ^is  prettv 

mistic  doctrine  of  physical  promotion,  relating  to  fable  explains  the  poetical  character  of  Maaeys.    All 

Grod*s  action  on  free  agents,  and  those  written  against  his  workis  are  like  love  songs.    Facts  tell  us  only  that 

the  Quietists,  whom  he  strenuousW  opposed,  both  by  the  young  man,  an  orphan  since  he  was  fifteen,  was 

attacking  thor  false  teachings  and  also  by  explaining  emancipated  by  his  mother  4  April,  1491,  and  that  in 

the  true  doctrine  according  to  the  principles  of  St.  the  same  year  he  was  entered  as  a  painter  on  the  regis- 

Thomas.     His  principal  works  are:  "  Divus  Thomas  ters  of  the  Guild  of  Antwerp.    He  kept  a  studio  which 

Bui  interpres  de  divina  motione  et  libertate  creata''  four  different  pupils  entered  from  1495  to  1510. 

(Rome,  1602);  ^'OratioadexpUcandamSummantheo-  He  had  six  children  by  a  first  marriage  with  Alyt 

logicamD.  Thomae"  (Rome,  1701);"  M^ditetionsde  vanTuylt.    She  died  in  1507.    Shortly  afterwards,  in 

a.  Thomas  sur  les  trois  vies,  purgative,  illuminative  et  1508  or  1509,  he  married  Catherine  Heyns,  who  bore 

unitive"  (Toulouse,  1678);  *'Trait6  de  la  veritable  him,  according  to  some,  ten  children,  according  to 


HASSTS  3 

odiers,  seven.  He  Beema  to  h»ve  been  a  respect«d 
personage.  Ab  has  been  seen,  he  had  reUtionB  with 
ErasmuB,  whose  portrait  he  painted  in  1517  (the  orig- 
inal, or  an  ancient  copy,  is  at  Hampton  Court),  and 
with  the  latter'H  friend,  Petrus  Egidjus  (Peter  GiUis), 
magistrate  of  Antwerp,  whose  portrait  by  Hassya  is 
preserved  by  Lord  Radnor  at  Longford.  Diirer  went 
to  visit  him  immediately  on  his  return  from  his  famous 
journey  to  the  Low  Countries  in  151S.  On  29  July  of 
that  year  Quentin  had  purchased  a  house,  for  which 
he  hail  perhaps  carved  a  wooden  statue  of  his  patron 
saint.  In  1520  he  worked  together  with  2S0  other 
artiste  on  the  triumphal  arches  for  the  entry  of  Em- 

K-or  Qiarlea  V.  In  1524  on  the  death  of  Joachim 
tenicr  be  was  named  guar- 
dian of  the  dau^teiB  of  the 
deceased.  This  is  all  we 
learn  from  documents  con- 
cerning him.  He  led  a  quiet, 
well-ordered,  middle-«lass, 
happy  life,  which  scaroel]' 
tallies  with  the  legendary 
figure  of  the  little  smith  be- 
coming a  painter  through 
love. 

Nevertheless,  in  this  in- 
stance also,  the  legend  is 
right.  For  nothing  explains 
better  the  appearance  in 
the  dull  prosaic  Flemish 
School  of  the  charming 
genius  of  this  lover-poet.  It 
cannot  be  believed,  as  Uo- 
lauus  asserts,  that  he  was 
the  pupil  of  Rogier  van  der 
Weyden,  since  Rogier  died 
in  14S4,  two  years  before 
Quentin's  birth.  But  the 
masters  whom  be  mi^it 
have  encountered  at  Lou  vain 
such  as  GontB,  or  even  Dirck, 
the  best  among  them,  dis- 
tress by  a  lack  of  taste  and 
imagination  a  drj'ness  of 
ideas  and  style  which  is  th« 
very  opposite  of  Masays'a 
manner.    Add  to  this  tLat 

bis  two  earliest   known  QDDrmi  Husn 

worl^,  in  fact  the  onJy  two  j,   ^j,^  y^.;  ^^        „„ 

which  count,  the   "Lite  of 

St.  Anne"  at  Brussels  and  the  Antwerp  triptych,  Northern 
the  "Deposition  from  the  Cross",  date  respectively  sitions.  ol 
from  1509  and  1511,  that  is  from  a  period  when  the 


master  was  nearly  fifty  yeare  old.  Vp  to  that  age  we 
knownothingconccminghim.  Thc"Banker  and  His 
Wife"  (Louvre)  and  the  "Portrait  of  a  Young  Man" 
(Collection  of  Mme.  Andn^),  his  only  dated  works  be- 
sides his  masterpieces,  belong  to  ISKl  and  1514  (or 
1519).  We  lack  all  the  elements  which  would  afford 
ua  an  idea  of  his  formation.  He  seems  like  an  inex- 
plicable, miraculous  flower. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  his  fjeat  palntli^ 
have  been  almost  ruined  by  restorations,  it  will  be 
understood  that  the  question  of  Massys  contains 
insoluble  problems.  In  fact  the  triptych  of  St.  Anne 
at  Brussels  is  perhaps  the  most  gracious,  tender, 
and  sweet  of  all  the  painting  of  Uie  North.  And 
it  will  always  be  mysteriotis,  unless  the  principal 
ijtemc,  which  represents  the  family  or  the  parents 
of  Chnst,  affords  some  lirht.  It  is  the  theme,  dear 
to  Uemling,  of  "spiritual  eon veisat ions",  of  those 
Bwect  meetings  of  heavenly  pereona,  in  earthly  cos- 
tumes, in  the  serenity  of  a  Paradisal  court.  This  sub- 
ject, whwe  unity  is  wholly  interior  and  mystic,  Mem- 
Udx,  as  is  known,  had  brought  from  Germany,  where 
itbad  been  tirelessly  repeated  l^  painters,  especially 
by  bim  who  was  called  because  wuiia- the  Matter  dtr 


called  symphonic,  was  enhanced  by  a  new  harmony. 
which  was  the  feeling  of  the  circulation  of  the  same 
blood  in  all  the  assembled  persons.    It  was  the  poem 
arising  from  the  quite  Germanic  intimacy  of  the  love 
of  family.     One  is  reminded  of  Suso  or   of  T&uter. 
Theloving,  tender  genius  of  Massys  would  bestirred  to 
grave  joy  in  such  a  subject.    The  eTouisite  histor)-  of 
St.  Anne,  that  poem  of  maternity,  of  the  holiness  of  the 
desire  to  survive  in   posterity,  has  never  been   ei- 
pressed  in  a  more  penetrating,  chaste,  disquieting  art. 
Besides,  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  Hiit<«iith  cen- 
tury and  Italian  influences  were  malting  themselves 
felt   everywhere.       Hassyi 
tianslated    them    into     hia 
brilliant    architecture',    into 
tbe   splendour   of  the   tur- 
quoise which   he    imparted 
to  the  blue  summits  of  the 
mountains,  to  the  boriaons 
(tf  his  landscapes.  A  charm- 
ing luxury  minglea  with  hit 
ideas  and  disfigures    them. 
It   was   a   unique   work,   a 
unique  period;  that  of  an 
ephemeral    agreement     be- 
tween   the    genius    of    the 
North  and  that  of  the  Re- 
naissance, between  the  world 
of  sentiment   and   that  of 
beauty.      This    harmony 
which  was  at  the  foundation 
of   all    the    desires   of  the 
South,  from  DUrer  to  Rem- 
brandt and  Goethe,  was 
realised  in thesimplethou^t 
of  the  ancient   smith.     By 
force  of  candour,  simplicity, 
and  love  he  found  the  secret 
which  others  sought  in  vain. 
With   still   greater    passion 
the  same  qualities  are  found 
in   the    Antwerp    "Deposi- 
tion". The  subject  is  treated, 
not  in  the  Italian  manner, 
as  in  the  Florentine  or  Um- 
j,  brian   "Pietas",  but   with 

...•l^I^n g^  the  familiar  and  tragic  senti- 

ment which  touches  the 
aces.  It  is  one  of  the  "Tombs"  compo- 
whicb  the  most  famous  are  those  of  Samt 
Mihiel  and  Solesmes.  The  body  of  Christ  is  one  of 
the  most  exhausted,  the  moat  "dead",  the  roost 
moving  that  painting  has  ever  created.  All  is  full  of 
tendernees  and  desolation. 

Massys  has  the  genius  of  tears.  He  loves  to  point 
tears  in  large  pearls  on  the  eyes,  on  the  red  cheeks  of 
his  holy  women,  as  in  his  wonderful  "Magdalen"  of 
Berlin  or  his"Piet4"  of  Munich.  But  be  had  at  the 
same  time  the  keenest  sense  of  grace.  His  Hero- 
diades,  his  Salomes  (Antwerp  triptj-ch)  are  the  most 
bewitching  figures  of  all  the  art  of  his  time.  And  this 
excitable  nervousness  mode  him  particularly  sensitive 
to  the  ridiculous  side  of  things.  He  had  a  sense  of  the 
grotesque,  of  caricature,  of  the  droll  and  the  hideous, 
which  IS  displayed  in  his  figures  of  old  men,  of  execu- 
tioneis.  And  this  made  him  a  wonderful  genre 
painter.  His  "Banker"  and  his  "Money  Chanfers" 
maugurat^  in  the  Flemish  School  the  rich  traction 
of  the  painting  of  manners.  He  had  a  pupil  in  *.WMi 
style,  Morinus,  many  of  whose  pictures  still  pam  under 
his  name. 

Briefly,  Hassvs  was  the  last  of  the  great  FlemiA 
artists  prior  to  tlie  Italian  invauoD.  He  was  the  most 
sensitive,  the  most  nervous,  the  most  poetioil,  the 
most  comprehenaive  of  all,  and  in  him  is  aiaeeraod  tba 


MA8TEB 


39 


BCASTEB 


tumultuous  strain  which  was  to  appear  100  years 
lAter  in  the  innumerable  works  of  Ruoens. 

Vam  Mamdbb,  Le  lAvre  dea  PeintreM,  ed.  Hthans  (Paris, 
1884);  Waxqxn.  Trmntru  of  AH  in  England  (London,  1S54); 
Htmanb,  Quenttn  Metay  in  GazeUe  det  Beaux-Arts  (1888); 
CoHSN,  Studien  mu  Quentin  Metgys  (Bonn,  1894);  de  Bob- 
scHSRS»  Q%tentm  MtUyB  (Bniflsebi,  1907);  Wursbach,  Niedef 
iOndiadkm  KQndUrlaMxm  (Leipaig,  190(»-10). 

Louis  Gillet. 
Master  of  Arts.    See  Abts,  Masteb  of. 

Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.— This  office  (which 
has  always  been  entrusted  to  a  Friar  Preacher)  may 
briefly  be  described  as  being  that  of  the  pope's  theo- 
logian. St.  Dominic,  appointed  in  1218,  was  the  first 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (Magister  Sacri  PalaUi) . 
Amonff  the  eightv-four  Dominicans  who  have  suc- 
ceeded him,  eighteen  were  subsequently  created 
cardmals,  twenty-four  were  made  archbishops  or 
Inshops  (including  some  of  the  cardinals),  and  six 
were  ^ected  generals  of  the  order.  Several  are 
famous  for  their  works  on  theology,  etc.,  but  only 
Durandus,  Torquemada,  Prierias,  Mamachi,  and  Orsi 
can  be  mentioned  here.  As  regards  nationality:  the 
majority  have  been  Italians;  of  the  remainaer  ten 
have  been  Spaniards  and  ten  Frenchmen,  one  has 
been  a  German  and  one  an  Englishman  (i.  e.  William 
de  Boderisham,  or  Bonderish,  1263-1270?).  It  has 
sometimes  been  asserted  that  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin 
was  a  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace.  This  is  due  to  a 
misconception.  He  was  Lector  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
The  offices  were  not  identical.  (See  Bullarium  O.  P., 
Ill,  18.)  Though  he  and  two  other  contemporary 
Dominicans,  namely  his  teacher  Bl.  Albert  the  Great 
and  his  fellow  pupu  Bl.  Ambrose  Sansedonico  (about 
both  of  whom  the  same  assertion  has  been  made)  held 
successively  the  office  of  Lecturer  on  Scripture  or  on 
Theology  in  the  papal  palace  school,  not  one  of  them 
was  Master  of  the  »icred  Palace.  Their  names  do.  not 
occur  in  the  official  lists.  While  all  Masters  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  were  Dominicans,  several  members  of 
other  orders  were  Lectors  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (e.  g. 
Peckham  O.  S.  F.,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Gan- 
terbuiy  in  1279). 

St.  Dominic's  work  as  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
consisted  partly  at  least  in  expounding  ihe  Epistles  of 
8t.  Paul  (Golonna,  O.  P.,  c.  1255,  who  says  that  the 
conomentary  was  then  extant ;  Flaminius ;  S.  An- 
tonius;  Mai  vends,  in  whose  time  the  MS.  of  the 
Epistles  used  by  the  Saint  as  Msster  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  was  preserved  in  Toulouse;  Echard;  Renazzi; 
Hortter,  etc.).  These  exegetical  lectures  were  de- 
livered to  prelates  and  to  uie  clerical  attendants  of 
cardinals  wno,  as  the  saint  observed,  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  gather  in  the  antechamber  and  to  spend 
the  time  in  gossip  while  their  masters  were  having 
audiences  with  the  pope.  According  to  Renazzi  (I, 
25),  St.  Dominic  mav  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  papal  palace  school,  since  his  Biblical  lectures 
were  the  occasion  of  its  being  established.  Catalanus, 
who.  however,  is  not  guilty  of  the  confusion  alluded 
to  above,  says  he  was  the  first  Lector  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  as  well  as  the  first  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
In  tiie  thirteenth  century  the  chief  duty  of  the  Mas- 
ter of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  to  lecture  on  Scripture 
and  to  preside  over  the  theological  school  in  the  Vati- 
can: "in  schohe  Romanse  et  Pontificise  re^mine  et  in 
pablica  sacne  scriptures  expositione"  (Echard).  The 
Ijeetores  or  Magi^ri  scHolarutn  S.  Palatii  taught  under 
hnn.  It  became  customary  for  the  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace,  according  to  Gardinal  de  Luca,  to 
preach  before  the  pope  and  his  court  in  Advent  and 
Lent.  This  had  probably  been  sometimes  done  by 
St.  Dominic.  Up  to  the  sixteenth  century  the  Master 
ct  ihe  Sacred  Palace  preached,  but  after  it  this  work 
was  permanently  entrusted  to  his  companion  (a 
Dommican).  A  further  division  of  labour  was  made 
by  Benedict  XIV  (Decree,  "Inclyta  Fratrum",  1743); 
»t  preeeot  tbe  compaoiQn  preachy  to  the  papal 


household,  and  a  Gapuchin  preaches  to  the  pope  and 
to  the  cardinals. 

But  the  work  of  the  Blaster  of  the  Sacred  Palace 
as  papal  theologian  continues  to  the  present  day. 
As  it  nas  assumed  its  actual  form  by  centuries  of 
development,  we  may  give  a  summary  of  the  legisla- 
tion respecting  it  and  the  various  functions  it  com- 
prises and  al^  of  the  honours  attaching  to  it.  The 
^'Acta"  (or  "Galenda")  of  the  Palatine  officials  in 
1409  (under  Alexander  V)  show  that  on  certain  days 
the  llil^tster  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  bound  to  deliver 
lectures  and  on  other  days  was  expected,  if  called 
upon,  either  to  propose  or  to  answer  questions  at  the 
tiaeological  conference  which  was  held  in  the  pope's 
presence.  On  30  October,  1439,  Eugene  IV  decreed 
that  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  should  rank 
next  to  the  dean  of  the  Rota,  that  no  one  should 
preach  before  the  pope  whose  sermon  had  not  been 
previously  approved  of  by  him,  and  that  in  accordance 
with  ancient  usage  no  one  could  be  made  a  doctor  of 
theolosy  in  Rome  but  by  him  (Bullarium  O.  P.,  Ill, 
81).  Sulistus  III  (13  November,  1455)  confirmed  and 
amplified  the  second  part  of  this  decree,  but  at  the 
same  time  exempted  cardinals  from  its  operation 
(ibid.,  p.  356).  At  present  it  has  fallen  into  disuse. 
In  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (sess.  x,  4  May,  1513)  Leo 
X  ordained  that  no  book  should  be  printed  either  in 
Rome  or  in  its  district  without  leave  from  the  cardi- 
nal vicar  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  (ibicL, 
IV,  318).  Paul  V  (11  June,  1620)  and  Urban  VIH 
added  to  the  oblk»tions  imposed  by  this  decree.  So 
did  Alexander  Vu  in  1663  (Bullarium,  passim).  All 
these  later  enactments  regiud  the  inhaoitants  of  the 
Roman  Province  or  of  the  Papal  States.  They  were 
renewed  by  Benedict  XTV  (1  Sept.,  1744).  And  the 
permission  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  must 
De  got  not  only  to  print,  but  to  publish,  and  before 
the  second  permission  is  granted,  three  printed  copies 
must  be  deposited  with  mm,  one  for  himself,  another 
for  his  companion,  a  third  for  the  cardinal  vicar. 
The  Roman  Vicariate  never  examines  work  intended 
for  publication.  For  centuries  the  imprimatur  of  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  who  always  examines 
them  followed  the  Si  videbUur  Reverendiasimo  Magia" 
tro  Sacri  Palatii  of  the  cardinal  vicar:  now  in  virtue 
of  custom  but  not  of  any  ascertained  law,  since  about 
the  year  1825  the  cardinal  vicar  gives  an  imprimatur, 
and  it  follows  that  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
At  present  the  obligation  once  incumbent  on  cardinals 
of  presenting  their  work  to  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  for  his  imprimatur  has  fallen  into  disuse,  but 
through  courtesy  many  cardinals  do  present  their 
works.  In  the  Constitution '  *  Officiorum  ac  munerum  " 
(25  Jan.,  1897),  Leo  XIII  declared  that  all  persons 
residing  in  Rome  may  set  leave  from  the  Master  of 
the  Sacred  Palace  to  read  forbidden  books,  and  that  if 
authors  who  live  in  Rome  intend  to  get  their  works 
published  elsewhere,  the  joint  imprimatur  of  the  car- 
dinal vicar  and  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  renders 
it  unnecessaxy  to  ask  any  other  approbation.  As  is 
well  known,  if  an  author  not  resident  in  Rome  desires 
to  have  his  work  published  there,  provided  that  an 
agreement  with  the  author's  Ordinary  has  been  made 
and  that  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  judges  fa- 
vourably of  the  work,  the  imprimatur  will  be  given. 
In  this  case  the  book  is  known  oy  its  having  two  title- 
pages:  the  one  bearing  the  name  of  the  domiciliary, 
the  other  of  the  Roman  publisher. 

Before  the  establishment  of  the  Congregations  of 
the  Inquisition  (in  1542)  and  Index  (1587),  the  Mas- 
ter of  the  Sacred  Palace  condemned  books  and  forbade 
reading  them  under  censure.  Instances  of  his  so 
doing  occur  regularly  till  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  one  occurred  as  late  as  1604,  but 
by  degrees  this  task  has  been  appropriated  to  the 
above-mentioned  congregations  of  which  he  is  an  ex- 

officiom^mb^r.  The  M«iter  of  tb^  Sacred  Palace  was 


BCASTEE 


40 


KATAOO 


made  by  Pius  V  (29  July,  1570;  see  "BuUarium",  V, 
245)  canon  theologian  of  St.  Peter's,  but  this  Bull  was 
revoked  by  his  successor  Gregory  XIII  (11  March, 
1575).  From  the  time  when  Leo  X  recognized  the 
Roman  University  or  "  Sapienza''  (5  November,  1513; 
by  the  Decree  "Dum  suavissimos'')  he  transferred  to 
it  the  old  theological  school  of  the  papal  palace.  The 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  became  the  president  of 
the  new  theological  faculty.  The  other  members 
were  the  pope's  grand  sacristan  (an  Augustinian),  the 
commissary  of  the  Holy  Office  (a  Dominican),  the 
procurators  general  of  the  five  Mendicant  Orders,  i. 
e.  Dominican,  Franciscan  (Conventual),  Augustinian, 
Carmelite,  and  Servite,  and  the  professors  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  ancient  Lectors  of  the  Sacred  Palace. 
Sixtus  y  is  by  some  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this 
colle^  or  faculty;  but  he  may  have  only  given  its 
defimte  form.  He  is  said  to  have  confirmed  the 
prerogative  enjoyed  by  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
ralaoe  of  conferring  aU  degrees  of  philosophy  and 
theology.  Instances  of  papal  diplomas  implying  this 
power  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  occur  in  the 
"BuDarium"  passim  (e.  g.  of  Innocent  IV,  6  June. 
1406).  The  presidential  authority  of  the  Master  ot 
the  Sacred  Palace  over  this,  the  greatest  theological 
faculty  in  Rome,  was  confirmed  by  Leo  XII  in  1824. 

Since  the  occupation  of  Rome  in  1870  the  Sapienza 
has  been  laicized  and  turned  into  a  state  university,  so 
that  on  the  special  occasions  when  the  Master  of  the 
Sacred  Palace  holds  an  examination,  e.  g.  for  the  piu*- 
pose  of  examining  all  that  are  to  be  appointea  to 
sees  in  Italy,  or  again  of  conferring  the  title  of  S.T.D., 
he  does  so,  with  the  assistance  of  the  high  dignitaries 
just  mentioned,  in  his  apartment  in  the  Vatican.  He 
IS  also  examiner  in  the  concursus  foi'  parishes  in  Rome 
which  are  held  in  the  Roman  Vicariate.  Before 
Eugene  FV  issued  the  Bull  referred  to  above,  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  in  processions,  etc., 
the  dignitary  immediately  under  the  Apostolic  subdea- 
cons,  but  when  this  pope  raised  the  auditors  of  the 
Rota  to  the  rank  of  Apostolic  subdeacons^  he  gave  the 
Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  the  place  immediately 
next  to  the  dean  who  was  in  charge  of  the  papal 
mitre.  In  1655,  Alexander  VII  put  the  other  audi- 
tors of  the  Rota  above  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace.  This  was  done,  according  to  Cardinal  de 
Luca,  solely  because  one  white  and  black  habit 
looked  badly  amon^  several  violet  soutanes.  One  of 
the  occasional  duties  of  the  Master  of  the  Sacred 
Palace  is  performed  in  conjunction  with  the  auditors 
of  the  Rota;  namely  to  watch  over  the  three  apertures 
or  ''drums"  through  which  during  a  conclave  the 
cardinals  receive  all  communications.  In  papal  pro- 
cessions the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  walks  next  to 
the  auditors,  immediately  behind  the  bearer  of  the  tiara. 

Though  he  has,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually  lost  some 
of  his  ancient  authority  and  rank,  nevertheless  at  the 
present  day  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  is  a  very 
nigh  official.  He  is  one  of  the  three  Palatine  prelates 
(the  others  being  the  Maggiordomo  and  the  Grand 
Almoner)  to  whom  as  to  bishops,  the  papal  guards 

§  resent  arms.  He  is  alwavs  addressed,  even  by  car- 
inals,  as  "  Most  Reverend  .  In  the  Dominican  Order 
he  ranks  next  to  the  ^neral,  ex-general,  and  vicar- 
general.  He  is  ex-officio  consultor  of  the  Holy  Office, 
prelate-consultor  of  Rites,  and  perpetual  assistant 
of  the  Index.  He  is  consultor  ot  the  Biblical  Com- 
mission, and  is  frequently  consulted  on  various  mat- 
ters by  the  pope  as  his  theologian.  His  official  audience 
occurs  once  a  fortnight.  The  official  apartment  of 
the  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  was  in  tne  Quirinal, 
and  until  recently  it  contained  the  unbroken  series  of 
portraits  of  the  Masters  of  the  Sacred  Palace,  from  St. 
Dominic  down.  These  frescoes  have  been  effaced  by 
the  present  occupants  of  the  Quirinal,  but  copies  of 
them  are  to  be  seen  in  the  temporary  apartment  of 
the  Master  qf  tb^  Sacred  Palace  m  the  VaticaQ, 


Buttarivm  0,P.,  VIII  (Rome,  1730-1740);  MSS.  in  VoKcmu 
Dominican  Order,  and  Mtnerva  Archivev  Antonius,  Chronioon, 
III  (Lyons.  1586);  Malvbnda,  Annalea  Ordinia  PrtBdicaiorum 
(Naplesj  1627);  Fontana,  Syllabtu  Maaidrorum  Saeri  Palaiii 
Apottoltd  (Rome,  1663);  db  Luca«  Hotnanm  Ctaria  Relaiio 
((Cologne,  1683):  Catalanus,  De  Maoittro  Saeri  PalatU 
Apottoliei  libri  duo  (Rome.  1761);  Quimr-EcHARD,  Scriptor, 
Ofxlinia  PrxBdieaiortim  (Paris.  1710):  Caratfa,  De  Oymnano 
(Rome.  1751),  135-145;  Henaui.  Storia  deW  Univernih  Ro- 
mana,  etc.  (Rome.  1803-1806),  pamm;  Mortibr,  Hidoire  de» 
MaitTte  GinSraux  de  VOrdre  dee  Friree  Prieheure  (Paiis,  1903,  is 
pxogreas);  Battanoudr,  Annuaire  Pant,  Cath.  (1001),  473-482. 

Reginald  Walsh. 

Master  of  the  Sentences.    See  Peter  Lombard. 

MaetriuB,  Babtholouew,  Franciscan,  philosopher 
and  theologian,  b.  near  Forli,  at  Meldola,  Italy,  in 
1602;  d.  3  Jan.,  1673.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent writers  of  his  time  on  philosophy  and  theology. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  Gesena,  and  took 
degrees  at  the  University  of  Bologna.  He  also  fre- 
quented the  Universities  of  Padua  and  Rome  before 
assuming  the  duties  of  lecturer.  He  acquired' a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology, 
being  deeply  versed  in  the  writings  of^Scotus.  He  was 
an  open-minded  and  independent  scholar.  As  a  con- 
troversialist he  was  harsh  and  arrogant  towards  his 
opponents,  mingling  invective  with  his  arguments. 
His  opinions  on  some  philosophical  questions  were 
fiercely  combatted  by  many  of  his  contemporaries  and 
especially  by  Matthew  Ferchi  and  the  Irish  Franciscan, 
John  Ponce.  When  presenting  the  second  volume  of 
his  work  on  the  *' Sentences''  to  Alexander  VII,  to 
whom  he  had  dedicated  it,  the  pope  asked  him  where 
he  had  learned  to  treat  his  opponent  Ferchi  in  such  a 
rough  manner:  Mastrius  answered, "  From  St.  Augus- 
tine and  St.  Jerome,  who  in  defence  of  their  respective 
opinions  on  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  fought 
hard  and  not  without  reason":  the  pope  smilinely 
remarked,  '*  From  such  masters  other  uimgs  coulooe 
learned".  Ponce  in  his  treatise  on  Lofficliolds  that 
with  qualifying  explanations  God  may  be  included  in 
the  Categories.  Mastrius  in  combatting  this  opinion 
characteristically  savs,  ''Hie  Pontius  male  tractat 
Deum  sicut  et  alter  .  Mastrius  had  a  well-ordered 
intellect  which  is  seen  in  the  clearness  and  precision 
with  which  he  sets  forth  the  subject-matter  of  dis- 
cussion. His  arguments  for  and  against  a  proposition 
show  real  critical  power  and  are  expressed  m  accurate 
and  clear  language.  His  numerous  quotations  from 
ancient  and  contemporanr  authors  and  various  schools 
of  thought  are  a  proof  of  his  extensive  reading.  His 
works  shed  light  on  some  of  the  difficult  questions  in 
Scotistic  philosophy  and  theology.  His  "  Philosophy " 
in  five  volumes  folio,  his  "  Commentai:ies "  on  the 
''Sentences"  in  four  volumes,  and  his  Moral  Theologr 
"  ad  mentem  S.  Bona  ventures"  in  one  volume  were  all 

published  at  Venice. 

Waddino-Sbaralka,  Scriptoree  ord.  min.  (Rome,  1806); 
loANNES  A  S.  Aktonio,  Bibliothcca  univ.  franc.  (Madrid,  1732); 
THEULns,  Triumphua  Seraphieua  (Velletri,  1656);  FRANcann, 
Biblioeo/ia  di  ecriUari  franceecani  (Modena,  1693);  HuBTsa, 
Nomenclator. 

Gregoby  Cleabt. 

Mataco  Indians  (or  Mataguato). — ^A  group  of 
wild  tribes  of  very  low  culture,  ranging  over  a 
great  part  of  the  western  Chaco  region,  about  the 
head  waters  of  the  Vermejo  and  the  Pilcomayo,  in  the 
Argentine  province  of  Salta  and  the  Bolivian  prov- 
ince of  Tarija,  and  noted  for  the  efforts  made  by. 
Jesuit  and  Franciscan  missionaries  in  their  behalf  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The  group  con- 
sists, or  formerly  consisted,  of  about  a  dozen  tribes 
speaking  the  same  language  with  slight  dialectic  differ- 
ences, and  together  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic 
stock,  the  Matacoan  or  Mataguayan,  which,  however, 
Quevedo  suspects  to  be  connected  with  the  Guaycuran 
stock,  to  wnich  belong  the  Toba,  Mocobf  and  the 
famous  Abipon  tribes.  Of  the  Matacoan  group  the 
principal  tribes  were  the  Mataco,  Mataguayo,  and 

Vejojs.    At  present  the  wame^  m  most  ^neral  uw 


IIATSLIOA  41  MATERIALISM 

are  Mataoo  in  Argentina  and  Nocten  (corrupted  from  Father  Joseph  Araoz,  with  Quevedo'is  Studies  of  tte 

their  Chiriguano  name)   in  Bolivia.     From  60,000  Nocten  and  Vejoz  dialects,  from  various  sources. 

(estimated)  in  the  mission  period  they  are  now   re-         Araos,  Orammar  and  DietUmary;  Brintok,  American  Root 

duoed  to  about  20,000  souls.    In  1690  Father  Arc6,  {?S^York.i80i);CHARucvoix.^irf  d«Pam^ 

from  the  Jesuit  college  of  Tarija,  attempted  the  first  '^^i^^f^kll^ti^f^dlTi^^ 

miSSiOa  among  the  Mataguayo  and  Chinguano,   but  da  Qran  Chaoo  (Cordoba,  1733);   Paob,  La  PUUa,  the  Argen- 

with  little  result,  owing  to  their  wandering  habit.  ?S5^£r^«^j?!L°^/'"*'°^^  ^^^'^t^^^^ 

tiwj  ^ I    ^u  . u-.-  . -^   K..:u    K«4.  «l««  •.««{«rA<i  Otto  Men  net  Oran  Ctacco  (Flopence,  1881),  tr.,  Eiont  MotUhM 

Houses  and   churches  were   built,  but  the  natives  anthe Oran Chaco  (London.  1886):  duaVBDO,  Lenguae  Ar^m- 

poured  m  and  out,  hke  the  water  through  a  bottom-  Hwu  (Dialecto  Nooten,  Dialecto  Vejoi)  in  Bol.  del  IntMuto 

less  barrel",  and,  at  last,  weary  of  the  remonstrances  Oeogrdfico  Argentina,  XVI-XVII  (Buenoa  Airea.  1896). 
of  the  missionaries,  burned  the  missions,  murdered  James  Moonby. 

several  of  the  priests,  and  drove  the  others  out  of  the        Matelica.    See  Fabriano  and  Matbuca,Dioce8B 

country.     At  a  later  period,  1756,  the  Jesuit  mission  of. 

of  San  Ignado  de  Ledesma  on  the  Rio  Grande,  a        Mater,  a  titular  bishopric  in  the  province  of  Bysan- 

southern  head  stream  of  the  Vermejo.  was  founded  tium,  mentioned  as  a  free  dty  by  Plmy  under  the  name 

for  Toba  and  Mataguayo,  of  whom  600  were  enrolled  of  Matera  (Hist,  natur,,  V,  iv,  6).    Mgr.  Toulotte 

there  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  order  in  1767.  ("Gdogniphie  de  TAfrique    chr^tienne",  prooonsu- 

About  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  oentiuy  the  Fran-  laire,  197)  cites  only  two  occupants  of  this  see:  Rusti- 

ciscans  of  Tarija  undertook  to  restore  the  mission  cianus,  who  died  shortly  before  411,  and  QuintasiuB, 

work  in  the  Chaco.  foimding  a  number  of  establish-  ^ho  succeeded  him.    Gams  (Series  episcoporum,  467) 

ments,  among  which  were  Salinas,  occupied  by  Mata-  mentions  four:  Rustidanus,  Cultasius  for  Quintasius, 

guayo  and  Chiriguano,  and  Centa  (now  Oran.  Salta  Adelfius  in  484,  and  Victor  about  the  year  656.   Mater 

province)^  occupied  by  Mataguayo  and  Vejo«,  the  two  i^  now  known  as  Mateur,  a  small  town  of  4000  inhabi- 

missions  m  1799  containing  nearly  900  Indians,  with  tants,  in  great  part  Christian,  and  is  situated  in  Tunis. 

7300  cattle.    With  the  declme  of  the  Spanish  power  xhe  modem  town  is  encircled  with  a  wall,  with  three 

these  missions  also  fell  into  decay  and  the  Indians  gates;  it  is  situated  on  the  railway  from  Tunis  to  Bi« 

scattered  to  their  forests  and  rivers.    In  1895  Father  ^erta,  not  far  from  the  lake  to  which  it  has  given  its 

Gionnecchini,  passing  by  the  place  of  the  old  Centa  name. 

mission,  found  a  cattle  corral  where  the  church  had  g.  VAiLBdfe. 

been.     An  interesting  account  of  the  present  condi-        m».«.^,.     c^  A^«««^r»A    A«^t««xw^r..a«  ^« 
tion  of  the  wild  MaSco  is  quoted  by  Wedo  from        Matera.    See  Acbrbnza,  Archdiocbsb  of. 

4  letter  by  Father  Alejandro  Corrado,  Francis-  Materialism. — ^As  the  word  itself  signifies.  Material- 
^AUf  Tarija.  Their  houses  are  light  brush  structures  ism  is  a  philosophical  system  which  regards  matter  as 
scattered  through  the  forests,  hardly  high  enough  to  the  only  reality  in  the  world^  which  undertakes  to 
allow  of  standing  upright,  and  are  abandoned  for  explain  every  event  in  the  umverse  as  resulting  from 
others  set  up  in  another  place  as  often  as  insects  or  ao-  the  conditions  and  activitv  of  matter,  and  whidi  thus 
cumulation  of  filth  make  necessary.  The  only  fur-  denies  the  existence  of  God  and  the  soul.  Itisdiamet- 
niture  is  a  wooden  mortar  with  a  few  earthen  pots,  rically  opposed  to  Spiritualism  and  Idealism,  which| 
and  some  skins  for  sleeping.  Men  and  women  snave  in  so  far  as  they  are  one-sided  and  exclusive,  declare 
their  heads  and  wear  a  single  garment  about  the  lower  that  evervthing  in  the  world  is  spiritual,  and  that  the 
part  of  the  body.  The  men  also  pluck  out  the  beard  world  ana  even  matter  itself  are  mere  conceptions  or 
and  paint  the  face  and  body.  They  hve  chiefly  upon  ideas  in  the  thinking  subject.  Materialism  is  older 
fish  and  the  fruit  of  the  algarroba,  a  species  of  mesquit  than  Spiritualism,  if  we  regard  the  development  of 
or  honey-locust,  but  will  eat  anjrthing  that  is  not  philosophy  as  beginning  in  Greece.  The  ancient  In- 
poisonous,  even  rats  and  ^asshoppers.  From  the  dian  philosophy,  however,  is  idealistic;  according  to  it 
algarroba  they  prepare  an  mtoxicating  Uquor  which  there  is  only  one  real  being,  Brahma;  everything  else 
rouses  them  to  a  fighting  frenzy.  Their  principal  is  appearance,  Afa/a.  In  Greece  the  first  attempts  at 
ceremony  is  in  connexion  with  the  ripening  of  the  philosophy  were  more  or  less  materialistic;  they  as- 
algarroba,  when  the  priests  in  fantastic  dress  go  about  sumed  the  existence  of  a  single  primordial  matter— 
the  trees,  dancing  and  singing  at  the  top  of  their  voices  water,  earth,  fire,  air — or  of  the  four  elements  from 
to  the  sound  of  a  wooden  drum,  keeping  up  the  din  which  the  world  was  held  to  have  developed.  Ma- 
day  and  night.  A  somewhat  similar  ceremony  takes  terialism  was  methodically  developed  by  the  Atomists. 
place  when  a  yoimg  girl  arrives  at  pubertv.  Every-  The  first  and  also  the  most  important  systematic 
thing  is  in  common,  and  a  woman  clivides  ner  load  of  Materialist  was  Democritus,  the  "  laughing  philoeo- 
fruits  or  roots  witn  her  neighbours  without  even  a  pher".  He  tau^t  that  out  of  nothinp  comes  nothing; 
word  of  thanks.  Thej^  recognize  no  authority,  even  .  that  everything  is  the  result  of  combination  and  divi- 
of  parents  over  tibeir  cmldren.  The  men  occupy  them-  sion  of  parts  (atoms) ;  that  these  atoms,  separated  bv 
selves  with  fishing  or  occasional  hunting,  their  arms  empty  spaces,  are  infinitel}r  numerous  and  variea. 
being  the  bow  and  dub.  The  women  do  practically  all  Even  to  man  he  extended  his  cosmological  Material- 
the  other  work.  ism,  and  was  thus  the  founder  of  Materialism  in  the 

Blarria^e  is  simple  and  at  the  will  of  the  young  peo-  narrow  sense,  that  is  the  denial  of  the  soul.    The  soul 

pie,  the  wife  usually  going  to  live  with  her  husband's  is  a  complex  of  very  fine,  smooth,  round,  and  fieiy 

relatives.    Polygamy  and  adultery  are  infrequent,  but  atoms:    these  are  highly  mobile  and  penetrate  the 

divorce  is  easy.    The  woman  receives  little  attention  whole  body,  to  which  they  impart  life.    Empedocles 

in  pregnancy  or  childbirth,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  was  not  a  thorough-going  Materialist,  although  he  re- 

father  conforms  to  the  couvade.    Children  are  named  garded  the  four  elements  with  love  and  hatred  as  the 

when  two  or  three  years  old.    Abortion  is  very  fre-  formative  principles  of  the  universe,  and  refused  to 

quent;  infanticide  more  rare,  but  the  infant  is  often  recognize  a  spiritual  Creator  of  the  world.    Aristotle 

buried  alive  on  the  breast  of  the  dead  mother.  reproaches  tne  Ionian  philosophers  in  general  with 

Disease  is  driven  off  by  the  medicine  men  with  sing-  attempting  to  explain  the  evolution  of  the  world  with- 

ing  and  shaking  of  rattles.    They  believe  in  a  good  out  the  Nou8  (intelligence) ;  he  re^rded  Protagoras, 

spirit  to  whom  they  seem  to  pay  no  worship;  and  in  who  first  introduced  a  spiritual  principle,  as  a  sober 

a  malevolent  night  spirit,  whom  they  strive  to  pro-  man  among  the  inebriated. 

pitiate.     They  Believe  that  the  soul,  after  death.        The  Socratic  School  introduced  a  reaction  against 

enters  into  the  body  of  some  animal.    The  best  work  Materialism.    A  little  later,   however,   Materialism 

apon  the   language   of  the   Mataco  tribes  is  the  found  a  second  Democritus  in  Epicurus,  who  treated 

grunmar  and  diodonaiy  of  the  Jesuit  missionary,  the  system  in  greater  detail  and  gave  it  a  deeper  f oun- 


MATSBIAUSM                         42  ISATSBIAUSM 

dation.  The  statement  that  nothing  comes  from  soul  cease  to  exist.  However,  the  soul  is  no  mero 
nothing^  he  supported  by  declaring  that  otherwise  odourof  a  body,  but  a  being  with  real  activity;  conse- 
everythmg  might  come  from  everything.  This  argu-  quently,  it  must  itself  be  real/  and  likewise  distinct 
ment  is  verv  pertinent,  since  if  there  were  nothing,  from  the  body,  since  thought  and  volition  are  incor- 
nothing  could  come  into  existence,  i.  e.  if  there  were  poreal  activities,  and  not  movement  which,  according 
no  cause.  An  almighty  cause  can  of  itself  through  its  to  Lucretius  at  least,  is  the  only  function  of  the  atoms, 
power  supply  a  substitute  for  matter^hich  we  cannot  Christianity  reared  a  mighty  dam  against  Material- 
create  but  can  only  transform.  Epicurus  further  ism,  and  it  was  only  with  the  return  to  antiquity  in  the 
asserted  that  bodies  alone  exist;  only  tiie  void  is  in-  so-c&lled  restoration  of  the  sciences  that  the  Human- 
corporeal.  He  distinguished,  however,  between  com-  ists  again  made  it  a  powerful  factor.  Giordano  Bruno, 
pound  bodies  and  simple  bodies  or  atoms^  which  are  the  Pantheist,  was  also  a  Materialist:  "Matter  is  not 
absolutely  unchangeable.  Since  space  is  infinite,  the  without  its  forms,  but  contains  them  all^  and  since  it 
atoms  must  likewise  be  infinitely  numerous.  This  carries  what  is  wrapped  up  in  itself,  it  is  in  truth  all 
last  deduction  is  not  warranted,  since,  even  in  infinite  nature  and  the  mother  of  all  the  hving. "  But  the 
space,  the  bodies  might  be  limited  in  number — ^in  fact,  classical  age  of  Materialism  began  with  the  ei^teenth 
tney  must  be,  as  otherwise  they  would  entirel}[  fill  century,  when  de  la  Mettrie  (1709-61)  wrote  his  "  His- 
space  and  therefore  render  movement  impossible,  toire  naturelle  de  T&me"  and  "L'homme  machine". 
And  yet  Epicurus  ascribes  motion  to  the  atoms,  i.  e.  He  holds  that  all  that  feels  must  be  material:  ''The 
constant  motion  downwards.  Since  many  of  them  soul  is  formed,  it  grows  and  decreases  with  the  organs 
deviate  from  their  original  direction,  collisions  result  of  the  body,  wherefore  it  must  also  share  in  the  latter's 


and  various  combinations  are  formed.  The  difference  death" — a  palpable  fallacy,  since  even  if  the  body  is 
between  one  body  and  another  is  due  solely  to  different  only  the  soul's  instrument,  the  soul  must  be  affected 
modes  of  atomic  combination;  the  atoms  themselves  by  the  varying  conditions  of  the  body.  In  the  case  of 
have  no  quality,  and  differ  only  in  size,  shape,  and  this  Materialist  we  find  the  moral  consequences  of  the 
weight.  These  materialistic  speculations  contradict  svstem  revealed  without  disguise.  In  his  two  works, 
directly  the  universally  recognized  laws  of  nature.  *^LaVolupt4"  and"  L'artdejouer",  he  glorifies  licen- 
Inertia  is  an  essential  quality  of  matter,  which  cannot  tiousness.  The  most  famous  work  ot  this  period  is  the 
set  itself  in  motion,  cannot  of  itself  fix  the  direction  of  "  Syst^me  de  la  nature  "  of  Baron  Holbach  (1723-89) . 
its  motion,  least  of  all  change  the  direction  of  the  According  to  this  work  there  exists  nothing  but  nature, 
motion  once  imparted  to  it.  The  existence  of  all  these  and  all  beings,  which  are  supposed  to  be  beyond  na- 
capabilities  in  matter  is  assumed  by  Epicuni3:  the  ture,  are  creatures  of  the  imagination.  Man  is  a  con- 
atoms  fall  downwards,  before  there  is  either  "  up"  or  stituent  part  of  nature;  his  moral  endowment  is  sim- 
"down";  they  have  weight,  although  there  is  as  yet  ply  a  modification  of  his  physical  constitution,  de- 
no  earth  to  lend  them  heaviness  by  its  attraction,  rived  from  his  peculiar  organization.  Even  Voltaire 
From  the  random  clash  of  the  atoms  could  result  only  found  himself  compelled  to  offer  a  determined  opposi- 
conf  usion  and  not  order,  least  of  all  that  far-reaching  tion  to  these  extravagant  attacks  on  everything  spirit- 
design  which  is  manifested  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ual. 

world,  especially  in  organic  structures  and  mental  In  Germaxiy  Materialism  was  vigorously  assailed, 
activities.  However,  the  soul  and  its  ori^  present  especially  by  Leibniz  (q.  v.).  As,  however,  this  philoa- 
no  difficulty  to  the  Materialist.  Accordmg  to  him  opher  soueht  to  replace  it  with  his  doctrine  of  monads, 
the  soul  is  a  kind  of  vapour  scattered  throu^out  the  an  out-and-out  spiritualistic  system,  he  did  not  give  a 
whole  body  and  mixed  with  a  little  heat.  The  bodies  real  refutation.  On  the  other  hand,  Kant  was  sup- 
surrounding  us  give  off  continually  certain  minute  par-  posed  to  have  broken  definitively  the  power  of  Materi- 
tides  which  penetrate  to  our  souls  through  our  sense-  alism  by  the  so-called  idealistic  argument,  which  runs: 
organs  and  excite  mental  images.  With  the  dissolu-  Matter  is  revealed  to  us  only  in  consciousness;  it  cau- 
tion of  the  body,  the  corporeal  soul  is  also  dissolved,  not  therefore  be  the  cause  or  the  principle  of  con- 
This  view  betrays  a  complete  misapprehension  of  the  sciousness.  This  argument  proves  absolutely  nothing 
immaterial  nature  of  psychical  states  as  opposed  to  against  Materialism,  unless  we  admit  that  our  con- 
those  of  the  body — ^to  say  nothing  of  the  childish  sciousness  creates  matter,  i.  e.  that  matter  has  no 
notion  of  sense-perception,  which  modem  physiology  existence  independent  of  consciousness.  If  conscious- 
can  regard  only  with  an  indulgent  smile.  ness  or  the  soul  creates  matter,  the  latter  cannot  im- 
Epicurean  Materialism  received  poetic  expression  part  existence  to  the  soul  or  to  any  psychical  activity. 
'  and  further  development  in  the  didactic  poem  of  the  Materialism  would  indeed  be  thus  utterly  annihilated: 
Roman  Lucretius.  This  bitter  opponent  of  the  gods,  there  would  be  no  matter.  But,  if  matter  is  reaT,  it 
like  the  modem  representatives  of  Materialism,  places  may  possess  all  kinds  of  activities,  even  psychical,  as 
it  in  outspoken  opposition  to  religion.  His  cosmology  the  Materialists  aver.  As  long  as  the  impossibility  of 
is  that  of  Epicurus;  but  Lucretius  goes  much  further,  this  is  not  demonstrated,  Materialism  is  not  refuted, 
inasmuch  as  he  really  seeks  to  give  an  explanation  oi  Idealism  or  Phenomenalism,  which  entirely  denies  the 
the  order  in  the  world,  which  Epicurus  referred  un-  existence  of  matter,  is  more  absurd  than  Materialism, 
hesitatingly  to  mere  chance.  Lucretius  asserts  that  it  There  i^,  however,  some  truth  in  the  Kantian  reason- 
is  just  one  of  the  infinitely  num^us  possibilities  in  ing.  Consciousness  or  the  psychical  is  far  better 
the  arrangement  of  the  atoms;  the  present  order  known  to  us  than  the  material;  what  matter  rtolly  is, 
was  as  possible  as  any  other.  He  taxes  particular  no  science  has  yet  made  clear.  The  intellectual  or  the 
pains  to  disprove  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  seeking  psychical,  on  the  other  hand,  is  presented  immediately 
thus  to  dispel  the  fear  of  death,  which  is  the  cause  of  to  our  consciousness;  we  experience  our  thoughts, 
so  much  care  and  crime.  The  soul  {anima)  and  the  volitions,  and  feelings;  in  their  full  clearness  they 
mind  {animus)  consist  of  the  smallest,  roundest,  and  stand  before  the  eye  of  the  mind.  From  the  Kantian 
most  mobile  atoms.  That  "  feeling  is  an  excitement  standpoint  a  refutation  of  Materialism  is  out  of  the 
of  the  atoms",  he  lays  down  as  a  firmly  established  question.  To  overcome  it  we  must  show  that  the  soul 
principle.  He  says:  "When  the  flavour  of  the  wine  is  an  entity,  independent  of  and  essentially  distinct 
vanishes,  or  the  odour  of  the  ointment  passes  away  in  from  the  body,  an  immaterial  substance;  only  as  such 
the  air,  we  notice  no  diminution  of  weight.  Even  so  can  it  be  immortal  and  survive  the  dissolution  of  the 
with  the  body  when  the  soul  has  disappeared. "  He  body.  For  Kant,  however,  substance  is  a  purely  sub- 
overlooks  the  fact  that  the  flavour  and  odour  are  not  jective  form  of  the  understanding,  by  means  of  which 
necessarily  lost,  even  though  we  cannot  measure  we  arrange  our  experiences.    The  independence  of  the 

soul  womd  thus  not  be  objective;  it  would  be  simply 
an  idea  conceived  by  us.    Immortality  would  also  be 


them.    That  they  do  not  perish  is  now  certain^  and. 
we  must  therefore  conclude,  still  less  does  the  spiritual 


KATBRXAXJSM                         43  KATBSIALZ82C 

merely  a  thought-product;  this  the  Materialists  gladly  clearly  perceived  by  us  than  the  causality  of  fire  in  the 

admit,  but  they  call  it,  in  plainer  terms,  a  piue  fabn-  production  of  heat.     We  must  therefore  reject  as 

cation.  false  the  theorv  of  a  closed  system  of  natural  causation, 

The  German  Idealists.  Fichte,  H^l,  and  Schelling,  if  this  means  the  exclusion  of  spiritual  causes. 
seriously  espoused  the  Phenomenalism  of  Kant,  de*  But  modem  science  claims  to  have  given  positive 
claring  that  matter,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  universe,  is  proof  that  in  the  himian  body  there  is  no  place  for  the 
a  subjective  product.    Thereby  indeed  Materialism  is  soul.    The  great  discovery  by  R.  Mayer  (1814-78), 
entirely  overcome,  but  the  Kantian  method  of  refuta-  Joule  (1818-89),  and  Helmholtz  (1821-94)  of  the  con- 
tion  ia  reduced  to  absurdity.    The  reaction  against  servation  of  energy  proves  that  energy  cannot  disap- 
thia  extravagant  Spiritualism  was  inevitable,  and  it  pear  in  nature  and  cannot  originate  there.     But  tne 
resulted  by  a  sort  of  necessary  consequence  ij^the  op-  soul  could  of  itself  create  energy,  and  there  would  also 
posite  extreme  of  outspoken  Materialism.  /Repelled  be  energy  lost,  whenever  an  external  stimulus  influ- 
by  these  fantastic  views,  so  contrary  to  all  reality,  men  enced  the  soul  and  «i ve  rise  to  sensation,  which  is  not 
turned  their  whole  energy  to  the  investigation  of  a  form  of  energy.     Now  recent  experiment  has  shown 
nature.     The  extraordinary  success  achiev^  in  this  that  the  energy  in  the  human  body  is  exactly  equiv- 
domain  led  many  investigators  to  overestimate  the  im-  alent  to  the  nutriment  consumed.     In  these  facts, 
portance  of  matter,  its  forces,  and  its  laws,  with  which .  however,  there  is  absolutely  nothing  against  the  exist- 
they  believed  they  could  explain  even  the  spiritual,  ence  of  the  soul.    The  law  of  the  conservation  of 
The  chief  representatives  of  Materialism  as  a  system  energy  is  an  empirical  law,  not  a  fundamental  princi- 
d  urine  tiiis  period  are  Btlchner  (1824-99),  the  author  pie  oTthought;  it  is  deduced  from  the  material  world 
of  •*  Kraft  und  Stoff ";  K.  Vogt  (1817-96),  who  held  and  is  based  on  the  activity  of  matter.     A  body  can- 
that  thought  is  "secreted "  by  the  brain,  as  gall  by  the  not  set  itself  in  motion,  can  produce  no  force;  it  must 
liver  and  urine  by  the  kidneys;    Czolbe  (1817-73);  be  impelled  by  another,  which  in  the  impact  loses  its 
Moleschott,  to  whom  his  Materialism  brought  politi-  own  power  of  movement.     This  is  not  lost,  but  is 
cal  fame.   Bom  on  9  August,  1822,  at  Herzogenbusch,  changed   into  the   new  movement.     Thus,   in  the 
North  Brabant,  he  studied  medicine,  natural  science,  material  world,  motion,  which  is  really  kinetic  energy, 
and  the  philosophy  of  H^el  at  Heidelberg  from  1842.  can  neither  originate  nor  altogether  cease.    This  law 
After  some  years  of  medical  practice  in  Utrecht,  he  does  not  hold  good  for  the  immaterial  world,  which  is 
qualified  as  instructor  in  ohysiology  and  anthropology  not  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia.     That  our  higher 
at  the  University  of  Heiaelberg.     His  writings,  espe-  intellectual  activities  are  not  boimd  by  the  law  is  most 
cially  his  "  Kreislauf  des  Lebens"  (1852),  created  a  plainly  seen  in  our  freedom  of  will,  by  which  we  deter- 
great  sensation.     On  account  of  the  gross  materialism,  mine  ourselves  either  to  move  or  to  remain  at  rest, 
which  he  displayed  both  in  his  works  and  his  lectures,  But  the  intellectual  activities  take  place  with  the  co- 
he  received  a  warning  from  the  academic  senate  b}'  operation  of  the  sensory  processes;  and,  since  these 
conunand  of  the  Ciovemment,  whereupon  he  accepted  latter  are  functions  of  the  bodily  organs,  they  are  like 
in  1854  a  ciUl  to  the  newly  founded  University  of  them  subject  to  the  law  of  inertia.     They  do  not  enter 
Zurich.     In  1861  Cavour,  the  Italian  premier,  granted  into  activity  without  some  stimulus;  they  cannot  stop 
him  a  chair  at  Turin,  whence  fifteen  years  later  he  was  their  activity  without  some  external  influence.     They 
called  to  the  Sapiema  in  Rome,  which  owed  its  foun-  are,  therefore,  subject  to  the  law  of  the  conservation  of 
dation  to  the  popes.    Here  death  suddenly  overtook  energy,  whose  applicability  to  the  human  body,  as 
Hini  in  1893,  and,  just  as  he  had  had  burnt  the  bodies  shown  by  biological  experiment,  proves  nothing  against 
of  his  wife  and  daughter  who  had  committed  suicide,  the  soul.    Ck>nsequently,  while  even  without  experi- 
he  also  appointed  in  his  will  that  his  own  body  should  ment,  one  must  admit  the  law  in  the  case  of  sentient 
be  reduced  to  ashes.     The  most  radical  rejection  of  beings,  it  can  in  no  wise  affect  a  pure  spirit  or  an  angel, 
everything  ideal  is  contained  in  the  revised  work  The  "Achilles ''of  materialistic  philosophers,  therefore, 
"Der  Einaige  und  sein  Eigentiun''  (1845;   3rd  ed.,  proves  nothing  against  the  soul.     It  was  accordingly 
1893)  of  Muc  Stirner,  which  rejects  everything  tran-  highly  opportune  when  the  eminent  physiologist,  Du- 
soending  the  particular  Ego  and  its  self-will.  bois  Keymond  (1818-96),  called  a  vigorous  halt  to  his 
Thebrilliant  success  of  the  natural  sciences  gave^^  colleague  by  his  "Ignoramus  et  Ignorabimus''.    In 
Materialism  a  powerful  support.     The  scientist,  in-  his  lectures,  "Ueber  die  GrenzenderNaturerkenntniss'' 
deed,  is  exposea  to  the  danger  of  overlooking  the  soul,  (Leipzig,  1872),  he  shows  that  feeling,  consciousness, 
and  consequently  of  denying  it.     Absorption  in  the  etc.,  cannot  be  explained  from  the  atoms.    He  errs  in- 
study  of  material  nature  is  apt  to  blind  one  to  the  deed  in  declaring  permanently  inexplicable  everything 
spiritual ;  but  it  is  an  evident  fallacy  to  deny  the  soul,  for  which  natural  science  cannot  account;  the  explana- 
on  the  ground  that  one  cannot  experimentally  prove  tion  must  be  furnished  by  philosophy, 
its  existence  by   physical  means.     Natural  science  Even  theologians  have  defended  Materiali«n.  Thus. 
oversteps  its  limits  when  it  encroaches  on  the  spiritual  for  example,  F.  D.  Strauss  in  his  work  ''  Der  alte  juna 
domain  and  claims  to  pronounce  there  an  expert  de-  neue  Glaube  "  (1872)  declares  openly  for  Materialism, 
vision,  and  it  is  a  palpable  error  to  declare  that  science  and  even  adopts  it  as  the  basis  of  his  religion;  the 
demonstrates  the  non-existence  of  the  soul.     Various  material  universe  with  its  laws,  although  they  occa- 
proofs  from  natural  science  are  of  course  brought  for-  sionally  crush  us,  must  be  the  object  of  our  veneration. 
ward  by  the  Materialists.     The  "closed  system  of  The  cultivation  of  music  compensates  him  for  the  loss 
natural  causation''  is  appealed  to:  experience  every-  of  all  ideal  goods.    Among  tne  materialistic  philoso- 
where  fijids  each  natural  phenomenon  based  upon  phcrsof  this  time,  Ueberweg  (1826-71),  author  of  the 
another  as  its  cause,  and  the  chain  of  natural  causes  well-known  ''History  of  Philosophv*',  deserves  men- 
would  be  broken  were  the  same  brought  in.     On  the  tion;  it  is  noteworthy  that  he  at  first  supported  the 
other  hand,  Sigwart  (1830-1904)  justly  observes  that  Aristotelean  teleology,  but  later  fell  away  into  matenal- 
the  soul  has  its  share  in  natural  causation,  and  is  there-  istic  mechanism.    There  is  indeed  considerable  diffi- 
fore  included  in  the  system.     At  most  it  could  be  de-  culty  in  demonstrating  mathematically  the  final  ob- 
duced  from  this  system  that  a  pure  spirit,  that  God  ject  of  nature;  with  those  to  whom  the  consideration 
could  not  int^ere  in  the  course  of  nature;   but  this  of  the  marvellous  wisdom  displayed  in  its  ordering 
cannot  be  proved  bv  either  experience  or  reason.     On  does  not  bring  the  conviction  that  it  cannot  owe  its 
the  contnry  it  is  clear  that  the  Author  of  nature  can  origin  to  blind  physi(»il  forces,  proofs  will  avail  but 
interfere  in  its  course,  and  history  informs  us  of  His  little.    To  us,  indeed,  it  is  inconceivable  how  any  one 
many  minculoiis  interventions.     In  any  case  it  is  be-  can  overlook  or  deny  the  evidences  of  design  and  of 

Sond  doubt  that  our  bodily  conditions  are  influenced  the  adaptation  of  means  for  the  attainment  of  mani- 

y  oitf  ideas  and  volitions,  and  this  influence  is  more  fold  ends. 


MATERIALISM 


44 


MATBEIALI8M 


The  teleological  question,  so  awkward  for  Material- 
ism, was  thought  to  be  finally  settled  by  Darwinism, 
in  which,  as  K.  Vogt  cynicallv  expressed  it,  God  was 
shown  tne  door.  The  blina  operation  of  natural 
forces  and  laws,  without  spiritual  agencies,  was  held  to 
explain  the  origin  of  species  and  their  purposiveness 
as  well.  Although  Darwin  himself  was  not  a  Material- 
ist, his  mechanical  explanation  of  teleology  brought 
water  to  the  mill  of  Materialism,  which  recognizes  only 
the  mechanism  of  the  atoms.  This  evolution  of 
matter  from  the  protozoon  to  man,  announced  from 
university  chairs  as  the  result  of  science,  was  eagerly 
taken  up  by  the  social  democrats,  and  became  the 
fimdamental  tenet  of  their  conception  of  the  world 
and  of  life.  Although  officially  socialists  disown  their 
hatred  of  reUgion,  the  rejection  of  the  higher  destiny  of 
man  and  the  consequent  falling  back  on  the  material 
order  serve  them  most  efficiently  in  stirring  up  the  de- 
luded and  discontented  masses.  Against  this  domina- 
tion of  Materialism  among  high  and  low  there  set  in  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  reaction, 
which  was  due  in  no  small  measiu^  to  the  alarming 
translation  of  the  materialistic  theory  into  practice  b^ 
the  socialists  and  anarchists.  At  bottom,  nowever,  it 
is  but  another  instance  of  what  the  oldest  experience 
shows:  the  line  of  progress  is  not  vertical  but  spiral. 
Overstraining  in  one  direction  starts  a  rebound  in  the 
other,  which  usually  reaches  the  opposite  extreme. 
The  spiritual  will  not  be  reduced  to  the  material,  but 
it  frequently  commits  the  error  of  refusing  to  tolerate 
the  co-existence  of  matter. 

Thus  at  present  the  reaction  against  MateriaUsm 
leads  in  many  instances  to  an  extreme  Spiritualism  or 
Phenomenalism,  which  regards  matter  merely  as  a 
projection  of  the  soul.  Hence  also  the  widely-echoed 
cry:  "Back  to  Kant".  Kant  regarded  matter  as 
entirely  the  product  of  consciousness,  and  this  view  is 
outspokenly  adopted  by  L.  Busse,  who,  in  his  work 
"Geist  und  KSrper,  Seele  und  Leib"  (Leipzig,  1903), 
eamestty  labours  to  discredit  Materialism.  He  treats 
exhkustivelv  the  relations  of  the  psychical  to  the 
physical,  refutes  the  so-called  psycho-physical  parallel- 
ism, and  decides  in  favour  of  the  interaction  of  soul 
and  body.  His  conclusion  is  the  complete  denial  of 
matter.  "  Metaphysically  the  world-picture  changes 
....  The  corporeal  world  as  such  disappears — it  is  a 
mere  appearance  for  the  apprehending  mind — and  is 
succeeded  by  something  spiritual.  The  idealistio- 
spirituaUstic  metaphysics,  whose  validity  we  here 
tacitly  assume  without  further  justification,  reco^aizes 
no  corporeal  but  only  spiritual  being.  '  All  reality  is 
spiritual',  is  its  verdict '  (p.  479). 

How  little  Materialism  has  to  fear  from  Kantian 
rivalry  is  plainly  shown,  among  others,  by  the  natural 
philosopher  UexkuU.  In  the  "Neue  Rundschau"  of 
1907  (Umrisse  einer  neuen  Weltanschauung),  he  most 
vigorously  opposes  Darwinism  and  Haeckelism,  but 
finally  rejects  with  Kant  the  substantiality  of  the  soul, 
and  even  falls  back  into  the  Materialism  which  he  so 
severely  condemns.  He  says:  "The  disintegrating  in- 
fluence of  Haeckelism  on  the  spiritual  life  of  the  masses 
comes,  not  from  the  consequences  which  his  conception 
of  eternal  things  calls  forth,  but  from  the  Darwinian 
thesis  that  there  is  no  purpose  in  nature.  Really,  one 
might  suppose  that  on  the  day,  when  the  great  dis- 
covery of  the  descent  of  man  from  the  ape  was  made, 
the  call  went  forth :  '  Back  to  the  Ape '."  "  The  walls, 
which  confine  Materialism,  still  stand  in  all  their  firm- 
ness: it  is  impossible  to  explain  the  piirposive  charac- 
ter of  life  from  material  forces."  "We  are  so  con- 
stituted that  we  are  capable  of  recognizing  certain 
purposes  with  our  intellect,  while  others  we  long  for 
and  enjoy  through  our  sense  of  beauty.  One  general 
plan  binds  all  our  spiritual  and  emotional  forces  into  a 
unity. "  "  This  view  of  life  Haeckel  seeks  to  replace  by 
his  senseless  talk  about  cell-souls  and  soul-cells,  and 
thinks  by  his  boyish  trick  to  annihilate  the  giant  Kant. 


Chamberlain's  words  on  HaeckeUsm  will  find  an  echo 
in  the  soul  of  every  educated  person:  *  It  is  not  poetry, 
science,  or  philosophy,  but  a  stiU-bom  bastard  of  ml 
three'.''  But  what  does  the  "Giant  Kant|'  teach? 
That  we  ourselves  place  the  purpose  in  the  things,  but 
that  it  is  not  in  the  things  I  This  view  is  also  held  bv 
Materialists.  UexkUll  finds  the  refutation  of  Material- 
ism in  the  "  empirical  scheme  of  the  objects  ",  which  is 
formed  from  our  sense-perceptions.  'This  is  for  him, 
indeedj  identical  with  tne  Bewegungsmdodie  (melody 
of  motion),  to  which  he  reduces  objects.  Thus  again 
there  is  no  substance  but  only  motion,  which  Material- 
ism likewise  teaches.  We  shall  later  find  the  Kantian 
UexkUll  among  the  outspoken  Materialists. 

Philosophers  of  another  tendency  endeavour  to 
refute  Materialism  by  supposing  everything  endowed 
with  life  and  soul.  To  this  class  belong  Fechner, 
Wundt,  Paulsen,  Haeckel,  and  the  botanist  France, 
who  ascribe  intelligence  even  to  plants.  One  mi^t 
well  believe  that  this  is  a  radical  remedy  for  all  materi- 
alistic cravings.  The  pit^r  is  that  Materialists  should 
be  afforded  an  opportunity  for  ridicule  by  such  a 
fiction.  That  brute  matter,  atoms,  electrons  should 
possess  life  is  contrary  to  all  experience.  It  is  a 
Doast  of  modem  science  that  it  admits  only  what  is  re- 
vealed by  exact  observation;  but  the  universal  and 
imvarying  verdict  of  observation  is  that,  in  the  in- 
orgamc  world,  everything  shows  characteristics  oppo- 
site to  those  which  me  exhibits.  It  is  also  a  serious  de- 
lusion to  believe  that  one  can  explain  the  human  soul 
and  its  unitary  consciousness  on  the  supposition  of 
cell-souls.  A  number  of  souls  could  never  have  one 
and  the  same  consciousness.  Consciousness  and  every 
psychic  activity  are  immanent,  they  abide  in  the  suh- 
ject  and  do  not  operate  outwardly;  hence  each  in- 
dividual soul  has  its  own  consciousness,  and  of  any 
other  knows  absolutely  nothing.  A  combination  of 
several  souls  into  one  consciousness  is  thus  impossible. 
But,  even  if  it  were  possible,  this  composite  conscious- 
ness would  have  a  completely  different  content  from 
the  cell-souls,  since  it  would  be  a  marvel  if  all  these  felt, 
thought,  ana  willed  exactly  the  same.  In  this  view 
immortality  would  be  as  completely  done  away  with 
as  it  is  in  Materialism. 

We  have  described  this  theory  as  an  imtenable 
fiction.  R.  Semon,  however,  undertakes  to  defend  the 
existence  of  memory  in  all  living  beings  in  his  work 
''Die  Mneme  als  erhaltendes  Prinzip  im  Wechsel  des 
oi^anischen  Geschehens"  (Leipzig,  1905).  He  says: 
''The  effect  of  a  stimulus  on  living  substance  con- 
tinues after  the  stimulation,  it  has  an  engraphic  effect. 
This  latter  is  called  the  engram  of  the  corresponding 
stimulus,  and  the  sum  of  the  engrams,  which  the 
organism  inherits  or  acquires  during  its  life,  is  the 
mneme,  or  memory  in  the  widest  sense. "  Now,  if  by 
this  word  the  persistence  of  psychic  and  corporeal 
states  were  alone  signified,  there  would  be  little  to 
urge  against  this  theory.  But  by  memory  is  undei^ 
st^:>d  a  psychic  function,  for  whose  presence  in  plants 
and  minerals  not  the  slightest  plea  can  be  offered. 
The  persistence  is  even  more  easily  explained  in  the 
case  of  inorganic  nature.  This  Hylozoism,  which,  as 
Kant  rightly  declares,  is  the  death  of  all  science,  is  also 
called  the  "double  aspect  theory"  (Zweiseitentheorie), 
Fechner  indeed  regards  the  material  as  only  the  outer 
side  of  the  spiritual.  The  relation  between  them  is 
that  of  the  convex  side  of  a  curve  to  the  concave;  they 
are  essentially  one,  regarded  now  from  without  and 
again  from  within — ^the  same  idea  expressed  in  differ- 
ent words.  By  this  explanation  Materialism  is  not 
overcome  but  proclaimed.  For  as  to  the  reality  of 
matter  no  sensible  man  can  doubt;  consequently,  if 
the  spiritual  is  merely  a  special  aspect  of  matter,  it 
also  must  be  material.  The  convex  side  of  a  ring  is 
really  one  thing  with  the  concave;  there  is  but  the 
same  rin^  regarded  from  two  different  sides.  ^  Thus 
Fechner,  m  spite  of  all  his  disclaimers  of  MaterialiBihf 


MATBRIAUBM 


45 


MATERXAUSM 


must  deny  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  since  in  the  dis- 
solution Of  the  body  the  soul  must  also  peri^,  and  he 
labours  to  no  effect  when  he  tries  to  Dolster  up  the 
doctrine  of  survival  with  all  kinds  of  fantastic  ideas. 

Closely  connected  with  this  theory  is  the  so-call^ 
"  pyscho-physical  parallelism",  which  most  modem 
psycholo^sts  since  Fechner,  especially  Wundt  and 
Faulsen,  energetically  advocate.  This  emphasises  so 
strongly  the  spirituality  of  the  soul  that  it  rejects  as 
impossible  any  influence  of  the  soul  on  the  body,  and 
thus  makes  spiritual  and  bodily  activities  run  side  by 
side  (paraillel)  without  affectine  each  other.  Wundt, 
indeed,  goes  so  far  as  to  make  the  whole  world  consist 
of  will-units,  and  r^ards  matter  as  mechanized 
spiritual  activity.  Paulsen,  on  the  other  hand,  en- 
deavours to  explain  the  concurrence  of  the  two  series  of 
activities  bv  declarin|;  that  the  material  nrocesses  of  the 
body  are  the  reflection  of  the  spiritual.  One  might 
well  think  that  there  could  not  be  a  more  emphatic 
denial  of  Materialism.  Yet  this  exaggerated  Spiritual- 
ism and  Idealism  agrees  with  the  fundamental  dogma 
of  the  Materialists  in  denying  the  substantiality  and 
immortality  of  the  soul.  It  asserts  that  the  soul  is 
nothing  else  than  the  aggregate  of  the  successive  inter- 
nal activities  without  anv  psychical  essence.  This 
declaration  leads  inevitably  to  Materialism,  because 
activity  without  an  active  subject  is  inconceivable; 
and,  since  the  substantialitv  of  the  soul  is  denied,  the 
body  must  be  the  subject  of  the  spiritual  activities,  as 
otherwise  it  would  be  quite  impossible  that  to  certain 
physical  impressions  there  should  correspond  percep- 
tions, volitions,  and  movements.  In  any  case  this 
exaggerated  Spiritualism,  which  no  intelligent  person 
can  accept,  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  refutation  of 
Materialism.  Apart  from  Christian  philosophy  nov 
philosophical  system  has  yet  succeeded  in  successfully 
combatting  Materialism.  One  needs  but  a  somewhat 
accurate  kaowledge  of  the  recent  literature  of  natural 
science  and  philosophy  to  be  convinced  that  the  "  ref- 
utation" of  Materialism  by  means  of  the  latest  Ideal- 
ism is  idle  talk.  Thus,  Ostwald  proclaims  his  doctrine 
of  energy  the  refutation  of  Materialism,  and,  in  his 
"Vorlesungen  aber  Naturphilosophie",  endeavours 
"to  fill  the  yawning  chasm,  which  since  Descartes 
gapes  between  spirit  and  matter",  by  subordinating 
the  ideas  of  matter  and  spirit  under  the  concept  of 
energy.  Thus,  consciousness  also  is  energy,  the  nerve- 
energy  of  the  brain.  He  is  inclined  '^bo  recognize 
consciousness  as  an  essential  characteristic  oi  the 
energy  of  the  central  organ,  just  as  space  is  an  essential 
characteristic  of  mechanical  energy  and  time  of  kinetic 
energy. "    Is  not  this  Materialism  pure  and  simple? 

Entirely  materialistic  also  is  the  widely  accepted 
physiological  esmlanation  of  psychical  activities,  espe- 
cially of  the  feelings,  such  as  fear,  anger  etc.  This  is 
defended  (e.  g.)  by  Uexkilll,  whom  we  have  already 
referred  to  as  a  vigorous  opponent  of  Materialism.  H!e 
endeavours  to  found,  or  at  least  to  illustrate  this  by 
the  most  modem  experiments.  In  his  work  "Der 
Kampf  um  die  Tierseele"  (1903),  he  says:  "Sup- 
pose that  with  the  help  of  refined  rontgen  rays  we 
could  project  magnified  on  a  screen  in  the  form  of 
movable  shadow-waves  the  processes  in  the  nervous 
S3rstem  of  man.  According  to  our  present  knowledee, 
we  might  thus  expect  the  following.  We  observe  me 
subject  of  the  experiment,  when  a  bell  rings  near  by, 
and  we  see  the  shadow  on  the  screen  (representing  the 
wave  of  excitation)  hurry  alone  the  aumtory  nerve  to 
the  brain.  We  foUow  the  shadow  into  the  cerebrum, 
and,  if  the  person  makes  a  movement  in  response  to 
the  sound,  centrifugal  shadows  are  also  presented  to 
our  observation.  This  experiment  woxud  be  in  no 
way  different  from  any  physical  experiment  of  a  simi- 
lar nature,  except  that  in  tJie  case  of  the  brain  with  its 
intricate  eystem  of  pathways  the  course  of  the  stimulus 
and  the  transformation  of  the  accumulated  energy 
would  necessarily  form  a  very  complicated  and  con- 


fused picture. "  But  what  will  be  thereby  proved  or 
even  illustrated?  Even  without  rontgen  rays  we 
know  that,  in  the  case  of  hearing,  nerve  waves  proceed 
to  the  brain,  and  that  from  the  brain  motor  effects 
pass  out  to  the  peripheral  organs.  But  these  effects 
are  mere  movements,  not  psychical  perception;  for 
consciousness  attests  that  sensory  perception,  not  to 
speak  of  thought  and  volition,  is  altogether  different 
from  movement,  in  fact  the  very  opposite.  We  can 
think  simultaneouslv  of  opposites  (e.  g.  existence  and 
non-existence,  rouna  and  angular) ,  andthese  opposites 
must  be  simultaneouslv  present  in  our  consciousness, 
for  otherwise  we  could  not  compare  them,  nor  per- 
ceive and  declare  their  oppositeness.  Now,  it  is 
absolutely  impossible  that  a  nerve  or  an  atom  of  the 
brain  should  simultaneously  execute  opposite  move- 
ments. And,  not  merely  in  the  case  of  true  opposites, 
but  also  in  the  judgment  of  every  distinction,  the 
nerve  elements  must  simultaneously  have  different 
movements,  of  different  rapidity  and  in  different 
directions. 

An  undisguised  Materialism  is  espoused  by  A.  Kann 
in  his  "  Natuigeschichte  der  Moral  und  die  Physik  des 
Denkens",  with  the  sub-title  "Der  Idealiamus  eines 
Materi^listen"  (Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1907).  He  says: 
"To  explain  physically  the  compncated  processes  of 
thought,  it  is  above  all  necessarv  that  the  necessity  of 
admitting  anjrthing  *  psychical  be  eliminated.  Our 
ideas  as  to  what  is  good  and  bad  are  for  the  average 
man  so  intimately  connected  with  the  psychical  that 
it  is  a  prime  necessity  to  eliminate  the  psychical 
from  our  ideas  of  morality,  etc.  Only  when  pure, 
material  science  has  built  up  on  its  own  founda- 
tions the  whole  structure  of  our  morals  and  ethics 
can  one  think  of  elaboratixig  for  unbiased  readers 
what  I  call  the  'Physics  of  Thinking'.  To  prepare 
the  ground  for  the  new  building,  one  must  first 
'clear  away  the  debris  of  ancient  notions',  that  is  'God, 
prayer,  immortality  (the  soul) ', "  The  reduction  of 
psychical  life  to  physics  is  actually  attempted  by  J. 
Pikler  in  his  treatise  "Physik  des  Seelenlebens" 
(Leipzig,  1901).  He  converses  with  a  pupil  of  the 
highest  form,  at  first  in  a  very  childish  way,  but 
finally  he&vv  guns  are  called  into  action.  "That  all 
the  various  facts,  all  the  various  phenomena  of  psychi- 
cal life,  all  the  various  states  of  consciousness  are  the 
self-preservation  of  motion,  has  not  yet,  I  think,  been 
explained  by  any  psychologist. "  Such  is  indeed  the 
case,  for,  generally  speaking,  gross  Materialism  has 
been  rejected.  Materialism  refers  psychical  phenom- 
ena to  movements  of  the  nerve  substance;  out  self- 
preservation  of  motion  is  motion,  and  consequently 
this  new  psycho-physics  is  pure  Materialism.  In  any 
case,  matter  cannot  "self-preserve"  its  motion; 
motion  persists  on  its  own  account  in  virtue  of  the  law 
of  the  conservation  of  energy.  Therefore,  according 
to  this  theory,  all  matter  ought  to  exhibit  peychiccbl 
phenomena. 

Still  more  necessary  and  simple  was  the  evolution  of 
the  world  according  to  J.  Lichtneckert  (Neue  wissen- 
schaftl.  Lebenslehre  der  Weltalls^  Leipzig,  1903).  His 
"  Ideal  Oder  Selbstzweckmaterialismus  als  die  absolute 
Philosophic  "  (Ideal  or  End-in-itself  Materialism  as  the 
Absolute  Philosophy)  offers  "  the  scientific  solution  of 
all  great  physical,  chemical,  astronomical,  theological, 
philosophical,  evolutionary,  and  physiological  world- 
riddles."  Let  us  select  a  few  ideas  from  this  new 
absolutist  philosophy.  ''That  God  and  matter  are 
absolutely  identical  notions^  was  until  to-day  un- 
known." "Hitherto  Materialism  investigated  the 
external  life  of  matter,  and  Idealism  its  internal  life. 
From  the  fusion  of  these  two  conceptions  of  life  and 
the  world,  which  since  the  earliest  times  have  walked 
their  separate  ways  and  fought  each  other,  issues  the 
present  'Absolute  Philosophy.'  Heretofore  Material- 
ism has  denied,  as  a  fundamental  error,  teleology  or 
the  striving  for  an  end,  and  hence  also  the  spiritual  or 


KATEBIUTT 


46 


KATHATHXA8 


psychical  qualities  of  matter,  while  Idealism  has  de- 
nied the  materiality  of  the  soul  or  ol  God.  Conse- 
quently, a  complete  and  harmonious  world-theorv 
could  not  be  reached.  The  Ideal  or  £nd-in-itself 
Materialism,  or  Monism,  is  the  crown  or  acme  of  all 
philosophies,  since  in  it  is  contained  the  absolute  truth, 
to  which  the  leading  intellects  of  all  times  have  ^^u- 
ally  and  laboriousT)^  contributed.  Into  it  flow  all 
philosophical  and  reugious  systems,  as  streams  intoUie 
sea."  "Spirit  or  God  is  matter,  and,  vice  versa, 
matter  is  spirit  or  God.  Blatter  is  no  raw,  lifeless 
mass,  as  was  hitherto  generallv  assiuned,  since  all 
chemico-physical  processes  are  self-purposive .  Matter, 
whi(^  is  the  eternal,  imending,  visible,  audible,  weigh- 
able,  measurable  etc.  deity,  is  gifted  with  the  highest 
evolutionary  and  transu>rming  spiritual  or  vital 
Qualities,  and  indeed  possesses  power  to  feel,  will, 
tnink,  and  remember.  All  that  exists  is  matter  or  God . 
A  non-material  being  does  not  exist.  Even  space  is 
matter  ..." 

One  needs  onlv  to  indicate  such  fruits  of  materialis- 
tic science  to  illustrate  in  their  absurdity  the  con- 
sequences of  the  pernicious  conception  of  man  and 
the  univeise  known  as  Materialism.  But  we  cite 
these  instances  also  as  a  positive  proof  that  the 
much-lauded  victory  of  modem  Ideausm  over  Mate- 
rialism has  no  foundation  in  fact.  To  our  own  time 
may  be  applied  what  the  well-known  historian  of 
Materialism,  Friedrich  Albert  Lange  (Geschichte  des 
Materialismus  u.  Kritik  seiner  Bedeutung  in  der  Ge- 
genwart),  wrote  in  1875:  "The  materialistic  strife  of 
our  day  thus  stands  before  us  as  a  serious  sign  of  the 
times.  To-day,  as  in  the  period  before  Kant  and  the 
French  Revolution,  a  general  relaxation  of  philo- 
sophical effort,  a  retrogression  of  ideas,  is  the  basic  ex- 
planation of  the  spread  of  Materialism."  What  he 
says  indeed  of  the  relaxation  of  philosophical  effort 
is  no  longer  true  to-day;  on  the  contrary,  seldom  has 
there  been  so  much  philosophising  by  the  qualified  and 
the  unoualified  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  and 
the  end  of  the  last  century.  Much  labour  hajs  been 
devoted  to  philosophy  and  much  has  been  accom- 
plished, but,  in  the  words  of  St.  Augustine,  it  is  a  case 
of  magni  ffreasus  vrceter  viam  (i.e.  long  strides  on  the 
wrong  road).  We  find  simply  philosophy  without 
ideas,  for  Positivism,  Empiricism,  Pragmatism,  Psy- 
chologism,  and  the  numerous  other  modem  systems 
are  all  enemies  of  ideas.  Even  Kant  himself,  whom 
Lange  invokes  as  the  bulwark  against  Materialism,  is 
very  appropriately  called  by  the  historian  of  Idealism, 
O.  WiUman,  "  the  lad  who  throws  stones  at  ideas  ". 

The  idea,  whose  revival  and  development,  as  Lange 
expects,  "  will  raise  mankind  to  a  new  level ",  is.  as  we 
have  shown,  not  to  be  sought  in  non-Christian  philoso- 
phy. Only  a  return  to  the  Christian  view  of  the  world, 
wmch  is  founded  on  Christian  philosophy  and  the 
teachings  of  the  Socratic  School,  can  prevent  the 
catastrophes  prophesied  by  Lange,  and  perhaps  raise 
mankind  to  a  higher  cultural  level.  This  philosophy 
offers  a  thorough  refutation  of  cosmological  and  an- 
thropological Materialism,  and  raises  up  the  true 
Idealism.  It  shows  that  matter  cannot  of  itself  be  un- 
created or  eternal,  which  indeed  may  be  deduced 
from  the  fact  that  of  itself  it  is  inert,  indifferent  to  rest 
and  to  motion.  But  it  must  be  either  at  rest  or  in 
motion  if  it  exists;  if  it  existed  of  itself,  in  virtue  of  its 
own  nature,  it  would  be  also  of  itself  in  either  of  those 
conditions.  If  it  were  of  itself  originally  in  motion,  it 
could  have  never  come  to  rest,  and  it  would  not  be 
true  that  its  nature  is  indifferent  to  rest  and  to  motion 
and  could  be  equally  well  in  either  of  the  two  condi- 
tions. With  this  simple  argument  the  fundamental 
erroi'  is  confuted.  An  exhaustive  refutation  will  be 
found  in  the  present  author's  writings:  "  Der  Kosmos  " 
(Paderbom,  1908);  "Gott  u.  die  Schdpfung"  (Ratis- 
bon.1910);  " Die Theodizee "  (4th ed  ^"""^  "^^hr- 
buch  der  Apologetik",  I  (3rd  ed  3). 


Anthropological  Materialism  is  completely  disfiroved 
by  demonstrating  for  psychical  activities  a  simple, 
spiritual  substance  distmct  from  the  bod^ — i.  e.  the 
soul.  Reason  assumes  the  existence  of  a  simple  being, 
since  a  multiplicity  of  atoms  can  possess  no  unitary,  in- 
divisible thought,  and  cannot  compare  two  ideas  or 
two  psychical  states.  That  which  niakes  the  com- 
parison must  have  simultaneously  in  itself  both  the 
states.  But  a  material  atom  cannot  have  two  differ* 
ent  conditions  simultaneously^  cannot  for  example 
simultaneously  execute  two  different  motions.  Thus, 
it  must  be  an  immaterial  being  which  makes  the  com- 
parison. The  comparison  itself,  the  perception  of  the 
identity  or  difference,  likewise  the  idea  of  necessity 
and  the  idea  of  a  pure  spirit,  are  so  abstract  and  meta- 
physical that  a  material  being  cannot  be  their  subject. 
For  a  fuU  refutation  of  anthropological  Materialism  see  Gur- 
BBRLST,  L^rbuch  der  Payeholoffie  (4th  ed.,  MOnster,  1904) ;  Idem. 
Der  Kampf  um  die  Seele  (2  vols..  2nd  ed.,  Ifainx,  1903).  Con- 
sult also  Fabrz,  Briefeaeoen  den  M.  (Stuttgart,  1864);  Prat. 
L'impuiaaanee  du  M.  (Paris.  1868);  Moxgno,  Le  M.  el  la  forct 
(2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1873);  Hbrtuno,  VAer  d,  Orenxen  d,  mechan- 
teeken  NaturerklArwng  (Bonn,  1875);  Flint,  AntiiheiMu  Tkeoriu 

i London,  1879);  Bownb,  Some  DiglcuUiea  of  M,  in  Princeton 
lev.  (1881),  pp.  344-372;  Drbbslbr,  Der  belebte  u.  der  vnbelebtf 
Stoff  (Freiburg,  1883);  Lillt,  Materiaiiam  and  Morality  in 
Fortnighay  Review  (1886),  573-04;  (1887),  276-03;  Boasu. 
RSfviation  du  maUrialiame  (Lou vain.  1890);  Dbbbbb,  D«r  Af . 
eine  Verirrung  d.  meneehliehenOeialea  (Berlin.  1892} ;  (Arrange. 
Will  M.  he  ike  Rdigion  of  the  Future  t  in  Dublin  Review  (1899), 
86-96;  CouRBBT,  Fai/liteduAf.  (Paris,  1899);  Fulijcrton,  TA/ 
Ineuffieiency  ofM.  in PaychoL Review, IX  (1902),  156-73;  Pbbch. 
Die  groeaen  WeltriUhael  {Freibuig.  1883;  3rd  ed..  1907): 
drOcKL,  Der  M.  QeprUfl  %n  aeinen  L^reQUen  u.  deren  Conee- 
quenEen  (Mains,  1878).  see  also  bibliography  under  Goo,  Socl. 
Spirttuausm,  Wori«d. 

GONBTANTIN  GlTTBERLET. 

Maternity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Feast  of 

THE,  second  Sunday  in  October. — ^The  object  of  this 
feast  is  to  commemorate  the  dignity  of  Mary  as  Mother 
of  God.  Mary  is  truly  the  Mother  of  God,  because  she 
is  the  Mother  of  Christ,  who  in  one  person  unites  the 
human  and  the  divine  nature.  This  title  was  solemnly 
ratified  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  22  June,  431 .  The 
hymns  used  in  the  office  of  tne  feast  also  allude  to  Mary's 
dignity  as  the  spiritual  Mother  of  men.  The  love  of 
Mary  for  all  mankind  was  that  of  a  mother,  for  she 
shared  all  the  feelings  of  her  Son  whose  love  for  men 
led  Him  to  die  for  our  redemption  (Hunter, ,  Dogm. 
Theol.  2,  578).  The  feast  was  first  granted,  on  the 
petition  of  King  Joseph  Manuel^  to  the  dioceses  of 
rortugal  and  to  Brazil  and  Algeria,  22  Jan.,  1751,  to- 
gether with  the  feast  of  the  Puritv  of  Mary,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  first  Sunday  in  May,  dupf.  maj.  In 
the  following  year  both  feasts  were  extended  to  the 
province  of  Venice,  1778  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
and  1807  to  Tuscany.  At  present  the  feast  is  not 
found  in  the  universal  calendar  of  the  church,  but 
nearly  all  diocesan  calendars  have  adopted  it.  In  the 
Roman  Breviary  the  feast  of  the  Maternity  is  com- 
memorated on  the  second,  and  the  feast  of  the 
Purity  on  the  third,  Sunday  in  October.  In  Rome,  in 
the  (Church  of  S.  Augustine,  it  is  celebrated  as  a  dupl. 
2.  dassis  with  an  octave,  in  honour  of  the  miraculous 
statue  of  the  Madonna  del  Parto  by  Sansovino.  This 
feast  is  also  the  titular  feast  of  the  Trinitarians  under 
the  invocation  of  N.  S.  de  los  Remedios.  At  Mesagna 
in  Apulia  it  is  kept  20  Feb.  in  commemoration  of  the 

earthquake,  20  Feb.  1743. 

HoLWECK,  Fatii  Mariani  (Freibuig,  1892);  Albbbs,  BUUhen-^ 
Kr&me  (Paderbom,  1894).  v  484  as. 

F.  G.  HOLWECK. 

Matemus,  Saint.    See  Eucharius,  Saint,  Bishop 
OP  Trier. 
Matemus,  Firmicus.    See  Firmicus  Materntjb. 

Mathathias,  the  name  of  ten  persons  of  the  Bible, 
variant  in  both  Hebrew  and  Greek  of  Old  Testament 
and  in  Greek  of  New  Testament;  uniform  in  Vulgate. 
The  meaning  of  the  name  is  "  gift  of  Jah",  or  "  of  Jah- 
weh"  (cf.  QtUwpot).  In  the  Hebrew,  the  first  four  of 
these  persons  are  called  Mattith  Jah  {iTTXHO) 


KATHXW  47 

(1)  Mathatidaa  (B.  6aMa0fa,  A.  HaHoHai),  one  of  of  God",  heenteredhissignatureinft  lor^booklyiog 
the  sons  of  Nebo  who  married  an  alieD  wife  (I  Esd.,  x,  on  the  table.  About  aixty  followed  his  example  that 
11)  and  later  repudiated  her;  he  is  called  BlaiitiM  in  night  and  signed  the  book.  Meetings  were  held  twice 
III  Esd.,  tx,  35.  a  week,  in  the  evenings  and  after  Ueee  on  Sundays. 

(2)  Ua-thathiab  (Sept.  HarfaMat),  one  of  the  six  The  crowds  soon  became  so  sreat  that  the  achoolhouse 
^ho  stood  at  the  right  of  Eadras  while  he  read  the  law  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  tie  Horse  Bazaar,  a  build- 
to  the  people  (II  Esd.,  viii,  4).  ing  capable  of  holdine  4000,  became  the  future  meet- 

(3)  Mathathias  (Sept.  MarflaWat),  a  Levite  of  mg-plaoe.  Here,  night  after  night,  Father  Hathew 
Corite  stock  and  eldest  son  of  Bellum;  he  had  charge  oddreBsed  crowded  assembhcs.  In  three  months  he 
of  the  frying  of  cakes  for  the  temple-worship  (I  Far.,  had  enrolled  25,000  in  Cork  alone;  in  five  months  the 
ix,  31).  number  had  increased  to  130,000.     The  movement 

(4)  Matkathiab  (Sept.  HarraWBt),  a  Levite,  one  of  now  assumed  a  new  phase.  Father  Hathew  decided 
Asapb'a  musicians  before  the  ark  (I  Par.,  xvi,  5).  to  go  forth  and  preach  his  crusade  throughout  the 

(5)  Mathathias  (I  Par.,  xv,  18,  21;  xxv,  3,  21;  land.  In  Dec,  1839,  he  went  to  Limerick  and  met 
Heb.  iri'nnO;  A.  MsTTaWai  in  first  three,  Haretat  in  with  an  cTtraordinary  triumph.  Thousands  came  in 
last;  B.  Z/itiaTaSia  in  first,  McrTaSlat  in  second,  from  the  adjoining  counties  and  from  Connsught.  In 
MaT-ToAfaiialast two),aLeviteof  thesonsof  Idithitn,  four  days  he  gave 

one  of  the  musicians  who  played  and  sung  before  the  the  pledge  to  ISO,- 

ark  on  its  entrance  into  Jerusalem,  later  the  leader  of  000,    In  the  same 

tbe  fourteenth  group  of  musicians  of  King  David.  month  he  Vent  to 

(6)  Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  iipassim;  xiv,29;  Sept.  Waterford,  where 
Marrafiiai),  the  father  of  the  five  Machabees  (see  art.  in  three  days  he 
8.  V. )  who  fought  with  the  Seleucids  for  Jewish  liberty,  enrolled  80,000. 

(7)  Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  xi,  70),  the  son  of  Abaa-  In  March,  1840,  he 
lofii  and  a  captain  in  the  army  of  Jonathan  the  Madia-  enrolled  70,000  in 
bee;  together  with  Judas  the  son  of  Calphi,  he  alone  Dublin.  In  May- 
stood  firm  by  Jonathan's  side  till  the  tide  of  liattle  nooth  College  tie 
turrud  in  the  plain  of  Asor.  reaped  a  great  bar- 

(S)   Mathathias  (I  Mach.,  xvi,  14],  a  son  of  Simon  vest,  winning  over 

the  high  priest;  he  and  his  father  and  brother  Judaa  S    professors   and 

were  murdered  by  Ptolemee,  the  son  of  Abobus,  at  250    students, 

Doch.  whilst    in    May> 

(9  and  10)  Mathathias  (Marfcdfai),  two  ancestors  nooth    itself,    and 

of  Jeaua  (Luke,  iii,  25,  26).               Waltbb  Dbuu.  the   neighbour- 
hood,   be    gained 

Math«w,  Theobald,  Apostle  of  Temperance,  b.  at  36,000  adherents. 

Thomastown  Castle,  near  Cashel,  Tipperaiy,  Ireland,  In  January,  1841, 

10  Oct..  1790;  d.  at  Queenstown,  CorV,  8  Dec.,  1856.    he  went  to  Keils, „ 

HU  father  was  James  Mathew,  a  gentleman  of  good  and  in  two  days  yAxn™  Matotw 
family ;  hi^  mother  was  Anne,  daughter  of  G^rge  and  a  half  enrolled  100,000.  Thus  in  a  few  years  he 
Wihyte  of  Cappaghwhyte.  At  twelve  he  was  sent  to  travelled  through  the  whole  of  Ireland,  and  in  Feb- 
St.  Canice's  Academy,  Kilkeimy.  There  he  spent  ruary,  1843,  was  able  to  write  to  a  friend  in  America: 
nearly  seven  years,  during  which  time  he  became  "I  have  now,  with  the  Divine  Assistance,  hoisted  the 
acquainted  with  two  Capuchin  Fathers,  whp  seem  to  banner  of  Temperance  in  almost  every  parish  in  Ire- 
have  influenced  him  deeply.    In  September,  1807,  he  land." 

went  to  Maynooth  College,  and  in  the  following  year  He  did  not  confine  himself  to  the  preaching  of  tem- 

ioined  the  Capuchin  Ohfer  in  Dublin.    Having  mode  pcrance  alone.     He  spoke  of  the  other  virtues  also, 

his  profession  and  completed  his  studies,  he  was  or-  denounced  crime  of  every  kind,  and  secret  societies  of 

dained  priest  by  Arehoishop  Murray  of  Dublin  on  every  description.    Crime  diminislied  as  his  movement 

Easter  Sunday,  1814,     His  first  mission  was  in  Kil-  spread,  and  neither  crime  nor  secret  societies  ever 

kenny,  where  he  spent  twelve  months.    He  was  then  flourished  where  total  abstinence  had  taken  toot, 

transferred  to  Cork,  where  he  spent  tweaty-four  years  He  was  of  an  eminently  practical,  as  well  as  of  a  spir- 

before  beginning  his  great  crusade  against  intemper-  itual  turn  of  mind.    Thaclteray,  who  met  him  in  Cork 

ance.    Dmingtheseyeant  he  ministered  in  the  "Little  in  1842,  wrote  of  him  thus:  "Avoiding  oU  political 

Friary  ",  and  organized  schools,  industrial  classes,  and  questions,  no  man  seems  more  eager  than  he  for  the 

benefit  societiee  at  a  time  when  there  was  no  recog-  practic^  improvement  of  this  country.     Leases  and 

niicd  system  of  Catholic  education  in  Ireland.     He  rents,  farming  improvements,  reading  societies,  music 

alsoroundedagoodlibrary,  and  was  foremost  in  every  societies — he  was  full  of  these,  and  of  hie  schemes  of 

good  work  for  the  welfare  of  the  people.    la  1830  lie  temperance  above  all."    Such  glorious  success  having 

took  a  long  lease  of  the  Botanic  Gardens  as  a  cemeteiy  attended  his  efforts  at  home,  he  now  felt  himself  free  to 

for  the  poor.    Thousands,  who  died  in  the  terrible  answer  the  earnest  invitations  of  his  feiiow-country- 

cholera  of  1S32,  owed  their  last  resting-place  as  well  men  in  Great  Britain.    Onl3  August,  1842,  he  reached 

asrelief  and  consolation  in  their  dyinshours  to  Father  Glasgow,  where  many  thousands  joined  the  move- 

Hatbew.    In  1828  he  was  appointed  Provincial  of  the  ment.     In  July,   1843,  he  arrived  in  England  and 

Capuchin  Order  in  Ireland — a  position  which  he  held  opened  his  memorable  campaign  in  Liverpool.    From 

for  twenty-three  yeare.  Liverpool  be  went  to  Manchester  and  Salford,  and. 

In  1838  came  the  crisis  of  bis  life.    Drunkenness  bad  having  visited  the  chief  towns  of  Lancashire,  he  went 

became  widespread,  and  was  the  curse  of  all  classes  in  on  to  Yorkshire,  where  be  increased  his  recruits  by 

Ireland.    Temperance  efforts  had  failed  to  cope  with  200,000.    His  next  visit  was  to  London  where  be  en- 

the  evil,  and  after  much  anxious  thought  and  prayer,  rolled  74,000.     During  three  months  in  England  he 

and  in  response  to  repeat«d  appeals  from  William  gave  the  pledge  to  600,000. 

Martin,  a  Quaker,  Father  Mathew  decided  to  inaugu-  He  then  returned  to  Cork  where  trials  awaited  him. 

rate  a  total  abstinence  movement.    On  10  April,  1^8,  In  July,  1845,  the  first  blight  destroyed  th2  potato 

tbe  first  meeting  of  the  Cork  Total  Abstinence  Society  crop,  and  in  the  following  wmter  there  was  bitter  dis- 

wos  held  in  his  own  achoolhouse.     He  presided,  de-  tress.    Father  Matlicw  was  one  of  the  first  to  warn  the 

livered  a  modest  address,  and  took  the  pledge  himself .  Government  of  tbe  calamity  which  was  impending. 

Then  with  the  historic  words, "  Here  goes  in  tbe  Name  Famine  with  all  its  horrors  reigned  throughout  the 


MATRXXIT 


48 


aCATHUSALA 


eoantry  duriDg  the  yean  1846-47.  During  those 
years,  the  Apostle  of  Temperance  showed  nimself 
more  than  ever  the  Apostle  of  Charity.  In  Cork  he 
organised  societies  for  collecting  and  distributing  food 
supplies.  He  stopped  the  building  of  his  own  cnurch, 
and  gave  the  funds  in  charitv.  He  spent  £600  ($3000) 
a  month  in  relief,  and  used,  his  influence  in  En|dand 
and  America  to  ootain  food  and  money.  Ireland  lost 
2,000,000  inhabitants  during  those  two  years.  All 
oi^ganisation  was  broken  up,  and  the  total  abstinence 
movement  received  a  severe  blow.  In  1847  Father 
Mathew  was  placed  first  on  the  list  for  the  vacant 
Bishopric  of  Cork,  but  Home  did  not  confirm  the 
choice  of  the  clergy.  In  the  early  part  of  1849,  in 
response  to  earnest  mvitations,  he  set  sail  for  America. 
He  visited  New  York,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Washing- 
ton, Charlestown,  Mobile,  and  many  other  cities,  and 
secured  more  than  500,000  disciples.  After  a  stay  of 
two  and  a  half  years  he  returned  to  Ireland  in  Dec., 
1851.  Men  of  all  creeds  and  politics  have  borne  im- 
portant testimony  to  the  wonderful  progress  and  the 
beneficial  effects  of  the  movement  he  inaugurated.  It 
is  estimated  tiiat  he  gave  the  total  abstinence  pledge 
to  7,000,000  people,  and  everyone  admits  that  in  a 
short  time  he  accomplished  a  great  moral  revolution. 
O'Connell  characterised  it  as  "  a  mighty  miracle  ",  and 
often  declared  that  he  would  never  have  ventured  to 
hold  his  Repeal  *' monster  meetings"  were  it  not  that 
he  had  the  teetotalers  *'for  his  policemen''. 

His  remains  rest  beneath  the  cross  in  "Father 
Mathew's  Cemetery"  at  Queenstown.  On  10  Oct., 
1864,  a  fine  bronze  statue  by  Foley  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  Cork,  and  during  his  centenary  year  a 
marble  statue  was  erected  in  O'Connell  Street,'Dublin. 
The  influence  of  Father  Mathew's  movement  is  still 
felt  in  many  a  country  and  especially  in  his  own.  In 
1905  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  Ireland  assem- 
bled at  Maynooth  unanimously  decided  to  request  the 
Capuchin  Fathers  to  preach  a  Temperance  Crusade 
throughout  the  country.  In  carrying  out  this  work 
their  efforts  have  been  crowned  with  singular  success. 
The  Father  Mathew  Memorial  Hall,  Dubnn,  is  a  centre 
of  social,  educative,  and  teniperance  work,  and  is 
modelled  on  the  Temperance  institute,  founded  and 
maintained  by  the  Apostle  of  Temperance  himself. 
The  Father  Mathew  Hall,  Cork,  is  domg  similar  work. 
The  Dublin  Hall  publishes  a  monthly  magazine  called 
"The  Father  Mathew  Record",  which  has  a  wide  cir- 
culation. A  special  oipinization  called  "The  Young 
Irish  Crusaders"  was  founded  in  Jan.,  1909,  and  its 
membership  is  already  over  100,000. 

Freeman* 9  Journal  (Dublin);  The  Nation  (Dublin),  oontem- 
poraiy  files;  Maouirb,  Life  o/Fr.  Mathew:  A  Biography  (Lon- 
don, 1863):  Hall,  Retrospect  of  a  Long  Life,  I  (London,  1883), 
482-n520;  Mathew.  Father  Mathew:  Hie  Life  and  Timea  (Lon- 
don, Paris,  and  Melbourne.  ?890);  Thomas,  Fr.  Theobald  Ma- 
thew— avmmarieed  Life  (Ckirk,  1902);  McCarthy,  The  Story  of 
an  Irishman  (London,  1904),  31-43;  O'Kbllt,  Beatha  an  Athar 
Tioboid  Maitiu  (Dublin,  1907),  with  English  introducUon  by 
AuoumNB;  Ttnaii ,  Father  Mathew  (London,  1908). 

Father  Augustine. 

Mathien,  FRANcois-Dissnii:,  bishop  and  cardinal, 
b.  27  Mav,  1839;  d.  26  October,  1908.  Bom  of  hum- 
ble famihr  at  Emville,  Department  of  Meurthe  and 
Moselle,  France,  he  made  nis  studies  in  the  diocesan 
school  and  thc'seminary  of  the  Diocese  of  Nancy,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  1863.  He  was  engaged  succes- 
sively as  professor  in  the  school  (petit  si-minaire)  of 
Pont-drMousson,  chaplain  to  the  Dominicanesses  at 
Nancy  (1879),  and  parish  priest  of  Saint-Martin  at 
Pont-drMousson  (1890).  Meanwhile,  he  had  won  the 
Degree  of  Doctor  of  Letters  with  a  Latin  and  a  French 
thesis,  the  latter  being  honoured  with  a  prize  from  the 
French  Academy  for  two  years.  On  3  January,  1893, 
he  was  nominated  to  the  Bishopric  of  Angers,  was  pre- 
conized  on  19  January,  and  consecrated  on  20  March. 
He  succeeded  Mgr  Freppl,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
bishops  of  hia  time,  ana  set  him^' "  '  ^^in  all  his 


predecessor's  good  works.  To  these  he  added  the 
work  of  facilitating  the  education  of  poor  children 
destined  for  the  priesthood.  He  inaugurated  the 
same  pious  enterprise  in  the  Diocese  of  Toulouse,  to 
which  he  was  transferred  three  years  later  (30  May, 
1896)  by  a  formal  order  of  Leo  XIII.  In  hia  new  see 
he  laboured,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  this  pon- 
tiff, to  rally  CathoUcs  to  the  French  Government. 
With  this  ami  he  wrote  the  "  Devoir  des  cathoUques  ", 
an  episcopal  charge  which  attracted  wide  attention 
and  earned  for  him  the  pope's  congratulations.  In 
addition  he  was 
summoned  to 
Rome  to  be  a  car- 
dinal at  the  curia 
(19  June,  1899). 
Having  resigned 
the  See  of  Toulouse 
(14  December, 
1899),  his  activ- 
ities were  thence- 
forward absorbed 
in  the  work  of  the 
Roman  congrega- 
tions and  some 
diplomaUc  negoti- 
ations which  hav6 
remained  secret. 
Nevertheless,  he 
found  leisure  to 
write  on  the  Con- 
cordat of  1801  and 
the    Conclave    of      ^ 

1903.  In  1907  he  FaAHpo»-D<«B4  Cabdxkai.  Mathixu 
was   admitted   to 

the  French  Academy  with  a  discourse  which  attraeted 
much  notice.  Death  came  to  him  unexpectedly  next 
year  in  London,  whither  he  had  gone  to  assist  at  the 
£ucharistic  Congress.  Under  a  somewhat  common- 
place exterior  he  had  a  rich  and  active  nature,  an 
mquiring  and  open  mind,  a  fine  and  well-cultivated 
intelligence  which  did  credit  to  the  Sacred  College  and 
the  French  clerg^r.  His  works  include:  "De  Joannis 
abbatis  Gorziensis  vita"  (Nancy,  1878);  "L'Anden 
Regime  dans  la  Province  de  Lorraine  et  Barrois" 
rParis,  1871 ;  3rd  ed.,  1907) ;  "  Le  Concordat  de  1801 " 
(Paris,  1903) :  "  Les  demiers  jours  de  L^on  XIII  et 
le  conclave  ae  1903 "  (Paris,  1904) ;  a  new  edition  of 
his  works  began  to  appear  in  Paris,  July,  1910. 

La  Semaine  oatholisue  de  Totdouae  (1896,  IOCS);  Haxbon- 
NBUvi:,  Eloge  de  Son  eminence  le  cardinal  Mathieu  in  Reeueil  de 
VAcadimie  dee  Jeux  fioraux  (Toulouse,  1910). 

Antoine  Djegebt. 

Mathusala,  one  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  men- 
tioned in  the  book  of  Genesis  (v).  The  word  is  given 
as  Mathusale  in  I  Par.,  i,  3,  and  Luke,  iii,  37;  and  in 
the  Revised  Version  as  Methuselah.  Etymologists 
differ  with  regard  to  the  signification  of  the  name. 
Holzinger  gives  *'man  of  the  javelin"  as  the  more 
likely  meaning;  Hommel  and  manv  with  him  think 
t^t  it  means  ''man  of  Selah",  Seiah  being  derived 
from  a  Babylonian  word,  given  as  a  title  to  the  god. 
Sin;  while  Professor  Sayce  attributes  the  name  to  a 
Babylonian  word  which  is  not  imderstood.  The  au- 
thor of  Genesis  traces  the  patriarch's  descent  through 
his  father  Henoch  to  Seth,  a  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  At 
the  time  of  his  son's  birth  Henoch  was  sixty-five  years 
of  age.  When  Mathusala  had  reached  the  great  age  of 
one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  years,  he  became  the 
father  of  Lamech.  Following  this  he  lived  the  re- 
markable term  of  seven  hundred  and  eighty-two  years, 
which  makes  his  age  at  his  death  nine  himdred  and 
sixty-nine  years.  It  follows  thus  that  his  death  oc- 
curred in  ibe  year  of  the  Deluge.  There  is  no  record 
of  any  other  human  being  ha  vine  lived  as  long  as  this, 
for  which  reason  the  name,  Mathusala,  hrs  become  a 
synonym  for  longevity. 


MATILDA                             49  MATILDA 

11m  tendency  of  ratioiialists  and  advanced  critics  of  dif-  entered  Italy  he  took  Beatrice  and  her  daughter 

iSereat  creeds  leads  them  to  deny  outright  the  extraor-  Matilda  prisoners  and  had  them  brought  to  Ger- 

dinazy  details  of  the  ages  of  the  patriarchs.    Catholic  many.    Thus  the  young  coimtess  was  early  dragged 

commentators,  however^  find  no  difi^culty  in  accept-  into  the  bustle  of  these  troublous  times.     That, 

iiig  the  words  of  Genesis.    Certain  exesdies  solve  me  however,  did  not  prevent  her  receiving  an  excel- 

diificulty  to  their  own  satisfaction  by  declaring  that  lent  training;  she  was  finely  educated,  knew  Latin, 

the  year  meant  by  the  sacred  writer  is  not  the  eauiva-  and  was  very  fond  of  serious  books.    She  was  also 

lent  of  our  year.   In  the  Samaritan  text  Mathusala  was  deeply  religious,  and  even  in  her  youth  followed 

sixty-seven  at  Lamech's  birth,  and  720  at  his  death,  with  mterest  the  great  ecclesiastical  Questions  which 

JoBBPH  V.  MoLLOT.  Were  then  prominent.  Before  his  death  in  1056  Henry 

III  gave  l^ck  to  Gottfried  of  Lorraine  his  wife  and 

MatUdA,  Saint,  Queen  of  Germany,  wife  of  King  stepdaughter.  When  Matilda  grew  to  womanhood  she 

Heniy  I  (The  Fowler),  b.  at  the  Villa  of  Engem  was  married  to  her  stepbrother  Gottfried  of  Lower 

in  Westphalia,  about  895;   d.  at   Quedlinburg,  14  Lorraine,  from  whom,  however,  she  separated  in  1071. 

March,  968.    She  was  brought  up  at  we  monastery  of  He  was  murdered  in  1076;  the  marriage  was  childlesB, 

Erfurt.    Henry,  whose  marriage  to  a  ^oung  widow,  but  it  cannot  be  proved  that  it  was  never  consuni> 

named  Hathburg,  had  been  declared  mvaUd,  asked  mated,  as  many  historians  asserted.    From  1071  Ma- 

for  Bfatilda's  hand,  and  married  her  in  909  at  Wal-  tilda  entered  upon  the  government  and  administra* 

hausen,  which  he  presented  to  her  as  a  dowry.     I  latilda  tion  of  her  extensive  possessions  in  Middle  and  Upper 

became  the  mother  of:  Otto  I,  Emperor  df  Germany:  Italy.    These  domains  were  of  the  greatest  impor- 

Uemy,  Duke  of  Bavaria;  St.  Biuno^  Archbishop  ot  tance  in  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  disputes  of  that 

Cologne;  Gerberga,  who  married  Louis  IV  of  France;  time,  as  the  road  from  Germany  by  way  of  Upper 

Hedwig,  the  mother  of  Hugh  Capet.    In  912  Ma-  Italy  to  Rome  passed  through  them.    Cb  22  April, 

tilda's  husband  succeeded   his  father  as  Duke  of  1073,  Gregory  Vll  (q.  v.)  became  pope,  and  before 

Saxony,  and  in  918  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  King  long  the  great  battle  for  the  independence  of  the 

Conrad  of  Germany.  As  queen,  Matilda  was  humble.  Church  and  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  life  began.    In 

pious,  and  generous,  and  was  always  ready  to  help  the  this  contest  Matilda  was  the  fearless,  courageous,  and 

oppressed  and  unfortunate.    She  wielded  a  whole-  unswerving  ally  of  Gregory  and  his  successors, 

some  influence  over  the  king.    After  a  reign  of  seven-  Immediately  on  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  Gregory 

teen  years,  he  died  in  936.    He  beoueathed  to  her  all  entered  into  close  relations  with  Matilda  and  her 

his  possessions  in  Quedlinburg,  Poehlden,  Nordhausen,  mother.    The  letters  to  Matilda  (Beatrice  d.  1076) 

Grona,  and  Duderstadt.  give  distinct  expression  to  the  pope's  high  esteem 

It  was  the  king's  wish  that  his  eldest  son,  Otto,  and   sympathy   for  the   princess.    He    called    her 

should  succeed  him.    Matilda  wanted  her  favotuite  and  her  motbsr  "his  sisters  and  daughters  of  St. 

son  Henry  on  the  royal  throne.    On  the  plea  that  he  Peter"  (Regest.,  II,  ix),  and  wished  to  undertake  a 

was  the  first-bom  son  after  his  father  became  king,  she  Crusade  wil]a  them  to  free  the  Christians  in  the  Holy 

induced  a  few  nobles  to  cast  their  vote  for  him,  but  Land  (Reg.,  I,  xi).    Matilda  and  her  mother  were 

Otto  was  elected  and  crowned  king  on  8  August,  936.  present  at  the  Roman  Lenten  synods  of  1074  and 

Three  years  later  Henry  revolted  against  his  brother  1075,  at  which  the  pope  published  the  important 

Otto,  but,  being  imable  to  wrest  the  royal  crown  from  decrees  on  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  life.    Both 

him,  submitted,  and  unon  the  intercession  of  Ma-  mother  and  daughter  reported  to  the  pope  favourably 

tilda  was  made  Duke  of  Bavaria.    Soon,  however,  the  on  the  disposition  of  the  German  king,  Henry  IV,  and 

two  brothers  joined  in  persecuting  their  mother,  whom  on.  7  December,  1074,  Gregory  wrote  to  him,  thanking 

they  accused  of  having  impoverished  the  crown  by  her  him  for  the  friendly  reception  of  the  papal  legate,  and 

lavish  almsgiving.    To  satisfy  them,  she  renounced  for  his  intention  to  co-operate  in  the  uprooting  of 

the  possessions  the  deceased  king  had  bequeathed  to  simony  and  concubinage  from  among  the  clergy, 

her,  and  retired  to  her  villa  at  Engem  in  Westphalia.  However,  the  quarrel  between  Gregory  and  Henry  Tv 

But  afterwards,  when  misfortune  overtook  her  sons,  soon  began.    In  a  letter  to  Beatrice  and  Matilda  (11 

Matilda  was  called  back  to  the  palace,  and  both  Otto  Sept.,  1075)  the  pope  complained  of  the  inconstancy 

and  Henry  implored  her  pardon.  and  changeableness  of  the  king^  who  apparently  had 

Matilda  built  many  churches,  and  founded  or  sup-  no  desire  to  be  at  peace  with  him.  In  the  next  yeax 
ported  numerous  monasteries.  Her  chief  foundations  (1076)  Matilda's  first  husband,  Gottfried  of  Lorraine, 
were  the  monasteries  at  Quedlinburg,  Nordhausen,  was  murdered  at  Antwerp.  Gregory  wrote  to  Bishop 
Engem,  and  Poehlden.  She  spent  many  days  at  these  Hermann  of  Metz,  25  August.  1076.  that  he  did  not 
monasteries  and  was  especiallv  fond  of  Nordhausen.  yet  know  in  which  state  Matilda  "tne  faithful  hand- 
She  died  at  the  convent  of  Stc.  Servatius  and  Dionysius  maid  of  St.  Peter  "  would,  under  God 's  Ruidance^  remain, 
at  Quedlinburg,  and  was  buried  there  by  the  side  of  On  account  of  the  action  of  the  Synod  of  Worms 
her  husband.  She  was  venerated  as  a  saint  im-  against  Gregory  (1076),  the  latter  was  compeUed  to 
mediately  after  her  death.  Her  feast  is  celebrated  lay  Henry  IV  under  excommunication.  As  the  major- 
on  14  March.  ity  of  the  princes  of  the  empire  now  took  sides  against 

Two  old  Uves  of  Matilda  are  extant;  one.  VOa  animur,  the  king,  Henry  wished  to  be  reconciled  with  the  pope, 

written  in  the  monastery    f  Nprdhauaen.and  dedicated  to  the  «« j  ««Jri««.,^^*i„  *«„,.«ii,v^  ♦^  t*-i„  :^  4.u«  .^:j  jit.  ^  J 


SSS.r  (^SrSSS  or^'SSTiJS?.  Str'^JX^  ««»d  consequently  trjveUed  to  Italy  in  the  middle  of  a 

675-^82.  and  re|)rinted  in  iIiqnb.  P.  L..  CLI.  1313-26.    The  severe  Winter,  m  order  to  meet  the  pope  there  before 

,  Vifa  AfoAiOciM  noiiw,  written  by  order  of  theEmp^ror  the  latter  should  leave  Italian  soil  on  his  journey  to 

i.'^.l^S^^jte^  G^nnany.    Gregory,  who  had  already  arrivtd  in  Ix>n^^ 


other, 
Henry 

MxGlfV 


ihr  Oemahl  Beinrieh  I,  und  ihre  Sdhne  Otto  I,  Heinrich  und  bardy  when  he  heard  of  the  king's  joumey,  betook 

Brwu>  (MQBster.  1867):  AcawASM.pieheaioe  MaihiUeMenMh-  himself  at  Matilda's  advice  to  her  mountain  stronghold 

S  lES2h?IL35f&'*^    '^^  of  Canossa  for  security.    The  excommunicated  king 

"                                                    Michael  Orr.  ^^  asked  the  CJountess  Matilda,  his  mother-in-law 

Adelaide,  and  Abbot  Hugh  of  Cluny.  to  intercede  with 

MatQda  of  OanoBBa,  Countess  of  Tuscany,  daugh-  the  pope  for  him.    These  fulfilled  tne  king's  request, 

ter  and  heiress  of  the  Blarquess  Boniface  of  Tuscanv,  and  after  long  opposition  Gregoiy  permitted  Henry  to 

and  Beatrice,  daughter  of  Frederick  of  Lorraine,  o.  appear  before  him  personally  at  Canossa  and  atone  for 

1046;  d.  24  July,  1114.    In  1053  her  father  was  mur-  his  guilt  by  public  penance.    After  the  king's  depart- 

dered.    Duke  Gottfried  of  Lorraine,  an  opponent  of  ure  the  pope  set  out  for  Mantua.    For  safetv  Matilda 

the  Emperor  Henry  III,  went  to  Italy  and  married  accompanied  him  with  armed  mezi^  but  hearing  a 

the  widowed  Beatrice.    But,  in  1055,  when  Heniy  HI  rumour  that  Archbishop  Wibert  ot  Ravennaj  who 


50 

«M  mtfriendly  to  Gregory,  waa  preparing  an  ambiuh  Henry  In  1005,  but  the  ooiuiteea  reroained  nuMufan. 
forhim,  she  hrought  the  pope  back  to  Canosaa.  Here  When  the  new  German  Ling,  Henry  V,  entered  Italy 
she  drew  up  a  firatdeedol  gift,  in  wfaichshe  bequeathed  in  the  autunm  trf  1110.  Matilda  did  homage  to  him  tor 
ber  domains  and  estates  from  Ceperano  tn  Radioofani  the  imperial  fiefs.  On  ins  return  be  stopped  three  days 
to  the  Roman  Church.  But  as  long  as  sbe  lived  she  with  Uatilda  in  Tuscany,  showed  her  every  mark  of 
continued  to  govern  and  administer  them  freely  and  respect,  and  made  her  imperial  vioe-regent  of  Liguria. 
independently.  When,  soon  after,  Henry  again  re-  In  1 1 12  she  reconfirmed  the  donation  of  her  property 
oewed.the  contest  with  Gregory,  Matilda  constantly  to  the  RomanChurch  that  ahe  had  made  in  1077  (Meo. 
supported  the  pope  with  soldiers  and  money.  On  her  Germ.  Hist.:  Legum,  IV,  i,  053  sqq.).  After  her 
wcurity  the  monastery  4^  Conosaa  had  its  treasute     death  Henrv  went  to  Italy  in  1116,  and  took  Iter  lands 

.  . ^not  merely  the  imperial  fiefs,  but  also  the  freeholds. 

The  Roman  Church,  though,  put  forward  its  legitimate 
daim  to  the  inheritance.  A  lengthy  dispute  now  en- 
sued over  the  poaaesaioD  of  the  dominions  <^  Matilda, 
which  was  settled  by  a  oompromise  between  Inno- 
cent II  and  Lothair  III  in  1133.  The  emperor  and 
Duke  Henry  of  Saxony  took  Ifatilda's  freejiolds  u 
fiefs  from  the  pope  at  a  yenriv  rent  of  100  pounds  d 
silver.  The  duke  took  the  feudal  oath  to  the  pope; 
after  his  death  Matilda's  possessions  were  to  b« 
restored  wholly_  to  the  Roman  Church.  Afterwaida 
there  were  a^ain  disputes  about  these  lands,  and  in 
agreements  between  the  popes  and  emperors  of  the 
twelfth  century  this  matter  is  often  mentioned.  In 
1213  the  Emperor  Frederick  II  recognized  the  right  of 
the  Roman  Church  to  the  possessions  of  Matilda. 

DoHBO,  Vila  Malhildit.  sd.  Bethuihh  in  Mint  Orrm  HiA' 
Burial.,  XII,  34H-4m;  Vila  aha  in  Hdrjtohi.  ScriploTa  rtr 
IlaSicarvm,  V.  :i8U-;i9r:  LibrUi  <U  liu  in  M-n.  Grrm  HiX  I- 
III:  HODDT,  Malilda.  Courdrti  of  Tutcanv  (lj)ndon,  1905): 
FloHCHTINI.  JVmuru  di  Matilda,  la  irran  omfrua  di  Tonaita 
(Lueoi,  1M3:  niw  cd.,  17Se):  Tohti.  La  nmiuKi  Maiildt  o 
ficxuiit  Potttefiei  (FloreDin.  1850;  nrw  ed..  Rome,  13861- 
Rin£e,  La  aninda  llalirmr,  Malhtldt  dt  ToKant  (PaiB.  I8S9I; 
OvtKU/jtw,  Dit  BttiUimotn  dtrGrouffriifin  MaihiidevortTM^Kim 
(B«riin.  I802):HErELB.Kimnli:nvrirA>cUe.v(2Dd«l..Freibu>i 
im  Br.  ISSSi;  Metir  ton  Knohau.  JahrbUrhtr  da  dmtvAn  I 
Rfului  inlcr  Hrairirk  IV.  laid  Hrinrirh  V.  (a  vols.,  Lripiii, 
laMKlSOT):  PoiTHABT.  BibL  him.  mtd.  mri,  tnd.,  II,  148e. 

J.  P.  KmacH. 

H»tiiu.— I.  Nahc.— The  word   "Matins"  (Lat 
MataHnam  or  Matuliiia),  cornea  from  Malvla,  the 
Latin  name  for  the  Greek  goddess  LeucoUiir  or  Leueo- 
Ihea,  white  goddess,  or  goddess  of  the  morning  (Ait-      i 
mra):  Leucotheegraiut,  MatulavoeaberenotlrieiOviiiy,      i 
M5.    Hence  MabiHne,  MaiiUintu,  ifalvtinumUmput,      \ 
^  or  simply  Maljitinum,     The  word  actually  used  in  the 

Roman  Breviary  is  Matulinum  <i.  e.  lempus) ;  some  of 
melted  down,  and  seat  Gregory  seven  hundred  pounds  the  old  authors  prefer  MaiuUni  MrUtUinorum,  a 
td  silver  and  nine  pounds  of  gold  as  a  contribution  to  Malutina.  In  any  case  the  primitive  signification  of  I 
the  war  against  Henrv.  The  latter  withdrew  from  the  word  under  these  different  forms  was  Attrora,  sun-  I 
the  Romagna  to  Lomoandy  in  1082,  and  laid  waste  rise.  It  was  at  first  applied  to  the  office  of  Lauds, 
Matilda's  Wds  in  bis  march  through  Tuscany,  which,  aa  a  matter  of  fact,  was  said  at  dawn  (see 
Nevertheless  the  countess  did  pot  desist  from  her  ad-  Lauds),  its  liturgical  synonym  being  the  word  GaUi- 
herence  to  Gregory.  She  was  confirmed  in  this  by  her  cinium  (cock-^srow),  which  also  designated  this  office, 
confessor^  Anselm,  Bishop  of  Lucca.  The  night>-offica  retained  its  name  of  Vigils,  since,  aa  a 

In  similar  ways  she  supported  the  successors  of  the     rule,  Vigils  and  Matins  (Lauds)  were  combined,  the 
neat  pope  in  the  iwntest  for  the  freedom  of  theChurch.     latter  serving,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  closing  part  of 
When  in  1087,  shortly  after  his  coronation,  Pop^  Vic-     Vigils.     The  name  Matins  was  then  extended  to  tbs      ' 
torlllwasdnvenfromRomebythe  AntipopeWibert.     office  of  Vigils,  Matins  taking  the  name  of  Lauds,  a 
Blatilda  advanced  to  Rome  with  an  army,  occupied     term  which,  strictly  speaking,  only  designates  the  last 
tbe  Castle  of  Bant'  Angelo  and  part  of  the  city,  and    three  psalms  of  that  office,  i.  e.  the  "  laudate  "  peainia 
called  Victor  back.     However,  at  the  threats  of  the     At  the  time  when  this  cfaanf^  of  name  took  place,  the 
emperor  the  Romans  again  deserted  Victor,  so  that  he     custom  of  saying  Vipis  at  night  was  observed  scarcelj 
was  obliged  to  flee  once  more.    At  the  wish  of  Pope    anywhere  but  in  monasteries,  whilst  elsewhere  they      ' 
Urban  II  Uatilda  married  in  1080  the  young  Duke     weresoidinthemoming,  so  that  finally  it  did  not  seeoi 
Welf  of  Bavaria,  in  order  that  Uie  most  faithful  de-    »  misapplication  to  give  to  a  night  Office  a  name       i 
fender  of  the  papal  chair  might  thus  obtain  a  powerful     which,  strictlyspenking,  applied  only  to  the  office  of 
ally.     In  1090  Henry  IV  returned  to  Italy  to  attack     day-break.     The  change,  however,  was  oidy  gradwj. 
Matilda,  whomhehaaalready  deprived  of  her  estates  in     St.  Benedict  (sixth  century)  in  his  description  of  the 
Lorraine.    Holaid  waste  many  of  her  poaaessions,  con-     Divine  Office,  always  refers'to  Vigils  as  the  Nigbl       I 
guered  Mantua,  her  principal  stronghold,  by  treachery     Office,  whilst  that  of  dav-break  he  calls  Matins,  Lauds 
m  1001,  as  well  as  several  caatlee.    Although   the     beingthelast  three  psalms  <^  that  office  (Regula,  cap. 
vassals  of  the  countess  hastened  to  make  their  peace     XIII-XIV;  seeLAUoa).     The  Council  of  Tours  in  567       | 
with  the  emperor,  Matilda  again  promised  fidelity  to     had  already  applied  the  title  "  Matins"  to  the  Ni^t 
the  cause  ot  the  pope,  and  contbued  the  war,  wnich     Office:  ad MatuiinMmseiaTdipkoiuef  Laudet  MatuHna; 
now  took  a  turn  in  her  favour.     Henry'sarmywasde-     Matutini  hymni  are  also  found   m  various  ancient 
feated before Canossa.  W'"  "  '       'Wvaria,andhis     authorsassynonymouawithLauds.  (Hefele-Leclecotl 
WD  of  the  some  name,  U'  went  over  to     "Hist.deeConcilei",  V,  III,  188, 189.) 


1IATZN8 


61 


MATINS 


IT.  Obioin  (Matina  and  VigilB)  .—The  void  Vigils,  at 
first  applied  to  the  Night  Office,  also  comes  from  a 
Latin  source,  both  as  to  the  term  and  its  use,  namely, 
the  VigiHa  or  nocturnal  watches  or  |suards  of  the  sol- 
diers. The  night  from  six  o'dock  m  the  evening  to 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  was  divided  into  four  watches 
or  vigils  of  three  hours  each,  the  first,  the  second,  the 
third,  and  the  fourth  vigil.  From  the  litufgical  point 
of  view  and  in  its  origin,  the  use  of  the  term  was  very 
vague  and  elastic.  Generally  it  designated  the  nightly 
meetings,  sytuizes.  of  the  Christians.  Under  this 
form,  the  watch  (Vigil}  might  be  said  to  date  back  as 
early  as  the  beginning  of  Christianity.^  It  was  either 
on  account  of  the  secrecy  of  their  meetings^  or  because 
of  some  mystical  idea  which  made  the  middle  of  the 
night  the  hour  par  excellence  for  prayer,  in  the  words  of 
the  psalm:  media  node  sitrgebam  ad  conJUendum  tibi, 
that  the  Christians  chose  the  night  time  for  their  syn- 
axea,  and  of  all  other  nights,  preferably  the  Sabbath. 
There  is  an  allusion  to  it  in  the  Acts  of  tibe  Apostles 
(xx,  4) ,  as  also  in  the  letter  of  Pliny  the  Younger.  The 
Uturgical  services  of  these  synaxes  was  composed  of 
almost  the  same  elements  as  that  of  the  Jewish  Syna- 
gogue: readings  from  the  Books  of  the  Law,  singing  of 
psalms,  divers  prayers.  What  gave  them  a  Cbristian 
character  was  the  fact  that  they  were  followed  by 
the  Eucharistic  service,  and  that  to  the  reading  from 
the  Law,  the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
was  very  soon  aaded,  as  well  as  the  Gospels  and  some- 
times other  books  which  were  non-canonical,  as,  for 
example,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Clement,  that  of  Saint 
Barnabas,  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  Peter,  etc. 

The  more  solemn  watches,  which  were  held  on  the 
anniversaries  of  martyrs  or  on  certain  feasts,  were  also 
known  by  this  title,  especially^  during  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  The  Vigil  in  this  case  was  also 
called  xamrvx^f,  because  the  greater  part  of  the  night 
was  devoted  to  it.  Commenced  in  the  evening,  thev 
only  terminated  the  following  morning,  and  comprised, 
in  addition  to  the  Eucharistic  Supper,  homilies,  chants, 
and  divers  offices.  These  last  Vigils  it  was  that  ^ve 
rise  to  certain  abuses,  and  they  were  finally  abolished 
in  the  Church  (see  Vigils).  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
ever, the  Vigils,  in  their  strictest  sense  of  Divine  Office 
of  the  Night,  were  maintained  and  developed.  Among 
writers  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  century  we  fiind 
several  descriptions  of  them.  The  *'  De  Virginitate", 
a  f ourt-h-oentury  treatise,  gives  them  as  immediately 
following  Lauds.  The  author,  however,  does  not  de- 
termine the  number  of  psalms  which  had  to  ^3e  recited. 
Methodius  in  his  "Banquet  of  Virgins"  (Symposion 
give  Convivium  decern  Virginum)  sulxlividea  the  Night 
Office  or  wawrvxlt  into  watches,  but  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine what  he  meant  by  these  nocturnes.  St.  Baial 
also  gives  a  very  vague  description  of  the  Night  Office 
or  Vigils,  but  in  terms  which  permit  us  to  conclude  that 
the  p^lms  were  sung,  sometimes  by  two  choirs,  and 
sometimes  as  responses.  Cassian  gives  us  a  more  de- 
tailed account  of  the  Night  Office  of  the  fifth  centurv 
monks.  The  number  of  psalms,  which  at  first  varied. 
was  subsequently  fixed  at  twelve,  with  the  addiUon  oi 
a  lesson  from  the  Old  and  another  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment. St.  Jerome  defended  the  Vigils  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Vigilantius,  but  it  is  principally  concerning  the 
watches  at  the  Tombs  of  the  Martvrs  that  he  speaks  in 
his  treatise, "  Contra  Vigilantium '  •  Of  aU  the  descrip- 
tions the  most  complete  is  that  in  the  "  Peregrinatio 
i£theriie  ",  the  author  of  which  assisted  at  Matins  in  the 
Churches  of  Jerusalem,  where  great  solemnity  was  dis- 
played«  (For  all  these  texts,  see  Bftumer-ciron,  loc. 
cit.,  pp.  79, 122, 139. 186, 208, 246,  etc.)  Other  allu- 
sions are  to  be  found  in  CsBsanus  of  Aries,  Nicetius  or 
Nicetae  of  Treves,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  (see  B&umer- 
Biron,  loc.  cit.,  1, 216, 227, 232). 

III.  The  Elements  of  Matins  from  the  Fourth 
TO  THE  Sixth  Century. — ^In  all  the  authors  we  have 
quoted,  the  form  of  Night  Prayers  would  appear  to 


have  varied  a  great  deal.  Nevertheless  in  these  de- 
scriptions, ana  in  spite  of  certain  di£ferences,  we  find 
the  same  elements  repeated:  the  psalms  generally 
chanted  in  the  form  of  responses,  that  is  to  say  by  one 
or  more  cantors,  the  choir  repeating  one  verse,  which 
served  as  a  response,  alternately  with  the  verses  of 
psalms  which  were  sung  by  the  cantors;  readings  taken 
from  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  and  later  on, 
from  the  works  of  l^e  Fathers  and  Doctors;  litanies 
or  supplications;  prayer  for  the  divers  members  of  the 
Churcn,  clergy,  faithful,  neophytes,  and  catechumens; 
for  emperors;  travellers;  the  sick;  and  generally  for 
all  the  necessities  of  the  Church,  and  even  prayers 
for  Jews  and  for  heretics.  [B&umer,  Litanie  u.  Missal, 
in  ••Stuflmn  des  Benediktinerordens",  II  (Raigem. 
1886),  287, 289.]  It  is  quite  easy  to  find  these  essential 
elements  in  our  modem  Matins. 

IV.  Matins  in  the  Roman  and  other  Lituroie& 
, — ^In  the  modem  Roman  Liturgy,  Matins,  on  acooimt 
of  its  len^h,  the  position  it  occupies,  ana  the  matter 
of  which  it  is  composed,  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
important  office  of  the  day,  and  for  the  variety  and 
richness  of  its  elements  the  most  remarkable.  It 
commences  more  solemnly  l^n  the  other  offices,  witii 
a  psalm  (Ps.  xciv)  called  the  Invitatory,  which  is 
chanted  or  recited  in  the  form  of  a  response,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  most  ancient  custom.  The  hymns, 
which  have  been  but  tardily  admitted  into  the  Roman 
Liture^,  as  well  as  the  hymns  of  the  other  hours,  form 
part  ma  very  ancient  collection  which,  so  far  at  least 
as  some  of  them  are  concerned,  may  be  said  to  pertain 
to  the  seventh  or  even  to  the  sixth  century.  As  a  rule 
they  suggest  the  symbolic  signification  of  this  Hour 
(see  NoTy),  the  prayer  of  the  middle  of  the  night 
This  principal  form  of  the  Office  should  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Office  of  Sunday,  of  Feasts,  and  the 
ferial  or  week  day  Office.  The  Sunday  Office  is  made 
up  of  the  invitatory,  hymn,  three  noctums,  the  first 
of  which  comprises  twelve  psalms,  and  the  second  and 
third  three  psalms  each;  nine  lessons,  three  to  each 
noctum,  each  lesson  except  the  ninth  being  followed 
by  a  response;  and  finally,  the  canticle  Te  Deum, 
which  is  recited  or  sung  after  the  ninth  lesson  in- 
stead of  a  response.  The  Office  of  Feasts  is  similar 
to  that  of  Sunday,  except  that  there  are  only  three 
psalms  to  the  first  noctum  instead  of  twelve.  The 
week-day  or  ferial  office  and  that  of  simple  feasts  are 
composed  of  one  nocturn  only,  with  twelve  psalms  and 
three  lessons.  The  Office  of  tne  Dead  and  that  of  the 
three  last  da3n3  of  Holy  Week  are  simpler,  the  absolu- 
tions, benedictions,  and  invitatory  being  omitted,  at 
least  for  the  three  last  days  of  Holy  Week,  since  the 
invitatory  is  said  in  the  Offices  of  the  Dead. 

The  principal  characteristics  of  this  office  which  dis- 
tinguisn  it  from  all  the  other  offices  are  as  follows: 

W  The  Psalms  us^  at  Matins  are  made  up  of  a 
series  commencing  with  Psalm  i  and  running  without 
intermission  to  Psalm  cviii  inclusive.  The  order  of 
tiie  Psalter  is  followed  almost  without  interruption, 
except  in  the  case  of  feasts,  when  the  Psalms  are 
chosen  according  to  their  signification,  but  always 
from  tiie  series  i-cviii,  the  remaining  Psalms  being  re- 
served for  Vespers  and  the  other  Offices. 

(b)  The  Le^ns  form  a  unique  element,  and  in  the 
other  Offices  give  place  to  a  Capitulum  or  short  lea* 
son.  This  latter  has  possibl;^  been  introduced  only  for 
the  sake  of  symmetry,  and  m  its  present  form,  at  any 
rate,  gives  but  a  very  incomplete  idea  of  what  the  true 
reaaing  or  lesson  is.  The  Lessons  of  Matins  on  the 
contrary  are  readings  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term: 
thev  comprise  the  most  important  parts  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament,  extracts  from  the  works  of 
the  principal  doctors  of  the  Church,  and  legends  of 
the  martyrs  or  of  the  other  saints.  The  lessons  from 
Holy  Scripture  are  distributed  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain fixea  rules  (rubrics)  which  assign  such  or  such 
books  of  the  Bible  to  certain  seasons  of  the  year.    Is 


HATRICULA 


62 


HATTIO 


Qiis  manner  extracts  from  all  the  Books  of  the  Bible 
are  read  at  the  Office  dminff  the  year.  The  idea,  how- 
ever, of  having  the  whole  Bible  read  in  the  Office,  as 
proposed  bv  several  reformers  of  the  Breviaxy,  more 
especially  during  the  seventeenth  and  eic^teenth  cen- 
turies, has  never  been  re^rded  favourably  by  the 
Church,  which  views  the  Divine  Office  as  a  prayer  and 
not  as  an  object  of  study  for  itie  cleigy. 

(c)  The  Invitatory  and,  on  certain  aa3rs,  the  Finale 
or  Te  Deum  also  form  one  of  the  principal  character- 
istics of  this  Office. 

(d)  The  Responses,  more  numerous  in  this  Office, 
recall  the  most  ancient  form  of  psalmody;  that  of  the 
psalm  chanted  by  one  alone  and  answered  by  the 
whole  choir,  as  opposed  to  the  antiphonic  form,  which 
consists  in  two  choirs  alternately  reciting  the  psalms. 

(e)  The  division  into  three  or  two  Noctums  is  also 
a  special  feature  of  Matins,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say 
why  it  has  been  thougbt  by  some  to  be  a  souvenir  of 
the  military  watches  (there  were  not  three,  but  four, 
watches)  or  even  of  the  ancient  Vieils,  since  ordi- 
narily t^ere  was  but  one  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the 
night.  The  custom  of  rising  three  times  for  prayer 
could  only  have  been  in  vogue,  as  exceptional,  m  cer- 
tain monasteries,  or  for  some  of  the  more  solenm 
feasts  (see  Nocturns). 

(f)  In  the  Office  of  the  Chiutsh  of  Jerusalem,  of 
which  ti^e  pilgrim  ^theria  gives  us  a  description,  the 
Vigils  on  Sundays  terminate  with  the  solemn  reading 
of  the  Gospel,  in  the  Grotto  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
This  practice  of  reading  the  Gospel  has  been  preserved 
in  the  Benedictine  Liturgy.  It  is  a  matter  tor  regret 
that  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  this  custom,  so  ancient  and 
60  solemn,  is  no  longer  represented  but  by  the  Homily. 

The  Ambrosian  Lituigy,  better  perhaps  than  any 
other,  has  preserved  traces  of  the  great  Vigils  or 
vawwux^^t  with  their  complex  and  varied  £sp]ay 
of  processions,  psalmodies,  etc.  (cf.  Dom  C^n: 
"Pawographie  Musicale",  vol.  VI,  p.  8,  sq.;  Paul 
Lejay ;  Ambrosien  (rit.)  in  "Dictionnaire  d'Archtol. 
Clhr6t.  et  de  Liturgie",  vol.  I,  p.  1423  sq.).  The  same 
Liturs^  has  also  preserved  Vigils  of  long  psalmody. 
This  Nocturnal  Office  adapted  itself  at  a  later  period 
to  a  more  modem  form,  approaching  more  and  more 
closely  to  the  Roman  Litiu^.  Here  too  are  found 
the  three  Noctums,  with  Antiphon,  Psalms,  Lessons, 
and  Responses,  the  ordinary  elements  of  the  Roman 
Matins,  and  with  a  few  special  features  quite  Am- 
brosian. In  the  Benedictine  Office,  Matins,  like  the 
text  of  the  Office,  follows  the  Roman  Liturgy  quite 
closely.  The  number  of  psalms,  viz.  twelve,  is  always 
the  same,  there  being  three  or  two  Noctums  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  solemnity  of  the  particular  Office 
celebrated.  Ordinarily  there  are  four  Lessons,  fol- 
lowed by  their  responses,  to  each  Noctum.  The  two 
most  characteristic  features  of  the  Benedictine  Matins 
are:  the  Canticles  of  the  third  I^octum,  which  are  not 
found  in  the  Roman  7  iturgy,  and  the  Gospel,  which  is 
8\mg  solemnly  at  the  end,  the  latter  trait,  an  already 

E Dinted  out,  being  very  ancient.  In  the  Mozarabic 
iturgy  (q.  v.),  on  the  contrary,  Matins  are  made  upof  a 
sjrstem  of  Antiphons,  Collects,  and  Vcrsicles  which 
make  them  quite  a  departure  from  the  Roman  system. 
V.  Signification  and  Stmbousm. — ^From  the  fore- 
going it  is  clear  that  Matins  remains  the  principal  Office 
of  the  Church,  and  the  one  which,  in  its  origin,  dates 
back  the  farthest,  as  far  as  the  Apostolic  ages,  as  far 
even  as  the  very  inception  of  the  Qiurch.  It  is  dolibt- 
less,  after  having  passed  through  a  great  many  trans- 
fonnations,  the  ancient  Night  Office,  the  Office  of  the 
Vigil.  In  a  certain  sense  it  is,  perhaps,  the  Office 
which  was  primitively  the  preparation  for  the  Msob, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens,  which 
presents  at  any  rate  the  same  construction  as  that 
Office: — ^the  reading  from  the  Old  Testament,  then 
the  Epistles  and  the  Acts,  and  finallv  the  Oospel — ^the 
whole  being  intermingled  with  '  ^  termi- 


nated by  the  Homily  (cf  .  Cabrol:  *'  Lea  Origines  litiir- 
giques' ,  Paris.  1906,  334  seq.).  If  for  a  time  this 
Omce  appearea  to  be  secondary  to  that  of  Lauds  or 
Morning  Office,  it  is  because  the  latter,  originally  but 
a  part  of  Matins,  drew  to  itself  the  solenmity,  prob- 
ably on  accoimt  of  the  hour  at  which  it  was  cele- 
brated, permitting  all  the  faithful  to  be  present. 
Accoraing  to  anouier  theory  suggested  by  the  testi- 
mony of  Lactantius,  St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Isidore,  the 
Christians,  being  ignorant  of  the  date  of  Christ's  com- 
ing, thouent  He  would  return  during  the  middle  of  the 
ni^t,  and  most  probably  the  night  of  Holy  Saturday 
or  Easter  Sunday,  at  or  about  the  hour  when  He  arose 
from  the  sepulchre.  Hence  the  importance  of  the 
Easter  Vigil,  which  would  tiius  have  become  the  model 
or  prototype  of  tiie  other  Saturday  Vigils,  and  inci- 
dentally or  all  the  nightly  Vigils.  The  idea  of  the 
Second  Advent  would  have  given  rise  to  the  Easter 
Vigil,  and  the  latter  to  the  office  of  the  Saturday 
VigU  (BatiffoL  "Hist,  du  Bi^viaire",  3).  The  insU- 
tution  of  the  Saturday  Vigil  would  consequently  be  as 
ancient  as  that  of  Sunday. 

BoNA«  De  Divina  Paahnodia  in  Opera  Omnia  (Antwerp. 
1677),  ^3  «q.;  Granoolas.'  CtfrnmerUariue  hietorieue  m  Rom. 
Breviar.,  100;  Probst,  Brevier  vnd  Breviergebel  (TQbincai, 
1854),  143  sq.;  BAumer.  Hittoire  du  BrMaire,  tr.  BmoN.  I 
(Pans.  1905).  60  sq.;  Di7CBi»nb,  ChrieUan  Worship  (1904). 
448,  449;  Batiitol.  Hietoire  du  Briviaire,  3  sq.;  Tbalbofer. 
Handbuch  der  Kaiholiechm  Liiwrtfik,  IL  434.  450:  Gabtocc, 
Let  Vioilea  Nodumee  (Paris.  1908)  (Gbnection  Bloud);  see 
Hours  (Cazvomicai.);  Lauda;  Vigils;  Brbviart. 

F.  Cabrou 

Matricula,  a  term  applied  in  Christian  antiquity 
(1)  to  the  catalogue  or  roll  of  the  clergy  of  a  particular 
church:  thus  Clerici  immatricuUUi  denoted  the  clergy 
entitled  to  maintenance  from  the  resources  of  the 
church  to  which  they  were  attached.  Allusions  to 
mahriada  in  this  sense  are  found  in  the  second  and 
third  canons  of  the  Coimcil  of  Agde  and  in  canon  xiii 
of  the  Ck>uncil  of  Orleans  (both  of  the  sixth  centuiy). 
This  term  was  also  applied  (2)  to  the  ecclesiastical  fist 
of  poor  pensioners  who  were  assisted  from  the  church 
revenu3s;  hence  the  names  matriciiiarit,  matrictdaria, 
by  which  persons  thus  assisted,  together  with  those 
wno  peiiormed  menial  services  about  the  church,  were 
known.  The  house  in  which  such  pensioners  were 
lod£:3d  wa:  also  known  (3)  as  rruUricula,  which  thus 
becomes  synonymous  with  xenodochium, 

Maxjbicb  M.  Hasbett. 

Matximony.    See  Mabriagb. 

Matteo  da  Siena  (I^Iatteo  di  Giovanni  di  Bas- 
TOLo),  painter,  b.  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro^  c.  1435; 
d.  1495.  His  common  appellation  was  derived  from 
his  having  worked  chiefly  m  the  city  of  Siena.  In  the 
fourteenth  century  the  masters  of  the  Sienese  school 
riVwUed  the  Florentine  painters;  in  the  fifteenth,  the 
former  school,  resisting  the  progress  achieved  at 
Florence,  allowed  itself  to  be  outstripped  by  its  rival 
Although  in  this  period  it  gives  the  unpression  of  a 
superannuated  art,  Sienese  painting  stiU  charms  with 
its  surviving  fine  traditional  qualities-^its  sincerity  of 
feeling,  the  refined  grace  of  its  figures,  its  attention  to 
minutisB  of  dress  and  of  architectural  backgroimd,  and 
its  fascinating  frankness  of  execution.  Of  these  quali- 
ties  Matteo  has  his  share,  but  he  is  fiulherroore  distin- 
guished  by  the  dignity  of  his  female  figures,  the  gra- 
cious presence  of  his  angels,  and  the  harmony  of  a 
colour  scheme  at  once  rich  and  brilliant.  For  this 
reason  critics  pronounce  him  the  best  of  the  fifteenth- 
century  Sienese  painters.  The  earliest  authentic  work 
of  Matteo  is  dated  1470,  a  Virgin  enthroned,  with  an- 
gels, painted  for  the  Servites,  and  now  in  the  Academy 
of  Siena.  In  1487  he  executed  for  the  high  altar  of 
Santa  Maria  de'  Servi  del  Borgo — the  Servite  church 
of  his  native  village^— an  "Assumption",  with  the 
Apostles  and  other  saints  looking  on;  on  tnepredella 
he  has  painted  the  history  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.     Ao> 


ICATTIO  53  ICATTIB 

eording  to  G.  Milanesi  (in  his  edition  of  Vasari,  II.  obtained  the  upper  hand,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Ghibel- 

Florence,  1878,  p.  493,  note  3),  the  main  portion  oi  line  party  were  obliged  to  go  into  exile;  among  these 

this  painting  is  still  to  be  seen  in  the  church,  while  the  was  the  poet  Dante.    In  a  famous  passage  of  the 

lateral  portions  have  been  removed  to  the  sacristy.  "Divina  Conmiedla**  (Paradiso,  XII,  124-26),  Dante 

Some  other  Madonnas  of  his  deserve  particular  men-  certainly  speaks  as  an  extreme  Ghibelline  against 

tion:  onein  the  Palazzo  Tolomei  at  Siena;  the  Virgin  Matteo  of  Aquasparta.    Matteo,  however,  had  died 

and  Infant  Jesus  painted,  in  1484,  for  the  city  palace  of  before  this.    He  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  church 

Siena,  on  a  pilaster  in  the  hall  decorated  by  Spinello  of  Ara  Coeli,  where  his  monument  is  still  to  be  seen. 
Aretino;  in  the  duomo  of  Pienza,  a  Virgin  ana  Child        Matteo  was  a  very  learned  philosopher  and  theolo- 

enthroned  between  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Catherine,  St.  gian;  he  was  further  a  personal  pupil  of  St.  Ek)naven- 

Bartholomew  and  St.  Luke.     On  the  lunette  Matteo  ture,  whose  teaching,  in  general,  he  followed,  or  rather 

painted  the  Flagellation,  and  on  the  predella  three  me-  developed.     In  this  respect  he  was  one  of  what  is 

dallions — "Ecce  Homo'*,  the  Virgin,  and  an  Evan-  known  as  the  older  Franciscan  school,  who  preferred 

gelLst.    The  signature  reads:  **  Opus  Mathei  Johannis  August inianism  to  the  more  pronounced  Aristotclcan- 

de  Senis".    As  decoration  for  the  pavement  of  the  ism  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    His  principal  work  is  the 

cathedral  of  Siena,  he  designed  three  subjects:  "The  acute  "QuflBstionesdisputat»",  which  treats  of  various 

Sibyl  of  Samos",  "The  Deliverance  of  Bethulia",  subjects.    Of  this  one  book  appeared  at  Quaracchi  in 

and  "The  Massacre  of  the  Innocents".  1903  (the  editing  and  issue  are  discontinued  for  the 

In  1477  he  painted  his  "  Madonna  della  Neve  "  (Our  present),  namely:  **  Qusstiones  disputatsB  selectsB",  in 

Lady  of  the  Snow),  for  the  church  under  that  invoca-  "Bibliotheca  Franciscana  scholastica  medii  ©vi",  I; 

tion  at  Siena.    On  comparing  this  with  the  Servite  the  "Quaestiones"  are  preceded  by  a  "Tractatus  '\e 

Madonna  of  1470,  it  is  seen  to  surpass  the  earlier  work  excellentia  S.  Scripturse"  (pp.  1-22),  also  by  a  **  Sermo 

in  beauty  of  types,  symmetry  of  proportions,  and  de  studio  S.  Scripturae"  (pp.  22-36);  it  is  followed  by 

colour-tone.  The  St.  Barbara,  a  composition  made  for  "  De  processione  Spiritus  Sancti"  (pp.  429-53).    Five 

the  church  of  San  Domenico  at  Siena,  is  also  a  remark-  "  Qusestiones  de  Cognitione ''  had  already  been  edited 

able  work:  two  angels  are  gracefully  laying  a  crown  on  in   the  collection  called  ''De  humante  cognitionis 

the  saint's  head,  while  others,  accompanied  by  St.  ratione  anecdota  qusedam"  (Quaracchi,  18^3),  87- 

MsLT}r  Magdalen  and  St.  Catherine  of  Alexandria  and  182.    The  rest  of  his  works,  still  unedited,  are  to 

playing  musical  instruments,  surround  her.    When  be  found  at  Assisi  and  Todi.     Among  them  are: 

Matteo  treats  subjects  involving  lively  action,  he  loses  "'Commentarius  in  4  libros  Sententiarum"    (auto- 

a  great  deal  of  his  power.    The  incidental  scenes  are  graph);    "Concordantiae  super  4  11.  Scntentiarum"; 

combined  in  a  confused  way,  the  expression  of  feeling  "Postilla  super  librum  Job";   "Postilla  super  Psal- 


roM.  Fr.  tr.  GtRARo'.  li  (Piria.  1892),  669.  *  Cf.  the  edition  referred  to  of  the  Qxugtt  dispui.  (19(B).  PR. 

rjAafv\M  Qi^-DTATa  V'xvit  and  De  Hum.  Coffntt.^  pp,  lav-xv:  Chronica  XX IV  M*- 

UASTON  DORTAIS.  ^.^^  General  O,  Min.  in  Analeda  Franeucana,  III  (QuRmcchi, 


1897).  40&-19.    699,   703;    Wadding.    Scriplorea    Ord.   Min, 

Matteo  of  Aquasparta,  a  celebrated  Italian  Fran-  (Rome.  1650).  262^  (1806).  172.  (igw).  269-70;  Sbaralba. 

^la^^ws     K     ««    Aniioona«>fa    in    fVio    Dir^noQA   t\f  Tn/^i  Suppl.  od  ScTxpt.  O.  M.  (Rome,  1806),  625;  Denxfle-Chatb- 

CiSCan,    b.   at    AqUMparta   in   the   JJlOCese   of    lodl,  ^^   ChaHular.  Univ.  Paris.,  li  (Paria.  1891).  59;  Ehri^  in 

Umbna,  about  1235;  d.  at  Rome,  29  October,  1302.  ZeiUchnft  far  kathol.  Theoloffie,  VII   (Innsbruck.  1883).  46; 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Bentivenghi  family,  to  which  GRABif  ann.  Die  phUoaophieche  wtd  theotooieche  Erkenntnidehre 

Cardinal  Bentivenga  (d  1290),  also  a  Franciscan  te-  X^^JSCi:!; SZliiSl^^^Hr^  ''~^'  '''^ 

loneed.   Matteo  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Todi.  Michael  Bihl. 
took  the  degree  of  Master  of  Theolorv  at  Paris,  ana 

taught  also  for  a  time  at  Bologna.  The  Franciscan,  Matter  (Gr.  OXiy;  Lat.  materia;  Fr.  moHkre;  Ger.  mo- 
John  Peckham,  having  become  Archbishop  of  Canter-  terie  and  atoff),  the  correlative  of  Form.  See  Htlo- 
biny  in  1279,  Matteo  was  in  1280  made  Peckham's  morphisu;  Form. 

successor  as  Lector  aacri  PcUatii  apostotici,  i.  e.  he  was  Taking  the  term  in  its  widest  sense,  matter  signifies 
appointed  reader  (teacher)  of  theology  to  the  papal  that  out  of  which  anything  is  maae  or  composed. 
Curia.  In  1287  the  chapter  held  at  Montpellier  elected  Thus  the  original  meaning  ofUXi?  (Homer)  is  * '  wood  ", 
him  general  in  succession  to  Arlotto  of  Prato.  When  in  the  sense  of  "  grove  *'  or  "  forest " ;  and  hence,  deriv- 
Giro&mo  Masci  (of  Ascoli),  who  had  previously  been  atively,  "wood  cut  down"  or  timber.  The  Latin  nui- 
eeneral  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  became  pope  as  Nicho-  teria,  as  opposed  to  lignum  (wood  used  for  fuel),  has 
ms  IV,  15  Feb.,  1288,  he  created  Matteo  cardinal  of  the  also  the  meaning  of  timber  for  building  purposes.  In 
title  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  in  May  of  that  year,  modern  languages  this  word  (as  signif^ring  raw  ma- 
Aft'Cr  this  Matteo  was  made  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Porto,  terial)  is  used  in  a  similar  way.  Matter  is  tnus  one  of 
and  pcmitentiariua  maior  (Grand  Penitentiary).  He  the  elements  of  the  becoming  and  continued  bein^  of 
still,  however,  retained  the  direction  of  the  order  until  an  artificial  product.  The  architect  employs  tmi- 
the  chapter  of  1289.  Matteo  had  summoned  this  chap-  ber  in  the  building  of  his  house;  the  shoemalcer  fash- 
ter  to  meet  at  Assisi,  but  Nicholas  IV  caused  it  to  be  ions  his  shoes  from  leather.  It  will  be  observed  that, 
held  in  his  presence  at  Rieti;  here  Raymond  Gaufredi,  as  an  intrinsic  element,  matter  connotes  composition, 
a  native  of  Provence,  was  elected  general.  As  general  and  is  most  easily  studied  in  a  consideration  of  the  na- 
of  the  order  Matteo  maintained  a  moderate,  middle  ture  of  change.  This  is  treated  ex  profesao  in  the  arti- 
course  ;  among  other  things  he  reorganized  the  cle  on  Cause  (q.  v.).  It  will,  however,  be  necessary  to 
studies  pursued  in  the  order.  In  the  quarrel  between  touch  upon  it  briefly  again  here,  since  matter  can  only 
Boniface  VIII  and  the  Colonna,  frona  1297  onwards,  be  rationally  treated  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  correlate.  The 
he  strongly  supported  the  pope,  lx>th  in  official  memo-  present  article  will  therefore  be  divided  into  para- 
rials  andin  public  sermons.  Boniface  VIII  appointed  ^aphs  giving  the  scholastic  doctrine  under  the  follow- 
him,  both  in  1297  and  1300,  to  an  important  embassy  mg  heads: — (1)  Secondary  Matter  (in  accidental 
to  Ixjmbardy,  the  Romagna,  and  to  Florence,  where  cliange);  (2)  Primordial  Matter  (in  substantial 
the  Blacks  (Neri)  and  the  Whites  [Bianchi),  that  is,  change);  (3)  The  Nature  of  Primordial  Matter;  (4) 
UiP  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  were  violently  at  issue  Privation;  (5)  Permanent  Matter;  (6)  The  Unity  of 
with  each  other.  In  1301  Matteo  returned  to  Florence,  Matter;  (7)  Matter  as  the  Principle  of  Individuation; 

(8)  The  Causality  of  Matter;  (9)  Variant  Theories. 
(1)  Secondary  Matter. — Accepting  matter  in  the  on- 


following  Charles  of  Valois,  but  neither  peace  nor 
reconciliation  was  brought  about.   The  Blacks  finally 


HATTllTCCt                           56  ItATTBKW 

abstractions practiaed  upon  the  bodies  that  fall  under  Halks,  /h  duodeeim  AHdoiau Meiaphynea  librot  (1672):  Idbv. 

the  observation  of  the  aenaes.   The  univeraal  is  imma-  Univermm  ThMiogig  Sumjiw  (Cologne.  .1622):    St.  Thoma* 

nent  in  the  individual  and  multiplied  by  i«ison  of  its  j^SS;^^^  "^^pS^^T^l^ijJSS^^.  TesSi^Sl^i^ 

matter.    In  the  system  of  Plato,  matter  (^4  0r,  drctpoy :  CreaXun*,  In  BoHhium  de  TrinUaU,  De  PHncipiis  NaturoB,  Quod- 

the  "formless  and  invisible")  is  also  the  condition  iS*^^ ^^/-?ox*'''s£*  J'"^**^  ^'^*^*^r'\ ^"""^ 

under  wWch  being  becomes  the  object  of  the  senses.  ^"S^J^^^J^rv^  teTPali.f'riS-^yl?? "c^S;^^^^^ 

It  gives  to  being  all  its  imperfections.    It  is  by  a  mix-  .  .  .  Thama  aVio  .  ,  .  Cammentariia  iUiutrtUa  ihyooa,  1562); 

ture  of  being  and  nothingness,  rather  than  by  the  g»  Wdlf.  Histoire  de  la  PhUoMphie  Mid^vaU  (Louvain); 

«A«l:.«4-;««.«    JS    «    »^^4^A««4;«1U»     ♦Uo*    a<^««a:Kl^    iu:,^^^  Farobs,  Mattere  H  Forme  en  prtaence  dee  Seteneea  modtme* 

reahzation  Of  a  potentoaUty,  that  sensible  thmgs  (Paria.  1882);  Grotk.  iimeo^te  (London,  1873):  Idem.  Ptoio 

exist.     While  for  Aristotle  matter  is  a  real  element  of  and  the  other  companume  ofSocratee  (London.  1865);  Harpeb. 

being,  for  Plato  it  is  not.   Of  Neoplatonists,  Philo  (f ol-  £{«,  ^^^P^'SK^^' ,^^' (Lo°^gP»  ^8^^?!^  J-orm.ellx. 

lowin|5  Plato  and  the  Stoics)  also  considered  matter  Sl&YliJWSo^jr^^^                SJSTiSS); 


«S8.  .        ,  ,         ,  ,  ,  hS12) ;  WxNDBLBAND.  A  Hutwy  ofPhUompki/,  tr.  Tonw  (New 

These  systems  are  mentioned  here  because  throu^  York,  1893). 
them  St.  Augustine  drew  his  knowledge  of  Greek  phi-  Francis  Aveling. 

losophy.   And  in  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  we  find  . 

the  source  of  an  important  current  of  thought  that  Matteucd,  Carlo,  physicist,  b.  at  Forli,  in  the 
ran  through  the  Middle  Ages.  He  pute  forward  at  differ-  Romagna,  21  June,  1811;  d .  at  Ardensa,  near  Leg- 
ent  times  two  views  as  to  the  nature  of  matter.  It  is  J<>™»  26  July,  1868.  He  studied  mathematics  at  the 
first,  corporeal  substance  in  a  chaotic  state;  second,  University  of  Bologna,  receivmg  his  doctorate  m  1829. 
an  dement  of  complete  indetermination,  approaching  "^^^^  ^®  '^^^^  ^  *^®  P*™  Ecole  Polytechnique  for  two 
to  the  11^  69  of  Plato.  St.  Augustine  was  not  directly  X®^"  as  a  foreign  student.  In  1831  he  returned  to 
acquainted  with  the  works  of  Aristotle,  yet  he  seems  '  O"'  ^^^  be^n  to  expenment  in  physics.  In  takmg 
to  have  approached  very  closely  to  this  thought  (prob-  "P  ^^e  Voltaic  pile  he  took  sides  agamst  Volta's  con- 
ably  throurfi  the  Latin  writings  of  the  Neoplatonists)  ^^t.  theory  of  electricity.  He  remained  at  Florence 
in  certain  passages  of  the  "Confessions'*^  (cf.  Lib.  ^^^  ^  father's  dea^  in  1834,  when  he  went  to 
XIII,  V.  and  xxxiii):  "For  the  changeableness  of  Ravenna  and  later  to  Pisa.  His  study  of  the  Voltaic 
chaigeaole  things  is  capable  of  all  those  forms  to  battery  led  hun  to  announce  the  law  that  the  decom- 
which  the  changeable  are  changed.  And  what  is  this?  position  in  the  electrolytic  cell  corresponds  to  the  work 
Is  it  soul?  Or  body?  If  it  could  be  said: 'Nothing:  developed  m  the  elements  of  the  pile.  From  the  ex- 
something  that  is  and  is  not',  that  would  I  say.".  .  .  temal  effect  it  became  possible  to  calculate  the  mate- 
"  For  from  nothing  they  were  made  by  Thee,  yet  not  "al  used  up  m  the  pile.  In  1837  he  was  invited  by  his 
of  Thee:  nOr  of  anything^ not  Thine,  or  which  was  be-  ^«?end  Buoninsegni,  president  of  the  Ravenna  Hos- 
fore,  but  of  concreated  matter,  because  Thou  didst  P^^^  *^  ^K®  charge  of  its  chemical  laboratory  and  at 
create  its  informity  without  any  interposition  of  *^®  ^™®  ^^^  assume  the  title  and  rank  of  professor 
time."  St.  Augustine  does  not  teach  the  dependence  ^^  physics  at  the  college.  There  he  did  most  excellent 
of  quantity  upon  matter;  and  he  admits  a  quasi-  '^ork  and  soon  became  famous.  Arago,  hearing  of  the 
matter  in  the  angels.  Moreover,  his  doctrine  of  the  vacancy  m  the  chair  of  physics  at  the  University  of 
raiionea  semtnalea  (of  Stoical  origm),  which  found  ?«»»  wrote  to  Humboldt  asking  him  to  recommend 
many  adherents  among  later  scholastics,  clearly  as-  Matteucci  to  the  Grand-Duke  of  Tus^ny.  This  appb- 
signs  to  matter  something  more  than  the  character  of  f^^^on  was  succe^f ul  and  there  at  Pisa  he  continued 
pure  potentiaUty  attributed  to  it  by  St.  Thomas.  It  ^l^  researches.  Beginning  with  Arago  sand  Faraday  s 
may  be  noted  that  Albert  the  Great,  the  predecessor  discovenes  he  developed  by  mgenious  expenments  our 
of  St.  Thomas,  also  taught  this  doctrine  and,  further,  knowledge  of  electro-statics,  electro^ynami<»,  in- 
was  of  the  opinion  that  the  angeUc  "  forms ''  must  be  ^^<^  currents,  and  the  like,  but  his  greatest  achieve- 
held  to  have  AfundamerUum,  or  ground  of  differentia-  ^e?^  howeverwere  m  the  field  of  electro-physiology, 
tion,  analogous  to  matter  in  corporeal  beings.  ""^J?  frogs,  torpedoes,  and  the  like. 

FoUowing  St.  Augustine,  Alexander  of  Hales  and  ^  H®  7^^  ^^^o  successful  as  a  politician  In  1848 
St.  Bonaventure,  with  the  Franciscan  School  a£  a  Commissioner  of  Tuscany  to  Charles  Albert ;  sent  to 
whole,  teach  that  matter  is  one  of  the  intrinsic  ele-  Frankfort  to  plead  the  <»use  of  his  countr>'  before  the 
ments  of  all  creatures.  Matter  and  form  together  are  German  Assembly;  1849  m  Pisa,  director  of  the  tele- 
the  principles  of  individuation  for  St.  Bonaventure.  graphs  of  Tuscany;  1859  provisional  representative  of 
Duns  Scotus  is  more  characteristicaUy  subtle  on  the  Tuscany  at  Tunn,  and  then  sent  to  Pans  with  Peruzzi 
point,  wWch  is  a  capital  one  in  his  synthesis.  Matter  and  NenCorsmi  to  plead  the  annexation  of  Piedmont ; 
is  to  be  distinguished  as:  (a)  Materia  pHrno  pnma,  the  J^,9  Inspector-General  of  the  te^graph  Imes  of  the 
universalized  indeterminate  element  of  contingent  be-  J^^^^n  Kmgdpm.  Senator  at  the  Tuscan  Assembly  m 
ings.  This  has  real  and  numerical  unity,  (b)  Materia  1848,  and  again  in  the  Italian  Senate  in  1860;  Minister 
9ecundo  prima,  united  with  "form"  and  quantified,  of  Pubhc Instruction,  1862,  m  the  cabinet  of  Rattasw 
(c)  Materia  tertio  prima,  subject  of  accidental  change  P^  won  the  Copley  medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
in  existing  bodies.  For  Scotus,  who  acknowledges  his  ii<^°.^o?»  »?«  was  made  corresponding  member  of  t.he 
indebtedness  to  Avicebron  for  the  doctrine  (De  rerum  ^^^  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1844  He  published  a 
princip.,  Q.  viii,  a.  4),  Materia  pHmo  prima  is  homoge-  «^^  "^^^K^^  English,  French,  and  Italian  journals  of 
neous  in  att  creatures  without  exception.  His  system  science  His  larger  works  were:  "Leaiom  difisica 
is  dualistic.  Among  later  notable  scholastics  Suarez  (J^^  ^j  P^^a,  1858) ;  I««oni  sui  fenomeni  fisico- 
may  be  cited  as  attributing  an  existence  to  primordial  chimici  dei  corpi  viventi  (2nd  ed.,  Pi^,  1846) ;  Ma- 
matter.  This  is  a  logical  consequence  of  his  doctrine  ?)"?le  di  telegrafia  elettnca  (2nd  ed,  Pisa,  1851); 
that  no  real  distinction  is  to  be  admitted  between  "Coure  special  sur  1  induction  lemagn^t^^ 
essence  and  existence  (q.  v.).  God  could,  he  teaches,  *T,. '  ^^S*  z^^*"^'  Jo^  '  "^^^tT^s  sur  1  instruction 
"preserve  matter  without  a  form  as  He  can  a  foni(  publique"  (Pans,  1864);  "Traits  d^  ph6nom^nes 
without  matter"  (Disput.  Metaph.,  xv,  sec.  9).    In  his  electro-physiolo^ques  des  ammaux    (Pans,  1844). 

^.^:«;»n    «l«^    ^..««4:<;^  «»o4^4^».  .«I  i^Jl»^.  ««.«. , Bianchi,  Carlo  Matteucci  e  Vltaluz  del  euo  tempo  (Rome. 

opmion,  also,  quantified  matter  no  longer  appears  as  1874).  a^^«,  Endchpedia  ludiana  (Turin.  1882). 
the  principle  of  individuation.   A  considerable  number  William  Fox. 

of  theologians  and  philosophers  have  professed  his 

doctrine  upon  both  tnese  points.  Matthew,  Saint,  Apostle  and  Evanoelibt, — ^The 

Albbrtub  Magnus.  Opera  (Lyom,  '"'^-   ^ — 'amdbr  or  name  Matthew  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  MatUjaf 


ST.  MATTHKW 
nifiVAKKi  TOANrEBro  barbiebi  (il  gitercino),  the 


R  1- 


MATTHEW 


67 


UATTHEW 


being  shortened  to  Mattai  in  post-Biblical  Hebrew. 
In  Greek  it  is  sometimes  spelled  yiae$atos^  B  D,  and 
sometimes  Mar^aibf,  CEKL,  but  grammarians  do  not 
agree  as  to  which  oi  the  two  S|)elling8  is  the  original. 
Matthew  is  spoken  of  five  times  in  the  New  Testament; 
first  in  Matt.,  ix,  9,  when^  called  by  Jesus  to  follow 
Him,  and  then  four  times  in  the  list  of  the  Apostles, 
where  he  is  mentioned  in  the  seventh  (Luke,  vi,  15, 
and  Mark,  iii,  18),  and  a^in  in  the  eighth  place  (MAtt., 
z,  3,  and  Acts,  i,  13).  The  man  designated  in  Matt., 
ix,  9,  as  ''sitting  in  the  custom  house",  and  "named 
Matthew"  is  the  same  as  Levi,  recorded  in  Mark,  ii, 
14,  and  Luke,  v,  27,  as  "  sitting  at  the  receipt  of  cus- 
tom " .  The  account  in  the  three  Synoptics  is  identical, 
the  vocation  of  Matthew-Levi  bein^  alluded  to  in  the 
same  terms.  Hence  Levi  was  the  original  name  of  the 
man  who  was  subsequently  called  Matthew;  the 
Ma9$atbi  \eY6ftMPos  of  Matt.,  ix,  9,  would  indicate  this. 
The  fact  of  one  man  having  two  names  is  of  frequent 
occurrence'  among  the  Jews.  It  is  true  that  the  same 
person  usti^y  bears  a  Hebrew  name  such  as ''  Shaotil " 
and  a  Greek  name,  IlowXof .  However,  we  have  also 
examples  of  individuals  with  two  Hebrew  names  as, 
for  instance,  Joeeph-Caiphas,  Simon-Cephas,  etc.  It 
is  probable  that  Mattija,  "gift  of  laveh",  was  the 
name  conferred  upon  the  tax-gatherer  by  Jesus  Christ 
when  He  called  mm  to  the  Apostolate,  and  by  it  he 
was  thenceforth  known  among  his  Christian  brethren, 
Levi  being  his  original  name.  Matthew,  the  son  ot 
Alpheus  (Mark,  ii,  14)  was  a  GaUlean,  although  Euse- 
bius  informs  us  that  he  was  a  Syrian.  As  tax-gatherer 
at  Caphamaum.  he  collected  custom-duties  for  Herod 
Antipas  and,  although  a  Jew,  was  despised  by  the 
Pharisees,  who  hated  all  publicans.  When  summoned 
by  Jesus,  Biatthew  arose  and  followed  Him  and  teo^;. 
dered  Him  a  feast  in  his  house,  where  tax-gatheifera  an^ 
sinners  sat  at  table  with  Christ  and  His  disciple^.  ^«b  * 
drew  forth  a  protest  from  the  Pharisees  wnoi^  Jesus 
rebuked  in  these  consoling  words:  "  I  came  noir  to  call 
the  just,  but  sinners."  No  further  allusion  is  i|iade  .^o. 
Matthew  in  the  Gospels,  except  in  the  list  of  thf  ApcMP; . 
ties.  As  a  disciple  and  an  Apostle  he  thencef cAih  fpl- " 
lowed  Christ,  accompanying  Him  up  to  the  iimtf'of 
His  Passion  and^  in  Galilee,  was  one  of  the  wifnesses'" 
of  His  Resurrection.  He  was  also  amongst  the  Apos- 
tles who  were  present  at  the  Ascension,  and  afterwards 
withdrew  to  an  upper  chamber,  in  Jerusalem,  praying 
in  union  with  Mary,  the  Mother  of  Jesus,  and  with  his 
brethren  (Acts,  i,  10  and  14). 

Of  Matthew's  subsequent  career  we  have  only  inac- 
curate or  legendary  data.  St.  Irenseus  tells  us  that 
Matthew  preached  the  Gospel  among  the  Hebrews, 
St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  claiming  that  he  did  this  for 
fifteen  years,  and  Eusebius  maintains  that,  before  go- 
ing into  other  countries,  he  gave  them  his  Gospel  in 
the  mother  tongue.  Ancient  writers  are  not  as  one  as 
to  the  countries  evangeb'zed  by  Matthew,  but  almost 
all  mention  Ethiopia  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
(not  Ethiopia  in  Atrica),  and  some  Persia  and  the  king- 
dom of  the  Parthians,  Macedonia,  and  Syria.  Accord- 
ing to  Heracleon,  who  b  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
ax^ria,  Matthew  did  not  die  a  martyr,  but  this  opinion 
conflicts  with  all  other  ancient  testimony.  Let  us  add, 
however,  that  the  account  of  his  martyrdom  in  the 
apocryphal  Greek  writings  entitled  "Martyrium  S. 
Matthsei  in  Ponto"  and  published  by  Bonnet,  "Acta 
apostolorum  apocrypha"  (Leipzig,  1898),  is  absolutely 
devoid  of  historic  value.  Lipsius  holds  that  this 
"  Martjrriuih  S.  Matthiei ",  which  contains  traces  of  ' 
Gnosticism,  must  have  been  published  in  the  third 
century.  There  is  a  disagreement  as  to  the  place  of 
St.  Matthew's  martyrdom  and  the  kind  of  torture 
inflicted  on  him,  therefore  it  is  not  known  whether 
he  was  burned,  stoned,  or  beheaded.  The  Roman 
Martyrology  simply  says:  "S.  Matthaei,  qui  in  JSthio- 
pia  preedicans  martyrium  passusest".  Various  writ- 
\Hip  that  %r^  qgw  OQ09id«red  apocryphal,  have  been 


attributed  to  St.  Matthew.  In  the  "  Evangelia  apo- 
crypha" (Leipzig,  1876),  Tisohendorf  reproducea  a 
Latm  document  entitled:  "De  Grtu  beats  Marise  et 
infantia  Salvatoris",  supposedly  written  in  Hebrew 
by  St.  Matthew  the  Evangelist,  and  translated  into 
Latin  by  Jerome,  the  priest.  It  is  an  abridged  adapta- 
tion of  the  "  Protoevangelium  "  of  St.  James,  which  was 
a  Greek  apocryphal  of  the  second  century.  This 
pseudo-Matthew  dates  from  the  middle  or  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century,  and  M.  Aman  has  just  given  us  a 
new  edition  of  it:  "Le  Prot^vangile  de  Jacques  et 
ses  remaniements  latins"  (Paris,  1910).  The  Latin 
Church  celebrates  the  feast  of  St.  Matthew  on  21 
September,  and  the  Greek  Chureh  on  16  November. 
St.  Matthew  is  represented  under  the  symbol  of  a 
winged  man,  carrying  in  his  hand  a  lance  as  a  char- 
acteristic emblem. 

£.  Jacquieb. 

Matthew,  Saint,  Gospel  of. — ^I.  CANONicrrr. — 
The  earliest  Christian  communities  looked  upon  the 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  Sacred  Scripture,  and 
read  them  at  their  religious  assemblies.  That  the  (jros- 
pels,  which  contained  tne  words  of  Christ  and  the  nar- 
rative of  His  life,  soon  enjoyed  the  same  authority  as 
the  Old  Testament,  is  made  clear  by  Hegesippus 
(Eusebius,  "  Hist,  eccl.",  IV,  xxii,  3),  who  tells  us  that 
in  every  city  the  Christians  were  faithful  to  the  teach- 
ings of  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  Lord.  A  book 
was  acknowledged  as  canonical  when  the  Church  re- 
garded it  as  Apostolic,  and  had  it  read  at  her  assem- 
blies. Hence,  to  establish  the  canonicity  of  the  Gos- 
pel according  to  St.  Matthew,  we  must  investigate 
primitive"  ClfffStlAn  tradition  for  the  use  that  was 
!m^6*i>f  ^Is  document,  and  for  indications  proving 
.  ihfit,  itjWaaj^arled  as  Scripture  in  the  same  manner 
'  to)the  Jtobtis  o9  t^e  Old  Testament. 

The  first  traceslthat  we  find  of  it  are  not  indubitable, 
because  post-Apcptolic  writers  quoted  the  texts  with  a 
:  eettaiji  frecdoni,  |md  principally  because  it  is  difficult 
,to  say^w^jLher  the  passages  thus  quoted  were  taken 
from  oral  'trii^lt^on  or  from  a  written  Gospel.  The 
first  Christid(h  document  whose  date  can  be  fixed  with 
compaWflWTwrfainty  (96-98),  is  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Clement  to  the  Corinthians.  It  contains  sayings  of 
the  Lord  which  closely  resemble  those  recorded  in  the 
First  Gospel  (Clement,  xvi,  17=Matt.,  xi,  29;  Clem., 
xxiv,  6=Matt.,  xiii,  3),  but  it  is  possible  that  they  are 
derived  from  Apostolic  preaching,  as,  in  chapter  xiii, 
2,  we  find  a  mixture  of  sentences  from  Matthew,  Luke, 
and  an  unknown  source.  Again,  we  note  a  similar 
commingling  of  E  van^lical  texts  elsewhere  in  the  same 
Epistle  of  Clement,  in  the  Doctrine  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp,  and  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  Whether  these  texts  were  thus  combined 
in  oral  tradition  or  emanated  from  a  collection  of 
Christ's  utterances,  we  are  unable  to  say. — ^The  Epistles 
of  St.  Ignatius  (martyred  110-17)  contain  no  literal 
(quotation  from  the  Holy  Books;  nevertheless,  St.  Igna- 
tius borrowed  expressions  and  some  sentences  from 
Matthew  ("Ad  Polyc",  ii,  2=Matt.,  x,  16;  "Eph.", 
xiv,  2=Matt.,  xii,  33,  etc.).  In  his  "Epistle  to  the 
Philadelphians"  (v,  12),  he  speaks  of  the  Gospel  in 
which  he  takes  refuge  as  in  the  Flesh  of  Jesus;  conse- 
quently, he  had  an  Evangelical  collection  which  he  re- 
garded as  Sacred  Writ,  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  formed  part  of  it. — In  the  Epis- 
tle of  St.  Polycarp  (110-17),  we  find  various  passages 
from  St.  Matthew  quoted  literally  (xii,  3=Matt.,  v,44; 
vii,  2=Matt.,  xxvi,  41,  etc.). — ^The  Doctrine  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  contains  sixty-six  passages  that  recall 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew;  some  of  them  are  literal  quota- 
tions (viii,  2=Matt.,  vi,  7-13;  vii,  l=Matt.,  xxviii,  19; 
xi,  7=Matt.,  xii,  31,  etc.). — In  the  so-called  Epistle  of 
Barnabas  (117-30),  we  find  a  passage  from  St.  Mat- 
thew (xxii,  14).  introduced  by  the  scriptural  formula. 
^9  yiyparrm^  woich  proves  that  the  authpr  C9n9id?reg 


58 


the  Gospel  of  Matthew  equal  in  point  of  authority  to 
the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament. — ^The  "Shepherd 
of  Hennas"  has  several  passages  whieh  bear  close  re- 
semblance to  passages  of  Matthew,  but  not  a  single 
literal  Quotation  from  it. — In  his  ''Dialogue"  (zcix, 
8),  St.  Justin  quotes,  almost  literallv,  the  prayer  of 
Christ  in  the  Garden  of  Olives,  in  Matthew,  xxvi,  39, 40. 

A  great  number  of  passages  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Justin  recall  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  prove  that  he 
ranked  it  among  the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles  which,  he 
said,  were  calkS  Gospels  (I  Apol.,  Ixvi),  were  read  in 
the  services  of  the  Church  (ibid.,  Ixvii),  and  were  con- 
sequent!]^ regarded  as  Scripture. — In  his  "  L^atio  pro 
chnstianis",  xii,  11,  Athenagoras  (117)  quotes  almost 
literally  sentences  taken  from  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  (Matt.,  v,  44). — ^Theophilus  of  Antioch  (Ad 
Autol.,  Ill,  xiii-xiv)  quotes  a  passage  from  Matthew 
(v,  28,  32),  and,  according  to  St.  .^rome  (In  Matt. 
Prol.),  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew.— We  find  in  the  Testaments  of  tne  Twelve  Pa- 
triarchs— drawn  up,  according  to  some  critics,  about 
the  middle  of  the  second  century — numerous  passages 
that  closely  resemble  the  Gkwpel  of  Matthew  (Test. 
Gad,  V,  3;  vi,  6;  v,  7=Matt.,  zviii,  15, 35;  Test.  Joe.,  i, 
5,  6=Matt.,  zxv,  35,  36,  etc.),  but  Dr.  Charles  main- 
tains that  the  Testaments  were  written  in  Hebrew  in 
the  first  century  before  Jesus  Christ,  and  translated 
into  Greek  towards  the  middle  of  the  same  century.  In 
this  event,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  would  depend  upon 
the  Testaments  ana  not  the  Testaments  upon  the  (jos- 
pel.  The  question  is  not  yet  settled,  but  it  seems  to 
us  that  there  is  a  gmter  probability  that  the  Testa- 
ments, at  least  in  tneir  Greek  version,  are  of  later  date 
than  ike  Gosi)el  of  Matthew;  ihey  certainly  received 
numerous  Christian  additions. — ^llie  Greek  text  of  the 
Clementine  Homilies  contains  some  quotations  from 
Matthew  (Hom.  iii,  52= Matt.,  xv,  13);  in  Hom. 
xviii,  15,  the  quotation  from  Matt.,  xiii,  35,  is  literaL — 
Passages  which  suggest  the  (jospel  of  Matthew  might 
be  quoted  from  heretical  writings  of  the  second  cen- 
tury and  from  apocryphal  gospels — ^the  Gospel  of 
Peter,  the  Protoevangeuum  of  James,  etc.,  in  which 
the  narratives,  to  a  considerable  extent,  are  derived 
from  the  Gospel  of  Matthew. — ^Tatian  incorporated 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  his  "  Diatesseron";  we  shall 
quote  below  the  testimonie^of  Papias  and  St.  Irenseus. 
For  the  latter,  the  (jospel  of  Matthew,  from  which  he 
quotes  nimierous  passages,  was  one  of  the  four  that 
constituted  the  quadriiorm  Gospel  dominated  by  a 
single  spirit. — ^Tertullian  (Adv.  Marc.,  IV,  ii)  asserts, 
that  the  *' Instrumentum  evan^iicum"  was  com- 
posed by  the  Apostles,  and  mentions  Matthew  as  the 
author  of  a  Gospel  (Die  came  Christi,  xii).— Clement 
of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  Ill,  xiii)  speaks  of  the  four 
Gospels  that  have  been  transmitted,  and  Quotes  over 
three  himdred  passages  from  the  Ckispel  ot  Matthew, 
which  he  introduces  by  the  formula,  iw  M  rf  jmrd 
MoMoibr  cAbtyc^^'  or  by  ^>nfflp  6  K&ptot, 

It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  our  inquiry  further. 
About  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  the  Gospel  of 
Mattl^w  was  received  by  the  whole  Christian  Church 
as  a  Divinely  inspired  docimient,  and  consequently  as 
canonical.  The  testimony  of  Origen  C'ln  Matt.", 
quoted  by  Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  III.  xxv.  4),  of 
£)usebius  (op.  cit.,  Ill,  xxiv,  5;  xxv,  1),  ana  of  St. 
Jerome  ("De  Viris  111.*',  iii,  "Prolog,  in  Matt.")  are 
explicit  in  this  respect.  It  might  be  added  that  this 
Grospel  is  found  m  the  most  ancient  versions:  Old 
Latm,  Syriac,  and  Egyptian.  Finally,  it  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Canon 
of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (363)  and  in  that  of  St. 
Athanasius  (326-73),  and  very  probably  it  was  in  the 
last  part  of  the  Muratorian  Canon.  Furthermore,  the 
canonicity  of  the  Grospel  of  St.  Matthew  is  accepted  by 
the  entire  Christian  world. 

II.   AUTHBNnCITT    OF    THB     FiBflT    GOBPBL. — ITm 

question  of  wtbentioity  aa^umes  an  altogether  special 


aspect  in  regard  to  the  First  GospeL  The  early  Chris- 
tian writers  assert  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  a  Gospel  in 
Hsbrew;  this  Hebrew  Gospel  has,  however,  entirely 
disappeared,  and  the  Go^)el  which  we  have,  and  from 
which  eodenastical  writers  borrow  quotations  as  com- 
ing from  the  Goqwl  of  Matthew,  is  in  Greek.  What 
connexion  is  there  between  this  Hebrew  Gospel  and 
this  Greek  Gospel,  both  of  which  tradition  ascribes  to 
St.  Matthew?  Such  is  the  problem  that  presents  itself 
for  solution.    Let  us  first  examine  the  (acts. 

A.  TesHmony  of  TradUion. — ^According  to  Eusebius 
(Hist.  eccL.  HI,  xxxix,  16),  Papias  said  that  Matthew 
collected  (rv9€Td(aTo;  or,  according  to  two  manu- 
scripts, ^vvrypd^aro,  composed)  r&  \6yuL  (the  oracles 
or  maxims  of  Jesus)  in  the  Hebrew  (Aramaic)  lan- 
guage, and  that  each  one  translated  them  as  best  he 
could. 

Three  questions  arise  in  regard  to  this  testimony  of 
Papias  on  Matthew:  (1)  What  does  the  word  Xbyia 
si^iify?  Does  it  mean  only  detached  sentences  or 
sentences  incorporated  in  a  narrative,  that  is  to  say. 
a  (joi^l  such  as  that  of  St.  Matthew?  Among  classical 
writera,  \6y»w,  the  diminutive  of  X^ot,  signifies  the 
"answer  of  oracles",  a  "prophecy";  in  the  Septus- 
idnt  and  in  Philo,  "  oracles  of  God  "  (rd  Hn  X^ia,  the 
Ten  Commandments).  It  sometimes  has  a  broader 
meaning  and  seems  to  include  both  facts  and  sayings. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  significatitxi  of  the  word 
X^cor  is  doubtful,  and  if,  strictly  speaking,  it  may  be 
daimed  to  indicate  teachings  and  narratives,  the 
meaning  "oracles"  is  the  more  natural.  However, 
writero  contemporary  with  Papias — e.  g.  St.  Clement 
of  Rome  (Ad  Cor.,  liu),  St.  Irensus  (Adv.  Hsr.,  I,  viii. 
2),  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  I,  cccxcii),  and 
Origen  (I>e  Prindp.,  IV,  xi) — have  used  it  to  designate 
facts  and  sayings.  The  work  of  Papias  was  entitled 
"  Exposition  of  the  Oracles  [Xo7(My]  ot  the  Lord  ",  and 
it  also  contained  narratives  (Eusebius,  "  Hist,  eod.", 
Ill,  xxxix,  9).  On  the  other  hand,  speaking  of  the 
Gospel  of  Mark,  Papias  says  that  tnis  Evangelist 
wrote  all  that  Cfajtist  had  said  and  done,  but  adds  that 
he  established  no  connexion  between  the  Lord's  say- 
ings Mrra^i9  rwr  Kvptax&w  "SoyiMp).  We  may  believ'e 
that  nere  Xoyltfp  comprises  all  that  Christ  said  and  did. 
Nevertheless,  it  would  seem  that,  if  the  two  passages 
on  Mark  and  Matthew  followed  each  other  in  Papias  as 
in  Eusebius,  the  author  intended  to  emphasise  a  differ- 
ence between  them,  by  implying  that  Mark  recorded 
the  Lord's  words  and  deeds  and  Matthew  chronicled 
His  discourses.  The  question  is  still  unsolved;  it  is, 
however,  possible  that,  in  Papias,  the  term  Xiyta 
means  deeds  and  teachm^. 

(2)  Second,  does  Papias  refer  to  oral  or  written 
translations  of  Matthew,  when  he  says  that  each  one 
transbited  the  sayings  "as  best  he  could"?  As  there 
is  nowhere  any  allusion  to  numerous  Greek  transla- 
tions of  the  Logia  of  Matthew,  it  is  probable  that 
Papias  speaks  here  of  the  oral  translations  made  at 
Christian  meetings,  similar  to  the  extemporaneous 
translations  of  the  Old  Testament  made  in  the  syna- 
gogues. This  would  explain  why  Papias  mentions 
that  each  one  (each  reader)  translated  "as  best  he 
could". 

(3)  Finally,  were  the  Logia  of  Matthew  and  the 
Gospel  to  which  ecclesiastical  writers  refer  written  in 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic?  Both  hypotheses  are  held. 
Papias  says  that  Matthew  wrote  the  Logia  in  the 
Hebrew  (^fipatSi)  language;  St.  Irenaeus  and  Eusebius 
maintain  that  he  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  Hebrews  in 
their  national  language,  and  the  same  assertion  is 
found  in  several  writers.  Matthew  would,  therefore, 
seem  to  have  written  in  modernised  Hebrew,  the  lan- 
guage then  used  by  the  scribes  for  teaching.  But,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  national  language  of  the  Jews 
was  Aramaic,  and  when,  in  the  New  Testament,  there 
is  mention  of  the  Hebrew  language  (ifipatt  dcdXcjrrot). 

it  19  Ar»a)aic  th»t  iff  implied.    Hence,  the  irfor^oaia 


liATTHKW 


59 


HATTHIW 


writen  may  aDude  to  the  Aramaic  and  not  to  the 
Hebrew.  Besides,  as  thev  assert,  the  Apostle  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  to  help  popular  teaching.  To  be 
understood  by  his  readers  who  spoke  Aramaic,  he 
would  have  had  to  reproduce  the  original  catechesis 
in  this  language,  and  it  cannot  be  imagined  why*,  or 
for  whom,  he  should  have  taken  the  trouble  to  write  it 
in  Hebrew,  when  it  would  have  had  to  be  translated 
thenoe  into  Aramaic  for  use  in  religious  services. 
Moreover,  Eusebius  (Hist.  eccL,  III,  xxiv,  6)  tells  us 
that  the  Ga^)el  of  Matthew  was  a  reproduction  of  his 
preaching^  and  this,  we  know,  was  in  Aramaic.  An 
investigation  of  the  Semitic  idioms  observed  in  the 
Gospel  does  not  {)ermit  us  to  conclude  as  to  whether 
the  originai  was  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  as  the  two 
languages  are  so  closely  related.  Besides,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  greater  part  of  these  Semitisms 
simply  reproduce  collo<)uial  Greek  and  are  not  of 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic  origin.  However,  we  believe  the 
second  hypothesis  to  be  the  more  prooable,  viis.,  that 
Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Aramaic. 

Let  us  now  recall  the  testimonv  of  the  other  eccle- 
siastical writera  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  St. 
Irensus  (Adv.  Hser.,  IIL  i,  2)  affirms  that  Matthew 
published  among  the  Hebrews  a  Gospel  which  he 
wrote  in  their  own  language.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  V. 
X,  3)  says  that,  in  India,  Pantsenus  foimd  the  Gospel 
according  to  St.  Matthew  written  in  the  Hebrew  Ian- 
gua^,  the  Apostle  Bartholomew  having  left  it  there. 
Again,  in  his  "Hist,  eccl."  (VT.  xxv,  3,  4),  Eusebius 
tells  us  that  Grigen,  in  his  first  book  on  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew,  states  that  he  has  learned  from  tradition 
that  the  First  Gospel  was  written  by  Matthew,  who, 
having  composed  it  in  Hebrew,  published  it  for  the 
converts  from  Judaism.  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist. 
eccl.,  Ill,  xxiv,  6),  Matthew  preached  first  to  the 
Hebrews  and^  when  obliged  to  ^o  to  other  countries, 

fave  them  his  Gospel  written  m  his  native  tongue, 
t.  Jerome  has  repeatedly  declared  that  Matthew  wrote 
his  Gospel  in  Hebrew  ^*'Ad  Damasum",  xx;  "Ad 
Hedib.  ,  iv),  but  says  tnat  it  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty who  trandated  it  into  Greek.  St.  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Epiphanius,  St. 
John  Chrysostom,  St.  Augustine,  etc.,  and  all  the  com- 
mentators of  the  Middle  Ages  repeat  that  Matthew 
wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew.  Erasmus  was  the  first  to 
express  doubts  on  this  subject:  "It  does  not  seem 
probable  to  me  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  since 
no  one  testifies  that  he  has  seen  any  trace  of  such  a 
volume."  This  is  not  accurate,  as  St.  Jerome  uses 
Matthew's  Hebrew  text  several  times  to  solve  diffi- 
culties of  interpretation,  which  proves  that  he  had  it 
at  hand.  Pantsenus  also  had  it,  as,  according  to  St. 
Jerome  ("De  Viris  111.",  xxxvi),  ne  brought  it  back  to 
Alexandria.  However,  the  testimony  of  Pantsenus  is 
onlv  second-hand,  and  that  of  Jerome  remains  rather 
ambiguous,  since  m  neither  case  is  it  positively  known 
that  the  writer  did  not  mistake  the  Gospel  according 
to  the  Hebrews  (written  of  course  in  Hebrew)  for  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  However,  all  eccle- 
siastical writers  assert  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel 
in  Hebrew,  and,  by  quoting  the  Greek  Gospel  and 
ascribing  it  to  Matthew,  thereby  affirm  it  to  be  a  trans- 
lation oi  the  Hebrew  Gospel. 

B.  Examinatum  of  the  Greek  Goapd  of  St,  Matthew, — 
Our  chief  object  is  to  ascertain  whether  the  character- 
istics of  the  Greek  Gospel  indicate  that  it  is  a  trans- 
lation from  the  Aramaic,  or  that  it  is  an  original 
document;  but,  that  we  may  not  have  to  revert  to  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew^  we  shall  here 
treat  them  in  fuU. 

(1)  The  Language  of  the  Gospel. — St.  Matthew  used 
about  1475  words,  137  of  which  are  «iro|  'Keydfupa 
(woids  used  bv  him  alone  of  all  the  New  Testament 
writers).  Of  tnese  latter  76  are  classical;  21  are  found 
in  the  Septuagint;  15  (/SorToX©7€ir,  fiuurr-fft,  eOpovxli^iPt 
etc.)  were  introduced  for  the  first  time  by  Matthew,  or 


at  least  he  was  the  first  writer  in  whom  they  were  dis- 
covered; 8  words  (d4ke9p*&¥,  ya/d^nw,  etc.)  were  em- 
ployed for  the  first  time  by  Matthew  and  Mark,  and  15 
others  (ixx^peaBaif  hriadaios  etc.)  b^  Matthew  and 
another  New  Testament  writer.  It  is  probable  that, 
at  the  time  of  the  Evangelist,  all  these  words  were  in 
current  use.  Matthew's  Gospel  contains  many  pecul* 
iar  expressions  which  help  to  give  decided  colour  to 
his  style.  Thus,  he  employs  thirty-four  times  the 
expression  ^aaiX€ia  tQv  o^papQp;  this  is  never  found 
in  Mark  and  Luke,  who,  in  parallel  passages,  replace  it 
b  V  fiofft^Mla  Tm>  6€odf  whicn  also  occura  four  times  in 
Matthew.  We  must  likewise  note  the  expressions: 
6  war^p  6  iwovpdptot^  6  iv  rott  odpapoit,  vvvrfKitUL  rod 
alQvotf  irvvalpup  XbyoPf  elvttp  r«  icard  tcpoi.  /lixP^  ^^ 
ff'^fupovj  roiijceu  ^t,  Aawtp^  ip  ixttptf  rf  jcatpy,  4yelpea6at 
dr6f  etc.  The  same  terms  often  recur:  r6T€  (90  times), 
dwb  rSre,  ital  l5o6  etc.  He  adopts  the  Greek  form 
'lflpoff6\vfUL  for  Jerusalem,  and  not  'IiypotwdXi^M,  which 
he  uses  but  once.  He  has  a  predilection  for  the  prepo- 
sition dr6,  using  it  even  when  Mark  and  Luke  use  ix, 
and  for  the  expression  vl6s  Aavt9,  Moreover,  Matthew 
is  fond  of  repeating  a  p)irase  or  a  special  construction 
several  times  within  quite  a  short  interval  (cf.  ii, 
1,  13,  and  19;  iv,  12,  18,  and  v,  2;  viii,  2-3  and  28; 
ix,  26  and  31;  xiii,  44,  45,  and  47,  etc.).  Quotations 
from  the  Old  Testament  are  variously  introduced,  as: 
otran,  jca^r  y&ypawrai,  fmi,  or  Swus,  rXnipta&y  rb  ^ifB^p 
inrh  Kvplov  Btk  roO  wpQ^ijTov^  etc.  These  peculiarities 
of  language,  especially  the  repetition  oif  the  same 
words  and  expressions,  would  indicate  that  the  Greek 
Gospel  was  an  original  rather  than  a  translation,  and 
this  is  confirmed  by  the  paronomasia  (parrol^ttp, 
woKvXoylai  Kinpovrai  koI  tf^orrai,  etc.),  which  ought  not 
to  have  oeen  found  in  the  Aramaic,  by  the  employ- 
ment of  the  genitive  absolute,  and,  above  all,  by  the 
linking  of  clauses  through  the  use  of  m^v  .  .  .  S^,  a 
construction  that  is  peculiarly  Greek.  However,  let 
us  observe  that  these  various  characteristics  prove 
merelv  that  the  writer  was  thoroughly  conversant 
with  ms  language,  and  that  he  translated  his  text 
rather  freely.  Besides,  these  same  characteristics  are 
noticeable  in. Christ's  sayings,  as  well  as  in  the  nam^ 
tives,  and,  as  these  utterances  were  made  in  Aramaic, 
they  were  consequently  translated ;  thus,  the  const^o- 
tion  iUp  ,  .  ,  hi  (except  in  one  instance)  and  all  the 
examples  of  paronomasia  occur  in  discourses  of  Christ. 
The  fact  that  the  ^nitive  absolute  is  used  mainly  in 
the  narrative  portions,  only  denotes  that  the  latter 
were  more  freely  translated;  besides,  Hebrew  pos- 
sesses an  analogous  grammatical  construction.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  fair  number  of  Hebraisms  are  noticed 
in  Matthew's  Gospel  (o6ir  iylptacxtp  a^ifp,  6tto\oy^ei 
ip  ifutl,  €l  l$M>rir,  tI  ijfjLtp  ical  ecol,  etc.),  which  favour 
the  belief  that  the  original  was  Aramaic.  Still,  it 
remains  to  be  proved  that  these  Hebraisms  are  not 
colloquial  Greek  expressions. 

(2)  General  Character  of  the  Gospel. — ^Distinct 
unity  of  plan,  an  artificial  arrangement  of  subject- 
matter,  and  a  simple,  easy  style — ^much  purer  than 
that  of  Mark — suggest  an  original  rather  than  a  trans- 
lation. When  the  First  Gospel  is  compared  with 
books  translated  from  the  Heorew,  such  as  those  of 
the  Septuagint,  a  marked  difference  is  at  once  appax^ 
ent.  The  original  Hebrew  shines  through  every  line 
of  the  latter,  whereas,  in  the  First  Gospel  Hebraisms 
are  comparatively  rare,  and  are  merely  such  as  might 
be  looked  for  in  a  book  written  by  a  Jew  and  repro- 
ducing Jewish  teaching.  However,  these  observations 
are  not  conclusive  in  favour  of  a  Greek  original.  In 
the  first  place,  the  unity  of  style  that  prevails  through- 
out the  book,  would  retner  prove  that  we  have  a  trans- 
lation. It  is  certain  that  a  good  portion  of  the  matter 
existed  first  in  Aramaic — at  all  events,  the  sayings  of 
(}hrist,  and  thus  almost  tlu^e-quartera  of  the  Gospel. 
Consequently,  these  at  least  the  Greek  writer  has 
translated.    And,  since  no  difference  in  language  and 


IftAKHKW 


60 


MATtspew 


style  can  be  detected  between  the  savings  of  Christ 
and  the  narratives  that  are  claimed  to  have  been  com- 
posed in  Greek,  it  would  seem  that  these  latter  are 
also  translated  from  the  Aramaic.  This  conclusion  is 
based  on  the  fact  that  they  are  of  the  same  origin  as 
the  discourses.  The  unity  of  plan  and  the  artificial 
arrangement  of  subject-matter  could  as  well  have 
been  made  in  Matthew's  Aramaic  as  in  the  Greek  doc- 
ument; the  fine  Greek  construction,  the  lapidary  style, 
the  elegance  and  good  order  claimed  as  cnaracteristic 
of  the  Gospel,  are  largely  a  matter  of  opinion,  the 
proof  being  that  critics  do  not  agree  on  this  question. 
Although  tne  phraseolog^r  is  not  more  Hebraic  than  in 
the  other  Gospels,  still  it  is  not  much  less  so.  To  sum 
up,  from  the  literary  examination  of  the  Greek  Gospel 
no  certain  conclusion  can  be  drawn  against  the  exist- 
ence of  a  Hebrew  Gospel  of  which  our  First  Gospel 
would  be  a  translation;  and  inversely,  this  examina- 
tion does  not  prove  the  Greek  Gospel  to  be  a  transla- 
tion of  an  Aramaic  original. 

(3)  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament. — It  is 
claimed  that  most  of  the  quotations  from  the  Old  Tes- 
tament are  borrowed  from  the  Seotuagint,  and  that 
this  fact  proves  that  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  com- 
posed in  Ureek.  The  first  proposition  is  not  accurate, 
and,  even  if  it  were,  it  would  not  necessitate  this  con- 
clusion. Let  us  examine  the  facts.  As  established  by 
Stanton  C'The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents",  II, 
Cambridge,  1909,  p.  342),  the  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  First  Gospel  are  divided  into  two 
classes.  In  the  first  are  ranged  all  those  quotations 
the  object  of  which  is  to  show  that  the  prophecies  have 
been  realised  in  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus.  They 
are  introduced  by  the  words:  **  Now  all  this  was  done 
that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  the  Lord  spoke  by  the 
prophet,''  or  other  similar  expressions.  The  quota- 
tions of  this  class  do  not  in  general  correspond  exactly 
with  any  particular  text.  Three  among  them  (ii,  15; 
viii,  17;  xxvii,  9,  10)  are  borrowed  from  the  Hebrew; 
five  (ii,  18;.iv,  15,  16:  xii,  18-21;  xiii,  35;  xxi,  4.  5) 
bear  points  of  resemblance  to  the  Septuagint,  but 
were  not  borrowed  from  that  version.  In  the  answer 
of  the  chief  priests  and  scribes  to  Herod  (ii,  6),  the  text 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  slightly  modified,  without,  how- 
ever, conforming  either  to  the  Hebrew  or  the  Septua- 
gint. The  Prophet  Micheas  writes  (v,  2) :  *'  And  thou 
Bethlehem,  Epnrata,  art  a  little  one  among  the  thou- 
sands of  Juda";  whereas  Matthew  says  (ii,  6):  **And 
thou  Bethlehem  the  land  of  Juda  art  not  the  least  among 
the  princes  of  Jvda^\  A  single  quotation  of  this 
firat  class  (iii,  3)  conforms  to  the  Septuagint,  and 
another  (i,  23)  is  almost  conformable.  These  cjuota- 
tions  are  to  be  referred  to  t^e  first  Evangelist  himself, 
and  relate  to  facts,  principally  to  the  birth  of  Jesus  (i, 
ii),  then  to  the  mission  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  preach- 
ing of  the  Gospel  by  Jesus  in  Galilee,  the  miracles  of 
Jesus,  ete.  It  is  surprising  that  the  narratives  of  the 
Passion  and  tlie  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  very  clear  and  numerous  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament,  should  never  be  brought  into  relation 
wiUi  these  prophecies.  Many  critics,  e.  g.  Burkitt  and 
Stanton,  think  that  the  quotations  of  the  first  class 
are  borrowed  from  a  collection  of  Messianic  passages, 
Stanton  being  of  opinion  that  they^  were  accompanied 
by  the  event  that  constituted  their  realization.  This 
''catena  of  fulfilments  of  prophecv",  as  he  caUs  it,  ex- 
isted originally  in  Aramic,  but  whether  the  author  of 
the  First  Gospel  had  a  Greek  translation  of  it  is  uncer- 
tain. The  second  class  of  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  is  chiefly  composed  of  those  repeated  either 
by  the  Lord  or  by  His  interrogators.  Except  in  two 
passages,  they  are  introduced  l)y  one  of  the  formulie: 
^'It  is  written";  "As  it  is  written";  "Have  you  not 
read?  "  ''  Moses  said  ".  Where  Matthew  alone  quotes 
the  'Lord's  words,  the  quotation  is  sometimes  bor- 
rowed from  the  Septuagint  (v,  21  a,  27, 38),  or,  again,  it 
18  a  free  translation  which  we  are  unable  to  refer  to 


any  definite  text  (v,  21b,  23,  43).  In  thoae  passages 
where  Matthew  runs  parallel  with  Mark  and  Luke  or 
with  either  of  them,  all  the  quotations  save  one  (xi, 
10)  are  taken  almost  literally  from  the  Septuagint. 

(4)  Analogy  to  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke. — From  a  first  comparison  of  the  Gospel  of  Mat- 
thew with  the  two  other  Synoptic  Gospels  we  find 
(a)  that  330  verses  are  peculiar  to  it  alone;  that  it  has 
between  330  and  370  in  common  with  both  the  others, 
from  170  to  180  with  Mark's,  and  from  230  to  240  with 
Luke's;  ifi)  that  in  like  parts  the  same  ideas  are  ex- 
pressed sometimes  in  identical  and  sometimes  in  differ- 
ent terms;  that  Matthew  and  Mark  most  frequently 
use  the  same  expressions,  Matthew  seldom  agreeing 
with  Luke  against  Mark.  The  divergence  in  their  use 
of  the  same  expressions  is  in  the  number  of  a  noun  or 
the  use  of  two  different  tenses  of  the  same  verb.  The 
construction  of  sentences  is  at  times  identical  and  at 
others  different.  (7)  That  the  order  of  narrative  is,  with 
certain  exceptions  which  we  shall  later  indicate,  almost 
the  same  in  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke.  These  facts 
indicate  that  the  three  Synoptists  are  not  independent 
of  one  another.  They  borrow  their  subject-matter 
from  the  same  oral  source  or  else  from  the  same  written 
documents.  To  declare  oneself  upon  this  alterna- 
tive, it  would  be  necessary  to  treat  the  S3moptio  ques- 
tion, and  on  this  critics  have  not  yet  agreed.  We 
shall,  therefore,  restrict  ourselves  to  what  concerns  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  From  a  second  comparison  of 
tlus  Gospel  with  Mark  and  Luke  we  ascertain :  (a)  that 
Mark  is  to  be  found  almost  complete  in  Matthew,  with 
certein  divergences  which  we  shall  note;  (b)  that  Mat- 
thew records  many  of  our  Lord's  discourses  in  common 
with  Luke;  (c)  that  Matthew  has  special  passages 
which  are  unknown  to  Mark  and  Luke.  Let  us  ex- 
amine these  three  points  in  detail,  in  an  endeavour  to 
learn  how  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  composed. 

(a)  Analogy  to  Mark. — (i)  Mark  is  found  complete 
in  Matthew,  with  the  exception  of  nimierous  slight 
omissions  and  the  following  pericopes:  Mark,  i,  23-28, 
35-39;  iv,  26-29;  vii,  32-36;  viii,  22-26;  ix,  39, 40;  xii, 
41-44.  In  all.  31  verses  are  omitted,  (ii)  The  gen- 
eral order  is  identical  except  that,  in  chapters  v-xiii, 
Matthew  groups  facts  of  the  same  nature  and  sayings 
conveying  the  same  ideas.  Thus,  in  Matt.,  viii,  1-15, 
we  have  uiree  miracles  that  are  separated  in  Mark;  in 
Matthew,  viii,  23-ix,  9,  there  are  gathered  together 
incidents  otherwise  arranged  in  Mark,  ete.  Matthew 
places  sentences  in  a  different  environment  from  that 

S'ven  them  by  Mark.  For  instance,  in  chapter  v,  15, 
atthew  inserts  a  verse  occurring  in  Mark,  iv,  21,  that 
should  have  been  placed  after  xiii,  23,  ete.  (iii)  In 
Matthew  the  narrative  is  usually  shorter  because  he 
suppresses  a  great  number  of  details.  Thus,  in  Mark, 
we  read : ' '  And  the  wind  ceased :  and  there  was  made  a 
great  calm",  whereas  in  Matthew  the  first  part  of  the 
sentence  is  omitted.  All  imnecessary  particulars  are 
dispensed  with,  such  as  the  nmnerous  picturesque 
features  and  indications  of  time,  place,  and  number,  in 
which  Mark's  narrative  abounas.  (iv)  Sometimes, 
however,  Matthew  is  the  more  detailed.  Thus,  in 
chapter  xii,  22-45,  he  gives  more  of  Christ's  discourse 
than  we  find  in  Mark,  hi,  20-30,  and  has  in  addition  a 
dialogue  between  Jesus  and  the  scribes.  In  chapter 
xiii,  Matthew  dwells  at  greater  length  than  Mark,  iv, 
upon  the  object  of  the  parables,  and  introduces  those 
of  the  cockle  and  the  leaven,  neither  of  which  Mark 
records.  Moreover,  Our  Lord's  apocalyptic  discourse 
is  much  longer  in  Matthew, xxi v-xxv  (97  verses),  than 
in  Mark,  xiii  (37  verses),  (v)  Changes  of  terms  01 
divergences  in  the  mode  of  expression  are  extremely 
frequent.  Thus,  Matthew  often  uses  Mitn^  when 
Mark  has  dMt;  fidy  ,  .  ,  5^,  instead  of  ical^  as  in 
Mark,  etc.;  the  aorist  instead  of  the  imperfect  em- 
ployed by  Mark.  He  avoids  double  negatives  and  the 
construction  of  the  participle  with  elfd;  his  style  is 
more  correct  and  less  harsh  than  that  of  Mafk^  he 


MATTBtW  61  MATtBEW 

fftsolves  Mark's  compound  verbs,  and  replaces  by  terms  emendations.    Matthew  and  Luke  omit  the  very  pen- 
in  current  use  the  rather  unusual  expressions  intro-  copes  that  occur  in  Mark. 

duoed^  by  Mark,  etc.  (vi)  He  is  free  from  the  lack  of  (c)  Parts  peculiar  to  Matthew. — ^These  are  numer- 
precision  which,  to  a  slight  extent,  characterizes  Mark,  ous,  as  Matthew  has  330  verses  that  are  distinctly  hi^ 
Thus,  Matthew  sajnB  ''  the  tetrarch "  and  not  "  the  own.  Sometimes  long  passages  occur,  such  as  those 
king  "  as  Blarkdoes,  in  speaking  of  Herod  Antipas;  *'on  recording^he  Nativity  and  early  Childaood  (i,  ii),  the 
the  third  day ''  instead  of  "  in  three  days''.  At  times  cure  of  the  two  blind  men  and  one  dumb  man  (ix,  27- 
the  changes  are  more  important.  Instead  of  "Levi,  34),  the  death  of  Judas  (xxvii,  3-10),  the  guard  placed 
son  of  Alpheus,"  he  says:  ''a  man  named  Matthew";  at  the  Sepulchre  (xxvii,  62-66),  the  imposture  of  the 
he  mentions  two  demoniacs  and  two  blind  persons,  chief  priests  (xxviii,  11-15),  the  apparition  of  Jesus  in 
whereas  Mark  mentions  onlpr  one  of  each,  etc.  (vii)  Galilee  (xxviii.  16-20),  a  great  portion  of  the  Sermon 
Matthew  extenuates  or  omits  everything  which,  in  on  the  Mount  (v,  17-37;  vi,  1-8;  vii,  12-23),  parables 
Mark,  might  be  construed  in  a  sense  derogatory  to  the  fxiii,  24-30;  35-53;  xxv,  1-13),  the  Last  Judgment 
Person  o?  Christ  or  unfavourable  to  tne  disciples,  {xxv,  31-46),  etc.,  and  sometimes  detached  sentences, 
Hius,  in  speaking  of  Jesus,  he  suppresses  the  following  as  in  xxiii,  3,  28,  33;  xxvii,  25.  etc.  (cf .  Rushbrooke, 
phrases:  ''And  looking  round  about  on  them  with  "Synopticon",  pp.  171-97).  Tnose  passages  in  which 
anger"  (Mark,  iii,  5);  *'And  when  his  friends  had  Matthew  reminds  us  that  facts  in  the  life  of  Jesus  are 
heard  of  it,  they  went  out  to  lav  hold  on  him.  For  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies,  are  likewise  noted  as 
they  said:  He  is  beside  himself  (Mark,  iii,  21),  etc.  peculiar  to  him,  but  of  this  we  have  already  spoken. 
Speaking  of  the  disciples,  he  does  not  say,  like  Mark,  These  various  considerations  have  given  rise  to  a 
that  *'they  imderstood  not  the  word,  and  they  were  great  number  of  hypotheses,  varying  in  detail,  but 
afraid  to  ask  him"  (ix,  31;  cf.  viii,  17, 18);  or  that  the  agreeing  fimdamentally.  Accordmg  to  the  majority 
disciples  were  in  a  state  of  profound  amazement,  be-  of  present  critics — ^H.  Holtzmann,  Wendt,  Jolicher, 
cause  *'they  understood  not  concerning  the  loaves;  for  Wemle,  von  Soden,  Wellhausen,  Hamack,  B.  Weiss, 
their  heart  was  blinded"  (vi,  52),  etc.  He  likewise  Nicolardot,  W.  Allen,  Montefiore,  Plummer,  and  Stan- 
omits  whatever  might  shock  his  readers,  as  the  saying  ton — ^the  author  of  the  First  Gospel  used  two  docu- 
of  the  Lord  recorded  by  Mark:  "The  sabbath  was  ments:  the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  its  present  or  in  an 
made  for  man,  and  not  man  for  the  sabbath"  (ii,  27).  earlier  form,  and  a  collection  of  discourses  or  sayings. 
Omissions  or  alterations  of  this  kind  are  very  numer-  which  is  designated  by  the  letter  Q.  The  repetitions 
ous-  It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that  between  occurring  in  Matthew  (v,  29,  30  =  xviii,  8, 9;  v,  32= 
Matthew  and  Blark  there  are  many  points  of  resem-  xix,  9;  x,  22a  =  xxiv,  9b;  xii,  39b  =  xvi,  4a,  etc.) 
blance  in  the  construction  of  sentences  (Matt.,  ix,  6  =  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  two  sources  fur- 
Mark,  il,  10;  Matt.,  xxvi,  47  =  Mark,  xiv,  43,  etc.);  in  nished  the  writer  with  material  for  his  Gospel.  Fur- 
their  mode  of  expression,  often  unusual,  and  in  short  thermore,  Matthew  used  documents  of  his  own.  In 
phrases  (Matt.,  ix,  16  =  Mark,  iL  21;  Matt.,  xvi,  28  =  this  hypothesis  the  Greek  Gospel  is  supposed  to  be 
Mark,  ix,  1;  Matt.,  xx,  25  =  Mark,  x,  42);  in  some  ori^nal,  and  not  the  translation  of  a  complete  Ara- 
pericopes,  narratives,  or  discourses,  where  the  greater  maic  Gospel.  It  is  admitted  that  the  collection  of 
part  of  the  terms  are  identical  (Matt.,  iv,  1^22  =  sayings  was  originally  Aramaic,  but  it  is  disputed 
Mark,  i,  16-20;  Matt.,  xxvi,  36-38  =  Mark,  xiv,  32-  whether  the  Evangelist  had  it  in  this  form  or  in  that 
34;  Matt.,  ix,  5,  6  =  Mark,  ii,  9-11),  etc.  (Ct.  Haw-  of  a  Greek  translation.  Critics  also  differ  regarding 
kins,  "  Hor»  synoptics  ",  pp.  54-67.)  the  manner  in  which  Matthew  used  the  sources.  Some 
(b)  Analogy  to  Luke. — ^A  comparison  of  Matthew  would  have  it  that  Matthew  the  Apostle  was  not  the 
and  Luke  reveals  that  they  have  but  one  narrative  in  author  of  the  First  Gospel,  but  merely  the  collector  of 
conmion,  viz.,  the  ciuie  of  the  centurion's  servant  the  sayings  of  Christ  mentioned  b}r  Papias.  ''How- 
(Matt.,  viii,  5-13  =  Luke,  vii,  1-10).  The  additional  ever",  says  Jdlicher,  ''the  author's  individuality  is  so 
matter  common  to  these  Evangelists,  consists  of  the  strikingly  evident  in  his  style  and  tendencies  that  it 
discourses  and  sayings  of  Christ.  In  Matthew  His  dis-  is  impossible  to  consider  the  GosF)el  a  mere  compila- 
courses  are  usually  gathered  together,  whereas  in  Luke  tion  .  Most  critics  are  of  a  like  opinion.  Endeavours 
they  are  more  freouently  scattered.  Nevertheless,  have  been  made  to  reconcile  the  information  furnished 
Matthew  and  Luke  nave  in  common  the  following  dis-  by  tradition  with  the  facts  resulting  from  the  study  of 
courses:  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt..  v-vii=s  the  Gospel  as  follows:  Matthew  was  known  to  KaVe 
the  Sermon  in  the  Plain,  Luke,  vi) ;  the  Lord's  exhor-  coUectea  in  Aramaic  the  sa3dng8  of  Christ,  and,  on  the 
tation  to  His  disciples  whom  He  sends  forth  on  a  mis-  other  hand,  there  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the  seo- 
sion(Matt.,  x,  19-20. 26-33  =  Luke,  xii,  1 1-12 , 2-9) ;  the  ond  century  a  Gospel  containing  the  narratives  found 
discourse  on  John  tne  Baptist  fMatt.,  xi  =  Luke,  vii) ;  in  Mark  and  the  sayings  gathered  by  Matthew  in  Ara- 
the  discourse  on  the  Last  Juagment  (Matt.,  xxiv  :=  maic.  It  is  held  that  the  Greek  Gospel  ascribed  to 
Luke,  xvii).  Moreover,  these  two  Evangelists  possess  Matthew  is  a  translation  of  it^  made  by  him  or  by 
in  common  a  large  ntunoer  of  detached  sentences,  e.  g.,  other  tran^tors  whose  names  it  was  later  attempted 
Matt.,  ill,  7b-10,  12  =  Luke,  iii,  7l>-9,  17;  Matt.,  iv,  to  ascertain. 

3-11  =  Liike,  iv,  3-13;  Matt.^  ix,  37,  38  =f  Luke,  x,  To  safef^uard  tradition  further,  while  taking  into 
2;  Matt.,  xii,  43-45  =  Luke,  xi,  24-26,  etc.  (cf.  Rush-  consideration  the  facts  we  have  alread^r  noted,  it 
brooke,  "Synopticon",  pp.  134-70).  However,  in  might  be  supposed  that  the  three  Synoptists  worked 
these  parallelpassages  of  Matthew  and  Luke  there  are  upon  the  same  catechesis,  either  oral  or  written  and 
numerous  differences  of  expression,  and  even  some  originally  in  Aramaic,  and  that  they  had  detached 
divergences  in  ideas  or  in  the  manner  of  their  presen-  portions  of  this  catechesis,  varying  in  literary  condi- 
tation.  It  is  only  necessary  to  recall  the  Beatitudes  tion.  The  divergences  may  be  explained  first  by  this 
(Matt.,  V,  3-12  ss  Luke,  vi,  20b-25) :  in  Matthew  latter  fact,  and  then  by  the  hypothesis  of  different 
there  are  eight  beatitudes,  whereas  in  Luke  there  are  translations  and  by  each  Evangelist's  peculiar  method 
only  four,  which,  while  approximating  to  Matthew's  of  treating  the  subiect-matter,  Matthew  and  Luke 
in  point  of  conception,  differ  from  them  in  general  especially  having  adapted  it  to  the  purpose  of  their 
form  and  expression.  In  addition  to  having  in  com-  Gospel.  There  is  notbdng  to  prevent  the  supposition 
mon  parts  that  Mark  has  not,  Matthew  and  Luke  some-  that  Matthew  worked  on  the  Aramaic  catechesis;  the 
times  agree  against  Mark  in  parallel  narratives.  There  literary  emendations  of  Mark's  text  by  Matthew  may 
have  been  coimted  240  passages  wherein  Matthew  and  have  been  due  to  the  translator,  who  was  more  con- 
Luke  harmonise  with  each  other,  but  disagree  with  versant  with  Greek  than  was  the  popular  preacher  who 
Mark  in  the  way  of  presenting  events,  and  particularly  furnished  the  catechesis  reproduced  b^r  Mark.  In 
in  the  use  of  the  same  terms  and  the  same  grammatical  reality,  the  cmly  difficulty  lies  in  explaining  the  simi- 


MATTHEW                            62  MATTBSW 

larity  of  style  between  Matthew  and  Mark.  Firat  of  Mount  (v,  l-vii,  29);  (ii)  the  propagation  of  the  King- 
all,  we  may  observe  that  the  points  of  resemblance  are  dom  in  Galilee  (viii,  l-xviii,  35).  He  groups  together: 
less  numerous  than  thejr  are  said  to  be.  As  we  have  (a)  the  deeds  by  which  Jesus  established  tnat  He  was 
seen,  they  are  very  rare  in  the  narratives  at  all  events,  the  Messias  and  the  King  of  the  Kingdom:  various 
mucn  more  so  thaii  in  the  discourses  of  Christ.  Why,  cures,  the  calming  of  the  tempest,'missionary  journeys 
then,  should  we  not  suppose  that  the  three  S^optists,  throu^  the  land,  the  calling  of  the  Twelve  Apoetl^, 
depending  upon  the  same  Aramaic  catechesis,  some-  the  pnnciples  that  should  gmde  them  in  their  mission- 
times  agreed  in  rendering  similar  Aramaic  expressions  ary  travels  ^viii,  1-x,  42) ;  (p)  divers  teachings  of  Jesus 
in  the  same  Greek  words?  It  is  also  possible  to  sup-  called  forth  by  circumstances:  John's  message  and  the 
I>08e  that  saving  of  Christ,  which  in  tne  three  S3mop-  Lord's  answer,  Christ's  confutation  of  the  false  charges 
tic  Gospels  (or  m  two  of  them)  differed  only  in  a  few  of  the  Pharisees,  the  departure  and  return  of  the  un- 
expressions,  were  unified  by  copyists  or  other  persons,  clean  spirit  (xi,  1-xii.  50);  finally,  the  parables  of  the 
To  us  it  seems  probable  tliat  Matthew's  Greek  trans-  Kingdom,  ot  which  Jesus  makes  known  and  explains 
lator  used  Mark's  Greek  Gospel,  especiaUv  for  Christ's  the  end  (xiii,  3-52) .  (iii)  Matthew  then  relates  the  dif- 
discourses.  Luke.  also,  may  have  similarly  utilised  ferent  events  that  tenmnate  the  preaching  in  Galilee: 
Matthew's  Greek  Gospel  in  rendering  the  discourses  of  Christ's  visit  to  Nasareth  (xiii,  53-58).  the  naultiplica- 
Christ.  Finally,  even  though  we  should  suppose  that  tion  of  the  loaves,  the  walking  on  the  lake,  discussions 
Matthew  were  the  author  only  of  the  Logia^  the  full  with  the  Pharisees  concerning  legal  purifications,  the 
scope  of  which  we  do  not  know,  and  that  a  part  of  his  confession  of  Peter  at  Caesarea,  the  Transfiguration  of 
Greek  Gospel  is  derived  from  tnat  of  Mark,  we  would  Jesus,  prophecrjr  regarding  the  Passion  and  Resurree- 
still  have  a  ri^t  to  ascribe  this  First  Gospel  to  Mat-  tion,  and  teachings  on  scandal,  fraternal  correction, 
thew  as  its  pnncipal  author.  and  the  forgiveness  of  injuries  (xiv,  1-xviii,  35). 

Other  hypotheses  have  been  put  forth.  In  Zahn's  (2)  Outside  Galilee  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem  (xix- 
opinion,  Blatthew  wrote  a  complete  Gospel  in  Ara-  xx). — Jesus  leaves  Galilee  and  goes  beyond  the  Jor- 
maic;  Mark  was  familiar  with  this  docimient,  which  dan;  He  discusses  divorce  with  the  Pharisees;  answers 
he  used  while  abridging  it.  Matthew's  Greek  transla-  the  rich  young  man,  and  teaches  self-denial  and  the 
tor  utilised  Mark,  but  only  for  form,  whereas  Luke  danger  of  wealth;  explains  by  the  parable  of  the 
depended  upon  Mark  and  secondary  sources,  but  was  labourers  how  the  elect  will  be  called;  replies  to  the 
not  acquainted  with  Matthew.  According  to  Belser,  indiscreet  question  of  the  mother  of  the  sons  of  Zebe- 
Matthew  first  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew,  a  Greek  dee,  and  cures  two  blind  men  of  Jericho, 
translation  of  it  being  made  in  59-60,  and  Mark  de-  (3)  In  Jerusalem  (xxi~xxv). — Jesus  makes  a  trium- 
pended  on  Matthew's  Aramaic  dociunent  and  Peter's  phal  entry  into  Jeruisalem;  He  curses  the  barren  fig- 
preaching.  Luke  made  use  of  Mark,  of  Matthew  (both  tree  and  enters  into  a  dispute  with  the  chief  priests 
m  Aramaic  and  Greek),  and  also  of  oral  tradition,  and  the  Pharisees  who  ask  Him  by  what  authority  He 
According  to  Cameriynck  and  Coppieters.  the  First  has  banished  the  sellers  from  the  'Temple,  and  answers 
Gospel  in  its  present  form  was  composea  either  by  them  by  the  parables  of  the  two  sons,  the  murderous 
Matthew  or  some  other  Apostolic  wnter  lone  before  husbandmen,  and  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son.  New 
the  end  of  the  first  century,  by  combining  the  Aramaic  questions  are  put  to  Jesus  concerning  the  tribute,  the 
work  of  Matthew  and  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  resurrection  ot  the  dead,  and  the  greatest  command- 
Ill.  Plan  and  Contents  of  the  Fibst  Gospel. —  ment.  Jesus  anathematises  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
The  author  did  not  wish  to  compose  a  biography  of  and  foretells  the  events  that  will  precede  and  aoocnn- 
Christ,  but  to  demonstrate,  by  recording  His  words  pany  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the  world, 
and  the  deeds  of  His  life,  that  He  was  the  Messias,  the  C.  The  Passion  and  the  ResurrecUem  of  Jesus  (xxvi- 
Head  and  Founder  of  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  the  xxviii). — (1)  The  Passion  (xxvi-xxvii). — ^Events  are 
promulgator  of  its  laws.  One  can  scarcely  fail  to  rec-  now  hurrying  to  a  close.  The  Sanhedrin  plots  for  the 
ognise  that,  except  in  a  few  parts  (e.  g.  the  Childhood  death  of  Jesus,  a  woman  anoints  the  feet  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  Passion),  the  arrangement  of  events  and  of  and  Judas  betrays  his  Master.  Jesus  eats  the  pasch 
discourses  is  artificial.  Matthew  usually  combines  with  His  disciples  and  institutes  the  Eucharist.  In 
facts  and  precepts  of  a  like  nature.  Whatever  the  the  Garden  of  Olives,  He  enters  upon  His  agony  and 
reason,  he  favours  groups  of  three  (thirty-eight  of  offers  up  the  sacrifice  of  His  life.  He  is  arrested  and 
which  maybe  counted) — three  divisions  in  the  geneal-  brought  before  the  Sanhedrin.  Peter  denies  Christ; 
ogy  of  Jesus  (i,  17),  three  temptations  (iv,  1-11),  Judas  hanxs  himself .  Jesus  is  condemned  to  death  by 
three  examples  of  justice  (vi,  1-18),  three  cures  (viii,  Pilate  and  crucified;  He  is  buried,  and  a  guard  is 
1-15).  three  parables  of  the  seed  (xiii,  1-32),  three  placed  at  the  Sepulchre  (xxvi,  1-xxvii,  66). 
denials  of  Peter  Txxvi,  69-75),  etc.;  of  five  (these  are  (2)  Tlie  Resurrection  (xxviii). — Jesus  rises  the  third 
less  numerous)-^nve  long  discourses  (v-vii,  27 ;  x;  xiii,  day  and  appears  first  to  the  holy  women  at  Jerusalem, 
1~52 ;  xviii ;  xxiv-xxv) ,  ending  with  the  same  formula  then  in  Galilee  to  His  disciples,  whom  He  sends  forth  to 
(KflU  fy^rrro,  Urt  triktfftv  b  'Ii^oOt),  five  examples  of  the  propagate  throughout  the  world  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
fulfilment  of  the  law  (v,  21-48),  etc.;  and  of  seven —  IV.  Object  and  Doctrinal  Teaching  of  thf 
seven  parables  (xiii),  seven  maledictions  (xxiii),  seven  First  Gospel. — Immediately  after  the  descent  of  the 
brethren  (™i,  25),  etc.  The  First  Gospel  can  be  very  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  Apostles,  Peter  preached  that 
naturally  divided  as  follows : —  Jesus,  crucified  and  risen,  was  the  Messias,  the  Saviour 

A.  Iriroduction  (i-ii). — The  genealogy  of  Jesus,  the  of  the  World,  and  proved  this  assertion  by  relating  the 
prediction  of  His  Birth,  the  Magi,  the  Flight  into  life,  death,  and  resurrection  of  the  Lord.  This  was 
f^^pt,  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  the  return  to  the  first  Apostolic  teaching,  and  was  repeated  by  the 
Nasareth,  and  the  life  there.                ^  other  preachers  of  the  Gospel,  of  whom  tradition  tells 

B.  The  Public  Ministry  of  Jesus  (iii-xxv). — ^This  us  that  Matthew  was  one.  This  Evangelist  pro- 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts,  according  to  the  claimed  the  Gospel  to  the  Hebrews  and,  before  his  de- 
place  where  He  exercised  it.  parture  from  Jerusalem,  wrote  in  his  mother  tongue 

(1)  In  Galilee  (iii-xviii). — (a)  Preparation  for  the  the  Gospel  that  he  had  preached.  Hence  the  aim  of 
puDhc  ministiry  of  Jesus  (iii,  1-iv,  11):  John  the  Bap-  the  Evangelist  was  primarily  apologetic.  He  wished 
tist,  the  Baptism  of  Jesus,  the  Temptation,  the  return  to  demonstrate  to  his  readers,  wnether  these  were  con- 
to  Galilee,  (b)  The  preaching  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  verts  or  still  unbelieving  Jews,  that  in  Jesus  the  an- 
(iv,  17-xviii,  35) :  (i)  the  preparation  of  the  Kingdom  cient  prophecies  had  been  realized  in  their  entirety, 
by  the  preaching  of  penance,  the  call  of  the  disciples.  This  thesis  includes  three  principal  ideas:  (A)  Jesus  fi 
and  numerous  cures  (iv,  17-25),  the  promulgation  of  the  Messias,  and  the  kingdom  He  inaugurates  is  the 
the  code  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  i'                      on  the  Messianic  kingdom  foretold  by  the  prophets;  (B)  be 


1CATTH2W                               63  ICATTHEW 

cause  of  their  sins,  the  Jews,  as  a  nation,  shall  have  no  St.  Jerome,  whose  testimony  has  been  given  above 

part  in  this  kingdom;  (C)  the  Gospel  will  be  announced  QI,  A),  agree  in  declaringthat  St.  Matthew  wrote  his 

^..itf^aU  nations,  and  all  men  are  called  to  salvation.  Gospel  f  jr  the  Jews.    Ever3rthin£  in  this  Gospel 

A.  St.  Matthew  has  shown  tiiat  in  Jesus  all  the  an-  prov'js,  that  the  writer  addresses  himself  to  Jewish 
cient  prophesies  on  the  Messias  were  fulfilled.  He  readers.  He  does  not  explain  Jewish  customs  and 
was  the  Emmanuel,  bom  of  a  Viigin  Mother  (i,  22,  usages  to  them^  as  do  the  other  Evangelists  for  their 
23),  announced  by  Isaias  (vii,  14);  He  was  bom  at  Greek  and  Latin  readers,  and  he  assumes  that  they 
Bethlehem  (ii,  6)^  as  had  been  predicted  bv  Micheas  (v,  are  acquainted  with  Palestine,  since,  unlike  St.  Luke, 
2);  He  went  to  Egypt  and  was  recalled  thence  (ii,  15)  he  mentions  places  without  jiving  any  indication  of 
as  foretold  b^  Osee  (xi,  1).  According  to  the  pre-  their  topographical  position.  It  is  true  that  the  He- 
diction  of  Isaias  (xl,  3),  He  was  heralded  by  a  precur«  brew  wor£,  Emmantiel,  Golgotha,  Elot,  are  translated, 
sor,  John  the  Baptist  (iii,  1  sqq.) ;  He  cured  all  the  sick  but  it  is  likely  that  these  translations  were  inserted 
(viii,  16  8a.)»  that  the  prophecy  of  Isaias  (liii,  4)  might  when  the  Aramaic  text  was  reproduced  in  Greek.  St. 
be^ulfillea;  and  in  all  His  actions  He  was  indeed  the  MatUiew  chronicles  those  discourses  of  Christ  that 
same  of  whom  this  prophet  had  spoken  (xlii,  1).  His  would  interest  the  Jews  and  leave  a  favourable  im- 
teaching  in  parables  (xiii,  3)  was  conformable  to  what  pression  upon  them.  The  law  is  not  to  be  destroyed, 
Isaias  had  said  (vi,  9).  Finally,  He  suffered,  and  the  out  fulfilled  (v,  17).  He  emphasises  more  strongly 
entire  drama  of  His  Passion  and  Death  was  a  f uMl-  than  either  St.  Mark  or  St.  Luke  the  false  interpreta- 
ment  of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  (Isaias,  Uii,  3-12;  tions  of  the  law  given  by  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  the 
Pft.  xxi,  13-22).  Jesus  proclaimed  Himself  the  Mee-  hypocrisy  and  even  the  vices  of  the  latter,  all  of  which 
sias  by  Hi's  approbation  of  Peter's  confession  (xvi,  16,  could  be  of  interest  to  Jewish  readers  only.  Accord- 
17)  and  bv  His  answer  to  the  high  priest  (xxvi,  63,  in^  to  certain  critics,  St.  Irenseus  TFra^ent  xxix) 
64).  St.  Matthew  also  endeavours  to  ^ow  that  the  said  that  Matthew  wrote  to  convert  the  Jews  by  prov- 
Kingdom  inaugurated  by  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Messianic  ing  to  them  that  Christ  was  the  Son  of  David.  This 
Kingdom.  From  the  beginning  of  His  public  life,  interpretation  is  badly  founded.  Moreover,  Origen 
Jesus  proclaims  that  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  at  (In  Matt.,  i)  categorically  asserts  that  this  Gospel 
hand  (iv,  17);  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  He  promul-  was  published  for  Jews  converted  to  the  Faith, 
gates  the  charter  of  this  kingdom,  and  in  parables  He  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  xxiv)  is  also  explicit _  on 
speaks  of  its  nature  and  conditions.  In  His  answer  this  point,  and  St.  Jerome,  summarising  tradition, 
to  the  envoys  of  John  the  Baptist  Jesus  specifically  teaches  us  that  St.  Matthew  published  his  Gospel  in 
declares  that  the  Messianic  Kinedom,  foretold  by  the  Judea  and  in  the  Hebrew  language,  principally  for 
Prophets,  has  come  to  pass,  and  He  describes  its  char-  those  among  the  Jews  who  believed  in  Jesus,  and  did 
acteristios:  *'  The  blind  see,  and  the  lame  walk,  the  lep-  not  observe  even  the  shadow  of  the  Law,  the  truth  of 
ers  arc  cleansed,  the  deaf  hear,  the  dead  rise  again,  the  the  (jospel  having  replaced  it  (In  Matt.  Prol.).  Subse- 
poor  have  the  gospel  preached  to  them."  It  was  in  quent  ecclesiastical  writers  and  Catholic  exegetes  have 
these  terms,  that  Isaias  had  described  the  future  king-  tau^t  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  for  the  converted  Jews, 
dom  (xxxv,  5, 6;  bd,  1).  St.  Matthew  records  a  very  "However,"  savs  Zahn  (Introd.  to  the  New  Testa- 
formal  expression  of  the  Lord  concerning  the  coming  ment,  II,  562),  "the  apologetical  and  polemical  char- 
of  the  Kingdom:  "  But  if  I  by  the  Spirit  of  God  cast  acter  of  the  book,  as  well  as  the  choice  of  language, 
out  devils,  then  is  the  kingdom  of  God  come  upon  you  "  make  it  extremely  probable  that  Matthew  wished  his 
(xii,  28).  ^  Moreover,  Jesus  could  call  Himself  the  Mes-  book  to  be  read  primarily  by  the  Jews  who  were  not 
sias  only  inasmuch  as  the  Kingdom  of  God  had  come,  yet  Christians.    It  was  suited  to  Jewish  Christians 

B.  The  Jews  as  a  nation  were  rejected  because  of  who  were  still  exposed  to  Jewish  influencot  and  also  to 
their  sins,  and  were  to  have  no  part  in  the  Kingdom  of  Jews  who  still  resisted  the  (jospel". 

Heaven*    This  rejection  had  been  several  times  pre-  VI.  Date  and  Placb  of  CoMPOsmoK. — ^Ancient  eo- 

dicted  by  the  prophets,  and  St.  Matthew  shows  that  it  clesiastical  writers  are  at  variance  as  to  the  date  of 

was  because  of  its  incredulity  that  Israel  was  excluded  the  composition  of  the  First  Gospel.    Eusebius  (in  his 

from  the  Kingdom;  he  dwells  on  all  the  events  in  which  Chronicle),^  Theophylact,  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus 

the  increasing  obduracy  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  con-  are  of  opinion  that  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  written 

spicuous,  manifested  first  in  the  princes  and  then  in  the  eight  years,  and  Nicephorus  Callistus  fifteen  yeai^ 

hatred  of  the  people  who  beseech  Pilate  to  put  Jesus  after  Christ  s  Ascension — ^i.  e.  about  a.  d.  38-45.    Ac-> 

to  death*    Thus  tne  Jewish  nation  itself  was  account-  cording  to  Eusebius,  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel  in 

able  for  its  exclusion  from  the  Messianic  kingdom.  Hebrew  when  he  left  ralestine.    Now,  following  a  cer- 

C.  That  the  pagans  were  called  to  salvation  instead  tain  Uadition  (admittedly  not  too  reliable),  the  Apos- 
of  the  Jews,  Jesus  declared  explicitly  to  the  unbeliev-  ties  separated  twelve  years  after  the  Ascension,  hence 
ing  Israelites:  "Therefore  I  say  to  you  that  the  long-  the  Gospel  would  have  been  written  about  the  year 
dom  of  God  shall  be  taken  from  you,  and  shall  be  given  40-42 ;  but  following  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  v,  2),  it 
to  a  nation  yielding  the  fruits  thereof  "  (xxi,  43) ; "  He  is  possible  to  fix  the  definitive  departure  of  the  Apostles 
that  soweth  the  good  seed,  is  the  Son  of  man.  And  about  the  year  60,  in  which  event  the  writing  of  the  Goe- 
the field  is  the  world  "  (xiii,  37-38).  "  And  this  gospel  pel  would  have  taken  place  about  the  year  60-68.  St. 
of  the  kingdom  shall  be  preached  in  the  whole  world  Iren£>us  is  somewhat  more  exact  concerning  the  date  of 
for  a  testimony  to  all  nations,  and  then  shall  the  con-  the  First  (jospel,  as  he  says:  "  Matthew  produced  his 
summation  come"  (xxiv,  14).  Finally,  appearing  to  Gospel  when  Peter  and  Paul  were  evangelizing  and 
His  Apostles  in  Galilee,  <lesus  ^ves  them  this  supreme  founding  the  Church  of  Rome,  consequently  about  the 
command : "  All  power  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in  years  6^-67."  However,  this  text  presents  difficultiee 
earth.  Going  therefore,  teachye  all  nations"  (xxviii,  of  interpretation  which  render  its  meaning  xmcertain 
18,  19).  These  last  words  of  Cnrist  are  the  summary  and  prevent  us  from  deducing  any  positive  conclusion, 
of  the  First  Gospel.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  main-  In  our  day  opinion  is  rather  divided.  Catholic  crit- 
tain  that  these  words  of  Jesus,  commanding  that  all  ics,  in  general,  favour  the  years  40-45,  although  some 
nations  be  evangelised,  were  not  authentic,  but  in  a  (e.  g.  Patrisi)  fo  back  to  36-39  or  (e.  g.  Aberle)  tc 
subsequent  paragraph  we  shall  prove  that  all  the  37.  Belser  assigns  41-42;  Comply,  40-50;  Sch&fer, 
Lord's  sayings,  recorded  in  the  First  Gos^l,  proceed  50-51 ;  ^  Hug,  Reuschl,  Schanz,  and  Rose,  60--67.  This 
from  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  For  this  particular  ques-  last  opinion  is  founded  on  the  combined  testimonies  of 
tton  see,  Meinerts,  "Jesus  und  die  Heidenmission''  St.  Irensus  and  Eusebius,  and  on  the  remark  inserted 
(Monster,  1908).  parenthetically  in  the  discourse  of  Jesus  in  chapter 

V.  Dkstikation  op  the  GospBii. — The  ecclesiasti-  xxiv,  15: "  When  therefore  you  shall  see  the  abonuna- 

ttd  writers  Fapias,  St.  Irenseus,  Orij^n,  Eusebius,  t^ad  tiop  of  4e8olatioQ^  wlijch  was  spoken  of  by  D^mel  tte 


liATTHEW 


64 


UATTHXW 


prophet,  standing  in  the  holy  place":  here  the  author 
interrupts  the  sentence  and  invites  the  reader  to  take 
heed  oi  what  follows,  viz.:  ''Then  they  that  are  in 
Judea,  let  them  flee  to  the  mountains."  As  there 
would  have  been  no  occasion  for  a  like  warning  had 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  already  taken  place, 
Matthew  must  have  written  his  Gospel  before  the  year 
70  (about  65-70  according  to  Bati£fol).  Protestant 
and  Liberalistic  critics  also  are  greatly  at  variance  as 
regards  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  First  Goe- 
pel.  Zahn  sets  the  date  about  61-66,  and  Godet  about 
60-66;  Keim,  Meyer,  Holtsmann  (in  his  earlier  writ- 
ings), BeyscfaJas,  and  Maclean,  before  70;  Bartlet 
about  68-69;  W,  Allen  and  Plunmier,  about  65-75; 
Hilgenfeld  and  Holtzmann  (in  his  later  writings),  soon 
after  70;  B.  Weiss  and  Hamack,  about  70-75:  Eenan, 
later  than  85;  R^ville.  between  60  and  96;  jQucher,  in 
81-96;  Monteflore,  about  90-100;  Volkmar,  in  110; 
Baur,  about  130-34.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
arguments  advanced  to  prove  that  the  First  (}ospel 
was  written  several  ^ears  after  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem. 
When  Jesus  prophesies  to  His  Apostles  that  they  wiU 
be  delivered  up  to  the  councils,  scourged  in  Uie  syna- 
gogues, brougnt  before  governors  and  kings  for  His 
sake;  that  they  will  give  testimony  of  Him,  will  for 
Him  be  hated  and  driven  from  city  to  citv  (z.  17-23); 
and  when  He  commissions  them  to  teacn  all  nations 
and  make  them  His  disciples,  His  words  Intimate,  it  is 
claimed,  the  lapse  of  many  ^ears,  the  establishment  of 
the  Chnstian  Church  in  distant  parts,  and  its  cruel 
persecution  by  the  Jews  and  even  by  Roman  emperors 
and  governors.  Moreover,  certain  sayings  of  the  Lord 
— such  as:  "Thou  art  Peter;  and  upon  this  rock  I  will 
build  my  church"  (xvi,  18);  "  If  he  [thy  brother]  will 
not  hear  them:  tell  the  Church"  (xviii,  10) — carry  us 
to  a  time  when  the  Chnstian  Church  was  already  con- 
stituted, a  time  that  could  not  have  been  much  earlier 
than  the  year  100.  The  fact  is,  that  what  was  pre- 
dicted by  Our  Lord,  when  He  announced  future  events 
and  established  the  charter  and  foundations  of  His 
Church,  is  converted  into  reality  and  made  coexistent 
with  the  writing  of  the  First  Gospel.  Hence,  to  give 
these  arguments  a  probatorv  value  it  would  be  neces- 
sary either  to  deny  Christ's  knowledge  of  the  future  or 
to  maintain  that  the  teachings  embodied  in  the  First 
Gospel  were  not  authentic. 

Vil.  Historic  Value  of  thb  Fibst  Ctobpel. — 0/ 
(he  Narratives, — (1)  Apart  from  the  narratives  of  the 
(]!hildhood  of  Jesus,  the  cure  of  the  two  blind  men,  the 
tribute  money,  ana  a  few  incidents  connected  with  the 
Passion  and  Kesurrection,  all  the  others  recorded  by  St. 
Matthew  are  found  in  both  the  other  Synoptists,  with 
one  exception  (viii,  5-13)  which  occurs  only  in  St. 
Luke.  Critics  agree  in  declaring  that,  regarded  as  a 
whole,  the  events  of  the  life  of  Jesus  recorded  in  the 
Sjrnoptic  Gospeb  are  historic.  For  us,  these  facts  are 
historic  even  m  detail,  our  criterion  of  truuh  being  the 
same  for  the  af  srregate  and  the  details.  The  Gospel  of 
St.  Mark  is  acioiowledsed  to  be  of  great  historic  value 
because  it  reproduces  the  preaching  of  St.  Peter.  But, 
for  almost  all  the  events  of  the  (jospel,  the  Inform 
mation  given  by  St.  Mark  is  found  in  St.  Mattliew, 
while  such  as  are  peculiar  to  the  latter  are  of  the  same 
nature  as  events  recorded  by  St.  Mark,  and  resemble 
them  so  closely  that  it  is  hard  to  imderstand  why  they 
should  not  be  historic,  since  they  also  are  derivea  from 
the  primitive  catechesis.  It  may  be  further  observed 
that  the  narratives  of  St.  Matthew  are  never  contra- 
dictory to  the  events  made  known  to  us  by  profane 
documents,  and  that  they  ^ve  a  very  accurate  account 
of  the  moral  and  religious  ideas,  the  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Jewish  people  of  that  time.  In  his  re- 
cent work,  "The  Synoptic  Giospels"  (London,  1909), 
Montefiore,  a  Jewish  critic,  does  full  justice  to  St. 
Matthew  on  these  different  points.  Finally,  all  the 
objections  that  could  possibly  have  been  raised  against 
tjj^irveracitvvanishjifwebutk^"  stand- 


point of  the  author,  and  what  he  wished  to  demonBtz&te. 
The  comments  that  we  are  about  to  make  conoeminf 
the  Lord's  utterances  are  also  applicable  to  the  Goep? 
narratives.  For  a  demonstration  of  the  historic  v!:..ae 
of  the  narratives  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  we  recommend 
Father  Durand's  scholarly  work,  *'  L'enfance  de  Jdsua- 
Christ  d'aprte  les  6vangiles  canoniques"  (Paris,  1907). 

(2)  OJ  the  Discourses.-^The  greater  part  of  Christ's 
short  sayings  are  found  in  the  three  Synoptic  Goepeb, 
and  consequently  spring  from  the  early  catechesis 
His  long  discourses,  recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St 
Luke,  also  formed  part  of  an  authentic  catechesis,  and 
critics  in  general  are  agreed  in  acknowledging  theii 
historic  viQue.  There  are,  however,  some  who  main- 
tain that  the  Evangelist  modified  nis  documentA  to 
adapt  them  to  the  uuth  professed  in  Christian  com- 
munities at  the  time  when  he  wrote  his  Gospel.  Hiey 
also  claim  that,  even  prior  to  the  composition  of  the 
Gospeb,  Christian  faith  had  altered  ApoetoUo  reminis- 
oences.  Let  us  first  of  all  observe  that  these  objections 
would  have  no  weight  whatever,  unless  we  were  to 
concede  that  the  First  Gospel  was  not  written  by  S^ 
Matthew.  And  even  assuming  the  same  point  of  view 
as  our  adversaries,  who  think  that  our  Synoptic  Gos- 
pels depend  upon  anterior  sources,  we  maintain  that 
these  changes,  whether  attributable  to  the  Evangelists 
or  to  their  sources  (i.  e.  the  faith  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians), could  not  have  been  efiPected. 

The  alterations  claimed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Christ's  teachings  could  not  have  been  made  by 
the  Evangelists  themselves.  We  know  that  the  latter 
selected  their  subject-matter  and  disposed  of  it  each 
in  his  own  way,  and  with  a  special  end  in  view;  but 
this  matter  was  the  same  for  all  three,  at  least  for  the 
whole  contents  of  the  pericopes,  and  was  taken  from 
the  original  catechesis,  which  was  already  sufficiently 
well  established  not  to  admit  of  the  introduction  into 
it  of  new  ideas  and  unknown  facts.  Agtun.  aU  the  doc- 
trines which  are  claimed  to  be  foreign  to  the  teachings 
of  Jesus  are  found  in  the  three  Svnoptists,  and  are  so 
much  a  part  of  the  very  framework  of  each  Gospel  that 
their  removal  would  mean  the  destruction  of  the  orxier 
of  the  narrative.  Under  these  conditions,  that  there 
might  be  a  substantial  change  in  the  doctrines  taught 
by  Christ,  it  would  be  necessary  to  suppose  a  previous 
imderstanding  among  the  three  Evangelists,  which 
seems  to  us  impossibk,  as  Matthew  anoLulre  at  least 
appear  to  have  worked  independently  of  each  other, 
and  it  is  in  their  Gospels  that  Christ's  longest  dis- 
courses are  found.  These  doctrines,  which  wex«  al- 
ready embodied  in  the  sources  used  by  the  three 
Synoptists,  could  not  have  resulted  from  the  delibera- 
tions and  opinions  of  the  earliest  Christians.  First  of 
all,  between  the  death  of  Christ  and  the  initial  drawing 
up  of  the  oral  catechesis,  there  was  not  sufficient  time 
Tor  originating,  and  subsequently  enjoining  upon  the 
Christian  conscience,  ideas  diametrically  opposed  to 
thooe  sold  to  have  '«en  exclusively  tauj^t  bv  Jesus 
Christ.  For  example,  let  us  take  ihe  doctnnes  claimed, 
above  all  others,  to  have  been  altered  by  Uie  belief  or 
Jie  first  Christian'',  namely  that  Jeeus  Christ  had  called 
all  nations  to  salvation.  It  is  said  that  the  Lord  re- 
stricted His  mission  to  Israel,  and  that  all  those  t-exts 
wherein  He  teaches  that  the  Gospel  should  be  preached 
throughout  the  entire  world  originated  with  the  early 
Christians  and  especially  with  Paul.  Now,  in  the  fint 
place,  these  universalist  doctrines  could  not  have 
spru^  up  among  the  Apostles.  Thev  and  the  primi- 
tive (Inristians  were  Jews  of  poorly  developed  mtelli- 
^nce,  of  very  narrow  outlook,  and  were  moreover 
imbued  with  particularist  ideas.  From  the  Gospels 
and  Acts  it  is  easy  to  see  that  these  men  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  universalist  idf?as,  which  had  to  be 
urged  upon  them,  and  which,  even  then,  they  wera 
slow  to  accept.  Moreover,  how  could  this  first  Chris- 
tian generation,  who,  we  are  told,  believed  tha,t  Christ  a 
Second  Coming  was  dose  at  hand,  have  ori^navar 


MATTHEW  65  MATTHEW 

these  pfmam  prodaimiDg  that  before  this  event  took  became  M.A.  5  JuW^  1597.  He  seems  to  have  been 
place  the  Uospel  should  be  preached  to  all  nations?  harshly  treated  by  his  parents,  who  were  angered  at 
These  doctrines  do  not  emanate  from  St.  Paul  and  his  his  youthful  extravagance.  On  15  May,  1599,  he 
disciples.  Long  before  St.  Paul  could  have  exercised  was  admitted  at  Grajrs  Inn,  where  he  began  his  close 
any  influence  whatever  over  the  Christian  conscience,  intimacy  with  Sir  f^ancis  Bacon,  and  two  years  later 
the  £«vangelical  sources  containing  these  precepts  had  became  M.P.  for  Newport,  Cornwall.  IJuring  this 
already  been  composed.  The  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  period  of  his  life  he  frequented  the  dissolute  court  of 
was  the  special  propagator  of  these  doctrines,  but  he  Mizabeth.  On  the  accession  of  James  I  he  sat  in 
was  not  their  creator.  E2nlightened  by  the  Holy  Parliament  for  St.  Alban  s,  and  joined  the  new  court, 
Spirit,  he  understood  that  the  ancient  prophecies  had  receiving  a  large  grant  from  the  Crown  which  amply 
been  realised  in  the  Person  of  Jesus,  and  that  the  provided  for  his  future.  Having  always  desired  to 
doctrines  tau^^t  by  Christ  wore  identical  with  those  travel,  he  left  England  in  November.  1604,  visiting 
revealed  bv  tne  Scriptures.  France  on  his  way  to  Florence,  thougn  he  had  prom- 

Finaily,  by  considering  as  a  whole  the  ideas  consti-  ised  his  father  he  would  not  go  to  Itainr.  At  Florence 
luting  the  basis  of  the  eariiest  Christian  writings,  we  he  came  into  the  society  of  several  Catholics  and 
ascertain  that  these  doctrines,  taught  by  the  prophets,  ended  by  being  received  into  the  Church.  A  new 
and  accentuated  by  the  life  and  words  of  Christ,  form  persecution  was  raging  in  England,  but  he  determined 
the  framework  of  the  Gospels  and  the  basis  of  Pauline  to  return.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Fleet  for  six 
preaching.  They  are,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  fasces  months,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  shake  his 
which  it  would  be  impossible  to  unbind,  and  into  resolution.  Finally  he  was  allowed  to  leave  England, 
which  no  new  idea  could  be  inserted  without  destrov-  and  he  travdled  in  Flanders  and  Spain.  In  1614  he 
ing  its  stroasth  and  unity.  In  the  prophecies,  tne  studied  for  the  priesthood  at  Rome  and  was  ordained 
Gospels,  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  the  firat  Christian  by  Cardinal  Bk^armine  (20  May).  The  king  allowed 
wriUngs  an  intimate  correlation  joins  all  together,  him  to  return  to  Englana  in  16l7,  and  he  stayed  for  a 
Jesus  Christ  Himself  being  the  centre  and  the  common  time  with  Bacon,  whose  essays  he  translated  into 
bond.  What  one  has  said  of  Him,  the  others  reiterate,  Italian.  From  1619  to  1622  he  was  again  exiled,  but 
and  never  do  we  hear  an  isolated  or  a  discordant  on  his  return  was  favourably  received  by  the  king,  and 
voice,  H  Jesus  taught  doctrines  contrary  or  foreign  acted  as  an  agent  at  court  to  promote  the  marriage  of 
to  those  which  the  Evangelists  placed  upon  His  lips.  Prince  Charles  with  the  Spanish  Infanta.  In  the  same 
then  He  becomes  an  inexplicable  phenomenon,  cause  James  sent  him  to  Madrid  and  on  his  return 
because,  in  the  matter  of  ideas.  He  is  in  contradiction  kmghted  him,  20  Oct.^  1623.  During  the  reign  of 
to  the  society  in  i^ich  He  moved,  and  must  be  Ch«*les  I  he  remained  m  high  favoiu:  at  court,  where 
ranked  with  the  least  intelligent  sections  among  the  he  laboured  indefatigably  for  the  Catholic  cause. 
Jewish  people.  We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  con-  When  the  Civil  War  broke  put  in  1640  he,  now  an  old 
cludin|e  that  the  discourses  of  Christ,  recorded  in  the  man,  took  refuge  with  the  English  Jesuits  at  their 
First  Cospel  and  rewoducing  the  Apostolic  cateche-  house  at  Ghent,  where  he  died.  He  was  always  an 
sis,  are  authentic.  ^  We  may\  however,  again  observe  ardent  supporter  of  the  Jesuits,  and,  though  it  has 
that,  lus  aim  being  chieny  apologetic,  Matthew  long  been  denied  that  he  was  ever  himself  a  Jesuit, 
selected  and  presented  the  events  of  Christ's  life  and  papers  recently  discovered  at  Oulton  Abbey  show 
also  these  chsoourses  in  a  way  that  would  lead  up  to  strong  reason  for  supposing  that  he  was  in  fact  a  mem- 
the  oonslusive  proof  which  he  wished  to  eive  of  the  ber  m  the  Society.  Besides  the  Italian  version  of 
Messiahship  of  Jesus.  Still  the  Evangelist  neithw  Bacon's  "  Essays  ",  he  translated  St.  Augustine's 
substantially  altered  the  original  catechesis  nor  "  Confessions  "  (1620),  the  Life  of  St.  Teresa  written 
invented  doctrines  foreign  to  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  by  herself  (1623),  and  Father  Arias's  "  Treatise  of  Pa- 
His  action  bore  upon  details  or  form,  but  not  upon  tience  "  (1650).  His  original  works  were:  "A  Relation 
the  basis  of  words  and  deeds.  of  the  death  of  Troilo  Savelle,  Baron  of  Rome  " 

CaihoUo  Attthon:  Maldokatus,  In  MaU.  (Maina,  1874);   (1620): "  A  Missive  of  Consolation  sent  from  Flanders 

^^3^^!SS!r»SST^^ui:J,'%Z:^Tll&^^  V>  the  CathoU«  of  Engl«.d  (1647)5  «  A  True  HJjtor- 

1878) :  ScRAsn,  Commeniar  nher  dat  Svang.  de«  hi.  Matt.  (Frei-  ical  Relation  of  the  Conversion  of  Sir  Tobie  Matthews 
bun,   1879) :  tofABBHBAOTO,  Comment  in  Bvang.  ^eanuium  to  the  Holie  Catholic  Faith  "  (first  published  in  1904); 

(ptL^^ljKv 'G^iJJ^^                            IfoiMuf  fc  some  manuscript  works  (see  GiUow,  "  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng. 

19041:  Jaoouxxb,  //i«r3ea  Um-e»du  Nouveau  Testament,  Ii  (6th  Cath.'\  IV,  541-42).    His  letters  Were  edited  by  Dr. 

$?  •i*'%i?**Si  ^^^  Cofi»m«fi«.  otOoMpd^ a.  MatthtwC^em  John  Donne  in  1660. 

Y«J^  1808);  MacEtillt.  Bxvomivm  cf  tK»  OoepeU  (Dublin,  Matthsw.  Life  of  Sir  Tobie  Matthew  (with  portrait  and  many 

*^??1  n_.i..«-  A^x. lut .^  /^^.    mi.^  n f  -^  new  .documents)    (London,  1907);  .Id«m.    A    Ttub    Hielorical 


u  Mu       rt^~i««    ion.;   ion^^-^Pi^^riff^  ri!^'    Butlbb  (London.  1795);  Gnxow.  Bibl,  Diet.  Sng.  .- 

Af  ottA^r  (L«idon-  1^5.  .1906);  Wim/>ughbtAlijjn,C^  531-43  (giving  iSfenmcea  to  many  other  >ouroe8):8»ccoMB«  in 

teri    m  OioOoepd  aeeordtngto  8i.  ^.^'^f^^f^'S^^lJ^li  I>^  ^S,  BiHf,  (with  numerous  and  raluable  other  references). 

Pi.OMifKB,  Commentary  on  the  Ootpd  aeeormng  to  at,  Matthew  ^              •-»     v                                           !?«--—.-  i2TT»f»r.«* 

(London.  1909);  Hawkiks.  Hora  Synoptiea  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford,  l!J>WIN  UURTON. 

}2?^iif^S"ii;?e^^^^^^^  MattfiewofCnM^ow.renojmedsch^^^ 

Halle,  1902)   HoLnMANw,  Die  Synopiiker  (3rd  ed.,  TQbingen;  of  the  fourteenth  century,  b.  at  Oacow  about  1335; 

WD.  Zaw,  Dae  Bwin^iumdee  MjMhaue  (Ldp«ig.  1903),  d.  at  Pisa,  6  March,  1410.     The  view,  once  generally 

SJ'S5SS£f"/Tfr^^  held,  that  he  was  descended  from  tke  Pomeranian 

Gbobmaioi  and  KLovmaiAim,  Mauhdue  (TQbingen,  1909).  noble  family  of  Crakow,  IS  now  entirely  discredited 

E.  Jacquisb.  (cf.  Sommerlad,  "Matth&us  von  Krakow 'V,  1801). 

Dit«  i^uirgy.                         ,      *     a        *            ^  elor  of  arts  in  1356  and  master  in  1357,  and  later  fiUed 

Matthew,    Pfteudo-Gospel    of.    See    Apocrypha,  for  several  terms  the  office  of  dean  in  the  same  faculty. 

Hatdiew,  Sir  Tobie.  English  priest,  b.  at  Salis-  In  1387  we  first  find  documentary  reference  to  him  as 

bury,  3  Oct.,  1577;  died  at  (ihent,  13  Oct.,  1655.    He  professor  of  theologv,  and  one  manuscript  speaks  of 

was  the  son  of  Dr.  Tobie  Matthew,  then  -Dean  of  nim  as  "  city  preacner  of  Prague".     About  1382  he 

Christ  Church,  Oxford,  afterwards  Anglican  Bishop  headed  an  embassy  from  his  university  to  Urban  VI, 

of  Durham,  and  finally  Archbishop  of  York,  and  before  whom  he  delivered  a  dissertation  in  favour  of 

FVances,    daughter   of    William    Barlow,    Anglican  reform.    Accepting  an  invitation  from  the  University 

Bishop  of  Chichester.    Tobie  Matthew  matricmated  of  Heidelberg,  he  joined  its  professorial  staff  in  1305, 

from  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  13  March,  1589-00,  and  and  a  year  later  was  appointed  rector.    In  139$  b?  wa9 


66 

named  ooamsfllor  to  Rui>recht  11,  and  the  raiaing  of  then  beheaded  (ef.  Tillemont.  "M^moireB  pour  mrnr 

Ruprecht  III  to  the  difmity  of  King  of  Rome  in  1400  k  rhistoire  eocl.  dee  six  pramien  sidoles'',  I,  406-07). 

marks  the  begining  of  Matthew's  career  as  a  states-  It  is  said  that  St.  Helena  brought  the  relics  of  SL 

man.   Freouently  enq)lo}red  by  the  king  both  at  court  Matthias  to  Rome,  and  that  a  portion  of  them  was  at 

and  on  emoassies^e  appeared  at  Rome  in  1403  to  Trier.    BoUandus  (Acta  &&,,  May,  III)  doubts  if  the 

solicit   Boniface   iX's  confirmation   of  Ruprecht's  relics  that  are  in  Rome  are  not  rather  those  of  the  St. 

claims.    On  the  elevation  of  Innocent  VII  to  the  Matthias  who  was  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  about  the  year 

papal  throne  in  1404,  Matthew  greeted  him  on  behalf  120,  and  whose  histoiy  would  seem  to  haye  been  con- 

of  Kuprecht.    During  the  same  vear  Matthew  was  ap-  founded  with  that  of  the  Apostle.   The  Latin  Church 

pointed  Bishop  (A  Worms,  but,  bevond  his  settling  of  celebrates  the  feast  of  St.  Matthias  on  24  February, 

the  dispute  between  the  people  and  clergy  of  that  city,  and  the  Greek  Church  on  9  August, 
we  know  little  of  his  episcopal  activity.           ^  Clement  of  Aleiandria  (Strom.,  Ill,  4)  records  a 

That  he  continued  to  reside  at  Heidelberg  is  very  sentence  that  the  Nicolaitans  ascribe  to  Matthias: 

probable,  and  also  that  he  continued  to  act  as  pro-  "  We  must  combat  our  flesh,  set  no  value  upon  it,  and 

lessor.    Grnrory  XII  wished  to  name  him  Canunal  concede  to  it  nothing  that  can  flatter  it,  out  rather 

Priest  of  S.  Cynad  in  Thermis,  but  Matthew  declined  increase  the  growth  of  our  soul  by  faitii  and  knowl- 

the  honour.    As  ambassador  of  Ruprecht  to  the  edge".     This  teaching  was  probably  found  in  the 

Council  of  Pisa,  he  displayed  the  greatest  seal  on  be-  Gospel  of  Matthias  which  was  mentioned  by  Origen 

half  of  Gregory  XII,  whom  he  re^irded  as  the  legiti-  (Horn,  i  in  Lucam) ;  by  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  Ill,  26), 

mate  occupant  of  the  papal  throne.    He  was  a  veiy  who  attributes  it  to  heretics;  fay  St.  Jerome  (Praef .  in 

prolific  theological  writer.    Apart  from  Biblical  com-  Matth.) ;  and  in  the  Decree  of  Gelasius  (VI,  8)  which 

mentiuies,  sermons,  and  works  on  current  topics,  the  declares  it  apocryphal.    It  is  at  the  end  of  the  list  of 

most  important  of  nis  writings  are:  "De  consolatione  the  Codex  Barroccianus  (206).    This  Gospel  is  prob- 

theologise'';"Demodoconfitendi";"Depuritatecon-  ably  the  document  whence  Clement  of  Alexandria 

scientio";  "De  corpore  Christi";  ''De  celebratione  quoted  several  passa^,  saving  that  they  were  bor^ 

Missee  ".    That  he  wrote  "  De  arte  moriendi " — ^to  be  rowed  from  the  traditions  of  Matthias,  IlapaMrvw,  tlie 

distinguished  from  a  similar  work  by  Cardinal  Cap-  testimony  of  which  he  claimed  to  have  been  invoked 

ran — cannot  be  maintained  with  oertaintv,  and  recent  by  the  heretics  Valentinus,  Marcion,  and  BaailideB 

investigation  has  shown  beyond  doubt  tnat  the  work  (Strom.,  VII,  17).     Accordiiu^  to  the  Philosaphou- 

"De  squaloribus  curiie  Romans"   is   not  from  his  mena,  Vll,  20,  Basilidesauotedapocrvphal discourses, 

hands  (Scheuffgen,  **  Beitrftge  sur  (jesch.  des  grossen  which  he  attributed  to  Matthias.    These  three  writ- 

Schismas",  1889,  p.  91).  inp:  the  Gospel,  the  Traditions,  and  the  Apocm)hal 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned.  oonauH  SoimxB-  Discourses  were  identified  by  Zahn  (Gesch.  deS  N.  T. 

i5i^iijii^'rai^(TS^^  ^^^°'  ^^'  7^^>'  ^^*  Hamack  (Chron.  der  ahehrist. 

eOi^SjLorrw,  Siaai  uT^nhs  in  d^  PfaU  am  Auagmoe  dii  Litteratur,  597)  denies  this  identification.    Tischen- 

M.  A.  (1007),  4fi  aqq.;  Bukmveirzsdbb,  MaithAua  v,  K.,  dm-  dorf  ("Acta  apostolorum  apociypha",  Leipaig,  1851) 

iS!^J^^'£!^^  publishedafterTimo,1846,J'ActoAnc^ 

KinhmtUx.,  a.  v.  MaUhAua  wk  Krakau.  m  urbe  anthropophagarum  ",  which,  according  to  Lip- 

Thomas  Kennedy.  sius,  belonged  to  the  middle  of  the  second  century. 

ar.4^v.«»  iDw.f«««iw«.«.iM.     fl^w.Minr»T«»»n»  w*-^  This  apociypha  rclatcs  that  Mattliias  wout amoug  ths 

Mattbaw  WMtmfiiatar.    See  WBarMiNSTBB,  Mat-  cannibals  and,  being  cast  into  prison,  was  deUveiSl  by 

xuaw.  Andrew.  Needless  to  sin^,  the  entire  narrative  is  with- 

Matthiaai  Saint,  ApoaTLS. — ^The  Greek  Mar^tof,  out  historical  value.    Moreover,  it  should  be  remem- 

K  A  C  E,  or  MoMtat,  B*  D,  is  a  name  derived  from  bered  that,  in  the  apocryphal  writingSi  Matthew  and 

UarroBtatf  Heb.  Mattithiah,  signifying  *'gift  of  Jah-  BCatthias  have  sometimes  oeen  confounded, 
veh."    ILitthias  was  one  of  ^e  seventy  disciples  of  £•  Jacquikb. 

Jesus,  and  had  been  wit^  Him  from  H^  Matthias,  Gobpel  or.    See  Apocrypha. 

John  to  the  Ascension  (Acts,  i,  21,  22).    It  is  related 

(Acts,  i,  15-26)  that  in  the  days  following  the  Ascen-        Matibiaa  Oonriniis,  King  of  Hungaiy,  son  of  J^os 

don,  Peter  proposed  to  the  assembled  brethren,  who  Hun3rady    (see  Hunyady,   JXnob)   and    Elisabeth 

numbered  one  hundred  and  twenty,  that  they  cnoose  Ssilagvi    of   Horogssey,  was   born    at    Kolosavar, 

one  to  fill  the  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  in  the  Aposto-  23  Feb.,  1440;  d.  at  Vienna^  6  April,  1490.    In  the 

late.     Two  cusciples,  Joseph,  called  Barsabas,  and  house  of  his    father  he  received  along  with   his 

Matthias  were  selected,  and  lots  were  drawn,  with  the  brother  Ladislaus,  a  careful  education  under   the 

result  in  favour  of  ICatthias,  who  thus  became  asso-  supervision  of  Gregor  Sanocki^  who  taught  him  the 

ciated  with  the  eleven  Apostles.    Zeller  has  declared  humanities.    Johann  Vites,  Bishop  of  ^tMswardein 

this  narrative  unhistoric,  on  the  plea  that  the  Apostles  from  1445,  the  friend  of  Matthias's  father  when  a 

were  in  Galilee  after  the  death  of  Jesus.    As  a  matter  boy.  and  himself  an  enthusiastic  patron  and  promoter 

of  fact  they  did  return  to  Cralilee,  but  the  Acts  of  tiie  of  classical  studies,  had  a  decided  influence  on  his  edu- 

Apostlesclearlv  state  that  about  the  feast  of  Pentecost  cation.    The  chequered  career  of  his  father  likewise 

they  went  back  to  Jerusalem.  left  its  imprint  on  the  life  of  Matthias.    On  political 

All  further  information  concerning  the  life  and  grounds  he  was  betrothed  in  1455  to  Elisabeth,  the 

death  of  Matthias  is  vague  and  contradictorv.    Ac-  daughter  of  Count  Ulric  Csilley,  his  father's  deadly 

cording  to  Nicephorus  (Hist,  eccl.,  2,  40),  he  first  enemy,  with  the  aim  of  effecting  the  reconciliation  of 

preached  the  Gospel  in  Judea,  then  in  Ethiopia  (that  the  two  families.    The  early  death  of  Elisabeth  inter- 

is  to  say,  Cckhis),  and  was  crucified.   The  Syiiopsis  of  fered  with  this  plan,  and  after  the  death  of  JiUios 

Dorotlieus  contains  this  tradition:  Matthias  in  into-  Hunyady,  CsiUey's  emnity  was  directed  afpunst  the 

riore  .Ethiopia,  ubi  Hyssus  maris  portus  et  Phasis  sons.    At  the  instigation  of  Csilley  and  his  accom* 

fluvius  ost,  nominibus  barbaris  et  camivoris  pnedi-  plioes,  who  accused  Ladislaus  and  Matthias  Hunyady 

cavit  Evangelium.    Mortuus  est  autem  in  Seoasto-  of  A  conspiracy  against  King  Ladislaus  V,  both  were 

poli,  ibioue  prope  templum  Soils  sepultus  (Matthias  arrested,  Ladislaus  being  executed,  and  Matthias  bemg 

proachea  the  GK)spel  to  barbiuians  and  cannibals  in  taken  to  Vienna  to  the  court  of  the  king.    Later  he 

the  interior  of  Ethiopia,  at  the  harbour  of  the  sea  of  followed  the  king  to  Prague.     After  the  death  of  King 

Hyssus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Phasis.    He  died  at  Ladislaus  at  Prague,  Matthias  settled  down  at  the 

Sebastopolis,  and  was  buried  there,  near  the  Temple  court  of  the  Bohemian  king,  Geoiige  Podiebrad,  who 

of  ^e  Sun).    Still  another  tradition  tnRiwfa.ina  that  betrothed  him  to  his  daughter  Catharine.   On  23  Jan., 

Ifatthias  wa9  stoned  i^t  Jerusalem  by  the  Jews,  and  1458,  Matthias  was  prodaimed  King  of  Hungaiy  ^ 


67 


BIATTHXAB 


Buda,  his  tinole  Michael  Sxil^igyi  at  tlie  same  time  be- 
in^  appointed  governor  for  five  years.  Idatthias  soon 
freed  fximseif ,  nowever,  from,  the  regencjr  of  Ssil^lgyi, 
and  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands. 
At  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  he  had  to  contend 
with  a  movement  among  discontented  Hmi^^arians, 
who  offered  the  crown  to  the  Elmperor  Frederick  III, 
who  had  assmned  the  title  of  King  of  Hungary.  The 
quarrel  with  Frederick  lasted  till  1462,  when  an  agree- 
ment was  made  by  which,  amonj^  other  things,  it  was 
settled  that  if  Bfatthias  should  die  without  leaving  an 
heir,  Firederick  would  be  authorized  to  bear  the  title  of 
Ifin^  of  Hungary  as  long  as  he  lived.  At  the  same 
tinie  Frederick  adoptea  Matthias  as  his  son,  and 
pledged  himself  to  aeliver  up  the  Hungarian  crown 
which  he  had  in  his  possession.  The  treaty  was  con- 
firmed bythe  Hun- 
garian Keichstag 
and  Matthias  was 
crowned  king  in 

1463.  Not  long 
before  he  had 
married  Catha- 
rine, the  daugh- 
ter of  tnf 
Bohemian  king 
Podiebrad,  who, 
however,  died  at 
the  b^inning  of 

1464.  Relations 
with  the  Em- 
peror Frederick 
again  became 
strained;  politi- 
cal conditions 
and,  in  particu- 
lar, the  question 
of  the  Bohemian 
crown,  affected 
them  considera- 
bly. The  friction 
between  the  Holy 

See  and  King  Podiebrad  led  to  the  deposition  of  the  lat- 
ter, and  Matthias  was  now  called  upon  by  the  pope  to 
take  up  arms  against  the  deposed  king.    In  1468  came 
the  Bohemian  expedition  of  Bfatthias,  elected  kins  by 
the  Catholics  of  Bohemia.    The  war  continued  till  the 
death  of  Podiebrad  in  1471,  when  the  Bohemians,  de- 
feating Matthias,  chose  Wladislaw,  son  of  C^imir, 
Kinf  of  Poland,  as  king.    The  years  up  to  1474  were 
marked  by  indecisive  battles  with  the  Bohemian  king 
and    with   the  Em|>eror  Frederick.    An  armistice 
caused  a  brief  cessation  of  hostilities,  but  from  1476 
relations  with  the  Emperor  Frederick  ^w  continu- 
ally more  strained.     In  1477  Matthias,  invading  Aus- 
tria, besieged  Vienna.    Peace  was  effected  between 
Matthias  and  Frederick  by.  the  intervention  of  the 
papal  legate  in  1477,  but  war  soon  broke  out  again, 
and  in  1485  Matthias  took  Vienna.     In  the  war  with 
the  Emperor  Frederick,  Matthias  had  in  view  the  Ro- 
man crown.    In  this  connexion  he  was  led  not  merely 
by  the  aim  of  securing  for  Hungary  a  leading  position 
in  the  West  of  Europe,  but  also  by  the  design  to  unite 
^e  poweni  of  Europe  in  a  crusacCe  against  the  Turks. 
He  was  obliged,  however,  to  abandon  this  scheme. 
Equally  fruitless  was  the  plan  of  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks;  nevertheless  he  managed  to  fix  a  limit  to  the 
advance  of  the  Turks,  and  to  strengthen  the  suprem- 
acy of  Huncarv  over  Bosnia.    In  1463  Bosnia  fell 
uain  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.    The  victory  of 
luitthias  over  the  Turks  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Tran- 
sylvania resulted  in  1483  in  a  truce  with  the  Sul- 
tan Bajaxet.    Matthias's  relations  with  the  Catholic 
Church  were  good  till  the  year  1471 ;  but  the  second 
part  of  his  reign  was  marked  by  a  series  of  most  serious 
blunders  and  acts  of  violence.    In  spite  of  legal  enact- 
ments, he  gave  biflhoprics  to  foreigners,  and  rewarded 


Matthias  Cobtocus 
Kinaof  Hungary,  1468-1490 


political  services  with  gifts  of  church  property,  widdk 
ne  dealt  with  as  thou^  it  were  the  property  of  the 
state.  His  relations  with  the  Holy  See  were  at  first 
decidedljy  cordial,  but  later  there  was  danger  of  a  rup- 
ture, which  was  happily  avoided.  Under  Matthias  the 
humanities  made  their  entry  into  Hungary.  His  li- 
brary^  in  Buda,  the  BibUomeea  Ccrvintanaf  wins  just 
admiration  even  to-day  by  virtue  of  the  remnants  of  it 
scattered  over  Europe.  Diiring  his  reign  the  first 
printing  press  in  Hungaiy  was  established,  l^t  at 
Buda,  the  first  known  production  of  which  is  the 
"  Chronicle  of  Buda  ",  printed  in  1473.  The  arts,  too, 
foimd  in  Bfatthias  a  generous  Miecenas.  Matthias  in- 
troduced reforms  in  the  army,  in  finance,  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  courts  and  the  law.  The  reor- 
ganisation of  militaiy  affairs  was  based  on  the  prind- 
gle  of  a  standing  army.  With  this  body,  the  so-odled 
lack  troops,  he  defeated  the  Turks  and  the  Hussite 
troops  of  Giskra,  which  were  laying  waste  Upper  Hun- 
gary. In  financial  affairs,  a  reform  in  the  mode  of 
taxation  was  introduced,  while  his  enactments  in  judi* 
cial  affairs  earned  for  him  among  the  people  the  title 
of  "The  Just".  In  1476  he  married  Beatrice,  the 
daughter  of  the  Kin^  of  Naples,  but  the  union  was 
childless.  His  exertions  to  secure  the  throne  for  his 
illegitimate  son,  Johann  Corvinus,  were  rendered  fu- 
tile b3^  the  opposition  of  Hun^^ary  and  the  plotting  of 
Beatrice.  Matthias  was  buned  at  Si^kes-Feh^rvfr 
(Btuhlweissenburg) . 

Tblekx.  a  Hunyadyak  kora  MaTyaroruAQon  (Pesth,  1852), 
tn  Hungarian :  i.  e.  T  le  Age  of  the  Hnnyadys  in  Husgaiy. 
ft  vQJb.:  CB\Mia,MaovaroraBdg  lurtinelifUdraiga  a  Uunyat^fai 
kordban  (Budapest,  1890),  i.  e.  The  fiListorical  GeograiJiy  of 
Hungary  in  the  Age  of  the  H  jnyadye,  3  vob.  have  appeared; 
Frakn6i,  a  Hunyadyak  it  JoQeUok  kora  ijUO-'dS  (Budapeet, 
1896),  Hungarian :  L  e.  The  Age  of  the  Hunyaoys  and  Jaxelions; 
Ii)B^  MathioB  ComntM,  K&nio  von  Ungam  (Frnbura  un  Br., 
1891).  For  information  as  to  church  conditions  in  Hungaiy 
see  the  biblioscraphy  of  Hunoart.  For  Mattlsias's  relations 
with  the  Holy  See,  see  the  Latin  introduction  to  MonvmefUa 
Vatioana  Hunqarica:  Matkia  Corvini  Hvngaria  regit  tpittota  ad 
Romanot  ponUAcet  data  dabeit  aceattm  (Budapest,  1891).  For 
the  foreign  politics  of  Matthias  see  Monumenta  Hvngarim  Hit' 
toriea,  Acta  txiera,  tiSS-GO  (Budapert,  1875);  MditAt  Kirdk/ 
leveUi  KQlOpyi  onidUf  (Budapert,  1803-95),  L  e.  Lettere  of 
Kin^  Matthias,  foreign  section,  2  vols.  For  infonnation  con- 
eemms  Joannes  Corvinus  see  ScBdNHXRR,  Corvin  Jdnot  (Buda- 
pest, 1894) ;  concerning  Queen  Beatrice  see  Bsbssvzgit,  Btatris 
kirdkffU  (Budapest,  1908).  . 

A.  AldAst. 

Hatthiaa  of  Neubnrg  or  Nbuenbttbo  (NsoBuifr- 
OBNSis),  chronicler^  b.  towards  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  possibly  at  Neuburg,  in  Baden;  d. 
between  1364  ^nd  1370,  probably  at  Strasburg,  in 
Alsace.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Bologna,  and 
later  received  minor  orders^  but  never  became  a  priest. 
In  1327  we  meet  him  as  sohdtor  of  the  episcopal  court 
at  Basle,  and  shortlv  after,  while  clerk  to  Bi^op 
Berthold  von  Buchecke.  holoing  a  similar  position  in 
Strasburg.  At  present  ne  is  generally  considered  the 
author  ofa  Latm  chronicle  from  1243  to  1350,  and  of 
its  first  continuation  from  1350  to  1355.  Later,  three 
other  writers  carried  on  the  work  to  1368,  1374,  and 
1378  respectively.  It  is  an  important  contribution  to 
Alsatian  and  Habsburg  histoiy  and  for  the  times  in 
which  Matthias  lived;  indeed,  the  part  covering  the 
period  between  1346  and  1350  is  one  of  the  best  au- 
thorities, not  only  for  the  history  of  his  own  country, 
but  for  that  of  the  entire  empire.  It  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  different  writers,  among  them  to  the  Speyer 
notary,  Jacob  of  Mains  (cf.  wichert.  *' Jacob  von 
Mains'*,  K6nigsberg,  1881),  also  to  Albert  of  Stras- 
burg, especially  by  earlier  editors,  while  those  ol 
later  times  attribute  it  to  Matthias  of  Neuburg. 
For  the  voluminous  literature  on  this  controversy  see 
Potthast,  "Bibliotheca  Kin.  Med.  iEvi."  (Berlin, 
1896).  Among  the  editions  may  be  mentioned: 
''Albert!  Argentinensis  Chronic!  fragmentum",  an 
appendix  to  Cuspinian's  work  "  De  consulibus  Roman- 
orum  commentarii"  (Basle,  1553),  667-710,  veijr 
much  abridged;  G.  Studer,  "ICatthue  Neoburgenais 


BIATUBINB  68 

ehronica  cum  continuatioiieet  vita  Berchtold)'';'' Die  offertory.    Hie  "Sacramentary"  of  Pope  Gelaanv 

Chronik  des  Matthias  von  Neuenburg",  from  the  contains  an  Ordo    agerUibua   publioam  pcenilenUam 

Berne  and  Strasburg  manuscripts  (Berne,  1866);  A.  (Muratori,  "Liturgia  romana  vetus",  I,  548^551). 

Httber,   "Mathis  Neuwenburgensis  Cronica,    1273-  Olei  exoreizati  amfectio. — ^In  the  fifUh  century  the 

1350"  in  Bdhmer,  "Pontes  rerum  Germanicarum",  custom  was  established  of  consecrating  on  Holy  "niurs- 

rv  (Stutt^ut,  1868),  149-276;    "Continuationes".  day  all  the  chrism  necessary  for  the  anointing  of  the 

276-297.    It  has  also  been  edited  from  a  Vienna  and  newly  be^iied.    The  "Comes  Hi^onymi ",  Uie  Gre- 

a  Vatican  manuscript  in  "  Abhandlungen  der  Gesell-  gorian  and  Gelasian  sacramentaries  and  the  "  BiisBa 

schaft  der  Wissenschaften ",  zxxvii-viii  (G6ttingen,  ambroeiana"  of  Pamelius,  all  agree  upon  the  confec- 

1891-2),  and  translated  into  German  by  Grandaur  tion  of  the  chrism  on  that  day,  as  does  also  the  "  CMo 

(Leipzig,  1892).  romanus  I". 

PoTTMT,  B4>Uotkeoa  (Bcriin.  1896),  780  sq.;  Wdi^ahp.  Anniverwrium  EtuAarutuB.^The  nocturnal  ode- 

jb^ctioa  to  the  above-meatioiied  Qennan  venum.  pp.  Oration  and  the  double  obUtion  eariy  became  the  ob- 

Patricius  Schi«aqkb.  jc^  of  increasing  disfavour,  until  in  692  the  Council 

„  ^ -         rt     ,«_                   ^                          *  of  TruDo  promulgated  a  formal  prohibition.    TheEu- 

Haturiiu.    See  Trinitabian  Ordbb.  charistic  celebration  then  took  place  in  the  morning, 

Mati,  Nicholas  C.    See  Dbnvbb,  Diocbsb  or.  and  ttie  bishop  reserved  a  part  of  the  sacred  species 

for  the  communion  of  the  morrow,  Mtssa  ffrcesanctv- 

Haondy  Thunday. — ^The  feast  of  Maundy   (or  ficalorum    (Muratori,  "Liturs.  ram.  Vetus' ,  II,  993). 

Holy)  Thursdav  solemnly  commemorates  the  insti-  Other  Observances, — On  Holy  Thursday  the  ringing 

tution  of  the  Eucharist  and  is  the  oldest  of  the  ob-  of  bells  ceases,  the  altar  is  stripped  after  vespers,  ana 

servances  peculiar  to  Holy  Week.    In  Rome  various  the  night  office  is  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Tene- 

accessory  ceremonies  were  early  added  to  this  com-  brsB. 

memoration,  namel^r  the  consecration  of  the  holy  oils  H.  Lbclebcq. 
and  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  ceremonies  ob- 
viously practical  in  character  and  readily  explained  by  MannoniT,  AuousTB-FliANpois,  Hellenist  and  exe- 
the  proximity  of  the  Christian  Easter  and  the  neces-  sete,  b.  at  Champsecret,  Ome,  France,  30  Oct.,  1811; 
sity  of  preparing  for  it.  Hol3r  Thursday  could  not  d.  at  S^s,  Ome,  17  Nov.,  1898.  He  made  brilliant 
but  be  a  day  of  liturgical  reimion  since,  in  the  cycle  classical  studies  at  the  preparatory  seminarv  at  S6ex. 
of  movable  feasts,  it  brings  around  the  anniversary  of  to  which  institution  he  returned  after  his  theological 
the  institution  of  the  Liturgy.  On  that  dav,  whilst  course,  and  where  he  spent  the  whole  of  his  long 
thepreparationof  candidates  was  beine  completed,  the  priestly  career.  Until  1852,  he  taught  the  classics 
Chimsh  celebrated  the  Missa  chrismalis  of  which  we  with  great  success,  and  then  became  professor  of  rhet- 
have  already  described  the  rite  (see  Holt  Oiub)  and,  oric,  a  position  which  he  occupied  for  twenty-two 
moreover,  proceeded  to  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  years.  During  this  period,  keeping  abreast  of  the 
In  Rome  ever3rthine  was  carried  on  in  dajrlight,  progress  of  HeUenistic  studies  in  France  and  Germany, 
whereas  in  Africa  on  Holy  Thursday  the  Eucharist  was  he  composed,  published,  and  revised  those  of  his  works 
celebrated  after  the  evenmg  meal,  in  view  of  more  exact  (*'Grammaire  de  la  Lanffue  Grecoue";  "Chrestoma- 
conformity  with  the  circumstances  of  the  Last  Sup-  thie"  etc.)  which  proved  him  to  be  one  of  the  best 
pe;J  Canon  xxix  of  the  Council  of  Carthage  dispenses  Greek  scholars  of  his  day.  Towards  1866,  Maunouiy 
the  faithful  from  fast  before  communion  on  Holy  began  his  work  as  a  commentator  of  Holy  Writ,  by 
Thursday,  because,  on  that  day,  it  was  customary  to  treating  some  sections  of  the  CSospel  in  the  "  Semaine 
take  a  liath,  and  the  bath  and  fast  were  considered  Catholique^'of  his  native  diocese;  out  it  was  only  after 
incompatible.  St.  Augustine,  too,  speaks  of  this  1875,  tluit  he  save  himself  fully  to  the  pursuit  of  Bibli- 
custom  (Ep.  cxviii  ad  Januarium,  n.  7);  he  even  cal  studies.  In  1877,. he  became  canon  of  the  cathe- 
sajrs  that,  as  certain  persons  did  not  fast  on  that  dral  of  S^^;  and  the  fc^owing  year,  he  began  to  pub- 
day,  the  oblation  was  made  twice,  morning  and  even-  lish  his  conmientaries  on  all  the  Epistles  of  the  Kew 
ing,  and  in  this  way  those  who  did  not  observe  the  Testament. 

fast  could  partake  of  the  Eucharist  after  the  mom-  These  commentaries  appeared  in  five  volumes,  as 

ing  meal,  wnilst  those  who  fasted  awaited  the  evening  follows :  (1 )  *'  Com.  sur  L'Epltie  aux  Remains  "  (Paris, 

repast.  1878);  (2)  *'Com.  sur  les  aeux  Epttres  aux  Corinthi- 

Holy  Thursday  was  taken  up  with  a  succession  of  ens"  (Paris,  1879);  (3)  'Tom.  sur  les  Epttres  aux  Ga- 

oeremonies  of  a  jo^ul  character:  the  baptism  of  neo-  lates,  aux  Eph^siens,  aux  Phillippiens,  aux  Coloasiens, 

phytes,  the  reconciliation  of  penitents,  the  consecra-  et  aux  Thessaloniciens"  (Paris,  1880);  (4)  *Xoni.  sur 

tion  of  the  holy  oils,  the Vashing  of  the  feet,  and  the  les  Epttres  h  Timoth4e,  k  Tite,  k  Philemon,  aux  H4- 

commemoration  of  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  and,  be-  breux'^  (Paris,  1882);  (5)  "Com.  sur  les  Epttres  Catho- 

cause  of  all  these  ceremonies,  the  day  received  different  liques  de  St.  Jacques,  St.  Pierre,  St.  Jean  et  St.  Jude  " 

names,  all  of  which  allude  to  one  or  another  of  its  (Paris,  1888).     In  explaining  the  Sacred  Text  he  made 

solemnities.  an  excellent  use  of  his  great  familiarity  with  Greek 

Reddilio  syniboli  was  so  called  because,  before  being  grammar  and  authors,  availed  himself  chiefly  of  the 

admitted  to  baptism,  the  catechumens  had  to  recite  commentaries  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret, 

the  creed  from  memory,  either  in  presence  of  the  and  always  remained  an  enlightened  and  safe  theolo- 

bishop  or  his  representative.  gian.     In  1894,  he  publisheahis  "Com.  in  Psalmos" 

Peat^mum  (washing  of  the  feet),  traces  of  which  (2  vols.,  Paris), a  Latin  work,  written  with  elegance,  al- 

are  foimd  in  the  most  ancient  rites,  occurred  in  many  most  exclusively  on  the  basis  of  the  Vulgate  and  the 

churches  on  Holy  Thursday,  the  capUilavium  (wash-  Septuagint.     His  onty  coutribution  to  apologetics  is  a 

ing  of  the  head)  having  taken  place  on  Palm  Sunday  volume  entitled  "Souses  d'Automne,  ou  la  Religion 

(St.  Augustine,  "Ep.  cxviii,  cxix*',  c,  18).  prouv6e  aux  gens  du  monde "  (Paris,  1887). 

Exomologesia,  and  reconciliation  of  penitents:  the  Hurtbr,  NomencWor;  Via.,  Dirt.  detoBi6Z«.B.  t. 

letter  of  Pope  Innocent  I  to  Decentius  of  Gubbio,  tes-  Francis  E.  Gigot. 
tifies  that  in  Rome  it  was  customary  "  quinta  feria  ante 

Pascha"  to  absolve  penitents  from  their  mortal  and  Maurice,  Saint,  leader  {primieeritui)  of  the  Theban 

venial  sins,  except  in  cases  of  serious  illness  which  kept '  Legion,  massacred  at  Agaunum,  about  287  (286,  297, 

them  away  from  church  (Labbe,  "Concilia".  II,  col.  302,  303),  by  order  of  Maximian  Herculius.    Feast, 

1247;  St.  Ambrose,  "Ep.  xxxiii  ad  Marcellinam").  22  Sept.    The  legend  (Acta  SS.,  VI,  Sept.,  308,  895) 

The  penitents  heard  the  Missa  pro  reconcUiatione  relates  that  the  legion,  composed  entirely  of  Chris- 

prniitenHum,  and  absolution  was  given  them  before  the  tians,  had  been  called  from  Africa  to  suppress  a  revolt 


HAVRICB 


UitmiSTB 


ol  the  BagiuidB  in  Gaul.  The  soldiers  were  ordered  to  lAusom  12,000  Roman  soldiers  talcen  prisorters  b;  the 

sacrifice  to  the  gods  in  thanksgiving  but  refused.  Avars,  snd  they  were  all  murdered.     Further  harass- 

Every  tenth  was  then  killed.    Another  order  to  sacri-  ing  regulations  made  for  the  army  with  a  view  to  more 

fice  and  anotlffir  refusal  caused  a  second  decimatioD  economycausedarevoltthat becamearevolution.  In 

and  then  a  general  massacre,     (On  the  value  of  the  602  the  soldiers  drove  away  their  officers,  made  a  cer- 

legend,  etc.,  see  Agauimm  and  Theban  Ugion.)     St.  tain  centurion,  Phocas,  their  leader  and  marched  on 

Maurice   ia   represented   as  a  knight   in  full  armour  Constantinople.     Maurice,  finding  that  he  could  not 

(sometimes  as  a  Moor),  bearing  a  standard  and  a  organize  a  resistance,  fled  across  the  Bosporus  with  his 

palm;    in  Italian  paintings  with  a  r^  cross  on  his  family.     He  was  overtaken  at  Chalceaon  and  mur- 

Dreast,  which  is  Ibe  badge  of  the  Sardinian  Order  of  deretf  with   his   five   sons.     Phocas   then  began  his 

St.  Haurice.    Many  plao^  in  Switserland,  Piedmont,  tyrannical  reign  (602-610). 

Fianoe,  and  Germany  have  chosen  him  as  celestial  In  Church  history  Maurice  has  some  importance 
patroD,  aa  have  also  the  dyers,  clothmakers,  aoldiera,  through  his  relations  with  Gregory  1  (S90-604).  As 
-■  — '"- J -->- —    *>-  soon  as  Gregory  was  elected. 


swordamiths,  and  others.  He 
ia  invoked  against  gout, 
cramps,  etc. 

Son  Cbevauih,  Bio-BiH.,  (.  v.; 

BiMnt.  JaXtbxak,  XIII,  782. 

Francis  Merskiun. 
Haniic*  (Hauricius, 
Havplxim),  Roman  Emperor, 
b.  in  539;  d.  in  Nov..  602. 
He  sprang  from  an  old 
Roman  (Latin)  family  set- 
tled in  Cappadocia,  and 
began  hia  career  aa  a  soldier. 
Under  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
II  (578-682)  he  was  made 
commander  of  a  new  legion 
lexned  from  allied  barbarians, 
with  which  he  did  good  ser- 
vice against  the  PerBians. 
ftiien    he    returned    trium- 

Ehant  to  Constantinople,  Ti- 
erius  gave  him  bis  daughter 
Conatantina  in  marriage  and 
appointed  him  hia  successor 
(578).  Almost  immediately 
afterwards  (Theopbylact, 
inlra,  aaya  the  next  day) 
Tiberius  died  and  Maurice 
succeeded  peaceably.  At  hia 
accession  he  found  that 
through  the  reckless  extrava- 
gance of  his  predecessor  the 
exchequer  was  empty  and  the 
State  bankrupt.  Inorderto 
remedy  this  Maurice  estab- 
lished the  expensea  of  the 
court  on  a  basis  of  strict 
economy.    He  gained  a  repu- 


he  wrote  to  the  emperor  beg- 
ging him  to  annul  the  election. 
The  fact  hasoften  been  quoted 
as  showing  Gregory's  accept- 
,  ance  of  an  imperial  right  cS 
veto.  Later  the  ^pe's  or- 
ganisation of  resistance 
against  the  Lombards  was 
very  displeasing  to  the  em- 
peror, though  the  goverOr 
ment  at  Constantinople  did 
nothing  to  protect  Italy. 
Further  trouble  was  caused 
by  the  tyranny  of  the  im- 
perial exarch  at  Ravenna, 
Romanua.  Against  this  pe> 
son  the  pope  took  the  Itahana 
under  his  protection.  On 
the  other  hand  the  exarch 
and  the  emperor  protected 
the  bishopa  m  the  North  of 
Italy  who  still  kept  t 


Three  Chapters  quarrel  (Pope 
■  Vigilius,  640-555).  The  b»- 
sumptionofthetitleof 
"(Ecumenical  patriarch"  by 
John  IV  of  Constantinople 
(see  John  the  Faster) 
caused  more  friction.  All 
this  explains  St.  Gregory's 
imfrienoty  feeling  towards 
Maurice;  and  it  alao  helps  to 
explain  his  ready  and  friendly 
recognition  oF  Phocas  which 
has  been  alleged  by  some  to 
be  a  blot  ia  the  great  pope'a 


t«tionforparsimonythatmadehimveryunpopularand     career.     But  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  pope  was 
ledcventuallytohiafall.    The  twenty  years  of  his  reign     misinformed  and  not  placed  in  full  possession  of  all 


the  circumstances  attending  the   change  of  govern- 

'  -"-  the  distant  East. 

HiH.  Eal.,  VI:    Theofhtlactub.  HiHoria.  tA. 
1887);    Adauee,  Brilrt^ 


DE  Boohs  (Lelpii«,  1887);    Adauee,  BtUraat  mr  OtKh.  i 

Koiiwr.  MaiiriciiulGnu,  l&Bl);  OlB»OH,D««n.i™ifaIl,  iL  . 

ilvi:  ed.  BuBT.  V  (London,  ISOS).  19-22,  67-03;  Burt,  Hulon/ 


of  lAe  LatiT  Roman  Empii 


do  not  in  any  way  stand  out  conspicuously  from  . 
Byiantine  history.  The  forces  at  work  since  Justin- 
ian, or  even  Constantine,  continued  the  gradual  decay 
of  the  Empire  under  Maurice,  as  under  Tiberius  hia 
predecesaor  and  Phocas  hia  succeasor.  For  the  Grst 
ten  years  the'  long  war  with  the  Persians  continued; 
then  a  revolution  among  the  enemy  brought  a  respite 
and  the  Roman  Emperor  was  invoked  by  Chosroca  11  ^■™„ 
to  restore  him  to  his  throne.  Unfortunately  Maurice  KmoBTti 
was  not  clever  enough  to  draw  any  profit  for  the  Em- 
pire from  this  situation.  The  Avars  and  Slava  oon- 
tinued  their  invasion  of  the  northern  provinces.  The  Hanrists,  The,  a  congregation  of  Benedictine 
SlavB  penetrated  even  to  the  Peloponnesua.  The  monks  in  France,  whose  history  extends  from  I6I8- 
Lombards  ravaged  Italy  with  impunity.  As  the  Em-  1818.  It  liegan  as  an  oflahoot  from  the  famous  n>- 
pire  could  do  nothing  to  protect  the  Italians,  they  in-     formed  Congregation  of  St-Varmes.    The  reform  had 


Hauiienae. 


B  Saint-Jban  I 


See  Lazarus, 


I  Mauri  ENNB. 


vited  the  Franks  to  their  help  (584).  This  first 
sion  of  Italy  by  the  Franks  began  the  process  that  was 
to  end  in  the  separation  of  all  the  West  from  the  old 
Empire  and  the  entablinhment  of  the  rival  line  of  Em- 

eerors  with  Charles  the  Great  (800).     Maurice  had  to 
uy  off  the  Avars  with  a  heavy  bribe  that  further  re- 


spread  from  Lorraine  into  France  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Dom  Laurent  Knard,  Prior  of  the  Coll^  de 
Cluny  in  Paris,  who  inaugurated  the  reform  in  his  own 
college.  Thence  it  spread  to  St-Augustin  dc  Limoges, 
to  Nouaille,  to  St^Faron  de  Meaui,  to  Jumi^ea,and 
''  the  BlanCB-Mantesux  in  Paris.     '     •"■" 


__, ,  ._   .   _ a  genenU 

duced  hia  scanty  resources  and  made  economy  still  ch^ter  of  the  Congregation  of  St-Vannes  was  held  at 

more  imperative.     The  emperor  became  more  and  St^Mansuet  de  Toul,  whereat  it  was  decided  that  an 

iiore  unpopular.     In  599  he  could  not  or  would  not  independent  congregation  shotdd  be  erected  for  the 


IIAtmttTft  70  ICAVatSTS 

tetbrmed  houses  in  France,  having  its  superior  residing  lished  the  Congregation  of  France  under  the  govern* 

within  that  kingdom.   This  proposal  was  supported  by  anoe  of  the  Abbey  of  Solesmes,  the  new  congregation 

Louis  XIII  as  well  as  by  Cardinals  de  Rets  and  Riche-  was  declared  the  successor  of  all  the  former  congresa- 

lieu;  letters  patent  were  granted  by  the  kin^,  and  the  tions  of  French  Benedictines,  including  that  of  ot- 

new  or^nization  was  named  the  Congregation  of  St-  Maur. 

Maur  in  order  to  obviate  anv  rivah^  oetween  its  Constitution. — ^The  early  Maurists,  like  the  Con* 
component  houses.  It  was  formally  approved  by  pegation  of  St-Vannes  from  which  ^ey  sprang, 
Pope  Gregory  XV  on  17  May,  1621,  an  approval  that  imitated  the  constitution  of  the  reformed  Congrega* 
was  confirmed  by  Urban  'VlII  six  years  later.  The  tion  of  Monte  Cassino.  But  before  many  years  ma 
reform  was  welcomed  by  many  of  great  influence  at  need  of  new  regulations  more  suitable  to  France  was 
the  Court  as  well  as  by  some  of  the  greater  monastic  recognised  and  Dom  Gr^goire  Tarisse,  the  first  Supe- 
houses  in  France.  Already^  under  the  first  president  rior-General,  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  drsLwrnf^ 
of  the  congregation,  Dom  Martin  Tesni^re  (1618-21),  them  up.  Dom  Maur  Dupont,  who  was  elected  presi- 
it  had  included  about  a  dosenffreat  houses.  By  1630  dent  in  1627,  had  already  made  an  attempt  to 
the  congre^tion  was  divideoT  into  three  provinces,  accomplish  this;  but  the  Chapter  of  1630  appointed  a 
and,  under  Dom  Gr6^ire  Tarisse,  the  first  Superior-  oommiasion,  of  which  Dom  Tarisse  was  the  cnief  mem- 
General  (1630-48),  it  included  over  80  houses.  Before  ber^  to  reconstruct  the  whole  work.  The  result  of 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy  the  number  had  their  labours  was  first  submitted  to  Dom  Athanase  de 
risen  to  over  180  monasteries,  the  congregations  being  Mongin  in  1633,  then  again  to  Dom  Tarisse  and  three 
divided  into  six  provinces:  France,  Normandy,  Brit-  others  in  1639,  and  was  finally  confirmed  by  the  Gen- 
tany.  Burgundy,  Chesal-Benott,  and  Gascony.  eral  Chapter  of  1645.    Under  these  constitutions  the 

In  its  earlier  years,  however,  the  new  congr^ation  president  (now  styled  "superior-generar*)  and  the 

was  forced,  by  Caroinal  RicheUeu,  into  an  alliance  priors  of  the  commendatory  houses  of  the  congrega- 

with  the  Congregation  of  Cluny.    Richelieu  desired  an  tion  were  to  be  elected  every  three  years.    They  were 

amalgamation  of  all  the  Benedictines  in  France  and  eli^ble  for  re-election.     The  superior-general  was  to 

even  succeeded  in  bringing  into  existence,  in  1634,  an  reside  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain-des-Pr^s  and  was 

organisation  that  was  called  the  "Congr^tion  of  St.  to  be  subject  only  to  the  general  chapter,  which  met 

Benedict"  or  "of  Cluny  and  St-Maur".   This  arrange-  every  three  years.    With  him,  however,  were  asso- 

ment,  however,  was  short-lived,  and  the  two  congre-  ciated  two  "assistants"  and  six  "visitors",  one  for 

gations  were  separated  bjr  Urban  VIII  in  1644.    I%m  each  province.   These  also  resided  at  St-Gemudn-des- 

that  date  the  (Jonf;r^gation  of  St-Maur  grew  steadily  Pr^s,  were  elected  by  the  general  chapter  every  three 

both  in  extent  and  m  influence.   Although  the  twenty-  years,  and  constituted,  with  the  superior-general,  the 

one  superior-generals  who  succeeded  Dom  Tarisse  executive  council  of  the  congregation.    Besides  these 

steadily  resisted  all  attempts  to  establish  the  congre-  officials,  the  genenJ  chapter  was  composed  of  three 

gationoeyond  the  borders  of  France,  yet  its  influence  priors  and  three  conventuals  from  each  province, 

was  widespread.    In  several  of  its  houses  schools  were  Every  three  years,  there  were  chosen  from  its  ranks 

conductea  for  the  sons  of  noble  families,  and  education  nine  "  definitors  "  who  appointed  the  six  visitors,  the 

was  provided  gratuitously  at  St-Martin  de  Vertou  for  heads  of  all  the  houses  that  possessed  no  regular  abbot, 

those  who  had  become  poor.    But  from  the  banning  the  novice-masters,  the  procurator  in  curiaf  the  preach- 

the  Maurists  refused  to  admit  houses  of  nuns  into  the  ers,  professors,  ete.,  of  the  congregation.    Each  prov- 

concregation,  liie  only  exception  being  the  Abbey  of  ince  also  possessed  ite  provincial  chapter,  which  was 

CheUes,  where,  through  Richelieu's  influence,  a  house  presided  over  by  the  visitor,  and  consisted  of  the  priors 

was  esteblii^ed  with  six  monks  to  act  as  confessors  and  one  elected  representative  from  each  house.    In 

to  the  nims.  each  province  there  were  to  be  two  novitiates.    Those 

The  congregation  soon  attracted  to  its  ranks  manv  who  desired  to  embrace  the  monastic  state  spent  one 

of  the  most  learned  scholars  of  the  period,  and  though  year  as  "postulants",  a  second  as  "novices",  and 

its  greatest  glory  undoubtedly  lies  m  the  seventeenth  then,  when  they  had  completed  the  five  years'  course 

century,  yet,  tbroughout  the  eighteenth  century  also,  of  philosophy  and  theology,  spent  a  "  year  of  recolleo- 

itcontmuedto  produce  w6rks whose  solidity  and  crit-  tion"  before  they  were  admitted  to  the  priesthood, 

ical  value  still  render  them  indispensable  to  modem  The  discipline  was  marked  by  a  return  to  the  strict  rule 

students.    It  is  true  that  the  Mauriste  were  not  free  of  St.  Benedict.    All  laboured  with  their  hands,  all 

from  the  infiltration  of  Jansenist  ideas,  and  that  the  abstained  from  flesh-meat,  all  embraced  regular  pov- 

work  of  some  of  ite  most  learned  sons  was  hampered  erty;  the  Divine  Office  was  recited  at  the  canonical 

and  coloured  by  the  fashionable  heresy  and  by  the  hours  with  great  solemnity,  silence  was  observed  for 

efforte   of  ecclesiastical   superiors  to   eradicate   it.  many  hours,  and  there  were  regular  times  for  private 

Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  also,  there  prayer  and  meditation.    And  this  discipline  was  uni- 

had  crept  into  at  least  the  central  house,  St-Germain-  form  throughout  every  house  of  the  congregation. 

des-Pi^s,  a  desire  for  some  relaxation  of  the  strict  None  were  dispensed  from  its  strict  observance  save 

reffularitv  that  had  been  the  mark  of  the  congregation ;  the  sick  and  the  infirm.    Until  the  movement  towards 

a  desire  that  was  vigorously  opposed  by  other  houses,  relaxation  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy,  the 

And,  tkouffh  there  is  reason  to  oelieve  that  the  laxity  l^uriste  were  as  renowned  for  the  austerity  of  their 

was  much  less  serious  than  it  was  represented  to  be  by  observance  as  for  the  splendour  of  their  intellectual 

the  rigoriste,  the  dissensions  caused  therebyand  by  the  achievemente. 

taint  of  Jansenism  had  weakened  the  congregation        To  the  great  body  of  studento,  indeed,  the  Maurists 

and  lowered  it  in  public  esteem  when  the  crash  of  the  are  best  Imown  by  their  services  to  ecclesiastical  and 

Revolution  came.   Yet^  right  up  to  the  suppression  literary  history,  to  patrology,  to  Biblical  studies,  to 

of  the  religious  orders  m  1790,  the  Mauriste  worked  diplomatics,    to   chronology   and    to   liturQr.    The 

steadily  at  liieir  great  undertalungs,  and  some  of  their  names  of  DD.  Luc  d'Acher]^,  Jean  Mabillon/Thiernr, 

gublications  were,  by  general  consent,  carried  on  by  Ruinart,  Francois  Lami,  Pierre  Coustant,  Denys  de 

earned  Academies  after  the  disturbance  of  the  Revo-  Sainte-Marthe,  Edmond  Martene,  Bexiiard  de  Mont- 

lution  had  passed.    In  1817  some  of  the  survivors  of  fauoon,  Maur  Francois  Dantine,  Antoine  Rivet  de  la 

those  who  nad  been  driven  from  France  in  1790  re-  Grange  and  Martin  Bouauet  recall  some  of  the  most 

turned,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  con-  scholarly  works  ever  produced.    To  these  and  to  their 

gregation.    The  project,  however,  did  not  meet  with  confreres  we  are  indebted  for  critical  and  still  India- 

the  approbation  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  congregation  pensable  editions  of  the  great  Latin  and  Greek  Fathers, 

ceased  to  exist.    The  last  surviving  membsr,  Dom  tor  the  history  of  the  Benedictine  Order  and  the  lives 

Brial,  died  in  1833.  In  1837,  when  Gregory  XVIestab-  of  ite  sainte,  for  the  ''Gallia  Christiana"  and  the 


lUUBISTS  71  lUUBISTS 

•^HistcttiB  litt^niiB  de  la  France."  for  the  "De  re  Voy,  St-Laumer-de-Blois,  Ste-Trinit^-de-VendOme.'^ 

Diplomatica"  and  ^L'ait  de  v^riner  les  dates",  for  Diocese  of  Chalon-sur-Saone:  St-Pierre. — ^Diocese  of 

"L'antiquit^    expliqude    et    representee"  and  the  Dijon: St-Benigne-de-Dn on, St-Seine-1'Abbaye. — Dio- 

"PalseographiaGneca",forthe''Kecueilde6hi8torien8  cese  of  Langres:  Bdze,  Molesmes,  Molosme,  Moutier- 

des  Gaules  ,  the  "  Vetenim  scriptonim  amplissima  col-  Saint-Jean,  St^Michel-de-Tonnerre. — ^Diocese  of   Le 

lectio",  the ''Thesaurus  Anecaotorum'',tne"Spidle-  Mans:   St-Calais. — ^Diocese  of  Lyozvs;  Ambronay. — 

gi\im  vetenim  scriptonim "y  the  "Museum  Italicum",  Diocese  of  Orleans:  Bonne-Nouvelle,  St-Benott-sux^ 

the  *' Voyage  litteraire",  and  numerous  other  works  Loire. — Diocese    of    Sens:    Ferri^res.  St-Pienne-de- 

that  are  the  foundation  of   modem  historical  and  Melun,St-Pierre-le-Vif-de-Sens,Ste-Goiombe-lds-Sen8, 
liturgical  studies.    For  nearly  two  centuries  the  neat        (5)  Province  of  Ghezal-Benott. — ^Diocese  of  Bourges: 

works  that  were  the  result  m  the  foresight  and  high  Che«d-Benott,     St-Benott-du-Sault,     8t-Suli)ice-de» 

ideals  of  Dom  Gr^goire  Tarisse,  were  carried  on  with  Bourges,  Vienon. — Diocese  of  Cahors:    SouiUac.-* 

an  industry^  a  devotion,  and  a  mastery  that  aroused  Diocese  of  Clermont:  Chaise-Dieu,  Issoire,  Mauriac, 

the  admiration  of  the  learned  world.    To  this  day,  all  St-Allyre-de^lermont. — Diocese    of    La    Rochelle: 

who  labour  to  elucidate  the  past  ages  and  to  under-  Mortagne-sur-S^vre. — ^Diocese  of  Limo^:  Beaulieu, 

stand  the  growth  of  Western  Christendom,  must  ac-  Meymac.    St-Angel,    St-Augustin-de-Limoges,   Soli* 

knowledge  their  indebtedness  to  the  Maunst  Coogre-  gnao. — ^Diocese  of  Lucon:  St-Michel-en-l'Henn. — Dio- 

gatioa.  ^  ^  cese  of  Lyons:   Savigneux. — Diocese  of  P^rigueux: 

The  foUowing  were  the  monasteries  of  the  Mauiist  Brantdme. — ^Diocese  of  Poitiers:  Nouaill^  St-Cynrieiw 

Congregation  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  oen-  de-Poitiers,   St-Jouin-de-Mames,   St.   Ltonard   der 

tury:^ —  Ferriftres.   St-Maixent.    St-Savin. — ^Diocese    of   St- 

(1)  Province  of  France. — Diocese  of  Amiens:  Corbie,  Flour:  Cnanteuges. — ^Diocese  of  Saintes:  Bassac,  St- 
St-Fu8den-aux-Bois^t-Jos8e-«ur-mer,  St.  Riauier,  St-  Jean-d'An^ly. 

Val^ry. — ^Diocese  of  B«iuvais:  BreteiiilHsur-Noye,  St-        (6)  Province  of  Gascony. — Diocese  of  Agde:  St* 

Lucien-de-Beauvais. — Diocese  of  Boulogne  :St-Sauve-  Tiberi. — Diocese  of  Agen:  Eysses,  St-Maurin,  Ste- 

de-Montreuil,  Samer. — ^Diocese  of  Chartres:  Meulan.  Livrade. — Diocese    d    Aire:    La  Reule,    St-r6-de« 

— ^Diooeee  of  Laon:   Nogent-sous-Coucy,  Ribemont,  Generez,      St-Savin,      St-Sever-Can-de-Gascogoew— 

8Wean-de-Laon,  St-Nicholas-aux-Bois,  St-Vincent-  Diocese   of  Alais:    St-Pierre-de-Saive. — ^Diocese   of 

de-Laon. — Diocese  of  Meaux:   Rebais,  St-Faron-de-  Aries:  Montmajeur. — ^Diocese  of  Avignon:  Rochefort, 

Meaux,  St-Fiacre. — ^Diocese  of  Noyon:   Mont-Saint-  St-Andr^e-Villeneuve. — ^Diocese  of  B^ziers:  ViUe- 

Quentin,     St-Eloi-de-Noyon,      Str-Quentin-en-risle.  magne. — ^Diocese  of  Bordeaux:    La  Sauve-Majeure, 

— Diocese   of  Paris:    ArgenteuiL    Chelles,    Lagny,  StCH^Droix-de-Bordeaux. — ^Diocese     of    Carcassonne: 

Les-Blancs-Manteaux-de-Paris,    St-Denis-de-France,  Montolieu,     Notre-Dame-de-la-Grasse. — ^Diocese     of 

St-Oermain-des-Pr^. — Diocese    of    Reims:     Notre-  Dax:   St-Jean-de-Sorde. — Diocese  of  Grenoble:  St- 

Dame-de-Rethel,   St-Basle,    St-Marcoul-de-Corbeny,  Robert-de-Comillon. — ^Diocese   of   Laveur:    Sor&se. 

St-Nicaise-de-Rcams,  St-Remi-de-Reim&,  St-Thierry.  ^-Diocese  of  Lescar:  St-Pierre-de-Ia-R4ole. — ^Diocese 

— Diocese  of  Rouen;  Le  Tr^port.  St-Martin-de-Pon-  of  Loddve:  St-Guilhem-le-Dtert. — ^Diocese  of  Mire> 

toise. — Diocese   of    Soissons:     Cfh^zv,    Orbais,    St-  poix:  Camon. — Diocese  of  Montpellier:  St-Sauveur- 

Comeille-de-C!ompidgDe,    St-Cr6pin-dfy-Sois8ons,    St-  d'Aniane. — ^Diocese  of  Narbonne:  La  Morguier.  St* 

M6dard-de-Soissons.  PiemKle-Caunes. — Diocese  of  Nimes:  St-Bausille. — 

(2)  Province  of  Normandy. — ^Diocese  of  Bayeux:  Diocese  of  St-Pons:StrChinian. — ^Diocese  of  Toulouse: 
Cerisy-la-Foret,  Fontenay,  St-£tienne-de-Caen,  St-  Le-Mas-Gamier,  Notre-Dame-de-la-Daurade. 
Vigor-le-Grand. — Diocese  of  Beauvais:  St-Germer-  The  Superiors  of  the  Congregation  were: — Presi- 
de-Flay. — ^Diocese  of  Chartres:  Coulombs,  Josaphat-  dents:  D.  Martin  Tesni^re  (161^21),  D.  Columban 
1^8-Chartres,  St-Florentin-de-Bonneval,  St-P^re-en-  R^gnier  (1621-24),  D.  Martin  Tesnidre  (1624-27),  D. 
Valine,  Tiron. — ^Diocese    of    Coutances:    Lessay. —  Maur  Dupont  (1627-30). 

Diocese  of  Evreux:  Conches,  Ivry-la-Bataille,  Lyre,        Superiors-general: — D.  Gr^goire  Tarisse  (1630-48), 

St-Taurin  d'Evreux. — Diocese  of  Le  Mans:  LonJay-  D.  Jean  Harel  (1648-60),  D.  Bernard  Audebert  (1660- 

TAbbaye. — ^Diocese  of  Lisieux:  Beaumont-en-Auge,  72),D.VincentMar8olle  (1672-81),  D.  Michel  ISendit 

La    Couture^e-Bemay,    St-Evroult  d'Ouches,  St-  Brachet  (1681-87),  D.  Claude  Boistard  (1687-1705), 

Pierre    de    Pr6aux. — Diocese  of  Rouen:    Aumale,  D.  Simon  Bougis  (1705-11)|^D.  Amoulde  Loo  (1711- 

Bonne-Nouvelle,   Fdcamp,   Jumidges.    Le  BeCj^St-  14),  D.PetevderHostallene  (1714-20),  D.  Denysde 

George»<le-Boecherville,  St-Ouen-de-Kouen.  St-Wan-  Sainte-Marthe  (1720-25),  D.  Pierre  Thibault  (1725- 

drille-Rengon.  Valmont. — ^Diocese  of  Sto:  St-Martin-  29),  D.  Jean  Baptiste  Alaydon  (1729-32),  D.  Herv6 

de^^z,  St-Pierre-sur-Dive.  Menard  (1732-36),  D.  Claude  Dupr§   (1736-37),  D. 

(3)  Province  of  Brittany. — ^Diocese  of  Angers:  R^6  Laneau  ri737-54),  D.  Jacques  Maumousseau 
Bourgeuil,  Ch&teau-Gontier,  Craon,  Notre-Dame-de-  (1754-56),  D.  Marie  Joseph  Delrue  (1756-66),  D. 
rBvidre,  St-Aubin-d'Angers,  St-Florent-de-Saumur,  Pierre  Francois  Boudier  (1766-72),  D.  R^n6  Gillot 
St-Florent-le-Vieil,  St-Maur-eur-Loire,  St-Nicolas-  (1772-78),  D.  Charles  Lacroix  (1778-81),  D.  Charti6- 
d 'Angers,  St-Serge-d' Angers. — ^Diocese  of  Avranches:  Mousso  (1781-83),  D.  Antoine  Chevreux  (1783-92). 
Mont-Saiat-Michel. — ^Diocese  of  Dol :  Le  Tronchet,  St-  The  Procurators-General  in  Rome,  who  were  all  of 
Jacut-de-Ia-Mer. — ^Diocese  of  Le  Mans:  Evron,  St-  importance  in  the  histoiv  of  the  Conmgation,  were:— 
Pierre-de-la-Couture,  St-Vincent-du-Mans,  Solesmes,  D.  Placide  Le  Simon  (1623-61);  D.  Gabriel  Flam- 
Tuff^.— Diocese  of  Nantes:  Blanche-Couronne,  Notre-  bart  (1665-72),  D.  Antoine  Durban  (1672-81),  D. 
Dame-de-la-Chaume,  Pirmil,  St-Gildas-des-Bois,  Ver-  Gabriel  Flambart  (1681-84),  D.  Claude  Estiennot 
tou.— Diocese  of  Poitiers:  Montreuil-Bellay.— Dio-  (1684-99),  D.  Bernard  de  Montfaucon  (1699-1701), 
cese  of  Quimper:  Landevenec,  Quimperl^. — ^Diocese  D.  Guillaume  Laparre  (1701-11).  D.  Philippe  Rafier 
of  Rennes:  St-Magloire-de-Lehon,  St-Melaine^e-  (1711-16),  D.  Charles  Conrade  (1716-25),  D.  Pierre 
Renoes,  Ste-Croix-de-Vitr6. — ^Diocese  of  St-Brieuc:  Maloet  (1721-33).  No  successor  to  D.  Maloet  was 
Lantenac. — Diocese  of  Saint-Malo:  St-Malo. — ^Diocese  appointed. 

of  St-Pol-de-L^n:  St-Mathieu-de-Fine-Terre.— Dio-        Ai^noK,  Th0  ConffrwoUm  of  StrMaur  in  Domuide  Review 

ee8eofTours:Beaulieu,Cormery,Marmoutier,Noyers,  (Mansh  Mid  July,  1006):    Anqbr,  Lea  dSptndancM  deSt- 

Vaanes:    St-GildaS-de-RhuiS.  St-Sauveur-de-Redon.  Revue  MabOon  IV,  (1909);   Bbaunikr,  RecueU  hiatoHque  dee 

(4)  Province  of  Burgundy. — ^Diocese  of  Autim:  9r?**^f^'JSJ*^'4^**v/'  p»^^«  4f.^T^*  ifUnduetion 
CoriHgny.  Fljmgay  St-Jfart^Ue^O^  ffiSSL  IJIk^'o'S.B^^'^tel^e^^^'tt  $1 
Auzene:    St-Gennain.— Diocese  oC  Blois:   Pont-to-  eorreevfmdanu  UtUraine  de  binSdietine  de  Si-Mavr  dansTm 


pfaikMMhy  and 

thcoloer.  b.at  Spoleto,  31  Dm.,  1619;  d.  in  Rmne,  13 

Jan..  1687.    He  eatered  the  Socirty  of  Jesus,  21  April, 

1636.     After  fintshing  tua  eoune  of  studies  &nd  t«*cb- 

ing  humuiiues  at  the  Colkge  of  lI»eentA.  he  held  b 

tbe  same  place  the  diair  of  ptiilaaopliy  for  three  yeart. 

and  subaequenth-  in  Bame  for  aei-vral  j-eftn.     Then  h» 

^     was  pKRDoIed  to  the  chair  of  thcolo^  at  the  Roman 

<ii     CoH^.  and  iTOiMoed  in  this  pomtion  for  a  consider- 

*^    able  numberof  yean.     For  a  period  he  was  a ko  rector 

aoui.     °f  *^  bttfT  instituticn.     The  mental  endowment  of 

iy^2-:     Fatberyaunn  waaabappy  cooibiiiatioiiof  tfaespecu- 

ii™™n'^^     htivc  and  the  practical  turn  of  mind.     His  doctrine 

"X^^^om,     *>B  noted  for  its  toundneaa  and  aolidttv;  At  the  same 

time,  he  eonatajitly  put  in  pcactice  St.  Paul's  priociple. 

"not  to  be  iwm  wise  than  it  bdnveth  to  be  wise,  but 

to  be  wiae  unto  K>bciely".     Thou^  he  was  a  good 

philosopher  and  theologiaii.  he 

waa  a  better  relicious.     Thow 

,  jr«SiS«'s;jirjs.;;ss  -n  .o,».i»iedTfu,  him  «, 

(Aantran.  iriii  :  Romin,  .•iupiM-  CODTmredthat  he  oeTer  loet  his 

Z^L2nI  ,1^ S'jf'"^'!''  ^  'I'An-  baptismal  innocence.      Neither 

SSSTiM  *-i*«''rS^^a™<  li  *^  holine«    oor    his   learning 

timluiim  TanL  KS7-.  .-tuf.  U  made  him  a  diaa^«eable  rom- 

^rtmia-  mp^TD-  gfj>fral  *■  la  nm-  tBnion  Or  an  uiMksirable  friend. 

9issitsX:'iuS!r<«".  Wukii.h^i<,„.wbfth« 

si-W:  Tivii'v.  Hi^£nrt  Iiut.ii»  it  he  was  more  admired  or  loved 

iaam»r*oiUioT,cfr.^-i(oBr  iBrTi~^j.  br  Ibose  wbo came  ioto  ooDtact 

««    MdKrn    (P«lm.    d.    Milk.™.  "™'^       .  ■        ,^     , 

imoj;  v»cu/.«fi^-'J<^mi^S('  TbefoUowingworksof  Fatfatf 

Ma^  h  _St-r,^Tmair.-^t-F'{M  'PiiM.  Haurus  deserve  mention;    (1| 


dtiaanVT^r^ianJiStilout.i'Pvu,  . — 

■   ^f-^t."  ,"?   "/«""   ^^^  Collegio  Romano   Philosophic 


■bo  (be  l»blio,r.ph™  .ttKb^  lo  57^1^^^.  ■  (           u    T"* 

tte  uticta  OB    nlrbnied  MiuKsU  dlilded  into    four  books,    and 

is  T»«  CiiBouc  E^cTciflpemi.  appeared  at  Rome  in  1658.     A 

Lmue  A..St.  L.ToKE.  second  edition  was   iasited  in 

MulitilU.   SeePoBrLocis,  IGTO.      The  latest  edition,   in 

Dlocisc  OF.  three  volumea,  is  prefaced   bv 

„  .„        ,     ___.          o  •  letter  of  Father  Liberatore. 

HamitilU  d«  Portn.      Sae  .od    appeared    in    Le     Mans. 

OTrHELr,  M.»i-miCE.                                                 Badtt  Kwima  1875-76.   (2)"  Aristotelis opera 

Mannu,   Saist,    deacon,                    pwurfDo, CJnrebof St.P»««.  qu^    extant    omnia,     brpii 

son   of   Equitius.  a   nobleman                                     rtruMo,  paraph  rasi,   ac  Iitter«  per- 

dt  Rook,  but  claitned  also  by  Fondi,  Gallipoli,  La-  petuo  inhcrentc  explanstione  illustrata".     Tlie  work 

veDoetc,  (Dckhaye, "  Legends",  London,  1907,  59);  appeared  in  s\x  ralumea.  Rome.  1668.     The  second 

d.  5M.    Fcasl,  15' Jan.    He  is  reprcaented  as  an  abbot  volume,  containing!  -Aristotle's  moral  philosophy,  was 

with  croiier,  or  with  book  and  censer,  or  holding  the  edited  anew  in  lCSW-98.     The  whole  work  was  pub- 

weiehts  and  toeaauies  of  food  and  drink  given  him  iishedaeain  in  Pari8,lSS5-S7, by  Fathers  Ehrle.Felch- 

by  his  holy  master.     Ue  is  the  patron  of  clurcoal-  lin.  and  Berinpr;   this  edition  formed  part  of  tl« 

buraera,  coppefstniths    etc. — in    Belgium    of    shoe-  collection entit fed  "Bil>liotbecaTbeoloKiKet  Philoso- 

makera — and  is   invoked    aptinst    gout,   hoarseness  piiiffi  scholastic*''.    (3) ''Qtuestionum  theologicarum 

etc.   (Kericr).  .  He  was  a  disciple  of  Si.  Elenedict,  and  11.  6",  publisLedat  Rome.  16.6-79;  this  work  contains 

his  chief  support  at  Subiaco.     By  St.  Gregory  the  alltheprincipaltbeologicaltreatisea.   (4)  "Opustheol- 

Great  f Lib.  Dialog.,  II)  he  is  descnbed  as  a  model  of  ogicum",  published  in  three  folio  x-olumea  at  Rome, 


■  Acta  88.  0. 8.  B,   ,  1, 274)  he  went  to  I  rancc  m  itVi,  contains  some  mlormaLon  conecrtung  the  aut 

and  became  the  founder  and  superior  of  the  abbev  at  also  his  picture  engraved  bv  Louis  Lenfant. 

Glanfeuil,   later  known   by  hia    name.      This  Vita,  j^^'^v'^  ■Ha""''"'^'  *"""'"""- **'"''**i'" 

ascribed  to  a  companion,  the  monk  Faustus  of  Monte  "■'■■'■"■  Tsa»q.  ^         , 


Acta  88.  0. 8.  B,",  1, 274)  be  went  to  France  in  543,  contains  some  information  concerning  the  author,  and 

BOiiaOiivi*  itbC. 

Cassino,  has  been  severely  atlacited.     Dole  hay  e  (loc,  "-  J.         as. 

dt.,  106)  callsit  atorgery  of  AblxilO<loot  Gbnteuilin         ««.„__    i„   .,  i~ .__i'     i       j    _.   . 

Ita  m»th  «»tuT.  but  Adlboch  (Stud.  u.  Mittheil.,  K„!;'?7\5Sf  "^"iS^  i"'',""T;j 

1903,3;   1908,  l?5)n»ke..«alou.ddeac..     On  tb^  fe?  .J'b™,'^',^  SJ.    ,5?     'Hf^fTt'-       If' 

-,. ' a   II     _       ui : r  .1 :.i.  r.i.  ; aicl  at  Kome  on  10  May,  ISli.     He  made  his  eanv 

fcumum  S.  ilaun,  a  hlesiang  ot  the  sick  with  invoca-      ,„■- -     ,  ■    _  ,■  .     .    ■"      ^  ,     .    ,    - _         j  , • 

•n   '•"         w       '     _;     _  -_  It     1 j: (  n:.  ._i_  studies  m  hia  native  town  and  at  Avumon.  and  bv 

tion  of  St.  M;iuruB  given  in  the  Appendix  of  Ilituale  ,.  „  „,„     .  „;„.,»...„,   k.>,i   ,^^-.^\^i~i   \X,  lU-Ti      ■_! 

■W™,  „  "Studio  „.  MilihSP-  (1S82),  165.  S«Jf  t:ZT;^^^Sl'  ^SlSS 

320: XIII.  170:  XIv'.23.315:X%-|.*.W:  l^sDKT.Ar.U,tnnui-  the  attenlion  of  a  Brand-nepnew  Of  hfnelon  bj  a  eu- 

ivd'i  de  rabhn<it  dr  S.  Maur  am  Vllt-  rt  IX-  tiicWi  (Angpni.  logy  of  the  great  archbishop,   and   was   appointed 

ie05>;    loFK.  La  ina  hut.  manturriin  tfa  fatitaut  dt  S.  il.  Vicar-General  o(  the  Diocese  of  Lombei  in  Cascony. 

(Anwn.  1907);  CatTu^s.^  S«^B^^  ».  Waur.  SI.       _  ,„  y--,^  he  was  selected  by  the  Academy  to  preach  the 

^^^  pan«ryric  of  St.  Louis  at  the  Louvre.     His  success 
was  such  that  the  audience  interrupted  hiiQ  with  loud 


HAXJBMTinB 


73 


MAZENTinS 


A|^Iaus&  Ab  a  reward  he  received  a  benefice  and  ap- 
pointment as  royal  preacher.  At  the  General  Synod 
of  1775  he  fearlessly  exposed  the  failings  of  the  court 
bishops,  and  in  1784,  preaching  on  St.  Vincent  of 
Paul,  he  denounced  the  ingratitude  of  France  towards 
one  of  her  worthiest  sons.  These  two  sermons  have 
been  preserved;  the  remainder  were  burnt  by  Maury 
himself — ^to  save,  as  he  said,  his  reputation.  Never- 
theless, it  was  owing  to  them  that  ne  obtained  a  seat 
in  the  Academy  (1784).  In  1789  he  was  elected  by 
the  clergy  of  P^ronne  to  be  their  deputy  in  the  States- 
General,  and  soon  became  the  acknowledged  leader 
of  the  Court  and  Church  party.  Mirabeau  s  name  at 
once  occurs  whenever  the  National  Assembly  is  men- 
tioned. Little  is  heard  of  the  Abb^  Maury,  who  was 
the  great  tribune's  most  doughty  adversary,  and  who, 
though  always  defeated  on  the  vote,  was  not  seldom 
the  conqueror  in  the  debate.  In  September,  1791. 
the  Assemblv  was  dissolved,  and  Mauiy  quitted 
France  for  Coblens,  the  headquarters  of  the  emigrants. 
Here  he  was  received  by  the  king's  brothers  with 
extraordinary  attention.  Pius  VI  invited  him  to  re- 
side in  Rome,  and  created  him  Archbishop  of  Nicsea 
(April,  1792).  Soon  afterwards  he  represented  the 
Holy  See  at  the  Diet  of  Frankfort,  where  Francis  II 
was  elected  emperor.  The  royal  and  noble  person- 
ages assembled  there  vied  with  one  another  in  showing 
him  honour.  On  his  return  he  was  made  cardinal  and 
Archbishop  of  Montefiascone.  When  the  Republican 
armies  overran  Italy  in  1798,  Maury  fled  to  Venice, 
and  took  a  prominent  part,  as  representative  of  Louis 
XVIII,  in  the  conclave  at  which  Pius  VII  was  elected 
(1800).  He  did  his  best  to  stop  the  drawing  up  of  the 
Concordat,  but  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  desert- 
ing his  royal  master  and  returning  to  Paris.  Just  as 
he  had  given  his  whole  energies  to  the  royal  cause,  so 
now  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  Napoleon.  In  the 
diflicult  question  of  the  divorce  he  sided  with  the 
emperor,  and  it  was  he  who  su^ested  a  means  of  dis- 
pensing with  the  papal  institution  of  the  bishops.  He 
accepted  from  Napoleon  in  this  way  the  See  of  Paris, 
though  he  never  styled  himself  anjrthing  but  arch- 
bishop-elect. At  the  fall  of  the  Empire  (April,  1814), 
he  was  ordered  to  quit  France,  and  was  suspended  by 
the  pope.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he  was  con- 
fined in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  Consalvi  obtained 
his  release,  and  broii^ht  about  his  reconciliation  with 
Pius  VII.  His  position  as  cardinal  was  restored  to 
him,  and  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  Maury  did  not  live  long  to 
enjo^  his  restoration  to  papal  favour.  The  hardships 
of  his  prison  life  had  destroyed  his  constitution,  and 
aggravated  the  malady  from  which  he  had  long  been 
suffering.  Early  in  Mdy,  1817,  his  stren^h  had  so 
failed  that  the  Last  Sacraments  were  admmistered  to 
him.  During  the  night  of  10  May  his  attendants 
found  him  lying  deaS  with  his  rosary  still  in  his 
grasp. 

Louis  XVni  had  obstinately  refused  all  reconcilia- 
tion, and  now  forbade  his  body  to  be  buried  in  his 
titular  church.  Trinity  dei  Monti.  By  order  of  the 
pope  the  remains  were  laid  before  the  high  altar  of  the 
Chiesa  Nuova,  by  the  side  of  Baronius  and  Tarugi. 
When  Pius  VII  heard  of  his  death  he  said:  *'  He  com- 
mitted many  faults,  but  who  is  there  that  has  not 
done  the  like?  I  myself  have  committed  many  grave 
ones." 

(EuvreM  Choinsa  (Paris,  1827);  Poujouult,  Le  Cardinal 
Maury:  m  Vie  A  9e»  (Euvtm  (Paris,  1865);  Ricard,  L'AbM 
Maury,  174fi-t79t  (Paris,  1887);  Idem,  Corretpondance  Diplo- 
matiqus  et  Mhnoirea  inSdiia  du  CardincU  Maury ,  1799-1817 
(liUe.  1801);  Bomrr-MAXTBT,  Le  Cardinal  Maury  d'apr^a  aa 
Correspondance  H  aea  M&moirea  infdHa  (Paris,  1892) ;  Saxntb- 
Bbutb.  Cauaeriea  du  Limdi,  IV  (Paris,  1863);  Scannell  in 
friah  Bed,  Record  (1802). 

T,  B.  Scannell. 

MazflntiiUi  Joannss,  leader  of  the  so-called  Scyth- 
ian m<mk8,  appears  in  history  at  Constantinople 


in  519  and  520.  These  m(»iks  adopted  the  formula: 
"  One  of  the  Trinitv  suffered  in  the  flesh"  to  exclude 
Nestorianism  and  Monophysitism,  and  they  sought  to 
have  the  works  of  Faustus  of  Riez  condemned  as  being 
tainted  with  Pela^anism.  On  both  these  points  they 
met  with  opposition.  John  Maxentius  presented  an 
appeal  to  the  papal  legates  then  at  Constantinople  (Ep. 
ad  legatos  secus  apostolicse,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i,  75-S6); 
but  it  failed  to  bring  forth  a  favourable  decision.  Some 
of  the  monks  (not  Maxentius,  however)  proceeded, 
therefore,  to  Rome  to  lay  the  case  before  Pope  Hor- 
misdas.  As  the  latter  delayed  his  decision,  tney  ad- 
dressed themselves  to  some  African  bishops,  banished 
to  Sardinia,  and  St.  Fulgentius,  answering  in  the  name 
of  these  prelates,  warmly  endorsed  their  cause  (Fulg. 
ep.,  xvii  m  P.  L.,  LXV,  451-93).  Early  in  August,  520, 
tne  monks  left  Rome.  Shortly  after,  13  August,  520, 
Hormisdas  addressed  a  letter  to  the  African  bishop, 
Possessor,  then  at  Constantinople,  in  which  he  severely 
condemned  the  conduct  of  the  Scythian  monks,  also 
declaring  that  the  writings  of  Faustus  were  not  re- 
ceived among  the  authoritative  works  of  the  Fathers 
and  that  the  sound  doctrine  on  grace  was  contained  in 
the  works  of  St.  Augustine  (Hormisdse  ep.,  cxxiv  in 
Tiuel,  p.  926).  Maxentius  assailed  this  letter  in  the 
strongest  language  as  a  document  written  by  heretics 
and  circulated  under  the  pope's  name  (Ad  epistulam 
Hormisdse  responsio,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i,  93-112). 
This  is  the  last  trace  of  the  Sc3rthian  monks  and  their 
leader  in  history.  The  identification  of  John  Maxen- 
tius with  the  priest  John  to  whom  Fulgentius  ad- 
dressed his  "  De  veritate  prsedestinationis  etc."  and 
with  the  priest  and  archimandrite,  John,  to  whom  the 
African  bishops  sent  their  ''Epistula  s^odica",  rests 
on  a  baseless  assumption.  Maxentius  is  also  the 
author  of:  (1)  two  dialogues  against  the  Nestorians; 
(2)  twelve  anathematisms  against  the  Nestorians;  (3) 
a  treatise  against  the  Aoephali  (Monophysites).  As 
to  the  "  Professio  de  Christo",  printed  as  a  separate 
work,  it  is  but  a  part  of  the  "  Epistola  ad  legatos  sedis 
apostolicse".  His  works,  originally  written  in  Latin, 
have  reached  us  in  a  rather  unsatisfactory  condition. 
They  were  first  published  by  Cochlseus  (Basle  and 
Hagenau,  1520),  reprinted  m  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  i, 

75-158. 

NoRis.  opera  Omnia  (Verona.  1729),  I.  474-604;  III.  775- 
942;   LooFS,  Leontiua  von  Ehfaanz,  229-61,  in  Texle  und  Untef 
aueh.t  III  (LeipBiK,  1887);  Davids  in  Did.  Chrial.  Bioy.,  b.  v. 
Maxentiua  (4);    Bardbnhbwkb,  Patrology,  tr.   Sbahan   (81 
Louis,  1908),  548-49. 

N.  A.  Wbbbb. 

Maxentius,  Mahcus  Aubelius,  Roman  Emperor 
306-12,  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximianus  Herculiua 
and  son-in-law  of  the  chief  Em|>eror  Galerius.  After 
his  father's  abdication  he  lived  in  Roihe  as  a  private 
citizen;  but  when  Galerius  established  in  Rome  and 
Italy  the  new  poll  and  land  taxes  decreed  by  Diocle- 
tian he  was  elected  (28  October,  306)  rival  emperor. 
Maxentius  owed  his  elevation  not  to  personal  merit 
but  to  the  senators  and  pretorians  who,  because  of  the 
unusual  measures  of  the  emperor,  feared  lest  thev 
should  lose  their  privileged  position.  Maxentius  s 
adherents  then  summoned  his  father  from  Campania 
to  Rome;  and  the  youne  ruler  invested  him  witn  the 
purple  as  co-regent.  Thus  the  Roman  empire  had 
six  rulers.  Severus,  the  Augustus  of  the  West,  re- 
ceived a  commission  from  Gralerius  to  expel  the 
youthful  usurper  from  Rome;  but  when  he  reached 
the  capital,  part  of  his  army  deserted  to  their  old  com- 
mander, Maximian.  Severus  with  a  few  followers 
escaped  to  Ravenna  so  as  to  maintain  military  rela- 
tions with  Galerius.  He  then  made  terms  with 
Maximian  and  surrendered  to  him,  expecting  honour- 
able treatment,  but  he  was  imprisoned  soon  after- 
wards and,  Galerius  approaching  from  Illyria  with  an 
army,  he  was  forced  to  commit  suicide.  Alar*nccl  at 
Galerius's  intervention,  Maximian  on  behalf  r^  M.rv-n- 


74 


MAXTMTANUS 


tiu8,  negotiated  with  Constantine  to  whom  he  p^ve  his 
daughter  Fausta  as  bride.  Meanwhile  Galenus  with 
his  Tllyrian  legions  pushed  forward  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Rome,  but  finding  that  he  was  unable  to  oc- 
cupy it  or  any  of  tJie  fortined  places,  he  withdrew  his 
forces.  At  his  suggestion  a  conference  of  all  the 
Gssars  took  place  at  Camuntum  on  the  Danube  (307) 
in  which  the  prestige  of  Diocletian  had  great  influence. 
Maxentius  retained  his  imperial  dignity.  Though  it 
is  true  that  soon  after  this  he  put  an  end  to  the  i)erBecu- 
tion  of  the  Christians  in  Italv  and  Africa,  his  reign  was 
stained  with  acts  of  debauchery  and  cruelty. 

After  his  father's  death,  MiuEentius  ana  Maximin, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  fearing  the  political  alliance  of 
Constantino  and  Licinius,  came  to  an  understanding 
imfriendly  to  Constantine.  Maxentius  made  exten- 
sive military  preparations,  and  destroyed  the  statues 
and  paintings  of  Constantme.  Constantine  advanced 
over  what  is  now  Mont  Cenis  with  a  comparatively 
small  but  well-drilled  army  and,  victorious  in  several 
battles,  occupied  Upper  Italy;  he  then  marched 
against  Rome,  where  his  opponent,  strongly  en- 
trenched behind  the  Tiber  and  the  walls  of  Aurelius, 
hoped  to  resist  him  successfully.  Thoughtlessly 
and  shortsightedly,  Maxentius,  abandoning  this  ex- 
cellent position,  made  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the 
'nber  (near  the  Milvian  Bridge  now  Ponte  Molle),  and 
awaited  the  troops  of  Constantine  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river.  It  was  then  that  occurred  the  miracle  re- 
lated by  Eusebius  (Vita  Constant.  1, 2^30),  that  when 
Constantine  implored  supernatural  aid,  a  fiery  cross 
appeared  over  the  sun  with  the  legend:  ro&rtf  vUa 
(conquer  with  this).  Further,  he  md  been  advised 
by  Cnrist,  in  a  dream  the  previous  nieht,  to  go  into 
battle  armed  with  this  sign.  Maxentiusrs  soldiers  were 
thrown  into  confusion  bv  the  impetuosity  of  the 
Gallic  horsemen,  and  in  the  efforts  of  the  retreating 
masses  to  escape  over  the  narrow  bridge,  many  were 
thrown  into  tne  river  and  drowned,  among  them 
MBUcentius  (28  October,  312).  His  son  and  counsel- 
lors were  put  to  death,  but  his  officials  and  depen- 
dents retained  their  positions. 

6C3IXLLER.  Oeach,  d.  Hhniachen  KaUeneitt  II  (Gotha,  1887); 
!>■  Waai^  Rotna  Sacra  (Munich,  1905). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Mazfleld  (vere  Macclesfield),  Thomas,  Venebp 
ABLE,  English  priest  and  martyr,  d.  in  Stafford  gaol, 
about  1590,  martyred  at  Tyburn,  London,  Monday, 
1  July,  1616.  He  was  one  of  the  younger  sons  oi 
William  Macclesfield  of  Chesterton  and  Maer  and  As- 
ton, Staffordshire  (a  firm  recusant,  condemned  to 
death  in  1587  for  harbouring  priests,  one  of  whom  was 
his  brother  Humphrey),  and  Ursula,  daughter  of 
Francis  Roos,  of  Laxton,  Nottinghamshire.  William 
Macclesfield  is  said  to  have  died  in  prison  and  ijs  one  of 
the  proBtermissi  as  William  Maxfiela ;  but,  as  his  death 
occurred  in  1608,  this  is  doubtful.  Thomas  arrived  at 
the  English  College  at  Douai  on  16  March,  1602-3,  but 
had  to  return  to  England  17  May,  1610,  owing  to  ill 
health.  In  1614  he  went  back  to  Douai,  was  oiv 
dfdned  priest,  and  in  the  next  year  came  to  London. 
Within  three  months  of  landing  he  was  arrested,  and 
sent  to  the  Gatehouse,  Westminster.  After  about 
eight  months'  imprisonment,  he  tried  to  escape  by  a 
rope  let  down  from  the  window  in  his  cell,  but  was 
captiu^d  on  reaching  the  groimd.  This  was  at  mid- 
night 14-15  June.  1616.  For  seventy  hours  he  was 
E laced  in  the  stocks  in  a  filthy  dungeon  at  the  Gate- 
ouse,  and  wsts  then  on  Monday  night  (17  June)  re- 
moved to  Newgate,  where  he  was  set  amongst  the 
worst  criminals,  two  of  whom  he  converted.  On 
Wednesday,  26  June,  he  was  brought  to  the  bar  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  and  the  next  day  was  condemned  solelv 
for  being  a  priest,  under  27  Elis.,  c,  2.  The  Spanish 
ambassador  did  his  best  to  obtain  a  pardon,  or  at  least 
a  reprieve;  but,  finding  his  efforts  ima vailing^  had 
solemn  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  m  his 


chapel  during  the  martyr's  last  night  on  earth.  The 
procession  to  Tyburn  early  on  the  following  morning 
was  joined  by  many  devout  Spaniards,  who,  in  spite  of 
insults  and  mockery,  persisted  in  forming  a  guard  of 
honour  for  the  martyr.  Tyburn -tree  itself  was 
found  decorated  with  garlands,  and  the  ground  round 
about  strewn  with  sweet  herbs.  The  sheriff  ordered 
the  martyr  to  be  cut  down  alive,  but  popular  feeling 
was  too  strong,  and  the  disembowelling  did  not  takf 
place  tiU  he  was  quite  senseless.  Half  of  his  relics  are 
now  at  Downside  Abbey,  near  Bath. 

Life  and  Mariyrdom  of  Mr.  Maa^M,  Priett  1616,  ed. 
Pollen,  in  Caiholic  Record  Societu,  III,  30-58;  Challoxcb. 
MemoirM  of  Miawionary  Prwate,  11  (Manchester,  1803).  51; 
Pollabd  in  Diet.  Nat.  Bioo.,  «.  v.:  Stanton,  Menologu  of  En^ 
land  and  TToZm  (London.  1887).  298;  Ths  WtUiam  SaU  AnMme- 
logical  Society* »  Collection*  for  a  uietory  of  Staffordahirt  (  London. 
I8isi^-1909),  III,  iu;  V,  u.  207;  new  eenes,  V^  128;  XII.  248. 

John  B.  Wainkwrigrt. 

MaTimlanopolia,  a  titular  see  of  Palestina  Secunda. 
suffragan  of  Scythopolis.  Its  ancient  name,  Adad- 
Remmon,  according  to  the  Vulgate  (according  to  the 
Hebrew.  Hadad-Rimmon)  is  foimd  in  Zach.,  xii,  11: 
"...  tnere  shall  be  a  great  lamentation  in  Jerusalem 
like  the  lamentation  of  Adadremmon  in  the  plain  of 
Mageddon,"  an  allusion  to  the  death  of  Josiaa,  King  o' 
Jerusalem,  killed  by  the  Pharaoh  Nechao  in  the  battle 
fought  near  this  place  (IV  Kings,  xziii,  29;  II  Par. 
zxxv,  20-25).  In  the  time  of  the  so-called  "  Pilgrim 
of  Bordeaux"  (ed.  Geyer,  19,  27)  and  of  St.  Jerome 
("Comment,  in  Zachar:'^  ad  cap.  xii,  11;  "Comment. 
in  Oz.'\  5),  Adad-Remmon  alreiady  bore  the  name  of 
Maximianopolis.  Three  of  its  ancient  bishops  are 
known:  Paul,  in  325  ((jelser,  "Patrum  Nicsenorum 
nomina",  bd) — not  Msjdmus,  as  Le  Quien  gives  it  in 
"Oriens  Cliristianus'',  III,  703;  Megas,  in  518,  and 
Domnus,  in  536  (Le  Quien,  op.  cit.,  703-06).  Maximi- 
anopolis has  resumed  its  ancient  name  of  Rimmon, 
and  is  now  the  almost  deserted  little  village  of  Roum- 
maneh,  nearly  four  miles  to  the  south  of  Ledjun,  or 
Mageddo  (see  Legio). 

OutnxN,  Deacription  de  la  Paleetine:  Samaria  (Paris.  1875\ 
II,  228-230;  Gelikr,  Oeorgii  Cyprii  Deacriptio  orina  romani 
(Leipnc.  1890),  103-06;  Lboenorb  in  Vio.,  Diet,  de  la  Bibit, 
a.  V.  Aaadremmon, 

S.  Vailre. 

Mazimiuiiu,  Mabcub  Aureliub  Valerius,  sm^ 
named  Hercuiius,  Roman  Emperor,  was  adopted  by 
Diocletian  and  named  his  co-regent  in  285,  because  by 
this  division  of  the  sovereignty  the  danj^er  of  the  war- 
riors' mutiny,  the  ambitious  efforts  of  the  usurpers, 
and  the  attacks  of  foreign  enemies  seemed  to  be  pre- 
vented in  the  surest  way.  Diocletian  gave  him,  who 
had  b^n  hitherto  his  brother^in-^rms  and  was  now  his 
fellow  resent,  the  surname  Hercuiius,  in  remembrance 
of  the  help  which  the  mythological  Hercules  rendered 
his  father  Jupiter  in  the  latter's  struggle  against  the 

fiants.  Like  Diocletian.  Maximianiis  came  from 
llyria,  from  the  neighbournood  of  Sirmium;  as  the  son 
of  a  simple  peasant,  he  possessed  onlv  very  little  edu- 
cation; ne  was  violent  and  brutal,  but  was  a  brave 
fighter.  For  this  reason,  when  Diocletian  was  strug- 
gfing  with  the  Persians  in  Asia,  Maximianus  was  en- 
trusted with  the  leadership  of  the  punitive  expedition 
against  the  peasants  and  field  slaves  (Bagauoans)  in 
Gaul  who,  driven  by  economical  causes,  had  risen 
against  Diocletian.  The  new  emperor  soon  restored 
peace,  and  received  from  Diocletian,  in  token  of  the 
tatter's  gratitude,  the  title  of  Augustus  on  1  April,  286. 
However,  only  the  administration  of  the  empire  was 
divided;  the  sovereignty  remained  centralized  now  ss 
ever,  and  the  will  of  the  emperor-in-chief,  Diocletian, 
was  absolute.  While  Maximianus,  having  established 
his  head-quarters  at  Mains,  was  successful  m  the  strug- 
gles with  the  Burgundians  and  the  Alamanni,  who  had 
crossed  the  frontier  and  the  Rhine,  he  fotmd  many  ob- 
stacles in  repulsing  the  Menapian  pirate  chief  Carau- 
sius.     Originally  commander-in-chief  of  ih^  Roman 


76 

navy,  Garauavs  had  pursued  and  conquered  the  pi-  he  returned  to  the  forging  of  nefarious  schemes  anunat 

rates  of  the  German  ocean;  then,  driven  by  groed  and  his  son-in-law,  and  finaUy  was  compelled  to  take  hiB 

ambition,  he  had  forced  Britain  to  do  homage  to  him,  own  life  in  310. 

and  aeiaed  the  whole  trade  in  Gaul  and  Bntain.    In  Scbzllbr,  Getch,  d.  r&miacKm  KaUentU;  Allabo,  La  pen^ 

286  he  even  appropriated  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  *''''*^  ^  DweUtien  «i  U  triomphe  de  r^^/iw  (Paris,  1890). 

caused  coins  to  Be  struck  which  bore  his  own  portrait.  Karl  Hobbbr. 

Even  Diocletian,  by  a  compromise  in  290,  was  forced  m».«i^ai.,*    ^v    «           t            %       ^           /*\ 

to  recogniie  Carausius  as  the  legal  emperor,  while  the  w  Maxtaiillan,  the  name  of  several  martra.     (1) 

lattcTiireed  to  supply  Diocl^um  with  com,  as  had  Jf^^^^^f/  ^^^'  *  ^^'^Ti'i  "^^S^  **  ^- 

been  thecustom                                   «-•         ,       *4-«  tioch,  Jan.  353,  with  Bonosus,  a  feUow  soldier,  of  the 

As  Diocletian  left  Syria  to  enter  the  countries  of  the  Herwilean  cohort ;  they  w;ere  standapd-bearers  and  re- 
Lower  Danube,  he  met  Maximianus,  and  both  the  em-  j"^^  A°  !?°*^®  J^^'"*T?i^*'"'^"^  u  V?^^ 
perors  crtMsed  the  Alps  in  the  beginning  of  291  in  order  fj^^.^'^^iT  standard,  as  had  been  ordered  by  Juhan 
to  attend  a  conferenw  at  MikS^,  there  to  discuss  the  ^®  "^P^*®!.  ^^*  ^^"ti.  "^i?^?  ""^  the  emperor, 
better  administration  of  the  empire  and  the  improve-  ©onMnanded  them  to  replace  the  {^rw^  with  imagM 
ment  of  the  constitution.  Henceforrord  two  sub-  ^^  J%  *5i,"PS?  ^^^"^  refusal,  had  them  tortur^ 
stitutee,  caUed  Cceaara,  were  to  supplement  the  two  ^^  beheaded.  The  Roman  martyrology  and  most 
governing  emperors.  Constantius  and  Galerius  were  ^J^«'  calendars  mention  them  on  21  August,  while  m  a 
proclaimed  Caesare  1  March,  293;  the  first  was  forced  *  ^fT^^^u  ^a  i'^^oli'^l  ^  T^t^V^^^^^vJJ'w  ^  ^^ 
to  marry  the  stepdaughter  of  Maximianus,  Theodora,  ™i*^  ^a  ^i  fu  -^^'J^  ^  "  ^^{}J^.^' 
after  the  exile  ifhirmother  Helena.  Maximianui  nated  as  the  day  of  then- martvrdom.  Both  dates  are 
now  took  charge  of  the  administration  of  Italy,  Africa,  ^°f '  ^  "  evident  from  the  Acts  of ^  two  martyrs, 
and  Spain.  hL  residence  was  Milan,  where  he  wai  which  represent  Count  Juhanasmfectwiy^^^ 
surrounded  by  6000  lUyrian  picked  troops,  caUed  Her-  S?S!f '  ^S?'*^*?*  ^®  martyrdom  of  St.  Theodoret 
culiana.  CoMtantius  on  his  part  was  £ow  successful  23  Oct^2  (2)  Maxiiouan  op  te^ 
in  his  struggle  with  Carausius.  The  war  came  quickly  imposed  in  the  thuleenth  centiuy  m^ 
to  an  end,  as  Carausius  was  assassinated  by  Allectus,  S®  ^'^  ^'  at  Celeui  (Cilh,  Styna),  made  a  pilgnmage  to 
prefect  of  his  guard,  in  293.  Constantius  then  re-  ?.T®'  'J?^  ^  missionary  to  Noncimi,  became  Arch- 
united  Britain  with  the  Roman  Empire,  while  Maxi-  ?^P  of  Laureacum  (Lorch,  near  Pasaau)  and  suf- 
mianus  protected  the  frontiera  of  Gaul  against  the  ?.!?*  martyrdom  under  Numenanus  (283-1).  It  is 
Teutons  on  the  Upper  Rhine.  When  ConsSntius  had  histpncaUy  wrtam  that  Maxunihan 
returned  from  Britain,  Maximianus  went  in  297  to  ?  ^T^  durmg the  latter  half  of  thethud  century, 
Africa,  where  he  sucessf ully  made  war  upon  rebellious  &™®!l  the  church  of  Lorch,  and  suffered  martyrdom, 
tribea  of  the  Moors,  and  int  a  great  liany  captives  His  cult  dat^  at  least  from  the  eighth  oentuiy.  In 
into  the  other  provinces.  In  302lie  celebrated  a  great  «iatcentunr  St.  Rupert  bmlt  a  church  in  h^ 
triumph  with  Diocletian  in  Rome;  seventeen  times  he  Bischofshofen,  and  brought  his  rehw  thither.    They 

had  borne  the  title  of  Imperator.    The  pereecution  of  T^^J'tS^J?^  Y^    "^V  ^  ^SS'  r.5^  /o^**  ^^^ 

the  Christians,  which  Diocletian  had  conducted  with  ^^^^  ^t^'  **  some  places  29  Oct.    (3)  Mammx- 

reckless  brutality  in  the  East  since  303,  was  also  taken  "^  ^'lo^^^^u'^f^l^P^-  **    n? -f^  °®*'  ^iT 

up  by  Maximianus  in  the  western  provinces,  of  which  **^^.l/^?*[r'  ^^J-  Thmkmga  ChnsUan  was  not 

he  was  governor  permitted  to  be  a  soldier,  he  refused  to  enter  the  army 

It  18  said  that  during  these  persecutions— it  is  im-  f ^d  was  beheaded.    Since  d^th  was  not  then  the 

possible  to  state  the  time  correctly— the  Christian  sol-  *«8al  punishment  for  those  who  refused  to  lom  Uie 

diers  of  the  Theban  legion  also  suffered  martyrdom  in  ?™y  ^  u  »!?  Menander,  Digest  XLIX^  xvi,  4  P.  10), 

Agaunum  (St-Maurice,  Canton  of  Valais.  Switzerland)  J*,  wprobable  that  he  was  beh^ed  because  ^  gave 

in  the  then  Diocese  of  Octodurum.     The  Christian  ^^  yT^'?^^ll  ^  T®  ^^^u!  ^  *    "^'        •  ^® 

w\lHl«>rA  nf  thia  lp0-inn  rpfnqpH  fi\  PTPpiifi>  Viin  ni>Hpr<i  ouned  at  t/artnage  oy  tne  noble  matron  rompejana. 

Slo!fw»^^i^,«  oiJ^rl^Vi^^^  ^<*»  ^5-  Aug..  IV.  42M30;    Ruwaht.  Acta  ^iafiurwn 

when  Maximianus,  on  a  march  over  what  is  now  the  (lutiabon.  1859),  609-12;  Lbcxbroq.  L«  MaHyvB,  III  (Paris. 

Great  St.  Bernard,  commanded  them  to  pumsh  the  1904)^  l(KM)4;  TKLLxuom,Mhnotr€9pour9erv%rhl'hid.eocUM, 

Christians  Uving  in  these  districte;  for  this  refusal  the  gi^JJ^ZtoS^S^^ 

legion  was  twice  decimated  by  the  sword,  and,  as  the  (Bae«a,  1632).     (2)  vHa  ae  Uo^'  s\  MaximUiani  in  Pm. 


survivors  held  out  to  the  last,  all  the  soldiers  were  mas-     Script,  rarum  Auatr.,  I,  22-34.  Conoeming  its  value  see  RrxT- 


hard  system  of  taxes  was  to  be  extended  alto  to  Italy  9^A<^  ^^^^^rfiPi^  ^"^JjS^^/iS^I!;  V*  fll  ^™^t, 

and  to"^  Rome,  the  senators  and  the  pretorians  prl  i^j;^rir?SS^l9W)^  ^*^''  ^'  '"'  '^'^"'^'  ^ 

claimed  as  Cssar  M.  Aurelius  Maxentius,  the  son  of  Michael  Ott. 

Maximianus;  the  latter  laid  down  the  purple  at  Milan. 

But  the  new  emperor  proved  to  be  incapable  of  gov-        Mudmiliui  I,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  159^1622,  Elector 

eming,  and  Maximianus,  who  was  popular  with  the  of  Bavaria  and  Lord  High  Steward  of  the  Holy 

army,  was  recalled  to  restore  order  for  the  new  Angus-  Roman  Empire,  162^1651;  b.  at  Munich,  17  April, 

tus.    This  he  did  not  accomplish,  and  the  old  Diocle-  1573;    d.  at  Ingolstadt,  27  September,  1651.    The 

tian,  li  vine  as  a  private  person  in  Salona,  called  a  meet-  lasting  services  he  rendered  his  country  and  the  Cath- 

ing  of  all  the  members  of  the  dvnasties  at  Camimtum  olic   Church  justly  entitle  him  to  the  surname  of 

for  the  end  of  the  vear  307.     Maximianus  had  to  re-  *'  Great ".   He  was  the  son  of  seabus  Catholic  parents, 

nounce  the  purple  for  the  second  time.    He  now  went  William  V,  the  Pious,  of  Bavaria,  and  Renate  of  Lor- 

to  Gaul,  and  gave  his  youngest  daughter  Fausta  in  raine.    Mentally  well  endowed,  Maximilian  received  a 

marria^  to  Constantine.    As  his  hope  to  regain  his  strict  Catholic  training  from  private  tutors  and  later 

former  imperial  dignity  failed  here  also,  he  returned  to  (1587-91)  studied  law,  histo^  and  mathematics  at 

his  son  Maxentius  in  Italy.    Repulsed  by  l^e  latter  the  University  of  Ingolstadt.  He  further  increased  his 

and  spumed  by  Galerius  on  acooimt  of  his  ambitions,  knowledge  by  visits  to  foreign  courts,  as  Prague  and 

be  departed  once  more  for  Gaul  and  donned  the  im-  Naples,  and  to  places  of  pilgrimage  including  Rome, 

perial  piurple  for  the  third  time.    When  the  news  of  Loretto,  and  Einsiedeln.    Thus  equipped  Maximilian 

Constantine's  approach  reached  his  own  soldiers,  they  assumed  (15  Oct.,  1597)  the  ffovemment  of  the  small, 

Burrendered  him  to  his  rival  and  oppjonent  at  Marsilia.  thinly  populated  coimtry  at  nis  father's  wish  during 

Althoui^  Constantine  in  his  generosity  pardoned  him,  the  latter  s  lifetime.   Owing  to  the  over-lenient  rule  <x 


tlie  two  preceding  rulers  the  land  was  burdened  with  a 
he«vy  debt.    By  curtailing  expenditure  and  enlarging 
the  revenues,  cbiefly  by  worlung  the  salt-Dfunea  him- 
aelf  and  by  increasing  tne  taxea  without  regard  to  the 
complaints  of  the  poweriesa  estates,  the  financeB  were 
not  only  brought  inU)  a  better  condition  but  it  was 
nlao  possible  to  collect  a  reserve  fund  which,  in  spite  of 
the  unusually  difficult  conditions  of  the  age,  was  never 
quite  exhausted.    At  the  same  time  internal  order  was 
maintained  by  a  series  of  laws  issued  in  1616.    Haxi' 
mjlian  gave  great  attention  to  military  matters.    No 
Other  German  prince  of  that  time  posaessed  an  army 
BO  well  organticd  and  equipped.    Its  commander  was 
the   veteran   soldier   from   the   Netherlands  Johann 
Tserclaes,  Count  of  Tilly,  who,  austere  himself,  knew 
how  to  maintain  discipline  among  his  troops.     The 
fortifications  at  Ingolstadt  on  the  Danube  were  greatly 
■trengthened,  and  Munich  and  other  towns  were  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  moats. 
Well-fillea  arsenals  were  es- 
tablished in  different  places 
as  preparation  for  time   of 
need.     Opportunity  tor  the 
use  of  this  armament  soon 
offered  itoelf . 

The    small    free    city  of 
Donauwiirtb  fell  under  the 
imperial    ban    for    violating 
the  religious  peace.     In  exe- 
cuting the  imperial  decree 
Haximilian    not    only    suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  tliia  city 
into  subjection    to   Bavaria 
but  also  in  re-establishing  the 
Catholic  Church  as  the  oiie 
and  only  religion  In  it.     This 
led  to  the  forming  (1608)  of 
the    Protestant    Union,    au 
offensive  and  defensive  con- 
federation of  Protestant 
princes,     in     opposition    to 
which  arose  in  1 009  the  Cath- 
olic   League   oiganiicd     by 
Maximilian.    Oddly  enough, 
both  coalitions  were  headed 
by  princes  of  the  Wittelsl)acli 
line;  Maximilian  I  as  head  of 
the  League,  Frederick  IVof 
the  Palatinate,  of  the  Union.    The  Thirty  Years'  War, 
during  which  Bavaria  suffered  terribly,  broke  out  in 
1619.     Under  Tiliy'a  leadership  the  Bohemian  revolt 
was  crushed  at  the  battle  of  the  White  Mountain 
(Weisaen  Berg)  near  Prague,  8  November,  1620,  and 
the  newly  elected   King  of  Boheniia,   Frederick  V, 
forced  to  See.    His  allies,  tlie  Margrave  of  Baden  and 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  were  defeated  by  the  forces  of 
Bavaria  and  the  League  at  Wlmpfen  and  Hiichat 
(1622),  aswasalaoata  later  date  (1626)  King  Chris- 
tian of  Denmark.   Conditions,  however,  ctutnged  when 
Maximilian,  through  jealousy  of  the  House  of  Hape- 
burgh,  was  led  in  1630  to  seek  the  dismissal  of  the  head 
of  the   imperial  army,   Wallenatcin.     The  vouthful 
Swedish  king,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  defeated  "tilly.  the 
veteran  leader  of  the  army  of  the  Ix-ague,  at  Brcitcn- 
feld  (1631),  and  in  a  battle  with  (liistavus  .Adolphus 
near  the  Lech,  IS  April,  1632.  Tilly  was  again  van- 
quished, receiving  a  wound  from  which  he  died  two 
weeks  later  at  Ingolstadt.    .Although  the  sirge  of  this 
city  by  the  Swedes  was  unsiiecessful,  Gustavus  plun- 
dered the  Bavarian  towns  and  villages,  laid  waste  the 
country  and  pillaged  Munich. 

Maximilian,  who  since  1623  had  been  both  Elector 
and  ruler  of  the  Upper  Palatinate,  implored  Wallen- 
atein,  now  once  more  the  head  of  the  imperial  forces, 
(or  help  in  vain  until  he  agreed  to  place  himself  and 
his  army  under  Wallenstein's  command.  The  united 
forces  under  WallensteiD  took  up  an  entrenched  posi- 


tion near  Nuremberg  where  Wallenatein  repulsed  the 
Swedish  attacks;    by  advancing  towards  Skxony  he 
even  forced  them  to  evacuate  Mawmilian's  territories. 
The  relief  to  Bavaria,  however,  was  not  of  long  dura- 
tion.   After  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  the 
battle  of  Ltltien  (1632)  Bemhard  of  Weimar,  uiuno- 
l^ted  by  Wallenstein,  ravaged  Bavaria  until  he  re- 
ceived a  crushing  defeat  at  the  battle  of  Nordlingen 
(5  Sept.,  1634).    Even  in  the  last  ten  years  of  the  war 
the  country  was  not  spared  from  hostile  attacks. 
Consequently  Haximilian  sought  by  means  of  a  truce 
with  the  enemy  (1647)  to  gain  for  Bavaria  an  oppoi^ 
tunity  to  recover.    The  desired  result,  however,  not 
being  attained,  he  united  his  forces  to  those  of  the 
imperial  army,J)ut  the  allied  troops  were  not  sufficient 
to  overthrow  tne  confederated  French  and  Swedes, 
and  Bavaria  once  more  suffered  all  the  terrors  of  a 
pitiless  invasion.   The  fighting  ended  with  the  capture 
of  the  Swedish  generals,  6 
Oct.,  1648,  and  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  was    signed    at 
HOnster.  24  Oct.  of  the  same 
year.     The  material  benefits 
derived  by  Maximilian  from 
his  attitude  in  politics  were 
meagre:    the  Electoral   dig- 
nity, the  office  of  Lord  Higtt 
Steward,     and    the     I'pper 
Palatinate.    The   abstract 


then  has  Bavaria  had 
the  second  place  among  the 
Catholic  principalities  of  Ger- 
many, ranking  next  to  Aus- 
tria, but  for  centtiriee  a 
strong  bulwark  was  opposed 
to  the  advance  of  Protestant- 
ism, and  the  latter  was,  at 
times,  even  driven  back.  A 
few  years  after  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  and  eighteen 
months  after  the  administra- 
tion of  Bavaria  had  been 
transferred  to  his  still  minor 
son  Ferdinand  Maria,  Maxi- 
□r  Bavaria  milian's   eventful   and   toil- 

some life  closed.  He  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Michael  at  Munich.  A 
fine  equestrian  statue,  iltaigned  by  Thorwaldsen  and 
cast  bv  Stiglmayer,  was  erected  at  Munich  by  King 
Louis"!  in  lS:f9. 

Although  there  was  almost  incessant  war  during  his 
reign,  and  Bavaria  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  was  lilce  a  desert,  nevertheless  Maximilian  did 
much  for  the  arts,  e.  g.  by  building  the  p^ace,  the 
AfarvneSule  (Mary's  Column),  etc.  Learning  also, 
especially  at  the  Univeraity  of  Ingolstadt,  had  m  this 
era  diHtinffuished  representatives.  The  Jesuit  Balde 
was  a  brilliant  writer  both  of  Latin  and  German  verse, 
and  Father  Scheincr,  another  member  of  the  same 
order,  was  the  first  to  discover  the  spots  on  the  sun; 
historians  also,  such  as  Heinrich  Canisius,  Matthftus 
Rader,   etc.,   produced   important   works  of   lasting 

Ma)iimilian,  however,  ^ve  far  more  attention  to 
the  advancement  of  religion  among  the  people  than 

to  art  and  learning.  He  Tounded  five  Jesuit  colleges: 
Amberg,  Burghausen,  Landshut,  Mindelheim,  and 
Straubing.  Besides  establishing  a  monastery  for  the 
Minims  and  one  for  the  Carmelites  at  Munich,  he 
founded  nine  monasteries  for  Franciscans  and  fourteen 
for  Capuchins  who  venerate  him  as  one  of  their  great- 
est benefactors.  He  also  founded  at  Munich  a  home 
for  aged  and  infirm  Court  officials,  and  gave  30,000 
guldens  for  the  Chinese  missions,  as  well  as  laige  sums 
to  the  Scotch-English  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Lijge. 


MAXIMINnS  77  BCAXXBIINinS 

private  charities  amons  the  poor  and  needy  of  all  sius,  "  Apol.  ad  Const.  Imp/\  9).   His  cult  began  right 

descriptions  were  unlimited.  after  his  death.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  29  May,  on 

Maximilian  was  endowed  with  an  uncommon  ability  which  day  his  name  stands  in  the  martyrologies  of  St. 

for  work.    He  was  also  sincerely  religious  and  rigid ty  Jerome^  St.  Bede,  St.  Ado,  and  others.    Trier  honours 

DQoral  in  conduct;  he  even  went  beyond  the  perniissi-  him  as  its  patroo.    In  the  autumn  of  353  his  body  was 

ble   in   his  efforts  to  uphold  and  spread  the  faith,  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  John  near  Trier,  where  in 

Mfuntatnin^  like  all  pnnces  of  his  time  the  axiom  the  seventh  century  was  founded  the  famous  Benedict 

"Cujus  regio  ejus  rehgio",  he  not  onlv  put  down  tine  Abbey  of  St.  Maximinus,  which  flourished  tiA 

every  movement  in  opposition  to  the  Church  in  his  1802. 

own  country  but  also  exterminated  Calvinism  and  ,  A  life,  full  of  fabuloiw  ac<»unta.  by  a  monk  of  St.  Ma^^ 

Luthemniamroot  and  branch  in  the  territories  he  had  ^^S^^,:^^  S.'SS.'^f^.lfp.ti. fe^S'^'olJ; 

acquired.     Where  admonition  and  instruction  were  p.  L.,  CXIX,  21-24,  and  in  Mon.  Oerm.  Seritk.  remm  Merov., 

not  sufficient  the  soldier  stepped  in,  and  the  poor  peo-  HI.  74-82;  piiiL,  Der  hfUwa  Mjunmintu  und  der  heilwe  Paul- 

pie    who  had  al,«tdy  been  obliged  to  change  tter  £7,M?  25i22S  i?K''J,SSwS2*£T^S  d^"^^ 

faith  several  times  with  change  of  ruler,  had  now  no  hid,,  II  (Paris,  1867),  66-96;  Bbnnbtt  in  Diet.  ChnH.  Biog., 

choice  but  return  to  the  Churcn  or  exile.    Maximilian,  ■•  v.  Michael  Ott. 

in  addition,  never  lost  sight  of  secular  advantage,  as  is 

shown  by  his  numerous  acquisitions  of  territory.    Es-        Maximiims,  Caius  Valerius  Daja,  under  his  uncle 

peciall  V  valuable  was  the  purchase  of  two-thirds  of  the  Augustus  Galerius,  the  Cssar  of  Syria  and  Egypt, 

countstiip  of  Helfenstein,  now  a  part  of  WOrtemberg,  from  the  year  305;   in  307  following  the  example  of 

which  as  a  Bavarian  dependence  was  preserved  to  the  Constantine,  he  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus.    When 

Church  and  has  remained  Catholic  up  to  the  present  Galerius  died  in  311,  the  CsBsar,  Licinius,  set  out  for 

time,  notwithstanding  its  Protestant  surroundings,  the  Hellespont  to  besie^  the  provinces  of  the  Near 

Maximilian  was  twice  married.    The  first  marriage  East.    Maximinus  obtained  tne  sympathy  of  the 

was  childless.    By  his  second  wife  Maria,  daughter  of  population  by  granting  a  remission  of  taxation  to  the 

the  Emperor  Ferainand  II,  whom  he  married  15  July,  threatened   provinces;    also,  he  had  in  his  power 

1635,  he  had  two  sons;  the  elder  of  these,  Ferdinand  Galerius's  widow  and  Valeria,  Diocletian's  daughter. 

Mana,  as  already  mentioned,  succeeded  him.  An  agreement  was  made  fixing  the  .£gean  Sea  and 

QrarM,  MaximUian  Im  AUaem,iUi^^  (1885),  the  Straits  between  Europe  and  Asia  as  the  boun- 

21  aq.,  cives  bibboffraphy  before  1885;   of.  the  statements  in  Jo-:«n  ^f  4.U0  ,irtmi«ir»Tia  anH  oa  nn  now  P»sora  nmm 

VGulij^Bniwckelunotgachichte  Bayem».  I  (2nd  ed..  1908).—  oanes  Of  the  domimons  and  as  no  new  Caesars  were 

HAouDfeJ9dbMrwiarf«-06CT7>/aZ«(2vola..  1903);  Rabel.Dm  appointed,  there  Were  three  legal  emperors.    Thus 

^iemaiige  Bentdiktiner^AddHxfi  WeU^     in  JahH>.  deaHuL  Diocletian's  plan  of  governing  the  empire  was  aban- 

te2l£:r*1?siir^ZS?'i'^4:"^^^  don«l.    Ma«n,inus,  a  fanatical  idolater  and  tyrant, 

i693-t90t  (1902).— Deutinoer.  BeUrUge  fur  OnchicMe  de$  Continued  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  m  his 

EnbiaihwnM  Miknehm^Freinnq,    Vew    Senm,    I    (1901).—  part  of  the  empire  with  especial  Severity  and  persis- 

^iJ^-MlSS'n  SSSSrfJlSStl,^  rTu^LSS^h  tency.  even  where  the  cruel  Galerius  had  ceaaeT  Be- 
(1876),  164  sqq.;  0>br&ard,  Prieit  d'hiatoire  modeme  d  con-  Sides  sangmnaiy  measures  for  the  suppression  of 
umporaine,  36  sqq.  PiUB  WiTTMANN.  (3iristianity,  he  made  attempts  to  estabhsh  in  both 
^  .  ,  _,  „.  ,  -,-,.,  «...  town  and  coimtry  a  heathen  organisation  similar  to 
MazunmnB,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Tner,  b.  at  Silly  near  the  Christian  Church.  The  emperor  made  the  hea- 
Poitiers,  d.  there,  29  May,  352  or  12  Se[rt.,  349.  He  then  high-priests  and  magicians  of  equal  rank  with  the 
was  educated  and  ordwned  pnestby  St.  Agntius,  governors  of  provinces.  His  attempt  to  achieve  re- 
whom  he  succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Tner  m  332  or  335.  nown  by  a  war  against  the  Persians  in  Armenia  was 
At  that  time  Trier  was  the  government  seat  of  the  frustrated  by  pestilence  and  bad  harvests  (Eusebius). 
Western  Emperor  and,  by  force  of  his  office,  Maxi-  when  Constantine  and  Licinius  published  the  edict  of 
mmuB  stood  m  close  relation  with  the  Emperors  Con-  toleration  for  the  Christians  at  Milan  in  312,  and 
stantine  II  and  Constens.  He  was  a  strenuous  de-  Maximmus  was  asked  to  promulgate  it  in  his  part  of 
fender  of  the  orthodox  faith  against  Ananism  and  an  the  empire,  he  did  so.  because  he  saw  clearly  that  it 
intimate  friend  of  St.  Athanasius,  whom  he  harboured  was  directed  against  his  anti-Christian  policy.  When 
as  an  honoured  guest  dunn§  his  exile  of  two  years  and  in  the  winter  of  312  Constantine's  Gallic  troops  were 
four  months  (336-8)  at  Tner.  He  likewise  received  withdrawn  from  Italy,  and  Licmius  was  still  at  Milan, 
with  honours  the  banished  patriarch  Paul  of  Constan-  lifeximinus  pushed  on  by  forced  marches  to  the  capital, 
tinople  in  341  and  effected  his  recall  to  Constantinople.  Byzantium,  and  captured  it  together  with  Heraclea. 
When  four  Anan  bishops  came  from  Antioch  to  Tner  Licinius,  taken  by  surprise,  offered  to  make  terms  with 
in  342  with  the  pivpose  of  winmng  Emperor  Constans  him,  which  Maximinus  trusting  to  gain  an  easy  victory 
to  their  side,  Maximinus  refused  to  receive  them  and  refused.  Contrary  to  his  expectation,  and  in  spite  of 
induced  the  emperor  to  reject  their  proposals.  In  con-  the  superiority  in  numbere  of  his  troops,  he  was  de- 
junction  with  Pope  Juh^  I  and  Bishop  Hosius  of  Cor-  feated  near  Adrianople,  30  April,  313,  and  fled  precip- 
dova,  he  persuaded  the  Emperor  Constans  to  convene  itately  to  Nicomedia  to  endeavour  to  rally  his  army, 
the  Synod  of  Sardica  in  343  and  probably  took  part  in  Licinius  harassing  him  incessantly,  published  an  edict 
it.  That  the  Anans  considered  him  as  one  of  their  of  toleration  for  the  Christians  of  Nicomedia  so  that 
chief  opponents  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  con-  Maximinus  was  obliged  to  withdraw  to  the  Taurus 
demned  him  by  name  along  with  Pope  Julius  I  and  where  he  entrenched  himself  in  the  passes.  He  then 
H06IUS  of  Cordova  at  their  heretical  synod  of  Philip-  tried  to  win  the  Christians  by  issuing  an  edict  of  tole- 
popolism  343  (Man8i,"Sacrorum  Cone,  nova  ctampl.  ration;  but  his  military  situation  was  hopeless  and 
CoU."  III,1368<^.).  In  345  he  took  part  m  the  Synod  he  took  poison  (313).  Licinius  exterminated  the 
of  Milan  and  is  said  to  have  presided  over  a  synod  held  Jovian  family,  murdering  all  the  relatives  of  Diocletian 
at  Cologne  in  346,  where  Bishop  Euphratas  of  Cologne  who  were  at  the  court  of  Maximin.  The  edicts  of  the 
was  deposed  on  account  of  his  leanings  towards  Arian-  deceased  emperor  were  cancelled,  and  decrees  favour- 
ism.  [Onceming  the  authenticity  of  the  Acts  of  this  able  to  the  Christians  were  now  promul^ted  in  the 
synod  see  the  new  French  translation  of  Hefele's  **  Con-  East. 

Clliengeschichte ",  I,  ii  (Paris,  19()7),  pp.  830-34.]     He         Schzllbr.  Oeach.  der  Hhniaehen  KaimrwH.  II  (Gotha.  1887). 
also  sent  Sts.  Castor  and  Lubentius  as  missionaries  to  Karl  Hobber. 

the  valleys  of  the  Mosel  and  the  Lahn.    It  is  doubtful 

whether  the  Maximinus  whom  the  usurper  Ikbignen-        MazimiiiTis  Thraz,  Caius  Julius  Verus,  Roman 

this  sent  as  le^te  to  Constantinople  in  the  interests  of  Emperor  235-^,  son  of  a  Goth  and  an  Alanic  mother. 

18  identical  with  the  Bishop  of  Trier  (Athana-  When  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus  was  returning 


MAXDKOPOLIS 


78 


through  Thrace  in  202,  Maximinus,  a  shepherd  of 
enormous  stature  and  strength,  distinguished  himself 
in  a  contest  with  the  solaiers  by  such  Herculean 
strength  and  bravery  that  the  emperor  enrolled  him 
in  the  Roman  body-guard.  Befusmg  to  serve  imder 
the  wortiiless  emperors,  BCacrinus  and  Heliop^balus, 
he  withdrew  from  the  army;  but  under  the  righteous 
Alexander  Severus  he  was  entrusted  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  newly  raised  Pannonian  troops.  These, 
desiring  a  real  warrior  at  their  head  instead  of  the 
youthful  and  timid  Alexander,  who  was  entirely  sub- 
ject to  his  mother  Julia  Mamsea,  invested  him  with  the 
purple  at  Mains,  in  Bfarch,  235,  at  the  same  time  pro- 
claimixi^  his  son  Bfaximus  co-regent.  The  adherents 
of  the  mrmer  Qjrrian  dynasty  and  of  the  senate  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  overthrow  him.  Maximinus  taking 
the  field  wilii  great  energy  and  persistence  against  the 
Germans  across  the  Rhine,  regamed  the  district  of  the 
Agri  Decumatea  and  then  wa^ed  successful  war  against 
tlie  Sarmatians  and  the  Dacians  on  the  Danube.  As- 
suming the  names  of  Germanicus  and  Sarmaticus,  he 
proceeded  with  sentences  of  death  and  confiscation 
against  the  patrician  Romans,  who  disliked  him  as 
a  wild  and  uncultured  barbarian;  on  the  other  hand 
he  distributed  the  State  revenues  among  the  soldiers 
who  were  devoted  to  him.  He  had  the  bronse  statues 
of  the  gods  and  their  treasures  melted  down  and 
coined;  lie  plundered  cities  and  temples,  and  caused 
so  much  discontent  that  a  rebellion  broke  out  in 
February,  238,  among  the  peasantry  in  Africa.  The 
procurator  and  the  octogenarian  consul  at  Carthage 
were  killed. 

M.  AntoniuB  Gordianus  and  his  son  of  the  same 
name,  were  made  co-regent  emperors.  The  Roman 
senate  willingly  recognized  them,  because  they  prom- 
ised, like  the  Antonines  in  former  times,  to  ^vem  ac- 
coraing  to  its  decisions;  the  people  despising  Maxi- 
minus, who  had  never  once  set  foot  in  tne  capital  of 
the  empire,  agreed  with  the  senate.  Maximinus  was 
outlawed,  and  his  death  was  rumoured,  but  he  sent 
Oapellianus,  Procurator  of  Numidia,  a^inst  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Gordiani,  and  in  the  struggle,  the 
younger  Gordian  lost  his  life  whereupon  the  senior 
hanged  himself  in  despair.  Their  reign  had  lasted 
little  more  than  a  month.  The  senate  now  decided  to 
elect  two  emperors  with  equal  authority,  M.  Clodius 
Pupienus  Maximus  who  was  to  exercise  the  military 
power  de  facto,  and  Decimus  Cslius  Balbinus  who  was 
to  direct  the  civil  government  in  the  capital.  The 
Romans  dissatisfied  with  this  arrangement,  for  they 
had  expected  great  advantages  from  the  rule  of  the 
African  emperors,  raised  to  the  rank  of  Csesar  the  elder 
Gordian's  twelve  year  old  grandson  (afterwards  Gor- 
dian III),  then  residing  in  Rome.  Severe  street  fight- 
ins  occuired  in  Rome  between  the  veterans  of  Maxi- 
minus and  the  people.  Owing  to  scanty  commissariat 
Maximinus  could  only  move  his  troops  slowly  from 
Pannonia.  Meanwhile  the  senate  levied  troops,  con- 
structed arsenals,  and  by  creating  twenty  military 
districts,  placed  Italy  in  a  satisfactory  defensive  posi- 
tion. When  Maximinus  arrived  in  Upper  Italy,  he 
could  not  at  once  cross  the  Isonso  on  account  of  the 
floods  and  his  attacks  on  the  stronghold  of  Aquileia 
were  repulsed.  Under  the  foolish  impression  that  his 
officers  were  the  cause  of  his  misfortunes,  he  had 
several  of  them  executed,  thereby  arousing  discontent 
among  the  soldiers,  especially  in  the  Second  Parthian 
Legion  whose  wives  and  children  were  in  the  power  of 
the  Roman  Senate  at  Albano.  A  mutiny  suddenly 
occurring,  Maximin  and  his  son  were  murdered. 
Pupienus,  who  hastened  thither  from  Ravenna,  re- 
warded the  troops  liberally  and  administered  to  them 
the  oath  of  fidehty  on  belialf  of  the  three  senator  em- 
perors resident  in  Rome. 

MoMUBBif.  Romi$ehe  OeachiehU,  V  (Beriin.  1885):  Schiller 
Oeach.  <L  rUm.  KaUerzeit,  voL  I*  pt.  II  (Gotha,  1883);  Doma- 

WBKI,  099ch.  der  rdm.  KaxteneU.  U  (Leipsig.  1900). 

Kabl  Hoebeb. 


MttdmopoUs,  a  titular  see  of  Arabia,  suffragan  of 
Bostra.  The  true  name  of  the  city  is  Maximianopolis, 
and  it  so  appears  in  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of 
the  Patriarch  Anastasius  in  the  sixth  century  ("  Echos 
d'Orient",  X,  Paris,  1907, 145).  Pursuant  to  a  decree 
of  the  Propajbinda  (1885),  the  title  is  to  be  suppi 


in  future;  Torquato  ArmeUini  having  comfounded 
this  town  with  Maximianopolis  in  Palestina  Secunda 
C*  Catalogo  dei  vescovati  titolari",  Rome^  1884,  appen- 
dix 8).  Its  last  titular  was  eonseeratedm  1876.  Two 
ancient  bishops  of  this  see  are  known :  Severus,  a  signa- 
tory of  the  Council  of  Chaloedon  in  451  (Mansi,  "  ColL 

known  by  an  inscription 
grecques  et  latines  de 
2361).  The  name  which 
preceded  that  of  Maximianopolis  is  not  known,  and  we 
are  equally  ignorant  of  its  actual  identification,  though 
many  authorities  place  it  at  Sheikh-Mitddn,  a  locality 
in  the  Hauran,  famous  for  the  extent  and  beauty  of  its 
ruins,  where  an  inscription  has  been  found  bearing  the 
name  of  Bishop  Thomas  ("  Bulletin  de  oorresp.  heU6- 
nique,"  Paris,  1897,  52).  8.  YjoiMt, 

Hazimiu  of  Oonitmntiiiiople,  Saint,  known  as  the 
Theologian  and  as  Maximus  Confessor,  b.  at  Con- 
stantinople about  580;  d.  in  exile  13  August,  662.  He 
is  one  of  the  chief  names  in  the  Monothehte  controversy, 
one  of  the  chief  doctors  of  the  theology  of  the  Incarna- 
tion and  of  ascetic  mvsticism,  and  remaikable  as  a  wit- 
ness to  the  respect  ror  the  papacy  held  by  the  Gredc 
Church  in  his  day.  This  great  man  was  of  a  noble 
family  of  Constantinople.  He  became  first  secretary 
to  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  who  prised  him  much;  but 
he  (quitted  the  world  and  gave  himself  up  to  contem- 
plation in  a  monastery  at  Chrysopolis,  opposite  Con- 
stantinople. He  became  abbot  tnere;  but  seems  to 
have  left  this  retreat  on  account  of  its  msecurity  from 
hostile  attacks.  He  speaks  of  the  Palestinian  ascetic, 
St.  Sophronius,  afterwards  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  as 
his  master,  father,  and  teacher  (Ep.  13),  so  that  he 
probably  passed  some  time  with  him,  and  he  was  with 
nim  in  Africa  with  other  monks  during  the  prepara- 
tions which  issued  in  the  "watery  union"  by  which 
Cyrus  the  Patriarch  reconciled  a  number  ai  Monophy- 
sites  to  the  Church  by  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  ''two 
operations"  in  Christ  (see  Monothsusm).  The  first 
action  of  St.  Maximus  that  we  know  of  in  this  affair  is 
a  letter  sent  by  him  to  Pyrrhus,  then  an  abbot  at  Chry- 
sopolis, a  friend  and  supporter  of  Sergius.  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  the  patron  of  the  Monotnelite  expres- 
sion "  two  operations".  As  the  letter  is  said  to  nave 
entailed  a  long  voyage  on  the  monks  who  earned  it, 
St.  Maximus  was  perhaps  already  in  Africa  when  he 
wrote  it.  Pyrrhus  had  published  a  work  on  the  Incar- 
nation, for  which  St.  Maximus  gives  him  rather  ful- 
some praise,  as  an  introduction  to  the  question  (which 
he  puts  with  much  diffidence  and  many  excuses)  what 
Pyrrhus  means  by  one  iw^pyma  or  iwiftyrutA,  Maxi- 
mus is  clearly  anxious  to  get  him  to  withdraw  or  ex- 
plain the  mistaken  expression,  without  exasperating 
nim  by  contradiction. 

The  Ecthesis  of  HeracUus  was  published  in  638,  and 
Sergius  and  Pope  Honorius  both  died  in  that  year.  A 
letter  of  Maximus  tells  us  on  the  authority  of  his 
friends  at  Constantinople,  that  the  Roman  apocrisiarii 
who  had  come  thither  to  obtain  the  emperor's  confir- 
mation for  the  newly  elected  Pope  Sevennus,  were  met 
by  the  clergy  of  Constantinople  with  ^le  demand  that 
they  should  promise  to  obtam  the  pope's  signature  to 
the  Ecthesis,  otherwise  they  should  receive  no  assist* 
ance  in  the  matter  for  which  they  had  made  so  long  a 
voyage:  ''Having  discovered  the  tenor  of  the  docu- 
ment, since  by  refusing  they  would  have  caused  the 
first  and  Mother  of  Churehes,  and  the  city,  to  remain 
so  long  a  time  in  widowhood,  they  replied  quietly:  We 
cannot  act  with  authority  in  this  matter,  for  we  have 
received  a  commission  to  execute,  not  an  order  to 


MAXatUB                            79  MA3EIMU8 

flttke  a  profesBion  of  faith.    But  we  assure  you  that  Ecthesis:  "they  have  not  conformed  to  the  sense  of 

we  wiU  relate  all  that  you  have  put  forward,  and  we  the  Apostolic  see,  and  what  is  laughable,  or  rather 

will  show  the  document  itself  to  him  who  is  to  be  con-  lamentable,  as  provmg  their  ignorance,  they  have  not 

secrated,  and  if  he  should  judge  it  to  be  correct,  we  will  hesitated  to  lie  against  the  Apostolic  see  itself  .  .  . 

aak  hun  to  append  his  signature  to  it.    But  do  not  but  have  claimed  the  great  Honorius  on  their  side. 

therefore  place  any  obstacle  in  our  way  now,  or  do  ...  What  did  the  divine  Honorius  do,  and  after  him 

▼iol»aoe  to  us  by  delaying;  us  and  keeping  us  here.  For  the  aged  Severinus,  and  John  who  foUowed  him?  Yet 

none  has  a  rig^t  to  use  violence  especiaUy  when  faith  further,  what  supplication  has  the  blessed  p^)e,  who 

is  in  question.    For  herein  even  the  weakest  waxes  now  sits,  not  made?    Have  not  the  whole  £ast  and 

mighty  and  the  meek  becomes  a  warrior,  apd  by  com-  West  brought  their  tears,  laments,  obsecrations,  dep- 

forting  his  soul  with  the  Divine  Wora,  is  hardened  recations,  both  before  God  in  prayer  and  before  men 

against  the  greatest  attack.    How  much  more  in  the  in  their  letters?   If  the  Roman  see  recognizes  Pyrrhus 

case  of  the  derpy  and  Church  of  the  Romans,  which  to  be  not  only  a  reprobate  but  a  heretic,  it  is  certainly 

from  of  old  until  now,  as  the  elder  of  all  the  Cnurches  plain  that  everyone  who  anathematizes  those  who 

under  the  sun,  presides  over  all?    Having  surely  re-  nave  rejected  Pvrrhus,  anathematizes  the  see  of  Rome. 

oeived  this  canonically,  as  well  from  councils  and  the  that  is,  he  anathematizes  the  Catholic  Church.   I  need 

Apostles,  as  from  the  princes  of  the  latter,  and  bNeing  hardly  add  that  he  excommunicates  himself  also,  if 

numbered  in  their  company,  she  is  subject  to  no  writ*  indeed  he  be  in  communion  with  the  Roman  see  and 

]n0B  or  issues  of  synodical  documents,  on  account  of  the  Church  of  God.  ...  It  is  not  right  that  one  who 

the  eminence  of  her  pontificate,  even  as  in  all  these  has  been  condemned  and  cast  out  by  the  Apostolic  see 

things  all  are  equally  subject  to  her  according  to  sacer-  of  the  dty  of  Rome  for  his  wrong  opinions  should  be 

dotal  law.    And  so  when  without  fear  but  with  all  named  with  any  kind  of  honour,  until  he  be  received 

holv  and  becoming  confidence,  those  ministers  of  the  by  her,  having  returned  to  her — nay,  to  our  Lord — by 

truly  finn  and  immovable  rock,  that  is.  of  the  most  a  pious  confession  and  orthodox  faith,  by  which  he  can 

great  and  Apostolic  Church  at  Rome,  haa  so  replied  to  receive  holiness  and  the  title  of  holy.  .  .  .  Let  him 

the  dergy  ot  the  royal  city,  they  were  seen  to  have  con-  hasten  before  all  things  to  satisfy  the  Roman  see,  for 

ciliated  them  and  to  have  acted  prudently,  that  the  if  it  is  satisfied  all  will  agree  in  calling  him  pious  and 

others  might  be  humble  and  modest,  while  they  made  orthodox.    For  he  only  speaks  in  vain  who  thinks  he 

known  the  orthodoxy  and  purity  of  their  own  faith  ought  to  persuade  or  entrap  persons  like  myself,  and 

from  the  beginning.    But  those  of  Constantinople,  ad-  does  not  satisfy  and  implore  the  blessed  pope  of  the 

miring  their  piety,  thought  that  such  a  deed  ought  to  most  holy  Church  of  the  Romans,  that  is.  tne  Apos- 

be  recompensed;  and  ceasing  from  ur^g  the  docu-  tolic  see,  which  from  the  incarnate  Son  ot  God  Him- 

ment  on  tnem,  they  promised  by  their  diligence  to  pro-  self,  and  also  by  all  holy  synods,  according  to  the  holy 

cure  the  issue  of  the  emperor's  order  with  regard  to  canons  and  definitions,  has  received  universal  and 

the  episcopal  election  .  .  .  Of  the  aforesaid  docuxnent  supreme  dominion,  authority  and  power  of  binding 

a  copy  has  been  sent  to  ine  also.    They  have  explained  and  loosing  over  all  the  holy  Churches  of  God  which  are 

in  it  the  cause  for  being  silent  about  the  natural  opera-  in  the  whole  world ;  for  with  it  the  Word  who  is  above 

tions  in  Christ  our  God^  that  is,  in  His  natures,  of  the  celestial  powers  binds  and  looses  in  heaven  also. 

which  and  in  which  He  is  believed  to  be;  and  how  in  For  if  he  thinks  he  must  satisfy  others,  and  fails  to 

future  neither  one  nor  two  are  to  be  mentioned.    It  is  implore  the  most  blessed  Roman  pope,  he  is  acting  like 

only  to  be  allowed  to  confess  ihat  the  divine  and  hu-  a  man  who,  when  accused  of  munler  or  some  other 

man  (works)  proceeded  from  the  same  Word  of  God  crime,  does  not  hasten  to  prove  his  innocence  to  the 

incarnate,  and  are  to  be  attributed  to  one  and  the  judge  appointed  by  the  law,  but  only  uselessly  and 

same  (person)."  This  passage  does  not  call  the  prohibi-  without  profit  does  his  best  to  demooistrate  his  inno- 

tion  m  "two  operations"  yet  by  the  name  of  heresy,  cenoe  to  private  individuals,  who  have  no  power  to 

and  does  not  mention  the    one  Will "  confessed  in  tne  acquit  him." 

Ecthesis.    But  it  gives  very  clearly  St.  Maximus's  fvrrhus  thought  he  might  regain  his  see  by  the  help 

view  that  the  smallest  point  of  faith  is  to  be  held  at  the  of  tne  pope.    He  came  to  Africa,  and  in  July,  645,  a 

risk  of  one's  life,  and  it  demonstrates  the  ample  admis-  public  disputation  took  place  between  him  and  Maxi- 

■ion  made  at  Constantinople,  before  the  struggles  be-  mus,  in  the  presence  of  the  Governor  Gregory  (called 

gan,  of  the  prerogatives  (h  Rome.  George  in  the  MSS.  of  St.  Maximus),  who  was  a  friend 

When  in  641  John  IV  wrote  his  defence  of  Pope  and  correspondent  of  the  saint.    The  minutes  are  in- 

Honorius,  it  was  re-echoed  by  St.  Maximus  in  a  letter  teresting.    Pyrrhus  argues  that  two  wills  must  imply 

toMarinu8,apriestof  Csrprus.  He  declares  that  Hono-  two  Persons  willing;  Maximus  replies  that  in  that  case 

rius,  when  he  confessed  one  will  of  our  Lord,  only  there  must  be  three  wills  in  the  Holy  Trinity.    He 

meant  to  deny  that  Christ  had  a  will  of  the  flesh,  of  shows  that  the  will  belongs  to  the  Natiire,  and  distin- 

ooncupisoence^  since  he  was  conceived  and  bom  with-  guishes  between  will  as  a  faculty  and  will  as  the  act  of 

out  stain  of  sm.    Maximus  appeals  to  the  witness  of  the  faculty.    Pyrrhus  then  admits  two  wills,  on  ao- 

Abbot  John  Symponus,  who  wrote  the  letter  for  Hono-  count  of  the  two  natures,  but  adds  that  we  should  also 

rius.   Pyrrhus  was  now  Sergius's  successor,  but  on  the  confess  one  wUl  on  account  of  the  perfect  union, 

accession  of  the  Emperor  Constans  in  642  he  was  Maximus  replies  that  this  would  lead  us  to  confess  one 

exiled.    Maximus  then  sent  a  letter  to  the  patrician  nature  on  account  of  the  perfect  union.    He  then  cites 

Peter,  apparently  the  Governor  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  many  passages  of  Scripture  for  two  wills  and  two  oper- 

who  haa  written  to  him  concerning  Pyrrhus,  whom  he  ations.    Pyrrhus  puts  forward  Honorius  and  Vigilius. 

now  calls  simply  abbot.    Pyrrhus  was  in  Palestine.  Maximus  defends  the  former  from  the  charge  of  teach- 

and  Peter  had  restrained  him  from  putting  forward  ing  two  wUls,  and  denies  that  the  latter  ever  received 

his  heretical  views.   Pyrrhus  had  declared  that  he  was  ihe  letter  of  Mennas,  the  authenticity  of  which  is 

ready  to  satisfy  Maximus  as  to  his  orthodoxy.    The  assumed.     He  complains  of  the  changeableness  of 

latter  says  he  would  have  written  to  Peter  before,  Sergius.    Lastly  the  famous  "new  theandric  opera- 

''but  I  was  afraid  of  being  thought  to  transgress  the  tion"  of  the  Pseudo-Dionysius  is  discussed,  and  is 

holy  laws,  if  I  were  to  do  this  without  knowing  the  explained  and  defended  by  St.  Maximus.    Then  Pyr- 

will  of  the  most  holy  see  of  ApoBtoUc  men.  who  lead  rhus  gives  in,  and  consents  to  go  to  Rome,  where  in 

aright  the  whole  plenitude  of  the  Catholic  Cnurch,  and  fact  he  condemned  his  former  teaching,  and  was  recon- 

mle  it  with  order  according  to  the  divine  law."    The  ciled  to  the  Church  by  the  pope.    But  the  revolt  of 

new  Ecthesis  is  worse  than  the  old  heresies;  Pyrrhus  Gregory,  who  made  himself  emperor  in  Africa,  but  was 

and  his  predecessor  have  accused  Sophronius  of  error;  defeated  in  647,  brought  Maximus  into  disfavour  at 

they  persuaded  Heraclius  to  give  nis  name  to  the  court,  and  destroyed  the  hope  of  restoring  Pyrrhus  as 


MAITTMnH 


80 


UAZIMU8 


orthodox  patriarch.  After  the  Ecthesis  had  been  with- 
drawn, and  the  Type,  T&rot,  substituted  by  the  Ihn- 
peror  Constans,  St.  Maximus  was  present  at  the  great 
Lateran  council  held  by  St.  Martin  at  his  instance  in 
649.  He  wrote  from  Rome  (where  he  staved  some 
years) :  "The  extremities  of  the  earth,  and  all  in  everv 
part  of  it  who  purely  and  rightly  confess  the  Lord, 
look  directly  towards  the  most  holy  Roman  Church 
and  its  confession  and  faith,  as  it  were  to  a  sun  of  un- 
failing light,  awaiting  from  it  the  bright  radiance  of 
the  sacred  aogmas  of  our  Fathers,  according  to  what 
the  six  inspired  and  holy  councils  have  purely  and 
piously  decreed,  declaring  most  expressly  the  symbol 
of  faitn.  For  from  the  coming  down  of  the  incarnate 
Word  amongst  us,  aU  the  Churches  in  every  part  of  the 
world  have  held  that  greatest  Church  alone  as  their 
base  and  foundation,  seeing  that  according  to  the 
promise  of  Christ  our  Saviour,  the  gates  of  hell  do 
never  prevail  against  it,  that  it  has  the  keys  of  a  right 
or-^f ession  and  faith  in  Him,  that  it  opens  the  true  and 
only  religion  to  such  as  approach  with  piety,  and  shuts 
up  and  locks  everv  heretical  mouth  that  speaks  injus- 
tice against  the  Most  High." 

Pope  Martin  was  dragged  from  Rome  in  653,  and 
died  of  ill  treatment  at  Inkerman  in  March^  655.  It 
was  probably  later  in  that  year  that  an  official  named 
Gregory  came  to  Rome  to  get  Pope  Eugene  to  receive 
the  Type.  He  came  to  the  cell  of  St.  Maximus,  who 
argued  with  him  and  denoxmced  the  Type.  As  the 
saint  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  orthodox 
Easterns,  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  at  the  end  of 
655  (not^  as  is  commonly  stated,  at  tne  same  time  as 
St.  Martm) .  He  was  now  seventy-five  years  old.  The 
acts  of  his  trials  have  been  preserved  by  Anastasius 
Bibliothecarius.  He  was  accused  of  conspiring  with 
the  usurper  Gregory,  together  with  Pope  Theodore, 
and  it  was  said  that  he  had  caused  the  loss  to  the 
empire  of  Egypt,  Alexandria,  Pentapolis,  and  Africa. 
He  refused  to  communicate  with  the  See  of  Constanti- 
nople, "  because  the^  have  cast  out  the  four  holy  coun- 
cils by  the  propositions  made  at  Alexandria,  by  the 
Ecthesis  ana  by  the  Type  ...  and  because  the  dog- 
mas which  they  asserted  in  the  propositions  they 
damned  in  the  Ecthesis,  and  what  tney  proclaimed  in 
the  Ecthesis  they  anniilled  in  the  Type,  and  on  each 
occasion  they  deposed  themselves.  What  mysteries, 
I  ask,  do  they  celebrate,  who  have  condemned  them- 
selves, and  have  been  condemned  by  the  Romans  and 
by  the  (Lateran)  ^rnod.  and  stripped  of  their  sacer- 
dotal dignity?"  He  disoelieved  the  statement  made 
to  him  that  the  envo^rs  of  the  pope  had  accepted  the 
confession  of  "two  wills  on  account  of  the  aiversity 
and  one  will  on  account  of  the  union  ",  and  pointed  out 
that  the  union  not  being  a  substance  could  have  no 
will.  He  wrote  on  this  account  to  his  disciple  the 
Abbot  Anastasius,  who  was  able  to  send  a  letter  to 
warn  "  the  men  of  elder  Rome  firm  &a  a  rock  "  of  the 
deceitful  confession  which  the  Patriareh  Peter  was 
despatching  to  the  pope.  On  the  day  of  the  first  trial, 
a  council  of  clergy  was  held,  and  the  emperor  was  per- 
suaded to  send  Maximus  to  Byzia  in  Tnrace.  and  his 
disciples.  Abbot  Anastasius  and  Anastasius  the  papal 
apocrisiarius,  to  Perberis  and  Mesembria. 

They  suffered  greatly  from  cold  and  hunger.  On  24 
September,  656,  Theodosius,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in 
Bithynia,  visited  Maximus  by  the  emperor's  com- 
mand, accompanied  by  the  consuls,  Theodosius  and 
Paul.  The  saint  confounded  his  visitors  with  the 
authority  of  the  Fathers,  and  declared  that  he  would 
never  accept  the  Type.  The  bishop  then  replied: 
"  We  declare  to  you  m  response  that  if  you  will  com- 
municate, our  master  the  emperor  will  annul  the 
Type."  Maximus  answered  that  the  Ecthesis,  though 
tsucen  down,  had  not  been  disowned,  and  that  the 
canons  of  the  Lateran  Council  must  be  formally  ac- 
cepted before  he  would  communicate.  The  Byzantine 
biwop  unblushin^y  urged:  "The  ^ynod  is  invalid, 


since  it  was  held  without  the  Emperor's  orders." 
Maximus  retorts :"  If  it  is  not  pious  faith  but  the  order 
of  the  emperor  that  validates  synods,  let  them  accept 
the  synods  that  were  held  against  the  Homoousion  at 
TVre,  at  Antioch,  at  Seleucia,  and  the  Robber  coimcil 
of  Ephesus."  The  bishop  is  ready  to  consent  to  two 
wills  and  two  operations:  but  St.  Maximus  says  he  is 
himself  but  a  monk  and  cannot  receive  his  declaration; 
tiie  bishop,  and  also  the  emperor,  and  the  patriarch 
and  his  synod,  must  send  a  supplication  to  the  pope. 
Then  all  arose  with  joy  and  tears,  and  knelt  down  and 
prayed,  and  kissed  the  Gospels  and  the  crucifix  and 
the  image  of  the  Mother  oi  God,  and  all  embraced. 
But  the  consul  doubted:  "Do  you  think,"  he  said 
"that  the  emperor  will  make  a  supplication  to 
Rome?"  "Yes'',  said  the  abbot,  "if  he  will  humble 
himself  as  God  has  humbled  Himself."  The  bishop 
gave  him  money  and  a  timic;  but  the  tunic  was  seized 
by  the  Bishop  of  Byzia.  On  8  September,  the  abbot 
was  honouraoly  sent  to  Rhegium,  and  next  day  two 
patricians  arrived  in  state  with  Bishop  Theodosius, 
and  offered  the  saint  great  honour  if  he  would  accept 
the  Type  and  communicate  with  the  emperor.  Maod- 
mus  solemnly  turned  to  the  bishop  and  reminded  him 
of  the  day  of  judgment.  "What  could  I  do  if  the 
emperor  took  anoUier  view?"  whispered  the  misera- 
ble man.  The  abbot  was  struck  ana  spat  upon.  The 
patrician  Epiphanius  declared  that  all  now  accepted 
two  wills  and  two  operations,  and  that  the  Tyne  was 
only  a  compromise.  Maximus  reiterated  the  Roman 
view  that  to  forbid  the  use  of  an  expression  was  to 
deny  it.  Next  morning,  19  September,  the  saint  was 
stripped  of  his  money  and  even  of  his  poor  stock  of 
clotnes,  and  was  conveyed  to  Salembria,  and  thence 
to  Perberis  (Perbera). 

Six  years  later,  in  662,  Maximus  and  the  two  Anas- 
tasii  were  brought  to  trial  at  Constantinople.  They 
were  anathematized,  and  with  them  St.  Martin  and 
St.  Sophronius.  The  prefect  was  ordered  to  beat 
them,  to  cut  out  their  tongues  and  lop  off  their  right 
hands,  to  exhibit  them  thus  mutilated  in  every  quar- 
ter of  the  city,  and  to  send  them  to  perpetual  exile  and 
imprisonment.  A  long  letter  of  the  Roman  Anastasius 
tells  us  of  their  sufferings  on  the  journey  to  Colchis 
where  they  were  imprisoned  in  different  forts.  He 
tells  us  that  St.  Maximus  foresaw  in  a  vision  the  day 
of  his  deatJi,  and  that  miraculous  lights  appeared 
nightly  at  his  tomb.  The  monk  Anastasius  had  died 
in  the  preceding  month;  the  Roman  lived  on  until 
666. 

Thus  St.  Maximus  died  for  orthodoxv  and  obedience 
to  Rome.  He  has  always  been  considered  one  of  the 
chief  theological  writers  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  has 
obtained  the  honourable  title  of  the  Theologian.  He 
may  be  said  to  complete  and  close  the  series  of  patris- 
tic writings  on  the  Incarnation,  as  thejr  are  simimed  up 
by  St.  John  of  Damascus.  His  style  is  unfortunately 
very  obscure;  but  he  is  accurate  in  his  thought  and 
deeply  learned  in  the  Fathers.  His  exeeetical  works 
explain  Holy  Scripture  allegorically.  we  have  com- 
mentaries on  Psalm  lix,  on  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
a  number  of  explanations  of  different  texts.  These  are 
principaUv  intended  for  the  use  of  monks,  and  deal 
much  with  mystical  theolo^.  More  professedlv  mys- 
tical are  his  "Scholia"  on  Pseudo-Dionysius,  his  ex- 
Slanations  of  difficulties  in  Dionysius  and  St.  Gregory 
fazianzen  and  his  "  Ambigua"  on  St.  Gregory.  This 
last  work  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Scotus  Erigena 
at  the  request  of  Charles  the  Bald.  The  polemical 
writings  include  short  treatises  against  the  Mono|^iy- 
sites,  and  a  more  important  series  against  the  M!ono- 
thelites,  beside  which  must  be  placed  the  letters  and 
the  disputation  with  Pyrrhus .  The  numerous  ascetical 
writings  have  always  received  great  honour  in  Eastern 
monasteries.  The  best  known  is  a  beautiful  dialogue 
between  an  abbot  and  a  young  monk  on  the  spiritual 
Ufe;   there  are  also  various  collections  of  wrUentuB^ 


MAXXBSU8  81 

and  devotional,  for  use  in  the  cloister.    The  to  stop,  so  that  the  cleric  could  partake  of  its  milk. 

'  Mystagima"  is  an  explanation  of  eccledastical  sym-  This  legend  accounts  for  the  fact  that  St.  Mudmus  is 

boliam,  of  importance  for  lituif;ical  history.    Three  represented  in  art  as  pointing  at  a  roe. 

hymna  are  preserved,  and  a  chronological  work  (pub-  ne  is  tiie  author  of  numerous  discourses,  first  edited 

lished  in  Petavius's  "Uranologium",  Paris,  1630,  and  by  Bruni,  and  published  by  order  of  Pius  VI  at  the 

in  P.  G.,  XIX).   Some  writings  exist  only  in  MS.    St.  Propaganda  in  1784  (reprinted  in  P.  L.,  LVIl).   These 

Maxhnus's  literary  labours  had  thus  a  vast  range.   He  discourses,  delivered  to  the  people  by  the  saint, 

was  essentially  a  monk,  a  contemplative,  a  mystic,  consist  of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  nomilies,  one 

thoroughly  at  home  in  the  Platonism  of  Dionysius.  hundred  and  sixteen  sermons,  and  six  treatises  (brac- 

But  he  was  also  a  keen  dialectician,  a  scholastic  theo-  tatus).    Homilies  1-63  are  de  temporej  L  e.  on  the  sea- 

logian,  a  controversialist.    His  influence  in  both  lines  sons  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  and  on  the  feasts  of 

has  been  very  great.     His  main  teaching  may  be  Our  Lord;  64-82,  deaanctia,  i.  e.  on  the  saints  whose 

summed  up  under  two  heads,  the  union  of  God  with  feast  was  commemorated  on  the  day  on  which  they 

humanly  by  the  Incarnation,  and  the  union  of  man  were  delivered;  83-118,  de  diveraiSy  i.  e.  exegetical, 

with  God  by  the  practice  of  perfection  and  contempla-  dogmatical,  or  moral.    Sermons  1-55  are  de  tempore; 

tion.    St.  Maximus  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  56-93,  de  sancHs;  93-116,  de  diveraia.    Three  of  the 

Martyrology  on  13  August,  and  in  the  Greek  Mencea  treatises  are  on  baptism,  one  against  the  Pagans,  and 

on  21  Januaiy  and  12  and  13  August.   His  Greek  office  one  against  the  Jews.    The  last  two  are  extant  only  in 

is  given  by  Oomb^fis  (P.  G.,  XC,  206).  fragments,  and  their  genuineness  is  doubtful.    The 

A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  begun  by  the  sixth  treatise,  whose  genuineness  is  also  doubtful, 

Dominican  Comb^fis.   Two  volumes  appeared  (Paris,  contains  short  discourses  on  twenty-three  topics  taken 

1675),  but  the  third  is  wanting    In  the  reprint  by  from  the  Four  Gospels.    An  appendix  contains  wiit- 

Migne  (P.  G.,  XC-XCI)  there  is  added  the  "De  Locis  ings  of  uncertain   authorship;   thirty-one  sermons, 

dimcilibuBDionysiietGregorii",  from  Oehler's  edition  three  homilies,  and  two  long  epistles  addressed  to  a 

(Halle,  1857),  and  the  hymns  from  Daniel  "Thesau-  sick  friend.     Many  writings,  however,  which  Bruni 

rus  H3rmnolog."  III.    Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  has  ascribes  to  Maximus  are  of  doubtful  origin.    The  dis- 

preserved  some  letters  and  other  docmnents  in  Latin  courses  are  usually  very  brief,  and  couched  in  forcible, 

in  his  "Collectanea"  (P.  L.,  CXXIX,  and  Mansi,  X).  though  at  times  over  flowery  language.    Among  the 

The   "Scholia"   on   Dionysius  the   Areopa«ite  are  many  facts  of  Utur^  and  history  touched  on  in  the 

printed  with  the  works  of  the  latter  (P.  G.,  IV).    The  discourses  are:  abstinence  during  Lent  (hom.  44),  no 

ancient  "Vita  et  certamen"  (P.  G.,  XC;  Acta  SS.,  13  fasting  or  kneeling  at  pra^rers  during  paschal  time 

Aug.)  is  not  contemporary  and  cannot  be  trusted.  (hom.  61),  fasting  on  the  Vigil  of  Pentecost  (hom.  62), 

For  literature  see  Honorius  I  and  MoNcyrHBuau;  Acta  88,,  the  synod  of  Milan  in  389  at  which  Jovinianus  was  con- 

13  Aus.;  WAOBiniAKif  and  Sbkbbbo  in  ««oi«Fuv^.  (^th  a  demned  (hom.  9),  the  impending  barbarian  invasion 

^£:^)^^^^tiS1^^^^12S^'i!:?V&  (ho^-  8»-^),.the  dertrurtion  of  the  Church  of  Mil«wx 

1873):    Ehrhard  in  Krumbacber,  Oeaeh.  der  byzaru.  Litt,  by  the  barbanans  (hom.  94),  vanous  pagan  supersti- 

(Munich,  IWT);  Wbbbr,  S.  ManmiCmfeuans  precepta  dein-  tions  Still  prevalent  at  his  time  (hom.  16, 100-02),  the 

carnation*  D»HdeifUat%onehommt9(fieT\m,1869):FnKvaa,  Ad  mmrpmanv  nf  Sf    Pot^r  rhnm    /U    70    79    ooi-m    'l^A\ 

Maximi  C(mf.  d*  Deo  hominUqw  deificatione  doctrinam  adnota-  *^P^."^5?^               I'eter  tUom.  64,  7U,  7-^,  SeiTO.  114J. 

Honea  (Schneeben.  1894);  Michaud.  St.  MaximeH  rapoeataaUue  All  tus  discourses  manifest  his  SOhcitude  for  the  eter- 

in  Revue  int€mat,detK£oL  (1902),  257.  On  the  authenticity  of  the  nal  welfare  of  his  flock,  and  in  many  he  fearlessly 

r^t^^S^SffSSr^  tn,^^  S!^S^.S^"&^.  rebukes  ttesupyivaJs  of  paganism  and  defends  the  or- 

LU.  (LeipBts.  1887):   Idem.  Fragmenu  vomicAnischer  Voter,  thoaox  faith  a«amst  the  inroads  of  heresy. 

ibid,  (1899);  Ebrbard  in  ByeanL  Zeitachr,  (1901),  394.  Fbbreri,  S.  ATaeaimo,  veecovo  di  Torino  e  i  ntoi  tempi  (3id  ed., 

John  Chapman.  Turin,  18ft8);   Savio,  OU  antichi  veeeovi  d' Italia  (Turin,  1899), 

283-294;  Fbsblbr-Junomann,  Jnatitutionee  Patrologia^  It  (Inns- 
bruck, 1892),  ii,  256-76;   AsGUoa  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,  a.  v. 

MaadmiiB  of  Turin,  Saint,  Bishop  and  theological  ^f**^*"!**  iJ^iU^^*^"'™^'™*  P^^^^^gy,  tr.  Shahan  (St. 

writer,  b.  probably  m  Rhsetia,  about  380;  d.  shortly  ^*^'  ^®^^'  ^^^'^'                               iJt.nr..^.  c\^ 

after  465.    Only  two  dates  are  historicaUy  established  JMCHAel  utt. 

in  his  Kfe.     In  461  he  was  at  the  synod  of  Milan  where  Maxwell,  William,  fifth  Earl  of  Nithsdale  (Lord 

the  bishops  of  Northern  Italy  accepted  the  celebrated  Nithsdale  signed  as  Nithsdaill)  and  fourteenth  Lord 

letter  {epia^ola  dogmalica)  of  Leo  I,  setting  forth  the  Maxwell,  b.  m  1676;  d.  at  Rome,  2  March,  1744.    He 

orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation  against  the  Nes-  succeeded  his  father  at  the  early  age  of  seven.    His 

toriana   and   Eutychians   (Mansi,  "SS.    Cone.  Ck)ll.  mother,  a  daughter  of  the  House  of  Douglas,  a  clever 

AmpL",  VI,  143).     Among  nineteen  subscribers  Maxi-  enei^etic  woman,  educated  him  in  sentiments  of  devo- 

mus  is  Uie  eighth,  and  since  the  order  was  determined  tion  to  the  Catholic  faith  and  of  loyalty  to  the  House 

by  age,  Maxunus  must  then  have  been  about  seventy  of  Stuart,  for  which  his  familv  was  famous.    When  he 

years  old.    The  second  established  date  is  465,  when  was  about  twenty-three,  Lord  Nithsdale  visited  the 

he  waa  at  the  Synod  of  Rome.     (Mansi,  VII,  959,  965  French  Court  to  do  homage  to  King  James,  and  there 

sq.)     Here  the  subscription  of  Maximus  follows  imme-  met  and  wooed  Lady  Winifred  Herbert,  youngest 

diately  after  the  pope's,  showing  he  was  the  oldest  of  daughter  of  William,  first  Marquis  of  Powis.    The 

the  forty-eight  bishops  present.    The  approximate  marriage  contract  is  dated  2  Marcti,  1699.    The  young 

time  and  place  of  his  birth  may  be  surmised  from  a  couple  resided  chiefly  at  Terregles,  in  Dumfriesshire, 

paosage  in  Sermo  81  (P.  L.,  LVIl,  695),  where  he  desig-  and  here  probably  their  five  children  were  bom.    Un- 

nates  nimself  as  a  witness  of  the  martyrdom  of  three  til  1715  no  special  event  marked  their  lives,  but  in  that 

missionary  priests  in  397  at  Anaunia  m  the  Rhsetian  year  Lord  Nithsdale's  principles  led  him  to  join  the 

Alpe.     History  do«!  not  mention  him  after  465.    He  rising  in  favour  of  Prince  James  Stuart,  and  he  shared 

18  the  first  known  bishop  of  Turin,  then  a  suffragan  see  in  the  disasters  which  attended  the  royal  cause,  being 

of  Milan.    His  successor  was  St.  Victor.    His  name  is  taken  prisoner  at  Preston  and  sent  to  tiie  Tower.    In 

in  the  Roman  martyrology  on  25  June,  and  the  city  of  deep  anxiety  Lady  Nithsdale  hastened  to  London  and 

Turin  honours  him  as  its  patron.    A  life  which,  how-  there  made  every  effort  on  behalf  of  her  husband,  in- 

cver,  is  entirely  unreliable,  was  written  after  the  elev-  eluding  a  personal  appeal  to  Greoree  I,  but  no  sort  of 

enth  century,  and  is  printed  in  "  Acta  SS.",  June,  VII,  hope  was  held  out  to  her.    She,  therefore,  with  true 

3rd  ed.,  44-46.    It  states  that  a  cleric  one  day  fol-  heroism,  planned  and  carried  out  his  escape  on  the  eve 

lowed  him  with  an  evil  intention  to  a  retired  chapel,  of  the  day  fixed  for  his  execution.    Lord  Nithsdale 

where  the  saint  was  wont  to  pray.    The  cleric  sud-  had  prepared  himself  for  death  like  a  good  Catholic 

denly  became  bo  thirsty  that  he  implored  Maximus  for  and  loyal  servant  of  his  king,  as  his  "  Dyins  Speech" 

help.     A  roe  happened  to  pass  which  the  saint  caused  and  farewell  letter  to  his  family  attest.    After  his  es* 


MAXWELL                             82  MATA    ' 

oape  he  fled  in  disguise  to  France.    He  and  Lady  to  be  aimpljr  the  sun-god  eommoii  to  the  whole  Mayu 

Nithsdale  spent  their  last  years  in  great  poverty,  in  stock.    He  is  represented  as  having  led  the  fimt  migm* 

Rome,  in  attendance  on  their  exiled  king.  tion  from  the  Far  East,  beyond  the  ocean,  along  s 

M.  M.  Maxwell  Scott.  pathway  miracuiously  oi>ened  through  the  waters. 

The  second  migration,  which  seems  to  have  been  his- 

Maxwell,  Winifred,  Countess  of  Nithsdale,  d.  at  toric,  was  led  m>m  the  west  by  Kukulcan,  a  miraeu- 
Rome,  May»  1749.  She  was  the  daughter  of  William,  lous  priest  and  teacher,  who  became  the  founder  of  tis 
first  Marquis  of  Powis,  who  followed  James  II  into  ex-  Maya  kingdom  and  civilisation.  Fairly  ^ood  author- 
ile.  She  is  famous  in  history  for  the  heroic  deliver-  ity,  based  upon  study  of  the  Maya  chromdes  and  cat 
ance  of  her  husband  from  the  Tower  on  23  Feb.,  1716.  endar,  places  tins  beginning  near  the  close  of  the  see- 
Her  married  life  was  passed  chiefly  at  the  family  seat  ond  century  of  the  Christian  Era.  Under  Kukulcin 
of  Terregles,  and  here  she  received  the  fatal  news  of  the  people  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  ruled  by  %a 
her  husbiEind's  defeat  at  Preston.  After  concealing  many  kmgly  families:  the  Cooom,  Tutul-xiu^  ItsA,  and 
the  family  papers  in  a  spot  still  pointed  out,  she  hast-  Chel^.  To  the  first  family  belonged  Kukulcan  lum- 
ened  to  London  to  intercede  for  her  husband,  having  self,  who  established  his  residence  at  Maya|)an,  which 
little  hope  however,  for,  to  use  her  own  words:  "A  thus  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  nation.  The 
Catholic  upon  the  borders  and  one  who  had  a  great  fol-  Tutul-xiu  held  vassal  rule  at  Uxmal,  the  Itsil  at  Chi- 
lowing  and  whose  family  had  ever  upon  all  occasions  chen-Its^  and  the  Chel6  at  Isamal.  To  the  CheliS  wu 
stuck  to  the  royal  family,  could  not  look  for  mercy '\  appointed  the  hereditar]^  high  priesthood,  and  their 
And  so  it  proved;  even  her  personal  appeal  to  George  I  city  became  the  sacred  city  of  tne  Maya.  £ach  pro- 
was  disregarded,  and  Lord  Nithsdale  was  to  owe  his  vindal  king  was  oblieed  to  spend  a  put  of  each  year 
safety  to  her  alone.  With  great  coiu'age  and  ingenu-  with  the  monarch  at  Mayapan.  This  condition  coi>- 
ity  she  contrived  his  escane  from  the  Tower  in  female  tinned  down  to  about  the  eleventh  century,  when,  as 
dress — on  the  eve  of  the  aay  appointed  for  his  execu-  the  result  of  a  successful  revolt  of  the  provincial  kingL 
tion,  according  to  Lady  Cowper  s  "  Diarv,''  1st  ed.,  p.  Mayapan  was  destroyed,  and  the  supreme  rule  paaBea 
85,  a  reprieve  was  signed  for  Lord  Nithsdale  on  the  to  the  Tutul-xiu  at  Uxmal.  Later  on  Mayapan  was 
very  nignt  of  his  escape — and  after  concealing  him  in  rebuilt  and  was  again  the  capital  of  the  nation  until 
London  and  arranging  for  his  journey  to  France,  this  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when,  in 
heroic  lady  returned  again  to  Scotland  to  secure  the  consequence  of  a  general  revolt  against  the  reigmng 
family  papers  which  she  knew  would  be  of  vital  im-  dynasty^  it  was  finally  destroyed,  and  the  monarchy 
portance  to  her  son.  In  fact  her  zeal  made  Lady  was  spht  up  into  a  number  of  independent  petty 
Nithsdale's  position  a  hazardous  one,  and  King  Qeorge  states,  of  which  eighteen  existed  on  the  peninsula  at 
deckured  she  had  done  him  "more  mischief  than  any  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  In  oonsequenoe  of  this 
woman  in  Christendom".  As  soon  as  she  was  able  civil  war  a  part  of  the  Itz&  emigrated  south  to  Lake 
she  joined  Lord  Nithsdale  abroad  and  thev  spent  their  Pet&i,  in  Guatemala^  where  they  established  a  king- 
long  exile  in  Rome,  where  she  survived  her  husband  dom  with  their  capital  and  sacred  city  on  Florea 
for  about  five  years.    The  autograph  letter  in  which  Island,  in  the  lake. 

Lady  Nithsdale  gives  the  account  ot  her  husband's  es-  On  ms  second  voyage  Columbus  heard  of  Yucatan 

cape,  and  the  brown  cloak  worn  by  him  on  the  occa-  as  a  distant  oountiy  of  clothed  men.    On  his  fifth  voy- 

sion,  are  now  in  possession  of  the  Duchess  of  Norfolk,  age  (1503-04^  he  encountered,  south-west  of  Cuba,  a 

who  represents  tne  Nithsdales  in  the  female  line.  canoe-load  of  Indians  with  cotton  clothing  for  barter, 

Frabbr,  BookofCaeHaim(^{Ed^wiAi,  1873);  Paul,  The  who  said  that  they  came  from  the  country  of  Maya. 

lS!i,S73S»SS''iJ^  r&^"S{S.^JS:  T^  1506  PiMon  sighted  the  coart^  and  in  1511  t^ngr 

1897).                                  M.  M.  Maxwell  Scott.  "^^^  under  Valdivia  were  wrecked  on  the  shores  of  the 

sacred  island  of  Cosumel,  several  being  captured  and 

Maya  Indiaiui,  the  most  important  of  the  cul-  sacrificed  to  the  idols.  In  1517  an  expedition  und^ 
tured  native  peoples  of  North  America,  both  in  the  Francisco  de  Cordova  landed  on  the  north  coast,  di»> 
degree  of  their  civilization  and  in  population  and  re-  covering  well-built  cities^  but,  after  several  bloody  en- 
sources,  formerly  occupying  a  temtory  of  about  60,-  g&gements  with  the  natives,  was  compelled  to  retire. 
000  square  miles,  includmg  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  Father  Alonso  Gonsales,  who  accompanied  this  exjpe- 
of  Yucatan,  Southern  Mexico,  together  with  the  adja-  dition,  found  opportunity  at  one  landing  to  explore  a 
cent  portion  of  Northern  Guatemala,  and  still  consti-  temple,  and  brmg  off  some  of  the  sacred  images  and 
tuting  the  principal  population  of  the  same  region  gold  ornaments.  In  1518  a  strong  expediticui  under 
outside  of  tne  larger  cities.  Their  language,  which  is  Juan  de  Grijalva,  from  Cuba,  landed  near  Cosumel 
actually  supplanting  Spanish  to  a  great  extent,  is  still  and  took  formal  possession  for  Spain.  For  Father 
spoken  by  about  300,000  persons,  dL  whom  two-thirds  Juan  Diaz^  who  on  this  occasion  celebrated  Mass  upon 
are  pure  Maya,  the  remainaer  being  whites  and  of  mixed  the  summit  of  one  of  the  heathen  temples,  the  honour 
blood.  The  Mayan  linguistic  stock  includes  some  is  also  claimed  of  having  afterwards  been  the  first  to 
twenty  tribes,  speaking  closely  related  dialects,  and  celebrate  Mass  in  the  City  of  Mexico.  Near  Cosumel, 
(excepting  the  Huastec  of  northern  Vera  Cruz  and  also,  was  rescued  the  young  monk  Aguilar,  one  of  the 
south-east  San  Luis  Potosf ,  Mexico)  occupying  contigu-  two  survivora  of  Valdivia's  party,  who,  though  naked 
ous  territory  in  Tabasco,  Chiapas,  and  the  Yucatan  to  the  breech-cloth,  still  oarriea  his  Breviaiy  in  a 
I>eninsula,  a  large  part  of  Guatemala,  and  smaller  poi^  pouch.  Proceeding  northwards,  Grijaba  made  the  en- 
tions  of  Honduras  and  Salvador.  The  ancient  build-  tire  circuit  of  the  peninsula  before  returning,  having 
ers  of  the  ruined  cities  of  Palenque  and  Copdn  were  of  had  another  desperate  engagement  with  the  Ma^ 
the  same  stock.  The  most  im]>ortant  tnbes  or  na-  near  Campeche.  After  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  m 
tions.  after  the  Maya  proper,  were  the  Quiche  and  1521,  Francisco  de  Montejo,  under  commission  as 
Cakciuquel  of  Guatemala.  All  the  tribes  of  this  stock  Governor  of  Yucatan,  landed  (1527)  to  effect  the  con- 
were  of  nigh  culture,  the  Mayan  civilization  being  the  (^uest  of  the  country,  but  met  with  such  deiqierate  re- 
most  advanced,  and  probably  the  most  ancient,  in  sistance  that  after  eight  yeara  of  incessant  fighting 
aboriginal  North  America.  They  still  number  alto-  every  Spaniard  had  been  driven  out.  In  1540,  after 
gether  about  two  million  souls.  two  more  years  of  the  same  desperate  warfare,  his  son 

I.  ELlstort. — ^The  Maya  proper  seem  to  have  en-  Francisco  established  the  first  Spanish  settlement  at 

tered  Yucatan  from  the  west.    As  usual  with  ancient  Campe<^.    In  the  next  year,  in  a  bloodv  batUe  at 

nations,  it  is  difficult  in  the  beginning  to  separate  TUioo,  he  completely  broke  the  power  of  Maya  resist* 

m^th  from  history,  their  earliest  mentioned  leader  and  ance,  and  a  few  months  later  (Jan.,  1542)  founded  oo 

ieified  hero,  Itzaznnd,  being  considered  by  Brinton  ih&  site  of  the  ruined  city  the  new  capital,  M^rida.   In 


1U7A  i 

1546,  however,  there  ma  a  general  revolt,  and  it  mu 
not  until  a  year  later  that  the  ccmquest  waa  assured. 

In  the  original  oommiasion  to  Moatejo  it  had  been 
expressly  stipulated  that  missicmaries  should  accom- 
pany all  his  CQCpeditirau.  This,  however,  he  had  neg- 
lected to  attend  to  and  in  1531  (or  1531),  by  special 
order,  Father  Jacobo  de  Testera  and  four  otnera  were 
sent  to  join  tl^  Spanish  camp  near  Campecbe.  They 
met  a  kindly  welcome  from  the  Indians,  who  came 
with  their  children  to  be  instructed,  and  thus  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  might  have  been  effected  through 
spiritual  agencies  but  for  the  outrages  committed  by  a 
band  at  Sp&nish  outlaws,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
priests  were  forced  to  withdraw.  In  1537  five  more 
m;««iimTin«  arrived  and  met  the  same  wilhng  recep- 
tion, remaining  about  two  years  in  spite  of  the  war 
still  in  progreaa.  About  1545  a  large  number  of  ous- 
:r  from  Spain.    Several  of  these 


— apparently 
tion  of  Fatbe 
lalpando,  were  assigned  to 
Yucatan.  lAndiug  at  Cam- 
peche,  the  governor  ex- 
plained their  purpose  to  the 
chiefs,  the  convent  of  St. 
FranciB  was  dedicated  on  its 
present  sit^,  and  translations 
were  begun  into  the  native 
language.  The  first  baptised 
convert  was  the  chief  of  Cam- 
peehe,  who  learned  Spanish 
and  thereafter  acted  as  inter- 
preter for  the  priests. 

Here,  Ofl  elsewhere,  the 
missionariea  were  the  cham- 
pions of  the  rights  of  the  In- 
diana. In  consequence  of 
their  repeated  protests  a  royal 
edict  WHS  iasueil,  in  1549,  pro- 
hibiting Indian  slavery  in  the 
province,  while  promising 
eompensation  to  the  slave- 
ownera.  As  in  other  cases, 
local  i^poeition  defeated  the 
purpose  of  this  law;  but  the 
agitation  went  on,  and  in  15SI 
aoother  royal  edict  liberated 
150,000  made  Indian  slaves, 
with  their  families,  through- 
out Mexico.  In  1557  and  155S 

the  Crown  intervened  to  »-  BcmnoiiD  FionB 

■train  the  tyranny  of  the  na-  Hay>  Ooae  cvvin 

live  chiefs.     Within  a   very 

abort  time  Father  VilUlpando  had  at  his  mission  station 
atU^ridii  over  a  thousand  converts,  including  several 
chiefs.  He  himself,  with  Father  Malchior  de  Bena- 
veuie,  then  set  out.  barefoot,  for  the  city  of  Manf,  in 
the  mountains  fartner  south,  where  their  success  was 
•o  great  that  two  thousand  converts  were  soon  en- 
p^  in  building  them  a  church  and  dwelling.  All 
went  well  until  they  began  to  plead  with  the  chiefs  to 
release  their  vassals  from  certain  hard  conditions, 
when  the  chiefs  resolved  to  burn  them  at  the  altar. 
On  the  appointed  night  the  chiefs  and  their  retainers 
■ppruached  the  church  with  this  design,  but  were 
■wed  from  their  purpose  on  finding  the  two  priests, 
who  had  been  warned  by  an  Indian  boy,  calmly  pray- 
ing befom  the  crucifix.  After  remaining  all  nignt  m 
Bthe  fatheri  were  fortunately  rescued  by  a 
detachment  whidi,  almost  miraculausty, 
to  pass  that  way.  Twenty-seven  of  the  con- 
KiLiatora  wen  afterwarda  seized  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  were  all  saved  by  the  interposition  of  Vil- 
Upando.  In  154S~49  otW  missionariea  arrived 
from  Spain,  Villaipando  was  made  custodian  of  the 

Eivinee,  and  a  convent  was  erected  near  the  site  of 
efaipd  at  UuiL    The  Yucatan  field  having  been 


assigned  to  the  Franciscans,  all  the  missionary  woik 
among  the  Maya  was  done  bv  priests  of  that  order. 

In  1561  Yucatan  was  made  a  diocese  with  its  aee  at 
M£rida.  In  the  next  year  the  famous  Dief^  de  Landa, 
Franciscan  provincial,  and  afterwards  bishop  (1573- 
79),  becomtnK  aware  that  the  natives  throughout  the 
peninsula  atill  secretly  cherished  their  ancient  rites, 
instituted  an  investigation,  which  he  conducted  with 
such  omeltiea  of  torture  and  death  that  the  proceed- 
ings were  stopped  by  order  of  Bishop  Toral,  Francis- 
can provincial  of  Mexico,  immedialely  upon  his  arri- 
val, during  the  same  summer,  to  occupy  the  See  of 
H^rida.  Before  this  could  be  done,  however,  there 
hod  been  destroyed,  as  is  asserted,  two  million  sacred 
images  and  hundreds  of  hieroglyphic  manuscripts-7 
practically  the  whole  of  the  voluminous  native  Maya 
literature.  As  late  as  1586  a  royal  edict  was  issued  for 
the  suppression  of  idolatiy.  In  1575-77,  a  terrible 
visitation  of  a  mysterious  disease,  called  mailaUakuaU, 


which  attacked  only  the  In- 
I  dians,  swept  over  Southern 
I  Mexico andYucatan, destroy- 
ing, as  was  estimated,  over 
two  minion  lives.  This  was 
its  fourth  appearance  since 
the  conciuest.  At  its  close  it 
was  eatimated  that  the  whole 
Indian  population  of  Mexico 
hod  been  reduced  to  about 
1,700,000  souls.  In  1583  and 
1697  there  were  local  revolte 
tmder  chiefs  of  the  ancient 
Cocom  royal  family.  By  this 
latter  date  it  was  estimated 
that  the  native  population  of 
Mexico  had  dccUned  by  three- 
fourths  since  the  discovery, 
through  massacre,  famine, 
disease,  and  oppression.  Up 
to  1593  over  150  Franciscan 
monks  had  been  engaged  in 
missionary  work  in  Yucatan, 
The  Mava  history  of  the 
•eventeentn  century  is  chiefly 
one  of  revolts,  vis.,  lfllO-33, 
163fr^4,  1653,  1669,  1670, 
and  about  1675.  Of  all  these, 
that  of  1636-44  waa  the  most 
extensive  and  serious,  result- 
ing in  a  temporary  revival  , 
a  AHD  HiEBoai.TPaa  O^  ^  old  heathen  ritea.    In 

t  in  BritiBb  MuBBum  1697  the  island  capital  of  the 

Itid,  in  Lake  Fette,  Guate- 
mala, was  stormed  by  Governor  Martin  de  Ursua, 
and  with  it  fell  the  last  stronghold  of  the  indepen- 
dent Maya,  Here,  also,  the  manuscripts  discov- 
ered were  destroyed.  In  1728  Bishop  Juan  Gomel 
Parada  died,  beloved  by  the  Indians  for  the  laws 
which  he  had  procured  mitigating  the  harshness  of 
their  servitude.  The  reimposition  of  the  former  hard 
oonditions  brought  about  another  revolt  in  1761,  led 
by  the  chief  Jacinto  Canek,  and  ending,  as  usual,  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Indians,  the  destruction  of  their  chief 
stronghold,  and  the  death  of  their  leader  under  horri- 
ble torture. 

In  1847,  taking  advantage  of  the  Govertmient's  dif- 
ficulties with  the  United  Stat«B,  and  urged  on  by  their 
"unappeasable  hatred  toward  their  rulers  from  tbe 
earliest  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest  ".the  Maya  again 
broke  out  in  general  rebeUion,  with  tne  declared  pur- 
poae  of  driving  all  the  whites,  half-breeds  and  negroes 
from  the  peninsida,  in  which  they  were  so  far  auccesa- 
ful  that  all  the  fugitives  who  escaped  the  wholesale 
massacres  fled  to  the  coast,  whence  moat  of  them  were 
taken  oS  by  ships  from  Cuba.  Arma  and  ammunition 
for  the  rising  were  freely  supplied  to  the  Indians  by 
the  British  traders  of  BeliM.    In  1851  th«  rebel  Hiqn 


IIAYA 


84 


IIAYA 


Mtablished  their  headquarters  at  Chan-Santa-Cruz  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  peninsula.  In  1853  it  seemed 
as  if  a  temporary  understanding  had  been  reached,  but 
next  year  hostilities  began  again.  Two  expeditions 
against  the  Maya  stronghold  were  repulsed,  Valladolid 
was  besieged  by  the  Indians,  Yecax  taken,  and  more 
than  two  thousand  whites  massacred.  In  1860  the 
Mexican  Colonel  Ao6reto,  with  3,000  men,  occupied 
Chan-Santa-Cruz,  but  was  finally  compelled  to  retire 
with  the  loss  of  1,500  men  killed,  and  to  abandon  his 
wounded — ^who  were  all  butchered — as  weU  as  his 
artillery  and  supplies  and  all  but  a  few  hundred  stand 
of  small  arms.  The  Indians  burned  and  ravaged  in 
every  direction,  nineteen  flourishing  towns  being  en- 
tirely wiped  out,  and  the  population  in  three  districts 
being  reduced  from  97,000  to  35,000.  The  war  of  ex- 
termination continued,  with  savage  atrocities,  through 
1864,  wh«n  it  gradually  wore  itself  out,  leaving  the 
Indians  still  unsubdued  and  well  supplied  with  arms 
and  munitions  of  war  from  Belize.  In  1868  it  broke 
out  again  in  resistance  to  the  Juarez  government.  In 
1871  a  Mexican  force  again  occupied  Chan-Santa-Cruz, 
but  retired  without  producing  any  permanent  result. 
In  1901,  after  long  preparation,  a  strong  Mexican 
force  invaded  the  territory  of  the  independent  Maya 
both  by  land  and  sea,  stormed  Chan-Santa-Cruz  and, 
after  determined  resistance,  drove  the  defenders  into 
the  swamps.  The  end  is  not  yet,  however,  for.  even  in 
this  year  of  1910,  Mexican  troops  are  in  the  field  to  put 
down  a  serious  rising  in  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula. 

II.  Institutions,  Arts,  and  Literature. — Under 
the  ancient  system,  the  Maya  Govenmient  was  an 
hereditary  absolute  monarchy,  with  a  close  union  of 
the  spiritual  and  temporal  elements,  the  hereditary 
high  priest,  who  was  also  king  of  the  sacred  city  of 
Izamal,  being  consulted  by  the  monarch  on  all  impor- 
tant matters,  besides  having  the  care  of  ritual  and 
ceremonials.  On  public  occasions  the  king  appeared 
dressed  in  flowing  white  robes,  decorated  witn  gold 
and  precious  stones,  wearing  on  his  head  a  golden 
circlet  decorated  with  the  beautiful  guetzal  plumes 
reserved  for  royalty,  and  borne  upon  a  canopied  palan- 
quin. The  provincial  governors  were  nooles  of  the 
four  royal  families,  and  were  supreme  within  their  own 
governments.  The  rulers  of  towns  and  villages  formed 
a  lower  order  of  nobility,  not  of  royal  blood.  The  king 
usually  acted  on  the  advice  of  a  council  of  lords  and 
priests.  The  lords  alone  were  military  commanders, 
and  each  lord  and  inferior  official  had  for  his  support 
the  produce  of  a  certain  portion  of  land  which  was 
cultivated  in  common  by  tne  people.  They  received 
no  salary,  and  each  was  responsible  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  poor  and  helpless  of  his  district.  The  lower 
priesthood  was  not  hereditary,  but  was  appointed 
through  the  high  priest.  There  was  also  a  female 
priesthood,  or  vestal  order^  whose  head  was  a  princess 
of  royal  blood.  The  plebeians  were  farmers,  artisans, 
or  merchants;  they  paid  taxes  and  military  service, 
and  each  had  his  interest  in  the  common  land  as  well 
as  his  individual  portion^  which  descended  in  the  fam- 
ily and  could  not  be  ahenated.  Slaves  also  existed, 
the  slaves  being  chiefly  prisoners  of  war  and  their  chil- 
dren, the  latter  of  whom  could  become  freemen  by 
puttmg  a  new  piece  of  unoccupied  ground  under  culti- 
vation. Society  was  orgaziized  upon  the  clan  system, 
with,  descent  in  the  male  line,  the  chiefs  being  rather 
custodians  for  the  tribe  than  owners,  and  having  no 
power  to  alienate  the  tribal  lands.  Game,  fish,  and  the 
salt  marshes  were  free  to  all,  with  a  certain  portion  to 
the  lords.  Taxes  were  paid  in  kind  through  authorized 
collectors.  On  the  death  of  the  owner,  the  property 
was  divided  equally  among  his  nearest  male  neirs. 

The  more  important  cases  were  tried  by  a  royal 
council  presided  over  by  the  king,  and  lesser  cases  by 
the  provincial  rulers  or  local  judges,  according  to  their 
importance,  usually  with  the  assistance  of  a  coimcil  and 


with  an  advocate  for  the  defence.  Crimes  were  pun* 
ished  with  death — ^frequently  by  throwing  over  a 
precipice — enslavement,  fines,  or,  rarely,  by  unpiison- 
ment.  The  code  was  merciful,  and  even  murder  oouM 
sometimes  be  com]>ounded  by  a  fine.  Children  were 
subject  to  parents  until  of  an  age  to  marry,  which  for 
boys  was  about  twenty.  The  children  of  the  conunao 
people  were  trained  only  in  the  occupation  of  their 
parents,  but  those  of  the  nobility  were  highly  edu- 
cated, under  the  care  of  the  priests,  in  writing,  music, 
histoiy,  war,  and  religion.  The  daughters  m  noblei 
were  strictly  secluded,  and  the  older  boys  in  each  vil- 
lage lived  and  slept  apart  in  a  public  bmlding.  Birth- 
days and  other  anmversaries  were  the  occasions  of 
family  feasts. 

Marriage  between  persons  of  the  same  gens  was  for- 
bidden, and  those  who  violated  this  law  were  regarded 
as  outcasts.  Marriage  within  certain  other  degrees  of 
relationship — as  with  the  sister  of  a  deceased  wife,  or 
with  a  mother's  sister — ^was  also  prohibited.  Polyg- 
amy was  unknown,  but  concubinage  was  permitted, 
and  divorce  was  easy.  Marriages  were  pertormed  by 
the  priests,  with  much  ceremonial  rejoicing,  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  solemn  confession  and  a  baptismal  nte, 
known  as  the  **  rebirth  ",  without  which  there  could  be 
no  marriage.  No  one  could  marry  out  of  his  own  rank 
or  without  the  consent  of  the  chief  of  the  district. 
Religious  ritual  was  elaborate  and  imposing,  with  fre- 
quent festival  occasions  in  honour  of  the  gods  of  the 
winds,  the  rain,  the  cardinal  points,  the  harvest,  of 
birth,  death,  and  war,  with  firoecial  honours  to  the 
deified  national  heroes  Itzamna  and  Kukulcan.  The 
whole  country  was  dotted  with  temples,  usually  great 
stone-built  pyramids,  while  certam  places — as  the 
sacred  city  of  izamal  and  the  island  of  Cozumel — ^were 
places  of  pilgrimage.  There  was  a  special  "  feast  of  all 
the  gods^.  The  prevailing  mildness  of  the  Maya  cult 
was  in  strong  contrast  to  the  bloody  ritual  of  the 
Aztec.  Human  sacrifice  was  forbidden  by  Kukulcan, 
and  crept  in  only  in  later  years.  It  was  never  a  fre- 
quent or  prominent  feature,  excepting  at  Chichen- 
Itz^,  where  it  at  least  became  customary,  on  occasion 
of  some  great  national  crisis,  to  sacrifice  himdreds  of 
voluntary  victims  of  their  own  race,  frequently  virgins, 
by  drowning  them  in  one  of  the  subterranean  rock 
wells  or  cenotes,  after  which  the  bodies  were  drawn  out 
and  buried. 

The  Maya  farmer  cultivated  com,  beans,  cacao, 
chile,  maguey,  bananas,  and  cotton^  besides  giving 
attention  to  bees,  from  which  he  obtamed  both  honey 
and  wax.  Various  fermented  drinks  were  prepared 
from  com,  maguey,  and  honey.  They  were  much 
given  to  drunkeimesSj  which  was  so  common  ms  hardly 
to  be  considered  disgraceful.  Chocolate  was  the 
favourite  drink  of  the  upper  classes.  Cacao  beans,  as 
well  as  pieces  of  copper,  were  a  common  medium  <^ 
exchange.  Very  little  meat  was  eaten,  except  at  cere- 
monial feasts,  although  the  Maya  were  expert  hunters 
and  fishers.  A  small  ''barkless"  dog  was  also  eaten. 
The  ordinary  garment  of  men  was  a  cotton  breechcloth 
wrapped  around  the  middle,  with  sometimes  a  sleeve- 
less snirt,  either  white  or  dyed  in  colors.  The  women 
wore  a  skirt  belted  at  the  waist,  and  plaited  their  hair 
In  long  tresses.  Sandals  were  worn  by  both  sexes. 
Tattooing  and  head-flattening  were  occasionallyprac- 
tised,  and  the  face  and  body  were  always  pamted. 
The  Maya,  then  as  now,  were  noted  for  personal  neat- 
ness and  frequent  use  of  both  cold  and  hot  baths. 
They  were  expert  and  determined  warriors,  using  the 
bow  and  arrow,  the  dart  with  throwing-stick,  the 
wooden  sword  edged  with  flints,  the  lance,  sling,  cop- 
per axe,  shield  of  reeds,  and  protective  armour  of  heavy 
(quilted  cotton.  They  understood  military  tactics  and 
signalling  with  drum  and  whistle,  and  knew  how  to 
bmld  barricades  and  dig  trenches.  Noble  prisonen 
were  usually  sacrificed  to  the  gods,  while  those  of 
oidinarv  rank  became  slaves.    Their  object  in  war 


! 
-. J 


I    BIBROOLTPH 


)    AtVTAB-PIECB,    WITB 

DOORWAY 


THE  Nnw  TC^K 
PUBLIC  ir.nARY 


IIAYA                                  85  IIAYA 

B  rather  to  make  prisoners  xhan  to  kill.  As  the  de  Bourbour^  in  volume  two  of  the  "Mission  Scienti- 
peninsiila  had  no  mines,  the  Maya  were  without  iron  fique  au  Mexiaue"  (Paris,  1870);  "Arte  de  el  Idioma 
or  any  metal  excepting  a  few  copper  utensils  and  gold  Maya  "  by  Fatner  Pedro  de  Santa  Rosa  Maria  Beltran, 
ornaments  imported  from  other  countries.  Their  tools  a  native  of  Yucatan  and  instructor  in  the  Maya  Ian- 
were  almost  entirely  of  flint  or  other  stone,  even  for  guage  in  the  fYanciscan  convent  of  M^rida  (Mexico, 
the  most  intricate  monumental  carving.  For  house-  1746,  and  M^rida,  1859);  "Gram^tica'Yucateca"  by 
hold  purposes  they  used  clay  pottery,  dishes  of  shell,  Father  Joaquin  Ruz,  of  the  Franciscan  convent  of 
or  gourds.  Their  potteiy  was  of  notable  excellence,  M^rida,  also  a  native  of  Yucatan  and  "  the  most  fluent 
as  were  also  their  weaving,  d3reing,  and  feather  woric.  of  the  writers  in  the  Maya  language  that  Yucatan  has 
Along  the  coast  they  had  wooden  dugout  canoes  capa-  produced  "  (M^rida,  1844) ,  and  republished  in  an  Eng- 
ble  of  holding  fifty  persons.                              ^  lish  translation  by  the  Baptist  missionary,  Rev.  John 

They  had  a  voluminous  literature,  covering  the  Kingdom  (Belize,  1847).    Each  of  these  writers  was 

whole  range  of  native  interests,  either  written,  in  their  also  the  author  of  other  works  in  the  language. 

own  peculiar  "calculiform''  hieroglyphic  characters,  Of  published  dictionaries  may  be  mentioned:  first 

in  books  of  maguey  paper  or  parchment  which  were  and  earliest,  a  "Diccionario",  credited  to  Father  Vi- 

boiind  in  wood,  or  carved  upon  the  walls  of  their  pub-  llalpando  (Mexico,  1571) ;  then  "  Diccionario  de  la  Len- 

lic  buildings.    Twenty-seven  parchment  books  were  gua  Maya",  by  Juan  Perez  (M^rida,  1866-77);  and 

publicly  destroyed  by  Bishop  Landa  at  Manf  in  1562,  "  Dictionnaire.  Granunaire  et  Chre«tomathie  de  la 

othera  elsewhere  in  tne  peninsula,  others  again  at  the  langue  Maya  ,  bv  the  Abb6  Brasseiu:  de.Bourboui^ 

storming  of  the  Itzd  capital  in  1697,  and  almost  all  (Paris,  1872).    The  most  valuable  dictionaries  of  the 

that  have  come  down  to  us  are  four  codices,  as  they  are  language  are  still  in  manuscript.    Chief  is  the  one 

called,  viz.,  the  "Codex  Troano",  published  at  Paris  known  as  the  "Diccionario  del  Convento  de  Motvd", 

in  1869;  another  codex,  apparently  connected  with  the  from  the  name  of  the  Franciscan  convent  in  Yucatan 

first,  published  at  Paris  m  1882;  the  ''Codex  Peresi-  in  which  it  was  found;  it  is  now  in  the  Carter  Brown 

anus',  published  at  Paris  in  1869-71;  and  the"  Dresden  librazy  at  Providence.    It  is  beautifully  written  and 

Codex' ,  originally  mistakenly  published  as  an  Aztec  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  an  original  written  by  a 

book  in  Kingsborough's  great  work  on  the  "  Antiqui-  Franciscan  priest,  who  was  evidently  a  master  of  the 

ties  of  Mexico"  (London,^  1830-48^.     Besides  these  language,  about  1590.     "In  extent  the  dictionary  is 

pre-Spanishwritings,  of  which  there  IS  yet  no  ade(]iuate  not  surpassed  bv  that  of  any  aboriginal  language  of 

mterpretation,  we  ha  ve  a  number  of  later  works  written  America ' '  (Bartlett) .    Other  manuscript  dictionaries 

in  the  native  language  by  Christianized  Maya  shortly,  are  those  of  the  Convent  of  M^rida  (aoout  1640);  of 

after  the   conquest.     Several  of  these  have  hb^ti  £1^  Convent  of  TicuF;  (about  1690);  and  one  by  the 

brought  together  by  Brinton  in  his  "  Maya  Chrdbi-  /vRe^  Alexa^dei^  Henderson,  a  Methodist  missionary  of 
cles".  The  intricate  calendar  system  of  the  Mi^^-^-BeJize /1 839-^6).,. noiy  the  property  of  the  Bureau  of 
which  exceeded  in  elaboration  that  of  the  Azjec^  •'*Amerieafn   -EUmolo^.     (See   also   Brinton,   "Maya 

Zapotec,  or  any  other  of  the  cultured  native  races,  bas  Chronicles",  and  M^a  titles  in  Pilling.  "Bibliog- 

been  the  subject  of  much  discussion.   It  was  based^on  raphy,  Proofsheets"  fWashington,  1885).) 
a  series  of  kaiuns,  or  cycles,  consisting  of  20  (or  24) ,  ^2,  - .  i-: , .  Pfa^incadly:'  tiie  Maya  are  dark,  short,  muscular,  and 
and  260  years,  and  bv  its  means  they  carried  their ..  .bfpad^^ee^^ojn^^elfe^ 

history  down  for  possibly  thirteen  centuries,  the  com- ' .  ^^rward,  reUabie,'  oT  it  cheerful  disposition,  and  neat 
pletion  of  each  lesser  katun  being  noted  by  the  inser-/^  and  orderly  hafiits.  j  Their  wars  with  Mexico  have 
tion  of  a  memorial  stone  in  the  wall  of  the  great  templS'^'^^en  wagea,'^'EdW&V^',  with  the  utmost  savagery,  the 

at  Mayapan.  provocation  bein^  as  great  on  the  other  side.    Their 

The  art  in  which  above  all  the  Maya  excelled,  and  daily  life  differs  little  m)m  that  of  the  ordinary  Mexi- 
through  which  they  are  best  known,  is  architecture,  can  peasant,  their  ordinary  dwellings  being  thatched 
The  splendid  ruins  of  temples,  p3rramids,  and  great  huts,  their  dress  the  common  white  Shirt  and  trousers, 
cities — some  of  which  were  mtact  and  occupied  at  the  with  sandals  and  straw  hat,  for  men,  and  for  women 
time  of  the  conquest — scattered  by  scores  and  him-  white  embroidered  skirt  and  sleeveless  gown.  They 
dreds  throughout  the  forests  of  Yucatan,  have  been  cultivate  the  ordinary  products  of  the  region,  including 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  travellers  for  over  half  a  sugar  and  hennequm  hemp,  while  the  independent 
century,  since  they  were  first  brought  prominently  to  bands  give  considerable  attention  to  himting.  While 
notice  by  Stephens.  Says  Brinton:  "The  material  they  are  all  now  Catholics,  with  resident  priests  in  all 
was  usually  a  nard  limestone,  which  was  polished  and  the  towns,  that  fact  in  no  way  softens  their  animosity 
carved,  and  imbedded  in  a  firm  mortar.  Such  was  towards  the  concjuering  race.  Thev  still  keep  up 
also  the  character  of  the  edifices  of  the  Quiches  and  many  of  their  ancient  rites,  particularly  those  relating 
Cakchiquels  of  Guatemala.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  to  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  the  crops.  Many  of 
none  of  these  masons  knew  the  plumb-line  or  the  these  survivals  are  described  by  Brinton  in  a  chapter 
SQuare,  the  accuracy  of  the  adjustments  is  remarkable,  of  his  "  Essays  of  an  Americanist ".  The  best  recent 
Tneir  efforts  at  sculpture  were  equally  bold.  They  accoimt  (1894)  of  the  independent  Maya  is  that  of  the 
did  not  hesitate  to  attempt  statues  in  the  roimd  of  German  traveller  Sapper,  who  praises  in  the  highest 
life  size  and  larger,  and  the  facades  of  the  edifices  were  terms  their  honesty,  punctuality,  hospitality,  and 
covered  with  extensive  and  intricate  designs  cut  in  peaceful  family  life.  A  translation  of  it  is  given  in  the 
hi^h  relief  upon  the  stones.  All  this  was  accom-  Bowditch  collection.  At  that  time  the  Mexican  gov- 
plished  without  the  use  of  metal  tools,  as  they  did  not  emment  officially  recognized  three  independent  Amya 
nave  even  the  bronze  chisels  familiar  to  the  Aztecs. "  states,  or  tribes,  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Yucatan, 
The  interior  walls  were  also  frequently  covered  with  the  most  important  being  the  hostiles  of  the  Chan- 
hieroglyphic  inscriptions  carved  m  the  stone  or  wood,  Santa-Cruz  district,  estimated  at  not  more  than  10,000 
or  painted  upon  the  plaster.  Among  the  most  noted  souls  as  against  about  40,000  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
of  tiie  Mava  ruins  are  those  of  Palenque  (in  Chiapas),  rebellion  of  1847.  The  other  two  bands  together 
Uxmal,  Chichen-Itz^,  and  Mayapan.  numbered  perhaps  as  many,  having  decrea^d  in 

The  Maya  language  has  received  much  attention  about  the  same  ratio, 

from  missionaries  and  scientists  from  an  early  period.  «,^'l$9'*\v^!^-  ^  yveatan  ^,  v^ob..  M6rida,  1878);  Bancboit 

pf«amma«theearU«ti8the;'Artey  Vocabufeode  ^  S'^e^S^Tj^I'l'llS');  YpX^S.'  ""^A 

la  lengua  de  Yucatan"  of  Luis  de  Vlllalpando,  pub-  America  (3  vola.,  San   Francisco.  1886-87):    Idem.  Hitt.  </ 

liahed  about  1655.     Others  of  note  are  ^'Arte  de  la  M^txim  (6  wb..  Smi  Francbco.  I886788):  Bowditch  (ed.) 

Ungu*  Maya  "  by  Fath^  Gabriel  San  B««naventura  ^^HT  ^t^^^"^^  ^rSSflcSJSS  %'^ 

(Mesoo,  1684),  and  republished  by  the  Abbe  Brasseur  dorft),  in  BvXLOxn.  j6S9,  Burrau  0/  Am.  Exhn,  (Washington, 


86  1IATHA8 

1004):  BBAsmm  dv^Bottbboubo,  HitL  dm  naUon*  ^eMHatet    auf  der  kurf QntL    Stemwaite  endeckt  worden  amd** 


Uy^SSSr  iJiLJi^S"^  (Ma^eim   1778)     In  the  foUowing  yeaj^^ 

(Pari..  1M6);   Idim.   ManuaerU  TrotnH   (2    voCPMto.  liahed  a  Latm  work  On  the  same  subject.    Tlie  obeer- 

1869-70);  Idku,  Catalogue  dea  ean^^tntmrnfOM  (Pans.  1800);  vations,  which  were  made  in  good  faith,  were  evi- 

Brihton.  The  M<nta  Cfftrntclet  (Phl^           1M2);  Idsic.  dentlv  due  to  an  optical  illusion.    Mayer  spent  some 

AfiMfican  ff«ro-AfvM«  (Philadelphia.  1882);  iDrnM^Baaavaofan  ^^^J /^^  ji^^ '»'*^i^^^'«'*^*'°y**:    ««»j«  a^/^w  owuw 

Ameneaniei  (Phitdelphia,  isioJiiMM.  The  Amerwm  Race  tune  at  Pans  m  the  interests  of  his  science,  and  visited 

(Now  York,  1891)  rlDBic,  The  NoHve  Caiendart  of  Central  Amer-  Geimanv  in  company  with  CassinL    Upon  the  invita- 

SL w^2t?^S!l£y.S^ Im^A^S^^^l/M^Jii  ^on  of  Empress  Catlierine  of  Russia,  he  went  to  St 

dTJSS^ot^f^^  Petembuig  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  in  17(». 

Idxm,  Biblioteca  do  avtorea  Yueateeoe  (iMrida.  1881);  Idbm,  He  WBs  a  member  of  numerous  learned  societies,  in- 

HieL  ant^de  ywaatoi  (MArida,  1881;  1883)  ;CA8TtLi3,I>ji>-  eluding  those  of  Mannheim,  Munich,  London,  Bologna, 

eumano  HtetdneOt  B%qgrAfieo  y  Monumental  de  Yvcaian  (M6rida,  JCxiZ^^JZ^  J  t>u  M-^i  !ju  L     iST  J,  .rTuiTZi  V\  .^^i^ 

1866);  CoooixuDo.iHfi2  A»yii«i«an  (Madrid,  1688;  reprint.  GSttmgen,  and  Philadelphia.   He  pubbshed  a  number 

1842  and  1867);  Dias  dkl  Cashlxx),  Verdadera  Hiet.  de  la  Con^  of  memoirs,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  "  Basis 

lS5iUQjLRciArQAAcU,HiaLdelaOuerradeCaetaeenYueatan  Venens       (St.    Petersburg,     1769),       Pantometnim 

(M6nda.  1865) ;  G6mara,  Crdniea  de  la  Nueva  BapaHa  (jSoxoapoBa^  Pacechianum,  seu  instnimentum  no  vum  pro  elicienda 

Jt^lL^'fti'iiS^iSr^Jl^^^  exunastationedistantialociinacoeesi''  (Mannheim, 


vieima  RdatiOn  de  la  DeOtrvyeidn  de  lae  Indiae  (SeviUe.  1652;  (1782),  etc. 

1822)  (for  translations  see  Cabas.  BARTOLOMiDB  Las);  Hiof-  Somxcrtoobl,  BiU.  de  la  Comp,  de  JUue^  V,  7M;  Dxlam- 

DIBTA,  HieL  Edeeidatiea  Jndwna  (Heiaoo.  1870);  Morlbt,  Cor-  bsb  in  Biogr,  C/mwra.,  s.  ▼. 

antiaua  de  Yucatan,  opp.  to  Srspaxif ^b  YuetUan,  Landa*b  He  belonged  to  the  old  Knglwh  famuy  of  Maybew  or 

Relaeidn,  d>  Bourbourq,  «*J J  P»™3«fr  feSSf  iftT^-TjSv  Mayow  of  Winton,  near  Salisbury,  Wiltshire,  which 

ilSl^.  %I2''aJ!i^'2ik^SS;;^^^Z%'^f^^^  hacf  endured  much'per^^     tor  the  F^^. '  On  10 

Mezioo,  1829-^0);  ftrABR.  Bthnoo,  of  Southern  Mexico  in  Pro-  July.  1583,  he  entered.  With  his  elder  brother  Heniy, 

ce«l^ot^pjrt  A««i.  5^^  the  English  OoUege  at  Reims,  where  he  dispUyed 

In  Indian  Mexico  (Chicago,  1908);   Stspbuvs,    incuiente  of  „^^_^:^,X^.,„  *«i«„*„    ««-i   wwm^/.mwI   ^k«.  4^«Z»JL  I^a 

Travel  in  Central  iiiiMnco.  Chiapae  and  Yucatan  (2  vols.,  conspicuous  talents,  and  received  the  tonsure  and 

New  York,  1841.  etc);  Idbm,  Ineidenu  of  Travel  m  Yucatan  mmor  orders  on  22  August,  1500.    Thenoe  proceeding 

(2  vols..  New.  York.  I8«)i  Thomas,  Aide  to  the  StuA,  of  ^  Rome,  he  there  continued  his  studies  until  his  or- 

Z^LTimTl^u^'Dl^^'SS^  dination,  after.which  he  left  for  the  EngUsh  missiciis 

sZteenth  Rep.,  Bur,  of  Am,  Ethn,  (Washington,  1807);  Idbm,  m  1595.    Havmg  served  for  twelve  years  on  the  m]»- 

jfc«onCoWor5y«<jwM  inATw  gion  aB  a  secular  priest,  he  joined  the  Benedictine 

S'A^!fS5K:"{«^^^^^  Order,  being  profei^d  b^r  Doi  Sigebert  Buddey,  the 

Maya  and  Mexican  Manuecripte  in  Third  Rep,,  Bur,  of  Am.  sole  survivor  of  the  English  congregation,  m  his  cell  st 

B^n'^CW^/f^^^^*  l?85)l .iDf  *«.  J^w"*'*'  iy^  ?f  ^St^  the  Gatehouse  prison,  Westminster,  on  21  November, 

and  Central  America  tn  Nmeleenth  Rep.,  Bur,  of  Am.  Ethn.  lagyr  rpu^  «i^  l?„»KoU  ^^n <*«»».» 4^;^.«  «#^ii1«1  4U...  !.»«« 
(Washington.  1900) ;  Idbm,  A  Study  of  the  Manueeripl  Troano  1607.  The  Old  English  congregation  WoiUd  thus  have 
in  Cont.  to  North  Am.  Ethnology,  V  (Washinffton.  1882);  ended  With  Dom  Buckley,  had  not  Blaybew  and  an- 
TnoMveoit,  Ruine  of  Xkichmook,  Yucatan  (Fidd  Museum,  ^ther  secular  priest.  Father  Robert  Sadler,  sought  pro- 
Chicago,  1898):  ToRQUBMAOA.  Monarquia  Indiana  (3  vols.,  *^^«^„  ♦!,.,- ^,«o*»l,r;«„  :*o -^«*;«,.;*«  ♦^♦kT^^L^* 
BeviuT  1615;  Madrid.  1723);  yxiMmfn,  The  Katunee  of  Maya  fession,  thus  preservmg  ito  oontmmty  to  the  present 
Hiot.  in  Pfoc.  Am.  Antiq,  Soe.  for  1879  (Woreester,  1880)  |  Vi-  day.  Under  these  two  new  members  the  En^ish 
LLAOTOBRWB  Soto-Mator,  HitL  do  la  Conquieta  de  la  Promneia  congregation  began  to  revive.  Becoming  affiliated 
delaltMd  (Madrid.  1701).  ^^  ^j^^  Spanish  congregation  in  1612,  it  was  given  an 

JA1CB8  MooxBT.  equal  share  in  St.  Lawrence's  monastery  at  Dieulwart, 

Lorraine,  henceforth  the  centre  of  the  Enj^lish  oongie- 

Mayer,  Christian,  Moravian  astronomer,  b.  at  cation.    Retiring  from  the  English  mission  in  1613, 

Mederizenhi  in  Moravia,  20  Aug..  1719;  d.  at  Heidel-  Mayhew  took  up  his  residence  at  Dieulwart,  where  he 

beig,  16  April,  1783.    He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  filled  the  office  of  prior  from  1613  to  1620.   The  union 

at  Mannheim  on  26  Sept.,  1745,  and  after  completing  of  the  three  congregations  engaged  on  the  l<^£j»«h 

his  studies  taught  the  humanities  for  some  tune  at  missions  had  for  some  time  been  canvassed,  and  in 

Aschaffenburg.    He  likewise  cultivated  his  taste  for  1617  Mayhew  was  appointed  one  of  the  nine  definitora 

mathematics,  and  later  was  appointed  professor  of  to  bring  this  about.    That  of  the  English  and  Spanish 

mathematics  and  physics  in  the  University  of  Heidel-  congregations  was  accomplished  by  the  Apostolic 

berg.    In  1755  he  was  invited  by  the  Elector  Palatine  Brief.  "Ex  incumbenti",  of  August,  1619,  but  tbe 

Charles  Theodore  to  construct  and  take  charge  of  the  membera  of  the  Italian  congregation  refused  to  become 

astronomical  observatory  at  Mannheim.    Here  as  well  united.    The  seal  for  the  strict  observanoe  of  the 

as  at  Schwetzingen,  where  he  had  also  built  an  observ-  Benedictine  Rule,  so  characteristic  of  Dieulwart.  wsa 


atory,  he  carried  on  his  observations  which  led  to  in  great  part  due  to  Blayhew's  relit 

numerous  memoirs,  some  of  which  were  published  in  strength  of  character.    From  1623  until  his  death  be 

the  "  Philosophical  Transactions"  of  London.    One  of  acted  as  vicar  to  the  nuns  at  Cambrai.    His  remaioa 

lus  observations,  recorded  in  the  "Tables  d'aberration  Ue  in  the  parish  church  at  St.  Vedast.    The  most  im- 

et  de  mutation"  (Mannheim,  1778)  of  his  assistant  portant  of  Biayhew's  works  are:  "Sacra  Institutio 

Mesge,  gave  rise  to  much  discussion.    He  claimed  to  Baptisandi  etc."    (Douai,  1604);   "Treatise  on  the 

have  discovered  that  many  of  the  more  conspicuous  Groundes  of  the  Olde  and  Newe  Religion  etc."  (s.  1., 

stars  in  the  southern  heavens  were  surrounded  b^  .  1608);  "Congregationis  AngUcanie  Oidinis  8.  B^ie- 

smaller  stare,  which  he  rM;arded  as  satellites.    His  dictiTrqphsa"  (2  vols.,  Reims,  1619. 1625). 

contemporaries,  including  Herschel  and  Schroter,  who  Prm,  De  IU%tei.  AngL  Script.,  p.  816;  wood,  Athena  0»en„ 

were  provided  with  much  more  powerful  telescopes,  J/rl;,l¥M'^J^'*  I>odi>.  £*t«rc*  awtory.  fi;  Sf^^^^iX 

failed  to  verify  his  observations.   Sayer,  however,*del  g&.X:  ba^^Tvf"^  ^'*^'  ^^'  ^'  ^'  ^"^'''  ^ 

fended  their  reality  and  replied  to  one  of  his  critics,  '                             Thoicas  Ejennedt, 

the  well-known  astronomer  Father  HoU,  in  a  work        »-      -  a     ti-    

cntitied  "GrOndHche  Vertheidigung  neuer  Beobach-  >»V  Laws.    See  Kulturkampf. 

tungen  von  Fixstem-trabanten  welche  lu  Mannhftim  Majnas.    See  Chacsapotab,  Dioobsb  of. 


HAYMI 


87 


MATKOOTB 


Maynay  Cuthbeht,  Blessed,  martyr,  b.  at  Youl- 
fiton,  near  Barnstaple,  Devonshire  (baptised  20  March, 
1513-4);  d.  at  Launceston,  Cornwall,  29  Nov.,  1677. 
He  was  the  son  of  William  Mayne;  his  uncle  was  a 
schismatical  priest,  who  had  him  educated  at  Bam- 
sta^e  Grammar  School,  and  he  was  ordained  a  Prot- 
estant minister  at  the  ace  of  eighteen  or  nineteen. 
He  then  went  to  Oxford,  first  to  St.  Alban's  Hall,  then 
to  St.  John's  College,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A. 
in  1570.  He  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Blessed 
Edmund  Campion,  Gregory  Martin,  the  controver- 
sialist. Humphrey  lEly,  Henry  Shaw,  Thomas  Bram- 
ston,  O.S.B.,  Henry  Holland,  Jonas  Meredith,  Roland 
Russell,  and  William  Wiggs.  The  above  list  shows 
how  strong  a  Catholic  leaven  was  still  working  at 
Oxfonl.  £ate  in  1570  a  letter  from  Gregory  Martin 
to  Blessed  Cuthbert  fell  into  the  Bishop  of  London's 
hands.  He  at  once  sent  a  pursuivant  to  arrest  Blessed 
Cuthbert  and  others  mentioned  in  the  letter.  Blessed 
Cuthbert  was  in  the  country,  and  being  warned  by 
Blessed  Thomas  Ford,  he  evaded  arrest  by  going  to 
Cornwall,  whence  he  arrived  at  Douai  in  1 573.  Having 
become  reconciled  to  the  Church,  he  was  ordained  in 
1575;  in  Feb.,  1575-6  he  took  the  degree  of  S.T.B. 
at  Douai  University;  and  on  24  April,  1576  he  left  for 
the  finglish  mission  in  the  company  of  Blessed  John 
Payne.  Blessed  Cuthbert  took  up  his  abode  with  the 
future  confessor,  Francis  Titian,  of  Golden,  in  St. 
Probus's  parish,  Cornwall.  Tnis  gentleman  8u£feied 
imprisonment  and  loss  of  possessions  for  this  honour 
done  him  bv  our  martyr.  At  his  house  our  martyr 
was  arrestea  8  June,  1577,  by  the  high  sheriff,  Gren- 
ville,  who  was  knighted  for  the  capture.  He  was 
brought  to  trial  in  ^ptember;  meanwhile  his  impris- 
onment was  of  the  harshest  order.  His  indictment 
under  statutes  of  1  and  13  Elisabeth  was  under  five 
counts:  first,  that  he  had  obtained  from  the  Roman 
See  a  "faculty",  containing  absolution  of  the  queen's 
subjects;  second,  that  he  had  published  the  same  at 
Golden;  third,  that  he  had  taught  the  ecclesiastical 
authoritv  of  ibe  pope  in  Launceston  Gaol;  fourth, 
that  he  had  brougnt  into  the  kinedom  an  A^us  Dei 
and  had  deliveredthe  same  to  Mr.  Tregian;  mth,  that 
he  had  said  Mass. 

As  to  the  first  and  second  counts,  the  martyr  showed 
t^t  the  supposed  "faculty"  was  merely  a  copy 
printed  at  Douai  of  an  announcement  of  the  Jubilee 
of  1575,  and  that  its  application  having  expired  with 
the  end  of  the  jubilee,  ne  certainly  had  not  published 
it  either  at  Golden  or  elsewhere.  As  to  the  third 
count,  he  maintained  that  he  had  said  nothing  definite 
on  the  subject  to  the  three  illiterate  witnesses  who 
asserted  the  contrary.  As  to  the  fourth  coxmt,  he 
urged  tibat  the  fact  that  he  was  wearing  an  Agnus  Dei 
at  the  time  of  his  arrest  was  no  evidence  that  he  had 
brought  it  into  the  kingdom  or  delivered  it  to  Mr. 
Trepan,  As  to  the  fifth  ooimt,  he  contended  that  the 
findSngof  a  Missal,  a  chalice,  and  vestments  in  his  room 
did  not  prove  that  he  had  said  Mass. 

Nevertheless  the  jury  found  him  guilty  of  high 
treason  on  ^H  counts,  and  he  was  sentenced  acoord- 
inzly.  His  execution  was  delated  because  one  of  the 
judges,  Jeffries,  altered  his  mind  after  sentence  and 
sent  a  report  to  the  Privy  Council.  They  submitted 
the  ease  to  the  whole  Blench  of  Judges,  which  was 
divided  in  opinion,  though  the  weight  of  authority 
inclined  to  Jeffries's  view.  Nevertheless,  for  motives 
of  poUey,  the  Council  ordered  Uie  execution  to  pro- 
ceed. On  the  night  of  27  November  his  cell  was  seen 
by  the  other  prisoners  to  be  full  of  a  strange  bright 
fight.  The  details  of  his  martyrdom  must  be  sought 
in  the  works  hereinafter  cited.  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  all  agree  that  he  was  insensible,  or  almost  so, 
when  he  was  disembowelled.  A  rough  portrait  of  the 
martyr  still  exists;  and  portions  of  his  skull  are  in 
various  places,  the  largest  being  in  the  Carmelite 
Convent,  Lanbeme,  Cornwall. 


Gamm.  LtMt  of  the  Bnglith  Martyre,  II  (London,  1905),  204* 
222,  650;  Pollbh,  Cardinal  AUm*9  Brtefe  Hutorit  (London, 
1008),  104-110;  Ok>pbb  in  l>iU.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Chaixonbh, 
Biemoira  of  Mianonary  PrieaU,  I;  Gillow,  B{bl.  Diet,  Bng. 
Caih.,  8.  v.;  DABBNTfActe  of  the  Privy  Council  (London,  ISOO- 
1907),  IX,  375,  390;  X,  6,  7,  85. 

John  B.  Wainewbioht. 

Maynooth  OoUege,  The  National  Collar  of  Saint 
Patrick,  at  Maynoo^  in  Countv  Kildare,  about 
twelve  miles  from  Dublin,  founded,  in  the  year  1796. 
Ireland  at  that  date  still  had  her  own  Parliament;  and, 
although  Catholics  could  not  sit  in  it,  the  spirit  of  tol- 
eration and  liberty  which  had  swept  over  the  United 
States  and  France  could  not  be  excluded  from  its 
debates.  Several  relaxations  had  already  been  granted 
in  the  application  of  the  penal  laws,  and  it  is  to  the 
credit  or  Irish  Protestants  that  during  their  short 
period  of  Parliamentary  liberty  (1782-1801),  they 
should  have  entered  so  heartily  on  the  path  of  national 
brotiierhood,  and  have  given  to  the  world  two  such 
illustrious  names  as  Edmund  Burke  and  Henry  Grat- 
tan.  It  was  to  these  two  men,  more  than  to  any 
statesmen  of  their  time,  that  the  foundation  of  May- 
nootii  CoU^  may  be  ascribed.  Other  circumstances 
were  also  uivourable.  On  the  one  hand,  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  *'  United  Irishmen"  (1798)  proclaimed 
the  doctrine  of  universal  toleration  and  liberty  of  con- 
science. On  the  other  hand,  the  British  Government 
was  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  withdraw  youn^  Irish 
ecclesiastics  as  far  as  possible  from  the  revolutionary 
influences  to  which  they  were  exposed  on  the  Conti- 
nent. Moreover,  soldiers  were  needed  at  a  time  when 
war  was  raging  or  threatening  on  all  sides;  and  it  had 
become  necessary  to  conciliate  the  class  from  amongst 
whom  the  best  Irish  soldiers  could  be  recruited. 

In  1794  a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Irish  Vioe- 
rov  by  Dr.  Troy,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  on  behalf  of 
all  the  Catholic  prelates  of  Ireland.  This  memorial 
set  forth  that  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Ireland 
had  never  been  chared  with  disaffection  to  the  State 
or  irregularity  in  their  conduct;  that,  on  the  contrary, 
the^  had  been  complimented  more  than  once  for  incul- 
cating obedience  to  the  laws  and  veneration  for  His 
Majesty's  royal  person  and  government.  It  was  then 
pointea  out  that  the  foreign  colleges,  in  which  about 
400  students  were  educated  for  the  Irish  mission,  had 
been  closed,  and  their  fimds  confiscated;  and  that, 
even  had  they  remained  open,  it  would  no  longer  be 
safe  to  send  Irish  students  abroad,  "lest  they  should 
be  contaminated  with  the  contagion  of  sedition  and 
infidelitv"  and  thus  become  the  means  of  inlroducing 
into  Ireland  the  pernicious  maxims  of  a  licentious  phil- 
osophy. Tlie  memorial  was  favourably  received,  and, 
in  the  following  vear  Mr.  Pelham,  the  Secretary  of 
State,  introduce  his  Bill  for  the  foundation  of  a 
Catholic  college.  The  Bill  passed  rapidly  through  all 
its  stages  and  received  the  royal  assent  on  5  June, 
1795.  The  management  of  the  institution  was  given 
to  a  Board  of  Tru^ees  who  were  to  appoint  all  the  offi- 
cers, the  president,  masters,  fellows,  and  scholars;  to 
fix  their  salaries  and  make  all  necessary  by-laws,  rules, 
and  statutes.  No  Catholic  could  act  as  trustee,  or  fill 
any  other  office,  or  be  admitted  as  a  student,  who  did 
not  first  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  prescribed  for 
Catholics  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  years  of 
Geoive  III.  No  Protestant  or  son  of  a  Protestant 
couldbe  received  in  the  new  Academy  under  the  sever- 
est pains  and  penalties.  The  Lord  Chancellor,  how- 
ever, and  several  judges  of  the  high  courts,  were  to  act 
as  Trustees  ex  officio.  The  endowment  voted  by  Par- 
liament was  £8,000  (about  $40,000)  a  vear.  Dr. 
Thomas  Hussey,  a  graduate  of  the  Irish  College  of  Sal- 
amanca, who  bad  long  been  chaplain  to  the  Si>anish 
Embassy  in  London,  was  appointed  first  president. 
The  next  step  was  to  fix  upon  the  site.  At  first  Dub- 
lin, or  the  suDurbe  of  Dublin,  seemed  to  offer  the  chief 
advantages;  finally,  however,  after  a  variety  of  pron 


BUTKOOTB  88  lUTHOOTR 

posab  had  been  considered,  Maynooth  was  ohoaen,  be-  land  the  financial  Bubeidy  to  Maynooth  from  Uie  Stat 

oauae  it  waa  coaBidered  favourable  to  the  morals  and  underwent  various  changes  and  gave  rise  to  debat<«  ol 

studies  of  a  coUeee ;  also,  because  the  Duke  of  Leinster.  considerable  acrimony  in  the  House  of  Commons.     Id 

who  had  alwaya  been  a  friend  of  the  Catholics,  wiahea  1845,  however,  the  government  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 

H>  have  the  new  institution  on  his  estate.     The  money  raised  the  nant  from  £9,500  (about  947,500)  to  £26,- 

Knted  by  Parliament  was  voted  for  a  Catholic  col-  000  ($130,000)  a  year  and  placed  it  on  the  consoU- 

_  ]  for  the  education  of  the  Irish  clergy :  tliat  was  the  dated  fund,  where  it  formed  part  of  the  ordinary  na> 

expreas  intention  of  the  Government,  out,  as  the  Act  tional  debt  and  was  free  from  annual  discussion  on  the 

vras  drawn  in  general  terms,  the  trust«eB  proceeded  to  estimatea.     Sir  Robert  Peel  also  granted  a  aum  oi 

erect  a  college  for  laymen  m  connexion  with  the  eo-  £30,000  (about  1160,000)  for  suitable  buildings;  and 

clesiastical    eBtabliahtDent.     This    college    was    sup-  it  was  then  that  the  Gothic  structure  deaisned  bf 

pressedby  theGovemment  in  1801.     Another  lay  col-  Pugin,  one  of  the  handsomest  coliece  buildings  in 

lege  was  then  erected  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Europe,  was  erected.     The  diseBtablishmeDt  of  the 

ecclesiastical  college,  and  was  continued  up  to  1817  Irish  Church  by  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1869,  had  seriousfi- 

underlay  truateea.    The  establishment  of  various  col-  nancial  results  for  Maynooth  which  was  also  diaeo- 


uT**.  Uatnootb  Oou^aam,  iMMi-tna 

n  of  about  £370,000  (about  Sl,850.- 

_._    ._._ ,.  _ _„_._,.     ._..^  .        „  ice  for  all  to  enable  the  coUege  to  coD- 

foundation  of  Maynooth,  the  whole  country  being  con-  tinue  its  work.  This  sum  was  invested  for  the  most 
vulsed  by  the  rebeilion  of  1798,  the  general  disturb-  part  in  land,  and  has  been  very  ably  managed  by  the 
anoe  found  an  echo  in  the  new  institution.  Of  its  trustees.  Some  of  the  moat  prominent  Catholic  lay- 
sixty-nine  students  no  fewer  than  eighteen  or  twenty  men  in  the  country,  such  as  the  Earls  of  Fingall  and 
wejs  'xpelted  for  having  taken  the  rel>el  oath.  Kenmare,  had  acted  as  Trustees  up  to  the  date  of 
y<X  valuable  endowment  was  obtained  for  the  new  the  disendowment:  from  that  time  no  further  lay 
/college  on  the  death  of  John  Butler,  twelfth  Baron  truateea  were  appointed. 

/  Dunboyne,  who  had  been  Bishopof  Cork  from  1763  to  Among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  past  presidents 
j  1786.  On  the  death  of  hh  neptfew,  Pierce  Butler,  the  of  Maynooth  were  Hussey,  Renchan,  and  Russell,  a 
eleventh  baron,  the  bishop  succeeded  to  the  title  and  full  account  of  whom  is  to  be  found  in  the  College  His- 
estatea.  This  tempore!  diRnity,  however,  proved  his  tory  by  the  Most  Rev,  Dr.  Healy,  Archbishop  of  Tuam. 
undoing;  he  gave  up  his  bighopric,  abjured  the  Catho-  Dr.  Hussey  was  the  first  president,  and  to  his  tart, 
lie  Faith,  and  took  a  wife.  In  hi^  last  illness  he  re-  judgment  and  skill  the  success  of  the  original  project 
pented  and  endeavoured  to  make  reparation  for  his  was  mainly  due.  Dr.  Rer.ehan  wos  a  distinguiahed 
conduct  by  willing  his  property  in  Meath,  valued  at  Irish  scholar,  who  did  a  peat  deal  to  rescue  Iri^ 
about  £1,000  (about  15,000)  a  year,  to  the  newly  manuscripts  from  destruction.  Dr.  Russell  is  chiefl; 
founded  college.  The  wi!!  was  disputed  at  law  by  the  known  for  his  "Life  of  Cardinal  Me»»ofanti"  Bjnd  foi 
next  of  kin.  The  case  of  the  college  was  pleaded  by  the  part  he  took  in  the  conversion  of  Cardinal  New- 
John  Philpot  Curran,  and  a  compromise  was  effected  man.  Amongst  the  most  distinguished  teachers  and 
S"  whichaboutonehalf  of  the  property  was  secured  to  men  of  letters  who  shed  lustre  on  the  college  during 
!  college.  Theincomefrom  the  bequest  became  the  its  first  century  were  John  MacHale,  Paul  O'Brien, 
foundation  of  a  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  a  higher  Daniel  Murray,  Edmund  O'Reilly,  Nicholas  Callan, 
courw  of  ecclesiastical  studies  in  the  case  of  such  stu-  Patrick  Murray,  Mathew  Kelly,  John  O'Hanlon,  Wit 
dents  as  should  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  liam  Jennings,  James  O'Kane,  and  Gerald  Molloy.  II 
ordinary  course.  This  is  still  known  as  the  "  Dun-  is  interesting  to  notice  that,  on  the  staff  of  the  coUegi 
boyne  Establishment".     After  the  union  with  Eng-  in  its  early  years,  were  four  French  refugeea — the  Bev 


IIAYO 


89 


IIAYO 


Peter  J.  Debrt,  the  Rev.  Andrew  Dari^y  the  Rev. 
Louis  Delahogue  and  the  Rev.  Francis  Anglade — all 
Doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  On  the  original  staff  may 
also  be  found  the  name  of  the  Rev.  John  C.  Eustace, 
auliior  of  the  well-known  "Classical  Tour  in  Italy". 
Amongst  the  distinguished  personages  who  have  visited 
fche  colleee  were  Tnackeray,  Montalembert,  Carlyle, 
Robert  Owen,  Cardinal  Perraud,  Huxley,  the  late 
Empress  of  Austria,  and  King  Edward  VII.  The  col- 
lege possesses  several  memorials  of  the  Empress  of 
Austria,  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  during  her 
visits  to  Ireland.  The  Centenary  of  the  foundation  of 
the  college  was  celebrated  in  1895,  on  which  occasion 
congratmations  were  sent  from  all  the  Catholic  educa- 
tional centres  in  the  world.  The  college  library  con- 
tains upwards  of  40,000  volumes.  It  possesses  a  great 
many  rare  and  precious  works  and  some  very  valuable 
manuscripts.  The  AtUa  Maxima  which  was  opened 
about  the  year  1893  was  the  gift  to  his  Alma  Mater  of 
the  Right  Rev.  Mgr.  MacMahon  of  the  Catholic  Univer- 
sity at  Washington,  D.  C,  and  previously  of  New 
York.  The  chapel  which  has  just  been  completed  is  a 
work  of  rare  beauty  both  in  design  and  ornamentation. 
Maynooth  has  already  sent  out  into  the  world  upwards 
of  7,000  priests.  Her  alumni  are  in  all  lands  and  in 
almost  every  position  that  an  ecclesiastic  could  oc- 
cupy. The  average  number  of  students  in  recent 
years  is  about  600.  The  ordinary  theological  course  is 
four  years,  and  the  extra  course  of  the  "  Dimboyne  Es- 
tablishment "  three  years  more.  Students  in  arts  and 
philosophy  have  to  graduate  in  the  National  Univer- 
sit V  of  which  Maynooth  is  now  a  "recognized  College ". 
dcAJLT,  Maynowi  CoUeqe.  Ita  Centenary  History  (Duolin, 
1895);  Calmdarium  CoUegii  Sancti  PcUricii  (Dublin);  A  Record 
of  tke  Ctntenarjf  CeUbraUon  .  .  .  Maynooth  College  (Dublin, 
1805);  CamxoaUxa  Correapondenee;  Memoira  of  Viecotmt  CaatU' 
reagh;  Life  and  Timea  of  Henry  Grattan;  Hanaard'a  Parliament 
tary  Debatea;  Correepondence  of  Edmund  Burke;  QLADflTONrn, 
The  Stale  in  ite  Rdaium  to  the  Church;  Hooan,  Maynooth  College 
and  the  Laity  lOuhVin).  J.  F.  HoOAN. 

Majro,  School  of  (Irish  Magh  Eo,  which  means, 
according  to  Colgan,  the  Plain  of  the  Oaks,  and,  ac- 
cording to  O'Donovan,  the  Plain  of  the  Yews),  was 
situated  in  the  present  parish  of  Mayo,  County  Mayo, 
almost  equidistant  from  the  towns  of  Claremorris  ana 
Castlebar.  The  founder,  St.  Colman,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  was  in  all 
probability  a  native  of  the  West  of  Ireland,  and  made 
his  ecclesiastical  studies  at  lona  during  the  abbacy  of 
the  renowned  Segenius.  After  the  death  of  Finian,  the 
second  Bishop  of  Lindisfame,  Colman  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  His  episcopate  was  much  disturbed  by  a 
fierce  renewal  of  tne  ^Etster  Controversy.  Colman 
vigorously  advocated  the  old  Irish  custom,  and  cited 
the  example  of  his  predecessors,  but  all  to  no  effect. 
At  a  synod  specially  summoned  to  meet  at  Whitby  in 
664,  the  Roman  method  of  calculation  triumphed,  and 
Colman,  unwilling  to  abandon  the  practice  oi  the 
"holy  elders  of  the  Irish  Church",  resolved  to  quit 
Lindisfame  forever. 

In  668  he  crossed  the  seas  to  his  native  land  again, 
and  in  a  remote  island  on  the  western  coast  called 
Inishbofin,  he  built  a  monastery  and  school.  These 
things  are  dearlv  set  out  in  the  **  Historia  Ecclesias- 
tica  "  of  Bede,  who  then  proceeds  to  describe  how  thev 
ted  to  the  foiuding  of  the  great  school  of  Mayo.  "  Col- 
man the  Irirfi  Bishop ",  says  Bede,  "  departed  from 
Britain  and  took  with  him  aU  the  Irish  that  he  had 
assembled  in  the  Island  of  Lindisfame,  and  also  about 
thirty  of  the  English  nation  who  had  oeen  instmcted 
in  thie  monastic  life.  .  .  •  Afterwards  he  retired  to  a 
small  island  which  is  to  the  west  of  Ireland,'  and  at 
9ome  distance  from  the  coast,  called  in  the  language  of 
the  Irish,  Inishbofinde  [island  of  the  white  cow). 
Arriving  there  he  built  a  monastery,  and  placed  in  it 
the  modes  he  had  brought  with  him  of  both  nations". 

It  appears,  however,  the  Irish  and  English  monks 
Oottld  not  agree.-    "Then  Colman  sought  to  put  an  end 


to  their  dissensions,  and  travelling  about  at  length 
foimd  a  place  in  Ireland  fit  to  build  a  monastery, 
which  in  the  language  of  the  Irish  is  called  Magh  So 
(Mayo) ''.  Later  on  we  are  told  by  the  same  historian 
that  this  monastery  became  an  important  and  flour- 
ishing institution,  and  even  an  episcopal  see. 

Though  Colman,  we  may  assume.  Uved  mainly  with 
his  own  coimtrymen  at  Inishbofin,  ne  took  a  deep  and 
practical  interest  in  his  new  foundation  at  May(^— 
''  Mayo  of  the  Saxons  ",  as  it  came  to  be  called.  In  the 
year  670,  with  his  consent,  its  first  canonical  abbot  was 
appointed.  This  was  St.  Uerald.  the  son  of  a  northern 
English  king,  who^  annoyed  at  tne  way  Cohnan's  most 
cherished  convictions  had  been  slighted  at  Whitby, 
resolved  to  follow  him  to  Ireland.  The  school  gained 
greatly  in  fame  for  sanctity  and  learning  under  this 
youthful  abbot.  About  679  St.  Adamnan,  the  illus- 
trious biographer  of  St.  Columba.  visited  Mayo  and, 
according  to  some  writers,  ruled  tnere  for  seven  years 
after  Gerald's  death.  This  latter  statement  is  not,  on 
the  face  of  it,  improbable  if  Gerald,  as  Colgan  thinks, 
did  not  live  after  697;  but  the  Four  Masters  give  the 
date  of  his  death  as  13  March,  726,  and  the  "  Annals  of 
Ulster"  put  the  event  as  late  as  731.  After  Gerald's 
death  we  have  only  the  record  of  isolated  facts  con- 
cerning the  school  he  ruled  so  wisely  and  loved  so  well, 
but  they  are  often  facts  of  considerable  interest  and 
importance.  We  read,  for  example^  that  the  monas- 
tery was  burned  in  783,  and  agam  m  805;  also — but 
only  in  the  old  Life  of  St.  Gerald — ^that  it  was  plun- 
dered by  Turgesius  the  Dane  in  818.  That  the  mo- 
nastic grounds  were  regarded  as  exceptionally  holy  we 
can  gather  from  the  entry  that  Domhnau,  son  of 
Torlough  O'Conor,  Lord  of  North  Connacht,  "the 
glory  and  the  moderator  and  the  good  adviser  of  the 
Irish  people  "  (d.  1 176) ,  was  interred  therein.  That  it 
had  the  status  of  an  episcopal  see  long  after  the  Synod 
of  Kells  (1162),  is  clear  from  the  entry  under  date  of 
1209,  recording  the  death  of  "  Cele  O'Duffy,  Bishop  of 
Magh  Eo  of  the  Saxons". 

Mayo,  like  the  other  ancient  Irish  monastic  schools, 
suffered  from  the  raids  of  native  and  foreigner,  espe- 
cially during  the  fourteenth  century.  But  it  survived 
them  all,  for  the  death  under  date  1478  is  recorded  of 
a  bishop—"  Bishop  Higgins  of  Mayo  of  the  Saxons". 
The  time  at  which  the  See  of  Mayo,  on  the  ground  that 
it  contained  not  a  cathedral  but  a  parochial  church, 
was  annexed  toTuam,  cannot  with  certainty  be  ascer- 
tained^ but  as  far  back  as  1217,  during  the  reign  of 
Hononus  III,  the  question  was  before  the  Roman 
authorities  for  discussion.  It  was  probably  not  set- 
tled definitively  for  centuries  after.  James  O'Healy, 
"Bishop  of  Mayo  of  the  Saxons",  was  put  to  death 
for  the  Catholic  Faith  at  Kilmallock  in  1579. 

Bede,  Historia  Ecdeaiaatica  (London,  1907);  Ck>LOAN,  Acta 
Sanctorum  Hibemia  (Louvain,  1645);  O'Hanlon,  Livea  of  the 
Iriah  Sainta  (Dublin,  s.  d.);  He  alt,  JrekauTa  Ancient  Schoola 
and  Scholara  (5th  ed.,  Dublin,  1906). 

John  Healt. 

Mavo  Indiana. — ^An  important  tribe  occupying 
some  nfteen  towns  on  Mayo  and  Fuerte  rivers,  south- 
ern Sonora  and  northern  Sinaloa,  Mexico.  Their  lan- 
guage is  loiown  as  the  Cahita,  being  the  same  as  that 
spoken,  with  dialectic  differences,  by  their  neighbours, 
the  Tehueco  and  ¥aqui,  and  belonging  to  the  Piman 
branch  of  the  great  Shoshonean  stock.  The  name 
Mayo  is  said  by  Ribas  to  be  properly  that  of  their 
principal  river  and  to  signify  "boundary".  The 
known  history  of  the  tribe  begins  in  1532  with  the 
naval  expedition  of  Diego  Hurtado  de  Mendosa,  who 
landing  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fuerte,  went  up  the  river 
to  the  villages,  where  he  was  killed  with  his  com- 
panions while  asleep.  In  1533  a  land  expedition 
imder  Diego  de  Guzman  crossed  through  their  country 
and  penetrated  to  beyond  the  Yaqui  river  in  the 
north.  In  1609-10  they  aided  the  Spaniards  against 
the  Yaqui,  the  two  tribes  being  hereditary  enemies, 


MATOB 


90 


BSAYOTTl 


juid  on  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  it  was  made 
a  condition  of  the  agreement  that  tlie  Yaqui  should 
live  at  peace  with  the  Mayo.  In  1613.  at  their  own 
request,  the  first  mission  was  establishea  in  their  ter- 
ritory by  the  Jesuit  Father  Pedro  Mendez,  who  had 
visited  them  some  ^ears  before,  over  3000  persons 
receiving  baptism  within  fifteen  days,  in  a  popula- 
tion variously  estimated  at  from  nine  to  twenty  thou- 
sand. Withm  a  short  time  seven  mission  churohes 
were  built  in  as  manv  towns  of  the  tribe.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  regular  mission  work  in  Sonora. 

In  1740  the  Mayo,  hitherto  friendly  as  a  tribe, 
joined  the  Yaqui  in  revolt,  apparently  at  the  instance 
of  Spanish  officials  jealous  of  missionary  influence. 
The  churches  were  burned,  priests  and  settlers  driven 
out  of  the  country;  and  altnough  the  rising  was  put 
down  in  the  following  year  after  hard  fighting,  it 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of  the  missions 
waich  culminated  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in 
1767.  After  their  departure  the  Indians  were  for 
some  time  without  religious  teachers,  but  are  now 
servea  by  secular  priests.  In  1825--7  they  again 
joined  the  Yaqui,  led  by  the  famous  Bandera  (Juzu- 
canea)  in  revolt  against  Mexican  aggression,  and  have 
several  times  since  taken  occasion  to  show  their  sym- 
pathy with  their  fighting  kinsmen.  The  Mavo  are 
sedentary  and  industrious  farmers  and  mine  laborers, 
and  skilful  artisans  in  the  towns.  They  cultivate 
com,  squashes,  beans,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  maguey, 
from  which  last  they  distill  the  mescal  intoxicant. 
Their  houses  are  Ught  structures  of  cane  and  poles, 
thatched  with  palm  leaves.  Thev  are  all  Cathohc  ana 
very  much  Mexicanized,  though  they  retain  their 
language,  and  have  many  of  the  old  Indian  ideas  still 
latent  in  them.  Their  principal  town  is  Santa  Cruz  de 
Mayo,  and  they  are  variously  estimated  at  from  7000 
to  10,000  souls.  The  most  important  study  of  the 
language,  the  Cahita,  is  a  grammar  (Arte)  by  an 
anonymous  Jesuit  published  in  Mexico  m  1737. 

Albqiub,  Hi^.  de  tn  Compafiia  de  Jeeue  (Mexico,  1841); 
Bancroft,  North  Mexican  Staiea  (San  Francisco,  1886-0); 
RiBAS,  Tnwnphoa  de  Nueatra  Santa  Fe  (Madrid,  1645);  Ward, 
Mexico  in  18M7  (London,  1828). 

James  Moonet. 

Mayor  (Major,  Maib),  John,  ako  called  Joannes 
Majoris  and  Haddingtonub  Scotus,  a  Scotch  phi- 
losopher and  historian,  b.at  Gleghomie  near  Hadding- 
ton. 1496;  d.  at  St.  Andrew's,  1550.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Paris,  where  he  was  gradu- 
ated as  master  of  arts  in  the  Uollege  of  St.  Barbe  in 
1494  and  as  doctor  of  theology  in  the  College  of  Mon- 
taigu  in  1505.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  re- 
maining life  as  professor  of  logic  and  theology;  from 
1505-18  at  the  University  of  Paris,  from  1518-23  at 
the  University  of  Glasgow,  from  1523-6  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrew's,  and  from  1525-1530  again  at 
Paris.  In  1530  he  returned  to  St.  Andrews  and  was 
made  provost  of  St.  Salvator's  College,  a  position 
which  ne  occupied  till  his  death.  One  of  the  greatest 
scholastic  philosophers  of  his  times,  he  had  among  his 
pupils  the  future  Scotch  reformers  John  Knox,  Pat- 
rick Hamilton,  and  Cieorge  Buchanan.  In  philosophy 
he  was  the  chief  exponent  of  the  nommalistic  or 
terministic  tendency  which  was  then  prevalent  at 
the  Universitv  of  Paris,  while,  as  a  canonist,  he  held 
that  the  chief  ecclesiastical  authority  does  not  reside 
in  the  pope  but  in  the  whole  Church.  In  like  manner 
he  hela  tnat  the  source  of  civil  authoritv  lies  with  the 
people  who  transfer  it  to  the  ruler  and  can  wrest  it 
from  him,  even  by  force,  if  necessary.  He  remained  a 
Catholic  till  his  death,  though  in  1549  he  advocated 
a  national  (3hurch  for  Scotland .  His  numerous  literary 
productions  were  all  written  in  Latin.  His  chief 
work,  "  Historia  majoris  Britannise,  tam  Angliae  quam 
Scotiae"  (Paris,  1521  and  Edinburgh,  1740),  trans- 
lated  into  English  for  the  first  time  by  Archibald  Con- 
st^bte. "  History  of  Grater  Britain,  both  En^nd  and 


Scotland  "  (Edinburgh,  1892),  is  written  in  barbaioai 
Latin,  but  truthf ull)r  and  faithfully  portrays  the  au- 
thor's vigour  and  spirit  of  indep^endenoe.  His  other 
works  are  mostlv  philosophical,  vis. :  a  commentary  on 
Peter  Lombard  s  Books  of  Sentences  (Paiis^  1508), 
"Introductorium"  or  a  commentarv  on  Aristotle's 
dialectics  (Paris,  1508),  the  lectures  which  he  delivered 
on  logic  in  the  College  of  Montaigu  (Lyons,  1516), 
commentaries  on  Aristotle's  physical  and  ethical  writ- 
ings (Paris,  1526),  "Qusestiones  logicales']  (Paris, 
1528),  a  commentary  on  the  four  Gospels  (Paris,  1 529). 
He  was  also  the  first  to  edit  the  so-called  "  Reportata 
Parisiensia ''  of  Dims  Scotus  (Paris,  1517-8). 

Mackat,  Life  of  John  Major,  prefized  to  Constable's  ^.  of 
Mayor's  History  (fidinburKh,  1802).  The  precedinc  work  ood- 
taiaa  also  a  complete  list  of  worlcs  written  by  Mayor,  and  an  es- 
timate of  them  by  the  translator;  Brown,  Oeorge  Buchanan, 
Humaniat  and  Reformer  (Edinburah,  1800),  38-^1;  Law.  John 
-  -      -     r.  1802. 


Major  in  ScoUiah  Review,  July, 


BflCHASL  OtT. 


Mayonma  Indians,  a  noted  and  savage  tribe  of 
Panoan  linguistic  stock  ranging  the  forests  between 
the  VcaLyah,  the  Yavari  and  the  Marafion  (Amazon) 
rivers,  in  north-east  Peru  and  the  adjacent  portion  of 
Brasil.  From  the  fact  tnat  some  of  them  are  of  light 
skin  and  wear  beards,  a  legend  has  grown  up  that  they 
are  descended  from  Spanish  soldiers  of  Ursua's  expedi- 
tion (1569),  but  it  is  probable  that  the  difference  comes 
from  later  admixture  of  captive  blood .  As  a  tribe  they 
are  full-blood  and  typically  Indian.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  story  may  have  ori^nated  from  a 
confusion  of  "  Maranones  ",  the  name  given  to  the  fol- 
lowers of  Ursua  and  Aguirre,  with  Mayorunas.  which 
seems  to  be  from  the  Quichua  language  ot  Peru. 
Markham  interprets  the  name  as  "Men  of  Muyii" 
(Muyu-runa),  indicating  an  ancient  residence  about 
Moyobamba  (Muyubamba),  farther  to  the  west.  One 
of  their  subtribes  is  known  as  "Barbudo"  (Spanish, 
Bearded).  Other  subtribes  are  Itucale,  Musmio  or 
Musquima,  Urarina.  The  Mayonma  tribes  were  among 
those  gathered  into  the  missions  of  the  Mainas  province 
(see  Maina  Indians)  in  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries,  being  represented  in  the  mimions  of 
San  Joaouin  (Mayoruna  proper),  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 
Carmen  (Mayoruna  proper),  and  San  Xavier  (Urarina 
and  Itucale).  By  tne  repeated  attacks  of  the  Portu- 
guese slave-hunters  (see  Mameluco)  between  1680 
and  1710,  and  the  revolts  of  the  mission  Indians  in 
1695  and  1767  the  Mayoruna  were  driven  to  take 
refu^  in  their  forests  and  are  now  wholly  savage  and 
particularly  hostile  to  either  whites  or  Indians  who 
enter  their  territory,  even  successfully^  repelling  a 
joint  government  exploring  expedition  in  1866.  In 
person  they  are  tall  and  well  formed,  with  rather  deli- 
cate features,  going  perfecthr  naked,  with  flowing  hair 
cut  across  the  forehead.  Instead  of  bows,  they  use 
spears,  clubs  and  blow-guns^  and  are  famous  for  the 
strength  of  the  deadly  curan  poison  with  which  they 
tip  their  arrows.  They  avoid  the  river  banks  and  do 
not  use  canoes.  The  charge  of  cannibalism  has  not 
been  proven.    (See  also  Pano.) 

RoDRiouES,  AmoMonaey  MaraAon  (Madrid,  1684);  Hkbtas, 
Caudooo  de  Uu  Lenguaa  (Madrid,  1800);  Mamcram,  Tribea  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Amaeone  in  Joum.  Anih,  Jhet.,  XX IV  (LomdoB, 
1885);  Brznton,  The  American  Race  (New  York,  1891). 

Jamsb  Moonet. 

Mayotte,  Koasl-M,  and  Oomoro,  PsEFscrnsz 
Apostouc  of  (Matotta,  Nossibea,  et  Comorje). — 
Mayotte  is  the  farthest  south  and  most  important  ol 
the  group  of  Comoro  Islands:  Mayotte  (Maote),  An- 
juan  (Insuani),  Mohilla  (Moheli).  and  Great  Comoro 
(Komoro,  i.  e.  where  there  is  nre,  or  Angasidya) 
These  islands,  with  Nossi-B^  (lar^  island)  and  Santa 
Maria  (Nossi  Burai,  Nossi  Ibrahim),  form  the  archi- 
pelago known  as  ''the  Satellites  of  Madagascar''. 
The  Comoro  Islands,  with  their  craggy  evergreen 
shores,  look  like  the  cones  of  submerged  groves 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  deep  abuses.    The 


MkYtL                                91  MATBON 

sutnmitB  are  not  all  of  the  same  altitude;  the  high-  ex-Jesuit  Hochbichler  (Augsburg,  1790).     Lindner 

est  point  of  Mayotte  is  not  over  1800  feet,  whereas  j^ra)  enumerates  58  literary  productions  of  Ma3rr. 

the  highest  peak  of  Anjuan  is  about  5000  feet,  They  include  21  dramas,  four  volumes  of  sermons 

while   the   central   cone  of  Great  Comoro,  whose  (Augsburg,  1777),  numerotis  occasional  poems,  and 

volcanic   activity  is   not  yet  exhausted,  rises  to  various  treatises  on  philosophical,  theological,  and 

over  7000  feet.    Two  monsoons,  conseouently  two  mathematical  subjects. 

seasons,  alternately  affect  the  climate  of  tne  archipel-  Baadbr.  Lexi/um  vertlorbener  baieriaeher  SckrifUidler  dM  IB 

.«  which  lBsometimee;n8ited  by  cyclones.   .TheeoU  U'^JiiItr^^^''^^:£iJl!lSlf;J^L't!:^^ 

of  these  islands  is  very  fertile,  and  produces  m  abun-  mdb  Bayem  aeii  1760,  U  (Ratisbon,  1880),  137-41. 

dance  vanilla,  cloves,  sugar-cane,  coffee,  etc.   The  total  Michael  Ott. 
Ix>pu]ation  is  about  80,000,  mostlv  African  negroes, 

often  erroneously  called  Makoas  (a  Mosambique  tribe).  Mavron  (de  Matbonis),  Francis,  b.  about  1280, 
lliere  are  also  some  Sakalavaa  from  Madagascar,  probaBly  at  Masrronnes,  Department  of  Basses- Alpee, 
mostly  former  slaves  freed  when  the  islands  were  oc-  ne  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  the  neiehbour- 
cuptea  by  the  French.  This  Comoro  Archipelago  was  ing  Di^e  (or  Sist^ron).  He  had  been  teaching  at 
for  many  centuries  an  Arabian  colony  ana  was  once  the  Umversity  of  Paris  for  a  long  time  as  bachelor  of 
very  prosperous.  As  they  navigated  alone  the  Afri-  theology,  when,  on  24  May,  1323,  John  XXII.  at  the 
can  coast,  the  merchants  of  Idumea  and  Yemen  ere-  request  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  commanded  the 
ated  a  special  and  interesting  tvpe,  the  Comorinos.  chancellor  of  the  university  to  confer  the  degree  of 
Commingled  with  these  Arabian  half-breeds,  once  the  master  of  theology  upon  him.  On  27  Sept.,  1317,  St. 
sole  owners  of  the  country,  there  are  now  Banians  Elsear  de  Sabran  died  at  Paris  in  Francis's  arms, 
from  Cutch  and  Hindus  from  Bombay,  who  carry  on  Francis  was  afterwards  sent  to  Italy,  and  died  at  Pia- 
almost  the  entire  commerce.  There  are  also  a  few  £u-  censa,  probably  26  July,  1327.  It  is  generallv  ac- 
ropean  or  Creole  planters  and  officials  from  Reunion  cepted  that  Ma3rron  introduced  the  famous  "Actus 
or  Mauritius.  In  1843  the  French  €k>vemment,  Sorbonicus"  into  the  University  of  Paris.  This  oc- 
called  in  by  the  sultan,  took  possession  of  Mavotte,  curred  at  a  disputation  lasting  from  5  a.  m.  to  7  p.  m., 
which  became,  with  Noesi-B^,  a  post  of  surveillance  in  which  the  aavocate  had  to  defend  his  theses  against 
over  Madagascar.  All  these  islands  now  form  a  any  and  all  opponents  who  might  offer  to  attack  them, 
French  colony.  In  1844,  Mayotte,  Noesi-B^,  and  the  without  any  assistance  and  without  either  food  or 
Comoros  were  made  an  Apostolic  prefecture  and  con-  drink.  Denifie  has,  however,  denied  this  ("Ghartu- 
Eded  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Hol)r  Ghost.  In  1898,  larium  Universit.  Paris",  II,  Paris,  1891, 273),  though 
when  the  same  missionaries  were  given  the  ecclesiasti-  only  for  this  reason,  that  no  "document"  mentions 
cal  administration  of  Northern  Madagascar,  these  anything  about  an^  such  introduction  by  Ma3rron. 
smaller  islands  and  Santa  Maria  were  attached  to  the  Ma3rron  was  a  distinguished  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus, 
Apostolic  Vicariate  at  Diego  Suares.  Santa  Maria  whose  teaching  he  usually  followed.  He  was  sur- 
and  No88i-B6  have  resident  missionaries;  the  other  named  Doctor  acutus,  or  Doctor  illuminatus,  also  Ma- 
islands  are  regularly  visited,  gister  abstractionum.    His  "Scripta  super  4  libros 

The  population  of  these  islands  is  hugely  Moham-  Sententiarum"  appeared  at  Venice,  in  1507-8,  1519- 

medan  and  therefore  strongly  anti-Christian;  for  this  20,  1520, 1526, 1556,  1567. 

reason  little  religious  progress  is  made.    In  all  of  the  The  treatises  added  thereto.  "De  formalitatibus", 

islands  there  are  hardly  three  or  four  thousand  Catho-  "De  prime  principle ",  "Expfanatio  divinorum  ter- 

lic8.    There  are  no  Protestants.  minorum",  are  not  his,  but  have  been  collected  from 

If wMMMt  CatMiem  (Rome,  1907).  his  teachinjgs.    The  "  De  univocatione  entis",  edited 

Alexander  Lb  Rot.  ^th  other  writings  at  Ferrara  before  1490,  is  Mayron's. 

His  work  "ConSatus",  on  the  sentences,  appeajred 

Ma]fr,  Beda,  a  Bavarian  Benedictine  philosopher,  at  Treviso  in  1476;  Basle,  1489,  1579(?);  Cologne, 

apologist,  and  poet,  b.  15  January,  1742,  fg  Daiting  1510.    Distinct  from  the  latter  are  the  "Conflatile", 

near  Augsburg;  d.  28  April,  1794,  m  the  monastery  of  Lyons,  1579; ''  Passus  super  Universalia",  "  Pnedica- 

Heiligenkreua  in  DonauwOrth.     After  studying  at  menta",  ete.,  Bologna,  1479,  Lerida,  1485,  Toulouse, 

Scheyem,  Augsburg^  Munich  and  Freiburg  im  Breis-  1490,  Venice.  1489;  "Sermones  de  tempore  cum  Qua- 

gku.  he  took  vows  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  drasesimali  ,  two  editions  without  place  or  date, 

eiUgenkreus  on  29  September,  1762,  studied  theol-  prooably  Brussels,  1483,  and  Cologne,  Venice,  1491 ; 

ogy  at  the  common  study-house  of  the   Bavarian  "Sermones  de  Sanctis",  Venice,  1493,  Basle,  1498 

Benedictines  in  Benediktbeuern,  was  ordained  priest  (with  fourteen  dissertations);  "TVactatus  de  Conoep- 

on  6  Januaxy,  1766,  taught  mathematics,  philosophy,  tione  B.M. V. ",  ed.  Alva  ana  Astorga  in  "  Monumenta 

rhetoric,  theology  and  canon  law  at  his  monastery,  Seraphica  pro  Immaculata  Conceptione",  Lou  vain, 

where  he  was  also  librarian  and,  for  some  time,  prior.  1665;  "Theologies  Veritates  in  St.  Augustinum  de 

The  last  28  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  his  monastery,  Civitate  Dei ",  Cologne,  1473,  Treviso,  1476,  Toulouse, 

with  the  exception  of  four  years  during  which  he  was  1488,  Venice,  1489(?) ; ' '  Veritates  ex  libris  St.  Augustini 

pastor  of  Mandhng.    He  was  an  exemplary  religious  deTrinitate",  Lyons,  1520.    There  are  many  other  un- 

and  a  popular  preacher,  but,  as  a  philosopher,  he  was  edited  writings  on  tJie  works  of  St.  Auguistine,  and 

imbued  with  the  subjectivistic  criticism  ol  Kant  and,  philosophical  and  theological  works,  which  testifv  to 

as  a  theologian,  he  was  irenic  beyond  measure.    In  a  the  extensive  knowledge  and  the  penetrating  intellect 

letter  to  Henry  Braim,  superintendent  of  the  Bavarian  of  this  eminent  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus.    The  treatise, 

sdiools,  he  sete  forth  the  opinion  that  a  unification  of  "  De  celebratione  Missse'',  is  also  probablv  by  him  (cf. 

the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  religion  is  possible.  Ad.  Frans,  "Die  Messe  im  deutechen  Mittelalter'', 

Braun  published  this  letter  without  the  consent  of  the  Freiburg,  1902, 493-5). 

author  under  the  title  "  Der  erste  Schritt  zur  ktlnftigen  Rinontoo  a  Pists*  lAber  Conformitatum  in  AndUda  Franeit- 

Verdmgunj   der    totholischen    und    evan«li«chen  Z^'Z'^Tm^^i^i^^l^^i^lti^S&^r^. 

Kircfae      (Mumch.  1778).     In  consequence  Mayr  was  %bid.  (1906).  86-6;  Sbaralka,  Supplementum  ad  Seriplorea  6.M. 

censured  by  the  Bishop  of  Augsburg  and  temporarily  (Rome,  1806).  267-72  (2nd  ed.,  ibid..  1908),  283-88:  Job.  a 

theidigung  der  natttrhchen,  chnsthchen  und  katho-  (Paria.  1884— );  ^tAckl,  QemhichUder  Philotopkie  imMitui' 

UschenReUgion  nach  denBedOrfnissen  unsererZeiten"  oUer,  II  (Maim.  1865).  II.  868:  HAuRtsAu.  HutoifdelaPhUoto' 

in  three  put.  (Au«burg.  1787-90),  b  «,uaUy  «nic  ^S:^?^:^r^^Z^^^i^i^:-^S^SSi£''S^^ 

and  permeated  with  the  pyosophy  of  Kant.    It  was  ds  mnmn  huL,  U  (ParU,  1907),  3271. 

placed  on  the  Index  in  1792  and  ably  refuted  by  the  Michael  BihLt 


02 

Huuin,  Jules,  b.  either  at  Rome  or  Kt  Pudna  in    contributed  to  his  elevation,  and  Anne'a  aiTeetion  for 
the  Abruui,  of  a  very  old  Sicilian  family,  14  July,    bimwasthebest  guarantee  of  bis  continuanoe  in  cA«. 
1602;  d.  Bt  Vincennes,  8  March,  1661.    His  father  was     The  firecise  character  of  his  relations  with  Anne  of 
majordomototheColonnafamilyat  Rome.Oneof  bis     Austria  is  one  of  the  enigmas  of  history.    Certain  let- 
uncles,  GiulioManarini  (1544-1622),  a  Jesuit,  enjoyed     ters  of  Anne  of  Austria  to  Mazarin,   publidied  by 
agreat  teputatioD  in  Italy,  particularly  at  BoloRna,  as     Cousin,  and  admissioiis   made   by  Anne  to  Hme  dt 
a  preacher,  and  published  several  volumes  of  sacred     Brienne  and  recorded  in  tbe  Memoirs  of  Lom^oie  de 
eloqueooe.    His  youth  was  full  of  excitement:   he  ao-     Brienne,  prove  that  the   queen  regent  was  deeptj 
companied  the  future  Cardinal  Colonna  to  Madrid;  be     attached  to  tbe  cardinal.    Still,  "  Toy  sensibilitiea  have 
was  tn  turn  a  captain  of  pontifical  troops  and  then  a     no  part  in  it ",  she  said  to  Hme  de  Brienne.     Few  bit- 
pontifical  diplomat  in  tbe  Valtelline  War  (1624)  and     tonans  ^e  credence  to  Anne's  assertion  on. this  point, 
tbe  Mantuan  War  of  Succession  (162S-30).   The  truce     and  some  go  so  far  as  to  accept  tbe  allegations  of  tbe 
which  be  negotiated  (26  October,  1630)  between  the     Prinoess  Palatine  in  her  letters  of  1717,  1718,  and 
French,  on  one  side,  and  the  Spaniards  and  the  Duke     1722,  according  to  which  Anne  of  Austria  and  Uasaiin 
of  Savoy,  on  the  other,  woo  for  him  the  esteem  of     were  married.    M.  Loiseleur,  who  has  made  a  careful 
Eicbeheu,  who  was  well  pleased  at  hia  letting  Pignerol     studjr  of  the  problem,  believes  that  Maiarin  was  never 
married;   it  is  certain  that  he  retained  tbe  title  and 
inaignin  of  a  Cardinal  until  hia  death;  probably  be  wai 
even  a  cardinal-priest,  though  he  never  visited  Rome 
after  his  elevation  to  the  purple  and  seems  never  to 
have  received  the  hat.    And  m  any  case  be  held  tbe 
title  of  Bishop  of  Metr  from  1653  to  1658. 

Maiarin  oontinued  Ricbeheu's  pohcy  against  tbe 
House  of  Austria.  Aided  by  the  victories  of  Cond^ 
and  Turenne,  he  succeeded  in  bringing  tbe  -Thinj 
Yeats'  War  to  a  conclusion  with  tbe  Treaties  of  Uun- 
■ter  and  OvabrUck  (Treaty  of  Westphalia),  which 
gave  Alsace  (without  Straaburg)  to  France;  and  in 
1659  be  ended  the  war  with  Spain  in  the  Peace  iJ  Ibe 
Pyrenees,  which  gave  to  France  Rouseillon,  Cerdagne, 
and  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Twice,  in  1651  and 
1652,  he  was  driven  out  of  tbe  country  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary Fronde  and  the  Fronde  of  the  Nobles,  with 
the  innumerable  pamphlets  (Af  omriruides)  which  tbev 

fublished  against  him,  but  the  bnal  defeat  of  both 
rondes  was  the  victory  of  royal  absolutism,  and 
Maiarin  thus  prepared  the  way  for  Louis  XIV's  ixn- 
nipotence.     Lastly,  in  165S,  he  placed  Germany,  in 
some  sort,  under  tne  young  king's  protection,  by  form- 
ing the  League  of  the  Rhine,  wbicb  was  destined  to 
hold  the  House  of  Austria  in  check.    Tbue  did  he  Uy 
tbe  foundation  of  Louis  XIV's  greatneas.    His  foreign 
policy  was,  as  Richelieu's  had  often  been,  indiffennt 
to  the  interests  of  Catholicism:   the  Peace  ot  Wtsi- 
phalia  gave  its  solemn  sanction  to  tbe  legal  extstence 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  French.   The  Spaniards  tried     of  Calvinism  in  Germany,  and,  while  the  nuncio  vaintf 
to  injure  him  with  Pope  Urban  VIII,  but  the  influence     protested.  Proteaf"*  """~-  "»~  ~.~-~i~»  —i.i.  ™ 
of  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini  and  a  letter  from  Rich-     ulariw^^bishoprii 
elieu  saved  him.    He  became  canon  of  St.  Jobn  Lat-     opposition  to  Austria. 

eran,  vice-legate  at  Avignon  (1632),  and  nuncio  extra-  hira  whether  the  monmi^iiim.  liiuitujic  nas  nspcoru 
ordinsryinFrance(1634).  The  Spaniards  complained  or  contemned  in  a  foreign  country:  he  was  Crtunwell'i 
that  in  this  last  post  Maiarin  made  it  bis  exclusive  ally.  Towards  tbe  Protestants  he  pureued  an  adroit 
business  to  support  Richelieu's  policy,  and  he  was  dis-  poliM".  In  1654  Cromwell  (^>ened  negotiations  with 
missed  from  the  nunciature  by  Urban  VIII  (17  Jan.,  the  Calvinists  of  the  South  of  France,  who,  the  year 
1636).  Soon  after  leaving  the  papal  service^  he  went  before,  had  taken  up  arms  in  Ard&cbe  to  secure  certain 
to  Paris,  placed  himself  at  Richelieu's  disposition,  and  hberties  for  themselves.  Maiarin  knew  how  to  keep 
was  naturalized  as  a  French  subject  in  April,  1639.  the  Calvinists  amused  with  fine  words  promises  and 
Richelieu  commissioned  hira,  late  in  1640  to  sign  a  calculated  delays:  for  six  yeara  they  believed  tbem- 
secret  treaty  between  France  and  Prince  Thomaa  of  selves  to  be  on  the  eve  of  recovering  their  privileges, 
Savoy,  and  caused  him  to  be  made  a  cardinal  on  16  and  in  the  end  they  obtained  nothing.  The  cardmaJ 
Dec.,  1641.  Shortly  before  Richelieu's  death,  Maiarin  well  knew  how  to  retain  in  the  king's  service  valuable 
by  a  piece  of  clever  management,  had  been  able  to  Protestants  like  Tureane  and  Gassion. 
effect  the  reoccupation  of  S«ian  by  French  troops,  and  Hia  personal  relations  with  the  HolySee  were  hardly 
Richelieu  on  biadeathbed(4  Dec.,  1642)  recommended  cordial.  Ilecould  not  prevent  Cardinal  Pamfili.afriend 
him  to  the  king.  On  the  death  ot  Louis  XIII  (14  May,  ot  Spain,  from  being  elected  pope  (15  Sept.,  1644)  as 
1642),  Anne  ot  Austria,  leaving  tbe  Due  d'Orl&ins  the  Innocent  X.  He  received  in  France,  one  after  the 
shadcnry  title  of  lieutena tit-general  of  the  kingdom,  other.  Cardinals  Antonio  and  Francesco  Barberini, 
gave  the  r^ility  of  power  to  Masarin,  who  firet  pre-  nephews  of  the  late  pope,  and  the  Bull  of  21  Februan', 
tended  to  be  on  the  point  of  setting  out  for  Italy,  and  1646,  fulminated  by  Innocent  X  against  the  cardinals, 
then  pretended  that  his  acceptance  ot  office  was  only  whoWereabsentinj!  themselves  without  autboriaation 
provisional,  until  such  time  as  tbe  peace  of  Europe  (by  tbe  tenor  of  which  Bull  Hasarin  himself  waa  bound 
should  be  re-established.  to  repair  to  Rome),  was  voted  by  the  Parliament  rf 

But  Maiarin,  like  Richelieu,  was,  in  the  event,  to     Paris  "  null  and  abusive  ".    Maiann  obtained  a  deaee 
retain  power  until  his  death,  first  under  the  queen  re-     of  the  Royal  Council  forbidding  money  to  be  remitted 

Etit  and  then  under  the  king  after  Louis  Xlv  (q.  v.)     to  Rome  for  expediting  Bulls,  there  was  a  show  of  pre- 
d   attained  his  majority.    His   very   humble  ap-     paring  an  expedition  against  Avignon,  and  Innocent 


peuAnoe  and  maaner,  bis  gentle  and  kindly  ways,  had    X,  yielding  to  these  menaces,  ended  by  restoring  ibmi 


CARDINAL  MAZARIN 

FAlNTINa  BY  PHILIPPE  D8  CHAMPAQNE 


*        '  *-••     L^       i.. 


1_-J 


MAZATEC                               93  MAZATBG 

groperty  and  dignities  to  Mazarin'sprot^gds,  the  Bar-  dea  Matannadea  (3  vols..  Paris.  1849-^51);    Idem,  Ckoie  de 

ermi.    Following  up  his  policy  of  bullying  the  pope,  ^ff*'T*^*i?,V^^»  ??";'  1852-63);  Labu>ie. Nouvmu^up' 

\M          :^  -««*  ♦w^  a^4^«  *^  ♦v.«   v«««^;+««   ^^Jl*  *Ji  plemerU  o  la  btblwffraphte  dea  Mazarmadet  (Paria,  1904);  ChA- 

Maaarin  sent  two  fleets  to  the  Neapolitan  coast  to  nvEU  Hist,  de  France  pendant  la  minority  de  Louis  XJVi^vo)s., 

seize  the  Spanish  presidios  nearest  to  the  papal  fron-  Paha,  1879-80);    Idem.  Hiai.  de  France  sous  le  minisl  re  da 

tiera.     Apart  from  this,   he  had   no  Itahan  policy,  Af«ann  (1661-1661)  (3  vola.,  Paris,  l^);   Perkins.  Fron^ 

1    ^L.  !,;.,«    ««^   u:«  A^^^^^^*i^^r.  ;«   T*«ut  under  Mazann  (2  vols..  New  York,  1886);  Hassall.  Mazann 

properly  speaking,  and  his  demon^rations  in  Italy  (London.  1903);  BovaKAi9r,Hiat.de8ffue^eaetdeanioociationa 

had  no  other  object  than  to  compel  Spam  to  keep  her  md  pr6eidhrent  le  tmiU  de  Weati^lie  (Paris,  1727);  Idem.  Hiat. 

troops  there,  and  to  bring  the  pope  to  a  complaisant  dutraiti  deWeMphalie  (2vpl3  .Paris.  .1744);  CkjceiN,  Lm  Egliaea 

*  *  :*    J-.  ♦ I 1-  v.^^j^  «« J  ^fi^^Jir.  iur«  -«  •;« »«,  *x«*r*  calmntatea  du  M%dt,  le  cardinal  Mazann  et  Cromwell^  in  Revue  dea 

atUtude  towards  t  ranoe  and  towards  Mazann  S  own  QueatUma  Hiatoriguea  (July.  1904) :  RENfeB.  Lea  nikcea  de  Maza- 

relations.    The  elevation  of  his  brother  Michael  Maz-  rin  (Paris.  1866);  Chantblauxe,  Lea  demiera  jouradeMazarin 

arin  to  the  cardinalate  (October,  1647)  was  one  of  his  g  ^^'TfS^S^fi^^i"^'  ^?Q^Sf^*Ao^5L^^'  /^o^*™*  ^""^^ 

J*    1   ^  *:-»  .r:^^.;^«  Hautafort  (5th  ed..   Pans,   1886),  393-404;    Loiseleur.  Pro- 

diplomatic  Victories.                                           ^     ,      ,  6ttm««  Awtoriguw  (Paris,  1867);  Colquhow-Grant.  Queen  «»d 

Though  not  mterested  m  questions  of  theolo^,  Cardinal  (London,  1906).                    Gsobgeb  Goyau. 
Mazann  detested  the  Jansenists  for  the  part  taken  by 

some   of  them— disavowed,   however,   by   Antoine  Masateclndiaiis.— An  important  Mexican  tribe  of 
Amauld — ^in  the  Fronde,  and  for  their  support  of  Car-  Zapotecan  linguistic  stock,  occupying  the  mountain 
dinal  de  Retz  (q.  v.).    A  declaration  of  the  king  in  region  of  north-east  Oaxaca,  chiefly  in  the  districts  of 
July,  1653,  and  an  assembly  of  bishops  in  May,  1655,  Cuicatlan  and  Teotitlan,  and  estimated  to  number 
over  which  Mazarin  presided,  gave  executive  force  to  from  18,(XX)  to  20,0(X)  souls.    Their  chief  town,  Huan- 
the  decrees  of  Innocent  X  against  Jansenism.    The  tla,  with  its  dependent  villages,  has  a  population  of 
order  condemning  Pascal's  "  Provmdales  "  to  be  burnt,  about  7,000.    Their  popular  name  "  Mazateca  "  is  that 
the  order  for  the  dismissal  of  pupils,  novices,  and  given  them  by  the  Aztec  and  is  sai^  to  mean  "  Lords  of 
postulants  from  the  two  convents  of  Port-Royal,  the  the  Deer";  they  call  themselves  A-d,  with  nasal  pro- 
formula  prepared  by  the  Assembly  of  the  Clergv  nunciation  (Bauer).    Although  closely  related  to  their 
against  tne  *■  Augustmus"  (1661),  which  formula  all  neighbours,  the  formerly  highly  cultured  Zapotec  and 
eodesiasUcB  had  to  sign — all  these  must  be  regard^  Mixtec,  the  Mazatec  were  of  ruder  habit,  as  oecame  a 
as  episodes  of  Mazarin's  anti-Jansenist  policv.   On  his  race  of  mountaineers.    Like  the  Zapotec  also  they 
deathbed  he  warned  the  king  "not  to  tolerate  the  maintained  their  independence  against  the  powerful 
Jansenist  sect,  not  even  their  name  *\  Aztec  empire,  with  which  they  maintained  almost  con- 
Having  little  by  little  become  "as  powerful  as  God  stant  defensive  war.     The  principal  portion  of  the 
the  Father  when  the  world  began^'    enjoying  the  present  state  of  Oaxaca  was  brought  under  Spanish 
revenues  of  twenty-seven  abbacies,  always  ready  to  dominion  by  .Gpit^  in  1521.    In  1535  it  was  estab- 
enrieh  himself  by  whatever  means,  and  possessing  a  lishcd  as  a  cSocese,  w^h  Father  Juan  Lopez  de  Barate 
fortune  equivalent  to  about  $40,000,000  in  twentieth-  o£  the  Dominieans,  ap  its  first  bishop,  tnrough  whose 
century  American  money,  Mazarin,  towards  the  end  influence  thecDttiv'ir^on  of  the  natives  was  intrusted 
of  his  life,  multiplied  in  Paris  the  manifestations  of  hjs. :  to  i»iasibnari6d'of  thsft  order,  by  whom  it  was  success- 
wealth.    He  organized  a  free  lottery,  at  lus  owntex-  fully  accomplished  iii  spite  of  the  extreme  devotion  of 
pense,  with  prizes  amounting  to  more  than  a  milKon  the  Indians  to  their  ancient  rites,  even  to  secreting  their 
francs,  c<^ected  in  his  own  palace  more  wonderfu^.isacrediiitia^  beneath  the  very  altar  in  order  that 
things  than  the  king's  palace  contained^  had  no  ob|ec-..  .th^y  mi^t  ttxijftiis|»clied  do  reverence  to  the  one  while 
tion  to  presiding  at  tournaments,  exhibitions  of  hprs^  .appearing  to  veqi^rat^  the  other.    In  1575  the  Jesuits 
manship.  and  ballets,  and  patronized  the  earliest  'jrejnfQtcea.the.I)Qnudbans.    Even  to-day,  while  out- 
efforts  oi  the  comic  poet  Moh^re.    The  young  LotiiB'  "^  wardly  conforming  to  all  the  rules  of  the  Church  and 
XIV  entertained  a  profound  affection  for  him  and,  manifesting   the   greatest   deference   and    affection 
what  is  more,  fell  in  love  with  the  cardinars  two  nieces,  toward  the  resident  priests,  the  Mazatec  retain  most 
Olympe  Mandni  and  Marie  Mancini,  one  after  the  of  their  ancient  beliets  and  many  of  their  ceremonies, 
other.    Mazarin  sent  Marie  away,  to  prevent  the  king  By  tolerance  of  the  Mexican  Government  they  main- 
from  entertaining  the  idea  of  marrying  her.    But  if.  tained  their  tribal  autonomy  under  their  hereditaiy 
for  reasons  of  state,  he  refused  to  become  the  uncle  oi  chiefs  up  to  1857,  as  also  a  professional  keeper  of  their 
tl^  King  of  France,  it  seems  that  there  were  moments  sacred  traditions,  the  last  of  whom,  a  descendant  of 
when  he  dreamed  ot  the  tiara:  the  Abb^  Choisy  asserts  their  ancient  kings,  died  in  1869. 
that  Mazarin  died  "  in  the  vision  of  being  inaA  pope  ".  Their  native  cult,  still  kept  up  to  a  large  extent  in 
One  remimscenoe  at  least  of  the  old  political  ideas  of  combination  with  the  newer  rites,  was  an  animal  wor- 
Christian  Europe  is  to  be  found  in  his  will:  he  left  the  ship,  the  snake,  panther,  alligator,  and  eagle  being 
pope  a  fund  (600,000  livres)  to  prosecute  the  war  most  venerated.    The  soul  after  death  went  to  the 
against  the  Turks.   The  cardinal,  who  throughout  his  "kingdom  of  animals",  where  for  a  long  time  it  wan- 
life  had  given  but  little  thought  to  the  interests  of  dered  about,  being  assisted  or  attacked  by  the  animals 
Christianity,  seems  to  have  sought  pardon  by  remem-  there,  according  as  the  dead  person  had  been  kind  or 
bering  them  on  hb  deathbed.   The  same  will  directed  cruel  to  them  in  life.     At  one  point  in  the  journey  the 
the  foundation  of  the  College  of  the  Four  Nations,  for  soul  was  assisted  across  a  wide  stream  by  a  black  dog. 
the  free  education  of  sixty  children  from  those  prov-  It  seems  to  have  been  held  that  the  soul  was  finally  re- 
inces  which  he  had  united  to  France.    To  this  college  incarnated  in  an  animal.    Hence  in  many  villages 
he  bequeathed  the  library  now  known  as  the  Biblio-  black  dogs  are  still  kept  in  ahnost  every  family  and 
th^ue  Mazarine.     Mazarin's  nieces  made  princely  buried  in  the  grave  with  the  owner.    The  ancient  sow- 
marriages:  Anne  Marie  Martinozzi  became  tne  Prin-  ing  and  harvest  rites  also  are  still  kept  up,  with  inyo- 
oesae  de  Conti;  Laura  Martinozzi,  the  Duchesse  de  cation  of  the  animal  gods  and  spirits  of  the  mountain, 
Mod^ne;   Laure  Mancini  died  in  1657,  Duchesse  de  and  burial  of  curious  sacred  bundles  in  the  fields 
Mercceur;  Olympe  Mancini  became  Comtesse  de  Sois-  Marriages  and  baptisms  are  solemnized  in  regular 
sons;  Hortense  Mancini,  Marquise  de  la  Meilleraie  and  church  form  by  the  priest,  but  the  baptism  is  followed 
Duchesse  de  Mazarin;   Marie  Mancini,  Countess  Co-  later  by  a  house  festival,  of  which  a  principal  feature 
lonna;  Marie  Anne  Mancini,  Duchesse  de  Bouillon.   All  is  the  washing  of  the  godfather's  hands  in  order  to 
these  women,  and  particuliarly  the  last  four,  had  sin-  cleanse  him  of  the  sin  which  has  come  upon  him  from 
Sularly  stormy  careers.  holding  the  infant  in  his  arms  during  the  baptism. 
CHfcRinBt  AWD  o*Atbwei,.  ed»..  LeUrea  du  Cardinal  Mazarin  The  occupations  of  the  Mazatec  are  farming  and  the 
vaiidaiu  aon  miniaiira  (Q  vols.,  Paris.  1872-1906);  Ravenel,  simpler  trades.    The  women  are  expert  weavers  of 
fid^^fSti^est^^S^i^cSS^'r^X'^'t  oottoS-    The  houses  are  light  hute  daubed  with  cUy 
Ifua^iaj^^urmddn^v^asss):  UoKEAn.BiU  and  thatched  With  palm  leaves.    Men  and  women  are 


■A%)  ^K* 


94 


f ullv  dressed,  the  women  being  picturesque  in  shawls  Mamn  dfll  YaDo,  Diocbbb  or  (MASAXixifaiB).— 

ancT  gowns  of  their  own  weaving,  decorated  with  rib-  The  city  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Trenani,  8i^, 

bons  and  worked  with  human  and  animal  figures,  par-  on  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  moutii  of  toe  ^*«— y* 

ticularly  that  of  the  eagle.    Tliey  have  stilTtheir  own  River.    It  carries  on  a  larig^  lemon  trade,  has  several 

calendM*  of  thirteen  months,  with  days  bearing  animal  tnineral  springs  in  the  vicinity,  and  occupies  Hie  site  d 

names.    The  second  volume  of  PimenteFs  "  Cuadro  "  the  emporium  of  ancient  Selinus.    The  port  very  earfp 

contains  a  sketch  of  the  languaee.    See  also  Zapotec.  attracted  a  Mecarian  colony  (630  b.  c.) ;  in  409  B.  cK 

BAMCROfT,  Hid,  Mexico,  II  @aa  rnnoisoo,  18S6);  Baubr,  was  taken  by  tioe  Carthaginians;  and  in  240  was  god- 

fSi3£^r'Sl^3?5r(S2LjWrSXi:^^  ptetelydtertrovedandteWwt«itodeiK^ 

Race  (N.  Y.,  1891):  J^mentbl,  duadro  ...  d«  lac  Lenguaa  b»um  (Marsala).    Gradually  there  arose  around  thi 

Miqeiuude  Ar^rieog  vols.,  Mexico,  18(12-6);  Stabb.  In  Indian  port  a  new  city,  captured  by  the  Saraoens  in  827.    It 

Mmeo  (Chicaco,  1908).                        Jaiobs  Moonbt.  was  later  made  the  capital  of  one  of  the  three  gntt 

Maidaism.    See  Avbsta  Ths.  ^^"^  ^^  which  the  Saracens  divided  Sicily.     In  the 

'         *  struggle  of  the  Saracens  against  the  Normans  for  the 

MiMiiodi  Charlbs  Joseph  Euosnb  db,  Bishop  of  possession  of  the  island,  iGuuara  was  hotly  contested, 

Marseilles,  and  Foimd6r  of  the  Connegation  of  the  especially  m  1076  when  the  Saracens  were  oompktehr 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  b.  at  .fix,  in  Provence,  routed  by  Ck>unt  Roger.    The  episcopal  See  of  lih- 

1  August,  1782;  d.  at  Marseilles  21  Biay,  1861.    De  b»um  was  then  trantfemd  toMassara.    Of  thebisb- 

Masenod  was  the  offspring  of  a  noble  family  of  south-  ops  of  Lilybaeum  the  best  known  is  Paschasinus,  legate 

em  France,  and  even  m  his  tender  years  he  showed  un-  of  Leo  I  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (461).    The&st 

mistakable  evidence  of  a  pious  disposition  and  a  high  Bishop  of  Massara  was  Stefano  de  Ferro,  a  rehtive 

and  independent  spirit.    Sharing  the  fate  of  most  of  Coimt  Roger  (1093).    The  cathedral  was  then 

French  noblemen  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  he  founded,  and  later  embellished  by  Bishop  Tristiano 

passed  some  years  as  an  exile  in  Italy,  after  which  he  (1157).     Other  noteworthy  bishops  were  Cardinal 

studied  for  the  priesthood,  though  he  was  the  last  Bessarion  (1449);  Giovanni  da  Monteaperto  (1470), 

representative  of  his  family.    On  21  December,  181 1 ,  who  restored  the  cathedral  and  founded  a  library ;  Bet- 

he  was  ordained  priest  at  Amiens,  whither  he  had  gone  nardo  Gasco  (1579),  of  Toledo,  founder  of  the  semi- 

to  escape  receiving  orders  at  the  hands  of  Cardinal  nary;  Cardinal  Gian  Domenico  Spmola  0^7);  the 

BCaury,  who  was  then  governing  the  arohdiocese  of  Franciscan  Francesco  M.  Graffeo  (1685).     In  1844  the 

Paris  against  tho  wishes  of  the  pope.     After  some  newly  erected  diocese  of  Marsala  was  separated  from 

▼ears  of  ecclesiastical  labours  at  Aix,  the  young  priest,  Maszara.    Massara  is  a  suffragan  of  PaJenno,  has  23 

bewailing  the  sad  fate  of  religion  resulting  amone  the  parishes,  430  priests,  5  religious  houses  of  men  and  29 

masses  from  the  French  Revolution,  gathered  to-  of  women,  3  schools  for  boys  and  25  for  girls,  and  a 

gether  a  little  band  of  missionaries  to  preach  in  the  population  of  276  000. 

vernacular  and  to  instruct  the  rural  populations  of  GAPPBLLvrn,  L«  cki$m  'd'liafia,  XXI  (Vcnioe,  1857). 

Provence.     He  commenced,  25  January,  1816,  his  XJ.  Bkihgni. 
Institute  which  was  immediate^  prolific  of  much  good 

among  the  people,  and  on  17  February,  1826,  was  Maiiella,  Camillo,  theologian  and  cardinal,  b.  at 

solemnly  approved  by  Leo  XII  under  the  name  of  Vitulano,  10  Feb.,  1833;  d.  at  Rome,  26  March,  190a 

Congregation  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  He  entered  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  Benevento 

After  having  aided  for  some  time  his  uncle,  the  aeed  when  about  eleven  yean  of  age,  completed  his  daai* 

Bishop  of  Marseilles,  in  the  administration  of  his  dio-  cal,  philosophical,  and  theological  studies  before  his 


exchange  for  that  of  Bishop  of  Marseilles.    His  episco-  ordination  he  remained  at  Vitulano,  attending  to  the 

I»te  was  marked  by  measures  tending  to  the  restora-  duties  of  canon  in  the  parish  church,  a  position  he 

tion  in  all  its  integrity  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  held  from  his  family.    Resigning  this  office  he  entered 

De  Masenod  imceasingly  strove  to  uphold  the  rights  the  Society  of  Jesus,  4  Sept.,  1857.    On  the  expulsioa 

of  the   Holy  See,  somewhat   obscured    in   France  of  the  Jesuits  fit>m  Italy  m  1860,  be  was  sect  to 

by  the  pretensions  of  the  Galilean  Church.     He  fa-  Fourvidres,  where  after  reviewing  his  theology  for  a 

voured  the  moral  teachings  of  Blessed  (now  Saint)  year  ana  making  a  public  defence  "de  uni versa  theo- 

Alphonsus  Liguori,  w;hose  theological  system  he  was  logia",  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  for  three  yeare, 

the  first  to  introduce  in  France,  and  whose  first  life  in  and  moral  theology  for  two.    In  the  early  autumn  of 

French  he  caused  to  be  written  by  one  of  his  disciples  i867  he  came  to  America  and  taught  theology  for  two 

among  the  Oblates.     At  the  same  time  he  watched  yearstothemembersoftheSocietyof  Jesus  at  Gecvige- 

with  a  jealous  eye  ovel- the  education  of  youth,  and,  in  town  University,  Washmgton.     On  the  opening  of 

spite  of  the  susceptibilities  of  the  civil  power,  he  never  Woodstock  College,  Maryland,  he  was  appomted  pre- 

swerved  from  what  he  considered  the  path  of  justice,  feet  of  studies  and  professor  of  dogmatic  theology. 

In  fact,  bv  the  apostolic  freedom  of  his  public  utter-  While  there  he  published  four  volumes: "  De  Religione 

ances  he  deserved  to  be  compared  to  St.  Ambrose.  He  ©t  Ecclesia", "  De  Deo  Creante", "  De  Gratia  Christi", 

was  ever  a  strong  supporter  of  papal  infallibility  and  a  and  •<  De  virtutibus  infusis  ",  which  went  through  sef* 

devout  advocate  of  Mary's  immaculate  conception,  in  eral  editions.   In  October,  1878,  he  was  called  to  Roma 

the  solemn  definition  of  which  (1854)  he  took  an  active  by  Leo  XIII  to  fill  the  chair  of  theolocr  at  the  Grego- 

part.    In  spite  of  his  well-known  outspokenness,  he  nan  University,  left  vacant  by  FaSber  Franaelin's 

was  made  a  Peer  of  the  French  Empire,  and  in  1851  elevation  to  the  cardinalate,  and  shortly  afterwanb, 

Pius  IX  cave  him  the  paUium.  ,       ,  on  the  retirement  of  Father  Kleutgen,  was  made  p^^ 

Meanwhile  he  contmued  as  Supenor  General  of  the  feet  of  studies.    On  7  Jime,  1886,  Leo  XIII  created 

religious  family  he  had  foimded  and  whose  fortunes  Father  Massella  a  cardinal  deacon.    Ten  years  latei 

wilfbe  found  described  in  the  article  on  the  Oblates  he  became  cardinal  priest.    Not  quite  a  year  aft®- 

of  Mary  Immaculate.    Such  was  the  esteem  in  which  wards  (18  April,  1897),  at  the  express  wish  of  the  pope, 

he  was  held  at  Rome  that  the  pope  had  marked  him  he  became  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Palestrina,  to  the  «▼• 

out  as  one  of  the  cardinals  he  was  to  create  when  death  emment  of  which  see  he  applied  himself  with  untiling 

claimed  him  at  the  ripe  a^e  of  ahnost  seventy-nine,  energy.    He  was  the  first  Jesuit  on  whom  was  be- 

ff.  De  Matenod  (Tou».  1883) ;  Ricard.  Mgr  de  MoMenod,  Mque  he  took  an  active  part  m  the  deliberations  of  a  num- 

d^MoTMilU  (Paris,  n.  d.).  A.  G.  MoRicE.  ber  of  Congregations,  was  for  several  years  president 


lCA2a50LIHX 


95 


MBAYA 


»f  the  Aeademy  of  St.  Thomas,  and,  at  various  times, 
^ect  of  the  CSonsregatioDfl  of  the  Index,  of  Studies, 
ad  of  Rites. 

TOCOTHT  BbOSNAHAN. 


MaiioWnly  Lodovico  (also  known  as  Mazzouni  da 
Pehrara,  Lodovico  FBgjRAREHA,  and  II  Ferrabebb), 
Italian  painter,  b.  in  Ferrara  in  1480;  d.,  according  to 
me  account,  in  1528,  and  to  another,  in  1530;  place  of 
ieath  unknown.  This  artist  is  generally  represented 
IS  having  been  a  pupil  of  Lorenzo  Costa,  and  as  having 
xime  under  the  influence  of  Eroole  Roberti,  but  should 
ye  more  conectly  described  as  a  pupil  of  Panetti. 
Iforelli  called  him  "the  Gk>w-worm^',  "der  QlUh- 
Dvrm"^  from  his  brilliant  gem-like  colour  and  lumi- 
kous  sparUim^  quality,  and  he  proved  that  Mauolini 
ras  a  pupil  of  Panetti  rather  than  Costa,  by  the  form 
>f  the  ear  and  hand  in  his  paintings,  by  his  landscape 
lackgrounds  with  steep  conical  blue  mountains  and 
treaks  of  damling  white,  and  by  his  scheme  of  colour. 
Comparing  Lorenzo  Costa  with  I^erugino,  Morelli  com- 
lares  Panetti  with  Pintorrichio,  alUiough  he  says  as 
m  artist  the  Perugian  far  surpassed  the  somewhat  diy 
Old  narrow-minoed  artist  of  Ferrara,  but  it  is  per- 
ectlv  clear  that  it  was  to  this  dry  and  so-caUed  narrow- 
ninded  man  that  llaasolini  owed  his  excellent  work, 
rhe  architectuzal  backgrounds  of  his  pictures  are  their 
pecially  distinctive  feature,  and  notably  the  creamy- 
oned  marble.  Attention  liiould  further  be  directed 
o  his  use  of  gold  in  the  high  lights  of  his  draperies. 

Of  his  personad  history  we  know  nothing,  save  that 
le  workra  both  in  Ferrara  and  Bolorna,  and  that  he 
narried  in  1521  Giovanna,  the  daii^ter  of  Bartolo- 
neo  Vacchi,  a  Venetian  painter.  His  most  notable 
jncture  represents  Christ  disputing  with  the  doctors, 
8  dated  1524,  and  to  be  seen  at  Berlin.  It  Is  in 
lis  pictures  with  small  figures  that  he  displays  the 
power  of  imparting  pleasure,  as  his  p;ift  was  rather  in 
'he  direction  of  genre  than  of  historical  pjainting,  and 
so  most  observers  there  is  something  curiously  Flem- 
flh  about  his  work.  There  is  a  second  important  pio- 
Uire  of  his  in  Berlin,  a  Virgin  and  Child,  two  at  the 
[jouvie,  one  in  Ferrara,  three  in  the  National  Gallery, 
md  thxee  in  Florence,  other  examples  in  Munich,  and 
in  various  private  collections.  The  chief  work  of  his  in 
Elngland  is  one  bek>nging  to  Lord  Wimbome.  He  is 
&lao  remsented  in  i&  f^alleries  of  Turin,  St.  Peters- 
bur;^,  The  Hague,  and  m  the  Capitol  at  Rome,  the 
Dona,  and  the  Borghese. 


1878,  1886). 


Gborgb  Charles  Williambon. 


Manoliiii  (Mozolini,  also  Prierias),  Sylvester, 
theologian,  b.  at  Priero,  Piedmont,  1460;  d.  at  Rome, 
1523— sometimes  confounded  with  Sylvester  Ferrari- 
ensis  (d.  1526).  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the 
Order  of  St.  Dominic.  Passing  brilliantly  through  a 
course  of  studies  he  taught  theok>^  at  Bologna, 
Pa  via  (bv  invitation  of  the  senate  of  Venice),  and  in 
Rome,  whither  he  was  called  by  Julius  II  in  1511.  In 
1515  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the  Sacred  Palace, 
filling  that  office  until  his  death.  His  writings  cover 
a  vast  range,  including  treatises  on  the  planets,  the 
pown*  of  the  demons,  history,  homiletics,  the  works  of 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  primacy  of  the  popes.  He  is 
credited  with  oeing  the  first  theologian  who  by  his 
writings  attacked  publicly  the  subversive  errors  of 
Martin  Luther.  John  Tetsel's  productions  against  the 
8rch-reformer  are  called  by  £chard  scattered  pages 
{/oka  voUtantia) ,  and  Maxsoiinl  stands  forth  as  the  fist 
champion  of  the  Homan  Pontiffs  against  Luther.  The 
heresiarch  replied  to  liassolini's  arguments:  the  latter 
published  rejoinders,  and  there  was  a  reguliur  contro- 
versy between  the  innovator  and  the  defender  of  the 
4n9!qit  F^^ttl-    T^necea9ity9fpromptn^8pi|i«^tt§<j^ 


and  defence  will  account  for  defects  of  style  in  some  oi 
his  writing.  His  principal  works  are :  * '  De  juridica  et 
irrefragabili  veritate  Bomanse  Ecclesia  Itomanique 
Pontificis"  (Rome,  1520);  ''Epitoma  responsionis  ad 
Lutherum  "  (Peru^,  1519) :"  Errata  et  argumenta  M. 
Lutheri"  (Borne,  1520);  ''Summa  Summarumy  qua 
Sylvestrina  dicitur"  (Rome,  1516),  reprinted  forty 
times;  an  alphabetical  encyclopsdia  of  theological 
(questions;  "Rosa  aurea"  (Bologna,  1510)  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  Gospels  of  the  year;  "In  theoricas  plane- 

tarum"  (Venice,  1513). 

Quftrxr-EoHARD,  SS,  Ord.  Prtml.,  II.  65;  Touron,  Bomme9 
mutt,  de  VOrdre  de  S,  Dominique.  Ill,  716;  MxcBAiiuat  I>« 
3ylv.  PrienUa  ,  ,  ,  ffiiael  acripHa  (Munster,  1892). 

D.  J.  Kennbdt. 

Mainichelli,  Pietbo  Francssco  (also  known  as  Ii* 
MoRAszoNE,  Marazzone,  and  Moranzone),  Milanese 
painter,  b.  at  Moranzone  near  Milan,  either  in  1571  or 
1575;  d.  at  Piacenza  in  1626.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
life,  this  painter  resided  in  Rome,  where  he  painted 
various  altar-pieces,  then  he  passed  on  to  Vemce,  and 
made  a  profound  study  of  the  work  of  Titian,  Tinto- 
retto, and  Paolo  Veronese,  so  entirely  altering  his  style 
and  improving  his  scheme  of  colour,  that  the  pictures 
he  painted  when  he  came  to  Milan,  althou^  repre- 
senting subjects  similar  to  those  he  had  earned  out  in 
Rome,  could  hardlv  be  recognized  as  having  come 
from  the  same  hancl.  He  was  patronized  by  Cardinal 
Borommeo,  and  from  the  Duke  of  Savoy  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood  and  the  order  of  St.  Biaurice. 
In  1626  he  was  called  to  Piacenza  to  paint  the  cupola 
of  the  cathedral,  but  was  not  able  to  finish  this  work, 
which  he  commenced  in  a  grand  and  vigorous  style, 
and  died,  it  is  believed,  from  an  accident  in  conneo- 
tion  with  the  scaffolding,  in  consequence  of  which 
Guercino  was  called  in  to  complete  the  work.  The 
chief  painting  by  Mazzuchelli  is  that  in  the  church  of 
San  Uiovanni  at  (Domo,  and  represents  St.  Michael 

and  the  angels. 

Vasaki,  O..  L0  Viie  dei  PiUori  (Florence,  1878.  1885);  Or- 
LANDX,  P.  P^  Abbecedaiio  PiUorieo  (Bologna,  1719),  atao  tbt 
OreUi  ACS.  (Bologna). 

Gbobge  Chablbs  Willlambon. 

MaBsuoIa,  Francesco.    See  Parmigiano,  II. 

Mbaya  TTi^iftTin  (GuATcuBif),  a  predatory  tribe  for- 
merly rangins  on  both  sides  of  the  Paraguay  River,  on 
the  north  ana  northwest  Paraguay  frontier,  and  in  the 
adjacent  portion  of  the  Province  of  Matto  Grosso, 
Brazil.  They  are  one  of  a  group  of  equestrian  warlike 
and  savage  tribes,  constituting  a  distinct  lihguistio 
stock,  the  Guaycuran,  formerly  roving  over  Northern 
Paraguay  and  the  upper  Ghaco  region,  and  of  which 
the  l^t  known  are  the  Abipon,  made  famous  by  the 
missionary  Dobrizhoffer,  the  Guaycur6  proper,  or 
Mbaya,  the  Mocobf  and  the  still  savage  and  powerful 
Toba.  The  Lraigua,  sometimes  included  under  the 
same  name,  are  now  known  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Chi- 
quito  of  Bolivia.  The  name,  Mhaya,  given  to  them  bv 
ttie  more  peaceful  Guaranf,  signifies  "terrible  ", "  bad  , 
or  "savage".  The  name  Guavcuro,  now  most  com- 
monlv  Ui^,  is  said  to  mean  'runner".  They  have 
also  been  called  CabaUeroe  by  the  Spaniards,  on  ac- 
count of  their  fine  horsemanship.  According  to 
Father  Lozano  they  had  three  main  divisions,  viz :  £pi- 
cuar^qui  (Eyiguaye^)  in  the  North,  Napin-yiqui  in 
the  West,  andraqm-yiqui  in  the  South.  lolis,  an- 
other authority,  gives  a  different  list  of  six  divisions. 

The  Guaycurd  were  accustomed  to  prey  upon  the 
more  sedentary  and  industrious  Guaranf  tribes,  mak- 
ing sudden  raids,  with  quick  retreats  into  their  own 
country,  where  tangled  forests  and  treacherous 
swamps  made  pursuit  difficult  and  subjection  almost 
impossible.  In  1542,  Alvar  Nuilez  Caoe^a  de  Vaca, 
governor  of  Buenos  Aires,  with  a  detachment  of 
Spaniards  and  a  contii^nt  of  Guanmf ,  inflicted  upon 
them  a  signal  defeat,  chieflv  by  the  terror  of  his  field 
guqs  Af^d  horses  f  with  botfi  of  which  th^  Guf^y^uid 


MEADl 


96 


t   :i  -i 


were  still  unacquainted.  The  acquisition  of  houses 
Boon  transformed  them  into  a  race  of  expert  and  dar- 
ing equestrians,  and  for  two  centuries  they  continued 
their  raids  upon  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Para- 
guay River  and  the  neighbouring  missions.  As  early 
as  1610  the  Jesuits  unsuccessfully  attempted  their  con- 
version. About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centuiy 
a  peace  was  arranged,  which,  accordmg  to  Dobrizhof- 
fer,  was  faithfully  kept  by  the  Indians.  The  Jesuit 
Joseph  Sanchez  Labrador  was  then  sent,  at  his  own 
request,  to  work  among  these  Guaycuni,  who  had  been 
considered  the  wildest  and  most  dangerous  tribe  of  the 
region.  Having  made  good  progress  in  their  difficult 
language,  he  established  for  them,  in  1760,  the  mission 
of  virgen  de  Belen  (now  Belen)  east  of  the  jpresent 
Concepci6n,  in  Paraguay.  They  were  impatient  of 
restramt,  and,  although  many  infants  and  dying 
adults  received  baptism,  according  to  Dobrizhoffer, 
"the  rest  did  little  else  thim  wander  over  the  plains". 
The  mission  influence,  however,  effectually  tamed  their 
ferocity.  At  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  in  1767,  the 
Belen  mission  contained  260  Christian  Indians,  eight  of 
the  nine  bands  still  remaining  in  the  forest. 

In  this  same  year  was  established  by  Father  Manuel 
Duran  the  last  of  the  Paraguay  Jesuit  foundations, 
the  mission  of  San  Juan  Nepomuceno,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  river,  among  the  Guana,  or  Ghana,  a  num- 
erous agricultural  and  pedestrian  tribe  of  the  same 
territory,  subject  to  the  Mbaya.  When  the  mission- 
aries were  driven  out,  this  station  contained  600  In- 
dians. The  conversion  of  the  Guana  had  been  under- 
taken more  than  a  centuiy  before  by  Father  Pedro 
Romero,  who  lost  his  life  m  1645  at  the  hands  of  a 
neighbouring  wild  tribe.  Among  the  Guana,  infanti- 
cide, polygamy,  and  intoxication  were  imknown,  and 
men  and  women  worked  together  in  the  fields.  About 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Franciscans  took 
up  the  work  begim  by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  next  fifty  years  gathered  a  number  of  the  Quajr- 
curd  and  Guana  into  missions,  which  continued  until 
the  tribes  themselves  declined  or  were  assimilated. 
Lieutenant  Page,  who  commanded  an  expedition  sent 
by  the  United  States  Government  to  explore  the  Para- 
guay River,  gives  an  interesting  and  extended  account 
of  his  visit  to  one  of  these  missions,  Nossa  Senhora  de 
Bon  Conselho,  near  Albuquerque,  Brazil,  in  1853 
(Page,  "  Report  to  the  Secretary;  of  the  Navy  ",  Wash- 
ington, 1855) .  Here  the  Christian  Guanas  cultivated 
vegetables  for  the  market  afforded  by  neighbouring 
white  settlements.  Under  the  care,  both  temporal 
and  spiritual,  of  a  Franciscan  father,  these  abori^es, 
who,  only  a  few  years  earlier,  had  been  wandering 
savages,  were  now  a  remarkably  neat,  orderly,  and 
thrifty  community  of  husbandmen.  Fronting  upon  a 
public  square,  there  stood  the  village  church,  the 
schoolhouse,  and  a  number  of  well-constructed 
thatched  dwellings,  each  dwelling  having  a  frontage 
of  20  feet,  the  interiors  partition^  with  curtains  and 
fitted  with  raised  platforms  to  serve  either  as  tables  or 
OS  beds.  Among  the  vegetables  cultivated  was  a 
native  rice,  which  they  harvested  in  canoes.  Cotton, 
too,  was  grown,  spim,  dyed,  and  woven  by  the  women 
of  the  settlement.  The  men  wore  trousers  and 
ponchos;  the  women,  a  chemise  girdled  at  the  waist; 
the  boys  were  exeroised  in  military  tactics,  and  the 
children  in  general  were  not  only  taught  "the  rudi- 
ments of  a  common  education,  but  made  some  progress 
in  music  and  dancing".  A  few  of  the  Mbaya  proper 
still  exist  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Paraguay  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Concepci6n.  Other 
bands  known  as  Guaycurd  roam  over  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricts of  Matto  Grosso,  Brazil,  and  may  number  per- 
haps 1500  souls  as  against  an  estimated  15,000  or 
18,000  about  a  century  ago.  The  Guana,  on  the 
Faquari  and  Miranda  Rivers  in  the  same  region,  are 
now  labourers  among  the  whites,  although  still 
"laimed  as  dependents  by  the  Guaycuni. 


In  their  primitive  condition  the  men  of  the  Gnrnt- 
curd  went  entirelv  n^ed,  while  the  women  wore  odxj 
a  short  skirt.  The  men  trimmed  their  luur  in  a  ei^ 
cular  tuft.  Girb  had  the  head  closely  shaven.  The 
men  painted  their  bodies,  and  wore  rings  in  the  lower 
lip.  Boys  were  painted  black  until  about  fourteeo 
years  old,  then  red  for  two  years,  when  they  were 
subjected  to  a  painful  ordeal,  before  taking  tfadr 
station  as  warriors.  War  was  their  chief  business, 
their  weapons  being  the  bow,  club,  and  bone  knife. 
The  children  bom  of  captives  were  sold  as  slavei. 
Their  chief  tribal  ceremony  was  in  honour  of  the 
Pleiades,  and  was  accompanied  by  a  sham  battle  be- 
tween the  men  and  women,  ending  with  a  general  in- 
toxication. They  buried  their  dead  in  t&  ground, 
and  voluntaiy  human  victims  were  sacrificed  when  a 
chief  died.  Polygamy  was  unknown,  but  separatioo 
was  frequent,  and  infanticide  common.  They  sub> 
sisted  by  fishing  and  hunting.  Their  villages  con- 
sisted each  of  a  simple  communal  structure  in  three 
large  rooms,  the  middle  of  which  was  reserved  for  the 
chief  and  head  men,  and  for  the  storage  of  weapons. 
The  chief  had  great  authority,  and  with  his  head  men, 
seems  to  have  belonged  to  a  different  clan,  or  gent^ 
from  the  common  warriors.  Captives  and  their  de- 
scendants constituted  a  permanent  slave  daas.  As  a 
people,  they  were  tall  and  strongly  built.  Those  still 
remaining  show  the  admixture  of  white  captive  blood 
and  are  gradually  assimilating  to  the  settled  popula- 
tion. 

Brinton,  Ameriean  Race  (New  Toric«  1891);  Cbarxxtoix 
Hui.  ofParaouayt  I  (London,  1796);  X>ov«t3Movrmau  Account  of 
the  AbijHmes  (London,  1822);  Hbrtas,  Catnlogo  dHaa  Ungtuu, 
I  (Madrid.  1800);  Loiako,  Detcripcion  Chorooraphiea  del  Grm 


James  Mookxt. 

Meade,  John.    See  Alkceida,  John. 

Meagher,  Thomas  Francis,  soldier,  politidan,  b. 
at  Waterfoid,  Ireland,  3  August,  1823;  accidental] v 
drowned  in  the  Missouri  River,  U.  8.  A^  1  July,  186f . 
Educated  in  the 
Jesuit  colleges  ot 
Clongowes  and 
Stonyhurst,  he 
finished  his  college 
career  in  1843  with 
a  reputation  for 
great  oratorical 
ability  which  he  de- 
votedat  once,under 
O'Connell,  to  the 
cause  of  RepeaL 
His  impetuous  na- 
ture chafed  under 
the  restraint  of  con- 
stitutional^ agita- 
tion, and  his  impas- 
sioned  eloouence 
stimulated  the 
more  radical  revo- 
lutionary efforts  of 
the  young  Irelanders,  who,  in  1848,  broke  away  from 
O'Connell's  leadership.  In  the  roring  c^  that  year 
he  went  with  William  Smith  O'Brien  to  France 
as  member  of  a  deputation  to  Lamartine  to  con- 
gratulate the  people  of  France  on  the  establishment 
of  a  republic.  A  trial  for  ''exciting  the  people  to 
rise  in  rebellion",  the  following  May  resulted  in  a 
disagreement  of  tne  jury,  but  in  the  abortive  rebel- 
lion in  July  he  was  among  those  arrested,  tried  for 
high  treason,  and  sentenced  on  23  October  to  be 
hanged.  This  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for 
life  and  on  29  July,  1849,  with  O'Brien  and  Terencp 
Bellew  MacManus,  ne  was  transported  to  Tasnoai.i  i. 
Escaping  from  this  penal  colony  m  1852,  he  landed  ii^ 


TaoMAB  FiUNcn  Mbaoi 


i*iew  Yoric,  where  hia  oountrymen  g&veblm  a  hearty  Lombards,  Paris,  waa  consecrated  bishop  bv  the  papal 
welcome.  Hisnopularityaaalocturernasimmediate;  nuncio  at  Paris  in  1779.  The  venael  in  wuich  he  re- 
he  also  studied  law  and,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1855,  turned  to  Ireland  was  attacked  and  plundered  bv  the 
Started  a  paper  called  the  "Irish  News"  (12  April,  famousPaulJonea,  the  American  privateer,  wbo.aow- 
1866),  in  which  he  published  his  "Perecnal  Reoolle(»-  ever,  to  his  credit  be  it  said,  afterwards  resttntid  the 
tiooB  .  Two  years  later  he  undertook  an  exploring  epiaoopal  property,  for  eight  and  forty  years,  with 
expedition   in   Central   America;   his  narrative  was  a  truly  Apoetolic  spirit,  this  great  bishop  traversed  the 

a  ted  in  "  Harper's  Uagaiine",    When  the  Civil  War  whole  diocese  yearly,  visiting  every  pariah,  preaching, 

£  out  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Union,  raised  catechizing,  ^ving  seasonable  counsel  to  the  clergy 

a  company  of  Zouaves,  went  to  the  front  with  the  andsuitableinstruction  to  the  people, sothatinbisde- 

Sixtv-Ninth  New  York  Volunteers,  and  participated  dining  years  he  was  fittingly  called,  by  the  Primate 

in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.     He  then  organiied  of  Armagh,  "the  ornament  and  father  of  the  Irish 

the  famous  Irish  Brigade,  of  which  he  was  oonunis-  Church".    The  catechism  compiled  by  Dr.  Flunket 

sioDed  bri^dier-general,  and  with  it  participated  in  cannot  eaailv  be  improved,  and  is  still  used  in  the 

the  operations  of  the  Aimy  of  the  Potomac,  in  which  schools  of  tne  diocese.     He  died  in  January,  1827, 

H  apeciaily  distinguished  itself  in  the  battles  of  Fair  in  his  eighty-ninth  year.     His  Bucceesor,  Dr.  Logan, 

Oat  (1  June,  1862)^he  seven  days'  fight  before  Rich-  Uved  only  a  few  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Cant* 

mond,  Antietam,  Fredericksburg   (13  Dec     1862),  well,  the  steadfast  fnend  of  Daniel  O'Connell.    With 

where  it  was  almost  annihilated,  and  Chancellorsville  great  energy  Dr.  Cantwell   gathered   the  scattered 

(1853).     He  then  resigned  his  command  because,  he  stones  of  the  sanctuary,  and  le-eiected  the  lemplea 

said,  "  it  was  perpetrating  a  public  deception  to  keep  levelled  in  the  penal  days.     Dr.  Nulty  became  bishop 

up  a  brigade  so  reduced  in  numbers,  and  which  he  in  lK64^anddurinKhisepiscapateof  thirty-four  years 

had  been  refused  permission  to  withdraw  from  service  spent  hima^  in  tte  service  of  Qod  and  his  peopw.   A 

—  J ;.ii     ^  command  of  a  military  district  ir 


e  given  him,  which  he  resigned 
after  a  short  time.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
made  (July,  1SS5)  Territorial  Secretar};  of  Montana. 
During  a  trip  made  in  the  course  of  his  administra- 
tion (^  this  office  he  fell  from  a  steamer  into  the 
Uiasouri  River  at  night  and  was  drowned.  His  body 
was  never  found. 

Catahaqb,  Memorial  o/Om.  Thtmai  FrancU  Meagher  (Woi^ 
iHter,  Hub.,  1862):  CoHTNaRAH,  Tht  Iriik  Brioadi  and  iU 
CamaiMpti  <New  York.  18e7);  SAT:taii,  'fW  and  >M  (New  York, 
18M):  Ddftt,  Young  /™innd  (London,  1880);  Four  Yiari  of 
IriwJt  Bitlory  {Loadon.  1883);  McCaktht,  HiMorv  if  Our  Own 
Tima,  U  (Ns»  Yock,  ISST);  IritK  Anttrican  (Nbw  York).  Rlea. 

Thouab  F,  Me  eh  an. 
Hesth,  Diocese  of  (Midensib),  in  Ireland,  suFFra- 
can  of  Armagh.     In  extent  it  is  the  largest  diocese 
ID  Ireland,  and  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  coun- 

£^r<LKS"bS&S''ct="  'Six  -•  "*"■■  °"—  "™"" 

ent  Diocese  of  Heath  anciently  comprised  eight  epis-  profound  theologian  and  ardent  student,  he  put  be- 

copal  sees,  the  chief  of  which  was  Clonard,  founded  tore  his  priests  a  high  intellectual  standard;  at  the 

in   the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  by  St.  Finian,  same  time  he  did  much  to  overthrow  landlordism 

"Tutorof  theSaintsof  Erin",    At  the  national  Sjrnod  andto  root  the  people  firmly  in  their  native  soil. 

of  Kella,  in  1172,  over  which  Cardinal  Paparo  presided  The  population  of  the  Diocese  of  Meath  at  the  last 

as  le^te  of  EuRene  III,  it  was  decided  that  these  sees  census  (1901)  was  143,164,  of  whom  132,892  were 

be  joined  together.     The  united  see  was  aadgned  as  Catholics.     Since  1871  the  population  of  the  diocese 

first  auiffiagan  to  Armagh,  and  ranks  inunediat«Iv  has  decreased  27  per  cent.;  d\iring  the  same  period 

after  the  metropolitan  sees  in  Ireland.     In  his  "Hi-  the  non-Catholic  population  decreased  36  per  cent, 

bemia  Dominicana"  De  Burgo  says  that  Meath  is  the  There  are  144  churches  and  S6  parishes,  165  secular 

foremost  suSta^n  of  Armagh,  and  has  precedence  priests  and  12  regulars,  3  mana«tio  bouses  of  men 

eveothoughitsbishopbetbeyoungestofthelrishprel-  with  17  members,  and  13  convents  of  nuns  with 

ates  in  order  of  consecration.    Meath  being  the  eoun-  134  members.     St.  Finian's  College,  an   impoainK 

by  at  the  Fak,  many' Englishmen  were  appointed  structure  erected  in  Hullingar  and  opened  in  1908,  re- 

bishops  (rf  Heath,  among  them  the  notorious  Staples  places  the  old  '  uilding  in  Navan,  which  had  held,  for 

who  apostatised  m  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  and  was  more  than  one  hundred  years,  an  honoured  plaos 

deposed  in  1554.     Dr.  Walsh,  a  Cistercian  monk,  sue-  among  the  j  ,hools  of  Ireland.      The   new   college, 

ceeded,  and  more  than  repaired  the  scandal  caused  by  which  cost  over  .^40,000,  has  acooromodation  for  160 

his  recreant  predecessor.    This  noble  ccHifesaor  of  the  students  and  b  intended  both  as  a  seminary  to  pre- 

Faith  bravely  withstood  all  the  threats  and  blandish-  pare  priects  for  '.l_e  diocese,  and  to  impart  a  sound 

ments  of  Queen  Elisabeth  and  her  agents.    He  spent  Catholic  liberal  education  to  those  intended  for  worldly 

thirteen  years  in  a  dungeon  in  Dublin  Castle,  and  pursuits.    There  is  a  Jeauit  novitiat«  and  college  at 

finally  died  an  exile  at  AlcaU  in  &psin.     His  name  is  Tullamoie^  and  a  house  of  Carmelite  Fathers  at  Uoate. 

reckoned  in  more  than  one  Irish  Martyroloey.     Like  The  Franciscans  of  the  Irid  province  have  a  monastery 

htoiour  is  paid  to  h'"!  by  his  own  order,  ana  his  Cis-  and  preparatory  school  at  Multyfamham,  near  the 

tercian  biographer  contends  that  the  martyr's  crown  cathedral  town  of  Mullingar.     The  Abbey  of  Hulty- 

is  hia  as  truly  as  if  he  had  died  in  tormenta.     The  famham   has  been   in   Franciscan  hands  since  pre- 

Buccession  <A  bishops  in  the  See  of  Meath  has  been  Reformation  times,  and  has  witnessed  the  good  and 

continued  without  interruption  to  the  present  day,  evil  fortunes  of  the  friars  in  Ireland.    The  Franciscan 

except  during  a  few  brief  mterregnums  m  the  penal  Brothers  have  a  school  at  Clara,  and  the  Christian. 

days.      It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that,  omitting  Dr.  Brothers  have  a  school  at  Mullingar  (500  pupils)  and 

Loan's  short  reign  of  a  few  years,  but  three  bishops  atClara  (200  pupils).    At  RochfortbridgB,9t.  Joseph's 

ruled  the  Diocese  of  Meath  from  1779  to  1800,  Drs.  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  is  conducted  by  the 

Flunket, Cantwell,  and  Nulty.     Dr.  Plunket,who  had  Sisters  of  Hercy.    The  Loreto  Nuns  have  educational 

been  pi^essM- and  superior  m  the  IdahCoUegaoC  the  houae&  in.  Navao  vv)  Uuljin^.  which  hay^  «n 


MBAUZ 


98 


fayourable  recognition.  The  Presentation  Sisters  have 
foundations  in  Mullingar  and  Rahan.  where  the^  have 
charge  of  the  primary  schools,  while  the  Sisters  ofMercy 
have  oiphanages  at  Navan  and  KeUs,  take  care  of  the 
hospitals  in  Tullamorey  Trim,  Mullingar,  Drogheda. 
and  Navan,  and  at  the  same  time  conduct  national 
schools  in  the  principal  towns  of  the  diocese. 

The  Diocese  of  Meath,  often  called  the  "royal  dio- 
cese", is  rich  in  historic  associations,  pagan  and  Chris- 
tian. In  Meath  was  Tara  "  of  the  kmgs",  the  palace 
of  the  Ard-righ.  whither  came  the  chieftains  and 
princes,  the  bards  and  brehons  of  Erin.    The  princi- 

Sal  cemetery  of  the  pagan  kings  of  Ireland  was  at 
irugh-na-B6inne.  Competent  authorities  declare 
that  the  surrounding  tumuli  are  among  the  oldest 
in  Europe.  Close  at  hand  is  Rosnaree,  where 
Cormac  Mac  Art,  the  first  Christian  King  of  Irekmd, 
who  refused  to  be  buried  in  pagan  Brugh,  awaits  the 
last  summons.  Uisneach  in  Westmeaui,  Tlachtgha, 
or  the  Hill  of  Ward,  and  Teltown  were  celebrated  for 
their  royal  palaces,  their  solemn  conventions,  their 
pagan  games,  and  their  druidic  ceremonies,  and  in 
ChSristian  times  were  sanctified  by  the  labours  of  St. 
Patrick  and  St.  Brigid.  Slane  reminds  us  of  St. 
Patrick's  first  Holy  Saturday  in  Ireland,  when  he  lit 
the  paschal  fire,  symbolizing  the  lamp  of  Faith  which 
has  never  since  been  extingiushed.  Trim^ounded  bv 
St.  Loman,  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  St.  Patrick,  still 
retains  in  its  many  ruins  striking  evidences  c^  its 
departed  glories.  Kells,  with  its  round  tower,  its 
splendid  sculptured  crosses,  and  the  house  of  Colum- 
cille,  reminds  us  of  that  "  Dove  of  the  Irish  Church", 
whose  memory  is  also  cherished  in  his  beloved  Durrow. 
Finally,  Meath  is  the  birthplace  of  the  Venerable 
Oliver  Plunket.  the  marWred  Primate  of  Armagh,  the 

last  victim  publicly  sacrificed  in  England  for  the  Faith. 
CooAN,  DwcMe  o/Mtaih  (Dublin,  1802);   Hbalt,  Aneieni 
SehooU  of  Irdand  (Dublin,  1800);    Iriah  BeeUnaatieal  Record 
(June,  1900);  Iriah  CathoUe  ZKrectorv  (Dublin,  1910). 

Patbick  E.  Dirrrr. 

Meauz,  Diocese  of  (Meldenbis),  comprises  the  en- 
tire department  of  Seine  and  Mame,  suffragan  of  Sens 
until  1622,  and  subsequently  of  Paris.  Tiie  Concor- 
dat of  1801  had  given  to  the  JDiocese  of  Meaux  the  de- 
partment of  Mame,  separated  from  it  in  1821  and  1822 
by  the  establishment  of  the  archiepiscopal  See  of 
Keims  and  the  episcopal  See  of  Ch&lons.  The  pres- 
ent Diocese  of  Meaux  is  made  up  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  former  Diocese  of  Meaux,  a  Large  part  of  the  rormer 
Diocese  of  Sens,  a  part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Paris, 
and  a  few  parishes  of  the  former  Dioceses  of  Troyes, 
Soissons  and  SenUs.  Hildegaire ,  who  lived  in  the  mnth 
century,  says  in  his  "Life  of  St.  Faro"  ^Burgundo- 
faro),  tnat  this  bishop  was  the  twentieui  since  St. 
Denis,  According  to  the  tradition  accepted  by  Hilde- 
gaire, St.  Denis  was  the  first  Bishop  of  Meaux,  and 
.  was  succeeded  by  his  disciple  St.  Saintin,  who  in  turn 
was  succeeded  by  St.  Antoninus;  and  another  saint, 
named  Rigomer,  occupied  the  See  of  Meaux  at  the  close 
of  the  fifth  century.  In  876  or  877,  Hincmar  showed 
Charles  the  Bald  a  document  which  he  claimed  had 
been  transcribed  from  a  very  old  copy  and  according 
to  which  St.  Antoninus  ana  St.  Samtin,  disciples  of 
St.  Denis,  had  brought  to  Pope  Anacletus  the  account 
of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Denis,  and  on  their  return  to 
Gaul  had  successively  occupied  the  See  of  Meaux. 
(For  these  traditions  see  Paris.) 

According  to  Mgr.  Duchesne,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Meaux  historically  known  is  Medovechus,  present  at 
two  councils  in  549  and  552.  Of  the  bishops  of  Meaux 
the  following  may  be  mentioned  (followinf^Mgr.  Allou's 
chronology) :  St.  Faro  (626-72),  whose  sister  St.  Fara 
founded  the  monastery  of  Faremoutiers,  and  who  him- 
self built  at  Meaux  the  monastery  of  St-Croix;  St.  Hil- 
devert  (672-680);  St.  Pathus,  who  died  about  684  be- 
fore being  consecrate  J;  St.  Ebriffisilus  (end  of  the 
wvpnth  Gientury);  St-  (Xb&i>  (first  half  of  the  eleventh 


centuiy);  Durand  de  St-PourQain  (1326-1334),  com- 
mentator on  the  **  Book  of  Sentences",  known  as  the 
"resolutive  doctor";  Philippe  de  Vitnr  (1351-1361). 
friend  of  Petrarch  and  author  of  the  "  Metamorphoses 
d'Ovide  Moralis6es";  Pierre  Fresnel  (139&-1409),  sev- 
eral times  ambassador  of  Charles  Vl;  Pierre  de  Ver- 
sailles (143^1446),  chaiged  with  important  miasioos 
bv  Eugene  IV,  and  who,  when  commissioned  by 
Charles  VII  in  1429  to  examine  Joan  of  Arc,  had  de- 
clared himself  convinced  of  the  Divine  mission  of  the 
liaid  of  Orleans;  Guillaume  Briconnet  (1516-1534), 
ambassador  of  Francis  I  to  Leo  X,  and  during  whose 
episcopate  the  Reformation  was  introduced  by  Farel 
and  G^nuti  Roussel,  whom  he  had  personally  called  to 
his  diocese  for  the  revival  of  studies;  Cardinal  Antoine 
du  Prat  (1534-1535),  who  had  an  active  share  in  the 
drawing  up  of  the  concordat  between  Francis  I  and 
Leo  X;  the  controversial  writer  and  historian  Jean  du 
Tillet  (1564-1570);  Louis  de  Br6s^.  twice  bishop,  first 
from  1554  to  1564,  then  from  1570  to  1589,  during 
whose  episcopate  the  diocese  was  greatly  disturbed  by 
religious  wars;  Dominique  Siguier  (1637-1659),  the 
first  French  bishop  to  establish  ''ecclesiastical  con- 
ferences" in  his  diocese;  the  great  Bossuet  (1681- 
1704);  Cardinal  de  Bis^  (1705-1737),  celebrated  for 
his  conflict  with  the  Jansenists;  De  Barral  (1802- 
1805),  later  Grand  Almoner  of  Empress  Josephine  and 
Archbishop  of  Tours,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in 
1810  and  1811  in  the  negotiations  between  Napoleon 
and  Pius  VI  I.  In  1 562  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Meaux 
had  become  Protestants,  and  Joachim  de  Montluc, 
sent  by  the  king,  proceeded  with  rigour  against  them. 
They  were  still  sumcientl^r  powerfuTin  1567  to  attempt 
to  carry  off,  in  the  vicinitv  of  Meaux,  Catherine  oe* 
Medici  and  Charles  IX;  and  so  for  that  reason,  shortly 
after  St.  Biutholomew's  day,  Charles  IX  ordered  the 
massacre  of  the  Protestants  of  Meaux.  At  the  chAteau 
of  Fontainebleau,  built  by  Francis  I,  was  held  the 
theological  conference  of  4  May,  1600,  between  the 
C!atholics  (Cardinal  du  Perron,  de  Thou,  Pithou)  and 
the  Calvinists  (du  Pleasis  Momay,  Philippe  Canaye, 
Isaac  Casaubon). 

A  number  of  saints  are  found  in  the  history  of  tins 
diocese:  St.  Autharius,  a  relative  of  St.  Faio,  who  re- 
ceived St.  Columbanus  in  his  domain  at  Ussy-sm^ 
Mame,  and  father  of  Blessed  Ado,  who  founded  about 
630  the  two  monasteries  of  Jouarre,  and  of  St.  Ouen. 
who  founded  the  monastery  of  ICebais  in  634  ana 
subsequently  became  Bishop  of  Rouen;  the  anchorite 
St.  Fefre  or  Fiacre,  and  the  missionary  St.  ChiUen, 
both  Iridimen,  contemporaries  of  St.  Faro  (firat  half  of 
the  seventh  century);  St.  Aile  (Agilus). monk  of  Lux- 
euiLwho  became  m  634  the  fint  Abbot  of  Rebais; 
St.  Telchilde,  died  about  660,  first  Abbess  of  Jouarre; 
St.  Anpilberte,  second  Abbess  of  Jouarre,  a  sister  of  St 
Ebrigisilus  (end  of  seventh  century);  St.  Bathilde. 
wife  of  Clovis  II,  foundress  of  the  abbey  of  Chelks, 
died  in  680;  St.  Bertille^first  Abbess  of  Chelles,  and  St 
Ethcria,  fii^  Abbess  of  Notre-Dame  of  Soissons  (658), 
both  of  <Jiem  pupils  at  the  abbey  of  Jouarre;  finallv, 
St.  Vincent  Maaelgaire  (or  Biaugjer),  founder  of  t&e 
monasteries  of  Haumont  and  Soignies;  his  wife,  St 
Waldetrude,  foimdress  of  the  monastery  of  Mens;  St 
Aldcgonde,  sister  of  St.  Waldetrude,  first  Abbeas  of 
Maubeuge;  St.  Landry,  Abbot  of  Soiinies,  claimed  by 
some  as  a  Bishop  of  Meaux;  St.  Aaeltrude  and  St 
BCalberte,  nuns  of  Maubeuge,  the  last  three  being 
children  of  St.  Vincent  Maaelgaire  and  St.  Walde- 
trude (seventh  century). 

Eugene  III  stayed  some  days  at  Meaux  in  1 147.  In 
1664  Blessed  Eudes  preached  for  two  months  at 
Meaux.  Mme  Guyon  passed  the  first  six  months  of 
1695  at  the  Visitation  convent  of  Meaux,  where  Bos- 
suet had  frequent  conferences  with  her,  but  failed  to 
make  her  abandon  her  peculiar  views.  The  celebrated 
P^re  Loriquet  (1767-1845)  was  superior  from  1812  to 
1814  of  the  preparatoiy  seminary  of  ChAage>  in  the 


MECCA 


99 


laccA 


Diooese  of  Meaux.  The  Paris  znassacres  on  2  and  3 
September,  1792^  at  the  prisons  of  the  Cannes  and  the 
Abbaye  had  their  counterpart  at  Meaux  where  seven 
priests  were  massacred  in  prison  on  4  September.  The 
Abbey  of  Notre  Dame  de  Juilly  of  the  GEmons  Regular 
of  St.  Augustine  was  established  in  1184,  and  adopted 
the  rule  of  the  Abbey  of  St-Victor  of  Paris.  Cardinal 
de  Joyeuse  was  abbot  from  1613-1616.  In  1637  P^ 
de  Condren,  Superior  of  the  Oratorr,  took  possession 
of  it,  and  in  1638  the  house  of  Juilly  became  a  royal 
academy  for  the  education  of  young  men.  The  new 
order  of  stixliee  approved  by  Richelieu  marked  a  peda- 
ffogical  revolution:  the  Latin  grammars  written  in 
Latin  were  abandoned  and  French  textbooks  were  used 
in  the  study  of  the  dead  languages.  The  college  be- 
came national  property  in  1791,  and  was  re-purchased 
in  1796  by  a  few  C&atorians;  in  1828  by  Salinis,  future 
Bishop  of  Amiens  and  Scorbiac.  chaplain-jgeneral  of 
the  university;  in  1840  by  the  Aobd  Bautain;  finally, 
in  1867,  the  college  returned  into  the  hands  of  the  new 
Congregation  of  the  Oratory  founded  by  the  Abbd 
P^tetot.  In  the  salon  of  the  Abb6  de  Salinis,  at  Juilly, 
was  established  in  December,  1830,  the  Agence  g^n^r- 
ale  pour  la  defense  de  la  liberty  religieuse.  Lamen- 
nais  resided  at  Juilly  while  editor  of  *' L'Avenir".  It 
was  at  Juilly,  in  1836,  that  the  future  bishop,  Gerbet, 
founded  the  review  "L'Universit^  Catholique". 
Among  the  students  at  JuiUv  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury were  the  Marshals  de  Berwick  and  de  ViUars;  in 
the  nineteenth,  Mgr  de  Mdrode  and  the  famous  law- 
yer, Berryer. 

A  council  convoked  in  846  at  Meaux  by  Charles  the 
Bald  adopted  important  measures  for  the  re-establish- 
ment of  discipline  in  the  three  ecclesiastical  provinces 
of  Sens,  Bourges,  and  Reims.  Other  councils  were 
held  at  Meaux  in  962,  1082,  1204,  1229  (ended  in 
Pl&ris),  where  the  Count  of  Toidouse  was  reconciled 
with  the  Church;  in  1240  a  council  was  held  in  which 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  pronounced 
acainst  Frederick  II  by  Joannes  of  PalesUina,  le^te 
01  Gregory  IX;  there  was  held  an  important  council  in 
1523.  Four  councils  were  held  at  Melun,  in  1216, 
1225, 1232,  1300.  The  city  of  Provins  was  famous  in 
the  Middle  Ages  for  its  burlesque  ceremonies  (f6te  de 
fous,  fdte  de  TAne,  f^te  des  Innocents)  held  in  the 
church.  The  cathedral  of  St-£tienne  de  Meaux  is  a 
fine  Gothic  edifice  begun  about  1170.  Hie  church  of 
Champigny  has  a  magnificent  crypt  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the 
diocese  are:  Notre  Dame  de  Lagnv,  dating  from  1128; 
Notre  Dame  du  Chdne  de  Preuifiv,  dating  from  the 
foundation  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey  (1118);  Notre 
Dame  du  Ch^ne  at  Crouy-suivOurcq,  dating  from 
the  befnnning  of  the  seventeenth  century;  Notre 
Dame  de  Bon  Secours  near  Fontainebleau  (the  pil- 
grimage was  established  in  1661  Ir^  d'Auberon,  an  offi* 
cer  of  the  great  Cond6);  Notre  Dame  de  la  Cave  at 
Champigny;  Notre  Dame  de  Piti6  at  Verdelot:  Notre 
Dame  &  Melun  at  Melun;  Notre  Dame  du  Puy  at 
Sigy.  The  bead  of  St.  Veronica  at  Pomponne  has 
long  been  the  object  of  a  pilgrimage,  greatlv  furthered 
bv  the  Jesuits  in  1670;  the  cloak  {chape)  of  St.  Martin 
of  which  a  laige  portion  is  preserved  at  Bussy-St- 
Martin,  also  attracts  pilgrims. 

Before  the  application  of  the  Associations  Law  of 
1901  religious  commimities  were  represented  in  the 
diocese  by  the  Lasarists,  Oratorians,  Little  Brothers 
of  KaiT,  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  St.  l^kry  of  Tinche- 
bray,  School  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine.  Of 
the  congregations  of  women  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned: the  Celestine  Sisters,  a  teaching  and  nursing 
order  founded  in  1839  (mother-house  at  Provins); 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Louis,  a  nursing  and  teaching  order, 
founded  in  1841  by  the  Abb6  Bautain  (mother-house  at 
Juilly),  the  Carmelites  of  Meaux,  called  Channel  of  Pius 
IX,  founded  30  August,  1860.  The  Benedictines  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Maiy ,  devoted  to  teaching  and 


contemplation,  restored  in  1837  the  ancient  abbev  of 
Jouarre.  The  religious  congregations  had  under  their 
care:  4  crdches,  52  day  nurseries,  1  orphanage  for  boys, 
16  orphanages  for  prls,  14  industrial  rooms,  10  houses 
of  mercy,  26  hospitals  or  asylums,  19  houses  for  the 
care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes,  1  house  of  retreat. 
In  1908  the  Diocese  of  Meaux  had  361 ,939  mhabitants, 
39  parishes,  402  succursal  parishes,  8  vicariates. 

€kMiaChri9Uana  (nova.  1744),  Vni,  1605-1670,  inainimenta, 
547-n574;  Ducbbsni.  Fattea  EpUcopavaB,  U,  471-475;  Du 
PLaasu,  HisUnre  de  VEgliM  de  Meaux  (2  vols.,  Meaux,  1731); 
Oahro,  HisUnre  de  Meaux  el  du  vaye  Meidoie  (Meaux,  1805); 
Allou,  Chronique  dee  ivtquee  de  Meaux  (Meaux,  1876);  NAiur^ 
Martyre  et  een/eeeeure  delajoi  du  diockee  de  Meaux,  17Q2-1795 
(Meaux,  1005);  Haiubl,  HieUnre  de  VEgliee  et  du  Cottige  de 
Juitty  (3rd  ed.,  Pazia,  1888);  Tkiiircblin,  Le  monael^  de 
Jouarre  (Paria,  1801);  CBaYALOB,  Tov^BUbL,  1886-87. 

Gbobqes  Gotau. 

ISeceay  the  capital  of  Arabia  and  the  sacred  city  of 
the  Mohammedans,  is  situated  in  the  district  of  Hijai 
about  21'>  30"  N.  latitude  and  40^  20^  E.  lonjgitude, 
some  seventy  miles  east  of  the  Red  Sea.  It  lies  in  a 
sandy  valley  surrounded  by  rockv  hills  from  two  hun- 
dred to  five  hundred  feet  in  height,  barren  and  desti* 
tute  of  v^etation.  The  birtholaoe  of  Mohammed 
and  the  seat  of  the  famous  Kaaba,  it  was  celebrated 
even  in  pre-Islamic  times  as  the  chief  sanctuary  of 
the  Arabs,  and  visited  by  numerous  pilgrims  and  dev« 
otees.  The  city  presents  an  aspect  more  pleasing 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  Eastern  town,  with  com- 
paratively wide  streets  and  stone  houses,  usually  of 
tluee  stories,  and  well  aired  and  lighted.  The  inhabit- 
ants, numbering  about  60,000,  are  with  few  excep- 
tions Arabians  whose  chief  employment  consists  m 
lod^;ing  the  pilerims  and  serving  the  temple,  although 
no  mconsiderable  amount  of  trade  is  carried  on  with 
the  Bedouins  of  the  surrounding  desert.  Mecca,  the 
seat  of  government  during  the  reign  of  the  first  five 
Khalifs,  is  now  governed  bv  a  Shsjif .  chosen  bv  the 
people  from  the  Sa3r7ids  or  the  desoenoants  of  Moham- 
mea,  but  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the  Sultan 
of  Turkey  (Hughes,  "Dictionazy  of  Islam",  q.  v.). 
Mecca  is  annu^uly  visited  by  some  80,0(X)  pilgrims 
from  all  over  the  Mohammedan  world.  On  their  way 
the  pilgrims  pass  through  Medina,  the  second  sacred 
town  of  Arabia,  and  on  approaching  Mecca  they  un- 
dress, laying  aside  even  their  headgear,  and  put  on 
aprons  and  a  piece  of  cloth  over  the  left  shoulder. 
Tnen  they  perform  the  circuit  of  the  Kaaba,  kiss  the 
Black  Stone,  hear  the  sermon  on  Mount  Araf&t,  pelt 
Satan  with  stones  in  the  valley  of  Mina,  and  conclude 
their  pilgrimage  with  a  great  sacrificial  feast.  In  a 
year  or  two  Mecca  will  be  reached  by  the  Hijas  Rail- 
way already  completed  as  far  as  Medina,  (about  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  Damascus).  From 
Medina  to  Mecca  the  distance  is  two  hundred  and 
eighty  miles,  and  from  Mecca  to  Damascus  about 
one  thousand  one  hundred  and  ten  miles.  The  rail- 
way passes  through  the  old  caravan  route,  Damas- 
cus, Mezarib,  Ifaan,  Medawara,  Tebuk,  Madain  Saleh, 
£1-Ula,  Medina,  and  Mecca. 

The  early  history  of  Mecca  is  shrouded  in  obscurity, 
althouigh  Mohammedan  writers  have  preserved  an 
alxmdance  c^  legend^'y  lore  accordizis  to  which  the 
city  dates  back  to  Abraham  who  is  said  to  have  there 
worshipped  the  true  (kd.  It  is  also  stated  that  after 
the  death  of  Abraham,  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca,  ow- 
ing to  ti^e  evil  influence  of  the  heathen  Amalekites, 
feU  into  idolatry  and  paganism,  and  the  Kaaba  itself 
became  surrounded  with  their  idols.  Hundreds  of 
these  idols  were  destroyed  by  Mohammed  on  his  en- 
trance into  the  city  at  the  head  of  a  Moslem  anny  in  the 
eighth  year  of  the  Hejirai,  or  A.  n.  629.  During  the 
century  before  Mohanimed  we  fiiid  the  tribe  of  Qur^ 
aish  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  city  and  the  ac- 
knowledged guardians  of  the  Kaaba.  The  leading 
events  in  Mecca  at  that  period,  such  as  the  Abyssinian 
expedition  against  Yemen  and  the  utter  defeat  of 


663378  A 


inOBAlffttM*  100  iKBCRANiSM 

Abraha'8  anny  at  the  hand  of  the  Meccans,  have  sleep,  becaiiae  it  has  the  sleep-inducing  property  *« 

been  already  aiKUSsed  in  the  article  Ghbibtianitt  in  Each  thing  was  what  it  was  by  Virtue  of  an  appropii- 

Arabia.  ate  foim;  man  by  the  human  form,  a  pebble  by  its 

See  the  bibUography  appended  to  the  articlM  A&abxa,  M9-  pebble  fonn:  and  each  thins  perfonned  its  chaiacteiw 

^^S^^^°S^S^''.1^:iiSi:S^i!^iI:!'^JtS^  irtio  functions  by  some  "virtue".     Thu.,  it  i.  alleged. 


Bl  Medina  and  Mecea  dxmdon.  1867);  Huroronjk.  Skouck,  all  explanations  fell  into  tautology,  and  seienoe 

ifeoMi.  ma  Bi2^ili/a«.  11  (The  Hague.  1888);  Idkm,  HetMek-  doomed  a  priori  to  puTsue  a  monotonous  round  in 

hantm:k0FmH  (Leydeo.  1888).  Gabrikl  OusflANi.  complete  sterility.    6  Mechanism  did  nothing  moie 

than  deliver  us  from  this  absurd  logomachy,  ft  would 

Mechanism. — ^There  is  no  constant  meaning  in  the  possess  at  least  a  negative  value,  emphasising  bjr  its 

historv  of  philosophy  for  the  word  Mechanism.  Origin-  opposition  the  weakness  of  qualitative  ezplanationB. 
ally,  the  tenn  meant  that  coemological  theory  which        (2)  The  general  laws  of  applied  logic  aie  cited  in 

ascribes  the  motion  and  changes  of  the  world  to  some  favour  of  the  principles  of  Mechanism.    The  scientific 

external  force.    In  this  view  material  things  are  fact  is  not  the  initial  fact  of  observation.    The  scien- 

purel^  passive,  while  according  to  the  opposite  the-  tist  is  not  satisfied  with  seeing,  he  must  understand; 

ory  (1.  e.,  Dynamism),  they  possess  certam  internal  and  the  only  way  to  understand  is  to  explain.     Now 

sources  of  energy  which  account  for  the  activity  of  there  is  but  one  conceivable  method  of  explaining  the 

each  and  for  its  influence  on  the  course  of  events,  new  realitv;  the  things  which  are  not  understood  must 

These  meanings,  however,  soon  underwent  modifi-  be  reducea  to  known  antecedents.    The  barrenness  of 

cation.    The  question  as  to  whether  motion  is  an  in-  formal  and  final  causes  is,  according  to  the  Mechanists, 

herent  property  of  bodies,  or  has  been  communicated  at  once  manifest.    The  form  is  what  makes  a  thine 

to  them  by  some  external  agency,  was  ver^  often  what  it  is,  but  the  fact  or  thing  which  is  to  be  explaiMd 

ignored.    With  a  large  number  of  cosmologists  the  does  not  become  intelligible  by  reason  of  its  besi^ 

essential  feature  of  Mechanism  is  the  attempt  to  re-  what  it  is.    Therefore,  to  allege  the  form  as  an  ex« 

duce  all  the  qualities  and  activities  of  bodies  to  quan-  planation  is  to  explain  a  thing  by  itself.    The  inters 

titative  realities,  i.  e.  to  mass  and  motion.    But  a  pretations  based  on  ''ends''  are  not  more  productive 

further  modification  soon  followed.    Living  bodies,  as  of  scientific  results.    Aside  from  the  anthropomorphic 

is  well  known,  present  at  first  sight  certain  character-  illusions  to  which  such  interpretations  are  liable,  the 

istic  properties  which  have  no  counterpart  in  lifeless  ends  help  us  no  better  than  the  forms  to  avoid  tautol- 

y  matter.    Mechanism  aims  to  go  beyona  these  appear-  osy.    The  end  of  a  thing  is  only  the  action  tow&rdi 

ances.    It  seeks  to  explain  all  "  vital "  phenomexka  as  which  it  tends,  the  term  of  its  development.    But  this 

physical  and  chemiccu  facts;   whether  or  not  these  action  and  this  term  can  be  known  only  through 

facts  are  in  turn  reducible  to  mass  and  motion  be-  further  observation;  they  constitute  new  facts     *  *  ^ 


comes  a  secondary  question,  although  Mechanists  are  require  an  explanation  of  their  own.    We  learn  noth- 

gnenerally  inclined  to  favour  such  reduction.    The  ing  from  them  as  to  the  nature  of  the  original  thing; 

theory  opposed  to  this  biological  mechanism  is  no  they  do  not  tell  us  how  or  by  what  internal  facttyrs  it 

lon^r  Dynamism,  but  Vitalism  or  Neo-vitalism,  which  performs  its  action  or  reaches  its  term.    To  explain 

mamtjiins  that  vital  activities  cannot  be  explained,  the  e^  by  declaring  that  it  was  made  to  see,  is  to  state 

and  never  will  be  explained,  hy  the  laws  whicn  that  it  is  an  eye  but  nothing  more.    To  understand 

govern  lifeless  matter.    As  Mechanism  professes  to  the  eye  it  is  necessary  to  know  by  what  internal  struct- 

furnish  a  complete  system  of  the  world,  its  extreme  ure,  and  under  what  sort  of  stimulation  the  orgsn 

partisans  apply  it  to  psychical  manifestations  and  performs  its  visual  functions, 

even  to  social  phenomena;  but  here  it  is  at  best  onlv  Hence,  say  the  Mechanists,  all  ends  and  final  causes 

J\  tentative  and  the  result  very  questionable.    Its  aa-  must  be  bsnished  from  scientific  systematiaations. 

vocates  merely  connect,  more  or  less  thoroughly.  The  imknown  can  be  explained  only  by  reduction,  to 

psychological  and  social  facts  with  the  general  laws  or  the  known,  the  new  by  reduction  to  the  anterior,  the 

teadixig  hvpotheses  of  biology.    It  ia  preferable,  there-  complex  bv  reduction  to  the  simple.     Now,  if  we  look 

fore,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  to  disre-  for  the  only  senulnely  scientific  explanation,  we  can- 

gard  these  features  of  mechanistic  doctrine,  which  are  not  stop  untu  we  reach  mass  and  motion.     Such  in- 

y^  certainly  of  a  provisional  character.    In  a  word  then,  deed  is  himuin  intelli^nce,  that  we  first  grasp  the 

Mechanism  in  its  various  forms  shows  a  tendency  to  most  general  and  the  sunpl^  realities,  and  we  grasp 

interpret  phenomena  of  a  higher  order  in  terms  of  the  these  the  best.    Take  for  example  the  very  general 

lower  and  less  complex,  and  to  carry  this  reduction  phenomenon  of  life.    To  explain  it  by  a  vital  ^roe  or 

down  to  the  simplest  attainable  forms,  i.  e.  to  those  principle  would  simply  be  not  to  explain  it  at  all.    We 

?uantitative  realities  which  we  call  mass  and  motion,  must,  if  we  would  imderstand  life,  reduce  it  to  some- 
'sychology  and  sociolo^  derive  their  explanation  thing  which  is  not  life,  to  something  simpler  and  better 
from  biology;  biology  derives  its  explanation  from  the  known.  We  must  therefore,  the  Mechanist  asserts, 
physical  and  chemical  sciences,  wnile  these  in  turn  have  recourse  to  the  physical  and  chemical  phenom- 
tx)rrow  their  explanation  from  mechanics.  The  ena,  and  our  understanding  of  life  is  measured  by 
science  of  mechmucs  becomes  by  a  very  simple  pro-  the  possibilities  of  this  reduction.  It  may  be  that  we 
cess  a  particular  phase  of  mathematical  analysis,  so  have  not  explained  by  this  method  everything  con- 
that  the  ideal  of  Mechanism  is  Mathematism,  that  nected  with  vital  phenomena,  since  their  reduction  to 
is  to  say,  the  representation  of  all  phenomena  by  physical  laws  is  as  yet  incomplete:  but  this  does  not 
mathematical  equations.  Hence  it  is  plain  that  justify  the  assumption  of  a  latent  quality;  it  only 
Mechanism  tends  to  eliminate  from  science  and  from  means  that  our  biological  knowledge  is  Ua  from  per- 
reality  all  "qualitative"  aspects,  all  "forms"  and  feet.  Chemical  phenomena  and  physical  quahtiefr 
''ends".  We  shall  first  state  the  arguments  brought  must  likewise  be  accounted  for.  Under  pain  of  fruit- 
forward  in  support  of  the  theory,  and  then  subject  it  less  tautology,  we  must  reduce  them  to  that  which  m 
to  criticism.  already  known.  But  we  find  here  only  quantitative 
I.  Abguusntb. — (1)  Modem  Mechanism,  which  matter  and  motion,  realities  which  may  be  reduced  to 
unouestionably  goes  back  to  Descartes,  arose,  it  is  mathematical  formula,  thus  bringine  us  to  a  practi- 
said,  from  a  legitimate  reaction  against  the  errors  of  cally  pure  idea  of  quantity.  Beyona  this  we  cannot 
decadent  Scholasticism.  The  latter  had  abused  the  go,  for  if  we  suppress  quantity  our  mind  loses  idl  hold 
old  theoiy  of  forms  and  latent  qualities.  Whenever  on  the  real.  It  appaiently  follows  that  by  the  very 
a  phenomenon  called  for  explanation,  it  was  furnished  lequirements  of  logic.  Mechanism  alone  has  an  mdi§- 
by  endowing  the  substance  with  a  new  quality ;  and,  putable  claim  to  a  place  in  the  realm  of  science.  Any 
BS  Molidre  jestingly  puts  it,  "the  poppy  made  ooa  other  system,  the  Mechanists  claim,  must  necessarily 


mCHANISM  101  laCBAMIflU 

be  provisiottal,  tAUtologieal,  and  therefore  mislead-  or  three  segmentSy  produce  as  many  animals  as  there 

ine.  were  artificial  se^ents.    Must  not  the  conclusion  be 

(3)  There  is  another  consideration  which  is  said  to  that  there  exists  in  each  embryo  a  simple  principle — 

out^reigh  all  reasoning  a  priori:  Mechanism  succeeds,  an  entelechy  as  Dnesch  says,  using  Aristotle's  term — 

Its  explanationsi  we  are  told,  are  clear  and  precise  to  a  which  is  one  in  the  whole  organism  and  is  entire  within 

decree  unattainable  in  any  other  theory,  and  they  each  part?    Is  not  this  the  very  contrary  of  Mechan- 

satisfy  the  mind  with  a  ^jmthetio  view  of  realitv.  ism  which  claims  to  reduce  everything  to  the  move- 

They  alone  have  deliverea  us  from  an  intolerable  ments  (interwoven  of  course,  but  really  independent) 

plunliam  in  the  cosmic  S3rstem,  secured  that  unity  of  of  the  parts?   It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the 

thought  which  seems  to  be  an  imperative  need  of  our  adherents  of  neo-VitaUsm  should  now  be  numerous, 

zninoT  and  brought  under  control  phenomena  which  and  that  their  ranks  are  growing  fast. 
had  aefied  all  amdysis  and  which  had  to  be  accepted        (3)  But  it  is  prindpaUy  before  logical  and  phllo- 

as    primaty  data.    Furthermore,   the   doctrines  ^  of  s(^hi(»l  criticism,  that  Mechanism  seems  to  give  way 

Mecnanism  have  enabled  us  to  anticipate  observation  completely.    Those  very  ideas  on  the  nature  of  ex- 

and  to  make  forecasts  which  facts  in  nature  have  planation,  according  to  which  it  is  attempted  to  re- 

actually  confirmed.    Herein  is  a  guarantee  which,  for  duce  all  reality  to  terms  of  the  supposed  primary  no- 

the  Mechanists,  is  well  worth  all  theoretical  proofs.  tions  of  mass  and  motion,  preclude  Mechanism  from 

Suchy  in  the  main,  is  the  line  of  reasoning  followed  ever  attaining  the  whole  of  reality.    The  present  must 

by  the  adherents  of  Mechanism.    That  it  is  not  con-  be  reduced  to  the  past,  the  new  to  that  which  is  al- 

clusive  will  appear  quite  clearly  from  the  following  ready  known,  the  complex  to  the  more  simple;  but 

examination  into  its  value.  this  original  datum  remains,  that  the  complex  and  the 

CBiTicifiM. — It  cannot  be  denied  that  mech{  oistio  simple  are  not  identical,  that  the  new  fact  is  not  the 

ideas  have  played  a  useful  and  creditable  part  in  fact  which  was  already  known.    If  we  suppose  all  that 

science.    Wnatever  one  may  think  of  the  Cartesian  was  contained  in  the  complex  to  have  been  reduced  l^ 

revolution  in  the  realm  of  philosophy,  it  has  certainly  analysis  to  simple  elements  already  known,  we  have 

stimulated  research  in  the  scientific  field.    This  ser-  still  to  explain  their  combination,  their  unity  in  the 

vic»  cannot  be  overlooked,  even  though  one  be  con-  complex;  and  it  is  just  these  that  have  been  destroyed 

▼inced  of  the  inability  of  Mechanism  to  provide  us  by  tne  explanatory  analysis.    Given  that  there  is 

with  a  formula  of  the  universe.    It  is  none  the  less  something  to  explain,  something  unknown,  it  is  clear 

true,  however,  that  Mechanism  as  a  cosmic  theory  that  there  is  something  bevond  the  known  and  the  old, 

must  be  rejected.  and  there  must  inevitably  be  some  principle  which 

(1)  First  of  all,  there  is  in  the  progress  of  natural  moulds  into  unity  the  numerous  elements,  and  which 
phenomena  a  fundamental  fact  which  Mechanism  is  either  for  the  species  or  for  the  individual,  may  in  a 
unable  to  account  for,  the  irreverBibility  of  cosmic  very  broad  sense  be  called  the  "form".  Explana- 
events.  All  motion  is  reversible:  when  a  moving  tions  based  on  analysis  do  not  discover  the  form,  be- 
object  has  covered  the  distance  from  A  to  B,  we  at  cause  they  begin  by  destroying  it.  It  may  be  said,  in 
onoe  understand  that  it  can  go  back  over  the  path  from  a  particular  but  entirely  acceptable  sense,  tnat 
B  to  A.  If,  therefore,  everything  that  happens  is  "form"  explains  nothing,  because  to  explain  is  to  re- 
motion,  it  is  not  clear  why  events  in  nature  should  duce,  and  form  is  by  its  very  nature  irreducible.  But 
not  at  times  retrace  their  march,  why  the  fruit  should  from  this  to  the  denial  of  form  is  a  veiy  far  cry.  The 
not  letum  to  the  flower,  the  flower  to  the  bud,  the  scholastics  of  tJie  decadent  period  erred  in  regarding 
tree  itself  to  the  plant  and  finally  to  the  seed.  True,  forms  as  explanatory  principles,  but  Mechanism  dis- 
it  is  shown  that  tnis  reversion,  even  in  the  mechanistic  torts  the  reality  by  reducing  it  to  its  ''matter",  by 
hypothesis,  is  exceedingly  improbable,  but  it  would  ignoring  its  specific  and  its  individual  unity.  For  the 
not  be  impossible.  Now  such  reversion,  in  the  case  of  same  reason,  the  mechanical  interpretations  of  the 
eertain  phenomena  at  least,  is  more  than  improbable  -  dynamic  aspect  of  things,  that  is  to  say  of  cosmic  evo- 
it  is  inconceivable,  for  instance,  that  our  limos  shoula  lution,  prove  futile.  It  is  of  course  instructive  in  the 
be  bruised  before  the  fall  which  causes  the  bruise,  highest  degree  to  know  what  previous  state  of  the  uni- 
This  incversibility  of  cosmic  processes  is  undoubtedly,  verse  accounts  for  the  present  state  of  things;  but  to 
as  the  Mechanists  themselves  admit,  the  chief  diffi-  look  on  those  anterior  efficient  causes  of  things  as  the 
culty  ajgLinst  their  system.  adequate  representations  of  their  effects,  is  to  lose 

(2)  When  we  enter  within  the  field  of  biology,  the  sight  of  the  fact  that  these  latter  are  effects,  while  the 
difficulties  against  Mechanism  multiply.  Granted  former  were  cattsee;  the  consequence  is  an  absolute 
that  this  doctrine  has  served  as  a  guide  to  many  sue-  "statism"  and  a  denial  of  ail  causality. 

cessful  investigators,  what  have  they  attained  m  the  Similar  observations  might  be  made  on  the  subject 
last  analysis?  They  have  not  advanced  one  step  of  final  causes.  The  meaning  itself  of  the  word  final- 
nearer  to  the  "formula  of  life."  All  the  biological  ity  has  undeigone  singular  changes  since  Aristotle  and 
facts  so  far  examined  and  understood  have  been  the  thirteenth  century.  Let  it  suffice  to  note  that 
brought  into  the  category  of  physico-chemical  activi-  finality  has  its  basis  m  the  intellectual  nature  of  an 
ties — indeed,  this  might  have  been  expected ;  but  that  efficient  cause,  or  in  the  internal  tendency  of  a  form 
is  not  life.  A  particular  phase  is  isolated  for  examina-  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  activity,  of  dynamism, 
tion,  and  the  characteristic  mark  of  life  is  thereby  de-  The  decadent  Scholastics  weakened  their  position 
stroyed.  For  that  which  characterises  life  experimen-  when  they  relied  on  forms  and  ends  only  as  means  of 
tally  considered,  is  the  unity,  the  solidarity  of  all  these '  scientific  explanations  strictly  so  called,  while  Mech- 
particular  activities ;  all  conver^  to  one  common  pur-  anists  are  clearly  in  error  when  they  seek  in  these  same 
pose,  the  constitution  of  the  livm^  being  in  its  undeni-  scientific  explanations  for  an  account  of  reality  to  the 
able  individuflJity.  Its  explanation  surely  cannot  be  exclusion  of  forms  and  ends.  More  might  be  said  of 
found  in  disint^iating  it  by  analysis.  The  conflict  the  manifest  inadequacy  of  (^quantitative  images,  of 
with  Mechanism  nas  now  been  earned  into  the  experi-  cosmological  Mathematism  which  reduces  all  continu- 
mental  field,  and  the  last  few  years  have  yieldea  an  ity  to  discontinuity  and  all  time  to  coincidences  without 
ever  increasing  number  of  observations  which  seem  to  duration,  and  of  the  anti-mechanistic  reaction  which 
defy  all  mechanistic  reduction.  These  are  chiefly  con-  asserts  itself  under  the  name  of  Enemsm,  and  with 
eemed  with  abnormal  conditions  which  are  brought  which  the  researches  of  Ostwald  and  ofDuhem  are  as- 
about  during  the  first  stages  of  individual  develop-  sociated.  But  these  are  complex  and  general  prob- 
ment.  Sea  urchin  embryos,  taken  when  they  have  lems.  We  may  now  resume  and  draw  our  conclusions. 
progressed  far  enough  to  permit  the  determination  of  Conclusion. — Mechanism  is  a  cosmological  theory 
the  Donnal  growth  of  each  part,  and  divided  into  two  which  holds  that  all  phenomena  in  nature  are  reduci- 


WUmaAA                          102  IDBOHITABISni 

ble  to  simple  pbenomena  in  such  a  manner  that  the  caped  to  the  Morea,  thenoe  to  Venetian  tenitoiy,  fiiid- 

ultimate  realities  of  the  material  world  are  mass  and  ing  shelter  in  a  Jesuit  house.   He  attributed  his  safety 

motion.    This  system  has  rendered  signal  service:  it  to  our  Blessed  Lady,  under  whose  protection,  on  8 

exhibits  in  great  clearness  the  materiaToauses  or  phe-  Sept.,  the  Feast  of  oer  Nativity,  he  had  aoieiimly 

nomena;  indeed,  this  explains  wh^'  its  formuke  may,  placed  himself  and  his  society, 

in  exceptional  cases,  provide  a  formula  applicable  to  The  Venetians  kindly  gave  him  some  property  at 

some  fact  as  yet  unknown.    But  it  is  impossble  to  re-  Modon  (1701),  where  he  built  a  church  and  convent, 

gard  Mechanism  as  a  real  representation  of  our  uni-  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Mechitarist  Order, 

verse.    It  wrought  its  own  ruin  when  it  claimed  a  Clement  XI  ^ve  it  formal  approval  in  1712,  and  ap- 

soope  and  a  significance  which  are  denied  it  by  the  pointed  Mechitar  ^bbot.   Three  years  later  war  hrote 

reality  of  things  and  the  exigencies  of  logic.  out  between  Venice  and  the  Porte,  and  the  nor  abb^ 

All  general  tre^iaee  on  phUoeophy  si  ve  at  leart  a  few  pa^jes  was  in  jeopardy.    The  abbot,  leaving  sevenik  of  his 

lS(S;r^?SnroJS2^Wte"!i^i52ir^)  ^ISSISS  ^<«^  Uhmd   cro-ea  over  to  Veo&e  with'^rteaj 

PucH,  Di€  proatm  WdMiimL  (Fnubun.  1907);  Gbmxllz,  compamons  With  the  mtention  of  beginnmg  a  aecood 

VEnioma  delta  vita  e  i  nuovi  orisMOfUi  dsUa  Molc^ia  (Florence,  foundation.     It  was  well  that  he  did  80  for  the  Veoe- 

1005):  i>B  MuNNTNCK,  Lew  boM  paifehologiqu«9  du  M4eaniame  Turks.    Modon  was  taken,  the  monastery  destroved 

in  Revue  dee  eeieneea  i^hiioe.  etthioL  (Kam,  Beifium,  1907);  and  the  monks  dispersed.    The  house  rented  at  Ven- 

Brdnb».  La  Digradattan  de  I  ifngpe  (Pana.  JIJ^Jv^^  ice  proved  too  smaU  and  Mechitar  exerted  aU  his 

M.  r.  DB  MUNNTNCK.  influence  to  obtain  the  gift  of  San  Laasaro,  an  island 
Mechitar  (Mechithar,  Mexhitar.  Mchitar  or  abouttwomilessouth-eastof  the  city,  not  far  from  the 
MocHTOR,  a  word  which  means  "Comforter"),  is  the  Lido.  His  request  granted,  he  restored  the  old  ruined 
name  taken  b)r  Peter  Manuk,  founder  of  the  religious  church,  and  a  second  time  built  a  monastery  for  his 
order  of  Mechitarists,  when  he  became  a  monk.  A  monks.  This  establishment  has  remained  undisituibed 
native  of  Sebaste  (Sivas)  in  Lesser  Armenia,  b.  7  Feb-  in  the  hands  of  the  Mechitarists  to  the  present  day. 
ruary,  1676,  of  parents  reputed  noble^  he  was  left  until  At  S.  Lassaro  he  devised  many  schemes  (or  the  re- 
the  age  of  mteen  in  the  care  of  two  pious  nuns.  Then  generation  of  his  country.  An  accusation  brought 
he  entered  the  cloister  of  the  Holy  Cross  near  Sebaste,  against  him  at  Rome — ^not  a  personal  charge  but  one 
and  the  same  year  (1601),  was  ordained  deacon  b^  connected  with  the  labours  undertaken  by  the  order — 
Bishop  Ananias.  Shortly  afterwards,  impelled  by  his  resulted  in  a  better  understanding  with  the  Holy  See, 
thirst  for  knowledge,  he  left  the  cloister — ^not  putting  and  the  personal  friendship  of  the  pope.  He  lived  at 
off  the  habit  or  infringing  his  vows  (the  Eastern  monk  S.  Lassaro  for  thirty  years,  busy  with  his  printing- 
could,  for  a  proper  reason,  lawfully  leave  the  endo-  press  and  his  literary  labours,  and  died  at  tne  age  of 
sure)  and  set  forth,  in  the  company  of  a  doctor  of  seventy-four,  on  16  April,  1740.  Since  his  death  h«  is 
that  city,  for  Etduniadxin,  the  capital  of  Greater  always  spoken  of  by  his  children  as  the  Abbas  Pater, 
Armenia,  persuaded  that  it  was  the  centre  of  civilisa-  Abbai  hairm  (see  Mschitaiusts). 


with  an  admiration  of  Western  culture  and  the  desire  mar  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue  **;  "  Armenian  IMctionary  "* 

to  introduce  it  among  his  countrymen,  he  wan-  (1744,  and  in  two  volumes,  Venice,  1740-60);  "Ar- 

dered  from  place  to  place,  earning  a  scanty  living  by  menian  Catechism",  both  in  the  literary  and  vulgar 

teaching.     After  eighteen  months  he  returned  to  tongues;   "A  Poem  on  the  Blessed  Virgin";   "Ai^ 

Sebaste  where  he  remained  for  some  time,  still  ambi-  menian  Bible"  (1734). 

tious  to  study  Western  civilization.    Even  then  he  had  .  y*l9  «W/'  a^baU  Mechitar  (Venioe,  18iq)  ;Layiedu  aereitew 

coooeived  tf  idea  of  founding  a  reliffous  society-  i?.5S^<Ji::lT«&:^4i  1^^ 

suggested,  doubtless,  by  the  well-mtentioned  but  long  moinee  let  plue  c^U6rM  de  la  eonor^goHtn  (Venioe,  1901). 

since  suppressed  association  of  the  "  United  Brothers  "  J.  C.  Ajlmond. 
— ^which  would  labour  to  introduce  Western  ideas  and 

Western  influence  into  Armenia.   Thi^  would  imply  a  Mechitarists,  Armenian  Benedictines,  founded  by 

formal  re-union  of  the  Armenian  Church  with  Rome,  Mechitar  in  1712.     In  its  inception  the  order  was 

and  there  would  be  an  end  of  that  wavering  between  looked  upon  merely  as  an  attempted  reform  of  Eastern 

Constantinople  and  Rome,  so  injurious  to  the  spiritual  monachism.     P.  Filippo   Bonanni^  S.J.,  writes  at 

and  intellectual  welfare  of  his  country.    At  bebaste,  Rome,  in  1712  when  the  order  received  its  approval, 

he  devoted  himself  to  the  reading  of  the  Armenian  of  the  arrival  of  P.  Elias  Martyr  and  P.  Joannes 

sacred  writers  and  the  S3rrian  and  Greek  Fathers  in  Simon,  two  Armenian  monks  sent  by  Mechitar  to 

translations,  and,  after  a  vain  attempt  to  reach  Eu-  Pope  Clement  XI  to  offer  His  Holiness  the  most 

rope  from  Alexandria,  he  was  ordained  priest  (1606)  humble  subjection  of  himself  and  convent  (lU  ei  «s  cum 

in  his  own  city,  and  (1600)  received  the  title  and  staff  tuis  rdigiona  humiUime  subiicerei).    There  is  no  men- 

of  doctor  (Vartabed).    Then  he  began  to  preach,  and  tion,  at  the  moment,  of  the  Benedictine  rule.    The 

went  to  Constantinople  with  the  intention  of  founding  monJu,  such  as  St.  Anthony  instituted  in  Egypt  (qtio$ 

an  Armenian  College.     He  continued  his  preaching  Si.  AnUmius  in  Aeffypio  tnUituer<U)f  have  begun  a 

there,  ^nerally  in  the  church  of  St.  George,  gathered  foundation  in  Modon  with  Mechitar  (Mochtsir)  sa 

some  disciples  around  him,  and  distinguished  himself  abbot. 

by  hJs  advocacy  of  union  with  the  Holy  See.   Serious  After  two  years'  noviceship,  they  take  the  usual 

trouble  ensued  with  a  violent  persecution  of  the  Cath-  vows,  with  a  fourth  in  addition — "  to  give  obedience  to 

olics  by  the  Turks,  excited  by  the  action  of  Coimt  the  preceptor  or  master  deputed  by  their  superior  to 

Ferrol,  minister  of  Louis  XIV  at  Stamboul,  who  car-  teacn  them  the  dogmas  of  the  Catholic  Faith ' .    Many 

lied  off  to  Paris  the  anti-Catholic  Patriarch  of  Con-  of  them  vow  themselves  also  to  missionary  work  in 

stantinople.    Naturally,  the  fervour  of  Mechitar  and  Armenia,  Persia,  and  Turkey,  where  they  live  on  alms 

his  disciples  in  the  Catnolic  cause,  and  the  success  of  and  wear  as  a  badge,  beneath  the  tunic^  a  cross  of  red 

their  preaching  singled  them  out  for  special  attention,  cloth,  on  which  are  certain  letters  signifying  their 

The  two  patriarchs,  urged  by  a  schismatic,  Avedik,  desire  to  shed  their  blood  for  the  Catholic  Faith.    They 

led  the  attack.   Mechitar  wisely  dismissed  his  disciples  promise  on  oath  to  work  together  in  harmony  so 

and  himself  took  refuge  in  a  Capuchin  convent  under  that  they  may  the  better  win  the  schismatics  back  to 

French  protection.    Pursued  by  his  enemies,  he  es-  God.   They  elect  an  abbot  for  life,  who  has  the  power 


MECUITIBISTS 


103 


1IEGHIT1BI8T8 


to  dumias  summarily  any  of  his  manka  who  should 
prove  diaorderiy.  They  wear  the  beaid,  Oriental 
faahion,  and  have  a  black  habit — ^tunio,  doak  and 
hood,  in  the  engraving  attached  to  the  description, 
the  Meohitarist  would  be  imdistinguiahable  from  a 
regular  hermit  of  St.  Augustine^exoept  for  his  beard. 
Wben^  however,  Pope  Clement  Al  gave  them  his  ap- 
proval, it  was  as  monks  under  the  rule  ci  St.  Benedict, 
and  be  appointed  Mechitar  the  first  abbot.  This  was 
a  great  innovation ;  nothing  less  than  the  introduction 
of  Western  monasticism  into  the  East.  There,  up  to 
this  tune,  a  monk  undertook  no  duties  but  to  fiU  his 
place  in  the  monastery.  He  admitted  no  vocation  but 
to  save  his  soul  in  the  cloister.  He  had,  in  theory,  at 
least,  broken  off  all  relations  with  the  outside  world. 
He  had  no  idea  of  making  himself  useful  to  mankind, 
or  of  any  good  works  whatsoever  save  hb  choir  duties, 
his  prayeiB,  his  fastings,  and  the  monastic  observance. 
He  oelonged  to  no  religious  order  but  was  simply  a 
monk.  Now,  as  a  Benedictine,  he  would  be  expected 
to  devote  himself  to  some  usefid  work  and  take  some 
thought  of  his  neighbour.  It  is  dear,  from  P.  Bonan- 
ni's  description,  that  Mechitar  and  his  monks  wished 
this  change  and  had  already  adopted  the  Western  idea 
of  the  monk's  vocation.  The  adoption  of  the  Bene- 
dictine rule,  therefore,  was  merely  a  recognition  of  their 
desire  to  devote  themselves  to  apostolic  woik  among 
their  achionatic  brethren,  to  instruct  their  ignorance, 
exdte  their  devotion  ana  bring  them  back  into  the 
eommimion  of  the  one  true  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
Ohureh.  And  it  was  also  a  security  that  they  would 
not  afterwards  lapse  into  the  apathv  and  inactivity 
asaodated  in  the  Eastern  mind  with  the  life  of  the 
doister.  It  is  not  quite  accurate  to  speak  of  them  as  a 
Benedictine ''  Con^gation  ",  though  it  is  their  custom- 
BTyr  description.  They  are  a  new  "Order''  of  monks 
living  under  the  rule  hi  St.  Benedict,  as  distinct  from 
the  parent  order  as  the  Cistercians,  Camaldolese,  Sil- 
vestrines,  or  Olivetans.  Hence  we  do  not  find  them 
classed  among  the  numerous  congregations  of  the 
Benedictine  order. 

Miasionariee,  writers,  and  educationists,  devoted  to 
the  service  of  their  Armenian  brethren  wherever  they 
plight  be  found,  such  were  and  are  these  Benedictines 
of  the  Eastern  Church.  Their  subjects  usu^y  enter 
the  convent  at  an  early  age,  eight  or  nine  years  old,  re- 
odve  in  it  their  elementary  8chooling[,  spend  about  nine 
years  in  philosophical  and  theoloncal  study,  at  the 
canonical  age  of  twenty-five^  if  sufficiently  prepared, 
are  ordained  priests  by  their  bishop-abbot,  and  are 
then  employea  by  him  m  the  various  enterprises  of  the 
order.  First,  there  is  the  work  of  the  mission — not 
the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  but  priestly  ministry  to 
the  Armenian  communities  settled  in  most  of  the  com- 
mercial centres  of  Europe.  With  this  is  joined,  where 
needed  and  possible,  the  apostolate  of  union  with 
Borne.  Next  there  is  the  education  of  the  Armenian 
youth  and,  associated  with  this,  the  preparation  and 
publication  of  good  and  useful  .Armenian  literature. 

The  parent  abbey  is  that  of  St.  Lasaaro  at  Venice; 
next  in  iniportance  is  that  at  Vienna,  founded  in  1810; 
there  is  a  large  convent  and  college  for  lay-students  at 
Padua,  the  legacy  of  a  pious  Armenian  who  died  at 
Madras;  in  the  year  1846  another  rich  benefactor, 
Samuel  Morin.  founded  a  similar  establishment  at 
Paris.  Other  nouses  are  in  Austria-ECungary,  Russia, 
Persia  and  Turkey — ^fourteen  in  all,  accordiiu;  to  the 
latest  statistics,  with  one  hundred  and  mty-two 
monks,  the  majority  of  whom  are  priests.  Not  a 
peat  development  for  an  order  two  hundred  yean  old; 
out  ita  extenaion  ia  necessarily  restricted  because  of  its 
exclusive  devotion  to  persons  and  things  Armenian. 
Amongst  their  countrymen  the  influence  of  the  monks 
has  been  not  only  directive  in  the  way  of  holiness  and 
true  service  to  God  and  His  Church,  out  creative  of  a 
wholesome  national  ambition  and  self-respect.  Apoa- 
tbe  of  culture  and  progress,  tiiey  may  l^  9ai4»  with 


strict  justice,  to  have  preserved  from  degradation  and 
neglect  the  language  and  literature  of  their  coimtry, 
and  in  so  doing,  mive  been  the  saviours  of  the  Ar- 
menian  race.  Individually,  the  monks  are  distin- 
guished by  their  linguistic  accomplishments,  and  the 
Vienna  establishment  has  attracted  attention  by  the 
institution  of  a  Literary  Academy,  which  confers 
honorary  membership  without  regard  to  race  or 
religion. 

In  every  one  of  their  many  undertakings  thdr 
foimder,  Mechitar,  personally  showed  them  the  way. 
To  him  they  owe  the  initiative  in  the  study  of  the  Ajv 
menian  writings  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centurieSy 
which  has  resulted  in  the  devdopment  and  adoption 
of  a  literary  langua^,  nearly  as  distinct  from  the  vul- 
gar tonpie  as  Latin  is  from  Italian.  Thus  the  modem 
Armenian  remains  in  touch  with  a  distinguished  and 
inspiring  past,  and  has  at  his  service  a  rich  and  impor- 
tant literature  which  otherwise  would  have  been  left, 
unknown  or  unheeded,  to  decay.  Mechitu',  with  his 
Armenian  "  Imitation  "  and  *'  Bible  "^  began  that  series 
of  translations  of  ^reat  books,  contmu^  unceasingly 
during  two  centuries,  and  ranging  from  the  early  Fa- 
thers of  the  Church  and  the  works  of  St.  Thomas  of 
Aquin  (one  of  their  first  labours)  to  Homer  and  VirgU 
and  the  best  known  poets  and  hutorians  of  later  days. 

At  one  period,  in  connexion  with  their  Vienna  house, 
there  existed  an  association  for  the  propagation  of 
good  books,  which  is  said  to  have  distributed  nearly 
half  a  million  volumes,  and  printed  and  published 
six  new  works  each  year.  To  him  also  they  owe  the 
guidance  of  their  first  steps  in  exegesis — t£e  In^mch 
of  learning  in  which  they  have  won  most  distinction—* 
and  the  kmdred  studies  of  the  Liturgy  and  the  reli- 
gious history  of  their  country.  At  S.  Laaaaro  he 
founded  the  printing  press  from  which  the  most  nota- 
ble  of  their  productions  have  been  issued,  and  com« 
menced  there  the  collection  of  Armenian  manuscripts 
for  which  their  library  has  become  famous.  To  any 
but  members  of  the  order  the  history  of  the  Mechitar- 
ists  has  been  uneventful,  because  of  the  quiet,  untir- 
ing plodding  along  andent,  traditional  paths,  and  the 
aoixiirable  fidelity  to  the  spirit  and  ideals  of  their 
founder  (see  MscmTAB). 

It  has  been  princiiially  by  means  of  the  Mediitar- 
ists'  innumerable  periodicals,  pious  manuals.  Bibles, 
maps,  engraving,  dictionaries,  histories,  geographies 
ana  other  contributions  to  educational  and  popular 
literature,  that  they  have  done  good  service  to  ihe 
Armenian  Church  and  nation.  Following  are  the  most 
valuable  of  their  contributions  to  the  conunon  cause  of 
learning.  First^  there  is  the  recovery,  in  ancient  Ar- 
menian translations,  of  some  lost  works  of  the  Fathers 
of  the  Church.  Among  them  may  be  noted  **  Letters 
(thirteen)  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch"  and  a  fuller  and 
more  authentic  *' BQstory  of  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Ignatius";  some  works  of  St.  Epluem  tiie  Syrian, 
notably  a  sort  of  "Harmony  of  the  Gospels"  and  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  ;  an  exoep- 
tionally  valuable  edition  of  "Eusebius's  History^'. 
The  publication  of  these  works  is  due  to  the  famous 
Mechitarist  Dom  J.  B.  Aucher,  who  was  asdsted  in  the 
last  of  them  by  Cardinal  Mai.  To  Aucher  also  we  are 
indebted  for  a  German  translation  of  the  "  Armenian 
Missal"  (TQbinjsen,  1845)  and  *'Dom  Johannis  phil- 
osophi  Oaniensis  Armeniorum  Catholid  (▲.  d.,  718) 
Opera"  (Venice,  1534).  Two  original  historical 
works  may  also  be  noted:  "The  History  of  Armenia", 
by  P.  Michel  Tschamtschenana  (1784-6)  and  the 
"Quadro  della  storia  letteraria  di  Armenia"  by  H^. 
PI.  Sukias  Somal  (Venice,  1829). 

TBCBAMTBcmBKANS,  Compmdio99  notisU  &uUa  ogngr^gagfeiM 
dtii  monaehi  Armeni  MtehiUarittiei  (Venioe,  1819):  NauMAinr, 
Rnai  d^une  kidoir^  de  ia  LitUrature  arminUim*  (Leipida.  1836} ; 
Kalbmkxak^  C/im  emi9M  de  VactMU  {ttt^raMW-^ypompA*^  de 
la  eonorfootium  mSehUarute  &  Vienne:  Goschlbr,  IHetionnaire 
mnoMdop^Wue  de  la  T/UoL  CaUicl.,  XIV,  Art.  MechitarieUe. 

J.  C.  Almond. 


104 

Maelilin  (Lat.  Mbcklinia;  Ft.  Maluvmi),  Axes-  ment  manifested  itself  in  numerous  monasiie  instil» 

mooan  of   (Mbcblimixnbib),   oomTOrises  the  two  tions.    AflBlighem,  the  principal  Benedictine  abbar, 

Belgian  provinces  of  Antwerp  and  Brabant.    This  dates  from  1086.    The  people  of  Antwerp,  whom 

diocese  deriYBS  its  present  configuration  from  the  Tanchelm  had  fanaticiaea,  wero  brought  back  by  8t 

French Concordatof  1801.    TbeACcieBiasticalprovince  Norbert  to  a  Christian  mode  of  life.    Soon  arose  ia 

of  Mechlin  is  ooextensiye  with  the  Belgian  Kinsdom  Brabant  many  Pt^monstiatensian  abbeys:  St.  MichBl 

^u£fragan  bishoprics:  Toumai,  lidge,  Namur,  Gand,  at  Antweip  (1124),  Tongerbo  (1128),  le  Pare 


Brugesl;  it  extended  to  the  Rhine  under  Napoleon  I.  Louvain  (1129),  keylissem  (1130),  Grimberriien 
The  city  of  Mechlin,  prior  to  1659,  belonged  to  the  dean-  (1131),  Averbode  (1132),  Dieligem  and  Postel  (lf40). 
ery  of  Brussels  and  to  the  archdeaconry  of  the  same  Amon^  other  abbeys  for  men  may  be  mentioned :  the 
name  in  the  diocese  of  CambraL  Its  importance  ecde-  Benedictine  abbe3r8  of  Vlierbeek  (1125);  the  noble 
siastically  was  due  to  the  ancient  CSiapter  of  CJanons  of  abbey  of  St.  Gertrude  at  Louvain,  belonging  to  the 
the  coll^ate  church  of  St.  Bombaut.  Paul  IV,  by  Augixstinian  canons;  the  Cistercian  abbeys  of  WH^en 
his  bull  ^' Super  universi  orbis  ecclesias"  (12  BCay,  (1147)  andofSt.  Bernard  (1237).  Someofthenumer- 
1559)  createa  a  new  hierarchy  in  the  Netherlands  ous  colleges  of  Austin  Canons  are:  St.  Jacques  sur 
composed  of  three  metropolitan  (Mechlin.  Cambrai,  CJaudenberg  at  Brussels,  Hanswijck  at  Mechlin,  Core- 
Utrecht)  and  fifteen  episcopal  sees.  TheArohbishop  sendonck,  Groenendael,  Rougecloftre  and  Septfon- 
of  Mechlin  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  primate  by  taines,  all  three  in  the  forest  of  Soignes.  In  most 
the  Constitutions  of  Pius  IV  in  1560  and  1561.  The  places  of  consequence  Augustinians,  Franciscans, 
Christian  Faith  was  sealously  preached  in  the  present  Carmelites  and  Dominicans  were  eetablidied.  Tbe 
diocese  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries.  It  is  military  ordere  were  represented  at  the  Teutonic 
known  that  Antwerp  was  visited  by  St.  Eligius,  Bishop  Commandeiy  of  Pitsemburg  in  Mechlin  and  in  Beo- 
of  Tournai  (d.  660),  and  by  St.  Amand,  the  Apostle  of  ouevoort.  The  leading  abbeys  for  women  were: 
Flandere  and  Bishop  of  Maestricht  (d.  679).  The  lat-  (}rand  Bigard  and  Gk>rtenbeiY  (Benedictines);  la 
ter'ssuccessonintbeseeofTongres-Maestricht-Lidge,  Cambre,  Roosendael,  Nasareth  (C^istereians).  The 
St.  Lambert  (d.  about  700)  and  St.  Hubert  (d.  727)  semi-monastic  institution  of  the  Beguinages  (q.  v.), 
are  said  to  have  visited  Mechlin  and  Brabant.  This  small  settlements  in  the  heart  of  cities  or^ist  outside 
evangelical  work  was  followed  up  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  city  walls,  is  a  peculiar  feature  of  religious  life  in  the 
missionaries  St.  Willibrord  (d.  738)  and  St.  Rumold  or  Netherlands.  They  were  once  numerous  (Uie  numbv 
Eombaut  (d.  about  775).  St.  Rombaut  was  martyred  of  B(^uines  who  went  forth  from  Mechlin  to  greet 
at  Mechlin,  and  became  the  city's  patron  saint,  and  Charles  the  Bold,  on  tbe  occasion  of  his  joyful  entry 
subsequently  the  patron  of  the  whole  diocese.  Among  in  1467,  was  900),  and  still  endure,  though  mu^ 
tbe  samts  of  this  oiocese  are  several  members  of  Pepin  reduced  in  numben,  at  Mechlin,  AntwerpTlou vain, 
of  Landen's  family,  his  widow  St.  Itta,  foundress  of  Diest,  Lierre,  Tumhout,  Hoogstraeten  and  Herenthals. 
the  Abbey  of  Nivelles,  his  daughters,  St.  Cxertrude  (d.  The  increase  of  the  secular  clergy  and  its  imi»t>ved 
659)  and  St.  Begga  (d.  698);  the  two  sistera  St.  material  conditions  caused  the  chaptere  of  Canons  to 
Gudule  (d.  712)  and  St.  Rainelde;  in  the  ninth  cen-  grow  in  number,  and  eventually  the  collegiate 
tury  St.  Libert  of  Mechlin  and  St.  Guidon  of  Ander-  churches  of  the  diocese  reached  a  total  of  twenty, 
lecht;  St.  Wivine,  foundress  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  Public  instruction  was  conducted  by  parochial  and 
of  Grand  Bigard  (d.  1170);  St.  Albert  of  Louvain,  chapter  schools.  Finally  Martin  V,  by  his  bull  of  9 
Prince  Bishop  of  Li^  and  martyr  (d.  1192);  St.  December,  1425,  erected  a  university  at  Louvain. 
Marie  d'Origmes  (d.  1232);  St.  Lutgard  (d.  1246),  and  At  the  close  of  the  Bfiddle  Ages,  it  is  well  known, 
Blessed  Alice  (d.  1250),  both  Cistereian  nuns,  the  for-  both  faith  and  morals  suffered  a  notable  decay.  More 
mer  in  Ajrwidres,  the  latter  at  la  Cambre;  St.  Boniface  or  less  rightly,  Jean  Pupper  de  Goch  (d.  1475),  supe- 
of  Brussels,  Bishop  of  Lausanne  (d.  1265);  Blessed  rior  of  tiie  Thabor  Convent  at  Mechlin,  has  been  styled 
Jean  de  Ruysbroeck,  an  Augustinian  monk  of  Groen-  the  precursor  of  Luther,  who  soon  found  numerous 
endael,  because  of  his  mystical  writings  known  as  the  partisans  in  the  diocese,  especiall^r  at  Antwerp  where 
*' divine  and  admirable  doctor"  (d.  1381);  several  nis  Augustinian  brethren  declared  in  his  favour.  Prot- 
priests  put  to  death  by  the  CJalvinists  at  Goreum  estantism,  though  vigorously  opposed  by  Charles  V, 
(1572);  the  Jesuits,  St.  John  Berehmans  of  Diest,  was  again  menacing  at  the  end  of  his  reign,  when 
patron  of  student  youth  (d.  1621),  and  Venerable  Lutheranism  gave  way  to  Calvinism.  The  creation  in 
Leonard  Leys  (Lessius)  of  Brecht,  renowned  for  his  1559  of  new  sees,  though  an  indispensable  measure, 
piety  and  his  theological  works  (d.  1623).  brought  about  a  coalition  of  all  discontented  parties. 
It  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  centuiy  that  Philip  II,  by  removing  the  fint  Arehbishop  of  Mechlin, 
Tanchelm,  a  native  of  Zealand,  became  known,  chiefly  Cardinal  de  Granvelle,  deprived  Ibe  Catholic  and  mon- 
in  Antwerp,  for  his  violent  attacks  on  the  hierarehy,  arehical  cause  of  its  ablest  champion,  and  thereby 
and  the  ^raments,  especially  the  Holy  Eucharist,  hastened  the  impending  revolution.  In  1556  the  icon- 
He  shared  the  pernicious  errore  of  the  Adamites,  oclastic  mob  put  to  death  both  religious  and  priests, 
and  gave  an  example  of  the  worst  kind  of  debauch-  and  sacked  the  churehes  and  monasteries.  Disorder 
ery.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  century,  Bishop  continued  until  the  advent  of  the  Arehduke  Albert 
Nicolas  of  Cambrai  excommunicated  Jonas,  one  of  and  Isabella.  The  pe<>ple  remained  loyal  to  C^thol- 
the  promoten  of  C^tharism  in  Brabant.  A  little  icism  and  the  University  of  Louvain  proved  a  valiant 
later  numerous  Beehards  and  Beguines  fell  into  the  defender,  though  Protestant  theories  exereised  at  the 
errors  of  the  sect  known  as  the  Brothers,  of  the  Free  university  a  certain  influence,  particularly  on  Baius 
Spirit.    To  this  sect  also  belonged  the  nun.  Sister  and  Jansenius.    The  Arehbishop  of  Mechhn,  Jacques 


about  1336,  but  her  foUbwere  lived  on,  and  as  late  as  suspended  by  Innocent  X.    Boonen's  submission  did 

about  1410  Pierre  d' Ailly,  Bishop  of  Cambrai,  was  not  put  an  end  to  the  Jansenistic  quarrels  in  the  dio- 

compelled  to  take  measures  against  them.   The  Black  cese.   Oratorians,  brought  in  by  him,  were  inclined  to 

Plague  of  1349  cpve  rise  to  the  processions  of  Flagel-  rigorism.    They  opened  colleges  for  the  education  of 

lanto.   These  hailed  from  Germany  and  traversed  the  youth,  and  found  themselves  Doth  in  this  field,  and  in 

country  practising  the  mortification  from  which  their  their  Jansenistic  views,  in  rivalry  with  the  Jeeiuits 

name  has  arisen.    The  ecclesiastical  authorities  were  already  active  in  anti-Protestant  controversy.    The 

obliffed  to  intervene  on  behalf  of  the  Jews  detested  by  partisans  and  the  adversaries  of  Jansenius  took  sides  at 

the  Flagellants.    On  the  otb^r  hi^d,  reli(;ious  senti-  once  with  one  Qr  Other  of  tbe  conflicting  parties.  Hie 


mOHTIL 


105 


mOHTILDS 


firmnefls  of  the  arehbiahops  at  Precipiano  (1690-1711) 
And  of  Cardinal  d' Alsace  (1715-59)  repelled  Janaen- 
iam,  which  endured  however  in  Josephinism  and 
Febronianism.  Joaeph  11  suppressed  many  converts 
^^1783) y  and  created  the  General  Seminary  of  Louvain 
the  doctrines  of  which  were  condemned  by 
1  de  Frankenbeig  (1759-1801).  Persecution 
broke  out  afresh  in  the  waike  of  the  fVench  Revolu- 
tion; Catholic  worship  was  abolished,  churches  were 
pillaged,  a  multitude  of  ecclesiastics  exiled,  among 
them  Cardinal  de  Frankenberg.  The  anti-^ncordat 
wchiwn  of  the  St^venista  arose  imder  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte. Later,  King  William  revived  the  General  Semi- 
narr  under  the  name  of  Philosophical  Coll^,  but  met 
with  as  much  opposition  as  Joseph  II«  Tne  Belgian 
Revolution  of  1830  freed  the  Church  from  these  fetters. 
For  the  later  history  of  Mechlin  see  Bslqium.  The  fol- 
lowing archbishops  of  Mechlin  were  made  cardinals: 
Antoine  Perrenot  de  Granvella,  first  archbishop  (1560- 
83)  and  a  remarkable  statesman  (q.  v.);  Thomas 
Philippe  d' Alsace  (1710-59);  Henri  de  Frankenberg 
(1750-1801);  £k«elbert  Sterckx  (1832-07);  Victor 
Auguste  Dechamps,  theol(M^ian  and  pulpit  orator 
(q.  V.)  (1867^83);  Pierre  Lambert  Goossens  (1884- 
1906)  ;  D^su^  Joseph  Mercier  (1900—),  the  chief 
ormnator  of  the  neo-scholastic  movement  in  Belgium. 

Relurious  monuments:  numerous  edifices  especially 
of  Gowio  style  (Roman:  St.  (jermain  at  Tirlemont,  St. 
Clertrude  at  Ni  velles) .  At  Mechlin  is  the  metropolitan 
church  of  St.  Rombaut  (thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries),  with  a  tower  318  feet  high.  There  is 
also  Notre  Dame,  and  St.  Pierre  (Jesuit  style).  Prin- 
cipal other  edifices:  churches  of  Lierre,  Hoogstraeten, 
Tirlemont,  Hal,  Diest;  and  the  ruins  of  the  Abbey  of 
Villers,  the  most  striung  monastic  ruins  in  Belgium. 
The  ornamentation  has  suffered  greatly  from  the  dia- 
orders  of  the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  par- 
ticularly tiie  orsan  gallery  at  Lierre,  the  tabernacle  at 
L6au,  the  tonuM  at  Hoogstraeten  and  the  stained 
glasses  in  Lierre  and  Hoogstraeten.  Of  the  paintings 
still  preserved,  many  belong  to  the  Antwerp  School. 
At  B^chlin  there  are  works  of  Rubens  in  the  churches 
of  Notre  Dame  and  St.  Jean.  See  Antwerp,  Brus- 
sels, Louvain.  Pilgrimi^es:  St.  Sang  at  Hoog- 
straeten, St.  Sauveur  at  Haekendover  (Tir^einont), 
Notre  Dame  at  Montaigu,  at  Hal,  at  Hanswyck  (Mech- 
lin). Population  (1909):  2,450,680  inhabitants;  745 
parishes;  51  deaneries;  one  theological  seminary;  3 
petits  s^minaires;  24  episcopal  colleges;  108  convents 
for  men,  and  726  for  women. 

The  "Vie  Dioc^saine"  is  a  monthly  periodical 
founded  in  1907.  The  "Theologia  Mechiiniensis" 
fundamental  and  sacramental  theology,  with  treatises 
on  virtues,  indulgences,  and  reserved  cases  fills  ten 
volumes;  notable  also  are  the  *' Scripture  Commen- 
tary "  of  Ceulemans  (nine  volumes)  on  the  Psalms  and 
New  Testament,  and  the  work  of  Van  der  Stappen 

(five  volumes)  on  the  Litutgjr. 

OiMia  ChrittUMo,  V  (Paris.  1731}*  Van  Gbstbl,  Hittoria 
mera  ei  yrofana  arehitpi&oopahta  Meefuinienaia  (La  Have.  1725); 
CuuBSasifS,  Hialoin  d$»  arcMvtqtu  de  Malinet^  11  (Louvaizi» 
1881);  GoowrNB.  MaHnM  jadU  tl  auiour(rhui  (Mechlin.  1908); 
FoppCNB,  Hiaiona  ^naeopatuM  Antverpiennt  (BruMeb,  1717). 

A.   AEMPENSER. 

Maehtal,  Johann,  chronicler;  b.  1562  at  Pfalsel 
near  Trier  (Qermany);  d.  after  1031,  perhaps  as  late 
as  1653  at  Trier.  He  is  often  named  Pfalsel  after  his 
native  town  where  he  first  studied  and  then  went  to  the 
university  at  Trier,  conducted  by  the  Jesuits,  where 
thu  historian  C3iristopher  Brote  acquired  a  lasting  in- 
fluence over  him.  After  his  ordination  (about  1587), 
he  was  appointed  pastor  at  Eits,  near  Limburg;  in 
1592  he  became  canon  at  Limburg  and  as  such  admin- 
istered  for  two  years  the  troublesome  parish  of  C!am- 
berg.  In  1604  he  was  appointed  dean,  but  soon  got 
into  difficulties  with  his  canons  and  finally,  by  request 
of  the  elector  of  Trier  in  order  to  restore  peace,  he  re- 


signed, and  accepted  the  canoniy  at  St.  Ptkulinua  in 
Trier.  In  Limburg  as  well  as  in  Trier  he  studied  his- 
tory assiduously  and  carefully,  and  conscientiously  col- 
lected documents  and  records,  as  well  as  inscriptions 
on  monuments.  Biany  of  his  sources  are  now  lost 
therefore  his  works  almost  possess  the  value  of  origi- 
nals for  us.  Of  his  writinss  may  be  mentioned : ' '  lim- 
burg Chronicle",  the  "ragus  Lohenahe".  and  the 
"  Introduotio  in  ragum  Lohenahe. "  BQs  cnief  work, 
the  "Limburg  Chronicle",  was  begun  in  1610  and 
finished  in  1612,  but  it  was  not  edited  until  1757  bv 
Hontheim  in  his  "Prodromus  historifls  Trevirensis  , 
II.  1046-1166.  This  edition,  marked  by  many  mis- 
takes and  omissions,  was  {published  in  its  entirety  by 
Knetsch.  in  the  "  Publications  of  the  Historical  Com- 
mission for  Nassau",  VI  (Wiesbaden,  1909).  It  is  a 
revision  and  continuation  of  the  old  Limburg  chroni- 
cle, begun  by  the  town  clerk,  Tilemann,  but  utilises 
also  many  other  sources  both  printed  and  unprinted. 
His  chronicle  is  of  great  value  because  Mechtel  utilises 
various  accounts  which  contain  important  informa- 
tion as  to  social  conditions,  the  pried  of  com  and  wine, 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  climatic  conditions  ana 
wages.  In  treating  Cerman  and  early  medieval  his- 
tory he  does  not  rise  above  the  level  of  the  historians 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Both  his 
other  works  are  as  yet  unpublished;  Knetsch  reviews 
their  contents  in  his  edition  of  the  chronicle  X-XVI. 
Carl  KNmcH,  Die  Limburgm'  Chnmik  dee  Johannee  Meek- 
td  (Wiesbaden,  1909).  I-XXV. 

PATBICmB  SCHLAOSB. 

Meohtllde  (Matilda  von  Hackbborn-Wippra). 
Saint,  Benedictine;  b.  in  1240  or  1241  at  the  ancestral 
castle  of  Helfta,  near  Eisleben,  Saxony;  d.  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Helfta,  19  Nov.,  1298.  She  belonged  to  one 
of  the  noblest  and  most  powerful  Thuringian  families, 
while  her  sister  was  the  saintly  and  illustrious  Abbess 
Gertrude  von  Hackebom.  Some  writers  have  consid- 
ered that  Mechtilde  von  Hackebom  and  Mechtilde 
von  Wippra  were  two  distinct  persons,  but,  as  the 
Barons  of  Hackebom  were  also  Lords  of  Wippra,  it 
was  customary  for  members  of  that  familv  to  take 
their  name  indifferently  from  either,  or  both  of  these 
estates.  So  fragile  was  she  at  birth,  that  the  attend- 
ants, fearing  she  might  die  unbaptised,  hurried  her  off 
to  the  priest  who  was  just  then  preparing  to  say  Bfass. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  sanctity,  and  alter  baptising 
the  child ,  uttered  these  prophetic  words : ' '  What  do  you 
fear?  This  child  most  certainly  will  not  die,  but  she 
will  become  a  saintly  religious  in  whom  Qod  will  work 
many  wonders,  and  she  wl  end  her  days  in  a  jgood  old 
age.  When  she  was  seven  years  old,  having  been 
taJcen  by  her  mother  on  a  visit  to  her  elder  sister  Cver- 
trude,  tnen  a  nun  in  the  monastery  of  Rodardsdorf, 
she  became  so  enamoured  of  the  cloister  that  her  pious 
parents  yielded  to  her  entreaties  and,  acknoy^ledging 
the  workings  of  grace,  allowed  her  to  enter  the  alum- 
nate.  Here,  being  highly  gifted  in  mind  as  well  as  in 
body,  she  made  remarkable  progress  in  virtue  and 
learning. 

Ten  years  later  (1258)  she  followed  her  sister,  who, 
now  aboessj  had  transferred  the  monastery  to  an  estate 
at  Helfta  given  her  by  her  brothers  Louis  and  Albert. 
As  a  nun,  Mechtilde  was  soon  distinguished  for  her  hu- 
miUty,  her  fervour,  and  that  extreme  amiability  which 
had  characterised  her  from  childhood  and  which,  like 
piety,  seemed  hereditary  in  her  race.  While  still  very 
young,  she  became  a  valuable  helpmate  to  Abbess  (xer- 
trude.  who  entrusted  to  her  direction  the  alumnate 
and  tne  choir.  Mechtilde  was  fully  equipped  for  her 
task  when,  in  1261,  God  committed  to  ner  pmdent 
care  a  child  of  five  who  was  destined  to  shed  lustre 
upon  the  monastery  of  Helfta.  This  was  that  (xertrude 
wno  in  later  generations  became  known  as  St.  (xer- 
trude the  Great.  Gifted  with  a  beautiful  voice^  Mech- 
tilde also  possessed  a  special  talent  for  rendering  the 
solemn  and  sacred  music  over  which  she  presided  aa 


mCBTILDl  106  mCBTILD 

dMifUi  eofiirir.  All  her.  life  she  held  this  office  and  Dante's  prayer  that  she  may  draw  nearer  toktfaim 
trained  the  ehoir  "with  indefatigable  seal.  Indeed.  Di-  understuid  her  song,  turns  towards  him  '*  not  other- 
vine  praise  was  the  ke^rnote  of  her  life  as  it  is  ra  her  wise  than  a  vircin  that  droppeth  her  modest  eyes", 
book;  in  this  she  never  tired,  despite  her  continual  and  In  more  places  tnan  one  the  revelations  granted  to  the 
severe  physical  sufferings,  so  that  in  His  revelations  mystics  of  Helfta  seem  in  turn  to  have  become  the  in- 
Christ  was  wont  to  call  her  His  "nightingale".  Richly  sputitions  of  the  Florentine  poet.  All  writers  od 
endowed,  naturally  and  supematurally,  ever  gracious,  Dante  recognise  his  indebtedness  to  St.  Augustine,  the 
beloved  of  all  who  came  within  the  radius  of  her  Pseudo-DionyBius,  St.  Bernard,  and  Richard  of  St. 
saintly  and  charming  personality,  there  is  little  won-  Victor.  These  are  preoiseljr  the  writers  whose  doe- 
dertliat  this  cloistered  virgin  should  strive  to  keep  hid-  trines  had  been  most  assimilated  by  the  mjrsUcs  of 
den  her  wondrous  hfe.  Souls  thirsUnff  for  consouition  Helfta,  and  thus  they  would  the  more  appeal  to  the 
or  groping  for  light  sought  her  advice  ;leamed  Domini-  sympathies  of  the  poet.  The  city  of  Florence  was 
cans  consulted  her  on  spiritual  matters.  At  the  be-  among  the  first  to  welcome  St.  Mechtilde's  book.  Nov 
sinning  of  her  own  mystic  life  it  was  from  St.  Dante,  like  all  true  poets,  was  a  child  of  his  age,  and 
fiechtilde  that  St.  Gertrude  the  Great  leamt  that  the  could  not  have  been  a  stnmger  to  a  book  which  was  so 
marvellous  gifts  lavished  uponher  were  frcHn  God.  popular  amone   his   fellow-citisens.    The    **  purga- 

■       " "  lisni  ■ " 


Only  in  her  fiftieth  year  did  St.  Mechtilde  leant  that  torio''  was  finished  between  1314  and  1318,  or  1319— 
the  two  nuns  in  whom  she  had  eroecially  confided  had  just  about  the  time  when  St.  Mechtilde's  book  was 
noted  down  the  favours  granted  her,  and,  moreover,  popular.  This  interpretation  is  supported  by  tiio  fad 
that  St.  Gertrude  had  nearly  finished  a  book  on  the  that  St.  Mechtilde  in  her  "  Book  of  Special  Grace  "  (pL 
subject.  Much  troubled  at  this,  she,  as  usual,  first  I,  c.  ziii)  describes  the  place  of  purincatioii  under  ue 
haa  recourse  to  prayer.  She  had  a  vision  of  Christ  same  figure  of  a  seven-terraced  mountain.  The  coin- 
holding  in  His  hand  the  book  of  her  revelations,  and  ddenoe  of  the  simile  and  of  the  name,  Matelda,  can 
saying:  "All  this  has  becm  committed  to  writing  by  scarcely  be  accidental.  For  another  among  many 
my  will  and  inspiration;  and  therefore  you  have  no  points  of  resemblance  between  the  two  writers  oom- 
eause  to  be  troul^ed  about  it."  He  idso  told  her  that,  pare  "  Purgatorio  ",  Canto  zxxi,  where  Dante  is  drawn 
as  He  had  been  so  generous  towards  her,  she  must  by  Matelda  through  the  mysterious  stream  with  pt. 
make  Him  a  like  return,  and  that  the  difiFusion  of  the  II,  c.  ii,  of  the  "  liber  Spedalis  Gratis  ".  The  serene 
revelations  would  cause  many  to  increase  in  His  love;  atmosphere  which  seems  to  clinc[  about  the  gracious 
moreover.  He  wished  this  book  to  be  called  "The  and  beautiful  songstress,  her  virgm  modesty  and  aim- 
Book  of  Special  Grace",  because  it  would  prove  such  pie  dignity,  all  seem  to  point  to  the  recluse  of  Helfta 
to  many.  When  the  saint  understood  that  the  book  rather  than  to  the  stem  heroine  of  Canossa,  whose 
would  t^id  to  God's  glory,  she  ceased  to  be  troubled  hand  was  thrice  bestowed  in  marriage.  Besidcse,  in 
and  even  corrected  the  manuscript  herself.  Immedi-  politics  Dante,  as  an  ardent  Ghibelline,  supported  the 
ately  after  her  death  it  was  maae  public,  and  copies  miperial  pretensions  and  he  would  have  been  little  in- 
were  rapidly  multiplied,  owing  chiefly  to  the  wide-  dined  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  Tuscan  Countess.  The 
spread  influence  of  the  Friars  Preachers.  Boccaccio  conclusion  may  therefore  be  hasarded  that  this 
feUs  how.  a  few  years  siter  the  death  of  Mechtilde,  the  *'  Donna  Matelda  "  of  the  "  Purgatorio  "  personifies  St 
book  of  ner  revelations  was  brought  to  Florence  and  Mechtilde  as  representing  mystic  theology, 
popularised  under  the  title  of  "La  Laude  di  donna  ^  Br.MmcHTiu>v^LA0rap9eteU*m^ 


ftaW-     It  is  related  that  the  Flo«atine8,««»^  SSS^MfsKiSTLT^KS^ttf^ 

customed  to  repeat  daily  before  then*  sacred  images  the  fParia.  1007) ;  ZiBOBuiAnn,  Hut.  LU.  Bem^drmaoMi^  1754); 

praises  learned  from  St.  Mechtilde's  book.    St.  Ger^  ?»«»«5'  fiS^/^"^**-  ¥l!^*  ^  ^hSSSf^ *®^*>!  iM^toi^w 

teude,  to  whose  devotedness  we  owe  the  "  Liber  Sped-  *»  ^'  Medihld^  (Pan.  «id  ^^^^^^^  r  .a.«^^. 

alisGratijB"  exclaims:  "Never  has  there  arisen  one  like  ^    ^^,^      .  ,^   ^,         OBBTBuna  UAaAHOVA. 

to  her  in  our  monastery;  nor,  alasl  I  fear,  will  there  B««8htllde  of  the  Bieued  Saenmant.    See  Ado- 

ever  arise  another  suchi"— httle  dreaming  that  her  Ration,  Pbrpbtuau 

own  name  would  be  inseparably  linked  with  that  of  Mechtild  of  Maffdebnrgi  a  celebrated  medie^ 

Mechtilde.    With  that  of  St.  Gertrude,  the  bod v of  mystic,  b.  of  a  noble  family  in  Saxony  about  1210;  d. 

St.  Mechtilde  most  probably  still  reposes  at  Old  Helfta  at  the  Cistercian  nuimery  of  Helfta  near  Eisleben,  c. 

though  the  exact  spot  is  unknown.    Her  feast  is  kept  1285.   She  experienced  her  first  inspirations  at  the  sge 

26  or  27  February  m  difTerent  congregations  and  mon-  of  twelve,  when,  as  she  herself  states,  she  was  greeted 

asteries  of  her  order,  by  special  permission  of  the  Holy  by  the  Holy  Ghost.    From  that  time,  the  greeting  was 

See.     (For  an  account  of  the  general  life  at  Helfta  and  repeated  daily.    Under  this  inspiration  sSe  desired  to 

an  estimate  Of  the  writings  of  St.  Mechtilde,  see  Ger-  be  despised  by  all  without,  however,  deserving  it,  and 

TRUDROF  Hackeborn;  Gbrtrude  the  Great,  Saint.)  for  this  purpose  left  her  home,  where  she  haa  always 

There  is  another  honour,  inferior  certainlv  to  that  been  loved  and  respected,  to  become  a  Beguine  at 

of  sanctity,  yet  great  in  itself  and  worthy  of  mention  Magdeburg  in  1230.    Here,  under  the  spiritual  guid- 

here:  the  homage  of  a  transcendent  gemus  was  to  be  ance  of  the  Dominicans,  she  led  a  life  of  prayer  and 

laid  at  the  feet  of  St.  Mechtilde.    Critics  have  long  extreme  mortification.   Her  heavenly  inspirations  and 

been  perplexed  as  to  one  of  the  characters  introduced  ecstatic  visions  became  more  frequent  and  were  of 

by  Dante  in  his  "  Purgatorio  "  under  the  name  of  Ma-  such  a  nature  that  they  dispelled  from  the  nund  of  her 

telda.    After  ascending  seven  terraces  of  a  mountain,  confessor  all  doubt  as  to  their  Divine  orijdn.    By  his 

on  each  of  which  the  process  of  purification  is  carried  order  she  reluctantly  wrote  her  visions.    Shortly  after 

on,  Dante,  in  Canto  xxvii,  hears  a  voice  singing:  "Ve-  1270  she  joined  the  Cistercian  nuns  at  Helfta,  where 

nite,  benedicti  patris  mei " ;  then  later,  in  Canto  xxviii,  she  spent  the  remaining  twelve  years  of  her  life,  highly 

tliere  appears  to  him  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  mys-  respected  as  one  signally  favoured  by  God,  especially 

terious  stream  a  lady,  solitary,  beautiful,  and  gptcious.  by  ner  namesake  St.  Mechtilde  of  Hackebom  and  by 

To  her  Dante  addresses  himself;  she  it  is  who  initiates  St.  Gertrude  the  Great.     Mechtild  left  to  ti^e  world 

him  into  secrets,  which  it  is  not  given  to  Virgil  to  pene-  a  most  wonderful  book,  in  which  she  recorded  her 

trate,  and  it  is  to  her  that  Beatrice  refers  Dante  m  the  manifold  inspirations  and  visions.    According  to  her 

words:  "Entreat  Matilda  that  she  teach  thee  this."  assertion,  God  ordered  the  title  of  the  book  to  be 

Most  commentators  have  identified  Matilda  with  the  *'  Vliessende  licht  miner  gotheit  in  allu  die  heraen  die 

warrior^untess  of  Tuscany,  the  spiritual  daughter  da  lebent  ane  valscheit'',  i.  e.  "Li^ht  of  m^  divinity, 

and  dauntless  champion  of  St.  Gregory  VII,  but  all  flowing  into  all  hecuts  that  live  without  gmle  ".    The 

agree  that  beyond  the  name  the  two  have  little  or  work  is  commonly  styled  ''Das  fliessende  Licht  der 

nothing  in  oommon.    She  is  no  Amason  who,  at  Gottheit".    She  wrote  her  inspirations  on  separate 


MBCKLBNBUBa  107  BBCKLBNBUBa 

sheetB  of  paper,  which  she  handed  to  the  Dominican,  diBtrict;  Slavonic  tribes  poured  in,  and  bv  about  a.  d. 
Henry  of  Halle,  hctor  in  Rupin.  The  original,  which  600  they  had  complete  possession  of  the  umd.  These 
was  written  in  Low  German,  is  not  extant,  out  a  South  Slavonic  tribes  were  prmcipally  Wends,  of  whom  the 
German  translation,  which  was  prepared  by  Henry  of  Obotrites  occupied  the  western  parts,  the  Lusici,  or 
Ndrdlin^n  about  the  year  1344.  is  still  preserved  in  Wilsen,  the  eastern.  Their  chief  occupations  were 
the  original  manuscript  in  the  library  of  Einsiedeln,  forestry,  cattle-raising,  hunting,  and  fishing.  Their 
Codex  277.  Mechtila  began  the  work  in  1250  and  religion  was  a  pure  worship  of  nature.  The  chief  eod 
finished  the  sixth  volume  at  Magdebunr  in  1264,  to  was  Radegast  Zuarasici,  whose  sanctuary  at  Rewra 
which  she  added  a  seventh  volume  at  Heuta.  A  Latin  was  the  centre  of  his  worship  for  the  whole  of  Meek- 
translation  of  the  six  volumes  written  at  Magdeburg  lenburg  until  it  was  destroyed  in  the  twelfth  centuiy, 
was  made  by  a  Dominican,  about  the  year  11^,  and  and  replaced  by  Svantevit.  the  ''holy  oracle",  whose 
is  reprinted,  together  with  a  translation  of  the  seventh  temple  was  at  Arkona  on  tne  Island  of  RQgen.  After 
volume,  in  "  Kevelationes  Gertrudianss  ac  Mechtil-  Charlemagne  had  brought  the  Saxons  into  subjection, 
dians",  II  (Paris,  1877),  435-707.  The  manuscript  of  the  tribes  of  MecklenbuiK  became  the  immediate 
Einsiedeln  was  edited  by  Gall  Morel,  O.S.B.,  who  alao  neighbours  of  the  Frankish  Empire,  with  which  an 
translated  it  into  modem  German  (Ratisbon,  1869).  active  trade  soon  sprang  up.  Conunerce  was  still  fur- 
Other  modem  German  translations  were  prepared  by  ther  developed  unaer  the  Saxon  emperors  (919-1024), 
J.  MQlIer  (Ratisbon,  1881)  and  Escherich  (Berlixi,  the  most  important  mart  for  the  Slavs  being  Bardo- 
1909).  wiek. 

Mechtild's  language  is  generally  foreible  and  often  Charlemagne's  conquests  in  this  region  were  lost 
exceedingly  flowery.  Her  prose  is  occasionally  inter*  soon  after  his  death.  Heniy  I  of  Uermany  (916- 
spersed  with  beautiful  origmal  pieces  of  poetiy,  which  36)  was  the  first  to  force  the  Slavonic  territory  again 
manifest  that  she  had  all  the  natural  gifts  of  a  poet,  to  ]^y  tribute  (about  928) ;  he  also  placed  it  under 
She  is  never  at  a  loss  to  give  vent  to  her  feelings  of  joy  the  jurisdiction  of  Saxon  counts.  Witn  the  dominion 
and  grief  in  the  most  impressive  form.  Often  alao  she  of  the  Germans,  Christianity  foimd  ingress  into  the 
delignts  in  aphoristic  ana  abrupt  sentences.  It  is  some-  land.  Bishop  Adalward  of  Yerden  brought  the  first 
times  difficult  to  ascertain  just  how  far  her  narrations  Obotrite  prince  into  the  Church.  Otto  the  Great 
are  faithful  reproductions  of  her  visions,  and  how  far  (936-973)  divided  the  territory  of  Mecklenbuig  be- 
tJbey  are  additions  made  by  her  own  poetic  fancy,  tween  the  two  margravates  he  had  formed.  Ecclesias- 
Tfais  is  especially  true  of  her  realistic  description  of  the  ticallv.  the  land  Mlonged  partly  to  the  Dioceses  of 
hereafter.  Writing  on  hell,  she  says/'  I  saw  a  horrible  Havelberg  and  Brandenburg,  partly  to  the  Diocese  of 
and  wretched  place;  its  name  is  'Eternal  Hatred'."  Oldenburg,  that  was  erected  in  968.  However,  there 
She  then  represents  Lucifer  as  chained  by  his  sins  in  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  a  systematic  attempt 
the  lowest  abvss  of  hell,  all  sin,  agony,  p^ilence  and  at  conversion  to  Christianity,  for  the  German  author- 
ruin,  that  fill  nell,  punpatory.  and  earth,  flowing  from  ity  had  no  secure  foundation.  The  early  successes  in 
his  burning  heart  aniTmoutn.  She  divides  hell  into  conversion  to  Christianity  were  swept  away  bv  an  in- 
three  parts;  the  lowest  and  most  horrible  is  filled  with  surrection  of  the  Slavs,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Emperor 
oondemned  Christians,  the  middle  with  Jews,  and  the  Otto  II  in  Calabria  in  928.  The  Obotrites  under  Mis- 
higiieat  with  Pagans.  Hell,  purgatory  and  heaven  are  tiwoi.  who  had  previously  accepted  Christianity,  plun- 
situated  one  immediately^  above  the  other.  The  low«  derea  and  burned  Hamburg,  ravaged  the  whole  of 
est  portion  of  purgatory  is  fiUed  with  devils,  who  tor-  North  Albingia  (Holstein),  crossed  the  Elbe  and  ad- 
ment  the  souls  in  the  most  horrible  manner,  while  the  vanced  as  far  as  Milde.  Every  trace  of  Christianity 
highest  portion  of  puigatory  is  identical  with  the  was  destroyed.  There  was  much  strife  between  Ger-  ' 
lowest  portion  of  heaven*  Many  a  soul  in  the  lowest  man  and  Wend  in  the  succeeding  decades.  It  was  not 
purgatory  does  not  know  whether  it  will  ever  be  saved,  until  the  reign  of  Henry  II  (1002-1024)  that  the 
The  last  statement  was  oondemned  in  the  Bull  Lusici  and  Obotrites  became  allies  of  the  German 
''Exsurffa  Domine",  15  June,  1520,  as  one  of  the  Empire  against  the  Polish  Duke  Boleslaw.  Towards 
errors  at  Luther:  "  Anima  in  purgatorio  non  sunt  the  end  of  his  life  Mistiwoi  turned  in  repentance  once 
seoursD  de  earum  salute,  saltem  omnes".  Mechtild's  more  to  Christianitv,  and  ended  his  days  in  the  mon- 
oonoeption  of  the  hereafter  is  believed  by  some  to  be  astery  of  Bardowiek. 

the  basisof  Dante's  "Divine  Comedy",  and  the  poet's  Archbishop  Unwanus  of  Hamburg  (from  1013) 
Matelda  ("Purgatorv"^  Canto  27-^)  to  be  identical  laboured  with  energy  and  success;  but  the  Saxon 
with  our  Mechtild  (see  Preger,  "Dfmte's  Matelda".  dukes  exacted  a  heavy  tribute^  which  was  the  chief 
Munich,  1873).  Whatever  we  mav  think  of  these  and  reason  why  the  Christian  teachmg  protected  by  them 
other  statements  in  the  work  of  Mechtild,  much  of  it,  was  regarded  with  little  favour,  even  though  the 
no  doubt,  has  all  the  signs  of  a  special  inspuration  from  Wendic  rulers  Udo  and  Ratibor  became  Christians. 
above.  That  she  did  not  seek  tlM  favour  of  man  is  evi-  Udo's  son  Gottschalk  faithfully  supported  Archbishop 
dent  from  her  fearless  denunciation  of  the  vices  of  the  Adalbert  of  Bremen,  and  frequently'  explained  Chris- 
clergy  in  general  and  especiall;^  the  dersy  of  Magde-  tian  doctrine  at  cburoh  to  his  people.  Churches  and 
burg.  Some  authors  call  her  saint,  thou^she  has  not  monasteries  rapidly  appeared.  New  dioceses  were 
been  canonised  and  apparently  has  never  received  any  founded  in  addition  to  the  Diocese  ofOldenbuiv, 
public  cuH.  namely,  Ratzeburg  imder  Bishop  Aristo,  and  Meck- 

UxcKAMu  KvUmtM^  dM  fisuteeAm  Vo2^  wsVsi^  <2m  lenburg  under  Bishop  John,  a  Scot.    The  conversion 

'dzi!iSS5fl^^^l^^'f!^;J^l^l\}^t  of  the  entin,  oountrf  to  Catholicity  seemrf  a«unrf. 

ISO:  GmsTH.  Die  dtfufacA^  Mffatik  im  Pndigtrorden  (Freibui«  But  the  ferment  of  the  old  antagonism  to  the  tribute  , 

iffl Br..  1861), 207-277;  BmAvpa.KUine BeUrOo* Mur OemAiehu  to  the  empire  and  the  Saxon  dukes  led  to  a  heathen  J 

fcSf^Sl^ri^riM.'M  reaj^n.    m  fi«t  victim  was  GottachaJk  hiinsdf, 

OtmkuAudwdeuUehenMjfMimliiiuMUr.l  (Leipiig.  1874),  m  1066.    On  15  Julv  of  the  same  year  the  twenty- 

91-112;  SruEsuira,  Siudtm  tu  MecktOd  v.  Mood,  (Gottingen,  eig^t  monks  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Ratso- 

***^'  MTrtiTAWT  r^T*r  ^^^"^  ^^r®  stoned  to  death:  in  Mecklenburg  ^e  aged 

jsoicHAiBi.  urr.  Bishop  John  and  many  other  Christians  were  slain, 

Muclrlimlwrgy  a  division  of  the  German  Empire,  and  in  a  few  months  the  German  supremacy  was 

consists  of  the  two  Grand  Duchies  of  Mecklenburg-  ^rown  off.    The  Wends  even  plundered  the  Christian  i 

SehwerinandMecklenburg-Strelitz.  cities  of  Schleswig  and  Hamburg,  the  bishop  of  the 

History, — ^At  the  begimiing  of  the  Christian  era,  latter  being  obli^d  to  transfer  nis  see  to  Bremen. 

Mecldenouxg  was  inhabited  by  Gennanic  tribes,  but  llie  bloody  national  god  Radegast  of  Rethra  became 

as  early  as  the  second  century  thqy  began  tQ  leave  the  once  more  dominant. 


mCEUNBUBO 


108 


2BCELINBUBO 


Cruto,  Prinoe  of  the  Island  of  ROgen,  ruled  the 
oountiy  for  nearly  thirty  years.  Finally  in  1003, 
Onto  having  been  miurdered,  Gottschalk^  son, 
Henry,  was  able  to  gain  his  inheritance.  Although 
a  Christian  he  never  attempted  to  force  Christianity 
upon  the  Wends.  The  only  church  was  in  his  capital, 
Lobeck,  where  St.  Vicelin  proclaimed  tiie  word  oi 
God  from  1126.  Soon  after  Henry's  death  (1126) 
his  family  became  extinct,  and  the  Emperor  Lothair 
granted  the  vacant  territory  in  fief  to  Henry's  Danish 
cousin.  Knut  Laward,  Duke  of  Schleswig.  Claims 
were  also  made  b)r  Henry's  nephew  Pribislaw,  and  by 
Niklot,  an  Obotrite  noble.  These  two  divided  the 
rulerless  land  between  them  when  in  1131  Knut 
Laward  was  killed  by  his  cousin  Magnus.  Pribislaw, 
however,  could  not  maintain  himself  long  against  the 
German  advance.  He  was  obliged  to  surrender  in 
1142  to  Count  Adolf  of  Schauenburg,  who  repeopled 
the  almost  desolate  territoi-y*  with  colonists  m>m 
Randers,  Holland,  Westphalia,  and  Frisia.  Niklot, 
)n  the  other  hand,  preserved  lus  independence  until, 
aiter  a  protracted  struggle,  he  was  subdued  by  Henry 
ihe  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony.  Upon  agreeing  to  accept 
Christianity  and  to  acknowledge  German  supremacy, 
Niklot  was  allowed  to  retain  his  possessions  (1147). 
However,  he  subsequently  headed  a  revolt,  which 
ended  in  his  overthrow  (1160).  After  Niklot's  son, 
Pribislaw  II,  the  ancestor  of  the  reigning  dynasty, 
had  been  baptized  in  the  year  1167,  he  was  estaolishea 
as  ruler. 

Hartwig  of  Stade,  Bishop  of  Bremen,  soon  provided 
for  the  restoration  of  the  former  Wendic  dioceses. 
Tn  1150  he  consecrated  Vicelin  Bishop  of  Oldenburg, 
and  Emmriiard  Bishop  of  Mecklenburg,  Schwerin  now 
becoming  the  see  of  the  latter.  Hartwig  had  not 
waited  U>  secure  an  endowment  sufficient  for  them 
from  the  Saxon  duke.  Henr^  the  Lion,  therefore, 
was  soon  able  to  obtain  for  hmiself  what  otherwise 
only  belonged  to  the  emperor,  the  ri^t  of  investiture 
for  the  Obotrite  dioceses.  This  privilege  was  granted 
by  the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  (1152-1189), 
wno  regarded  Henry  as  one  of  the  most  trustworthy 
supporters  of  his  power.  At  the  same  time  Henry 
was  empowered  to  found  dioceses  and  churches  in  the 
region  on  the  farther  side  of  the  Elbe  and  to  endow 
them  with  imperial  domains,  which  was  what  the 
conquered  Slavonic  territory  was  held  to  be.  In  1 154 
Henry  re-established  the  Diocese  of  Ratzeburg,  ap- 
pointmg  as  bishop  Evermod,  cathedral  provost  of 
Magdeburg.  A  niunber  of  Christian  Germans  came 
into  the  region,  and  the  Wends  were  brought  to  accept 
Christianity.  The  land  was  rapidly  covered  with 
churches,  parishes,  and  monasteries.  Besides  the 
Cistercian  monastery  of  Dobberan  that  Pribislaw 
endowed  largely  with  lands,  there  were  founded  mon- 
asteries of  Benedictines,  Franciscans,  Premonstra- 
tensians,  of  the  religious  orders  of  Knights  Hospital- 
lers, of  St.  Anthony,  etc. 

In  1170  Frederick  Barbarossa  raised  Pribislaw  to 
the  digpity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire.  On  Pribislaw's 
death  m  1178,  however,  domestic  disputes  broke  out, 
and  the  overthrow  of  Duke  Henry  the  Lion  of  Saxony 
in  1180  weakened  German  power  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  empire.  Denmark  was  thus  enabled  to  bring 
under  its  authority  lailKe  portions  of  North  Germany, 
Mecklenburg  bein^  obliged  to  recognize  Danish  su- 
premacy in  the  reign  of  Henry  Burwy  I  (1178-1227). 
In  1227  Henry  Burwy,  in  confederation  with  the 
Counts  of  Schwerin,  the  Archbishop  of  Bremen,  and 
the  city  of  IiQbeck,  cast  off  the  Danish  yoke.  There- 
upon the  iuflux  of  German  colonists  received  a  new 
impetus,  ajid,  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tuiy,  a  Gi^^man  municipality  had  already  developed 
there.  After  the  death  of  Henry  Burwy,  the  terri- 
tory was  divided  (1229)  into  four  principalities: 
Mecklenburg,  Werle,  Rostock,  and  Parehim.  The 
two  latter  lines  died  out  in  1314  and  1316  respeotively ; 


that  of  Werle  flourished  until  1436.  The  main  braadi 
of  the  Mecklenburg  line  was  founded  by  John  II 
ri22&-64).  One  ofits  members,  Henry  the  Pilgrim 
(1264-1302)  was  captured  at  Cairo  in  1271,  white  on 
a  crusade,  and  kept  prisoner  until  1297.  His  sod, 
Henry  the  Lion,  obtamed  the  district  of  Staigard  as 
dowry  with  his  wife,  Beatrice  of  Brandenbuis,  and,  on 
the  Rostock  line  becoming  extinct,  forced  the  Danes 
to  recognize  him  as  the  hereditaiy  possessor  of  the  city 
and  territory  of  Rostock,  then  under  Danish  suprem- 
acy. Henry's  two  sons,  Albert  II  (d.  1379)  and  Jdm  I 
(d.  1392),  were  made  dukes  and  princes  of  the  empire 
by  the  Emperor  Charles  lY.  The  partition  of  1362 
led  to  the  founding  of  the  Stargard  line,  which  be- 
came extinct  in  1471. 

In  1358  Albert  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  County 
of  Schwerin  bv  purchase ;  his  scheme  to  place  his  eldest 
son,  Henry  ill,  on  the  Danish  throne  failed  com- 
pletely, but  his  second  son,  Albert  III,  was  elected 
Kine  of  Sweden  in  1363.  However,  soon  after  Albert 
III  nad  succeeded  his  father  in  the  government  of 
Mecklenbuiig  (1383),  a  rival  claimant  m  the  throne  of 
Sweden  appeared  in  the  person  of  Queen  Margaret  of 
Denmark.  In  1389  Margaret  took  Albert  prisoner, 
and  did  not  release  him  until,  after  six  years  of  cap- 
tivity, he  renounced  all  claims  to  the  Swedish  throne. 
His  son,  Albert  Y  (1412-22),  was  followed  by  his  own 
cousin,  Henry  the  Fat  (1422-77),  who,  after  the  Star- 
eard  line — to  which  the  foundation  of  a  university  at 
Rostock  in  1418  is  due — had  become  extinct,  reigned 
over  the  whole  of  Mecklenburg,  thus  once  more  united 
under  a  single  ruler  (1471).  Henry's  successor,  Ma^us 
(1477-1503),  was  a  very  enemtic  prince.  The  cities 
had,  under  the  weak  rule  of  his  predecessor,  become 
insubordinate;  Magnus  directed  his  efiforts  towards 
bringing  them  under  the  control  of  the  ruler  and 
evolving  a  unified  state  out  of  a  confused  medley  of 
districts,  cities,  and  estates.  For  a  time  his  sons, 
Henry  V  (1503-52)  and  Albert  VII  (1503-17),  rei^Eied 
jointly  so  as  to  maintain  the  country  undivided.  In 
1523  the  prelates,  knighthood,  and  cities  formed 
a  Landesunion,  which  was  the  basis  of  the  present 
constitution,  and  established  a  common  diet  for  all 
the  divisions  of  the  territory  without  r^;ard  to  any 
partitions.  In  1536  the  brothers  divided  their  do- 
minions, Henry  becoming  Duke  of  Schwerin  and  Al- 
bert Duke  of  GOstrow. 

The  Reformation  in  Mecklenburg  was  entirely  the 
work  of  the  two  joint  rulers,  Henry  V  and  Albert 
VII.  Even  Protestant  historians  have  testified  that 
before  the  Reformation  the  country  had  excellent 
bishops,  a  pious  clergy,  and  a  genuinely  Catholic  popu- 
lation. Both  dukes  were  early  won  over  to  Luther's 
cause  by  the  Humanist  Konrad  Pegel,  whom  Henry 
had  called  from  the  University  of  Rostock  as  tutor  for 
his  son  Magnus,  the  postulated  Bishop  of  Schwerin. 
The  duke  had  permitted  Pegel  to  go  to  Wittenberg, 
whence  the  latter  retiuned  an  ardent  adherent  of 
Luther.  Albert,  indeed,  soon  abandoned  the  new 
doctrine  and  maintained  the  old  faith  in  his  part  of 
the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  from  1524  jSenry 
allowed  the  new  doctrine  to  be  proclaimed  in  ^e 
chapel  of  the  castle  at  Schwerin,  and  protected  the 
preachers  even  in  his  brother's  domams.  Henry's 
chief  desire  was  to  obtain  the  Bishopric  of  Schwerm. 
Its  administrator,  his  son  Magnus,  who  had  married 
in  1543,  died  childless  in  1550,  and  Henrjr  saw  to  it 
that  the  chapter  elected  as  successor  his  nephew 
Ulrich. 

When  after  Albert's  death  in  the  year  1547  his  son 
John  Albert  (1547-7G)  came  to  power,  the  Reformation 
was  completely  established .  John  Albert  was  first  sole 
ruler  in  nis  father's  dominions,  then  in  1552  he  also 
succeeded  his  imcle  in  Schwerin,  but  he  resigned  the 
latter  princi{)ality  in  1555  to  his  brother  Ulrich. 
In  1549  the  joint  diet  at  Stembers  proclaimed  the 
Lutheran  Faith  to  be  the  religbn  of  the  state,  and  from 


MBCSLINBUBO 


109 


mCKLENBUBG 


1552  the  monasteries  were  secularized,  except  Dobbe- 
din,  Blalchow,  and  Ribnitz,  which  in  1572,  in  exchange 
for  aswiming  the  ducal  debts,  were  kept  in  existence 
for  the  unmarried  daughters  of  the  nobility,  and  have 
so  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  administration 
of  the  now  Protestant  Dioceses  of  Schwerin  and  Rat- 
seburg  was  carried  on  by  members  of  the  ruling 
dynasty.  The  Mass,  pilgrimages,  vows  of  religion 
etc.,  were  forbidden,  and  By  a  consistorial  decree  of 
1570  the  public  profession  of  the  Catholic  Faith  was 
prohibited. 

After  a  brief  reunion  of  the  two  principalities  in 
1610,  they  were  aeain  divided  (1621)  into  Mecklen- 
buig-Schwerin  ana  Mecklenburg-GQstrow  by  John 
Albert's  grandsons,  Adolf  Frederick  I  and  John  Albert 
U.  Thev  still  retained,  however,  in  common  the 
diet  (held  now  in  Sternberg  and  now  in  Malchow),  the 
University  of  Rostock,  and  the  consistory.  During 
the  Thirtv  Years'  War  both  dukes  formed  a  brief  af 
liaaoe  witn  King  Christian  IV  of  D^miark.  For  this 
they  were  placed  \mder  a  ban  by  the  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand IV  in  1628,  and  their  territories,  from  which  they 
were  expelled,  were  granted  to  Wallenstein  in  1629  as 
an  imperial  fief.  In  1631  Gustavus  Adolphus  restored 
them  their  lands,  and  in  1635,  after  the  fall  of  Wallen- 
stein, they  were  again  recognised  by  the  emperor. 
During  the  war  Mecklenburg  sufTered  terribly  from 
the  oppression  of  both  the  Swedish  and  the  imperial 
forces,  and  also  from  pestilence  and  famine.  The 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  assij^ed  the  Dioceses  of 
Schwerin  and  Ratzebuig  as  principalities  to  Schwerin, 
in  return  for  which  the  city  of  Wismar  and  the  dis- 
tricts of  Foel  and  Neukloster  were  yielded  to  Sweden. 
Adolf  Frederick  I  was  succeeded  in  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin  by  Christian  Ludwig  (1658-92),  who,  both 
before  and  after  his  succession,  lived  mainly  at  Paris, 
where  he  became  a  Catholic  in  1663.  Though  this 
step  opened  Mecklenburg  once  more  to  Catholics  (see 
below),  it  gave  them  no  secure  l^al  footing  even  in 
Schwerin,  while  in  Mecklenbuxs-GOstrow  the  most 
bitter  intolerance  of  everything  Catholic  continued  to 
prevail. 

When  Christian  Ludwiff  I  died  childless  in  1692, 
his  nephew  Frederick  William  laid  claim  to  the  suc- 
cession, and  was  opposed  by  Adolf  Frederick  II  of 
StrelitZy  the  only  orother  of  Christian  then  living. 
After  a  long  dispute,  the  Hamburg  Compact  was  made 
m  1701,  uirough  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold.  Adolf  Frederick  II  received  the  Princi- 
pality of  Ratseburs,  and  other  territories ;  the  remain- 
mg  territory  (by  mr  the  greater  part)  was  given  to 
Frederick  ySriUiam.  As  the  latter  selected  Schwerin 
for  bis  residence,  and  Adolf  Frederick  StreUtz,  the 
two  ruling  houses  have  since  always  been  distinguished 
as  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 

In  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  Frederick  William  and 
his  successor  Chaiies  Leopold  had  to  contend  with  the 
estates,  especially  with  tne  landed  proprietors  (RiUer- 
9chaH),  who  since  the  Thirty  Years'  War  had  secured 
the  farms  of  most  of  the  peasants  for  themselves,  and 
hy  oppression  had  forced  the  peasants  into  serfdom. 
With  the  aid  of  Russia  the  duke  drove  the  estates 
out  of  the  country.  These  applied  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI  for  help;  after  the  Russians  withdrew,  an 
impoial  commission  with  an  armv  to  execute  its  de- 
mands entered  the  country,  and  the  duke  was  forced 
in  1719  to  flee.  For  many  years  war  was  waged  in 
Mecklenburg  between  the  imperial  army  and  the  duke, 
^o  was  supported  by  Prussia  and  other  powers. 
The  ruler  ana  the  estates,  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
Leopold's  successor  Christian  Ludwig  II  (1747-^), 
finauy  came  to  an  agreement  in  1756;  this  compact, 
still  essentially  the  basis  of  the  constitution  ot  the 
country,  gave  the  estates  a  large  share  in  the  enact- 
ment of  uTwB  and  extensive  rights  in  the  voting  of 
supplies.  By  this  aereement  feudalism  won  a  com- 
plete victory  over  the  power  of  the  prince,  in  con- 


trast to  most  of  the  other  divisions  of  Germany,  whei^ 
at  that  era  the  absolutism  of  the  ruler  had  retained  its 
supremacy. 

Christian  Ludwig  II 's  son  Frederick  (1756-85)  im- 
proved the  primanr  schools,  strengthened  the  Uni- 
versity of  Rostock,  foimded  the  hi^  school  at  Biitzow, 
and  by  the  Peace  of  Teschen  obtamed  the  Privilegium 
de  non  appellando  (i.  e.,  there  could  be  no  appeal  to  the 
imperial  courts),  against  which  the  landed  proprietors 
vehemently  protested.  In  1803  his  nephew,  Fred- 
erick Francis  I  (1785-1835)  received  the  city  of 
Wismar  and  the  counties  of  Neukloster  from  Sweden 
as  pledges  for  a  loan  of  1,250,000  talers  (approxi- 
matelv  1937,500) ;  in  1903  Sweden  finally  relinquished 
its  right  of  redemption.  At  the  dissolution  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  in  1806,  the  two  dukes  became  inde- 
pendent sovereigns.  In  1808  both  princes  entered  ^e 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  but  jomed  the  Allies  op- 
posed to  Napoleon  in  good  time  in  1813 ;  in  1815  both 
took  the  title  of  grand  duke  and  entered  the  German 
Confederation. 

The  movement  of  1848  spread  rapidly  in  both  grand 
duchies,  especially  in  the  cities.  A  proclamation  of 
23  March,  1848,  of  Archduke  Fredenck  Francis  I  of 
Mecklenbuig-Schwerin  (1842-83)  acknowledged  the 
necessity  of  a  reform  in  the  constitution — ^an  example 
followed  by  Duke  George  of  Strelitz  (1816-60).  An 
extraordinary  diet  (1848-9^  drew  up  a  liberal  consti- 
tution, to  which  the  Grand  Duke  of  Schwerin  swore 
in  August.  1849,  but  against  which  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Strelitz,  tne  annates  of  both  houses,  and  also  Prussia, 
on  account  of  its  rights  of  inheritance  of  1442,  pro- 
tested. In  September,  1850,  a  court  of  arbitration 
of  the  German  Confederation  decided  in  favour  of  the 
claimants,  and  on  14  September  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Schwerin  annulled  the  new  constitution  and  the  old., 
semi-feudal  constitution  came  again  uito  force.  In 
the  war  of  1866  both  princes  sided  with  Prussia 
against  Austria;  on  21  August  of  the  same  year  they 
signed  the  Prussian  draft  of  the  North  German  Con- 
federation, and  in  1867  joined  this  confederacy.  In 
1866  both  states  became  members  of  the  Customs 
Union,  and  in  1871  they  became  constituent  parts  of 
the  German  Empire.  Since  their  union  with  the  Ger- 
man Empire  in  1871,  unceasing  efforts  have  been  made 
for  a  reasonable  reform  of  their  obsolete  constitution, 
which  is  no  longer  in  accord  with  the  new  empire.  So 
far  all  attempts  have  failed,  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
the  estates,  especially  of  the  landed  proprietors  (/{t^- 
ierschaft)  who  have  held  to  their  privileges  with  unusual 
obstinacy.  The  present  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin  is  Frederick  Francis  IV,  succeeded  1897;  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg-Strelits  is  Adolf  Frederick 
V,  succeeded  1904. 

Staiittics. — ^Mecklenburg-Schwerin  has  an  area  of 
about  5068  sq.  miles.  In  1905  it  had  625,045  in- 
habitants, of  whom  609,914  were  Lutherans,  12,835 
Catholics,  and  1482  Jews.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  has 
an  area  of  about  1131  sq.  miles.  In  1905  it  had  103,- 
451  inhabitants,  of  whom  100,314  were  Lutherans, 
2627  Catholics,  and  298  Jews.  Both  grand  duchies 
are  hereditary  monarchies;  from  1523  they  have 
had  a  common  assembly  or  diet  made  up  of  the  landed 
proprietors  (RiUerachaft),  and  the  burgomasters  of 
specified  towns  (Landtchaft).  The  RiUerschaft  con- 
sists of  about  750  owners,  whether  noble  or  not,  of 
about  1200  landed  properties  which  carry  with  them 
the  right  to  a  vote  m  tne  assembly.  The  Landschaft 
is  composed  of  the  burgomasters  of  the  cities  of  Ros- 
tock and  Wismar,  and  the  municipal  authorities  of 
the  forty  inland  cities  of  Schwerin  and  the  seven 
inland  cities  of  Strelitz.  The  principality  of  Ratze- 
burg,  which  has  an  assembly  of  estates  of  its  own,  is 
not  represented  in  the  general  estates,  neither  are  the 
city  of  Neustrelitz,  nor  the  inhabitants  of  the  crown 
domain  (domanium),  that  is,  the  land  personally 
owned  by  the  ruler,  in  whicm  he  is  still  absolute 


mCKLBNBUBa  110  mCXUMBUBa 

sovereien  in  making  laws  and  levying  taxes.  The  complete  freedom,  and  in  the  year  1842  for  the  first 
crown  aomain  includes  about  43  per  cent  of  the  area  time  since  the  Refonnataon  a  Catholic  bishop,  LQpcke 
and  about  32  |>er  cent  of  the  innabitants.  The  es-  of  OsnabrQck,  was  able  to  hold  a  confirmation  at 
tates  have  an  important  share  in  le^lation  and  a  Schwerin.  However,  the  conversion,  from  1848  on- 
deciding  vote  in  questions  of  taxation,  and  in  all  wards,  of  many  important  men,  among  them  von 
auestions  pertaining  to  their  ri^ts;  in  other  matters  Vogelsang,  von  BOlow,  von  der  Kettenburg,  Professor 
tieir  opimon  has  to  be  obtained.  Maassen,  etc.,  gave  an  opportunity  to  the  intolerant 
^  The  Lutheran  Church  has  a  consistorial  constitu-  party  to  withdraw  the  freedom  granted  the  Catholics, 
tion.  The  head  of  the  church  is  the  sovereign,  who  to  which  action  both  estates  and  Government  gave 
exercises  his  rights  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  by  their  aid.  In  1852  extension  to  other  localities  of  the 
means  of  an  upi>er  consistory;  in  Mecklenburg-  Catholic  services  was  forbidden,  idso  the  coming  into 
Strelitz  by  a  consistory.  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  is  Mecklenburg  of  priests  not  natives  of  the  ootmtiy; 
divided  into  7  superintendencies  and  36  provostsbips  these  measures  were  so  strictly  enforced  that  the  pri- 
or deaneries ;  Mecklenburg-Strelits  into  1  superin-  vate  chaplain  of  Herr  von  der  Kettenburg  was  taken 
tenden^  and  7  imiods.  over  the  Doundary  by  gendarmes. 

The  C^itholic  Church  in  both  grand  duchies  is  under  In  1857  permission  to  burv  the  dead  according  to 
the  supervision  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Northern  the  Cathohc  ceremonial,  and  the  ri^t  to  celebrate 
Missions,  the  Bishop  of  OsnabrOck.  After  the  Mass  publidv  were  limited  to  Schwenn  and  Ludwigs* 
Reformation  Catholicism  was  almost  extinguished  in  lust.  The  Government  of  Mecklenburg-Strelits  was 
Mecklenburg,  and  its  public  exerdse  threatened  with  still  more  intolerant.  For  many  years,  even  in  the 
punishment.  For  nearly  a  hundred  years  it  could  nineteenth  century,  no  priest  was  permitted  to  have 
onl^r  be  practised  in  secret.  The  conversion  of  Duke  a  permanent  residence  in  its  territoiy ;  all  that  was 
Christian  Ludwig  I  in  1063  produced  the  first  change  conceded  was  that  the  Catholic  priest  at  Wittstock 
of  conditions.  Notwithstanding  the  protests  of  his  in  Brandenburs  could  stay  at  Neustrelita  one  week 
ducal  brothers  and  the  estates,  he  called  Catholic  of  each  month  for  ecclesiastical  functions.  This  per- 
priests  into  the  coimtry  and  granted  them  the  castle  secution  of  Catholics  was  kept  up.  not  by  the  rulers, 
chapel  at  Schwerin  for  the  celebration  of  Mass.  The  who  were  generally  well  inchned,  but  by  the  narrow- 
right  to  do  this  was  confirmed  to  him  in  1666  by  the  minded  estates.  Public  opinion,  even  outside  of 
imperial  Diet.  Many  of  the  chief  nobility  followed.  Catholic  Germany,  repeatedly  arose  against  this  per- 
at  that  time,  the  example  of  their  ruler,  and  retumea  secution,  and  was  often  expressed  in  sharp  protest  in 
to  the  Church  of  their  forefathers,  as  the  hereditary  the  German  Diet. 

Marshal  Joachim  Christian  Hahn,  of  the  same  family        The  Governments  of  the  two  duchies  were  finally 

as  that  from  which  the  convert  Ida,  Coimtess  Hahn-  forced  by  pressure  from  the  empire  to  gnmt  the  Catho- 

Hahn,  came.  lies  a  oertain^et  still  entirely  insufficient,  amount 

The  Catholic  Faith,  notwithstanding  this,  did  not  of  freedom.    There  is  however  no  equality  as  there 

attain  a  lesal  position,  and  the  duke  never  permitted  should  be  to  bring  Mecklenburg  into  accord  with  the 

a  Catholic  church  to  be  buHt,  although  the  Vicar  Apos-  constitution  of  the  empire  or  with  a  modem  civilised 

tolic  of  the  Northern  Missions,  Nicholas  Steno^  who  state.    Althoudi  an  ordinance  of  5  January,  1903 

lived  in  Schwerin  from  1685,  made  evenr  exertion  to  granted  to  Ca&olics  the  public  exercise  of  tneir    ~ 


gain  his  consent.    Consequently,  when  Christian  Lud-  Qgion  everywhere,  nevertheless  the  permission  of  the 

wig  died   the  Catholic  services   ceased.    The  only  ruler  is  necessary  for  the  erection  and  alteration  of 

church  services  now  allowed  were  held  in  the  private  parishes,  the  building  of  churches  and  chapels,  ap- 

chapel  of  the  chancellor  of  the  next  duke.  Count  Horn,  pointoient  of  priests,  for  the  settling  in  the  country 

who  had  become  a  Catholic.    With  the  death  of  the  of  orders  and  congregations,  and  for  the  holding  of  pro- 

coimt  this  privilege  expired.    It  was  not  until  1701  cessions;  nor  have  tiie  Catholics  any  legal  redress  if 

that  the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  this  consent  is  refused. 

again  permitted,'  this  time  in  the  chapel  of  the  im-  Furthermore   in  r^;ard   to  educational  matters, 

perial  ambassador  von  Egk.    In  1702.  when  the  am-  Catholics  are  not  on  an  equality  with  Protestants, 

bassador  left   Schwerin,    Duke   Frederick  William  They  must  indeed  contribute  to  the  expenses  of  the 

transferred  this  right  to  a  Catholic  lady,  Frau  von  schools,  but  for  their  purely  private  Catholic  schools 

Bibow.    Through  her  efforts  the  Jesuits  were  en-  they  receive  no  allowance  from  the  civil  oommmies, 

trusted  with  the  mission  in  Schwerin ;  from  1709  they  often  indeed  they  are  not  allowed  to  use  the  state 

established   themselves  here  permanently.    Father  schools  for  giving  instruction.    Ihere  is  no  hi^er 

von  St5cken  (1730-43)  was  aole  to  brin^  it  about  Catholic  education  in  either  grand  duchy.    MecUen^ 

that  in  1731  a  house  was  secured  for  the  mission,  and  burg-Schwerin  has  two  Catholic  parishes,  one  ead^  at 

that  the  church  service,  which  up  to  then  had  been  Schwerin  and  Ludwigslust.  and  dependent  churches 

Erivate,  could  be  a  public  one.  He  also  succeeded  at  Rostock  and  Wismar;  tne  priests  altogether  num- 
y  imwearied  effort  in  foimding  a  school  at  Schwerin,  ber  8.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  has  1  pansh  with  2 
where  five  to  seven  boys  could  be  prepared  for  the  priests.  The  spiritual  care  of  the  summer  farm- 
Collegium  Nordicum  at  Linz  in  Upper  Austria,  labourers  presents  great  difficulties.  These  men. 
From  1764  a  priest  from  Schwerm  was  able  to  dia-  who  number  about  20,000-22,000  and  are  chiefly 
tribute  communion  to  the  Catholic  soldiers  at  Rostock  Poles,  sojourn  in  Mecklenburg  annually  from  Mar<£ 
in  the  hall  of  ihe  exchange,  and  to  hold  Mass  for  until  September  in  order  to  work  on  uie  farms  and 
Catholics  who  attended  the  market  there  at  Pentecost,  estates. 

Although  Christian  Lud  wig  II  had  granted  permission  Bachkann,  Die  landethmdlidie  LUenUur  iAer  die  OroeOier- 

for  the  building  of  a  church,  Frederick,  who  inclined  MOQtamer  Mecklenburg  (Wiflmar,  1890);  Luch,  Meeklmbmger 

to  a  rigorous  pietism,  forbade  its  erection.    The  pre-  ^'*I*^  JL.?®fc*  ^^^-^  ^^I'^^l*  ;^?°^*?2inf  ^5^ 

paratory  school  at  bchwenn  came  to  an  end  when  Unbvrtfer  Urkwdenbuch  (22  vols..  Schwerin.  1863-1907);  Boll, 

the   Emperor  Joseph    II   suppressed   the   Collegium  OeecMehte  Mecklef^mrqe  (2  pts.,  Neubrandenbum*   1855-fi6); 

Nordicum.    Fredenck  Francis  I,  two  of  whose  chil-  ?'^•^/^^^y***^*^^9J?*!5lJ^^ 

^«««  u^^^^  n«+u«i:«-    ««.,«.  *i*J^^^,^  4.^  u.rnj  jaT  AtuMeekUnburoeVermngenheUiBMtvahon.lSSOyiKJUiBMtMeek' 

dren  became  Catholics,  gave  the  money  to  build  the  Unbwvieche  VcUertandekunde  (2nd  ed..  3  vols..  1898-96);  Meek- 

Catholic   church   at   Ludwigslust.     Cn   entering   the  lenbwviaehe  OeechichU  in  BinteldareteUungen  (12  pta.,  Berim. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  Frederick  had  agr^d  to  ]SS^}^}Sllf'^^^*i!il!j!ft^^yT^  XmjWy**  (Beifia. 

place  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion  on  a  legal  eootwne   Meeklenbwg-Schwerin  (Hanover.  1900);    Bruitb^o, 

parity  with  that  of  the  Lutheran,  and  in  1811  this  was  Staate-  und  VertoaUtmQereeht  dee  OroeeKenoatume  Meeklmhwg' 

gone  StreliU  (Hanover,  1910);  WriTB.  MeckleiSmvimdie  Oeeehiehie 

i?JL^  *v«*  *A^^  <v«  ♦!,«  n^4\.^u^  i^  -^kj.     -.   •        J  (Wismar,  1909);  Scbnbll,  Dae  VnierriiAieweeen  der  Oroeeher- 

r  mm  that  time  on  the  Catholics  m  reality  enjoyed  togutmer  MeckUnbu$v-Schwerin  und  MeekUnburgSireHig  (3  voh. 


Faith,  Buch  aa  tlie  BleBsed  Sacrament  or  the  DivioB 
Attributes),  they  are  used  to  Inculcata  lessons  of 
piety,  are  specially  blessed  to  serve  as  badges  ol 
pious    associBtions    or  to    consecrate    and    protect 

,  the  weai«r,  and  Snally  are  often  enridked  with  indul' 

. ,   Jean-Paui.,   Jesuit  raisaionary;    b.  at  gencea. 

CarcasoiuiG,  the  capital  of  tho  Department  of  Aude,  it,    'toe   Earlt   Chdrch,— It   was   at   one    time 
France,  29  January,  1618;  d.  at  Auch,  the  capital  doubted  whether  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  purely 
of  the   Department  of  Gers,  France,  15  May,  1689.  devotional  medal  was  known  in  the  early  ages  of 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  15  August,  1640,  and  Christianity.     Certain  objects  of  this  kind  were  da- 
fttter  completing  his  studies  spent  a  number  of  years  in  scribed  and  figured  by  seventeenth-century  writers  on 
the  classroom,  teaching  both  the  lower  and  higher  the  Catacombs,  and  a  few  such  were   preserved   in 
studies  of  the  college  courses  and  particularly,  for  the  museums.     All  these,  however,  were  regarded  with 
amce  of  six  years,  philosophy.      Later  he  was  ap-  much  suspicion  before  the  appearance  of  an  epoch- 
plied   to   the  work  of  preachmg,  which  may  he  re-  making  article   by  de   Rossi   in   the   "BuUettino  di 
garded  as  his  life  work;   to  this  he  gave  himself  up  Areheologia  Cristiana"  for  1869,  since  which  time  tho 
almost  exclusively  for  eighteen  years,  until  advancing  question  has  been  practically  set  at  rest  and  the  au- 
age  and  the  inBrmities  brought  oo  by  his  laborious  and  thenticity  of  some  at  least  of  these  specimens  has  re- 
austere  life  forced  him  to  devote  hunself  to  the  less  mained  undisputed,     A  moment's  consideration  will 
faliRuing  work  of  directing  sodaUties  and  of  hearing  esUblish  the  intrinsic  probability  of  the  existence  of 
confeBsions,  especially  of  the  poor.    He  was  one  of  the  such  objects.    The  use  of  amulets  in  pagan  antiquity 
number  of  illustrious  misaioners  formed  m  the  school 
of  St.  Francis  Regis  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  spent 
the  best  years  of  his  life  in  the  evangelisation  of  Velay, 
Auvergne,  Languedoc,  and  Aveyron.     His  apostolic 
labours  were  attended  with  creater  and  more  lasting 
fruit,   because  he  established  wherever  he  preached 
Fervent  sodalities  of  men  and  women  who,  by  all  sorts 
of  works  of  charity,  such  as  instructing  children,  visit- 
ing the  sick,  helping  the  poor,  perpetuated  and  ex- 
tended the  fruits  of  his  missions.     These  pious  sodali- 
ties, however,  lacked  certain  elements  wnich  Father 
Medaille  re^rded  as  necessary  for  the  stability  of  his 
work.     Their  members,  although  devoted,  were  ham- 
pers! in  many  nays  and  by  many  ties  in  the  exercise  of 
their  seal.    Father  Medaille  resolved,  therefore,  to  start 
a  congregation  of  nuns  who  should  give  themselves  up 
wholly  and  unreservedly  to  all  the  spiritual  and  cor- 

Kral  works  of  merev.     Having  matured  his  plans, 

laid  them  before  Mgr  de  Maupas,  who  gave  them  „«  widespread.     The  Word  amufcfum  itself  occure  in 

his  fullest  approval.     Shortly  after,  Father  Medaille  p|i„y,  and  many  monuments  show  how  talismans  of 

founded  the  Congr^ation  of  the  histers  of  St.  Joseph,  (his  kind  were  worn  around  the  neck  by  all  classes. 

The  general  idea  of  the  congregatiorj  was  drawn,  at  That  the  early  Chureh  should  have  found  the  abuse 

least  to  a  certam  extent,  from  the  works  of  St.  Francis  ineradicable  and  should  have  striven  to  counteract  it 

de  Sales,  but  the  details  of  its  practical  development  by  suggesting  or  tolerating  some  analogous  practice  of 

were  bas^  ahnost  entirely  on  the  corutitutions  of  the  an  innocent  character,  is  in  itself  highly  probabkt. 

Society  of  Jesus.     It  is  as  the  founder  of  this  oon-  Many   parallel   concessions   of  this   iund   might   be 

gregation  that  Father  Medaille  is  best  known.     His  quoted.    The  letter  of  Gregory  the  Great  to  St.  MeUi- 

aclive  life  left  him  no  tune  for  wntmg;  oonsequeolly  tus  about  the  dedication  of  pagan  temples,  preserved 

we  have  nothmg  from  hu  pen,  aside  from  some  corre-  to  us  by  Bede  (Hist.  Eccl.,  J,  xxx),  supplies  perhaps 

spondence,  except  the    Constitutions  pour  la  Con^re-  the  most  famous  example.     Moreover  we  know  that 

gation  das  S<Burs  de  Samt-Joseph  '.     These  constitu-  the  same  St.  Gregory  sent  to  Theodolind,  Queen  of  the 

tions  have  been  mcorreclly  attnbuted  to  Father  Peter  Lombards,  two  phylacteria— the  cases  are  still  pre- 

Medaillc,  S.J.     It  is  true  that  Father  Peter  Medaille  gerved   at   Monza— containing   a   relic   of  the   Trie 

contributed  much  m  later  years  to  the  establishment  Cross  and  a  ^ntence  from  Qie  Gospels,  which  her 

on  a  firm  baeU  and  to  the  spread  of  the  congregation,  child  Adulovald  was  to  wear  around  his  neck, 

butatthe  lime  of  ite  foundation  hewas  still  anovice  This,  however,  and  the  practice  of  wearing  "encol- 

and  had  neither  the  experience  nor  the  authority  ueo-  pia",  little  pectoral  crosses,  lent  itself  to  abuses  when 

esiary  for  BO  responsible  a  work.  magical  formula  began  to  be  joined  to  Christian  sym- 

.^J;.tp£ri'^)!'iS.ir«  S^5^"^i''^'J^  ^^-  "  "^  regularly  the  practi^  of  the  Gnostics 

■   ^'-  -   '--" d<  J'nuua,  1  (Paris,  1802),  031  aq.  Hence  We  find  many  of  the  Fathers  of  the  fourth  and 


J.  H.  FiBBBB.  *"ter   centuries   protesting   more   or   less  vigorously 
against  these  phylacteries  (cf.  St.  Jerome,  "  In  Matt.  , 

li,  Devotional. — A  medal  may  be  defined  iv,  33;  P.  L.,  XXVI,  174).    But  that  Christians  of 

to  be  a  piece  of  metal,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  good  name  did  wear  auch  objects  of  piety  round  their 

not  used  as  money,  but  struck  or  cast  for  a  commem-  necks  is  certain,  and  it  is  consequently  probable  that 

orative  purpoae,  and  adorned  with  some  appropriate  tokens  bearing  various  Christian  devices,  should  have 

effigy,  device,  or  inscription.     In  the  present  article  been  cast  in  metal  for  a  similar  purpose.     In  Africa 

we  are  concerned  only  with  religious  medals.     These  (see  "BuUettino  di  Areh.  Crist.    ,  1891],  the  moulds 

are  more  varied  even  than  secular  medals,  for  they  are  have  been  found  in  which  Uttie  crosses  were  cart  with 

produced  not  only  to  commemorate  persons  (e.  g.  rings  to  hang  them  by.      It  follows  therefore  that 

Chrirt,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  Saints),  places  (e.  g.  certain  coin-like  objects,  for  which  there  exists  good 

famous  shrines)  and  past  historical  events  (e,  g.  dog-  evidence  of  their  being  actually  discovered  in  the  uat- 

matic  definitions,  miracles,  dedications,  etc.),  as  well  acomba,  must  be  reearded  as  genuine  relics  of  the  de- 

ae  personal  graces  like  First  Commimion,  Orainatlon,  votional  practices  of  the  early  Church.     Two  or  thrsa 

etc,  but  they  are  also  often  concerned  with  the  order  of  these  are  specially  famous.      One,  which  de  Rosai 

of  ideas  (e-  g-  they  may  recall  the  mysteries  of  our  attributes  to  tne  close  of  the  fourth  century,  bean  upon 


XKDALS                                112  UDAM 

both  faces  the  lecend  Sdccesoa  Vivas,  bd  "Hclam»-  entinly  died  out,  itiU  little  erideiiee  exiatx  of  tlie  uw 
tion  "  which  probably  indicates  that  the  medal  was  of  medals  in  the  Middle  A^.      No  traces  <rf  such  ob- 
caat  for  a  certain  Sucoeaaa  to  commemorate,  perhaps,  jects  survive  remarkable  either  for  aitistie  skill  or  for 
her  dedication  to  God.    On  one  aide  we  see    reprc-  the  value  of  the  metal,  and  to  speak  positively  of  the 
sented  the   martyrdom   of  a   saint,  presumably  St.  date  of  certain  objects  of  lead  and  pewter  which  may 
Lawrence,  who  isDeing  roasted  upon  a  gridiron  in  the  have  been  hung  round  the  neck  with  a  religious  intend 
presence  of  the  Roman  magistrate.     The   Christian  is  not  always  easy.     But  in  the  course  of  the  twelf [fa 
chaiacterofthe  scene  is  shown  by  the  chrisma,   p  the  century,  if  not  earlier,  a  very  general  practice  grew  up 
A  and  O,  and  the  martyr's  crown.     On  the  t*  re-  at  well-known  places  of  pilgrunage,  of  casting  tokena 
verse  is  depicted  a  cancellated  structure,  no  doubt  the  in  lead,   and  sometimes   probably  in  other  metals, 
tomb  of  St.  Lawrence,  while  a  figure  stands  in  a  revei^  which  served  the  pilgrim  as  a  souvenir  and  stimuliu 
ent  attitude  before  it  noldinz  aloft  a  candle.  to  devotion  and  at  the  same  time  attested  the  fact  tliat 
A  second  remarkable  medal,  which  bears  the  name  he  had  duly  reached  his  deetination.     These  aignacula 
of  GAtJOENTiANtrB  on  the  obverse  and  Urbicus  on  the  {erueiffnta)   known  in  English  as  "pilgrims'   signs" 
reverse,  depicts  seemingly  on  one  face  the  sacrifice  of  often  took  a  medallic  form  and  were  carried  in  a  coo- 
Abrahsim;  on  the  other  we  see  apparently  a  shrine  or  sptcuous  way  upon  the  hat  or  breast.     Uir^dus  Cam- 
altar,  above  which  three  candles  are  burning,  towards  brensis  referring  to  a  journey  he  made  to  Canterbury 
which  ft  tall  figure  carrying  a  chalice  in  one  hand  is  about  the  year  1180,  ten  years  after  the  nuutyrdcHn  of 
conductingalittle child.  St.  Thomas,  describes  himself  and   his  comp&nioiu 
The  scene  no  doubt  rep-  returning  to  London  "  cum  signaculis  Beati  Thonue  a 
resents  the  consecration  collo  suspcnsis  "  [with  the  tokens  of  St.  Thomas  bang- 
to  God  of  the  child  as  an  ing  round  their  neck]  (Opera,  Rolls  Series,  I,  p.  £3i. 
oblaU  (q.  v.)  hy  his  fa-  Again  the  author  of  Piere  the  Plowman  writes  <rf  his 
ther  before  the  shrine  at  imaginary  pilgrim: 
some  martvr,  a  custom  A^  hundred  of  ampullee  on  his  hat  setea, 

I  for  which  tnere  is  a  good  _  Signes  of  syse  and  shelles  of  Galice ; 

deal  of  early  evidence.  '  Andmanyacn>ucheonhisclake,andkeyesof  Rome, 

Other  medals  are  much  And  the  vcmicle  bifore,  for  men  shulde  knowe 

more  simple,  bearing  And  see  by  his  signes  whom  he  sought  hadde. 

only  the  chrisma  with  The  "ampulles"  probably  represent  Canterbury, 

a   name   or    perhaps  a  but  may  have  been  tokens  of  the  Holy  Tear  of  Ven- 

croBs.  Others  impressed  dAme  (see  For^is,"  Collection  ",  I V,  65  sq.) ;  Syse 

with  more  compHcated  stands  for  Assisi.     The  "shelles  of  Galice",  i.  e.  the 

Lead  Ubdal                  devices   can  only  be  scallop-sbellsofSt.  Jameeof  Compostella;  tbecrouche, 

From  "Bullettino  dl  ■roiwaloiia  dated    wltii    difficulty,  or  cross,  of  the  Holy  Land ;  the  keys  of  St.  Peter;  the 
■emicle  ",  or  figuiB  of  the  Veronica,  etc.  are  all  verT 

'■■      ■  ......J..   "--"-    -ofsuch 


spurious,  or,  as  in  the  case  particularly  of  ac 


.    .        1  particularly  of  some  repre-  familiar  types,  repieeented  in  most  collections  of  such 

sentations  of  the  adoration  of  the  Magi  which  seem  to  objects.     The  pnvilege  of  casting  and  selling  these 

show  strong  traces  of  Bysai)^me  influence,  they  be-  pilgrim's  signs  was  a  very  valuable  one  and  became  a 

long  to  a  much  later  epoch.    Some  of  the  medals  or  re^ar  source  of  income  at  most  places  of  religious 

medallions  reputedly  Christian  are  stamped  upon  one  resort. 

Bideonly,andofthisclaas  is  a  famous  bronie  medallion  Then,  as  maner  and  custom  is,  signes  there  they 

of  very  artistic  execution  discovered  by  Boldeti  in  the  bought  .  .  . 

cemetery  of  Domitilla  and  now  preserved  in  the  Vati-  Each  man  set  his  silver  in  suoh  thing  as  he  liked, 

can  Library.     It  bears  two  portrait  types  of  the  heads  writes  a  fourteenth-century  satirist  of   one  of  theap 

of  the  Apostles  8S.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  is  assinied  by  shrines.     Moreover  we  find  that  the  custom  was  firmly 

de  Rossi  to  the  second  centuiy.      Other  medallions  established  in  Rome  itself,  and  Pope  Innocent  III,  by 

with  the  (confronted)  heads  of  the  two  apostles  are  a  letter  of  18  Jan,,  1200  (Potthast,  "R^sesta",  n. 

also  known  and  a  lively  controversy  lareely  based  on  939),  grants  to  the  canons  of  St.  Peter's  the  monopcdy 

these  medallic  material  has  been  carrieaon  regarding  of  casting  and  selling  those  "  signs  of  lead  or  pewter 

the  probability  of  their  having  preserved  the  tradition  impressed  with  the  image  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and 

of  an  authentic   likeness.      {See   particularly  Weis-  — 
Liebersdorf,   "Christus   und   Apoefelbiider",    pp.  83 
sq.).     Certain  supposed  early  medals  with  the  htid  of 
our  Saviour  are  distinctly  open  to  suspicion. 

How  far  the  use  of  such  medals  of  devotion   ex- 


Verona  have  suggested  that  a  medal  of  this  kind  waa 
commonly  given  as  a  memorial  of  baptism,  but  the 
point  is  doubtful.  In  the  hfe  of  St.  Geneviive, 
which,  despite  the  opinion  of  B.  Krusch,  is  of  early 
dat«,  we  read  that  St.  Qermanua  of  Auxerre  hung 
around  her  neck  a  perforated  bronie  coin  marked 
with  the  sign  of  the  croaa,  in  memoiy  of  her  having  Medal  o»  a»DDEBTi*»T» 


consecrated  her  vuginity  to  God  (Mon.  Ger.  Hist.:  FWm "BuUeitino di ircheoiop. orwiana - 

Script.  Merov.,  Ill,  217).    The  language  seemd  to  sug-  Paul  with  which  those  who  visit  their  thresholds  [K- 

geet  tiat  an  ordinajry  coin  was  bored  for  the  purpose,  mina]  adorn  themselves  (or  the  increase  of  their  own 

and  when  we  recall  how  many  of  the  coins  of  the  late  devotion  and  in  testimony  of  the  jounoey  which  they 

empire  were  stamped  with  the  chrisma  or  with  the  have  accomplished",  and  the  pope's  language  implka 

figure  of  the  Saviour,  it  is  easy  to  believe  that  the  or-  that  this  custom  had  existed  for  some  time.     In  fonn 

dmaiy  currenfiy  may  often  have  been  used  tor  similar  and  fashion  these  pilgrims'  signs  are  very  various  and 

[uous  purposes.  a  considerable  literature  exists  upon  the  subject  (see 

I>uitiNaTBEHn>i>LEAaBS.^Althoughitiaprobable  especially   the    work   of   Forgeais,     "Collection    de 

that  the  traditknu  formed  by  the  class  at  objects  Plombs  historifa",  5  vols,.  Pans,  1864).     Prom  about 

which  we  have  been  considering,  and  which  were  the  twelfth  century  the  casting  of  these  devotional 

•qually  familiar  at  Rome  and  at  Constant mople,  never  objects  continued  until  the  close  of  the  Middle  Agea 


113  UEDAL8 

and  ev«n  Uter,  but  in  the  sixteenth  or  aevent«enth  roUe,  "Les  Hddailleurs  Fnu^is",  1002-1904,  vol.  I, 

century  they  began  to  be  replaced  by  medals  properly  ptwe  lii). 

BOC&Uedinbroiueoriiisilver,  often  with  much  creater         In  Modehn  Tiheb. — Although  roughly  speaking  it 

pretemionB  to  aitistio  execution.     With  these  leaden  ia  correct  to  say  that  medoia  were  unknown  in  the 

Bigaa  should  be  noted  the  custom  of  castins  coin-like  Middle  Ages,  still  their  introduction  belongs  t«  the 

tokens  in  ccHinexion  with  the  Feastof  Fools  (q.  v.),  the  early  Renaissance  period,  and  it  is  only  when  we  con- 

eelebivtion  of  the  Boy  Bishop  and  the  Innocents.  The  aider  them  as  a  form  of  popular  devotion  that  we  can 

extant  specimens  belong  mostly  to  the  sixteenth  cen-  deacribe  them  as  of  post-Reformation  origin.    .Medals 

tury,  but  the  practice  must  be  much  older.     Thoueh  properly  so  called,  i.  e.  pieces  of  metal  struck  or  cast 

there  is  often  a  burlesque  element  introduced,  l£e  with  a  commemorative  purpose,  liegon,  though  thero 

Jeeends  and  devioea  shown  by  such  pieces  are  nearly  are  only  a  few  raie  specimens,  in  tl^  laist  years  of  the 

air  icligious;    e.  g.,   ex  obb  JurASCiuu  PEsnciSTi  fourteenth  century  (Rondot,  loc.  cit.,  60-62).     The 

IUaitdem;  innocenb  voub  aideba,  etc  (see  Vanhende,  first  certainly  known  medal  was  struck  for  Fra 


"PlomnUs  des  Innocents,"  Lille,  1877).  Carrara  (Novello)  on  the  occasion  of  the  capture   _. 

Better  deserving  of  attention  are  the  vast  rollec-  Padua  in  1390,  but  practically  tbe  vogue  of  this  form 
tjoo  of  jeUmi  and  nUreauz  which,  banning  in  the  o(  art  was  created  by  Vittore  Fisano,  called  Fisanello 
thirteenth  century,  continued  to  be  produced  all 
through  ttie  Middle  Ages  and  lasted  on  in  some  places 
down  to  the  French  Revolution.  The  jetons  were 
strictJy  speaking  countera,  i.  e.,  they  were  thin  pieces 
of  metal,  mostly  latten,  a  sort  of  brass,  stamped  on 
both  sides  with  some  device  and  orieinally  used  in 
GOnjanction  with  a  amtptoir  (i.  e.,  an  abacus  or  count- 
inK  board)  to  perform  arithmetical  computations. 
The  name  comes  from  jeter,  throueh  tbe  form  jectoir, 
beoause  tjiey  were  "  thrown  dowiT'  upon  this  lioard 
(see  Rondot,  "Mddailleurs  Fran^ais",  Paris,  1904,  p. 
48).  It  soon  became  the  fashion  for  every  personase 
of  distinction,  especially  those  who  had  anything  to  do 
with  finance,  to  have  special  jetons  bearme  his  own 
device,  and  upon  some  of  these  considerable  artistic 
skill  was  lavisbed.  These  pieces  served  various  pur- 
poses besides  that  for  which  they  were  ori^nally  de- 
signed, and  thev  were  often  used  in  the  Middle  Ages 
where  we  should  now  use  a  ticket  or  printed  card.  As 
might  be  expected,  they  tended  to  take  a  relimous 
tone.  Upon  nearly  half  tbe  medieval  jetons  which 
survive,  pious  mottoes  are  found  and  often  pious  de~ 

vices  (Rouyer,  "Histoire  du  Jetwi",  p.  30).     Among  Hidmuos  of  En*iiji[,  Pmt.  ami.  Colodh«d  Bonb 

the  commonest  of  these  mott^ee,  which  however  vary  """^  "=■«'""■    "  oimitero  di  Santa  AmtM* 

infinitely,  we  might  name  avb  habia  oratia  plena;  (c.  1380-1451),  and  its  first  developments  were  all 
AiiKsi}iEnETLo(i.e.aimes  dieuetloueile);  IHSson  Italian.  These  early  Renaianance  medah,  magnifi- 
GHB  soiT  PAFT  ci;  viBOO  MATES  ECCLESIE  STERNE  Cent  as  they  ate,  belong  to  civil  life  and  only  touch 
pohta;  douine  domikus  nostgb,  etc.  Often  these  upon  our  immediate  subject,  hut  though  not  leligious 
jetons weregivenaapresentsor"pi6cesdeplaisir"ee-  in  intent  many  of  them  possess  a  strone  religious 
peei&lly  to  persons  M  high  consideration,  and  on  such  colouring.  Nothing  more  aevotional  could  be  imsg- 
toey  were  often  specially  struck  in  gold  or    ined  tlum  the  beautiful  reverse  of  Pisano's  medal  of 


silver.  One  particular  and  veiy  common  use  of  ie-  Molatesta  Novello,  where  the  mail-clad 
tons  was  to  serve  as  vouchers  lor  attendance  at  tne  mounting  from  his  horse  is  represented  as  kneeling  be- 
cathedral  oBices  and  meetings  of  various  kinds.  In  fore  the  crucifix.  So  again  the  laree  medal,  in  the 
this  case  they  often  carried  with  them  a  title  to  certain  British  Museum,  of  Savonarola  holding  the  crucifix, 
rations  or  payments  of  money,  the  amount  beiitg  some-  probably  executed  by  Andrea  della  Robbia,  portrays 
times  stamped  on  the  piece.  The  tokens  thus  used  with  rare  fidelity  his  deep-set  glowing  eye,  liis 
were  known  as /«lcTu  da  pr^fence  or  mA'caux,  and  they  bonv  cheeks,  the  strong  noee  and  protruding  lips' 
were  lugelyuBed,eBpeciallyat  aaomewhat  laterdate,  (Fanriciy,  "Italian  Medals",  p.  133),  while  the  re- 
secure  thedueattendonceofttMcanonsatthecathe-  verse  displays  tbe  avenguig:  sword  of  God  and  the 


dral  offices,  etc.  What,  however,  specially  justifies  Holy  Ghost  hovering  over  Ibe  doomed  city  of  Floi^ 
their  mention  in  the  present  place  is  the  fact  that  in  ence.  Wonderful  again  in  their  reiieious  feelinK  are 
many  cases  the  pious  device  tney  bore  was  as  much  or  Antonio  Mateecotti's  (c.  1453)  superb  medals  of  San 
even  more  cons^ered  than  the  use  to  wliich  they  were  Bernardino  da  Siena,  while  among  the  series  of  eariy 
put,  and  they  seem  to  have  discharged  a  function  papal  medals  we  have  such  masterpieces  as  the  por- 
onalogous  to  the  Child-of-Mary  medals,  the  soapulars,  trait  of  Sixtus  IV  by  Andrea  Guawialotti  (1435-95). 
thebac^eeandeventhepiouspietureeof  ourownday.  But  it  was  long  before  this  new  art  made  its  in- 
One  famous  example  is  the  "mireau  d'estaing"  bear-  fluence  so  far  widely  felt  as  to  bring  metal  representa- 
ing  stamped  upon  it  the  name  of  Jesus,  whicD  the  fa-  tions  of  saints  and  shrines,  of  mysteries  and  miracles, 
mous  Frftie  Richard,  whose  name  is  closely  if  not  too  together  with  emblems  and  devices  of  all  Idnds,  in  a 
eieditably  associated  with  the  history  of  Blessed  Joan  cheap  form  into  the  hands  of  the  people.  Undoubtedly 
of  Arc,  distributed  to  his  followers  in  Paris,  1429  (see  the  gradual  sutistitution  of  more  artistic  bronse  and 
Rouyer,  "Le  Nom  de  Jdeus"  in  "Revue  Beige  de  silver  medals  for  the  rude  pilgrim's  dens  at  such  great 
Numis.",  189fi-7).  These  jetons  stamped  with  the  sanctuaries  as  Loreto  or  St.  Peter's,  did  much  to  help 
THB,  which  is  only  another  way  of  writinR  the  Holy  on  the  general  acceptance  of  medals  as  objects  of  de- 
.Vame,  were  very  numerous  and  were  probably  closely  votion.  Again  the  papal  jubilee  medals,  which  cer- 
eonnected  with  tlie  apoetolate  of  St.  Bemardine  of  tainly  began  as  early  as  1475,  and  which  from  the 
Siena.  Finally  It  is  to  be  noted  that  for  the  purpose  nature  of  the  case  were  carried  into  all  parts  of  the 
oE  lai^eaa  at  ro^  coronations  or  (or  tbe  Maundy,  world,  must  have  helped  to  make  tbe  idea  familiar, 
pieces  were  often  struck  which  perhaps  are  rather  to  But  this  was  not  all.  At  some  time  during  the  six- 
lie  tegaided  as  medals  than  actual  money  (see  M&ie-  teenth  century  the  practice  woe  adopted,  possibly 
X.— 8 


MttftAtJI 


114 


IttDAU 


foDowing  an  usage  long  previously  in  vogue  in  the 
case  of  Agnus  Deis  (q.  v.).  of  giving  a  i>apal  blessing  to 
medals  and  even  of  eniiching  them  with  indulgences. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  noteworthy  that  among  the 
benediction-forms  of  the  Middle  Ages  no  single  exam- 
ple is  found  of  a  blessing  for  numiamaia.  A  pilgrim's 
"insignia"  were  often  blessed  no  doubt,  but  by  this 
term  were  only  meant  his  scrip  and  staff  (see  Frans, 
"Kirohlichen  Benedictionen  im  Mittelalter",  II,  271- 
89),  not  the  leaden  tokens  spoken  of  above.  The 
stoiy  runs  that  the  use  of  blessed  medals  began  with 
the  revolt  of  the  Gueux  in  Flanders,  a.  d.  1566.  A 
certain  medal  or  rather  set  of  medals  bearing  on  the 
obverse  the  head  of  Philip  II  with  the  motto  en  tout 
FiDBLEs  AU  BOi  and  on  the  reverse  a  beggar's  wallet 
and  the  words  jubqxtb  a  porter  la  besace,  was  used 
by  the  Gueux  faction  as  a  badge.  To  this  the  Span- 
iards replied  by  striking  a  medal  with  the  head  of  our 
Saviour  and  on  the  reverse  the  image  of  our  Lady  of 
Hal,  and  Pius  V  granted  an  indulgence  to  those  who 
wore  this  medal  in  their  hats  (Simonis,  "Art  du  M^ 
dailleur  en  Belgique",  1904,  II,  pp.  7&-80). 

From  this  the  custom  of  blessmg  and  indulgendng 
medals  is  said  to  have  rapidly  extended  under  the 
sanction  of  the  popes.  Cer^am  it  is  that  Sixtus  V 
attached  indulgences  to  some  ancient  coins  discovered 
in  the  foundations  of  the  buildings  at  the  Scala  Santa, 
which  coins  he  caused  to  be  richly  mounted  and  sent 
to  persons  of  distinction.  Thus  encouraged,  and 
stimulated  further  by  the  vogue  of  the  jubilee  and 
other  papal  medals  of  which  we  have  still  to  speak,  the 
use  of  these  devotional  objects  spread  to  every  part  of 
the  world.  Austria  and  Bohemia  seem  to  have  taken 
the  lead  in  introducing  the  fashion  into  central  Europe, 
and  some  exceptionaUy  fine  specimens  were  produced 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  Italian  artists  whom  the 
Eknperor  Biaximilian  invited  to  his  court.  Some  of 
the  religious  medals  cast  by  Antonio  Abondio  and  his 
pupils  at  Vienna  are  of  the  nighest  order  of  excellence. 
But  in  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  almost  eveiy  considerable  city  in  Catholic 
Eurmw  came  to  have  craftsmen  of  its  own  who  f  ol- 
lowea  the  industry,  and  the  tradition  created  bv  such 
Italian  artists  as  Lesne  Leoni  at  Brusseb,  witn  men 
like  Jonghelinck  and  Stephen  of  Holland  for  his  pupils, 
and  by  John  de  Candida,  Nicholas  of  Florence  and 
Ben  venuto  Cellini  in  France,  was  bound  to  have  lasting 
effects. 

The  number  and  variety  of  the  reli^ous  pieces  pro- 
duced at  a  later  date,  as  Domanig  (Die  deutsche  rri- 
vat-Medaille,  p.  29)  is  fain  to  attest,  defies  all  classifi- 
cation. Only  one  writer^the  Benedictine  L.  Kuncse 
(in  his  "Systematik  der  WeibmUnxen",  Raab,  1885}, 
seems  to  have  seriously  grappled  with  the  task,  and  his 
success  is  very  moderate.  As  an  indication  of  the 
vast  complexity  of  the  subject^  we  mav  note  that  in 
the  thirty-first  of  his  fifty  divisions,  tne  section  de- 
voted to  medals  commemorative  of  churches  and 
sanctuaries  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  he  enumerates  over 
700  such  shrines  of  which  he  has  found  some  record — 
the  number  is  probably  immensely  greater — ^while  in 
connexion  with  the  majority  of  these,  special  medals 
have  at  some  time  been  struck,  often,  e.  g.  at  Loreto, 
in  an  almost  endless  series.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, aU  that  can  be  done  is  to  point  out  a  few  illus- 
trative groups  rather  apart  from  the  common  run 
of  pious  medals;  those  connected  with  places,  con- 
fraternities, relimous  orders,  saints,  mysteries,  mira- 
cles, devotions,  &c.,  are  types  with  which  everyone  is 
familiar. 

(1)  Plague  medais  struck  and  blessed  as  a  protection 
against  pestilence.  The  subjects  are  very  various; 
e.  g.,  the  figure  of  St.  Sebastian  and  St.  Koch,  and 
different  shrines  of  the  Blessed  Vir^,  often  also  with 
a  view  of  some  particular  dtv.  Round  them  are  com- 
monly inscribea  mysterious  letters  analogous  to  those 
depicted  on  the  famous  medal  of  St.  Benedict  (q.  v.). 


For  example  t«  >•  t*  1^-  I-  A.  etc.  These  letters 
stand  for  ^'Crux  Christi  salva  nos";  "Zelus  domw 
Dei  libera  me";  "Crux  Christi  vindt  et  regnat,  per 
lignum  cruds  libera  me  Domine  ab  hac  peste '";  *'  t>eus 
mens  expelle  pestem  et  libera  me,  etc.^'.  (See  Beier- 
lein,  "Manser  bayerischer  Kl66ter".  and  the  mono- 
graphs devoted  to  this  subject  by  Pfeiffer  and  Ruland, 
"Pestilentia  m  Nummis",  TQbmgen,  1882,  and  "Die 
deutschen  Pestamulette  "^  Leipsig,  1885.) 

(2)  Medals  eommemorahng  Miradee  ofUie  EvxhariaL 
— There  were  a  very  large  number  of  these  strudL  for 
jubilees,  centenaries,  etc.,  in  the  different  places  where 
these  miracles  were  believed  to  have  happened,  often 
adorned  with  very  quaint  devices.  There  is  one.  for 
example,  commemorative  of  the  miracle  at  Seeield, 
upon  wmch  the  story  is  depicted  of  a  nobleman  who 
demanded  to  receive  a  large  host  at  communion  like 
the  priest's.  The  priest  complies,  but  as  a  punish- 
ment for  the  nobleman's  presunmtion  the  ground 
opens  and  swallows  him  up  (see  Pachinger,  "  Wall- 
fahrts  MedaiUen  der  Tirol",  Vienna,  1908). 

(3)  PHvaie  medaU. — ^These  form  a  very  large  elass, 
but  particular  specimens  are  often  extremely  scarce, 
for  tney  were  struck  to  commemorate  inddents  in  ibt 
life  of  individuals,  and  were  only  distributed  to  friends. 
Baptisms,  marriages,  first  communions,  deaths  formed 
the  prindpal  occasions  for  striking  these  private 
medals.  The  baptismal  or  sponsor  medals  {patiten 
medatUen)  are  particularlv  interesting,  and  often  con- 
tain precise  details  as  to  tne  hour  of  birth  which  would 
enable  the  child's  horoscope  to  be  calculated.  vSee 
Domanig,  "  Die  deutsche  Privat-Medaille ",  Vienna, 
1893,  3,  pp.  25-26.) 

(4)  Medala  eommemoraHve  of  epecud  legend*. — Of 
this  class  the  famous  Ooss  of  St.  Ulrich  of  Augsburg 
may  serve  as  a  specimen.  A  cross  is  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  by  an  angel  to  St.  Ulrich  that  he 
might  bear  it  in  his  hands  in  the  great  battle  against 
the  Huns,  a.  d.  955.  Freisenegger  in  his  monograph 
"Die  Ulrichs-kreuse"  (Augsburg,  1895),  enumerates 
180  types  of  this  object  ol  devotion,  someUmes  in 
cross,  sometimes  in  medal  fonn,  often  associated  with 
the  medal  of  St.  Benedict. 

Papal  medals  do  not  immediately^  belong  to  this 

Elace,  for  they  are  not  predsely  devotional  in  purpose, 
ut  a  very  large  number  of  these  pieces  are  ultinoately 
associated  with  ecclesiastical  functions  of  various 
kinds,  and  more  particularlv  with  the  <»ening  and 
dosine  of  the  Holy  Door  in  the  years  of  Juoilee.  The 
series  begins  with  the  pontificate  of  Martin  V,  in  1417, 
and  continues  down  to  the  present  day.  Some  types 
professing  to  commemorate  the  acts  of  earlier  popes, 
e.  g.  the  Jubilee  of  Boniface  VIII,  are  reconstructioiis 
(i.  e.  fabrications)  of  later  date.  Nearly  all  the  most 
noteworthy  actions  of  each  pontificate  for  the  last 
five  himdred  years  have  been  commemorated  by 
medals  in  this  manner,  and  some  of  the  most  famous 
artists,  such  as  Ben  venuto  Cellini,  Caradosso,  and 
others  have  been  employed  in  desi^ng  them,  The 
wonderful  family  of  the  Hameram,  who  from  1605 
down  to  about  1807  acted  as  papal  medallists  and 
supplied  the  greater  proportion  of  that  vast  series, 
deserve  to  be  spedaUy  mentioned  for  the  uniform 
excellence  of  their  work. 

Other  semi-devotional  medals  are  those  which  have 
been  strudc  by  important  religious  associations,  as  for 
example  by  tne  Knights  of  Malta,  by  certain  abDe3rs  in 
commemoration  of  their  abbots,  or  in  connexion  with 
particular  orders  of  knighthood.  On  some  of  these 
series  of  medals  useful  monographs  have  been  written, 
as  for  example  the  work  of  Canon  H.  C.  Schembri,  oq 
"The  Coins  and  Medals  of  the  Knights  of  Malta", 
(London,  1908).  It  has  been  said  above  that  Agnus 
Deis  seem  to  nave  been  blessed  by  the  popes  with 
more  or  less  solemnity  from  an  earlv  penod,  and 
similar  forms  of  benediction  were  used  in  coonexioo 
with  the  Golden  Rose,  the  Sword  and  Cap«  aad  othsr 


lODlBDUB 


115 


MEDABDUS 


objects  given  by  the  popes  as  'presents.  In  the  six- 
teenth oentuiy  this  pracUoe  was  greatly  developed. 
The  custom  grew  up  not  only  of  bringing  objects 
which  had  touched  certain  relics  or  shrines  to  the  pope 
to  be  blessed,  but  also  of  the  pontiff  ble^ng  rosaries, 
"grains",  medals^  etc..  enriching  them  with  indul- 
geooes  and  sendmg  tnem,  through  his  privileged 
missionaries  or  envoys,'  to  be  distributed  to  CathoBcs 
in  England.  On  these  occasions  a  paper  of  instruo- 
tioDswas  often  drawn  up.  defining  exactly  the  nature 
of  these  indulgences  and  tne  conditions  on  which  they 
oould  be  gained.  Several  papere  of  this  kind-'one  in 
favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  Soots  (1576)  and  others  for 
English  Catholics  north  of  the  Alps — ^have  been  pre- 
served, emanating  from  Gregory  XlII.  One  is  printed 
by  Knox  in  the  "  Douay  Diaries  ",  p.  367.  The  '*  Apos- 
tolic Indulgences"  (see  Indulqencbb,  Apostouc;  at- 
tached to  medals,  rosaries  and  similar  objects  by  all 
priests  duly  authorized,  are  analogous  to  these.  They 
are  imparted  by  making  a  simple  sign  of  the  cross,  but 
for  certain  other  objects,  e.  g.  the  medal  dT  St.  Bene- 
dict (q.  ▼.),  more  special  faculties  are  required,  and  an 
elaborate  form  oi  benediction  is  provided.  Quite 
recently  Pius  X  has  sanctioned  the  use  of  a  blessed 
medal  to  be  worn  in  place  of  the  brown  and  other 
scapulara.  The  concession  was  originally  made  for 
the  benefit  of  the  native  Christians  in  the  missions  of 
the  Congo,  but  the  Holy  Father  has  expressed  his 
readiness  to  grant  to  other  priests  who  apply,  the 
faculty  of  blessing  medals  which  may  be  worn  in  place 
of  the  scapular  (see  ''Le  Canoniste  Contemporain ", 
Feb.,  1910,  p.  115). 

Almost  the  only  attempt  at  a  systemaUe  elBflrification  of  de- 
Totional  medato  in  seneral  seems  to  have  been  made  by 
KuNCBB.  Sydmnatik  der  WeihmiUtMen  (Raab,  1885),  but  the 
work  IS  nmther  scholariy  nor  scientific.  Much  more  satisfac- 
tory in  every  way,  so  far  as  regards  the  limited  ground  covered, 
are  the  researches  of  Pachinqer,  who  has  published  a  valuable 
series  of  studies  on  the  WaU/ahrU-BrudertchafU-  und  Onadenr 
MedaiUen  of  various  districts.  These  are  conoemerl  with 
Bavaria  (1904).  Duchy  of  Austria  (1904),  Salsburg  (1908),  and 
the  IVrol  (1909),  with  some  other  more  general  articles. 
Other  miscellaneous  works  are  Corbibrre,  Numitmatiqys 
Bhvidieiinm  (Rome.  s.  d.);  Idbu,  NwnitmatiquB  et  JoonoqrapKU 
mariait  (Rome,  s.  d.);  Blancbbt,  Nouveau  Manuel  de  Numia-' 
puiiqu$  (Paris.  1890):  a  series  of  articles  by  Router  (espe- 
piaUy  in  1896-97)  and  by  db  Wxttb  (especially  1905-1910)  in  the 
Rfvut  Belqe  de  NumUmaHque;  Miowb,  fnci/etop^M,  Series  II, 
XXXII.  iviimumatiffiM  (Paris,  1850):  Mbrsbacher,  Kataloo  der 
Bayriteken  WaUfchria^KldaUr'  und  Kirchen-Mtdawen  (Munich, 
IS95);  TON  HoHEifTBaT.  WeihfnQnMen  fOr  Sammler  |[Qras. 
1^3);  this  is  a  slender  pamphlet  on  the  classification  ox 
rpligioua  medals:  i^RRAis,  Die  Denk-  und  WeihmUnxen  der  the- 
moaoen  bayerisehen  NonnenkUiaUr  (BrQnn) ;  Idbu,  MUngen  auf 
den  h.  Woifoano  (BrUnn,  1890) ;  BJUBRLBXir,  Mdnten  der  Bay 
triacKen  Ktfieter  <te.  (Munich.  1857-1879). 

Upon  eariy  Christian  medals,  see  ns  Rossi's  various  articles 
m  BuUeUino  di  Areheolojia  Crialiana,  especially  in  1869, 
1871.  and  1891;  Leclbroq  in  Didiannaire  t^arehiolooie  ehri- 
tienne,  s.  v.  AmuUttee;  Babinoton  in  Did.  of  Chriet.  Antiq., 
s.  V.  Money:  and  Hbusbr  in  the  Realencyelop&die  /.  ehriet. 
AJlertums^  s.  v.  MedaiUen.  and  various  articles  in  the  ROmieehe 
QuartaUekrift,  particularly  1889.  On  the  papal  medals  see 
particularly  Bonanni.  Sumiemata  Pontificum  Romanorum  (2 
vob..  Rome,  1699):  Vbitute,  Numitmaia  Pontifieum  JZomaiio- 
Tum  praatantiora  (Rome,  1744). 

Other  worisB  dealing  with  the  general  history  of  Medals  in  mod- 
em times,  but  which  also  have  many  notices  to  the  students  of 
religious  medals,  are  Forrbr,  Bioyraphieal  Dictionary  of  Medal- 
lieu  (London.  1904-1910);  Domanxq.  Die  deutecht  MedaiUe  m 
KunM  und  Kutturhietorieeher  Hineicht  (Vienna,  1907),  a  work 
magnificently  illustrated;  Hbxss,  Lea  Midaiileure  de  la  Renaie" 
aanee  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1881-1802),  also  finely  illustrated:  Rokdot, 
Lea  MhUxiileun  et  Oraveurs  deMonnaiee  en  France  (Paris,  1904), 
with  admirable  illustrations.  Sevwal  other  workii  have  been 
mentioned  in  the  oouise  of  the  article. 

Hebbbbt  Thubston. 

MiRACTJiouB  Mbdal. — The  devotion  commonly 
known  as  that  of  the  Miraculous  Medal  owes  its  ori^:]n 
to  Zoe  Labours,  a  member  of  the  Daughters  of  Chanty 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  known  in  relieion  as  Sister 
Catherine,  to  whom  the  Blessed  Virgin  Marv  appeared 
three  separate  times  in  the  year  1830,  at  the  mother- 
house  or  the  community  at  Pans.  The  first  of  these 
apparitions  occurred  18  July,  the  second  27  Novem- 
ber, and  the  third  a  short  time  later,  in  December. 
Ou  the  second  QQOf^lW,  6j«ter  Catherine  records  that 


the  Blessed  Vixgin  appeared  as  if  standing  on  a  ^obe^ 
and  bearing  a  globe  m  her  hands.  As  u  from  ringi 
set  with  precious  stones  dassling  rays  of  light  were 
emitted  from  her  fin^rs.  These,  she  said,  weie  sym- 
bols of  the  graces  which  would  be  bestowed  on  all  who 
asked  for  tnem.  Sister  Catherine  adds  that  around 
the  figure  appeared  an  oval  frame  bearing  in  golden 
letters  the  words  "O  Maiy,  conceived  without  sin, 

gray  for  us  who  have  recourse  to  thee";  on  the 
acK  appeared  the  letter  M,  surmounted  by  a  cross, 
with  a  crossbar  beneath  it,  and  under  all  tne  Sacred 
Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  the  former  surrounded  by  » 
crown  of  thorns,  and  the  latter  pierced  by  a  sword. 
At  the  second  and  third  of  these  visions  a  command 
was  given  to  have  a  medal  struck  after  the  model  re- 
veal^, and  a  promise  of  great  graces  was  made  to 
those  who  wear  it  when  blessed.  After  careful  in- 
vestigation, M.  Aladel,  the  spiritual  director  of  Sister 
Catherine,  obtained  the  approval  of  Mgr  de  Quelen, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  on  30  June.  1832,  the  first 
medals  were  struck,  and  with  their  aistribution  the 
devotion  spread  rapidly .|  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
facts  recorded  in  connection  with  the  Miraculous  Medal 
is  the  conversion  of  a  Jew,  Alphonse  Ratlsbonne  (q.  v.) 
of  Strasbuig,  who  had  resisted  the  appeals  of  a  friend  to 
enter  the  Church.  M.  Ratisbonne  consented,  somewhat 
reluctantly,  to  wear  the  medal,  and  being  in  Rome,  he 
entered,  by  chance,  the  church  of  Sant'  Andrea  delle 
Fratte  ana  beheld  in  a  vision  the  Blessed  Vii]^  ex- 
actly as  she  is  represented  on  the  medal;  his  con- 
veision  speedily  followed.!  This  fact  has  received 
ecclesiastical  sanction,  and  is  recorded  in  the  office 
of  the  feast  of  the  Miraculous  Medal.  In  1847^  M. 
Etienne,  superior^neral  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission,  obtained  from  Pope  Pius  IX  the  privile^  of 
establisning  in  the  schools  of  the  Sisters  of  Chanty  a 
confraternity  under  the  title  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, with  all  the  indulgences  attached  to  a  similar 
society  established  for  its  students  at  Rome  by  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  This  confraternity  adopted  the 
Miraculous  Medal  as  its  badge,  and  the  members, 
known  as  the  Children  of  Mary,  wear  it  attached  to  a 
blue  ribbon.  /  On  23  July,  1894,  Pope  Leo  XIII,  after 
a  careful  examination  of  all  the  facts  by  the  Sacred 
Congr^ation  of  Rites,  instituted  a  feast,  with  a  special 
Office  and  Mass,  of  the  Manifestation  of  the  Immacu- 
late Virein  under  the  title  of  the  Miraculous  Medal, 
to  be  ce&brated  yearly  on  27  November  by  the  Priests 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  under  the  rite  of 
a  double  of  the  second  class.  For  ordinaries  and 
religious  communities  who  may  ask  the  privilege  of 
celebrating  the  festival,  its  rank  is  to  be  that  of  a 
double  major  feast.  A  further  decree,  dated  7  Sep- 
tember, 1894,  permits  any  priest  to  say  the  Mass 
proper  to  the  feast  in  any  chapel  attached  to  a  house 
of  tne  SisteiB  of  Charity. 

JOBKFH  Gx<Afl8. 

Medardoa,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Noyon,  b.  at  Salency 
(Oise)  about  456;  d.  in  his  episcopal  city  8  Jime,  about 
545.  His  father,  Nectardus,  was  of  Prankish  origin, 
while  his  mother,  named  Protagia,  was  Gallo-Roman« 
It  is  believed  tiiat  St.  Gildardus,  Bishop  of  Rouen, 
was  his  brother.  His  youth  was  entirely  oonsecratea 
to  the  practise  of  Christian  virtues  and  to  the  study 
of  sacred  and  profane  lettera.  He  often  aooompaniea 
his  father  on  business  to  Vermand  and  to  Toumid. 
and  frequented  the  schools,  carefully  avoiding  all 
worldly  dissipation.  His  exemplary  piety  and  his 
knowledge,  considerable  for  that  time,  decided  the 
Bishop  of  Vermand  (d.  530)  to  confer  on  him  Holy 
Orders,  and  caused  him  to  be  chosen  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Forced,  in  spite  of  his  objectionB,  to  accept 
this  heavy  charge,  he  devoted  himself  sealously  to 
his  new  duties,  and  to  accomplish  them  in  greater  se- 
curity, since  Vermand  and  the  northern  part  of  Firanoe 
in  general  were  then  genenlly  troublea  by  wan  and 


116 

exposed  to  the  IneuraionB  of  the  bttrtMrwia,  be  re-  mi  autooepholoua  krd^uaboprie,  and  towsrdii  1330  a 
moved  his  epiflcopftl  see  in  631  fn>m  Vennand,  ft  little  metropolitan  see  (Gelaer,  op-  eit.,601}.  In  1623  the 
city  without  defence,  to  Nayon,  the  strongest  plaioe  metropolitan  sees  of  Hedea  and  3o>op<^  were  united, 
in  that  region.  The  year  foUDwinfr  St.  Elsutheiiui,  to  be  agiun  aeparated  in  1715.  A  little  lAterHede&wu 
Biahop  of  Tournai,  having  died,  St.  Medardus  was  in-  united  with  Bu^,  at  least  ainonK  the  Orthodox  Greeki, 
vited  to  assuroe  the  direction  of  that  diocese  also.  He  and  it  is  so  still.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianua,  I, 
refused  at  first,  but  being  ur^^ed  byClotairelumself  he  1143-II46)  gives  the  names  of  five  Greek  metnqioli- 
at  last  accept«d.  This  union  of  the  two  dioceses  tans,  and  Eubel  (Hierarchia  cathoUca  medii  mvi,  1, 
tasted  until  1146,  when  they  were  again  separated.  355)  mentions  two  Latin  titularies  of  the  fourteenth 
Clotaire,  who  had  paid  him  a  last  visit  at  Noyon,  century.  To-dar  Hedea  or  Hidieh  is  a  part  of  the 
had  his  body  transferred  to  the  royal  manor  of  Crouy  sanjak  of  Kirk-K^Ussi  in  the  vilayet  of  Adriamiplc; 
at  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Soissons.  Over  the  tomb  of  there  are  two  thousand  Greeks  and  some  Turks. 
St.  Medardus  was  erected  the  celebrated  Benedictine        Ptoliiit,  Otooraphia  i.  v.  SalmudoMiM,  ed  HCluiu  I.  *7S-, 

abbey  which  bears  his  name.    Bt.  Medardus  w "- —  ''■^' ---..--..—..  ~         -         .»._..».. 

of  Ute  moat  honoured 
bishops  of  his  time,  his 
memory  has  always 
been  populaily  vener- 
ated  m  the  north  of 
France,  and  he  aooa 
became  the  hero  of  nu- 
merous fegends.  The 
Church  celebrates  his 
feast  on  8  June. 

BuONius,  Am.  (1597). 
627.  80:  SM.  31-4;  BfccD, 
Divert,  tur  rnujjjua  daUt  it 
ottdaurt  fail*  e^ntaUt  de  la 
wildt  SI.  Mtdard  in  Com. 
.IrcA.  de  Nnyon,  eomtH. 
rend,  it  m*m..  II  (laSTJ. 
307-20;  CHirri.inius  in 
Acta  5.S.,Juae,  II,  eS-lDS; 
CoRBLXT.  ^otic4  hutorigut 
■iir  It  ci^  dt  SI.  Uidard  ID 
flu/I.  de  la  See.  da  ani.  dt 
Pitardu  (Amiwu,  ISM); 
C0PB1.CT,  aasiogr.  du  <fii>- 
ctu  iTAminu.  IV  [18T4>. 
G24-31:  GutHiBtDLT  in 
Rro.  ardUol.  XIII  (Pviik 
1SA7).  U7-fl2:  LsrfiBnitE. 
SaituMidard(Piiia.  1804)1 
Uattu.  Lt  aiUe  dt  S.  Mi- 
dard  dam  U  diootH  d« 
KarUn  in  Ann.  dt  Bnlaent 
(IBOO).  XV,  292-8;  HtiRius, 
b.  I*.  SS.,  Ill  (VenioB, 
IMl).  177-IBl. 

L£oN  Cldonbt. 

HadUi  a  titular  see 
of  Thrace,  suffragan  of 
Heraclea.  This  name 
and  the  modem  name 

fMidiefa)  are  derived 
rom  the  ancientSalmy* 
dessos  (V  Almydessos. 
Herodotus  (IV,  93^  says 


KadalUiii  Abcbdio- 


Cdombia,  Hetnwolilaa 
of  Antioquia  and  Hani- 
■alee,  in  the  Depart- 
ments of  Hedellin,  An- 
tioquia, and  Manisale*. 
Prior  to  1908,  when  a 
new  civil  territorial  di- 
visian  was  adopted,  the 
limits  of  Uie  aichdio- 


with  the  former  Depart- 
ment o!  Antioquia 
(from  native  words 
meaning  the  "hill  or 
mountam  of  sold ") 
which  lay  in  the  oasins 
of  the  Hagdalena, 
Cauca,  and  Atrato 
rivers,  had  an  areft  ol 


that    the     inhabitants 


Centro  (cap.,  Hedellin), 
Piedonia  (cap.,  Fis- 
doniaj,  Nordeste  (cap., 
Sta  Rosa  de  Obos), 
Norte  (cap.,  Yarumal), 
Occidente  (cap..  An- 
tioquia), Orients  (cap., 
Maranilla),  Sopetran 
(cap.,  Sopetran),  Sur 
(cap. ,  Han  isalea) ,  Uraba 
'  Frontino).     The 


S"i 


Canons  or  Gussbiub 
Emw^srium  □(  St-Madu d  of  SoiKins  (M.  11  raoloX 
Bibiiotb^qua  NaiionAla,  Parii 

yieIdedtoDaKusafterBomere^stanoe;Xenophonand  territory  of   the   archdiocese   is  comprised  i 

his  companions  in  arms  subjugated  it  with  much  diffi-  Andes   region;   means  of  communication   are    poor, 

culty  (Anab.,  VII,5, 12).     The  city  is  also  mentioned  owing  to  the  mountainous   nature  of  the  country; 

bySophocles(Antig.,969),by.*:8chyluB(Prom.,726),  a    railway,   however,    is    beinB    built    from   Puerto 

who  places  it  wrongly  in  Asia,  DiodorusSiculua  (XIV,  Berrio  to  Medellin.      The  Catholic  religion   is   uni- 

37),Str8botVII,vi|l;XII,  ill,  3;I,iii,4,7),Ptolemy  versally  professed,  but  the  exercise  of  HI  cults  not 

I, -d,  etc.),  who  all  agree  in  locating  its  harbour  on  contrary  to  Christian  morality   is  permitted.     The 

Black  Sea  and  very  much  exposed  to  the  winds;  language  is  Spanish,  and  the  inhabitanta  are  deaoeod- 

-eover  the  shore  was  sandy  and  unfavourable  for  ants  of  the  Spanish  conquMadoret,  of  the  mestisoa  and 

navigation.     Theophanee  (Chronogr.,  an.  m.  6255)  n^roee.     There  is  no  race  antagMiism,  chiefly  beoauae 

mentions  it  under  the  name  Mi)*mo  in  the  year  763.  of  the  influence  and  teaching  of  the  Cathidie  rtJi- 

The  Emperor  Joanna  Cantacuienua,  having  taken  it  gion.    The  Indians  of  the  Causa  valley  were  ori^naUy 

in  1352,  was  almost  killed  there  by  theTurksCHistor.,  cannibals. 

IV,  10);  it  is  also  frequently  mentioned  in  official  acta        Education  is  gratuitous  and  as  f ar  as  poaobla  oon- 

(Miklosich  and  Uiiller,  "Acta  patriarchatus  Constan-  pulsory-  there  are  400  primary  schools  with  36,000 

tinopolitani",  Vienna,  II,  600).     Hedea  is  mentioned  pupils,  besides  many  schools  conducted  by  raligicius. 

as  a  suffragan  of  Heraclea  towards  900  in  the  "  Noti-  During  the  civil  disturbances  of  the  past,  many  of  the 

tia"  of  Leo  the  Wise  (Gclser,  "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  monasteries  were  confiscated,  and  are  still  used  at 

Teitfl  der  Notitiai  episcopatuum",  552):  it  is  men-  public  buildings;  but  the  relations  between  Churek 

tioned  in  the  same  way  in  the  "Notitia''  of  Manuel  and  State  were  amicably  settled  by  the  Goooordat  at 

Comiwnus  about  1170  and  of   Michael  VTII   about  18S7. 

1270  (Parthey,  "HierocUs  Synecdemus",  104,  204).        Previous  to  1804  the  region  was  withfa  tba  jn- 

Shcrtly  after,  under  Andronicus  II,  Medea  waB  made  lisdictkm  of  the  Hetiopolrtaa  of  Boitoti.      On  31 


MEDIA 


117 


MEDIA 


August,  1804,  the  See  of  Antioquia  was  erected,  and 
on  4  Februaiy,  1868,  the  title  of  the  diocese  was  re- 
moved from  Antioquia  to  the  growing  town  of  Medel- 
lin.  On  29  Jan.,  1873,  the  See  of  Antioquia  (An- 
hoqttienbib)  was  re-established,  and  on  11  April,  1900, 
a  portion  of  the  Diocese  of  Medellin  went  to  consti- 
tute the  newly  erected  See  of  Manizales  (Manizalen- 
bib).  As  the  civil  districts  are  now  constituted,  the 
Department  of  Antioquia  embraces  an  area  of  11,517 
square  miles  with  a  population  of  160,000;  that  of 
Medellin  an  area  of  12,137  with  a  population  of  275,- 
000;  that  of  Manizales  an  area  of  4439  with  a  popula- 
tion of  242,000  (The  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1910). 
There  are  about  5000  savage  Indians  scattered  in  these 
r^ions. 

Medeujn  on  the  River  Force,  147  miles  from  Bo- 
got^,  and  4600  feet  above  sea-level,  is  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Medellin.  In  1910  it  had  a  population 
of  60,000.  It  was  named  in  1575  after  the  Count  of 
Medellin  in  Spain,  but  did  not  begin  to  prosper  until 
the  gold  ana  silver  mines  were  discoverea  in  the 
neighbourhood  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It 
has  7  churches,  2  chapels,  and  a  pro-cathedral;  a 
new  cathedral- is  being  constructed  in  the  Plaza  de 
Bolivar.  Among  important  institutions  in  the  town 
are  a  seminary,  a  university,  the  College  of  St.  Ignatius, 
under  the  Jesuits  (founded  by  Father  Friere  in  the 
eighteenth  century),  and  the  College  of  St.  Joseph, 
under  the  Christian  Brothers.  The  Presentation  Nuns 
conduct  schools  for  eirls;  the  Sisters  of  Chiurity  have 
charge  of  a  hospital;  and  the  Discalced  Carmelites 
have  a  convent.  Among  the  periodicals  published  in 
Medellin  are  ''Registro  Official",  ''Cronica  Judicial'', 
"El  Preceptor",  ^  Elector",  and  •'LaConsigna". 

The  See  of  Medellin  was  raised  to  metropolitan 
rank  on  24  Feb.,  1902.  The  archdiocese  has  363,710 
inhabitants,  110  priests,  15  re^ars,  75  churches  and 
chapels,  141  Catholic  schools,  in  which  16,035  pupils 
are  being  educated.  The  present  archbishop  is  Mgr. 
Em.  Jo&l  de  Cayzedo  y  Cuero,  bom  in  Bogotd,  16 
Nov.,  1850;  chosen  Bishop  of  Pasto,  11  Feb.,  1892; 
transferred  to  Popavan,  2  Dec.,  1895 ;  made  archbishop 
14  Dec.,  1901 ;  and  transferred  to  Medellin  14  Dec., 
1905,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Pardo  Vergara,  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Medellin. 

Antioquia  on  the  Cauca  was  founded  by  Jorge 
Robledo  in  1542;  until  1826  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Antioquia.  Its  population  is  esti- 
mate at  10,077.  In  1720  a  Jesuit  colleee  was  estab- 
lished at  Antioquia  under  the  auspices  of  Bishop  Go- 
mes Friar,  of  Popayan,  and  on  5  Feb.,  1727,  a  royal 
charter  was  granted  to  the  college,  and  the  fathers 
were  given  charee  of  the  church  of  St.  Barbara.  A 
few  years  later  tney  opened  a  second  college  at  Buga. 
Among  the  more  important  buildings  of  the  city  are 
the  cathedral,  the  bishop's  house,  the  Jesuit  college, 
and  a  hospital.  On  account  of  malaria  the  sem- 
inary has  been  removed  from  Antioquia  to  San 
Pedro. 

The  diocese  has  a  population  of  211,315;  75  priests; 
80  churches  and  chapels.  The  prepent  bishop  is 
Mgr  Em.  Ant.  Lopez  de  Mesa,  bom  at  Rio  Negro 
in  the  Diocese  of  Medellin.  22  March,  1846,  and  suc- 
ceeded Mgr  Rueda  as  Bisnop  of  Antioquia,  2  June, 
1902. 

Makizalbs  is  about  100  miles  from  Bogota  and 
7000  feet  above  sea-level.  Founded  in  1848  it  has 
developed  rapidly  owing  to  the  gold  mining  operations 
in  the  neighbourhood;  population  in  1905,  20,000. 
The  town  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  in  1875 
and  1878. 

The  Diocese  of  Manisales  was  created  11  April, 
1900,  from  territory  formerly  belonglngto  the  arch- 
dioceses of  Popayan  and  Medellin.  The  cathedral 
is  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  present  and 
fiist  bishop  is  Mgr.  Gregory  Hoyos,  bom  at  Vahos,  1 
Dee.  1849;  appointed  11  May,  1901. 


PsTRa,  The  Republic  of  Colombia  (London,  1906):  CASSAinb 
Historia  de  la  Compaflfa  de  Jesua;  Borda,  Compenato  de  Hi»- 
Unia  de  Colombia  (Bc«ot&.  1890);  HoziTON,  Twenty  MorOhe  in 
the  Andes  (New  York);  NuAsz,  La  RSpubli^e  de  Colombie 
(Bnuaeb,  1883);  Annuaire  Pontifioal  (1910). 

J.  C.  Gkby. 

Media  and  Medea  (Mijd^a,  M^aoc),  an  ancient 
country  of  Asia  and  the  inhabitants  thereof.  The 
Hebrew  and  Assvrian  form  of  the  word  Media  is 
no  (Madai)  which  corre^>onds  to  the  Mada  by  which 
the  land  is  aesignated  in  the  earliest  Persian  cuneiform 
texts.  The  origin  and  signification  of  the  word  are 
unknown.  In  Uen.,  x.  2,Madai  is  mentioned  among 
the  sons  of  Japheth,  between  Magog  (probably  the 
Gimirrhi  and  the  Lydians)  and  Javan,  i.  e.  the  lonians. 
In  IV  Kings,  xvii,  6  (cf.  xvlii,  11)  we  read  that  Sal- 
manasar.  King  of  the  Assyrians  ''took  Samaria,  and 
carried  Israel  away  to  Assyria;  and  he  placed  them 
in  Hala  and  Habor  1^  the  river  of  Gozan,  in  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  *\  Reference  is  made  to  the  Medes 
in  Jer.,  xiii,  17  (cf.  xxi,  2)  as  enemies  and  future  de- 
stroyers of  Babylon,  and  again  in  chapter  xxv,  verse 
25,  the  "kings  of  the  Medea"  are  mentioned  in  a 
similar  connection.  The  only  reference  to  the  Medes 
in  the  New  Testament  is  in  Acts,  ii,  9,  where  they 
are  mentioned  between  the  Parthians  and  the  Elam- 
ites. 

The  earliest  information  concerning  the  territozy 
occupied  by  the  Medes,  and  later  in  part  by  the  Per- 
sians, is  derived  from  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
texts.  In  these  it  is  called  Anshan,  and  comprised 
probably  a  vast  region  bounded  on  the  north-west  by 
Armenia,  on  the  north  by  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  east 
by  the  great  desert,  and  on  the  south  by  Elam.  It 
included  much  more  than  the  territory  originally 
known  as  Persia,  which  comprised  the  south-eastern 
portion  of  Anshan,  and  extended  to  Carmania  on  the 
east,  and  southward  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Later,  how- 
ever, when  the  Persian  supremacy  eclipsed  that  of 
the  Medes,  the  name  of  Persia  was  extended  to  the 
whole  Median  territory.  Ethnological  authorities  are 
agreed  that  the  heterogeneous  peoples  who  under 
the  general  name  of  Medes  occupied  tnis  vast  region  in 
historic  times,  were  not  the  original  inhabitants. 
They  were  the  successors  of  a  prehistoric  population 
as  in  the  case  of  the  historic  empires  of  tlgypt  and 
Assyria;  and  likewise,  little  or  nothing  is  known  of 
the  origin  or  racial  ties  of  these  earlier  ixihabitants.  If 
the  M^es  who  appear  at  the  dawn  of  historv  had 
a  written  literature,  which  is  hardly  probable,  no 
fragments  of  it  have  been  preserved,  and  conse- 
quently nothing  is  directly  known  concerning  their 
language.  Judging,  however,  from  the  proper  names 
that  have  come  down  to  us,  there  is  reason  to  mf  er  that 
it  differed  only  dialectically  from  the  Old  Persian. 
They  would  thus  be  of  Aryan  stock,  and  the  Median 
empire  seems  to  be  the  result  of  the  earliest  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  Aiyans  to  found  a  great  conquering 
monarchy. 

The  first  recorded  mention  of  the  people  whom 
the  Greeks  called  Medes  occurs  in  the  cuneiform  in- 
scription of  Shalmaneser  II,  King  of  Assyria;  who 
claims  to  have  vanauished  the  Madai  in  his  twenty- 
fourth  campaign,  aoout  836  b.  c.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  extent  of  this  conquest,  it  was  by  no 
means  permanent,  for  the  records  of  the  succeeding 
reigns  down  to  that  of  Asshurbanipal  (668-625),  who 
vainly  strove  to  hold  them  in  check,  constantly  refer 
to  the  **  dangerous  Medes "  (so  they  are  called  in  the 
inscriptions  of  Ticlath-Pileser,  IV,  747-727),  in  terms 
which  show  that  tneir  aggressive  hostility  had  become 
a  grave  and  e  ver-increasmg  menace  to  the  power  of  the 
Asisyrians.  During  that  period  the  power  of  Anshan 
was  gradually  strengthened  by  the  accession  and  as- 
similation of  new  peoples  of  Aryan  stock,  who  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  territory  once  held  by  the 
Assyrians  east  of  the  Tigris.  Thus  after  the  year 
640  B.  c.  the  names  of  the  native  rulers  of  ElaiD 


MEDIATOR 


lis 


MEDIATOR 


disappear  from  the  inseriptions,  and  in  their  place  we 
find  references  to  the  kings  of  Anshan.  The  capital 
of  the  kingdom  was  Ecbatana  (the  Agamatanu  or  the 
Babylonian  inscriptions)  the  building  of  which  is 
attributed  by  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Judith  (i,  1) 
to  "Arphaxad  king  of  the  Medes."  Assimiin^  that 
it  Is  the  city  call^  Amadana  in  an  inscription  of 
Tiglath-Pileser  I,  its  origin  would  go  back  to  the 
twelfth  oentuiy  B.C.  At  variance  with  this,  however, 
is  the  Greek  tradition  represented  by  Herodotus,  who 
ascribes  the  origin  of  Ecbatana  to  Deiokes  (the 
Daiukku  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  about  710  b.  c), 
who  is  described  as  the  first  great  ruler  of  the  Median 
empire.  The  "building  of  tne  city"  is,  of  course,  a 
rather  elastic  expression  which  may  well  have  b^n 
used  to  designate  the  activities  of  monarchs  who 
enlarged  or  fortified  the  already  existing  stroiu;hold; 
and  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  recall  that  most  of  these 
ancient  records,  though  containing  elements  of  truth, 
are  to  a  certain  extent  artificial.  At  all  events,  it  is 
with  the  reign  of  Deiokes  that  the  Median  empire 
emerges  into  the  full  light  of  history,  and  hencefor- 
ward the  Greek  sources  serve  to  check  or  corroborate 
the  information  derived  from  the  native  monu- 
ments. 

According  to  the  somewhat  questionable  account 
of  Herodotus,  Deiokes  reigned  from  700  to  647  b.  c. 
and  was  succeeded  by  Phraortes  (646-625),  but  of  the 
latter  no  mention  is  made  in  the  inscriptions  thus  far 
discovered.  His  successor  Cyaxares  (624-585),  after 
breaking  the  Scythian  power,  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Babylonians,  who  were  endeavouring  to  regain 
their  long  lost  domination  over  Assyria.  In  league 
with  Nal^polassar,  King  of  Babylon,  ne  captured  and 
destroyed  Ninive  (606  a.  c.)  and  conquered  all  the 
northern  portion  of  Mesopotamia.  Enriched  by  the 
spoils  of  tne  great  Assyrian  capital,  Cyaxares  pushed 
ms  conauering  armies  westward,  and  soon  the  domin- 
ion of  tne  Medes  extended  from  the  confines  of  Elam 
to  the  river  Halys  in  Asia  Minor.  Astyages  (584-550 
b.  c),  the  son  and  successor  of  Cyaxares,  tailed  to 
maintain  the  friendly  relations  with  Babylon,  and 
when  Nabonidus  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the  latter 
kingdom,  the  Medes  and  Babylonians  were  at  war. 

In  the  meantime  a  great  internal  movement  was 
preparing  the  way  for  a  chaujge  in  the  destinies  of  the 
empire.  It  was  due  to  the  rising  influence  of  another 
branch  of  the  Aryan  race,  and  in  nistory  it  is  generally 
known  as  the  transition  from  the  Median  to  the 
Persian  rule.  At  this  distance  both  terms  are  rather 
vague  and  indefinite,  but  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the 
advent  of  a  new  dynasty,  of  which  by  far  the  most 
conspicuous  ruler  is  Cyrus,  who  first  appears  as  King  of 
Anshan,  and  who  is  later  mentioned  as  King  of  Persia. 
Doubtless  in  the  eariier  part  of  his  reign  he  was  but  a 
vassal  king  dependent  on  the  Median  monarch,  but 
in  549  b.  c.  he  vanquished  Astyages  and  made  himself 
master  of  the  vast  empire  then  comprising  the  king- 
doms of  Anshan,  Persia,  and  Media.  He  is  known  to 
Oriental  history  as  a  great  and  brilliant  conqueror, 
and  his  fame  in  this  respect  is  confirmed  by  the  more 
or  less  fantastic  legends  associated  with  his  name  by  the 
Greek  and  Roman  writers.  His  power  soon  became 
a  menace  to  all  western  Asia,  and  in  order  to  with- 
stand it  a  coalition  was  formed  into  which  entered 
Nabonidus,  King  of  Babylonia,  Amasis,  King  of 
Eg3rpt.  and  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia.  But  even  this 
formidable  alliance  was  unable  to  check  the  progress 
of  Cvrus  who,  after  having  reduced  to  subjection  the 
whole  of  the  Median  empire,  led  his  forces  into  Asia 
Minor.  Croesus  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  in 
546,  and  within  a  year  the  entire  peninsula  of  Asia 
Minor  was  divided  hito  satrapies,  and  annexed  to  the 
new  Persian  empire.  The  west  bein^  fully  subdued, 
Cyrus  led  his  victorious  armies  against  Babylonia. 
Belshazzar,  the  son  of  the  still  reigning  Nabonidus, 
was  sent  as  general  in  chief  to  def^   ~  *ry, 


but  he  was  defeated  at  Opis.  After  this  disaster  the 
invading  forces  met  with  little  or  no  resistanoe,  and 
Cyrus  entered  Babylon,  where  he  was  received  as 
a  deliverer,  in  539  b.  g.  The  following  year  he  issued 
the  famous  decree  permitting  the  Hebrew  ci^ptives  to 
return  to  Palestine  and  rebuOd  the  temple  (I  Esd.,  i). 
It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connexion  that  be  is 
often  alluded  to  in  Isaias  (xl-xlviii,  poMtm),  where 
according  to  the  obvious  literal  meaning  he  is  ^x>ke& 
of  as  the  Lord's  anointed.  With  the  accession  of  the 
Achsemenian  d3ma8ty  the  history  of  Media  beoomeB 
absorbed  into  that  of  Persia  (q.  v.),  which  will  be 
treated  in  a  separate  article. 

Bbttbubr  in  Vzootrsoux,  Dietumnaire  dg  la  BibU,  a.  t. 
Midie:  Rookrs  Id  TKt  N*w  Sehaf-Henog  BncifdUtptdia,  m.  t. 
Meda-Pertia:  Jackson,  Pertia  Pa»t  and  Ptetni  (New  York. 
1006);  Satcs  in  HAarxNOS,  A  Dictionary  of  Uu  Bible,  a.  ▼. 
Mtdet. 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Mediator  (Chrxbt  as  Mediatoh). — ^The  subject 
will  be  treated  under  the  followins  heads :  (1 )  Defini- 
tion of  the  word  mediator;  (2)  Christ  the  Mediator; 
(3)  Christ's  qualifications;  (4)  Porformanoe;  (5)  Re- 
sults. 

(1)  Mediator  Defined. — ^A  mediator  is  one  who 
brings  estranged  parties  to  an  amicable  a^preement.  In 
New-Testament  theology  the  term  invariably  implia 
that  the  estranged  beings  are  Grod  and  man,  and  it  m 
appropriated  to  Christ,  the  One  Mediator.  When  spe- 
cial fnends  of  God — aneels,  saints,  holy  men — plead 
our  cause  before  God,  tney  mediate  "with  Chnst"; 
but  their  mediation  is  only  secondary  and  is  better 
called  intercession  (q.  v.).  Moses,  however,  is  the 
proper  mediator  of  the  Old  Testament   (Gal.,   iii, 

(2)  Chribt  the  Mediator. — St.  Pftul  writes  to 
Timothy  (I  Tim.,  ii,  3-6)  ..."  God  our  Saviour, 
Who  vml  have  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  to  oome 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth.  For  there  is  one 
God,  and  one  mediator  of  God  and  men,  the  man 
Christ  Jesus:  Who  gave  himself  a  redemption  for 
aU,  a  testimony  in  due  times."  The  object  of  the 
mediatorship  is  here  pointed  out  as  the  salv^ 
tion  of  mankind,  and  the  imparting  of  truth  about 
God.    The  mediator  is  named:   Christ  Jesus;  His 

Qualification  for  the  office  is  implied  in  His  being 
escribed  as  man,  and  the  performance  of  it  is  aaeribed 
to  His  redeeming  sacrifice  and  His  testifying  to  the 
truth.  All  this  originates  in  the  Divine  Will  of  "  God 
our  Saviour.  Who  will  have  all  men  to  be  saved". 
Christ's  meaiatorship,  therefore,  occupies  the  central 
position  in  the  economy  of  salvation:  all  human  souls 
are  both  for  time  and  eternity  dependent  on  Christ 
Jesus  for  their  whole  supernatural  life.  "Who  [God 
the  Father]  hath  delivered  us  from  the  power  of  dark- 
ness, and  hath  translated  us  into  the  kin^om  of  the 
Son  of  his  love,  In  whom  we  have  redemption  through 
his  blood,  the  remission  of  sins;  Who  is  the  image  of 

the  invisible  Gnd,  the  firstborn  of  ever^  creature 

all  things  were  created  by  him  and  in  him.  And  he  is 
before  aJl.  and  bv  him  all  things  consist.  And  he  is  tiie 
head  of  tne  body,  the  church,  who  is  the  beginning, 
the  firstborn  from  the  dead ;  that  in  all  things  he  may 
hold  the  primacy:  Because  in  him,  it  hath  weU  pleased 
the  Father,  that  all  fulness  should  dwell;  And  tnrou^ 
him  to  reconcile  all  things  unto  himself,  making  peace 
through  the  blood  of  his  cross,  both  as  to  the  tiiingi 
that  are  on  earth,  and  the  things  that  are  in  heavoi". 
(Col.,  i,  1^-20). 

(3)  QuALiFiCAiTONS. — ^Thc  perfection  ol  a  mediator 
is  measured  by  his  influence  with  the  parties  he  has 
to  reconcile,  and  this  power  flows  from  his  oonnezian 
with  both:  the  highest  possible  perfection  woukl  be 
reached  if  the  mediator  were  substantially  one  with 
both  parties.  A  mother,  for  instance,  is  the  best 
mediator  between  her  husband  and  her  son.  But  the 
matrimonial  union  of  "two  in  one  flesh'*,  and  tfa^ 


MSDXOIS                             119  MSDICatS 

union  of  mof&er  and  chQd  are  inferior  in  perfection  to  of  "an  action  perfonned  in  order  to  give  Qod 
tiie  hypostatic  union  of  the  Son  of  God  "with  human  honour  due  to  aim  alone,  and  bo  to  gam  the  Di 
nature.  Husband,  motlier,  eon.  are  three  persons;  favour"  (St.  Thomas,  III.  Q.  xlviii,  a.  3).  Peci 
JesuA  Christ,  God  and  man,  is  ooiij  one  person,  identi*  to  Christ's  sacrifice  are  toe  infinite  holiness  of 
cal  fvith  God,  identical  with  man.  Moreover,  the  Sacrifioer  and  the  infinite  value  of  the  Victim,  which 
hypostatic  union  makes  Him  the  Head  of  mankind,  give  the  sacrifice  an  infinite  value  as  expiation  and  as 
and,  therefore,  its  natural  representative.  ByHishu-  merit.  Moreover,  it  consists  of  suffering  voluntarily  ao- 
man  oripn  Cmist  is  a  member  of  the  human  family,  a  cepted.  The  sinner  deserves  death,  having  forfeited 
partaker  of  our  flesh  and  blood  (Heb.,  ii,  11-15) ;  oy  the  end  for  ^diich  he  was  created:  and  hence  Christ ao- 
leaaon  of  His  Divine  Personality,  He  is  "the  image  cepteddeathasthechieffeatureot  His  atoning  sacrifice, 
and  likeness  of  God  "  to  a  degree  unapproached  by  (5)  Rbsultb. — Christ's  saving  work  did  not  at  once 
either  man  or  angel.  The  Incarnation  establishing  blot  out  every  individual  sin  and  transform  every  sin- 
between  the  First-born  and  His  brethren  a  real  kin-  ner  into  a  samt;  it  only  procured  the  means  thereto, 
ship  or  affinity,  Christ  becomes  the  Head  of  ^  hu-  Personal  sanctification  is  efitected  by  spedal  acts, 
man  family,  and  the  human  family  acquires  a  claim  to  partly  Divine,  partly  human;  it  is  secured  by  loving 
participate  in  the  supernatural  privileges  of  their  God  and  man  as  the  Saviour  did.  Christianus  dUer 
Head,  "Because  we  are  membera  of  his  oody,  of  his  ChrUtus:  every  Christian  is  another  Christ,  a  son  of 
flesh,  and  of  his  bones. "  (Eph.,  v,  30.)  Such  was  the  God,  an  heir  to  the  eternal  Kingdom.  Finally,  in  the 
expressed  will  of  God:  "But  when  the  fulness  of  the  time  fulness  of  time  all  things  that  are  in  heaven  and  on 
was  oome.  God  sent  his  Son,  made  of  a  woman  .  .  .  earth  shall  be  re-establi^ied,  restored,  in  God  through 
that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons. "  (Gal.,  iv,  Christ  (Eph.,  i,  9-10).  The  meiming  of  this  promise 
4-5;  also  Rom.,  viii,  29.)  The  man  Christ  Jesus,  is  that  the  whole  of  creation,  bound  up  together  and 
therefore,  who  was  desigzied  by  God  to  mediate  be-  perfected  in  Christ  asits  Head,  shall  be  led  backin  the 
tween  Hmi  and  mankind,  and  whose  mediatorship  most  perfect  manner  to  Goct,  from  whom  sin  had 
was  not  accidental  and  dele^^ted,  but  inherent  in  His  partly  led  it  away.  Christ  is  the  Crown,  the  Centre, 
very  bdbg,  was  endowed  with  aOl  the  attributes  re-  and  the  Fountain  of  a  new  and  higher  order  of  things: 
quired  in  a  perfect  mediator.  "for  all  are  youra:   And  you  are  Christ's;    and 

Christ's  function  as  mediator  necessarily  proceeds  Christ  is  God's."  (I  (Jor.,  iii,  22-23). 

from  His  human  nature  as  principiuin  quo  operandi;  Consult  any  treatise  on  the  Inearnation,  e.  g.  Wn^sui  amd 

mf  if   nktA^ina   lia  mA/fi&f  inir  oflfinajtv  frTm  *hL  nivina  ScANNSLL,  Manual  of  Coth.  Th»L,  II  (London,  1906),  bk.  V; 

yet  It  obtains  its  mediatmg  efficacy  from  the  Uivme  humphmt,  TAs  Ons  Mediator  (London).    J.  Wilemju. 
nature,  1.  e.  from  the  digmty  of  the  actmg  person.   Its 

first  object,  as  commonly  stated,  is  the  remission  of  Medicea  (db  Medicis),  Hieroxtmub,  illustrious  as 
sin  and  the  granting  of  grace,  whereby  the  friendship  a  scholastic  of  acumen  and  penetration,  b.  at  Camerino 
between  God  and  man  is  restored.    This  object  is  at-  in  Umbria,  1569,  whence  the  surname  de  Medicis  a 
tained  bv  the  worship  of  infinite  value  which  is  offered  C!amerino.    He  was  clothed  with  the  Dominican  habit 
to  God  by  anc  through  Christ.    Christ,  however,  is  at  Ancona.    He  first  distinguished  himself  as  profes- 
mediator  on  the  side  of  God  as  well  as  on  the  side  of  sor  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  various  houses  of  the 
man:  He  reveals  to  man  Divine  truth  and  Divine  com-  Province  of  Lombu^dy,  whence  he  was  advanced  to  a 
mands;  He  distributes  the  Divine  gifts  of  grace  and  professorship  in  the  more  important  theological  school 
rules  the  world.    St.  Paul  sums  u|>  this  two-sided  at  Bologna.    He  was  approved  by  the  ^neral  chapter 
mediataon  in  the  words:  "...  consider  the  apostle  of  his  Order  held  at  Paris,  1611,  and  raised  to  the  mas- 
and  high  priest  of  our  confeasion,  Jesus"  (Heb..  iii,  tership  and  doctorate.    He  was  then  performing  the 
l)l  Jesus  IS  the  Apostle  sent  by  (jrod  to  us,  the  nigh  duties  of  general  censor  for  the  tribunal  of  the  Inqiusi- 
pnest  leading  us  on  to  God.  tion  established  at  Mantua,  for  which  reason  he  is  said 
(4)  Pbrvobmancb. — ^How  do  we  benefit  b^  Christ's  eventually  to  have  secured  the  transfer  of  his  affilia- 
mediation?    Christ  Ib  more  than  an  enlightening  tion  to  tlie  convent  of  that  place  (1618).    His  labori- 
teacher  and  a  bright  example  of  holiness;  He  destroys  ous  and  fruitful  career  closed  in  1622.    It  had  been 
■in  and  restores  grace.    Our  salvation  is  not  due  ex-  marked  by  a  studious  application  to  the  doctrines  of 
dusivel^r  to  the  Mediator's  intercession  for  us  in  St.  Thomas.    Just  as  the  Paris  chapter  was  acknowl- 
His  glorified  state  in  heaven;  Christ  admimsters  in  edging  his  intellectual  ability,  he  completed  the  first 
heaven  the  fruits  of  His  work  on  earth  (Heb.,  vii,  25).  part  of  the  invaluable  "  Summa  thaologis  S.  Thonus 
Scripture  compels  us  to  regard  the  work  of  the  Media-  Aquinatis  doctoris  angelici  formaUs  explicatio  ".    In 
tor  as  an  efficient  cause  of  our  salvation:  His  merits  this  work  he  puts  into  syllogistic  form  the  whole 
and  satisfaction,  as  being  those  of  our  representative,  Summa.    Aiming  primarily  at  the  enlightenment  of 
have  obtained  for  us  salvation  from  God.    The  oldest  bc^^innere,  he  contributes  notably  to  the  instruction  of 
expression  of  the  dogma  in  the  Church  formularies  is  others  more  advanced.    The  first  part  was  not  pub- 
inthe  Nicene  Creed:  "crucified  also  for  us",    "Vicari-  lished  until  l^e  first  section  of  the  second  part  was 
ous  satisfaction",  a  term  now  in  vogue,  is  not  found  ready  (Venice),  1614.    Three  years  later  followed  the 
expressly  in  the  Church  formularies,  and  is  not  an  second  section,  but  it  was  notimtil  1622  that  the  third 
adequate  expression  of  C^hrist's  mediation.    For  His  part  appeiured  at  Salo,  instead  of  Venice.    The  supple- 
mediation  partly  replaces,  partly  completes,  partly  ment  had  preceded  the  third  part  by  a  year  (Vemce, 
renders  possible  ana  efficacious  the  saving  work  of  1621);  it  was  not  published  at  Mantua  in  1623.    Other 
man  himself;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  condition  of,  more  correct  editions  have  followed  even  as  late  as  (Vici) 
and  it  poerits,  the  saiong  work  of  God.    It  begins  with  185^1862.    It  is  to  Jacobus  Qu^tif  that  credit  is  due 
obtaining  the  goodwill  of  God  towards  man,  with  ap-  for  having  improved  the  original  in  accuracy.    He  re- 
paying the  offended  God  by  interceding  for  man.  produced  the  work  in  five  tomes,  folio  (Paris),  in  1657. 
This  intercession,  however,  differs  from  a  mere  asking  Tlie  chief  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  arrange- 
in  thiBj  that  Christ's  work  has  merited  what  is  asked  for:  ment  of  St.  Thomas  in  syllogistic  form  is  a  quickness 
salvation  is  its  rightful  equivalent.    Further:  to  effect  of  grasp  with  an  easiness  of  assimilation  not  otherwise 
man's  salvation  from  sin,  the  Saviour  had  to  take  upon  obtainable.    In  the  Vici  edition  certain  additions  have 
Himself  the  sins  of  mankind  and  make  satisfaction  for  been  made  wluch,  although  raising  the  value  of  the 
tbem  to  God.    But  though  His  atonement  gives  God  work  as  a  manual,  are  outside  the  scope  of  ^e  original, 
more  honour  than  sin  gives  dishonour,  it  is  but  a  step  They  serve  as  appendices  to  each  question  and,  under 
towards  the  most  essential  part  of  Christ's  saving  the  caption  "Utiiitas  pro  EcclesiaS.  Dei",  furnish  the 
work — ^the  friendship  of  Ckxi  which  it  merits  for  man.  student  withpracticalapplications  of  the  original  mat- 
Taken  together  the  expiation  of  sin  and  the  meriting  ter  in  view  of  dogmas  subsequently  developed  or  con- 
of  Divine  friendship  are  the  end  of  a  real  sacrifice,  i.  e.  temporary  hereby. 


Quirnr-EcBUiD,  Scnplarci  O.  P.  {pBrn.  1721),  II.  42S 
ammit,  NonMcuTON  (loaiibnick,  1SS2),  I.  2S7  b.;  Mo»cio._ 
n  X^rcAfliWibm  (Fnibun  im  Br.,  IBBS),  tr»t<  mora  fuUy  ol 


MBdldi  House  ov,  a  Florentine  family,  the  mem- 
bera  of  which,  having  acquired  great  wealth  as  bank- 
to  tie  fast  the  imofficial  ruJera 
of    the    republic    of    Florence 
and  Bfterwards  the  reoogniied 
sovereignj  of  Tuscany. 

CoHMO  THE  Elder,  b.  1330, 
d.  1  Aug.,  14&1,  the  founder 
of  their  power  and  so-called 
"Padnt  deUa  Patria",  waa  the 
OOD  of  Giovanni  di  Averardo 
de'  Uedici,  the  richest  banker  in 
Italy.  He  obtained  the  virtual 
lordship  of  Florence  in  1434  by 
the  overthrow  and  expulsion  i^ 
the  leaders  of  the  ohgarchical 
faction  of  the  Albiiii.  While 
maintainiDR  republican  forma 
and  institutions,  he  held  the 
govenunent  by  bauishiDg  hia 
opponents  and  concentratiDg 
the  chief  magistracieH  in  the 
hands  of  his  own  adherents. 
His  foreign  policy,  which  be- 
came traditional  with  the  Medid 
throughout  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury until  the  French  invasi(» 
d  1404,  aimed  at  establishing 
a  balance  of  power  lietween  the 
five  chief  states  of  the  Italian 
peninsula,  by  allying  Florence 
with  Milan  and  maintaining 
friendly  relations  with  Naples, 
to  counterpoise  the  similar  un> 
derstanding  existing  between 
Rome  and  Venice,  He  was  a 
munificent  and  discerning 
patron  of  art  and  letters,  a  thor- 
ough humanist,  and  throu^ 
Harsilio  Ficino,  the  founder  ti 
the  famous  Neo-Platonic  acad- 
emy. Sincerriy  devoted  to  reli- 
gion in  his  latter  days,  be  waa 
closely  associated  with  St.  An- 
toninus and  with  the  Dominican 
frian  of  San  Marco,  his  favourite 
foundation.  His  son  and  suo- 
oeflBor,  Piero  il  QotUwo,  the  hus- 
band of  Lucrezia  Tornabuoni,  a 
man  of  magnanimous  character 
but  whose  activities  were  crip- 
pled by  illness,  contented  him- 
self with  following  in  his  f oot- 

<JQ  Fiero's  death  in  1469,  his 
sons  Lorenzo,  b.  1449,  d.  S 
April,  1492,  and  Gicliano,  b. 
1453,   d.  26  April,    1478.  suo- 

oeeded  to  his  power.  The  latter,  Cosmo  i 

a  genial  youth  with  no  particu-  PDtrtormo,  Uffiii 

lar  aptitude  for  politics,  was  murdered  in  the  Pazii 
conspiracy  of  1478,  leaving  an  illegitimflte  son  Giulio, 
who  afterwards  became-  Pope  Clement  VII.  Amtmg 
those  executed  for  their  share  in  the  conspiracy  was 
the  Archbishop  of  Pisa.  A  war  with  Pope  Sixtus 
rVand  King  Ferrante  of  Naples  followed,  in  which 
Floience  was  hard  pressed,  until  Lorenio,  as  Machia- 
velli  says,  "exposed  his  own  life  to  restore  peace 
t«  his  country",  by  going  in  person  to  the  Neapol- 
itan sovereign  to  obtain  favourable  terms,  in  1480. 
Henceforth  until  his  death  Lorenio  waa  undisputed 


master  ol  Florence  and  her  dominiona,  and,  while 
continuing  and  developing  the  foreign  and  dotns*- 
tic  policy  of  hia  grandfather,  be  greatly  extended 
the  Medioean  influence  throughout  Italy.  His  akilful 
diplomacy  was  directed  to  maintaining  the  peace  d 
the  peninsula,  and  keeping  the  five  chief  statea  united 
in  the  face  of  the  growmg  danger  of  an  invasion  fnm 


igrowmgd 

beyond  Ute  Alpa.  Guiedardini 
wntea  of  him  that  it  would  not 
have  been  possible  for  FlomMB 
to  have  had  a  better  or  a  more 
pleasant  tyrant,  and  certainly 
the  world  has  seen  no  note 
splendid  a  Patron  of  artists  and 
scholars.  The  poets,  Puiri  and 
Folitiano,  the  philoaopber  and 
m^ic.  Giovanni  Pico  delb 
Mirandola,  and  a  whole  galaxf 
of  ^reat  artists,  such  aa  Botti- 
oeUi  and  Ghirlandaio,  shed  gloi7 
over  his  reign. 

Posterity  has  agreed  to  caQ 
Lorenzo  "  the  Ma^uficeot  ",biit 
this  is,  in  part,  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  tne  Italian  title  "ms- 
gnifico  ",  which  was  given  to  all 
the  members  oF  his  family,  and, 
indeed,  during  the  fifteenth  ceo- 
tury,  applied  to  moot  persons  <rf 
importance  in  Italy  to  whom 
the  higher  title  of  "Excellence  " 
did  not  pertain,  Lorenio  siinu 
up  the  finest  culture  of  the 
early  Rpoaisaance   in  bis  owd 

Grson.  Unlike  many  of  the 
manista  of  hie  epoch  he  tior- 
oughly  appreciated  the  great 
Italian  classics  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding centuries;  in  hia  youth 
he  wrote  a  famous  epistle  on  the 
subject  to  Federigo  of  Atagon, 
which  accompanied  a  collectioa 
of  early  Italian  lyrics.  Hia 
own  poems  in  the  remaculu 
rank  very  high  in  the  literatun 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  They 
are  remarkably  varied  in  stvh 
and  subject,  ranging  from  n- 
trarcan  canioni  an^  sonnets, 
with  a  prose  comiuMitaiy  io 
imitation  of  the  "  Vita  Nuova  ", 
to  the  semiparody  of  Dante 
entitled  ''I  Be«ii",  His 
coiuoni  a  baUo,  the  popular 
dancing  songs  of  the  Floren- 
tines, have  the  true  lyrical  note. 
Especially  admirable  are  his 
compositions  in  oUava  rima:  the 
"Caccia  col  Falcone",  with  its 
keen  feeling  for  nature:  ibe 
"Ambra",amythological  fahle 
of  the  Floientme  countr>'-side; 
and  the  "  Nencia  da  Barfaerino  ", 
an  idyllic  picture  of  rustic  loves. 
His  "AhereazitHie",  aix  cantos  ia 
Urai  rima,  diacuasea  the  natun 
of  true  telicitv.and  closes  in  animpresaiveprayertoGod, 
somewhat  I'tatonic  in  tone.  To  purely  religiaus  pas- 
trj'  IjelonK  liis  "  Laade  ",  and  a  miracle-play,  the  "  Rap- 
prpsentazione  di  ma  Giovanni  e  san  Paolo",  with  a 
curiously  modem  appreciation  of  the  Emperor  Julian. 
In  strikmg  contrast  to  these  are  his  csmival-aongi, 
canti  camaseiaUteki,  so  immoral  aa  to  lend  colour  to 
the  accusation  that  he  strove  to  undermine  the  molal- 
ity of  the  Florentines  in  order  the  mora  easily  to 
enslave  them. 
At  the  close  of  his  life,  Loienio  was  brought  into  oo^ 


OallHy.  FlorcOM 


MKDIOZ  121  SCKDICI 

flkt  with  SkvooKrola,  but  the  I^nul  ol  the  latter  re-    murder  of  Aleasandro,  he  c»me  into  Florence,  and  «m 

filling  bim  kbaolutico  on  his  deathbed  unleea  be  re-    fonnally  recognized  aa  head  of  the  government  both 

Aored  fibertr  to  Florence  is  now  genenllr  rejected  by    by  the  dtizena  and  b^  the  emperor.     At  the  outeet, 

hisUniana.    By  bia  wife,  Cl&riee  Oraini,  Ltncnio  bad    with  the  aid  of  imperial  troops,  he  erushed  the  la«t  ef- 

tlueeaocurPiero,  QiuliBno,  and  Giovanni.  <rf  whom  the    fortsof  the  repubhcane,  who  were  led  by  Baccio  Valoii 

third  roae  to  the  papacy  as  Leo  X.    Altoougfa  a  man    uid  Fihppo  Stroizi.    Various  constitutional  cheeks 

of  immofal  life,  his  relations  with  lus  family  show  him    were  at  ttrst  put  upco  him,  but  these  he  soon  dis- 

uader  a  favourable  aqieot,  and,  in  a  letter  from  one  of    carded,  and  imenly  used  the  title  of  Duke  of  Florence. 

thelsdiesof  the  Mantuan  court,  a  charming  account  is    Although  ruthless  and  implacable,  he  proved  himself 

given  of  how,  tm  his  way  to  tbe  congress  of  Cremona  in    the  ablest  Italian  ruler  of  the  sixteentn  century,  and 

1483,  Lorenso  vi«it«d  the  Gouaga  children  and  sat    gave  a  permanent  form  to  the  government  of  Florence, 

amoDg  them  in  their  nursery.  finally  developing  the  shapelras  remains  of  the  fallen 

PiBBO  Di  LoniNio,  Lorenso's  eldeet  aaa,  b.  1471,  d.     republic  into  a  modem  monarchical  state.    He  thop- 

1503,  a  licentious  youth  with  none  erf  bis  father's  abil-     oughly  reorganized  the  laws  and  adnuniatration,  cre- 

ity,  proved  a  most  incwnpetent  ruler,  and,  on  the     ated  a  small  but  efficient  fleet  to  defend  the  shores  of 

French  invasion  of  1494,  im  was  expelled  from  Flor-     Tuscany,  and  raised  a  national  army  out  of  the  old 

ence  by  the  people,  led  by  tbe  patriotic  Piero  Capponi.    Florentme  militia.    He  married  a  ^isnish  wife,  the 

After  several  fruitless  attempts  to  recover  his  position,     noble  and  virtuoua  Eleonora  da  Toledo,  and  in  forei^ 

he  was  drowned  at  the  batue  ol  the  Garigliano  while    aSaira  leaned  to  a  large  extent  up<Hi  Spain,  by  which 

power,  however,  he  was  prevented  from  aooepting  the 

crown  of  Corsica.     His  great  desire  of  absorbing  the 

neighbouring  repubhce  of  Lucca  and   Siena  into  his 

dominions  was  fulfilled  only  in  the  case  of  the  latter 

state;  he  conquered  Siena  in  1555,  and  in  1557  iwsived 

it  as  a  fief  from  the  King  or  Spain. 

Tradition  has  invested  Cosmio's  name  with  a  series 
of  horrible  domestic  crimes  and  tragedies,  all  of  which 
have  been  completely  disproved  by  recent  reseandu 
After  the  death  of  Eleonora  da  Toledo  in  1562,  he  ap- 

Carstohaveabandonedhimself  to  vice.  A  few  yean 
ter  be  married  his  mistress,  Cammilla  Martelli.  In 
-  ■46?A  he  WBs-crowned  in  Rome  by  Pius  V  as  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  -Oiereby  taking  place  among  the  sov- 
ereigns of'Europe.l  The  title  was  confirmed  to  his  BOQ 
and  successor, '.Francis  I,  in  157G,  by  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  11.  Coeimo's  descendants  reigned  aa 
Grand  Dukes  of  'fuscany  in  an  unbroken  Ime  until 
1737,  when^  on  the  death  of  Gian  Gastone  de'  Medio, 
tbeirdominionsiAMed  to  the  House  of  Austria. 

Capponi.  Sloria  dilti  RepiMlica  di  Firttat  (FloTenn.  ISSS}; 
Pbluiqidfit,  Laritepwilva  Fioreniina  a  ttmpo  di  Cotmo  U  va^ 
...AUo-CHiu-iaSf));  SiiiBT,  Coiima  da'  Medici  Cljmdon,  ISM); 
Rmcoe.  Tht  Life  o}  Lt^ma  dg  Mrdiei  (London,  179fi.  eto.j; 
RtuuoHT,  Lotenio  H  Utdid  il  liafnifia  (Lapua.  1S74); 
Open  di  Lorenao  de'  Mtdici  dttto  U  Maffnifico  14  vols., 
Fkirenu.  IB2S]:  C/lrdvcci,  Poeeit  di  Lormio  dt' Uedtd(fln- 
««,  IHSS):  Rosu,  11  QuoUivMnJoj Milan,  1900);  Villahi,  La 
Btana  di  Oinlame  Savonarola  (Fbrenoe,  ISBT);  OALLinn, 
Aorw  d«l  OranrfuoUa  di  T-OKsna  BUa  iJ  foHTiw  ileUa  Cou  V*- 
Oei  (Florence,  17BI ,  etc.) :  Staria  FioraOma  di  BenedtUa  KOheU, 
sd.  MiLAHEBi  (F]or«fiiw,lS67):  AHiiSTnoHq,Litrfluadr  HadM 
(Undon  and  New  York,  1S9T):  Baliihi,  rrnoadH  UmHat  da- 
■imMcAi  (FlniHice.  1808);  Ferrai.  LormMino de'  MediaOtdm, 
isei):  QAnTHiEi.  L'llalia  da  in-  Sitcle  ^Btis,  1901):  YouKO. 
Tht  Media  (London,  1S09);  aAKDKiR,  TMt  Stary  of  Flomtet 
(London  and  New  York,  new  ed..  lOlOJ. 

EoMUND  G.  Gaadnxb. 

Hedid,  Maria  ok*.  Queen  td  France;  b.atFlwenee, 
26April,  1573;  d.at  Cologne,  3  July,  1642.    SbeWMs 

enoe.     nitn  nun,  m  isiu,  tne  legiiimaie  male  aescent  daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  Francis  I  of  Tusca^and 

of  Coaimo  tbe  Elder  came  to  an  end.     By  his  wife,  the  Archduchess  Joan  of  Austria,  and  married  Henrv 

MadeleinedelaTourd'Auvergne  he  was  the  father  rf  IV   of  France,   6  October,   1600,     In  March,   1610, 

Caterina  de'  Medici,  afterwards  Queen  of  France,  Henry  IV,  who  was  preparing  to  lead  an  expediticMi 

Tbe  Medici  were  again  expelled  from  Florence,  and  into  Germany,  a^inst  the  Spaniards  and  the  Imperi- 

tbe  republic  once  more  estaolished,  in  1^7.     But  in  alista,  appointed  Maria  de'  Medici  regent,  with  a  coun- 

1530,  after  tbe  famous  siege,  the  city  was  compelled  to  cil  of  fifteen;  yielding  to  her  insistence,  he  also  caused 

surrender  to  the  imperial  forces,  and  Charles  V  made  her  to  be  crowned  queen  on  13  May,  1610.  Two  hours 

ft  Irmnnrim  de'   Medici,   an   illegitimate  son   of    the  after  the  assassination  d  Henry  IV  p4  May,  1610). 

younger  Lorenio,  hereditary  head  of  the  Florentine  the  Due  d'Eperaon  went  to  the  Paruament  imd  had 

govemmenL     All  republican  forms  and  offices  were  Maria  de'  Medici  declared  regent,  the  little  Louis  XIII 

swept  away,  and  Alessandro  ruled  as  duke  until,  in  beingnot  yet  nineyeareof  age.     The  policy  of  Henry 

1537  he  was  assassinated  by  his  kinsman,  Lorenso  di  IV,  who,  had  he  lived,  would  have  striven  mora  and 

Piertrancesco  de'  Medici,  who  fled  to  Venice  without  more  to  secure  alliances  with  Protestant  powers,  was 

attempting  either  to  assert  his  own  claims  to  the  euo-  replaced  by  a  Catholic  policy,  aiming  at  a  Spanish  al- 

cession  or  to  restore  the  republican  regime.  liance.     The  first  act  m  this  direction  was  the  be- 

Cosuio  ob'  Medici,  usually  known  aa  Oieimo  I.  b.  trothal  of  Louis  XIII  to  the  Infanta  Anna  (afterwards 

1519,  d.  1574,  was  tbe  descendant  of  a  brother  of  Cos-  knownasAnneof  Austria),  and  of  Eliiabeth of  France 

imo  the  Elder  and  representative  of  the  younger  Medi-  to  the  Infant  Philip  (1B12).     There  was  agitation 

cean  line.    He  was  the  son  ff  Giovanni  delle  Bande  among  tbe  princes  and  the  Protestants.    Tbe  Statee- 

Nere,  tbe  great  soklier,  and  Maria  Salviati-    On  the  G^ieral,  convoked  by  the  c]ueen  regent  in  1914.  w  » 


nonarcn};  to  aasooate  representauves  m  tne  Ue  ana  wov  Deuen  ^Aufcun,  loai).  ud  toe  oeau  oi 
I  tbe  aational  government,  and  the  attempt  luvnea  (16  Deeember^S2i),  ahe  ngaia«d  soaae  of  btr 
succeeded  ill.  Finally,  defying  the  lusoeptibilitiM  of  innuenee;  die  cauied  Richdieu  to  be  admitted  to  the 
Cond^  and  the  Proteatante,  Louia  XIII  married  the  council  (1624),  and  was  even  entrusted  with  the  re- 
Infanta  Anna  on  28  November,  1616,  and  the  revolt  tA  gency  during  the  war  in  ItiJy.  But  oeRichelieu'shoe- 
the  princea,  foUowingon  the  arntRt  m  Ccnd4  (1  Sept.,  tility  to  Spain  became  more  mariuHl,  ahe  sought  his 
1616),  was  the  cause  of  tbe  queen  regent's  summomng  dismissal.  Allying  hereelf  with  Gaaton  d'OrUana,  she 
Richelieu  (q.  v.).  Bishop  of  Lugon,  to  her  coundi,  as  once— "the  Day  of  the  Dupea",  12  November,  1630— 
minister  of  war.  Public  opinion  whs  aroused  by  the  thought  herself  lucoewfu]  m  malring  Louts  fiypwMM  the 
influence  which  Maria  allowed  her  Udy-in-waitins,  carduiai.    She  was  mistaken.    Banished  to  CotnpiJgDe 


the  young  king,  predominated.  Maria  de' Medid  had  d'Orl^ana:  but  Gaston  was  beaten,  and  Maria  de" 
lo  leave  Paris,  2  May,  1617,  and  Medici  never  mot«  set  foot  in 
it  was  through  the  mteivention  t'lBnce.  From  1631  to  1638 
of  Richelieu  that  she  was  a^  she  spent  ber  time  in  the  Low 
lowed  to  establiah  her  household  Countriee,  sending  acraes  tim 
atBloie.  French  frontier  manifestos 
The  regency  of  Maria  do*  whi^  no  one  read.  After  that, 
Medici  is  interestinz  from  the  takin|[refugeinEkigland(163^ 
point  of  view  of  religious  histor;  4 1 )  with  her  son-in-law  Charles 
oecauae  of  the  Gallican  agitation  I,  she  was  as  a  Catholic  an  ob- 
which  marked  it.  After  the  oon-  ject  of  suspicion  to  the  ProtM- 
demnation  by  the  Parliament  of  tants  of  tlit  country.  I*rt  <rf 
Paris  of  Bellarmine's  trcatiBe  on  "U,  she  betook  herself  to  Ger- 
the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  maay,  where  she  died,  a  hdp- 
(1610),  Edmond  Richer,  synaic  leas  onlooker  at  the  triuin[^trf 
of  the  faculty  of  theology,  de-  thatforeign  policy  of  Richelieu 
veloped,  in  his  "  Libellus  de  Eo-  which  was  the  exact  opposite 
clesiasticaetPoliticaPotestate",  of  what  she  had  foUowed  dur- 
the  theory  that  the  govemmait  ing  her  regency.  The  hau^ty 
of  the  Church  should  be  aristo-  queen,  whoae  luxury  and  aplai- 
cratical,  not  monarchical.  Maria  Jour  had  been  blaioned  in  Ru- 
de' Medici  decidedly  opposed  bens's  immense  canvases,  po»- 
Richer,  and,  when  he  bod  been  seeaed  but  a  moderate  fortune 
condemned  by  an   assembly  of  ^t  the  time  of  her  death. 


B  held  at  Sens 
presidency  of  Cardinal  du  Pe.^  itt^t^Ml^STM^si^i^:!^ 


baa  tiim  deposed,  and  a  1892)i  Idem,  La  miyurrM  ia  Lnat 


new8yndicelected(1612).  When  *"J;  'f^..^,^t^'t^^in1 
Harlay  had  resigned  the  p««-  ^^  Jfl^id^'lkj^  ^ 
dency  ol  tbe  ParRomeDt,  she  re-  (Pub.  IBBS);  Idu,  Iowu  nil. 
fused  to  appoint  in  hisplaceda  ^'!!tiL^my^J^^  ^t^ 
Thou,aGanican,  andapuointed  „rt  'Richnuiu,  I.  u  (P«».  iBsj, 
mstead  Nicolas  de  Verdun,  an  ISM):  Picor,  BiA  dt*  Biau  a*nt- 
Ultramontane.  In  the  States-  "'"■V-SiS^'il-t'i^^SS\^- 
Qeneralofl6f4,theThirdEBtate.  "^l^iSsUri  n?V"/;SSLn: 
through  its  spokesman,  Miron,  Mant  de  Mitdiat  (z  vota..  Pus, 
made  a  decUration  of  Gallican  im3y.BAiyrouLavUMmt,r^ 
principles,  and  tried,  with  iftie  M*«^''CM""J  jj.,  <P^  1908)7^'*™  U  Mat*dJ 
BUpportoftheProtestantCondd,  Poorbu*.  Th*  Piwlo,  Madrid  d' Incr*  n  LronomOaligat  (Pvi*. 
to mtroduce  into  its  euAier  an  article  on  the  power  of  IBIO'I  P*i"i>ob,  Lift  .o/  *iari,  d»  M«i™  (Loi^b.  18S2); 
kinw,  which  aimed  at  the  XJhramontanes;  Maria  de'  U.bo.  T*.ii.ff«QPo/rfar«d.  ««i.ru  (London.  1904). 
MecUciendedthebuaineHsbyorderinBthiB  article  to  be  Geokges  (Sotao. 
takon  out  of  the  coAier,  and  forl:iiddiiig  ajiy  further  dis- 
cussion of  the  question.  Another  interesting  event  of  Hedidue,  Rihtort  of. — Tbe  history  of  medical 
this  recency  waa  the  Assembly  of  Saumur  (1611).in  science,  considered  as  a  part  of  the  general  history  of 
which  uieProtestants.anxioustopreserveanddevelop  civiiizaUon,  should  logically  begin  m  Mesopotamia, 
the  political  privileges  given  them  by  the  Edict  of  where  tradition  and  philological  investigation  have 
NBntee,BetaboutorganiiingaII  over  Francea  vast  net-  placed  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.  But,  in  a  con- 
work  ofprovincial  assemblies  to  watch  over  the  inter-  densed  article  such  as  this,  there  are  important  rea> 
eeta  of  ProteBtantism,  and  aseemblfei  de  cerdes,  com-  sons  which  dictate  the  choice  of  another  etarting 
biningsevera]provincee,whichnouIdbeabletoimpoBe  point.  Modem  medical  science  rests  upon  a  Greek 
their  will  w  the  State.  It  was  thus  that,  through  the  toundation,  and  whatever  other  civiliied  peoples  may 
initiative  of  Henri  de  Rohan,  Sully'ason-in-law,  there  have  accomplished  in  this  field  lies  outside  our  in- 
begon  to  form  within  the  French  State  a  sort  of  sepa-  quiry.  It  is  certain  that  the  Greeks  brought  much 
rate  Protestant  party,  to  which  Richelieu  was  to  put  with  them  from  their  original  home,  and  also  thai 
an  end.  they  learned  a  great  deal  from  their  intercourse 
After  1617,  Maria  de'  Medici  lived,  with  many  vicis-  with  other  civiliwd  countries,  especially  E^gypt  and 
BJtudee,  a  life  full  of  intrigue,  which  ahe  sometimes  India;  but  the  Greek  mind  asaimilated  knowledge 
carried  to  conspiracy.  Escaping  from  Bloia,  22  Feb.,  in  such  a  fashion  that  its  origin  can  rarely  be  recog- 
1619,  she  made  her  way  into  Angoidfime  and  obtained  niied. 

from  Luynea  the  govemmeivt  of  Anjou,  which  became  Mtthicai.,  Homxkic,  and  Pre-Hippoceatic  Tiiras. 

a  lallying-point  Tor  malcontents.    Tlie  troops  who  ^-Greek  medical  eckiiee,  like  that  of  idl  otviliaed  peo- 


MBDICIMS  123  MEDlCnn 

pks,  BhowB  in  the  beginning  a  purely  theurgical  chap-    that  he  pointed  out  the  means  whereby  medicine  b6- 
acter.    Apollo  is  reffarded  as  uie  founder  of  medical    came  a  science.    His  first  rule  was  the  observation  of 


science,  and,  in  poet-Homeric  times,  his  son  iGscula-    individual  patients,  individualizing  in  contradistinc- 
pius  (in  Homer,  a  Thessalian  prince)  is  represented  as    tion  to  the  schematizing  of  the  school  of  Cnidus.    By 


The  temples  of  .fsculapius,  of  which  those  at  Epi-  by  induction  to  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
daurus  and  Cos  are  the  oest  known,  were  situated  in  ease,  its  course,  and  its  treatment.    This  is  the  origin 
a  healthy  neighbourhood.    The  sick  pilgrims  went  of  the  famous  "Aphorismi",  short  rules  which  contain 
thither.that,aFteralongpreparationof  prayer,  fasting  at  times  principles  derived  from  experience,  and  at 
and  ablutions,  they  might,  through  the  mediation  of  times  conclusions  drawn  from  the  same  source.    They 
the  priests,  receive  in  their  dreams  the  healing  oracles,  form  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  Collection.    The 
This  kind  of  medical  science  already  shows  a  rational  school  of  Cos  and  its  adherents,  the  Hippocratics. 
basis,  for  the  priests  interpreted  the  dreams  and  pre-  looked  upon  medical  science  from  a  purely  practical 
scribed  a  suiU^le  treatment,  in  most  cases  purely  standpoint:  they  regarded  it  as  the  art  of  healing  the 
dietetic    Imp<vtant  reoor^  of  sicknesseB  were  made  sick,  and  therefore  laid  most  stress  on  prognosis  -and 
and  left  as  Votive-tablets  in  the  temples.    Side  by  treatment  by  aiding  the  powers  of  nature  thro\igh 
side  with  the  priestly  caste,  and  perhaps  out  of  it,  dietetic  moans,  while  the  whole  school  of  Cnidus 
there  arose  the  order  of  temple  physicians,  who,  as  prided  it  elf  u">on  its  scientific  diagnosis  and,  in  har- 
supposed  descendants  of  the  sou  iEsculapius,  were  mony  with  the  E:*.st,  .adopted  a  varied  medicinal  treat- 
known  as  the  AsclepiadcB,  and  formed  a  kind  of  guild  ment.     Th^  method  which  the  school  of  Cos  estab- 
or  oorporation.    This  separation  of  offices  must  nave  lished  more  than  2000  years  ago  has  proved  to  be  the 
occuiml  at  an  eariy  time,  for  even  in  Homer  we  find  lay  only  correct  one,  and  thus  Hippocratic  medical  science 
physicians  mentioned,  especially  **  the  sons  of  i£scula-  celebrated  its  renascence  in  the  eighteenth  centiiiy 
pius  ",Machaon  and  Podaiirius.  In  the  vegetable  drugs  with  Boerhaave  at  Leyden  and  subsequently  with 
of  Egyptian  origin  mentioned  in  Homer  we  recognize  Gerhard  van  Swieten  at  Vienna.    In  his  endeavour  to 
the  early  influence  of  the  country  of  the  Pharaohs  upon  attain  the  truth  the  earnest  investigator  often  reaches 
( I  reek  medical  science.    The  schools  of  the  philoso-  an  impassable  barrier*.    There  is  nothing  more  tempt- 
phers  likewise  exerted  no  small  influence  upon  its  devel-  ing  than  to  seek  an  outlet  by  means  of  reflection  and 
opment,  medical  problems  being  studied  by  Pythagoras  deduction.    Such  a  delusive  course  may  easily  become 
of  Samoe,  Alcnueon  of  Crotona,  Parmemdes  of  Elea,  fatal  to  the  physicist;  but  a  medical  system,  erected 
Heraclitus  of  Ephesus  (sixth  century  b.  c),  Empedo-  upon  the  results  of  speculative  investigation,  carries 
cles  of  Agrjgentum,  and  Anaxa^oras  of  Clazomense  the  germ  of  death  within  itself, 
(fifth  century  b.  c).    The  earliest  medical  schools  The  Dogmatic  School. — In  their  endeavour  to 
were  at  Cyrene  in  Northern  Africa,  Crotona,  Cnidus,  complete  the  doctrine  of  their  great  master  the  suoces- 
and  Cos.    From  Cnidus  came  Euryphon  and  also  sors  of  the  Hippocratics  fell  victims  to  the  snares  of 
Ctesias  the  geographer,  who  was  at  nrst  phjrsician  in  speculation,    tn  spite  of  this,  we  owe  to  this  so-called 
the  army  of  Cyrus  and,  after  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  (401  '^dogmatic  school    some  fruitful  investigation.    Dio- 
B.  c),  to  Artaxerxes  Memnon.     Of  greater  interest  is  des  Carystius  advanced  the  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
the  medical  school  adjoining  the  shrme  of  .£sculapius  and  tried  to  fathom  the  causal  conne^don  between 
at  Cos,  for  from  it  arose  the  man  who  first  placed  symptom  and  disease,  in  which  endeavours  he  was 
medicine  upon  a  scientific  basis,  and  whose  name  is  imitated  by  Praxagoras  of  Cos,  who  established  the 
even  to-day  well  known  to  all  physicians,  Hippocrates,  diagnostic  importance  of  the  pulse. 

HiPPOCRATKS  AND  THE  SO-CALLED  CoRPUB  HiPPO-  Unfortunately,  there  already  began  with  Aristotle 
CRATicuM . — ^Tradition  knows  seven  phjrsicians  named  (384-22  b.  c.)  that  tendency — Plater  rendered  so  fatal 
Hippocrates,  of  whom  the  second  is  regarded  as  the  through  Galen's  teaching — to  regard  organic  struo- 
most  famous.  Of  his  life  we  know  but  little.  He  was  ture  and  function  not  in  accordance  with  facts  but 
bom  at  Cos  in  460  or  459  b.  c,  and  died  at  LarLssa  from  the  tcleological  standpoint. 
about  379.  How  great  his  fame  was  during  his  life-  The  Alexandrian  Period. — The  desire  to  give  to 
time  18  shown  by  the  fact  that  Plato  compares  him  medicine  a  scientific  basis  found  rich  nourishment  in 
with  the  artbts  Polycletus  and  Phidias.  Later  he  was  the  ancient  civilized  soil  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies. 
called  "the  Great ''^ or  "the  Divine".  The  historical  Herophilus  of  Chalcedon  (about  300  b.  c.)  and  Erasis- 
kemel  is  probably  as  follows:  a  famous  physician  of  tratus  of  lulls  (about  330-240  b.  c.)  are  mentioned  in 
this  name  from  Cos  flourished  in  the  days  of  Pericles,  this  connexion.  As  anatomists,  they  were  the  first 
and  subseouently  many  things,  which  his  ancestors  or  systematic  investigators,  and,  following  Hippocrates, 
his  descenoants  or  his  school  accomplished,  were  at-  they  tried  to  complete  clinical  experience  oy  exact 
tributed  to  him  as  the  hero  of  medical  science.  The  methods.  This  tendency  was  opposed  by  tne  em- 
same  was  true  of  his  writings.  What  is  now  known  pirics,  whose  services  lay  solely  m  the  field  of  drugs 
under  the  title  of  *'  Hippocratis  Opera"  represents  the  and  toxicology.  Erasistratus  as  well  as  Phillnus,  the 
work,  not  of  an  individual,  but  of  several  persons  empiric,  attacked  the  doctrine  of  humors  (humoral 
of  different  periods  and  of  different  schools.  It  has  patnology),  which  developed  out  of  the  Hippocratic 
thus  become  customary  to  designate  the  writing  as-  tendency.  The  former  alone  was  a  serious  opponent, 
cribed  to  Hippocrates  by  the  general  title  of  the  since,  as  an  anatomist,  he  looked  for  the  seat  cf  the 
*'  Hippocratic  Collection  (Corpus  Hippocraticum),  disease  in  the  solid  parts,  rather  than  in  the  four  fim- 
and  to  divide  them  according  to  their  origin  into  the  damental  humors  (blood,  mucus,  blade  and  yellow 
works  of  the  schools  of  Cnidus  and  of  Cos,  and  those  gall)  and  their  different  mixtures. 
of  the  Sophists.  How  difficult  it  is,  however,  to  de-  The  Methodizers. — One  of  the  opponents  of  hu- 
termine  toeir  genuineness  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  moral  pathology  was  Asclepiades  of  Prusa  in  Bithynia 
even  in  the  third  century  before  Christ  the  Alex-  (b.  about  124  b.  c).  He  tried  to  utilize  in  medicine 
andrian  librarians,  who  for  the  first  time  collected  the  the  atomistic  theory  of  Epicurus  and  Heracleides  of 
anonymous  scrolls  scattered  through  Hellas,  could  not  Pontus.  He  taught  that  health  and  disease  depend 
reach  a  definite  conclusion.  For  the  development  of  upon  the  motion  of  the  atoms  in  the  fine  capillaries  or 
medical  science  it  is  of  little  consequence  who  com-  pores,  which,  endowed  with  sensation,  pass  tburough 
posed  the  works  of  the  school  of  Cos,  for  they  are  all  the  entire  body.  With  Themison  as  their  leader,  the 
more  or  leas  permeated  by  the  spirit  of  one  great  mas-  followers  of  Asclepiades  simplified  his  doctrine  by  sup- 
ter.    The  secret  of  his  immortalitv  rests  on  the  fact  posing  disease  to  be  only  a  contraction  or  relaxatioot 


MKDICIMK  124 

ftnd  later  only  a  mixed  oandition  (partly  contracted,  lived  at  Alexandria,  and  was  one  of  the  last  to  cone 

partly  relaxed)  of  the  pores.    This  simple  and  con-  from  its  once  famous  school,  whidi  became  extinct 

venient  explanation  of  all  diseases  without  regard  to  after  the  capture- of  the  city  by  Omar  in  640.     At  the 

anatomy  and  ph3r8iology,  taken  in  conjunction  with  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  NicolausMyrepsus,  lir- 

its  allied  cryi^tem  of  physical  dietetic  therapeutics,  ex-  ing  at  the  court  in  Nicsa,  made  a  collection  of  preeienp- 

plains  why  this  doctrine  enjoyed  so  long  a  life,  and  tions  which  was  extensively  used.    In  the  time  cf 

why  the  works  of  the  methodist.  Cslius  Aurelianus  of  Emperor  Andronicus  III  (1328-42)  lived  a  highly 

Sicca  in  Numidia  (beginning  cf  fifth  century  a.  d.),  gifted  physician,  Joannes  Actuarius,  and  the  mentioD 

were  diligently  studied  down  to  the  seventh  century,  of  his  writings  closes  the  account  of  this  period. 

Galen. — ^Departure  from  the  Hippocratic  observa-        Arabian    Medicine. — ^Arabian    medical    adoMe 

tion  of  nature  led  physicians  to  form  numerous  mutu-  forms  an  important  chapter  in  the  histoiy  of  the  de^ 

ally  opposing  sects.    A  man  oi  great  industrv  and  velopment  of  medicine,  not  because  it  was  eapedaOy 

comprehensive  knowledge,  Galen  of  Pergamum  (about  productive,  but  because  it  preserved  Greek  medicsl 

A.  D.  130-201),  tried  to  rescue  medical  science  from  science  with  that  of  its  most  important  representative, 

this  labyrinth.    He  chose  the  path  of  eclecticism,  on  Galen.    It  was,  however,  strong  influenced  by  ori- 

which  he  built  his  (as  he  thought)  infallible  system,  ental  elements  of  later  times.    Tlie  adherents  of  the 

Whatever  sense-perception  and  clincal  observation  left  heretic  Nestorius,  who  in  431  settled  in  Edessa,  were 

obscure,  he  triecl  to  explain  in  a  speculative  manner,  the  teachers  of  the  Arabs.    After  their  expulsion 

That  this  system  of  teaching  could  hold  medicine  in  these  Nestorians  settled  in  Dschondisapor  in  489,  and 

bondage  until  modem  times  shows  the  genius  of  the  there  founded  a  medical  school.    After  the  conquest 

master,  who  understood  how  to- cover  up  the  gaps  by  of  Persia  by  the  Arabs  in  650,  Greek  culture  waa  neki 

brilliancy  of  style.    Galen  took  the  entire  anatomical  in  great  esteem,  and  learned  Nestorian,  Jewish,  and 

knowledge  of  his  time,  and  out  of  it  produced  a  work  even  Indian  physicians  worked  diligently  as  transla- 

the  substance  of  which  was  for  centuries  regarded  as  tors  of  Greek  writings.     In  Arabian  Spam  conditions 

inviolable.    His  anatomy  was  to  a  large  extent  based  similariy  developed  from  the  seventh  centurv.  Among 

upon  the  dissection  of  mammals,  especially  of  monkevs,  importsmt  physicians  in  the  first  period  of  Qreek-Aia- 

and,  like  his  physiology,  was  under  teleological  innu-  bian  medicine — the  period  of  dependence  and  of  trans- 

ence.    His  presentation  of  things  lacks  dispassionate-  lations — come  first  the  Nestorian  family  Bachtiscfauft 

ness.    Instead  of  explaining  the  functions  of  the  or-  of  Syria,  which  flourished  until  the  eleventh  oentuiy; 

gans  on  the  basis  of  their  structure,  Galen  chose  the  Abu  Zakerijja  Jahja  ben  Maseweih  (d.  875),  known  a# 

reverse  method.    His  anatomy  and  physiology  were  Joannes  Damascenus;  Mesu^  the  Elder,  a  Christian, 

the  most  vulnerable  part  of  his  system,  and  an  earnest  who  was  a  director  of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad,  did  in- 

re-examination  of  these  fields  must  necessarily  have  dependent  work,  and  supervised  the  translation  of 

shaken  his  entire  scheme  of  teaching.     Galen  ex-  Greek  authors;  Abu  JusufJacub  ben  Ishak  ben  ei-Sub- 

Eressed  the  greatest  respect  for  Hippocrates,  pub-  bah  el-Kindi  (Alkindus,  813-73),  who  wrote  a  work 
shed  his  most  important  works  witn  explanatory  about  compound  drugs;  and  the  Nestorian  Abu  Zad 
notes,  but  never  entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  school  of  Ilonein  ben  Ishak  ben  Soliman  ben  Ejjub  el  'Ibadi 
€k)s.  sJthough  he  adopted  manv  of  its  doctrines.  Galen  (Joannitius,  809-about  873),  a  teacher  in  Bagdad 
is  the  culminating  point  and  end  of  ancient  Greek  who  translated  Hippocrates  and  Dioscurides,  and 
medical  science.  In  nis  vanity  he  thought  he  had  com-  whose  work  "  Isagoge  in  artem  parvam  Galeni "  earjy 
pleted  all  investigation,  and  that  his  successors  had  translated  into  Latin,  was  mudi  read  in  the  Middle 
only  to  accept  without  effort  what  he  had  discovered.  Ages.  Wide  activity  and  Independent  observation— 
Ajb  will  be  shown  in  the  following  paragraph,  his  ad-  based,  however,  wholly  upon  the  doctrine  of  Galen- 
vice  was,  unfortunately  for  science,  followed  literally,  were  shown  by  Abu  Bekr  Muhammed  ben  Zakarina 

Pbdaniub  Dioscurides  from  Anazarbe,  who  lived  er-Rasi  (Rhazes,  about  850-923) ^  whose  chief  wort, 

in  the  time  of  Nero  and  Vespasian,  may  be  mentioned  however, "  £1-Hawi  fi'l  Tib  "  (Continens)  is  a  rather  ud- 

here  as  the  most  important  pharmaceutical  writer  of  systematic  compilation.    In  the  Middle  Agee  hia  "  Ke- 

ancient  times.     He  simplifiea  greatly  the  pharmaco-  taab  altib  Almansuri  "  (Liber  medidnalia  Almansoris) 

pceia.  which  had  then  assumed  unwieldy  dimensions,  was  well  known  and  had  many  commentators.    The 

and  freed  it  from  ridiculous,  superstitious  remedies,  most  valuable  of  the  thirty-sue  productions  of  Rhaies 

Our  modem  pharmacology  is  based  on  his  work,  Td  which  have  come  down  to  us  is  *'  De  variolis  et  mor- 

Ttt^r  ^Xuctap  fiifiXla.  billis ",  a  book  based  upon  Tfersonal  experience.     We 

Cornelius  Gblsus  (about  25-30  b.  c. — 45-50  a.  d.)  ought  also  to  mention  the  dietetic  writer  Abu  Jakub 
is  the  only  Roman  who  worked  with  distinction  in  the  Ishak  ben  Soleiman  el-IsraXli  (Isaac  Judsus.  83(^ 
medical  field;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  was  a  phy-  about  932),  an  Egyptian  Jew;  the  Persian,  Ali  oen  el- 
sician.  His  work,  "  De  re  medica  libri  viii",  which  is  Abbas  Ala  ed-Din  el-Madschhusi  (Ali  Abbas,  d.  994), 
written  in  classical  Latin,  and  for  which  he  used  sev-  author  of  "El-Maliki"  (Regalisdispositio,Pantegnum). 
enty-two  works  lost  to  posterity,  gives  a  survey  of  Abu  Dshafer  Ahmed  ben  Ibrahim  ben  Abu  Ch&lid  Ibn 
medical  science  from  Hippocrates  to  imperial  times.  el-Dshezsar  (d.  1009)  wrote  about  the  causes  of  the 
Very  famous  is  his  descnption  of  the  operation  of  plague  in  Egypt.  A  work  on  pharmaceutics  was  writ- 
lithotomy.  Celsus  was  altogether  forgotten  until  the  ten  by  the  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  Spanish  Caliph 
fifteenth  century,  when  Pope  Nicholas  V  (1447-55)  is  Hisham  II  (976-1013).  Abu  Daut  Soleiman  ben  H»- 
said  to  have  discovered  a  manuscript  of  his  works.  san  Ibn  Dsholdschholl. 

Btzanttne  Period. — In  Byzantine  times  medicine  Of  the  surgical  authors,  Abu'l-Kasim  Chalaf  ben 
shows  but  little  originality,  and  is  of  small  importance  Abb&s  el-Zahrewi  of  el-Zahm  near  Cordova  (Abul- 
in  the  history  of  medical  development.  The  works  kasem,  about  912-1013)  alone  deserves  mention,  and 
handed  down  to  iis  are  all  compilations,  but  as  they  he  depends  absolutely  on  Paulus  ^gineta.  Whfle  he 
frequentl}r  contain  exceipts  from  lost  works,  thev  are  received  scant  attention  at  home,  since  sui^geiy  was 
of  some  historical  value.  The  notable  writers  of  this  little  cultivated  by  the  Arabs,  his  work,  written  in  s 
period  are:  Oreibasios  (325-403),  phy^cian  in  ordi-  clear  and  perspicuous  style,  became  known  in  the 
nanr  to  Julian  the  Apostate;  and  Actius  of  Amida,  West  through  the  Latin  translation  by  Gerardus  of 
a  Christian  physician  under  Justinian  (527-66).  A  Cremona  (1187),  and  was  extensively  used  even  in 
little  more  originality  than  these  men  exhibited  was  later  days.  Arabian  medicine  reached  its  culmina- 
shown  by  Alexander  of  Tralles  (525-605),  and  Paulus  tion  with  the  Persian  Abu  Ali  el-Hosein  ben  Abdallah 
iBgmeta  of  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century,  of  Ibn  Sina(Avicenna,  980-1037),  who  based  his  system 
whose  seven  books,  the  sixth,  dealing  with  surgery,  entirely  upon  the  teaching  of  Galen  and  tried  in  van- 
was  greatly  valued  in  Arabian  medicine.    Pftulus  ous  ways  to  supplement  the  latter.    His  chief  woik. 


■upplajiMcl  in  tne  West  tbe  worica  of  the  Greeks  and,  adjoining  the  chureh  of  St.  Sofia  in  Coaatantinople  in 

until  the  time  of  the  Humanists,  served  aa  the  most  the  sixth  centuiy,  tjie  foundling  asylum  of  Arcbbisbop 

important  textbook  for  pbjrsiciana;    but  in  Arabian  Datheua  of  Mil^  in  7S7,  and  mtaxj  others,     In  1198 

Suin  Ua  fame  was  Bmoll.     One  of  his  chief  rivals  was  Pope  Innocent  III  rebuilt  the  pilgrinis'  shelter,  which 

Abu-Merwan  Abd  el-Malik  ben  Abul-Ala  Zobr  ben  had  been  founded  in  726  by  a  British  king,  but  had 

Abd  el-Halik  Ibn  Zohr  (Avenioar,  1113-32}  from  the  been  repeatedly  destroyed  bv  fire.     He  turned  it  into 

nejehbourfaood  of  Seville.    His  friend,  the  philosc^ber  a  i«fuge  tor  travellera  and  a  hospital,  and  entrusted  it 

ana  phyBteian  Abul-Welld   Muhiunmed   ben  Ahmed  to  the  Brothera  of  the  Holy  Ghost  established  by  Guy 

Iba  Roabd  el-Haliki  (Averroea,  1126-98),  of  Cordova,  de  MontpelUer.    Mention  must  also  be  made  here  of 

is  regarded  aa  the  complement  of  Avicenna.    His  thereligiousoidecaof knightaand thehousesforlepeis 

bode  waa  alao  popular  in  the  West  and  bears  tbe  title  of  later  times.    The  great  hospitals  of  the  AmM  in 

"Kit&bel-Kohjjat"  tCoUiget).  With  the  decline  of  Ara-  Dschondisapor  and  Bagdad  were  built  after  Christian 

bian  rule  be(^  tbe  aecay  of  medicine.    In  the  Orient  models.    The  celebratM  ecclesiastical  writer  Tertut- 

this  decline  began  after  tbe  fall  of  Bagdad  in  1256,  lian  (bom  a.  d.  160}  possessed  a  wide  knowledge  (^ 

aod  in  Spain  after  the  capture  of  Cordova  in  1236,  the  medicine,  which,  following  the  custom  of  his  time,  he 

decay  becominKComplet«afterthe  loss  of  Granada  in  calls  a  "sister  of  philosophy".     Clement  of  Alexan- 

1492.     Tbe  predominance  of  Arabian  medicine,  which  dria,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  lays  down  valu- 

lasted  Bcareely  three  centuries,  seriously  delayed  the  able  hygienic  laws  in  his  "Psdagogus".    Loctantiui 

development  of  our  soienoe.    A  brief  surrey  of  this  in  the  fourth  oentury  speaks  in  bu  work  "  De  Opificio 


period  shows  that  the  Arabs  bent  in 
slavish  reverence  before  the  woifci 
of  Aristotle  and  Galen  without  ex- 
amining tbem  critically.  No  other 
Greek  physician  obtained  such  a 
hold  on  the  Arabs  as  Galen,  whose 
system,  perfect  in  form,  pleased  them 
just  as  tnat  of  Aristotle  pleased  tbam 
m  philraophy.  Nowhere  did  dia- 
leetioa  play  a  greater  part  in  medw- 
cine  than  ammiB  the  Arabs  and  their 
later  followers  m  the  West.  Inde- 
pendent investigation  in  the  fields 
of  exact  science,  anatomy,  and  phys> 


oped  by  them  with  an  equally  ez- 
^ratied    aod    fruitless    subtlety. 


Dei"  about  the  structure  of  the  hu- 
man body.  One  of  the  most  learned 
Eiesta  of  his  time,  St.  Isidore  of 
ville  (d.  636),  treats  of  medicine 
in  the  fourth  book  of  his  "  Originea 
B.  Etymologic".  St.  Benedict  of 
Nursia  (480]  made  it  a  duty  for  the 
brothere  of  his  order  to  study  the 
sciences,  and  amoitf;  tbem  medicine, 
as  aids  to  the  exercise  of  hospitality. 
CaasiodoruB  gave  his  monlu  direct 
instructionsinthestudy  of  medicine. 
Bertharius,  Abbot  of  Monte  Ca»- 
sino  in  the  ninth  centuiy,  was  fa^ 
mous  as  a  physician.  Walafrid 
Strabo  (d .  849} ,  Abbot  of  Reicbenau, 
tbe  oldest  medical  writer  on  German 
soil,  describes  in  a  poem  (Hortulus) 
the  value  of  native  medicinal  plants, 
and  also  tbe  method  of  tubing 

_..  ..    __ _ .  .    .   .  medicine  in  monasteries.    We  must 

!uch,  and  perhaps  the  only  cre^i  "'(iSTS-ibJt)"'  mention,   furthermore,    the   "Phy- 

□ue  to  tbem  is  in  the  field  of  phar-  sica",  a  description  of  dnun  from 

maceutics.  We  are  indebted  to  them  for  a  whole  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature,  written  by  St.  Hil- 
■eries  of  simple  and  ccvnpound  drugs  of  oriental  and  degarde  (I099-1I79),  abbess  of  a  monastery  near 
Indian  origin,  previously  unknown,  and  also  for  the  Bingen-on-the-Rhine.  Thecur&tivepropertiesofmin- 
polyphaimacy  of  later  times.  Until  the  discovery  erala  are  described  by  Marbodus  of  Angers,  Bisht^ 
of  America  the  Venetian  drug-trade  was  controlled  of  Rennes  (d.  1123),  in  his  "Lapidarius". 
by  Arabian  de^ts.  How  diligentlv  medicine  was  studied  in  tbe  monas- 

CHRiBiiAMiTr'B  Shabe  IN  THE  Dbvblofubnt  OF  teries  is  shown  by  Ibe  numerous  manuscripts  (many 
Medical  Science. — As  long  as  the  cruel  persecution  still  unedited)  in  tbe  old  cathedral  libraries,  and  by 
of  the  Chureh  lasted  throuehout  the  Roman  Empire,  those  which  were  taken  from  the  suppreeaed  monas* 
it  was  impoflsible  for  Christians  to  take  direct  part  in  teries  and  are  now  to  be  found  in  the  national  libraries 
the  development  of  medical  science.  But  provision  of  various  countries.  Priests  who  possessed  a  knowl- 
bad  been  made  for  medical  aid  within  the  community,  edf^  of  medicine  served  aa  ph 
becaose  the  priest,  like  the  rabbi  of  small  Jewish  com-  prmces  as  late  as  the  fif  teentn  > 
munitiee  in  tne  late  Middle  Ages,  was  also  a  physician,  were  forbidden  to  practise  8 
This  is  elear  from  the  stoiy  of  the  two  brothers,  Sts.    Synod  of  the  Lat«ran  (I2I3). 

Cosmas  and  Damian,  who  studied  medicine  in  Syria  parish-priest  in  Felling,  who  founded  the  Hospital  of 
and  were  martyred  under  Diocletian.  Theexereiseof  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Vienna  (1211},  was  pbysician-in- 
praettcal  ohaiitj'  under  the  direction  of  deacons  of  the  ordinary  to  Duke  Leopold  VI  of  Austria,  and  Stgis- 
ehurcbea  gave  me  to  systematic  nursing  and  hospitals,  mund  Aibicus,  wbo  afterward  became  Archbishop  ol 
Id  recent  times  it  has,  indeed,  been  uleged  that  the  Prague  (1411),  held  the  same  ofGce  at  the  court  of 
existeooeof lion>italsamongtheBuddhists,eTeninthe  King  Weniel  of  Bohemia  (1391-1411).  Prom  this 
third  oentuiy  before  Christ,  and  their  existence  in  time,  we  constantly  meet  with  priests  possessing  a 
ancient  Hexioo  at  the  time  of  its  disoovery  is  demon-  knowledge  of  medicine  and  writmg  on  medical  sub- 
■trable,  and  that  hospitals  had  their  origin  in  general  jectfi.  The  popes,  the  most  important  patrons  of  all 
philanthropy;  but  nobody  denies  that  the  nursin^of  the  sciences^were  friendly  also  to  tbe  development  of 
thesKk,  especially  during  epidemics,  had  never  liefora  medicine.  That  they  ever  at  any  time  forbade  the 
been  so  wiaeq>read,  so  well  organiied,  so  self-eacrific-  practice  of  anatomical  investigation  is  a  fable.  Pope 
ing  as  in  the  early  Christian  communities.  Christianity  Bimiface  VIII  in  1209-1300  forbade  the  practice  then 
tended  tbe  sick  and  devised  and  executed  exten-  prevalent  of  boiling  tbe  corpeee  of  noble  persons  who 
sive  Bfhwn**  for  Um  eare  of  deserted  children  (found-  ^d  died  abroad ,  in  order  tnat  their  bones  might  be 
lings,orphanB),a(thefeebleaQd infirm, of  thoeeoutof  more  conveniently  transported  to  the  distant  ance»- 
vwk,  and  of  pilgrims.  The  era  of  peiaecution  ended,  tral  tomb.  This  prohibitory  rule  had  reference  only 
«e  find  luge  alma^UMBCa  and  hoaphalsldie  that  of  St.    to  cases  of  death  m  Christian  oountries,  while  in  the 


a  physicians-in-ordinaTy  to 
tath  century,  althou^  they 
se  siugery  by  the  Fourth 
Synod  of  the  Lateran  (I2I3).    Thus,  Master  Gerhard, 


mDicmi  126 


•  -'•)(HI 


Ottent  (e.  g.  daring  the  Cniaades)  the  usage  aeeina  to  pounded  phannaoeutical  fonnuln,  became  a  model  for 

have  been  tacitly  allowed  to  continue.  later  worlos  of  this  kind,  and  Matthsus  Platearius, 

FissT  Universities  in  the  West. — Having  volun-  who,  towards  the  end  of  the  oenturv,  wrote  a  commenr 

tarily  undertaken  the  education  of  the  youn^  in  all  tazv  on  the  above-named  "Antidotarium"  (Gloaas) 

branches  of  learning,  the  monasteries  were  aided  in  ana  a  work  about  simple  drugs  (Circa  instans).    Similar 

their  endeavours  by  both  Church  and  State.    The  productions  appeared  from  tl^  hand  of  an  otherwise 

foundation  of  state  schools  is  the  work  of  Charlemagne  unknown  Magisier  Salemitanua,    Maurus,  foUowing 

(768-814),  whose  activity,  especially  in  the  Germanic  Arabian  sources,  wrote  on  uroscopy.    Here  must 

oountries,  was  stimulated  by  the  decree  of  the  Synod  be  also  mentioned  Petrus  Musandinus  (De  cibis  et 

of  Aachffli  (789),  that  each  monastery  and  each  cathe-  potibus  febricitantium),  the  teacher  of  Pierre  Giles  of 

dral  chapter  should  institute  a  school.    According  to  Corbeil  (iEeidius  Corboliensis),  who  later  became  a 

the  Capitulary  of  Charlemagne  at  Diedenhof  en  (Thion-  canon  and  the  physician-in-ordinaTy  to  Phili] 


.  ,  «  ...  Philip  „ 
ville)  in  806,  medicine  was  commonly  taught  in  these  tus  of  France  (1180-1223),  and  who  even  at  this  day 
schools.  At  the  diocesan  school  in  Reims,  we  find  beean  to  complain  about  the  decay  of  the  school, 
(jerbert  d'Aurillac,  later  Pope  Sylvester  II  ^999-  Its  first  misfortune  dates  from  the  death  of  "Kix 
1003),  long  active  as  a  teacher  of  medicine.  Simul-  Roger  III  (1193),  when  the  army  of  King  Henry  VI 
taneously  with  the  rise  of  the  cities  there  sprang  up  captured  the  city.  The  establishment  of  the  Unirer- 
faigher  municipal  schools,  as  for  instance  the  Burger^  sity  of  Naples  by  Frederick  II  in  1224,  the  preponder- 
schuU  at  St.  Stephanas  in  Vienna  (about  1237).  Out  ance  of  Arabian  influence,  and  the  rise  of  the  Mont- 
of  the  secular  and  religious  schools,  the  curriculum  of  pellier  school,  aU  exerted  so  unfavourable  an  influence 
which  institutions  comprised  the  entire  learning  of  that  by  the  fourteenth  century  Salerno  was  well-nigh 
the  times,  the  first  universities  developed  themselves,  forgotten.  Salerno  is  the  oldest  school  having  a 
partly  under  imperial  and  partly  under  papal  protec-  curriculum  prescribed  by  the  state.  In  1140  £ng 
tion,  according  as  they  sprang  from  the  lay  and  the  Roger  II  oraered  a  state  examination  to  test  the  pro- 
cathedral  or  monastic  schools.  ficiency  of  prospective  physicians,  and  Frederick  11  in 
School  of  Salerno. — ^This  is  regarded  as  the  oldest  1240  prescribed  five  years  of  study  besides  a  year  of 
medical  school  of  the  West.  Salerno  on  the  Tyrrhe-  practical  experience.  When  we  consider  the  proK- 
nian  Sea,  originally  probably  a  Doric  colony,  was  from  unity  of  Northern  Africa,  that  the  neighbouring  Sicily 
the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  century  under  the  rule  of  the  had  been  under  Saracenic  rule  from  the  ninth  to  ins 
Lombards,  and  from  1075  to  1130  under  that  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  that  the  Norman  kings,  and  tea 
Normans.  In  1130  it  became  a  part  of  the  Kin^om  far  greater  degree  Frederick  II,  gave  powerful  protec 
of  Naples  and  Sicily.  The  origin  of  the  school  is  ob-  tion  to  Arabian  art  and  science,  it  seems  wonderful 
scure,  but,  contrary  to  former  belief,  it  was  not  a  re-  that  this  oasis  of  Greco-Roman  culture  endured  so 
ligious  foundation,  though  very  many  priests  were  en-  long.  Down  to  the  twelfth  century  this  school  was 
gaged  there  as  teachers  of  medicine.  Women  and  rulra  by  a  purely  Hippocratic  spirit,  especially  in 
even  Jews  were  admitted  to  these  studies.  Salerno  practical  medicine,  by  its  diagnosis  and  by  the  tieat- 
was  destined  to  cultivate  for  a  long  time  Greek  medi-  ment  of  acute  diseases  dieteti^ly.  Arabian  influence 
cal  science  in  undimmed  purity,  until  the  twelfth  cen-  makes  itself  felt  first  of  all  in  therapeutics,  a  fact  which 
tury  saw  the  school  fall  a  victim  to  the  all-powerful  is  easily  explained  by  the  proximity  of  Anoalfi,  whoe 
Arab  influence.  One  of  its  oldest  physicians  was  the  Arabian  drug-dealers  used  to  land.  Local  condi- 
Alpuhans,  later  (1058-85)  Archbishop  of  Salerno,  tions  (resulting  from  the  Crusades)  explain  how  sur- 
With  him  worked  the  Lombard  Gariopontus  (d.  1050),  gery,  especially  the  treatment  of  wounds  received  in 
whose  "Passionarius"  is  based  upon  Hippocrates,  war,  was  diligently  cultivated.  In  Rogerius  we  find  a 
Galen,  and  Ceelius  Aurelianus.  Contemporary  with  Salemitan  surgeon  armed  with  independent  experi- 
him  was  the  female  physician  Trotula.  who  worked  ence,  but  showing,  nevertheless,  reminiscences  of 
also  in  the  literary  field,  and  who  is  said  to  have  been  Abulhasem.  His  "  Practica  Chirurgi»"  dates  from 
the  wife  of  the  physician  Joannes  Platearius.  Per-  the  year  1180.  Although  Salerno  &ially  succumbed 
haps  the  best  known  literary  work  of  this  school  is  the  to  .Ajabian  influences,  this  school  did  not  hand  down 
anonymous  "Regimen  sanitatts  Salemitanum".  a  to  us  a  knowledge  of  the  best  Arabian  authors, 
didactic  poem  consisting  of  364  stansas,  which  has  Spain  as  the  Transmitter  of  Arabian  Medicine. 
been  translated  into  el\  modem  languages.  It  is  said  — Its  focus  was  the  city  of  Toledo,  which  was  taken 
to  have  hoem  dedicated  to  Prince  RoTOrt,  son  of  William  from  the  Moors  in  1085  by  Alfonso  VI  of  Castile  and 
the  Conqueror,  upon  his  departure  from  Salerno  in  Leon.  Here  Archbishop  Raimimd  (1130-50)  founded 
1101.  All  important  change  in  the  intellectual  ten-  an  institution  for  translations,  in  which  Jewish  scho^ 
dency  of  the  ^'Civitas  Hippocratica",  as  this  school  ars  were  the  chief  workers.  Here  lived  Gerard  of 
called  itself,  was  brou^t  about  by  the  physician  Con-  Cremona  (1114-87,  properly  C!armona,  near  Seville), 
stantine  of  Carthage  ^)onstantinus  Af  ncanus) ,  a  man  the  translator  of  Rhases  ana  Avicenna.  A  later  trans- 
learned  in  the  Oriental  languages  and  a  teacher  of  latorof  Rhases  (about  1279)  was  the  Jew  Faradsch  ben 
medicine  at  Salerno,  whooied  in  1087  a  monk  of  Salem  (Faragius),  who  was  educated  at  Salerno. 
Monte  Cassino.  While  hitherto  the  best  works  of  The  Scholastic  Period. — ^When  in  the  twelfth 
Greek  antiquity  had  beoi  known  only  in  mediocre  century  all  the  Aristotelean  works  gradually  becanke 
Latin  translations,  Constantine  in  the  solitude  of  known,  one  of  the  results  was  the  development 
Monte  Cassino  began  to  translate  from  the  Arabic  of  scholasticism,  that  logically  arranged  systematic 
Greek  authors  (e.  g.  the  "Aphorisms''  of  Hippocrates  treatment  and  explanation  of  rational  truths  based 
and  the  "  Ars  parva"  of  Galen),  as  well  as  such  Arabic  upon  the  Aristotelean  speculative  method.  Even 
writers  as  were  accessible  to  him  (Isaak,  Ali  Abbas),  though  this  tendency  led  to  the  growth  of  many  ex> 
As  he  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  his  contemporaries  crescences  in  medicme  and  confirmed  the  preaomi- 
first  class  Greek  authors,  but  only  seconda^  Arab  nance  of  Galen's  system,  also  hugely  based  on  specula- 
writers,  the  study  of  the  former  became  more  pro-  tion,  it  is  wrong  to  hold  Scholasticism  responsible  for 
found,  while  on  the  other  hand  an  interest  was  awak-  the  mistakes  which  its  disciples  made  in  consequence 
ened  in  the  hitherto  unlmown  Arabic  literature.  His  of  their  faulty  apprehension  of  the  system,  because 
pupils  were  Bi^holomseus,  whose  "Practica"  was  scholasticism,  far  from  excluding  the  observation  of 
translated  into  German  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  cen-  nature,  directly  promotes  it.  The  best  proof  of  this  is 
tury.  and  Johannes  Afflacius  (De  febribus  et  urinis).  the  fact  that  the  most  important  scholastic  of  the 
To  the  twelfth  century,  when  Arabian  pol^harmacy  thirteenth  century,  Albertus  Magnus,  was  likewise  the 
was  introduced,  belong  Nicolaus  Propositus  (about  most  important  physicist  of  his  time.  He  thus  imi- 
1140),  whose  "Antidotarium",  a  coUection  of  com-  tated  his  model,  Ajristotle,  in  both  directions.     The 


127 


MKDicma 


&mou8  Kholastio  Racer  Bacon  (1214-94),  an  En^Usb  Lombard"— an  honoraiy  title  received  during  hit 

Fnociaoan,  lays  chief  Btreas  in  hjs  theory  of  cognition  residence  st  the  University^  of  F&ris.     On  account  of 

upon  experience  as  far  as  the  natural  sciences  are  con-  his  too  liberalistio  opinions  and  his  deriBion  of  Chris- 

oerned,  and  this  with  even  greater  emphaaiB  than  Al-  tian  teachina  ia  hia  "Conciliator  differentiarum",  hia 

bertua  Magnus.  chief  medical  work,  he  was  accused  of  being  a  heietie. 

AlbertuM  Magnut  (Albert  Count  of  BoUstadt,  1193-  From  this  period  also  date  the  "  Aggregator  Brixien- 

I2S0)   was   a   Dominican.     For  medical  Bcienee  his  Hts"  of  Guglielmo  Corvi  (1250-1326).  a  work  in  even 

vorka  about  animak,  planta,  and  mineralB  alone  con-  ^cater  demand  in  later  times,  and  tne  "Consilia"  of 

cern  us.     Formerly  a  work  called  "De  secretia  muli-  Gentileda  Foligno  (d.  1348),  who,  in  1341jperformed 

erum"  was  wrongly  attributed  to  him.  Albertus'amoet  the  first  anatomical  dissection  in  Padua,    lliefameof 

eminent  service  to  medicine  was  in  pointing  out  the  the  school  of  Padua  was  greatly  advaaoed  by  tbs 

vay  to  an  independent  otiscrvation  of  nature.    The  family    of    physicians,    the    Santa   Sojihia,   which 

following  books  were  to  a  certain  d^ree  based  upon  about    1292    emigrated    from   Constantinople,    and 

the  writm^  of  Albertua:   the  encyclopedic  works  on  whose  most  famous  members  were  Harsilio  (d.  1405) 

natiu&i    hutory    of   the    Franciscan    Bartholonueus  and  Galeaiso  (d.  1427).     The  latter,  one  of  the  fint 

Anglicus  (about  1260), of  Thomas  of  Cantimpr£  (1204-  teacheis  in  Vienna  (about  1398-1407),  and  later  pro- 

80),  c&non  of  Cambrai,  of  Vincent  of  Beauvaia  (d.  fessor  at  Padua,  wrote  in  Vienna  a  ptiannacoptsia 

1264),  the  "Book  of  Nature"  by  Kunrad  von  Megen-  which  indicates  absolutely  independent  observation  in 

berg  (1307-74),  canon  of  Ratiaoon,  and  the  natural  the  field  of  botany.     Hia  antithesis  and  contemporaiy 

bLjtory  of  Heinau  composed  towarda  the  end  of  the  was  Giacomo  dula  Torre  of  Forli  (Jacobua  Foroli- 

thirteenth  century  at  the  Monastery  of  Meinau  on  the  viensis,  d.  1413),  professor  at  Padua,  known  for  hia 


commentary  on  the  "Ara  parva"  ._ 
Galen.  Giacomo  de  Dondi  (1298- 
1369),  author  of  the  "AgKreEator 
Paduanus  de  med  icinis  aimpIiciouB  " , 
tned  to  di  engage  a  salt  from  tha 
thermal  watf  rj  of  Abano,  near  P»> 
dua.  As  anatomiat  and  praetititm^ 
we  must  mention  Bartholomsus  de 
Uontagnana(d.l460),andthegrand- 
fatherof  the  unfortimate  Savonarola, 
Giovanni  M  Scheie  Savonarola  (1390- 
1462),  author  of  the  "Practica 
hUjor",  who  worked  along  the  same 

HoNTPELUER. — The  earliest  in- 
formation about  the  medical  school 
of  this  place  dales  from  the  twelfth 
century.  Like  Salerno,  MontpelUer 
developed  great  independence  as  far 
as  the  other  schools  were  concerned, 
and  laid  the  greatest  stress  up<Ki 
practical  medicme.  With  the  decay 
of  SalemOiHontpellier  gained  in  im- 
portance. Thechiefrepreaentativool 

.,     -  „  _._  ,_^__   ..___      ^    .■"■■  (1235- 

the  four  Vangnana,  Dino  and  Tommaio  di  Garbo,  abautl3I2).  His  greatest  merit  is  that,  inclimng  mora 
and  Pietro  Torrigiano  Rustichclli — later  a  CarthU'  towards  the  Hippoeratic  school,  be  did  not  follow  un- 
monk — all  well-known  ex^unders  of  the  writ-  conditionallvtheteachin^ofGalenaad  Avioenna,but 
ings   of   Galen.      Indirect  disciples  were   Pietro  de     relied  upon  bis  own  observation  and  experience,  white 


LoJie  of  Constance.  In  the  medical 
schools  the  influence  of  scholssti- 
cism  made  itself  felt,  but  this  in- 
fluence was  always  favourable.  The 
scholastic  physician,  the  philosopher 
at  the  bedside,  with  hu  compen- 
dious worka  of  needy  contents,  with 
hizi  endless  game  of  question  and 
answer,  miiat  not,  however,  be  mis- 
juifged;  he  preserved  interest  in  the 
observation  of  nature  am!  was,  as  is 
freely  conceded,  a  skilful  practi- 
tipner,  although  he  laiJ  exceaaive 
streas  upon  formalism,  an  J  medicine 
in  his  hands  made  no  special  pr(^ 

BoLOQNA  was  the  principal  home 
of  scholastic  medicine,  and,  as  early 
&j  the  twelfth  cenlurj^  a  medical 
school  exlited  there.  The  most  fa- 
mous physician  there  was  Thaddeus 
Alderotti(Th.Florentinua,  1215-95), 
who  even  at  that  time  gave  practJ* 
eat  clioicai  instruction  and  enjoyed 


i  Bavarius  de  Bavariis  (d.  about  1480), 
who  was  for  a  long  time  physician  to  Pope  Nicholas  V. 
Bologna  and  the  Study  of  Aiuitomy. — Bologna  has 
gained  incomparable  ^\oij  from  the  fact  that  Mon- 


mployingintherapeutics  a  more  dietetic  treatmentaa 
opposed  to  Arabian  tenets.  To  him  we  are  indebted  for 
tnesyatenrnticuseofBlcoholincertaindiseases.  Aveiy 
doubtful  merit  is  his  popularizing  of  alchemy,  to  the 
study  of  which  he  was  very  much  devoted.     Otlier 


dino  de  Liucoi  (about  1275-1326),  the  reviver  of  auat-  Montpellier  representatives  of  purely  practical  medi< 

omy,  taught  there.     There,  for  the  first  time aince  the  cine  are  Bernard  of  Gordon  (d.  1314;  "Liljum  me- 

Alexandnan  period  (nearly  ISOOyears),  hedissected  a  dicinee",  1305).  a  Scotchman  educated  in  Salerno; 

human  corpse,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  anatomy  based  Gerardusde  Solo  (about  1320;  "Introductoriumjuva- 

upon  personal  observation — a  work  which,  for  nearly  num");  Johannes  dcTomamira  (end  of  the  fourteenth 

two  and  a  half  centuries,  remained  the  official  text^  century;  "Clarifieatorium  juvenum");  and  the  Pm^ 

book  of  the  univeisities.     Although  Hondino's  work,  tuguese  Valescus  de  Taianta  ("Philonium  pitarrna- 

which  appeared  in  1316,  contains  many  defects  and  ceuticumetchinirgicum",  1418).    The  medical  schoid 

errors,  it  nevertheless  marked  an  advance  and  incited  of  Paris,  founded  in  IISO,  remained  far  behind  Hont- 

men  to  further  investigation.  pellier  in  regard  to  the  practice  of  medicine. 

Padda,  the  famous  rival  of  Bolonia,  received  a  uni-  SuitGERT  in  trg  Aoe  or  Scholastictsii. — Surgeiy 

veraity  in  1222  from  Frederick  II.    Just  as  the  Univer-  exhibited  during  this  period  in  many  respects  a  more 

sity  of  Leipiig  originated  in  consequence  of  the  migra-  independent  development  than  prsctical  medicine,  ee- 

tion  of  students  and  professors  from  the  University  of  pecially  in  Bologna.     The  founder  (A  the  school  there 

Prague  in  1409,  so  Podua  came  into  existence  through  was  Hugo  Borgognoni  of  Lucca  (d.  about  1258).     A 

a  aeceasicm  from  Bologna.     Bolo^a  was  soon  sur-  moreimportant  figure  was  hissonTeodorico,cbaplain, 

paoeed   by  the  daughter  institution,  and,  from  the  penitentiary,  and  physician-in-ordinary  to  Pope  Inno- 

foundation  of  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1385  until  cent  IV,  later  Bishop  of  Cervia.     In  nia  "Surgery", 

tiie  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Podua  remained  completed  in  1206,  he  recommends  the  simplificaU<Hi 

a  shining  mode)  for  the  medical  schod  of  Bologna,  of  the  treatment  of  wounds,  fractures,  and  dioloo^ 

The  firat  teacher  of  repute  was  Pietro  d'Abano(Petrus  tions.    Guilielmo  Saliceto  from  Piaoenia  (Gull.  Fla- 

Aponensis,  1250— about  1320),  known  as  the  "great  oentdnua),  firat  of  Bologna,  then  at  Verona,  whan  he 


MEDICINE                              128  MEOICDIB 

completed  his  Burgery  in  1275,  shows  great  individu-  Sixns  of  improvement  are  noticed  firat  in  anatomj 

ality  and  a  keen  diagnostic  eye.    Similarly  his  pupil  (Mondino)  and  subsequently  in  surgery,  which  » 

Lanfranchi  strongly  recommended  the  reunion  of  sur-  based  upon  it. 

gery  and  internal  medicine.  Lanfranchi,  banished  in  .  The  impulse  to  follow  a  new  path  came,  however, 
1290  from  his  native  city,  Milan,  transplanted  Italian  from  without,  first  of  all  from  a  studv  of  the  Greek 
surgery  to  Paris.  There  the  surgeons,  like  the  ph^si-  language,  ana  then  directly  through  the  famous  poet 
dans  of  the  faculty,  had,  since  1260,  been  formed  mto  Francesco  Petrarca  (1304-74).  the  zealous  patron  of 
a  corporation,  the  College  de  St.  Cosme  (since  1713  humanistic  studies  and  thus  of  the  Renaissance.  Pe- 
Academie  de  Chirurgie^,  to  which  Lanfranchi  was  ad-  trareh's  instructor  in  the  Greek  language  was  the 
mitted.  His  ''Chirurgia  magna"  (Ars  completa),  fin-  monk  Barlaam^  who  procured  for  his  pupil,  Leontius 
ished  in  1296,  is  full  of  casuistic  notes  and  shows  us  the  Pilatus,  a  position  as  public  teacher  of  the  language  in 
author  as  an  equally  careful  and  lucky  operator.  The  Florence  in  1350.  In  later  times,  especially  after  the 
first  important  French  surgeon  is  Henri  de  Mondeville  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  numerous  Greek  schol- 
(1260-1320),  originally  a  teacher  of  anatomy  at  Mont-  ars  came  to  Italy.  With  the  spread  of  a  knowledge  of 
pellier.  whose  treatise,  although  for  the  most  part  a  Greek  and  the  enthusiasm  for  the  Hellenic  master- 
compilation,  does  not  lack  originality  and  perspicuity,  pieces  in  art  and  science,  there  arose  also  an  interest 
The  culminating  point  in  French  surgery  at  this  period  m  classical  Latin  and  a  diligent  search  for  mana- 
is  marked  by  the  appearance  of  Guy  de  Chauliac  scripts  of  Grseco-Roman  antiquity,  and  efforts  along 
(Chaulhac,  d.  about  13/0).  He  completed  his  studies  these  lines  were,  as  is  well  known,  energetically  sup- 
at  Bologna,  MontpeUier,  and  Paris;  later  he  entered  ported  by  the  popes.  The  West  now  became  ae- 
the  ecclesiastical  state  (canon  of  Reims,  1358),  and  quainted  with  the  works  of  the  old  Greek  |>re-Aristo- 
was  physician-in-ordinaiy  to  popes  Clement  VI,  Inno-  telean  philosophers  and  physicians  in  their  original 
cent  Vl,  and  Urban  V.  From  him  we  have  a  descrip-  tongue,  a  fact  which  marks  the  beginning  of  the  fall  of 
tion  of  the  terrible  plague  which  he  witnessed  in  1348  the  Arabian  teaching.  Petrarch  fought  as  champion 
at  Avignon.  His  "Chirurgia  magna  "treated  the  sub-  along  the  whole  line  of  battle,  especially  against 
ject  with  a  completeness  never  previously  attained,  scholasticism  and  the  medicine  of  that  period.  There 
and  gave  its  author  during  the  following  centuries  the  is  no  doubt  that  his  zeal  was  exaggerated  in  many  re- 
rank  of  a  first-class  authority.  Among  contemporary  spects.  He  blames  the  physicians  of  his  time  be<»u8e 
surgeons  in  other  civilized  countries  we  must  mention  tney  philosophize  and  do  not  cure.  Medicine,  he  says, 
John  Ardem  (d.  about  1399),  an  Englishman,  who  is  a  practical  art  and,  therefore,  may  not  be  treated  ae- 
studied  at  MontpeUier  and  lived  subsequently  in  Lon-  cording  to  the  same  methods  tor  the  investigation  oi 
don,  famous  for  his  skill  in  operating  for  anal  fistuke,  truth  as  philosophy.  The  greatest  misfortune  had 
and  Jehan  Yperman  of  the  Netherlands  (d.  about  been  the  appearance  of  Arabism  with  all  its  supers^- 
1329),  who  studied  in  Paris  under  Lanfranchi.  Be-  tions  (astrology,  alchemy,  uroecopy).  On  the  other 
sides  these  surgeons  who  had  a  fixed  abode,  there  were  hand,  he  speaks  with  g^t  respect  of  surgery;  the  rea- 
a  number  of  itinerant  practitioners  who  offered  their  son  for  this  is  patent,  since  he  was  a  friend  of  the  most 
services  at  fairs;  as,  specializing  usually  in  certain  important  surgeon  of  his  time,  Guy  de  Chauhae. 
operations  (hemio-  and  lithotomy),  the^  often  pos-  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  were  then  in  Ital^  many 
sessed  great  skill,  and  their  advice  and  assistance  were  excellent  physicians  who,  like  Petrarch,  recognized  tlie 
sought  by  people  of  the  upper  classes.  existence  of  a  wrong  tendency  in  mealdne,  but  they 
Signs  of  Improvement:  Humanism. — ^A  short  were  far  too  weak  to  break  the  fetters  of  Arabism. 
survey  of  the  scholastic  period  gives  us  the  following  The  road  to  improvement  had  already  been  painted 
picture:  On  the  appearance  of  Arabic  literature  in  out  by  Mondino,  the  anatomist  of  Bologna,  but  a  corn- 
Latin  translations,  Hippocratic  medicine  wa^  driven  plete  change  of  view  did  not  occur  imtil  the  sixteenth 
from  its  last  stronghold,  Salerno.    Then  came  the  rule  century. 

of  Arabism,  of  the  system  of  Galen  in  Arabic  form  The  Black  Death  of  the  Fourteenth  Centubt. 

equipped  with  all  sorts  of  sophistic  subtleties.     The  — ^Associated  with  the  name  of  Petrareh  is  the  memoiy 

works  of  Rhazes  and  Avicenna  possessed  the  greatest  of  the  most  terrible  epidemic  of  historic  times.    The 

authority.    The  latter's  ''Canon''   written  in  clear  Black  Death  (bubonic  plague  with  pulmonary  infeo- 

language  and  covering  the  entire  field  of  medicine,  be-  tion),  ori^nating  in  Eastern  Asia,  passed  through  In- 

came  the  gospel  of  physicians.    The  literature  of  these  dia  to  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  Earpt.  Northern  Africa, 

times  is  rich  in  writings  but  very  poor  in  thought;  and  directly  to  Europe  by  the  Black  Sea.    In  Euro^ 

for  people  were  content  when  the  long-winded  com-  the  epidemic  began  m  1346,  and  spread  first  of  all  m 

mentanes  gave  them  a  better  understanding  of  the  the  maritime  cities  of  Italy  (especially  Genoa)  and 

Arabs,  whom  they  deemed  infallible.    A  good  many  Sicily;  in  1347  it  appeared  m  Constantinople,  Cyprus, 

things  were  incomprehensible,  first  of  all  the  names  of  Greece,  Malta,  Saroinia.  and  Corsioi,  and,  towards  the 

diseases  and  drugs,  which  translators  rendered  incor-  end  of  the  year,  at  Marseilles;    in   1348  in   Spain, 

rectly.    A  comparative  investigation  of  the  Greek  au-  Southern  France  (Avignon).  Paris,  the  Netherlands, 

thors  was  practically  impossible,  as  both  their  works  Italy,  Southern  England  ana  London,  Schleswig>Hol- 

and  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  had  dis-  stein,  and  Norway,  and.  in  December,  in  Dalmatia 

appeared  from  among  the  Romance  nations.    Thus  and  Jutland;  in  1349  in  the  Austrian  Alpine  countries, 

it  happened  that  special  books  had  to  be  written  from  Vienna,  and  Poland;  in  1350  in  Russia,  where  in  1353 

whicn  were  leamea  foreign  words  and  their  meanings,  the  last  traces  disappeared  on  the  shores  of  the  Blade 

The^SynonymaMedicinffi"  (Clavissanationis)  bythe  Sea.    The  entire  period  was  preceded  by  peculiar 

physician  Simon  of  Genoa  (Januensis,  1270-1303)  and  natural  phenomena,  as  floods,  tidal  waves,  and  ab> 

the  "Pandectffi  medidnffi"  of  Matthffius  Sylvaticus  normally  damp  weather.    Petrarch,  who  witnessed 

(d.  1342),  both  of  which  were  alphabetically  arranged,  the  plague  at  f'lorence,  declared  that  posterity  would 

were  much  in  vogue.    Woe  to  the  physician  who  regard  the  description  of  all  its  horrors  as  fables.    The 

dar^  to  doubt  the  authority  of  the  AraosI    Only  men  loss  of  human  life  in  Europe,  the  population  of  which 

of  strong  mind  could  successfully  carry  out  such  a  dan-  is  estimated  to  have  been  100  millions,  is  said  to  have 

gerous  imdertaking.    The  influence  of  scholasticism  amounted    to    twenty-five    millions.    The    disease 

in  medicine  was  manifold.    It  encouraged  the  obser-  usually  began  suddenly  and  death  occurred  within 

vation  of  nature  at  the  bedside  and  logical  think-  three  days,  and  often  after  a  few  hours.    Physidans 

ing,  but  it  also  stimulated  the  love  of  disputation,  were  quite  powerless  in  face  of  the  enormous  extent  of 

wherein  the  main  object  was  to  force  a  possibly  inde-  the  pestilence.    Great  self-sacrifice  was  shown  by  the 

pendent  idea  into  the  strait-jacket  of  the  ruling  sys-  clergy,  especially  by  the  Franciscans,  who  are  said  to 

|em.  and  thus  avoid  all  imputation  of  medical  heresy,  have  lost  100^000  (7)  members  thrpugh  the  epidemic* 


Goneeming  this  terrible  period  we  hftve  nporta  from  how  to  nuiBtniot  ■yllogisma,  but  did  not  know  how  to 

the  jurist  of  Piacensa,  Gabriel  de  Muuib;  from  Cao-  earn;  and  now  the  place  of  the  philaeophiiing  praoti- 

tacuienua  and  Nicephonis  about  the  epidemic  in  Con-  tJouen  was  taken  by  the  poet  physicians.    A  moie 

■tantinc^le;  from  Boccaccio  and  Petfaroh  (Doiencc),  satisfactory  sign  of  the  times  is  the  gieat  number  of 


froni  the  pbyaidan  Dionynus  CoUe  (^  Belluno  (Italy V  medical  botamflta,  whose  works  show  n: 

the  Belgian  Bimon  of  Covino  (Montpellier),  Guy  de  dependent  investigation,  and  always  regard  the  needa 

Ciiauliac   (Avignon),   and   also  from   some   Spanish  (^  the  physician  at  the  bedside.   Among  these  we  must 

phyddans.    Less  voluminouH  aooounts  are  to  be  mention  the  town  ^lyaldan  of  Bern,  Otto  Brunfels 

Found  in  Ute  chronicles  of  the  diffetent  countries,  (d.  1534),  Leonard  Fuchs  (1601-66},  profeaeor  at  In< 

c-...,^^i._....j-_l,^Qrepeatedlyvisitedby tbeplague,  golstadt,  HieronymuB  '*' m^-iS  .t  ii.:j..i — u 

■>Ientnorex.  (149&-I564),andhisi 


Tragus  (Bock)  of  Heiderbach 
149&'ISS4),  and  hispupil  Jacobus  Theodonis  Tabei^ 


tended  so  widely.    The  last  great  epidemics  occurred  namontanus  (d.  1596).    The  most  important,  how- 

in  Central  Europe  In  1670  and  1713.  ever,  is  the  Zurich  phj^dan  Conrad  Gesner  (1516-65; 

HuiuNiBii  AMD   Medicai.  SCIENCE  IN  THi  Fir-  l^bube  phytoKraphica;),  who  was  the  first  to  experi- 

rEENTH  Awn  Sixteenth  Centuribb.— The  terrors  of  ment  with-  tobacco  brought  from  America.    Only 

the  Black  Death,  and  the  conviction  which  it  brought  Andrea  Cesalpini,  professor  at  the  Sapienia  in  Rome, 

3f  the  powerlessnesB  of  current  medicine,  undoubtedly  can  be  regarded  as  h^  equal.     The  interest  taken  in 

belped  to  effect  a  gradual  change.    The  gTMtest  in-  the  study  of  natural  science  in  Germany  by  Hapsburg 

luenoe,  however,  was  exeited  by  the  humanistic  ten-  emperors,   Ferdinand   I   (1522-64)    and  'Hi'''i"'llifn 

lency  which  had  found  many  adherents,  especially  (1564-76),  was  of  great  advantage  to  it.    The  Physi- 

imon^E  physicians.    The  desire  after  general  onltiva-  oian-in-ordinary  to  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  of  Tptd, 


1    the   natural 


,he  OTd  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It 
s  worthy  of  mention  that,  at  a  time 
rhen  the  ^fted  Christopter  Colum- 
luswas  still  ridiculed  as  a  dreamer 
jy  the  learned,  the  Florentine  as- 
ranomer  and  physidan,  Toscanelli, 
md  the  house-physician  of  the  Frai^ 
jscan  monastery  of  Santa  Uaria  de 
^bida,  Garcia  Fernandes,  both 
leartily  encouraged  him  and  gave 
lim  material  aid.  The  sdentifio 
^deavoura  for  the  reform  of  medi- 
ine  are  characterised  by  the  activ- 
ty  of  the  translators,  by  the  critic^ 
reatment  and  explanation  of  old 
luthora,  and  by  independent  inve» 
igatioD  especially  in  the  field  of  bot- 
jiy.  CoDceming  translations,  those 
vhichhad  reference  to  the  Hippocra- 
■e  writings  were  of  prime  importanc 


Bdwuui  ffanraa 
(1740-1828) 

Among  the    issued  s 


DioBCurjdes  with  a 
work  which  was  most  highly  valued 
until  recent  times.  The  special  fa- 
vour of  Maximilian  II  was  enjoyed 
K'  Rembert  Dodffins  (I>od<aiAus)  i^ 
3chlin  (1517^5),  and  bv  the 
founder  of  scientific  botany,  Charles 
de  I'Ecluse  (Clusius)  of  Antwerp 
(1525-1809).     The  Utter  was  ap- 

Kinted  professor  in  Leyden,  and 
■  a  time  liv^ed  in  Vienna,  where 
he  found  lealous  followers  in  the 
physiciansJohannAicholti(d.  1SS8) 
and  Paul  Fabricus  (d.  1589). 

PnoaKEBBiN  ANATOinr:  Anduaa 
Vesaijus. — From  the  time  of  Mim- 
dino  anatomy  bad  been  diligently 
cultivated  at  the  universities,  espe- 
cially in  Italy.  In  Bologna,  (iio- 
vanni  de  Concoreggi  (d.    1438) 

anatomy.     As  commentators  <a 


lanslatora  and  ocxnnientators  of  these  works  we  find  Mondino    we    must    mention    Alessandro    Achillim 

'Jieoki  Leonioeno  of  Vicenxa  (1428-1524),  the  Span-  (1463-1512)  and  Jacopo  Berengerio  da  Carpi  (about 

ard  Frandsous  Valesiue  (end  of  the  sixteenth  cen-  1470-1530).     Anatomy  made  n>edal  progress  because 

ury),   the  Frenchman  Jacques  Houllier  (Hollerius,  of  the  artists.     Thus  Raphael  Saniio  (148S-1520)  al- 

.498-1563),  Johann  Hagenbut  of  Saxony  ((kimarus,  ready  makes  use  of  the  human  skeleton  when  making 

.500-58),  the  two  Paiis  professors,  Jean  de  Gorris  his  sketches,  so  as  to  give  his  figures  tlie  proper  posture. 

GorneuJu  1605-77),  and  Louis  Duret  (1527-86),  and  We  possess  numerous  anatomical  descriptions  and 

Inutius  FocBtus  Q528-91),  a  physician  of  Heti.     As  sketches  by  Leonardo  da  Vind  (1442-1510)    which 

nrestigators  (d  Pliny  there  are   Ermolao  Barbara  were  intended  partly  for  an  anatomy  planned  by  Har- 

1454-93),  later  Patriarch  of  Aquileia,  and  Filippo  cantonio  della  Torre   (Turrianus,    1473-1606),  and 

^roalda    (1453-1506).    Students   of   other   authors  partly  (or  a  work  of  his  own.     The  great  Michelangelo 

vere  Giovanni  Manardo  of  Ferrara  (1462-1536;  Galen,  p 475- 1564)  left  sketehes  of  the  muscles,  and  in  1495, 

tfesue),  the  Paduan  profesaor  Giovanni  Battista  de  m  the  monastery  of  Santo  Spirito  at  Florence,  made 

ttmte  (Hontanus,  1^8-1552;    Galen   Rhases.  Avi-  studies  for  a  picture  of  the  Crudfied  with  cadaven  as 

«nna),  and  the  EkigHshinen  Thomas  Linacre  (1461-  models. — As  an  indication  of  how  mudi  the  popes 

.524),  and  John  Kaye  (1506-73),  Wilhelm  Copua,  endeavoured  to  advance  the  study  of  anatomy,  we 

n»m  physidan  (rf  Basle  (1471-1621),  and  Theodore  may  recall  that  the  priest  Gabriel  de  Zerbis  tor  a  time 

iwinger  of  Switserland   (1533-88),   all  students  of  taught  anatomy  in  Rome  (towards  the  end  of  the 

;;alen.     As  may  be  seen,  the  system  of  Galen  still  fifteenth  century),  that  Paul  III  (1534-49)  appointed 

onned  the  central  point  of  medical  studies,  but  it  tlie  surgeon  Alfonso  Ferri  to  teach  this  suDJect  at  the 

nust  be  regarded  as  an  advance  that  people  now  read  Sapiensa  in  1635,  that  the  physioian-in-ordinary  of 

lis  works  m  the  original  or  in  aoourate  translations,  Julius  III  (1560-55),  Oiambattista  Cannani,  crowned 

lot  aa  befon  in  their  Arabic  form,  for  in  this  way  his  anatomical  studies  bv  discovering  tjie  vidves  in 

nany  changes  and  conflicting  views  lutroduoed  by  the  the  veins;  that  Paul  IV  (1555-9)  called  to  Rome  the 

'     '       ireie  detected.     But  the  full  beauty  of  the  famous  Realdo  Colombo,  the  teacher  of  Michelangelo, 

ralic  works  oould  not  be  appreciated  as  long  as  and  that  Colombo's  sons  dedicated  their  father's  work, 

signed  supreme.  "De  re  anatomica",  to  Pope  Pius  IV  (1559-1665). 

The  first  fruit  of  Humanism  in  medicine  was  prima-  Foremost  among  the  universitieB  stood  Padua,  the 

ily  of  a  purely  formal  nature,  the  main  stress  being  stronghold  of  medical  sdence,  whence  was  to  issue  the 

low  laid  upon  philological  subtleties  and  elegant  dio-  light  which  disclosed  the  weaknewes  of  Galen's  sys- 

^co.     No  limger  content  with  prose,  authors  often  tern.     In  Padua,   where   Bartolomeo  Montagna   (d. 

recorded    their    tboughte    in    verse.     Petrareb    had  1460)  performed  no  less  than  fourteen  dissections, 

blamed  the  physicians  of  his  time  bacause  they  knew  there  existed  sinne  1446  an  anatomicsJ  theatre  which 


Vrabs  i 


MIDICINS  130 

Hn.  1490  was  rebuilt  under  Alessandro  Benedetti  ^1460-  couroes  of  knowledge,  by  the  dissemination  of  ediiea> 
1525).  Of  the  anatomists  who  worked  outside  of  tion  through  the  invention  of  printing,  and  by 
Italy  we  may  mention  Guido  Guidi  (Vidua  Vidius)  d  the  schism  of  the  Church  brought  about  bv  Luther. 
Florence  (d.  1569),  until  1531  professor  at  Paris;  his  Authority,  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  had  been  can- 
successor  Franyois  Jacques  Dubois  (Sylvius,  d.  1551),  siderably  weakened.  The  investigations  of  Vesalius 
and  GOnther  von  Andemach  (1487-1574),  professor  at  probably  dealt  the  most  serious  blow  to  the  teachmg 
Lou  vain.  The  two  latter  were  the  teacners  of  the  of  Galen,  but  it  was  neither  the  first  nor  the  only  one; 
great  reformer  of  anatomy,  Andreas  Vesalius  (q.  v.).  for  even  before  Vesalius'  critics  had  attacked  the 

Vesalius  (b.  1514),  studied  at  Louvain,  Montpellier,  theories  of  Galen  and  the  Arabs,  although  not  quite  so 
and  Paris,  and  then  became  imperial  field-surgeon,  energetically  as  the  anatomists  attacked  them.  The 
His  eagerness  to  learn  went  so  far  that  he  stole  corpses  chief  representatives  of  these  times  down  to  the  end  of 
from  the  gallows  to  work  on  at  night  in  his  room.  He  the  sixteenth  century  can  be  classed  respectively  into 
soon  became  convinced  of  the  weakness  and  falsity  of  anti-Galenists  or  anti-Arabists  and  positive  Ilippo- 
the  anatomy  of  Galen.  His  anatomical  demonstra-  cratics.  The  climax  of  this  revolution  was  reached 
tions  on  the  cadaver,  which  he  performed  in  several  on  the  appearance  of  Theophrastus  ParacelsuB  and  his 
cities  and  which  attracted  attention,  soon  earned  him  adherents,  although  the  Italian  schools  renouuned  un- 
a  call  to  Padua  where  he  had  recently  graduated  and  influenoea  by  this.  The  phvsician  and  philosopher, 
where,  with  some  interruptions,  he  taught  from  1539  Geronimo  Cardano  of  Milan  (1501-76)^  attacked  prin- 
to  1546.  His  chief  work,  De  corporis  humani  fabrica  cipally  Galen's  explanation  of  the  origin  of  catarrns  of 
libri  vii",  \7hich  appeared  at  Basle  in  1543,  brought  the  brain,  and  also  the  validity  of  uie  therapeutical 
him  greaw  fame,  but liliewise  aroused  violent  hostility,  principle,  Contraria  contrariis  curantur.  Similar  wu 
especially  on  the  part  of  his  former  teacher,  Sylvirjs.  the  tendency  shown  by  Bernardino  Telesio  of  Piaoensa 
The  supreme  service  of  Vesalius  is  that  he  for  tne  first  (1508-88),  Giovanni  Argenterio  of  Piedmont  (1513- 
time,  with  information  derived  from  the  direct  study  72),  and  the  chancellor  of  Montpellier,  Laurent  Jon- 
of  the  dead  body,  attacked  with  keen  criticism  the  bert  (1529-83),  while  Jean  Femel  (1485-1558),  made 
hitherto  unassailable  Galen,  and  thu3  brought  a  out  anattempt  uo  modernize  the  system  of  Galen  in  accord- 
his  overthrow,  for  soon  after  this  serious  weaknesses  anoe  ^rith  the  results  of  anatomical  investigation, 
in  other  parts  of  Galen's  medical  science  were  also  dis-  A  lively  exchange  of  opinions  was  caused  by  the 
closed.  Vesalius  is  the  founder  of  scientific  anatomy  controversy^  on  bleeding,  which  was  begun  by  the 
and  of  the  technique  of  modem  dissection.  Unfortu-  Paris  physician  Pierre  Brissot  (1478-1522).  Biissot 
nately,  he  himself  destroyed  a  part  of  his  manuscripts  assailed  the  Arabian  doctrine  that  inflammatory  dis- 
on  learning  that  his  enemies  intended  to  submit  nis  eases,  especially  pleurisy,  should  be  treated  by  bleed- 
work  to  ecclesiastical  censure.  While  engaged  on  a  ing  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  seat  of  inflammation, 
pilgrimage,  he  received  word  in  Jerusalem  of  hie  re-  and  favoured  the  Hippocratic  doctrine  of  bleeding  as 
appointment  as  professor  in  Padua,  but  he  was  ship-  near  as  possible  to  it.  The  controvert  was  decided 
wrecked  in  Zant  and  died  there  in  great  need  on  15  in  favour  of  the  Hippocratics,  who  did  not  discard 
October,  1565.  the  doctrines  of  Galen  as  long  as  they  agreed  with 

The  authority  of  Galen  was,  however,  still  so  deep-  Hippocratic  views,  but  rejected  the  principles  of 
rooted  among  phvsicians  that  Vesalius  found  oppo-  GaW  as  modifiea  by  the  Arabs.  This  is  clearly 
nentseven  among  his  own  more  intimate  pupils.  Never-  cdiown  by  the  importance  attached  to  the  state  ex 
theless,  the  path  which  he  had  pointed  out  was  further  the  pulse  and  of  the  urine,  upon  which  the  Arabs 
explored  and  anatomy  enriched  by  new  discoveries,  laid  much  more  stress  than  the  Greeks.  Of  the 
His  immediate  successors  as  teacher  in  Padua  were,  great  number  of  positive  Hippocratics  let  us  call 
in  1546,  Realdo  Colombo  (d.  1569),  later  professor  in  attention  to  the  above-mentioned  de  Monte,  who 
Rome,  the  discoverer  of  tne  lesser  circulation  of  the  introduced  clinical  instruction  in  Padua;  to  hu  sue- 
blood(pulmonaiycirculation),d.  1569;  from  1551  the  oessors  Vellore  Trincavclla  (1496-1568),  Albertino 
versatile  Gabriele  Fallopio  (1523-62),  an  admirer  of  Bottom  (d.  about  1596),  Marco  degli  Oddi  (d.  1596, 
Vesalius,  who  among  other  things  described  the  organ  Giovanni  Manardo  (1462-1526),  rrospero  Alpine 
of  hearing;  Girolamo  Fabrizio  of  Acquapendente  (1533-1617);  to  the  Spaniards.  Crist6bal  de  Veca 
(Fabr.  ab  Aquapendente,  1537-1619),  who  worked  in  (1510-about  1580),  and  Luis  Mercado  (1520-1606); 
the  field  of  embryogeny  and  studied  carefully  the  to  the  Frenchman  Guillaume  Baillou  (BaUonius,  153S- 
valves  in  the  veins,  and  nnally  Giullo  Casserio  (1561-  1616) ;  to  the  Netherlanders,  Peter  Foreest  (1522-97) 
1619),  who  published  a  series  of  anatomicr.l  charts.  A  and  Jan  van  Heume  (1543-1601),  who  will  be  men- 
similar  undertaking  was  plaimed  by  Bartolommeo  tioned subsequently;  Franz  Emerich  (1496-1560),  the 
Eustacchi  at  the  Sapienza  in  Rome,  but  he  died  before  organizer  of  clinical  instruction  at  Vienna;  Johann 
the  completion  of  the  work  in  1574.  Pope  Clement  Crato  of  CrafTtheim  (1519-85),  and  Johann  Schenck 
XI  (1700-21)  caused  his  physidan-in-ordinary,  Gio-  von  Grafenberg  (1530-98).  Epidemiological  works 
vanni  Maria  Lancisi,  to  pnnt  the  rediscovered  copper-  were  written  by  Antonio  Brassavola  (1500-55)  on 
[^tes  and  to  supply  them  with  an  explanatory  text,  syphilis;  Girolsjno  Fracastoro  (1483-1553)  on  pete^ 
Adrian  van  den  Spieghel  of  Brussels  (Spigelius.  1578-  chial  fever  and  syphilis;  Girolamo  Donaellini  (d 
1625)  worked  on  the  anatomy  of  the  hver  ana  of  the  1558),  and  Alessanaro  Massaria  (1510-98)  on  plagues; 
nervous  system.  In  companson  with  the  excellent  Jan  van  den  Kasteele  (about  1529)  on  '' the  EInglish 
productions  of  Italy,  the  anatomical  activity  of  Ger-  sweat'';  and  the  Viennese  physician,  Thomas  Joi^ 
manic  countries  appears  slight.  It  was  considered  danus  (1540-85),  on  purple  or  petechial  fever, 
sufficient  at  the  universities,  if  a  surgeon  now  and  then  Tkeophrastus  Paracelsus.  His  Adherhntb  and 
dissected  a  corpse,  while  a  physician  explained  the  Opponents. — Theophrastus  Bombast  of  Hohen- 
functions  of  the  different  organs.  The  only  laudable  heim  (Paracelsus),  the  son  of  a  physician,  was  bora 
exceptions  were  two  physicians  who  rendered  services  near  Einsiedeln,  Switzerland,  in  1493.  Ln  1506  he 
both  to  anatomy  and  botany — ^Felix  Platter  (1536-  went  to  the  University  of  Basle;  from  Trithemius  he 
1614).  professor  in  Basle,  and  his  successor,  Kaspar  learned  chemistry  and  metallurgy  in  the  smelting 
Bauhmus  (1560-1624),  the  discoverer  of  the  valve  in  houses  at  Schwas  (Tyrol),  and  he  visited  the  principal 
the  ecBcum  named  after  him  (Bauhin's  valve).  universities  of  Italy  and  France.    In  1526  he  became 

The  Opponents  op  Galen  and  the  Arabs. — Vio-  town  physician  of  Basle,  and  could  as  such  give  lee- 

lent  attacks  upon  ancient  traditions  were  not  confined  tures.    His  first  appearance  is  characteristic  of  him. 

to  the  domain  of  medicine,  but  also  found  expression  He  publicly  burned  the  works  of  Avicenna  and  Galen 

in  the  general  upheaval  caused  by  Humanists,  by  the  and  showed  respect  only  to  the  "Aphorisms"  of  Hip> 

discovery  of  new  countries,  by  the  opening  up  of  new  pocrates.    He  was  the  first  to  give  lectures  in  the  Gw- 


131 

nan  language.     But,  as  esrlf  as  1528,  he  vrea  com-  Discovert  or  the  Cibculation  op  the  Bloob: 

lelled,  on  account  of  the  boatility  he  evoked,  to  leave  Wiluam  Harvey  and  hib  Time. — Galea's  theory,  oo- 

Jasle    aooretly.     After    this    ha    travelled    through  cording  to  which  the  left  heart  and  the  arteries  con- 

'arious  countries  working  constantly  at  his  nmneroua  tained  air,  the  blood  being  generated  in  the  liver,  had 

rritings.  until  death  overtiook  him  at  SaUbui^  in  long  been  regarded  as  improbable,  but  in  spile  of  eveiy 

.514.     Poiacelsus,  like  a  blazing  meteor,  rose  and  effort  no  one  had  as  yet  diaoovered  the  truth  about 

lisappeared;   he  ahaied  the  fate  of  those  who  have  a  circulation.     The   solution   of   this   problem,   which 

-iolent  deein  to  destroy  the  old  without  having  an^  brousht  about  a  complete  fall  of  Galen'a  system  and  a 

ubstitute   to   offer.     Passing   over   his   philosophic  revolution  in  physiology,  came  from  the  English  physi- 

iews,  which  were  based  upon  neo-Platonism,  we  find  cian   William   Harvey  of  Folkstone   (1678-1657),   a 

tractical  medicine  indebted  to  him  in  various  ways,  pupil  of  Fabriciua  ab  Aquapendente.     Haj^ey's  dis- 

.  g.  for  the  theory  of  the  eauees  of  disease  (etiology),  covery  published  in  162S,  that  the  heart  is  the  centre 

or  the  introduction  of  chemical  therapeutics,  andfor  oF  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  that  all  blood  must 

lis  iiisist«noB  on  the  usefulnees  of  mineral  waters  and  return  to  the  heart,  at  first  received  scant  notice  and 

^tive  vegetable  drugs.    He  exaggerates  indeed  the  was  even  directly  opposed  by  Galen's  adherents ;  but 

alue  of  experience.     His  classification  and  diagnosis  further   investigation   soon   made   truth    victorious. 

■t  diseases  are  quite  unscientific,  anatomy  and  physi-  Even  as  early  as  1622,  Gaspare  Aselli    (1581-1626) 

loey  being  wholly  neglected.     He  thought  that  for  found  the  chyle  vessels,  but  correct  explanation  was 

BCD  dtseoae  there  should  exist  a  specific  remedy,  and  possible  only  after  the  discovery  of  the  thoracic  duet 

bat  to  discover  this  is  the  chief  object  of  medical  art.  (ductui  Ihoraeiu*)  and  its  opening  into  the  circulation 

Vith  him  diagnoeis  hung  upon  thesuoceea  of  this  or  by  Jean  Paoquet  (1622-74)  and  Joh&nn  van  Home 

hat  remedy,  and  because  of  this  he  (1621-70),  and  of  the  lymphatic  ve«- 

Ained   the  diseases   according   to  aels  by  Olaus  Rudbeck  (1630-1702) 

beir    specific    remedies.       Directly  j   and  Thomas  Bartholinua  {16I6-S0). 

^pudiated   by  the   Italian  schools,  A   new   field   of   investigation    was 

'aracelsus  found  adherents  mainly  |   openedbytheinventionol themicrt^ 

I  Germany,  among  them  being  the  ,   Kope,  by  which  MarceUo  Malplehi 

^'ittenberg   professor  Oswald  CroU  :    (1628-94)    discovered    the   BroaUer 

about   1560-1609).    He  also  found  blood-veasels  and  the  blood  corpu»- 

umerous  friends  among  the  travel-  cles.     From  Harvey's  time  starts  a 

ag  physieiaos    and    quacks.     His  seriee  of  important  anatomists  and 

sschin^  met  with  the  most  hostile  physiologists,  among  them  the  Ene- 

2ceptio(i  from  the  Paris  faculty.  Al-  lishmen   Thomas    Wharton    (161^ 

tiougb  the  further  progress  of  anat-  73;  glands)  and  Thomas  Willis(ie21 

my  and  physiology  indicated  clearly  -75 ;  brain) ;  the  Netherlanders  Peter 

>  phj^icions  the  nght  path,  we  meet  Paaw  (1564-1617),  his  pupil  Niko- 

ven   in   the  eighteenth  and   nine-  las  Pieteri  Tutp  (1593-1678),  both 

ieoth  centuries  with  two  men  who  teachers  of  anatomy  at  Leyden,  and 

tart   directly   from    Paracelsus:  Antony   van    Leeuweuboek   (1632- 

aiiiuelFi)edrichHahnemann(1755-  .  1723)  and    Johann    Swommerdam 

!i43),theoriginatorofhomoeopath7,  (1647-80). microscopists;  Reinierde 

nd  Johann  Gottfried  Rademocher  I  Graaf  (1641-73;  ovary);  Nikolaua 
1772-1850),  advocate    of  empiri-  Babon  Jbak-Nicholas  db  Costua>t  Steno  of  Copenhagen  (1638-88),  and 

ism.                                                                                [17U-1821)  the  Germans,  Horis  Hofman  (1621 

ScROEBT  IN  THE  SiZTEBNTH  Centobt:  Ahbboibb  -93)   and  George  Wirsung,  who   investigated  the 

'ark. — The  first  fruits  of  the  progress  in  anatomy  pancreas. 

mjoyed  by  suigery,  especially  since  most  Italian  lATaoPBraicisiB  and  Iathochehistb. — The  doo- 

3  (rf  fite-anns  in  w  „  ,    , .        ,  „     -   -      - 

ounds  was  especially  studied.  While  surgery  had  of  physicians,  influenced  by  the  works  of  Alfonso 
[ways  enjoyed  a  higti  rank  in  Italy  and  FWioe,  in  Borelli  (1608-78)  on  animal  motion,  there  was  ft 
■ermany  it  was  in  the  hands  of  barbers  and  surgeons,  marked  effort  to  explain  all  physiological  processes 
noonnected  with  the  universities  and  poorly  edu-  according  to  the  laws  of  physics  (iatrophysicbts). 
»ted ;  hence  it  is  readily  understood  wny  the  best  Opposed  la  them  was  a  party,  which,  influenced  by 
iigeons  lived  in  the  cities  nearest  tiie  Romance  coun-  the  progress  in  chemistry,  sought  to  make  use  of  it  for 
ries,  especially  Stiasbui^  With  the  member  of  the  explaining  medical  facta  (iatrochemists).  This  ten- 
'eutonic  Order,  Heinrich  yon  Pfolspeundt  ("  BOndth-  denoygoee  back  to Paracelausandbisadhereat  Johann 
jtwey",  1460),  the  most  important  representatives  Baptist  von  Helnumt  (1578-1644).  Hehnont,  who 
•ere  toe  Straaburg  surReons,  Hieronymus  Brunschwig  was  an  important  chemist  (the  discoverer  of  carbtmie 
1.  about  1S34),  and  Hans  von  Gersdorff  ("  Feldtbucn  acid),  recceniied  the  importance  of  anatomy,  and  de- 
er Wundtarttney",  1517).  Their  equal  was  a  some-  serves  credit  (or  his  work  in  therapeutics,  altnoughhis 
'hat  yotuiger  man,  Felix  WOrti  of  Basle  (1518-74).  failure  to  appraise  the  needs  of  hia  time  prevented  his 
V'e  are  indebted  to  the  French  field-surgeon  Am-  doctrinefrominfluencingthedevelopmentofmedicinn. 
roise  Par^  for  a  marked  change  in  the  treatment  of  latrophysica  was  cultivated  mainly  in  Italy  and  Eng- 
uoshot  wounds  and  arterial  hemorrhage.  He  aban-  land;  iatrochemistry  in  the  Netherlands  and  Ger- 
cKied  the  Arabic  method  of  work  with  a  red-hot  knife,  many.     The  chief  adherent  of  iatrophysics  in  Italy 

eelareid  that  supposedly  poisoned  gunshot  wounds     wasGioiBJoBagli"' '-■  '■">■'>  — ' ..v.t. — .- 

rere  simple  eoDtused  wounds,  and  proceeded  to  ban-  in  Rome;  in  pr 
age  tbem  without  uaius  hot  oil.  He  was  the  first  to  mainly  to  Hippocratic  principles,  while  the  Enslish- 
mploy  the  ligature  in  the  case  of  arterial  hemorrhage,  man,  Archibald  Pitcaim  (1652-1713),  tried  to  follow 
leit  to  him  in  importance  stands  Pierre  Franco  out  iatrophysics  to  its  utinoet  consequences, 
shout  1560),  known  as  the  perfeeter  of  the  operation  Owing  to  the  greater  progress  made  in  physio^ 
f  lithotomy  and  that  for  nemia.  Gaspare  Taglia-  iatrochemistry  found  fewer  foUowere,  and  that  it  took 
oiii  of  Bolagna  (1546-00)  deserves  credit  for  reintro-  root  at  all  is  the  service  of  its  chief  representative 
ueing  and  nnproring  the  ancient  plastic  operations.  In  Frani  de  le  BoS  Sylvius  (1614-72),  who  in  1658  be- 
lie lixleenth  centmy  the  GnsareAn  opemtimt  (Sectio  came  pnrfessor  of  practical  medicine  at  I^yden.  At 
Kiarea,lapaK)t(Hny}  was  perfonnedoo  living  perMos.  tbeao&ooltlme,foundedinl575,  Jon  vanHeumehad 


MBDICINX                        132  BODicnnB 

already  tried  to  establish  a  clinic  after  the   Paduan  pital,  who  was  celebrated  as  a  jpractitioQer  and  as  the 

model,  but  it  was  not  till  1637  that  his  son  Otto  was  author  of  a  work,  unequalled  imtil  then  f"  System 

able  to  carry  out  his  scheme.    The  immediate  sue-  einer  voUstftndigen  meoisinischen  Polisey '',   1779- 

cessors  of  tne  latter,  Albert  Kyper  (d.  1658),  and  1819). 

Ewald  Schievelius  (1576-1646},  continued  this  insti-  Among   important   practitionen   outside   of   the 

tution  in  the  Hippocratic  spirit.    Before  Svlvius  be-  school  of  Leyaen  were:  the  papal  physidan-in-ordi- 

gan  to  teach  there,  the  Leyden  clinic  haa  already  nary,  Giovanni  Maria  Lands!  (1654-1720),  who  estab- 

gained  world-wide  fame.    One  of  the  first  adherents  lished  a  clinic  in  Rome  after  the  model  of  Le^en; 

of  Harvey,  Sylvius,  depending  in  part  on  Paracelsus  Giovanni  Battista  Bonieri  ([Burseiius  de  Kamlfeld, 

and  Helmont,  sought  to  explain  physiological  pro-  1725-85),  professor  at  Pavia;   James  Keill  (1673- 

oesses  by  suggesting  fermentation  (molecular  motion  1718);    Richard  Mead   (1673-1754);    John  Freind 

of  matter)  and  ''vital  spirits"  as  movinjg  forces.  (1675-1728,  smallpoz);  John  Pring^  (1707-82)  and 

Through  ''effervescence''  acid  and  alkaline  juices  are  John  Huxham  (1694-1768),  investigators  in  epidemi- 

formea,  and  through  their  abnormal  mixture  hyper-  olog^;  John  Fothergill  (1712-80;  diphtheria  and  in- 

acidit:^  and  hypersukalinity  (i.  e.  sickness)  originate,  termittent  fever).    Albrecht  von  HaDer  developed 

This  simple  doctrine,  supported  by  the  clinical  activ-  an  important  school  in  GOttingen  as  van  Swieten  nad 

ity  of  Sylvius,  foimd  numerous  adherents  especiaUy  done  m  Vienna.    The  first  members  of  the  GOttingen 

in  German]^;   but  it  made  just  as  many  opponents  school  were:   Paul  Gottlieb  Werlhof  (1699-1767;  in- 

among  the  iatrophysicists,  who  were  able  to  refute  in  termittent  fever)  and  Johann  Georg   Zimmennann 

part  these  untenable  hvpotheses.    The  two  theories  (1728-95). 

are,  however,  not  absolutely  opposed  to  each  other,  Anatomt  m  trb  E^ightesnts  Ckntubt. — ^During 
for  both  phjrsics  and  chemistry  offer  the  means  neces-  this  period  normal  and  pathological  anatomy  were 
sarv  for  an  explanation  of  physiological  processes,  more  cultivated  than  microscopy.  The  greater  num- 
and  may  form  the  basis  for  the  construction  of  an  ber  of  investigators  that  we  have  to  oonddfer  won  fame 
exact  medical  science.  At  this  time,  however,  physics  in  the  field  of  surgery.  Starting  from  the  school  of 
and  chemistry  (especially  the  latter)  were  still  too  Leyden  the  following  anatomists  deserve  mention: 
little  developed  for  this  purpose,  and  therefore  the  Govert  Bidloo  (1649-1713)  and  Bemhard  Sigmund 
endeavour  to  create  a  system  is  much  more  appar-  Albinus  (1697-1770;  anatomical  charts);  in  Amster- 
ent  among  the  iatrochemists.  Fortunately,  the  two  dam.  Friedrich  Ruysch  (1638-1721),  and  Pieter  Gam- 
parties  found  a  common  point  of  union  in  practical  per  (1722-89),  the  mventor  of  craniometoy  and  of  the 
medicine,  where  the  doctrines  of  the  Hippocratic  elastic  truss  for  hernia;  in  Italy,  Antonio  Maria  Val- 
Bchool  were  predominant.  salva  (1666-1723;  eye  and  ear)  and  Giovanni  Do- 
PiONEERS  IN  Practical  Medigxnb:  TRoiiAB  St]>-  menico  Santorini  (1681-1737);  in  Paris,  the  Dane 
BNHAM  AND  Hebmann  Boerhave. — ^Both  reuouncc  Jakob  Benignus  WinslOw  (1669-1760;  topographical 
all  systems,  and  lay  most  stress  upon  the  perfection  of  anatomy);  in  England,  James  Douglas  (1675-1742; 
practical  medicine.    Thomas  Sydenham  (1624-89),  peritoneum);  Alexander  Munroe  (1732-1817;  bursa 

Shysicianat  Westminster  and  known  as  the"  Engli^  mucosa),  and  William  (1718-83)  and  John  Hunter 
[ippocrates",  laid  down  the  principle  that,  just  as  in  (1728-93)  both  known  also  as  surgeons;  finally  in 
the  natural  sdences,  so  in  medicine  the  mductive  Germany,  the  anatomist,  surgeon,  and  botanist, 
method  should  be  authoritative.  The  main  object  of  Lorens  Heister  (1683-1758),  Johann  Friedrich  Meckel 
medicine,  healing,  would  he  possible  only  when  the  (1724-74  *  nerves) ;  Johann  Gottfried  Zinn  (1727-59; 
changes  lying  at  the  root  ot  disease  and  the  laws  eye);  Jonann  Nathanael  LieberkCQm  (1711-65;  in- 
governing  its  course  had  been  investigated.  Then  testine);  Helnrich  August  Wrisberg  (1739-1808; 
also  would  the  proper  remedies  be  found.  Following  lanmx),  and  Samuel  Thomas  SOmmering  (1755- 
tiie  idea  of  Hippocrates,  he  seeks  the  cause  of  disease  1830).  Abnormal  anatomical  changes  in  organs 
in  the  change  of  the  fundamental  humours  (humoral  had  been  recorded  since  the  time  of  Vesalius,  but 
pathology).  The  activity  of  the  physidan  was  mainly  these  were  for  the  most  part  merely  inddental 
to  assist  ''nature".  A  man  of  the  same  intellectual  observations,  and  nobody  had  tried  to  trace  ays- 
build  as  Sydenham  was  Hermann  Boerhave  (1668-  tematically  the  connexion  between  them  and  the 
1738).  the  most  famous  practitioner  of  his  time,  who  in  symptoms  occurring  in  the  living  body.  The  best 
1720  oecame  clinical  professor  at  Leyden.  Being  an  survey  of  the  achievements  of  the  earlier  centuries  is 
iatrophysidst,  he  re^rds  Hlppocratism  as  able  to  live  offered  in  TheophU  Bonet's  "Sepulchretum  anatomi- 
only  if  the  results  of  investigation  in  anatomy,  physi-  cum"  (1709).  As  the  sdentific  toimder  of  pathologi- 
ology,  physics,  and  chemistry  are  i>roperly  utilised,  cal  anatomy  we  must  mention  Giovanni  Battista  Mor- 
He  tries  to  explain  most  physiological  processes  as  gagni  (168^1771),  professor  at  Padua,  whose  famous 
purely  mechamcal.  In  contradistinction  to  the  two  work,  "De  sedibus  et  causis  morborum"  (1761), 
professors  of  Halle,  Friedrich  Hoffmann  (1660-1742)  usually  contains,  besides  the  results  of  post-mortem 
and  George  Ernst  Stahl  (1660-1734),  of  whom  the  examinations,  a  corresponding  history  of  the  diseases, 
former  supposed  the  ether  (Leibnix's  doctrine  of  This  field  was  cultivated  in  France  especially  by 
monads)  and  the  latter  the  "soul"  to  be  the  moving  Joseph  Lieutaud  (1703-80)  and  Vicq  d'Asyr  (1748- 
power,  Boerhave  did  not  care  at  all  about  any  moving  94),  and  in  Leyden  by  Eduard  Sandifort  (1742-1814). 
force  that  might  possibly  be  present.  With  his  death  Germanv  had  an  important  investi^tor  in  the  da^ 
Leyden  lost  its  importance  as  a  nursery  of  medicine,  before  Morgagni,  vis.,  Johann  Jakob  Wepfer  in  Schaff- 
His  illustrious  pupil  and  commentator,  Gerhard  van  hausen  (1620-95).  In  Vienna,  autopsies  on  those  who 
Swieten  (1700-72),  was  called  as  teacher  to  Vienna  in  died  in  the  clinic  were  first  regularly  made  by  Anton 
1745,  ana  there  laid  the  foundation  of  the  fame  of  the  de  Haen.  For  a  strictly  svstematie  treatment  of  the 
school  whose  most  important  representatives  are  An-  whole  field  we  are  indebted  to  the  London  physidan, 
ton  de  Haen  (1704-76)  and  his  successor  as  teacher,  Matthew  BaiUie  (1761-1823),  who  published  the  first 

Maximilian  Stoll  (1742-88).    Under  the  eye  of  van    pictorial  work  on  pathological  anatomy.        

Swieten  and  de  Haen,  but  without  recognition  from  Surgery  in  the  Seventeenth  and  E2ightbxnis 

them,  a  simple  hospital  physidan,  Leopold  Auenbrug-  Centuries. — The  emment  surgeons  of  the  seven- 

ger  (1722-1809),  published  his  epoch-making  discovery  teenth  centunr  are:  Cesare  Magati  (157fr-about  1648), 

that,  by  striking  or  rapping  on  the  chest  (percussion),  professor  in  Ferrara  and  later  a  Capuchin  monk,  who 

disease  of  the  lungs  and  heart  may  be  diagnosed  from  amplified  the  treatment  of  wounds;   Mare'  Aurelio 

the  various  sounds  elidted  by  such  percussion.    An  Severino  (1580-1656;  treatment  of  abscesses,  resection 

hnportant  member  of  the  Vienna  school  was  Jolumn  of  ribs);  the  already  mentioned  anatomist,  Fabrisio 

Peter  Frank  (1745-1821),  director  of  the  general  hos-  ab  Aquiqiendente  (re-introduotioii  of  tracheotomy, 


tholooueus  Saviud  (1656-1702;  digital  compreaaion  versatile  aoholar,  Albrecht  von  Halter  of  Bern  (1708- 
(rf  arteriea),  Jiwques  Beaulieu  (1651-1714),  a  travel-  77),  profeseor  in  GOttingen  from  1737  to  1753  (Ble- 
linK  surgeon  and  later  a  hermit  (Fr^re  Jacqiiea),  who  menta  physiologicB,  1757-66).  Haller,  a  pupil  of  Al< 
improved  the  method  of  lateral  Uthotomy,  and  helped  binuB  and  Boerhave,  was  the  first  to  recognite  the  im- 
people  for  a  "God-bless-you";  in  AniBterdam,  Aora-  portanoe  of  experiments  on  animate.  We  are  indebted 
bam  Cyprianus  (about  1695^  lithotomy).  The  mo«t  to  him  for  the  best  description  of  the  vascular  nyetem 
important  German  surgeon  la  Wilhelm  Fabry  of  Hil-  and  Cor  studies  in  htemodynamics,  in  which  field,  how- 
den  (Fabricius  Hildanus,  1660-1634;  siiiiplined  treat-  ever,  the  Eneliah  clergyman,  Stephen  Hales  (d.  1761). 
ment  of  wounds,  amputation) ;  next  to  nim  Johann  had  already  broken  the  soil.  He  correctly  recognirca 
Scbult«s  (SchuitetUB,  1595-1646),  author  of  "Arma  the  mechanism  of  respiration  without  being  able  to  in- 
mentarium  chirurgicum",  and  Matthias  Gottfried  vestigate  its  phs^iological  importance  (exchange  of 
Purmana  (1848-1721;  field  surgery).  Of  English  gases),  since  Joseph  Priestley  did  not  discover  oxygen 
surgeons  Richard  Wiseman,  (about  1652;  amput»-  until  1774.  He  disproved  the  view  that  there  was  air 
tioD,  compression  of  aneurisms),  John  Woodatl  (about  between  the  lungs  and  the  pleura  by  a  simple  experi- 
1S13),  ana  Lowdbam  (about  1679)  are  the  most  emi-  ment  on  animals.  Haller  became  best  known  throu^ 
nent.  the  discovery  of  irritability  and  sensibility.  When 
In  the  eighteenth  omtnry  surgeiy  was  easentiaUy  external  stimuli  are  applied  to  tissues,  especially  mus- 
stimulated  oy  the  numerous  wars;  in  France  also  clea^  the  latter  react  either  by  contracting  and  moving 
through  the  establishment  of  an  academy  in  1731  by  ^mtabUity),  or  byexperiendng  a  sensation  or  sensed 
^             .1     .    .    .  ,,                     — J  ^^   (sensibility),   or   at   times  by 


Georges  Har«8chaI(165S-1736)  and 
Frangois  Gigot  de  la  Peyronie  (1678 
-1747).  Oi  Frenchmen  we  must 
also  name  Jean  Louis  Petit  (1674- 
1750),  the  inventor  of  the  screw 
tourniquet,  Henri  Francois  le  Dran 
(16SS-1770;  lithotomy,  lacerations 
of  scalp),  Pierre  Joseph  Boucher 
(1715-93;  amputation);  Toyssaint 
Bordenave  (1728-82;  amputation), 
Antoine  Louis  (1721-92;  operation 
for  hare-lip,  bronchotomy,  simplifi- 
cation of  instruments).  Pierre 
Joseph  Desault  (1744-95,  founder 
of  the  Paris  surgical  clinic,  ligature 
of  vessels,  treatment  of  aneurism, 
dislocations,  fractures),  Francois 
Chopart  (1743-95,  methods  of  ampu- 
tation), and  finBuy  the  monk  and 
lithotomist  Frire  Cflmc  (Jean  de  St. 
Coeme,  BaseUhac,  1703-81),  the  in- 
ventor of  the  lithotome-cachd. 
The   founder    of    modem    EngUsh 


Doth.  Sensibility  disappears  when 
the  corresponding  nerve  is  cut, 
while  irritability  persists  indepen- 
dent of  the  nerves  and  even  con- 
tinues some  time  after  death.  This 
theory  met  with  great  opposition, 
especially  among  vae  practical  phy- 
ncdans  (Anton  de  Haen),  who  did 
not,  however,  take  the  trouble  to  re- 
peat the  experiments  on  animals. 
Even  thougn  Haller  knew  neither 
the  central  cause  of  the  two  phe- 
nomena, nor  the  correct  structure  of 
the  tissues,  it  nevertheless  stands  to 
his  eternal  credit  that  lie  was  the 
first  to  point  out  the  facts  and  open 
up  new  roads  for  physiology.  Hal- 
lo's investigation  was  generally 
W«lcomed,  especially  in  Italy  by 
Abbate  I^iaro  Sp^laniani  (172^ 
99),  the  first  scientific  opponent  of 
spontaneous  generation.  Hisexperi- 


Ba>ON  OuHJ^UHB  I>UPnTTBBIt 

(1777-1835)  _^  ^ 

surgery  is  William  Cheselden  (168S-1752;    lateral  menta  along  the  lines  of  artificul  fertihxation  of  fro^' 

lithotomy,   artificial   pupil).     Samuel   Sham   (about  eggs,  and  concerning  digestion  arc  famous.     Felice 

1700-78)  wrote  a  text-book;  William  Bromfield  (1712  Fontana  (173O-1805),  repeating  the  experiments  con- 

-92),  invented  an  artery-retractor  and  the  double  gor-  ceming  irritabiUty  reached  the  same  results  as  Haller. 

geret;    and  Percival  Pott  (1713-88)  established  the  William  Hewson  (1729-74)  studied  the  qualitiee  of 

doctrme   of  arthrocaoe   (malum  potti).      The   most  the  blood  (coagulation).     The  most  important  Ger- 

eminent  and  versatile  surgeon  is  the  already-men-  man  physiologist  after  Haller  is  Kasper  Priedrich 

tioned  John  Hunter  (treatment  of  aneurisms,  theory  Wolff  (1735-94),  known  for  his  investigations  in  the 

of   inflammation,    gunshot   wounds,   syphilis).     Sur-  field  of  evolution  and  for  painting  out  the  fact  that 

gery  was  on  a  much  lower  plane  in  the  Germanic  eoun-  both  animals  and  plants  are  composed  of  the  same 

tries.     For  the  better  training  of  the  Prussianmilitaiy  elements,  whiii  he  called  little  "bubbles"  or  "gtob- 

surgeons   and   on   the   proposal  (rf  Surgeon-General  ukB".    Joseph  Priestley's  discovery  of  "dephlogisti* 

Ernst  Konrad  Holtzendorff  (1688-1751),  there  was  cated  air"  (1774),  as  oxygen  was  then  called,  was  of 

founded  in  Berlin  a  Collegium  medico-cftirwfficum  in  the  highest  importance   in  the  development  of  the 

1714;  later  in  1726  the  Charity  school,  and  in  1795  the  theoi^  of  respiration,  of  the  process  of  tissue-decom- 

Pepini^re   academy.     Surgery   made   great  progress  position,  of  formation  of  the  blood,  and  of  metabolio 

through   Johann   Zocharias   Platner   (1894-1747)   at  phenonteua. 

Leipzig;  Johann  Ulrich  Bilguer  (1720-96)  and  Chris-  Medical  Sybtekb  in  the  Eiohteehts  Cewtcrt.— 

tian  Ludwjg  Mursinna  (1744-1833)  at  Berlin:  Kari  The  three  great  discoveries  in  the  second  half  of  the 

Kasper  Siebold  (1736-1807)  at  WOriburg,  and  eape-  century  (oxygen,   galvanism,  and  irritability},   eon- 

eially  through  August  Gottlob  Richter  (1742-1812)  at  trary  to  what  one  might  expect,  led  scientists  astray, 

GCttingen  (surgical  library).     A  school  for  military  and  gave  rise  to  systems  whose  foundations  were  (rfa 

surgeons  was  founded  at  Vienna  in  1775  at  the  augges-  purely  hypothetical  nature.    Especially  interesting  are 

tion   of  Anton  StArek   (1731-1803),  ten  yean  after  the  neuro-patholo^cal  theories,  connected  to  some 

which   was   established    the    Josepbinum   academy,  extent  with  irritability.     William  CuUen  (1712-90), 

under  the   direction   of   the   army   Surgeon-in-chief  accepting  irritability  as  his  starting-point,  supposes  a 

Johann  Alexander  von  Bramttilla  (1728-1800).  "tonus"  or  fluid  inherent  in  the  nerves  (Newton's 

Stodt  op  PfTTBiouyoY :    ALBRBcHr  voN   Hai.l,eb  ether),  whose  stronger  or  weaker  motions    prcxiuoe 

AND  His  TiuB. — ^The  peat  discoveries  in  the  field  (tf  either  a  spasm  or  atony.    In  addition  " 


8  of  the  efforts  of  both  iatrophj^cists  and     (about  1735-88),  modified  tl ^  __r = 

latrocbemista  were  far  from  latisfactoiy,  since  aciea-    that  all  living  creatures  possess  excitability,  located  in 


MSDIGINX 


134 


BBDIGINX 


the  nerves  and  muscles,  which  are  excited  to  activity 
by  external  and  internal  influences  {stimuli).  Dis- 
eases occur  according  to  increase  or  dimunition  of  the 
stimuli  and  excitability,  strong  stimuli  causing  in- 
creased excitability  (sthenia)  and  weak  stimuli  dimin- 
ished excitability  (asthenia).  Death  is  caused  either 
by  an  increase  of  excitability  with  a  lack  of  stimuli,  or 
by  exhaustion  of  excitability  from  too  strong  stimuli. 
Brown's  theory  was  little  noticed  in  England  and 
France,  but  in  Germany  it  was  highly  laud^.  Chris- 
toph  Girtanner  (1760-1800)  and  Joseph  Frank  (1771- 
IS42)  spread  its  fame.  Out  of  this  Brunonianism 
Johann  Andreas  Rdschlaub  (1768-1835)  developed 
the  so-called  theory  of  excitability  which  was  so  ener- 
getically opposed  oy  Alexander  von  Humboldt  and 
Christian  Wilhelm  Hufeland  (1762-1836).  Giovanni 
Rasori  (1762-1837),  building  also  on  Brown's  theory, 
developed  his  contra-stimullstic  system,  namely  that 
there  are  influences  which  directly  diminish  excite- 
ment (contra-stimuli)  or  remove  existing  stimuli  (in- 
direct contra-stimuli) ;  he,  therefore,  distinguishes 
two  groups  of  diseases-— diathesis  of  the  stimulus  and 
that  of  the  contra-stimulus. 

Another  group  of  systematizers,  the  Vitalists,  baa- 
ing their  views  upon  Stahl's  doctrine  of  the  soul 
(Animism)  and  Mailer's  irritability,  consider  vital 
energy  to  be  the  foundation  of  all  organic  processes. 
The  chief  representatives  of  Vitalism,  a  system  de- 
veloped especially  in  France  and  later  predominant  in 
Germany,  are:  Theophile  Bordeu  (1722-76),  Paul 
Joseph  Barthea  (1734-1806),  PhiUppe  Pinel  (1755- 
1826),  Johann  Friedrich  Blumenbach  (1752-1840), 
and  Johann  Christian  Reil  (1759-1813).  But,  while 
these  physicians  adhered  to  Hippocratism  in  practice 
and  (e.  g.  Reil)  were  eminently  active  in  developing 
anatomy  and  physiology,  the  same  may  not  be  said  of 
the  three  Germans,  Mesmer,  Hahnemann,  and  Rade- 
macher,  who  were  the  last  followera  of  Paracelsus. 
The  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism  (Mesmerism),  es- 
tablished by  Friedrich  Anton  Mesmer  (1734-1815),  is 
connected  with  Vitalism  in  so  far  as  Mesmer  presup- 
poses a  magnetic  power  to  exist  in  the  body,  and  ac- 
cordingly tries,  at  first  by  means  of  magnets  and  later 
by  touching  and  stroking  the  body,  to  effect  an  inter- 
change of  forces,  a  transfusion  or  cure.  Mesmer 
through  his  manipulations  very  likely  induced  real 
hypnotic  sleep  in  many  cases.  His  doctrine,  however, 
wmch  at  first  met  witn  a  sharp  rebuff  and  was  subse- 

auentlv  characterized  in  many  circles  as  a  fraud,  was 
egraded  by  his  immediate  followers  to  somnam- 
bulism and  clairvoyance,  and  in  later  times  it  became 
altogether  discredited  from  having  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  quacks.  Nevertheless,  mesmerism  forms  a 
basis  for  h^rpnotism,  which  in  1841  was  established  by 
James  Braid. 

Homaopathy,  founded  by  Samuel  Friedrich  Chris- 
tian Hahnemann^  seems  to  have  the  promise  of  a  long 
lease  of  life.  Hahnemann  regards  disease  as  a  dis- 
turbance of  vital  energy.  The  latter  in  itself  has  no 
power  to  heal,  for  a  cure  can  take  place  only  when  a 
similar  severer  disease  simultaneously  occurs.  The 
best  way  to  produce  such  a  disease  is  to  give  highly 
diluted  drugs  which  are  capable  of  producing  a  similar 
set  of  symptoms.  The  rest  of  this  "  drug-disease  "  is 
destroyed  by  the  vital  energy,  which  is  possible  only 
when  the  doses  are  smaU.  As  chief  principle,  there- 
fore, Hahnemann  sets  up  the  doctrine  that  Uke  cures 
like.  Since  he  denies  the  possibility  of  investigating 
the  nat\ire  of  disease,  and  completely  disregards  patho- 
logical anatomy,  it  is  necessary  to  know  all  simple 
drugs  which  produce  a  set  of  sjonptoms  similar  to 
those  of  the  existing  disease.  With  nis  pupils  Hahne- 
mann undertook  the  task  of  testing  the  effects  of  all 
simple  drugs,  but  the  result  of  this  gigantic  piece  of 
worK  could  not  be  absolutely  objective,  since  it  is 
based  upon  the  purely  subjective  feeling  of  the  experi- 
mentalists.   Never  before  had  a  physician  built  a 


system  upon  so  many  purely  arbitrary  hypothefles  as 
Hahnemann.  Paracelsus  also  had  declared  war  upon 
the  old  medicine,  and  had  attributed  little  value  to 
anatomical  and  physiological  investigation,  which, 
however,  was  still  in  its  initial  period  of  development; 
but,  with  his  reverence  for  Hippocrates,  he  neverthe- 
less ranks  higher  than  Hahnemann,  who  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  empiricism  and  the  aespiser  of  all  the 
positive  successes  which  medicine  haa  previously  at- 
tained. Hahnemann's  more  sensible  pupils  did  not 
foUow  their  master  blindly,  but  regarded  his  method 
as  that  which  under  the  most  favourable  circum- 
stances it  may  be,  viz.,  a  purely  therapeutical  method 
that  does  not  disregard  clinical  science.  To  this  ra- 
tional standpoint,  together  with  eclecticism,  homoe- 
opathy owes  its  long  life  and  wide  dissemination.  One 
service  of  physicians  of  this  school  is  that  they  simpli- 
fied prescriptions,  and  appreciatively  studied  obsolete, 
but  nevertheless  valuable  vegetable  drugs.  Hahne- 
mann's pupil.  Lux,  extended  homoeopathy  to  isother- 
apy,  which  in  modem  times  celebrated  its  renascence 
in  organotherapy.    Widely  removed  from  scientific 

Progress  was  tne  "empirical  medical  doctrine"  of 
ohann  Gottfried  Rademacher  (1772-1850),  which 
is  to-day  completely  discredited.  Starting  from  the 
doctrine  of  nostrums  of  Paracelsus,  he  names  the  dis- 
eases according  to  the  effective  drug  (e.  g.  nux-vomica 
stiy china,  liver  disease),  and  classifies  diseases  as 
universal  and  organic  in  accordance  with  universal 
and  organic  dru^B.  His  therapeutics  was  a  purely 
empirical  one,  uninfluenced  by  pathology  or  clinical 
diagnosis. 

Some  Special  Branches  of  Medicine  at  the  end 
OF  THE  Eighteenth  Century. — Obatetrica. — ^Down  to 
the  sixteenth  century  obstetrics  was  almost  exclusively 
in  the  hands  of  midwives,  who  were  trained  for  it  as 
for  a  trade.  Only  in  rare  cases  was  a  surgeon  called  in. 
All  the  achievements  of  ancient  times  seemed  for- 
gotten, and  it  was  only  after  anatomical  studies  had 
been  resumed  and  surgery  had  made  some  progress 
that  things  began  to  improve.  The  most  important 
accounts  of  the  condition  of  ancient  operative  obstet- 
rics are  found  in  the  Hippocratic  writings  (position  of 
the  child,  version  or  turning,  dismemberment  of  the 
foetus,  parturition  chair  for  facilitating  delivery),  and 
in  later  times  in  the  works  of  Soranus  of  Ephesus 
(second  centuiy  a.  d.;  protection  of  the  perinseum), 
Galen,  Celsus,  A^tius,  and  in  those  of  the  female  physi- 
cian Trotula  of  Salerno.  The  oldest  book  on  mid- 
wifery in  the  Middle  Ages  (Rosengarten)  was  written 
by  Eucharius  Rdslin  (d.  1526),  who,  in  addition  to 
numerous  drugs  assisting  delivery,  mentions  ''ver- 
sion". Version  was  put  into  practice  again  by 
Ambroise  Par^.  In  the  sixteenth  century  attempts 
were  made  to  perform  the  Csesarean  operation  on 
the  living  (Jakob  Nufer,  a  Swiss,  c.  1500);  in  an- 
cient times  it  was  done  only  after  the  death  of  the 
mother.  The  first  work  about  this  operation  was 
published  by  the  Paris  surgeon,  Francois  Rousset 
(1581).  In  the  domain  of  practical  obstetrics,  Giulio 
Casare  Aranzio  (1530-89)  was  the  first  to  point  out 
those  malformations  of  the  pelvis  which  exactly  indi- 
cated the  necessity  for  the  Csesarean  section.  Much 
was  done  to  extend  the  study  of  this  branch  of  medi- 
cine by  the  works  of  Jacques  Guillemeau  (1560-about 
1609),  Scipione  Mereurio  (1595,  German  translation 
by  Gottfried  Welsch,  1653),  Francois  Mauriceau 
(1637-1709),  investigators  on  eclampsia,  and  Philippe 
Peu  (1694).  Pierre  Dionis,  and  Guillaume  Manquest  de 
la  Motte  (1655-1737),  pelycologiste.  The  splendid 
development  of  obstetrics  in  France  explains  why  male 
assistance  was  more  and  more  sought  there,  especially 
after  Jules  Clement  had  been  called  in  1673  to  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV.  The  most  important  accoucheur 
in  the  Netherlands  was  Hendrik  van  Deventer  (1651- 
1724;  axis  of  the  pelvis,  placenta  pnevia,  asphyxia 
neonatorum).    In  Germany  Siegemundin,  the  most 


aoDioinx  135 

famous  German  midwife,  published  in  1690  a  text-  Ccmcave  glaaees  did  not  appear  until  the  Bixteenth 
book  baaed  upon  wide  experience  (Chur-Branden-    century. 

burgiscbe  HoS-Wehe-Mutter)-  The  foundations  for  further  progreat  in  ophthal* 

InthefirBthalfoftheseventeenthceDturyHuKhCham-  mology  were  laid  by  the  anatomists  and  physicists  of 
berien  invented  the  obstetrical  forcepa,  aelliDg  it  to  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  first  group  let  ua 
Dutch  physicians  about  1688.  Jean  Palfyn  of  Ghent  mention  the  works  of  Friedrich  Ruysch  (choroid),  van 
(1650-1730)  constructed  independently  a  similar  Leeuwenhoek  (Ipna)  Heinrich  Meibom  (1678-1740; 
instrument  (Main  de  Falfyn),  which  he  submitted  to  glands  of  theeye-lids),  and  Stenon  (lachrymal appara- 
the  Paris  Academy  about  1723.  After  various  im-  tus).  Investigations  of  physicists  were  of  great  im- 
provements by  Loreni  Heister,  Dubb^^  and  Gr£goire,  portance,  especially  those  of  the  two  astronomera, 
the  forceps  passed  into  general  practice.  The  most  JohannKeppIer  (1571-1630)  and  the  Jesuit  Christoph 
important  MCOUcbeura  ct  the  eighteenth  century  were:  Scheiner  (1576-1659),  concerning  accommodation. 
in  France,  Andrd  Levret  (170£^17gO;  inclination  of  refraction  of  light,  ajid  the  retinal  image;  Rent 
the  pelvis,  forceps,  combined  examination),  Fraii<;oia  Descartes  (1G96-1650;  comparison  of  the  eye  with  the 
Louis  Joseph  Solayi^  de  Reahac  (1737-72;  mecluin-  camem  obtcura,  aceommodatian);  Edmund  Harriott 
ismof  delivery),  Jean  Louis  Baudelooque  (1746-1810;  (d.  1684;  blind  spot,  choroid);  Isaac  Newton  (1642- 
pelvimetry),  opponent  of  artificial  premature  deliveiy  1727;  dispersion  of  light  and  origin  of  colours).  In 
and  qmphyseotom^;  in  England,  Fielding  Ould  theeighteenth  century,  besides  anatomy  and  physiol- 
(1710-89;  mechanism  (rf  delivery^  perfontaoa),  ogy,  the  practical  side  of  ophthalmology  was  alsoculti- 
WilliamSmelUe  (1697-1763-  mechanism  of  delivery,  vated.  AmonganatomistswereWinslow,  Petit,  Zinn, 
use  (rf  forceps,  pelvimetry),  William  Hunter  (1718-93),  Demours  (cornea  and  sclerotic) '  Buzzi  and  SOmmering 
opponent  of  the  forceps  and  the  (retina);  La  Hire,  J.  H.  Hoin,  Cam- 

-"--    "'     -       "-  per,  and  Reil  (lens).    The  theory  of 

the  sensibility  of  the  retina  to  light, 
established  by  Haller,  was  further 
developed  by  Porleriield  and  Thomas 
Young  (1773-1829).  The  latter  also 
described  astigmatism  and  colour- 
bUndness,  and  discovered  that  ac- 
commodation depended  upon  a 
change  in  the  sliape  of  the  lens. 
Boerhave  was  the  first  to  ^ve  cUnical 
lectures  on  ophthalmology.  From 
him  we  have  the  exact  definition  of 
myopia  and  presbyopia.  Gray  cata- 
ract (caiar<u:ta)  was  first  located  in 
the  lens  b^  Francois  Quarrd  and 
Rem!  Lasmer,  a  view  which  was  cor- 
roborBted  by  the  anatomist,  Wer- 
ner Rolfink  (1699-1673).  Fmn-ioia 
Pourfour  du  Petit  (1644-1741), 
wiviai   wtnD  iiuui.uiAni,  /ii   m^  &•  Loreus    Heistcr,    and    otlieis    also 

Strssburg    (Johann    Jakob    Fried,  BaaoH  Kaml  ton  RonrAKixr         worked  on  cataract.     Jacques  Da- 

1689-1769),     in     1751     at  Berlin  tl80*-i878)  viel(1896-1762)  performed  the  first 

rJohann  Friedrich  Meckel,  1724-74)  and  GOttingen  operation  for  extraction  of  a  cataract  in  1745.  Of 
(Johann  Georg  R&derer,  d.  1763),  and  In  1754  at  other  practitioners  we  must  mention:  Brisseau 
Vienna  (Johann  Nep.  Grants,  1756;  Valentin  von  (theory  of  glaucoma),  William  Cheselden  (1668-1752; 
Ubmacher,  1797;  _  Raphael  Steidele  1816).  While  artificial  pupil)  Baron  Wenxel  the  elder  (1780;  iri- 
the  Parisian  midwives  belonged  to  the  CoUdge  de  8.  dectomy),  Charles  de  St.  Yves  (ablatio  retins,  astho- 
C6meaaearly  as  1560  and  received  a  methodical  train-  nopia,  stapl^loma,  strabismus),  John  Taylor  (1708- 
ing,  those  in  Germany  could  receive  only  private  in-  60;  operation  to  correct  oblique  vision,  ceratoconus), 
struction.  Examination  by  physicians  is  mentioned  Dominique  Anel  (cathederism  of  the  lachrymal  fistula, 
at  Ratisbnn  since  1555  and  at  Vienna  since  1642.  1713),   G,   E.   Stahl,   Boerhave,   Jonathan  Wathen, 

OphUtaijnoligy  gained  importance  much  later  than  LorenzHeister,JohannZacharia8platner(1601~1747), 
obstetrics.  In  addition  to  inflammation  of  the  eye  and  August  Gottlob  Richter  (studies  on  the  lachrymal 
and  operations  on  the  eyelid,  the  Hippocratic  writings     fistula). 

mention  amblyopia,  nyctalopia,  and  glaucoma.  Gel-  PBAsuACEimcB,  Mineral  Waters,  Cold  Watsr 
sus  describes  an  operation  for  cataract  (sclerotico-  Cttrbs. — Pharmacy  had  renuuned  the  most  backward 
nyxis).   Galen  gives  us  the  beginnings  of  physiological     of  alt  the  branches  of  medicine,  for  it  was  longest  un- 

Sitics.  The  sUght  ophthalmological  knowledge  of  the  der  the  influence  of  the  Arabs.  A  large  part  of  the 
reeks  was  borrowed  by  the  Arabs,  but  tl^ir  lack  drugs  came  from  the  Orient  to  Venice  and  Flemish 
of  anatomical  knowledge  prevented  all  progress.  No  harbours.  Besides  simple  drugs  there  were  also  a 
improvement  set  in  until  after  the  rise  of  anatomy  great  many  compound  remedies.  But,  in  the  latter 
under  Vesalius.  Formerly,  this  branch  Iiad  been  class,  there  wivs  great  confusion  resulting  from  the 
almost  completely  in  the  l^ds  of  travelling  physi-  man^  adulterations,  and  from  the  fact  that  not  only 
daua  (cataiaet  operators),  but  henceforth  surgeons  did  individual  authors  give  different  compositions  for 
with  a  fixed  abode  (e.  g,  Ambroise  Par^,  Jacques  the  same  remedy,  but  also  under  the  same  name  an 
Guillemeau)  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  it.  In  entirely  different  preparation  was  understood  bv- 
Germany  Georg  Bartisch  (about  1535-1606),  "Court  different  authors.  The  most  famous  panacea,  which 
eye  specialist"  at  Dresden,  wrote  the  first  mono-  datedfromRomanimperial  times  and  was  useJ  as  late 
graph,  a  work  very  highly  valued  even  in  later  days,  as  the  eighteenth  century^  was  theriac,  a  mixture  con- 
Among  other  things  he  mentions  spectacles  for  cunng  sisting  of  numerous  ingredients,  among  them  being  the 
squint,  eye-glassea  and,  among  operations,  is  the  flesh  of  vipers.  This  composition  originally  cams 
first  to  describe  extirpation  of  the  pupil.  The  in-  from  the  Orient,  but  was  made  later  at  Venice,  Augs- 
vention  of  convex  spectacles  is  by  some  attributed  burg,  and  Vienna.  To  get  some  order  into  the  treas- 
to  the  Dominican  Alexander  da  Spina  (d.  1313),  by  ury  of  drugs  and  to  enable  apothecaries  to  compound 
«then  to  SaJvino  degli  Armati  erf  Florence  (d.  1317),    their  remedies,  the  college  v£  physicians  in  Florenoa 


,, ,  Thomas  Den- 
man  (1733-1815),  the  first  to  recom- 
mend artificial  premature  delivery, 
and  William  Osbom  (1732-1808), 
opponent  of  symphyseotomy  and  of 
the  Gesaiean  section.  The  well- 
founded  doubts  which  in  preaseptio 
tiroes  many  accoucheurs  entertained 
concerning  the  Ciesarean  operation, 
led  to  so-called  symphyseotomy  (Jean 
Reng  Siegualt,  1768)  which  by  wid- 
ening tlie  pelvis  would  permit  deliv- 
ery of  the  tiEtus.  Tills  operation, 
which  from  the  very  outset  met 
with  vigorous  opposition  in  Eng- 
land, is  now  forgotten.  The  in- 
troduction of  scientific  obstetrics  in 
Germanic  countries  was  compara- 
tively late.  Special  schools  for  mid- 
I  were  instituted,  ;n  1728  at 


MEDIGINB                              136  MSDIGINB 

published   a  phannacoiXBia  (Rioeptario)  in    1498.  SigismundHahn  (106^1742),  who  in  1737  madeezton- 

The  oldest  work  of  this  kind  in  Germany  was  written  sive  experiments  during  an  epidemic  of  petechial  fever 

by  Valerius  Cordus,  a  Nuremberg  ^^dan  (Dispen-  in  Breslau,  mav  be  regarded  as  the  f  oimaeis  of  the  cold 

satoriuxn.  1546) ;  then  followed  the  JDispensatorium  of  water  cure.    The  work  of  John  Sigismund  (Unterricht 

Adolph  Occo  in  1564,  written  at  the  request  of  the  city  von  der  Kraft  und  Wirkung  des  ludten  Wassers)  is  the 

of  Augsburg,  the  Dispensatorium  of  Cologne  in  1565,  best  known,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  modem  hy- 

and  finally  in  1572  a  similar  work  in  Vienna,  which,  drotherapeutics.    Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 

however,  was  not  printed.    Not  until  1618  did  Vienna  century  Johann  Dietrich  Brandis  obtained  good  re- 

reoeive  a  dispensatorium  prepared  from  that  of  Augs-  suits  in  the  treatment  of  febrile  diseases  by  means  of 

burg,  which  had  become  a  model  for  aU  Germany.  tepid  lotions.    The  subsequent  development  of  hydro- 

The  Oriental  trade  in  drugs  was  greatly  facilitated  therapeutics  was  lar^l^r  influenced  by  the  results  ob- 

bv  the  discovery  of  the  sea  route  to  the  East  Indies,  tainecl  by  William  Wright  (1736-1819),  and  Jamee 

Uninfluenced  by  exotic  remedies  of  scholastic  medi-  Currie  (1756-1805)  in  the  epidemics  of  petechial  fever 

dne,  popular  medicine  offered  poor  people,  in  addition  in  the  years  1787-92. 

to  repulsive  and  superstitious  remedies,  a  series  of  Vaccination.    Edwabd   Jennbb. — ^Even   in   the 

valuable  remedies  derived  from  native  plants  and  oldest  times  people  seem  to  have  possessed  an  effident 

minerals.    A  long-known  and  popular  remedy  for  preservative  against  one  of  the  most  destructive  epi- 

eyphilia  was  mercury,  introduced  into  scientific  thera-  demies,  smallpox  (variola).    From  remote  antiqmty 

peutics  by  Paracelsus.    To  his  adherents  we  are  in-  the  Brahmins  of  Hindustan  are  said  to  have  trans- 

debted  for  the  use  of  preparations  of  antimony  and  ar-  ferred  the  smallpox  poison  (secretion  of  the  pustules) 

senic,  a  popular  remedy  for  skin  diseases  since  andent  to  healthy  persons  by  incising  the  skin  with  tbe  object 

times.    The  first-mentioned  preparations  gave  rise  to  of  protecting  them  against  further  infection  by  caua- 

a  violent  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  Paris  faculty,  ing  a  local  illness.    In  China  people  stopped  up  their 

which  opposed  every  form  of  progress.    Gualac  wood,  noses  with  the  incrustations  of  smallpox.    A  peculiar 

regardea  as  a  spedfic  remedy  for  syphilis,  was  brought  transfer  with  a  needle  (inoculation)  was  in  use  among 

from  America  in  the  sixteenth  century.    The  most  the  Circassians  and  Georgians.    This  so-called  Greek 

important  drugs  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  cen-  method  became  generally  known  in  Constantinople  to- 

tury  were  ipecacuanha  and  Peruvian  bark.    The  lat-  wards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centur)^  and  was 

ter,  coming  from  Peru,  became  known  in  Europe  be-  introduced  into  England  by  Lady  Wortlev  Montague, 

tween  1630  and  1640.    No  remedy  has  had  such  a  wife  of  the  English  ambassador,  who  had  had  her  own 

benefidal  effect,  but  none  has  met  with  such  oppod-  son  successfully  vaccinated  in  1717.    Despite  the  loud 

tion  on  the  part  of  manv  phyddans  as  this,  because  approval  of  the  court  and  aristocracy^  inoculation  met 

its  effect  (reduction  of  tever  without  subsequent  with  violent  redstance  from  the  physicians  and  dergy. 

intestinal  evacuation)  was  a  direct  contradiction  of  Carelessness,  quackery,  and  its  ill-repute  caused  the 

Galenic  doctrine.    Peruvian  bark  was   introduced  method  to  oe  forgotten,  until  in  1746  Bishop  Isaac 

generally  into  therapeutics  only  siter  a  long  struggle,  Bladdox  of  Worcester,  by  popular  teaching  and  the 

prindpculv^  because  important  men  like  Sydenhun  establishment  of  institutions  for  inoculation,  once 

advocated  it.    The  latter  as  well  as  the  Leyden  school  more  proclaimed  its  value.     Among  phvdcians  who 

under  Boerhave  discontinued  to  a  large  extent  the  old  favoured  inoculation  were   Richard    Mead    (167^ 

Arab  drugs,  preferring  in  general  dmple  remedies  with  1754),  Robert  and  Daniel  Sutton  (1760, 1767),  Tho- 

a  corresponding  dietetic  treatment.    Beddes  the  im-  mas  Dinsdale  (1767),  Theodore  Tronchin  (1709-1781), 

provement  in  lead  preparations  by  Thomas  Goulard  and  Haller.    In  Austria  it  was  introduced  by  van 

(1750;  aqua  Gotikardi),  we  may  mention  the  pharma-  Swieten,  at  whose  suggestion  Maria  Theresa,  in  1768, 

cological  investigations  of  comium,  aconite,  stramo-  called  to  Vienna  the  uimous  naturalist   Jan  Ingen- 

nium,  etc.,  by  Anton  St6rck  (1731-1803),  in  Vienna.  Housz  (1730-99),  in  spite  of  the  oppodtion  of  the 

ELahnemann's  services  in  investigating  native  medid-  clinical  professor  de  Haen.    In  the  meantime  another 

nalplants have  been previoudy  mentioned.  opponent  of  inoculation  appeared.    In  countries  de- 

Tne  impulse  to  study  mineral  springs  was  in  modem  voted  to  cattle-raising  it  was  observed  that  those  who 
times  given  by  Paracelsus.  Tne  majority  of  the  came  in  contact  with  cows  suffering  from  smaUpox 
modem  European  watering  places  of  world-wide  fame  frequently  fell  dck  and  had  pustules  on  their  fingers, 
were  already  known  to  the  Romans,  but  their  curative  but  such  persons  were  immune  against  the  human 
properties  were  too  little  valued  during  the  Middle  smallpox.  This  indted  the  phyddan  Edward  Jenner 
Ages.  Pecrus  de  Tussignana  wrote,  about  1336,  con-  (1749-1823)  to  further  experimentation,  which  he 
oeming  the  famous  thermie  of  Bormio;  Giacomode  continued  for  twenty  years.  On  14  May,  1796,  he 
Dondi  in  1340  about  Abano;  the  Vienna  phyddan,  performed  his  first  inoculation  with  the  lymph  of  cow- 
Wolfgang  Windberger  (Anemorinus),  in  1511,  about  pox  (vaccination),  an  experiment  of  worid-wide  im- 
the  sulphur  springs  at  Baden  near  Vienna;  Paracelsus  portance.  Jenner's  discovery  was  everywhere  received 
about  Pf&fers.  St.  Merits  in  the  Engadine.  Teplits.  with  enthusiastic  approval.  The  first  vaccinations 
Karlsbad  in  Bohemia  was  much  frequentea  towards  on  the  continent  were  performed  at  Vienna  by  Jean  de 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  as  were  Vichy  and  Caro  in  1799,  and  bv  his  contemporaries  Alois  Careno 
Plombi^res.  Helmont,  who  was  tne  first  to  prove  the  (d.  1811)  and  Paschalis  Joseph  von  Ferro  (d.  1809); 
existence  of  carbonic  add  and  of  fixed  alkahes,  wrote  in  German]^,  by  Georg  Friednch  Ballhom  (1772-1805) 
about  Spa.  Highly  meritorious  also  was  the  work  in  and  Christian  Friedrich  Stromeyer  (1761-1824);  in 
this  field  of  Johann  Phillip  Seip  (Pyrmont)  and  of  France,  by  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt.  Protective  in- 
Friedrich  Hoffmann,  who  wrote  about  Spa,  Selters,  oculation  with  vaccine  has  been  introduced  into  al- 
Schwalbach.  and  Karlsbad,  and  taught  the  prepara-  most  every  dvilized  state  in  the  course  of  the  nine- 
tion  of  Seialitz  salt  (Bittersalz),  artificial  lutrlsbad,  teenth  century,  partly  from  free  choice  and  partly  by 
and  of  artificial  mineral  waters.  laws  enf  ordng  compulsory  vaccination. 

Cold-water  cures  were  introduced  in  andent  Rome  Medicine  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. — The 

for  the  first  time  by  Asclepiades,  but  they  were  soon  powerful  political  podtion  of  France  in  the  first  thirty 

forgotten.   In  sporadic  cases  cold  water  was  employed  years  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy  finds  medidne  in  an 

therapeuticaUy  m  later  times,  e.  g.  by  Rhazes  for  small-  especially  high  state  of  development  in  that  country, 

pox,  oy  Edward  Baynard  in  1555  against  the  plague,  After  this  period  followed  the  golden  period  of  the 

oy  John  Floyer  (1640-1734)  for  mania,  and  by  sev-  Vienna  school  and,  in  a  wider  sense,  of  Uerman  medi- 

eral  others.    Cold  water  was  not  used  systematically  dne.    The  development  of  modem  medicine  is  ths 

imtil  the  dghteenth  century.     The  brothers  Johann  work  of  all  dvilised  nations;  yet  all  will  regard  Ru- 

Sigismund  and  Johann  Gottfried,  and  their  father  dolf  Virdiow  unqualifiedly  as  the  chief  worker.    Not 


to  enenwoh  upon  thn  domain  of  the  special  artidei^  Kail  Langer  (I8I9-87_;  mechamsm  of  the  joSataY 
let  us  sununariae  in  a  Few  brief  vords  the  moat  iin<  Karl  Tokit  fb.  1840;  histoloKy,  anthropoiiietry),_  and 
portant  BchievemeQto  <d  recent  tiniea;  is  anatomy,  Karl  Wedl  (1815-91;  noniiAl  and  pathological  histol* 
theory  of  tissue* — Bicbat;  in  patboloKical  anatomy  ogy)  are  otberB  of  this  Bchool.  The  professors  at 
and  pathology  cellular  patAology — Virenowiinphysi-  present  teaching  this  subject  in  the  Austrian  univer- 
ology— Johannes  Mailer;  In  practical  medicine,  aua-  mties  still  belong  chiefly  to  the  school  of  Hyrtl-Langer. 
cultation — Laennec,  Skoda;  in  surser;,  treatment  of  In  North  Amenca  anatomy  was  cultivated  eapecially 
wounda — Joseph  Lister;  naroosis — Jackson,  Simpson;  in  Philttdelphia,  where,  bemdes  the  school  founded  in 
obstetrics,  cause  of  puerperal  fevei^-Senmtelweiss;  1764,  there  existed  from  1820  to  1875  a  private  insU- 
in  ophthalmolo^ — AJbreeht  von  Gr&fe  and  (specu-  tutioii  established  by  John  Balentine  O'Brien  Lsw- 
lum  oculi)  Helinholts;  in  bacteriology  and  serother-  renoe  (d.  1S23),  "The  Philadelphia  School  of  Anat- 
ap^— Pasteur,  Koch,  and  Behiing.  The  subject  (ri'  omy".  In  1775  Japan  became  acquainted  for  the 
skia  diseases  was  most  ingeniously,  elaborated  by  &ist  time  with  the  anatomical  knowledge  of  Eun^ 
Ferdinand  Hebra.  throughatranalationof aworitby theGerman Johann 

Oenerai  Anatomy. — A  splendid  ba^  for  the  further  Adam  Kulmus  which  had  appeared  in  1726.  A  dili- 
development  <tf  modem  medicine  was  laid  by  Haiie  gent  study  of  anstomjr  and  ot  medicine  in  general  b»> 
Pnmi^  Xavier  Bichat  (1771-1802),  through  bis  in-  gan  when  the  University  of  Tokio  was  established  in 
vesti^tion  of  the  vital  qualities  of  tissues.     What     1871. 

Haller  had  tried  to  do  for  the  muscles,  Bicbat  at-  PoMoIo^ieal  AruUotrm  was  placed  upon  a  new  ba<ds 
tempted  to  accomplish  for  all  the  tissues  ot  the  body,  by  Bichat's  theory  of  the  tissues,  and  it  was  later. 
Bichat  was  the  first  to  promulgate  the  idea  that  each  greatly  advanced  by  physiolo^,  physiological  cbemis- 
tissue  might  by  itself  become  dis-  _ try,  and  by  improved  means  of  in- 
cased, and  that  the  svmptoms  of  veistigstion  (co '      * 

diseased  organs  depend  upon  tissue  

changes.  Gilbert  Bteschet  (1784- 
1845)  worked  on  the  lympathic  ves- 
sels and  the  histoiy  of  development, 
and  Isidore  GeoSrey  Saint-Uilaire 
(1772-1884)  on  comparative  anat- 
omy.  Of  Italian  and  Englishanato- 
mists  are  to  be  mentioned:  Paolo 
Haacagni  (1752-1815;  lymphatic 
vessels,  comparative  anatomy),  An- 
tonio Scarpa  (1747-1832;  structure 
of  the  bones,  organs  of  senae);  the 
brothers  John  and  Charles  B^,  the 
latter  (1774-1842)  known  also  as  a 
physiolonat  (brain,  nerves);  and 
Robert  Knox  (1793-1862;  compar- 
ative anatomy).  Germany  perforioed 
the  greatest  servioes  in  periecting 
anatomy  and  allied  branches.     The 


objective   __ 

The  increased  attention,  which  cfini- 
cal  physicians  bestowed  on  this  sub> 
ject,  exenused  no  small  Influence  on 
it«  progress.  Among  these  must  be 
especially  mentioned  LaCnnec,  who 
defined  tuberculosis  and  studied 
the  pathological  anatomv  of  lung 
diseases,  especially  of  phtnisia.  Nu- 
merous though  the  able  investigators 
were  who  performed  meritorious 
services  in  perfecting  this  branch, 
the  development  of  modem  patho- 
logical anatomy  will  forever  be  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  naraea  of 
the  pioneers,  Rokitansky  and  Vir- 
chow.  The  first  pathological  prosee- 
torship  at  Vienna  was  held  by  Aids 
Rudolph  Vetterfrom  1796  to  1803, 


ktomvan 

firet  to  DO  named  in  this  oonnexion                    Jmetb  Htsti.                    well  known  as  the  author  of  the  first 

la  Tbeodor  Schwann  (1810-82),  the                      (i8ii-ibm)  German  work  od  pathological  anat- 

discoveier  of  the  cell  as  the   fundamental  element  omv.   In  1832,  afterthedeath  of  Joseph  Wagner,  Karl 

of  the  body  of  plante  and  »ninT.l»      Johann  Ev.  Rokitansky  (1804-78;  later Freiherrvon)  becamepro- 

Purkynje  (1787-1869)  worked  along  the  same  lines,  sector  and  professor.    He  was  educated  in  the  viewa 

and  Rudolph  Albert  KoUiker  (b.  1817;   pensioned  of  Jobonn   Friedrich  Meckel    (1781-1833),  Johann 

1901)  foUowed   close  in  their  wake.     Work  in  com-  Georg   Christian   Freidrich   Martin   Lolstein    (1777- 

Birative  anatomy  was  done   by   Johann    Friedrich  1835),   but  particularly  of  Gabriel  Andral  of  Paris 

iumenbach  (1752-1840).  Ignas  Blumenbach  (1752-  (1797-1876),  a   leading   represenUtive   of  humoial 

1850),   Ignas   DOllinger   (1770-1841)     Kari  Asmund  pathology.     Rokitanaky's  training  was   thus   based 

Rudotphi  (1771-1332),  and  Johann  Friedrich  Meckel  upon  the  French  school,  but  he  subsequently  brought 

(1781-1633).      Friedrich  Gustav  Jakob  Henle  (1809-  about  a  still  closer  connexion  between  anatomical  and 

85),  and  Wilhelm   Menke  (1834-96)  were  pmminent  physical  diagnostics.     His  endeavour  to  become  ao- 

teacbers  of  ^neral   anatomy  and  histclo^;  Fried-  quainted  with  the  entire  course  of  development  of 

rich  Tiedemann  (1781-1861)  was  an  eminent  brain  patholo^cal   changes  was   greatly   assistea   by   the 

anatomist,   wlule  Nikolaus  ROdinger   (1832-96;  in-  valuable  material  for  dissecting  which  the  metropolis 

iection  of  carbolic   for  the   preservation  of  corpses  afTorded.     Hia  excellence  is  seen  in  his  descriptions  of 

in  the  dissecting  room),  Friedrich  Sigmund    Merkel  pathological  changes;  be  replaced  the  previous  symp- 

(b.  1845;  topographical  anatomy),  and  Wilhelm  His  tomatic  pictures  of  disease  by  creating  an  anatomit^ 

(b.  1831;  history  of  development),  must  also  be  men-  patholofo'  and  anatomical  types  of  disease.    He  was 

tioned.  not  so  successful  in  establishing  hia  doctrine  of  crasis 

Following  the  reform  of  studies  under  von  Swieten  based  upon  humoral  pathology,  and  j  ust  here  Vir- 

in  1749,  anatomv  was  cultivated  in  Vienna  more  than  chow's  fruitful  activity  begins, 

ever  before.    The  more  imjwrtant  men  were  Lorens  Rudolf  Virchow  (1821-1902),  professor  in  Berlin 

Gasser  (professor  1767-65;  trigeminus),  Joseph  Barth  and  a  pupil  of  Johannes  Mullcr  and  Johann  Lucas 

(technique  of  iniection),  George  Prochaska  (1749-  SchOnlein,  early  became  octfuainted  with  the  cellular 

1820;  muscle  and  nerves),  Frani  Jvseph  Gall  (175S-  doctrine    of   Schwann.     Virchow  is   the   creator   of 

1828),  the  weD-known  phrenologist  and  founder  of  cellular  pathology,  which  toniay  is  universally  recog* 

the  theory  of  cerebral  localisation,  and  Joseph  Berres  nJKd,  a  pathology  based  strictiy  upon  natural  science 

■"-96-1844;  t  ■  .      ™     .-      r  ,^ 

modem  an 

^_.ed  Joseph     _   .    .  _.  , , _ 

and   corraaon,   organ  of  hearing,   comparative  and  which  iDcreaseb^  fission  (irmnuMUWasceUuIa).     He 

topographical  anatomy),  known  as  a  pre-eminent  applied  hisdoctnne  to  the  voriaus  tissues,  and  showed 

teaeher,  investigator,  and  a  man  of  noble  character,  their  behaviour  under  normal  and  abnormal  condi- 


__  , .    __  nised,  a  pathology  based  strictiy  uponru 

(1796-1844;  microsconic  anatomy).     The  founder  of  which  definitively  extinguished  Hjppocratic  specula- 

the  noodem  anatomical  school  of  Vienna  was  the  highly  tive  kumot&l  pathology.    Atxording  to  Virchow,  there 

gifted  Josn)h  HyrtI  (1811-94;  technique  of  injection  is  life  in  the  smallest  units  of  the  body,  in  the  cells 


dnns  of  life.    Oiseases  thxiF  reprMent  a  reftotton  of  BU(xe0B(tetainifl»  plague,  obolera,  snake  poiaoa).    TgI- 

lilie  tfum  of  the  oelk  wlucti  term  the  bodv  against  lowing  Jenner's  method  of  producing  immunity  by 

dannful  influences,  the  causes  of  diseases.    Virchow's  means  of  living,  weakened  causes  of  infection,  Pasteur 

chief  work   ''Die   Cellularpathologie"   appeared   in  (1885)  found  a  protection  against  lyssa,  while  Half- 

1858.     Greater  attention  was  now  paid  not  alone  to  kine  made  experiments  in  1895  to  combat  cholera  with 

pathological  anatomy,  but  to  its  sister  sciences,  patho-  killed  germs,  and  in  1897  similar  experiments  with  the 

lo^cal  diemistry.  experimental  pathology,  and  bao-  plague.    From  1891  dates  Koch's  experimentation 

teriology.    The  cnief  representatives  of  experimental  with  extracts  of  bacteria  against  tuberculosis.    By 

pathology  were:  in  France,  Claude  Bernard  (181^78).  means  of  preparations  of  pure  bacteriarcultures,  nuide 

Charles    Edouard    Brown-S6quard    (1818-95),    ana  according  to  Koch's  method,  it  became  possible  to 

Etienne  Jules  Marey  (b.  1830) ;  in  Germany,  Ludwig  devise  exact  methods  for  destroying  bacteria.     In 

Traube    (1818-76),    Kudolph   Virchow,    and    Julius  the  field  of  the  modem  theory  of  disinfection,  Koch 

Cohnheim  (1839-84) ;  in  Vienna,  Salomon  Striker  (d.  also  worked  as  a  pioneer,  not  only  in  precisely  defining 

1898)  and  Philip  KnoU  (1841-1900).    Experiments  the  difference  between  prevention  of  development  and 

on  animals  are  extensively  made  to-day  in  this  field  of  the  killing  of  bacteria,  out  also  by  subjecting  physical 

investigation.  and  chemical  disinfectants  to  new  tests.    The  modem 

Bacteriolomff  Theory  of  Immunity,  Serotherajn/,  Dig-  steam  sterilizers  are  based  upon  the  discovery  of 
infection. — ^The  first  to  suspect  that  living  beings  in-  Koch  that  steam  under  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the 
vade  the  organism  and  exist  in  the  blood  and  pus  was  atmosphere  is  sufficient  to  kill  even  resistant  lasting 
the  learned  Jesuit  Athanasius  Klrcher  (1671),  although  forms.  He  pointed  out  the  ineffectiveness  of  alcohol, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  "  little  worms''  observed  by  glycerine,  and  other  substances  upon  the  spores  of  an- 
him  were  really  blood-corpuscles.  With  the  help  of  tluax,  and  the  diminished  effect  of  carbolic  add  in  an 
his  improved  microscope  Leeuwenhoek  discovered  a  oily  or  alcoholic  solution.  Von  Behring's  experiments 
number  of  bacteria.  Ilie  idea  that  infectious  diseases  showed  a  diminution  of  power  of  some  disinfectants  in 
were  caused  by  a  living  contagion  invading  the  body  the  presence  of  albumen,  concerning  which  Kr6nig 
from  without  was  first  expressed  in  1762  by  the  and  Paul  made  a  special  study. 
Vienna  physician  Markus  Antonius  Plencis  (d.  1786).  Physiology  is  indebted  for  its  perfection  to  the  prog- 
Otto  Fnednich  Mailer,  in  1786.  was  the  first  to  doubt  ress  of  minute  anatomy  (doctrine  of  tissues)  to  the 
that  the  microscopical  living  beings,  then  comprised  improved  means  of  investigation  (microscope,  chemi- 
under  the  name  of  infusoria,  really  belonged  to  the  cal  and  physical  apparatus),  but  especiaUy  to  the 
animal  kingdom.  In  1838.  Christian  Gottfried  Ehren-  fact  that  experiments  on  animals  (vivisection)  were 
berg  gave  a  description  ot  the  finer  structure  of  the  once  more  extensively  made.  The  principal  ohysiolo- 
*'  infusoria  ",  but  it  was  Ferdinand  Cohn,  who  in  1854  gists  of  the  past  century  were  in  France  and  Germany, 
first  ascertained  with  certainty  that  bacteria  belonged  Francois  BAagendie  (1783-1855),  opposing  Bichat 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  From  the  studies  that  (vitalism),  maintained  that  there  is  no  uniform  vital 
were  now  made  concerning  the  vital  qualities  of  these  energy,  and  that  the  vital  qualities  of  the  different 
infinitesimal  living  beings  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  organs  are  to  be  explained  upon  a  phjrsical  and  chemi- 
Louis  Pasteur  (1822-95)  definitely  settled  the  contro-  cal  basis  and  by  means  of  experiments.  His  investi- 
versv  about  spontaneous  generation  {generalio  CBqui'  gations  in  hemodynamics  and  the  functions  of  the 
voca).  and  proved  the  materialistic  view  to  be  without  nervous  sjrstem  (roots  of  the  spinal  column),  in  which 
foundation.  What  Plencis  had  only  suspected  was  he  supplemented  the  work  oi  Charles  Bell  (Law  of 
now  clearly  formulated  by  Henle,  who  defined  the  con-  Bell-Magendie)  are  very  important.  Marie  Jean 
ditions  under  which  bacteria  are  to  be  regarded  as  Pierre  Flourens  (1794-1867)  is  known  by  his  studies  in 
direct  causes  of  disease.  The  untiring  activity  of  disturbances  of  co-ordination,  nutrition  of  the  bones, 
Robert  Koch  (d.  1910)  from  about  1878  succeeded  and  localisation  of  the  centre  of  respiration  in  the 
in  bringing  bacteriology  to  such  a  state  of  develop-  medulla  oblongata,  and  Francois  Achille  Longet 
ment  that  it  could  be  made  of  service  to  practical  (1811-71)  by  his  work  on  the  functions  of  the  anterior 
medicine.  Apart  from  ascertaining  the  bacterial  and  posterior  columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  the  innerva- 
origin  of  cholera  and  tubereulosis,  Koch's  greatest  tion  of  the  larynx,  the  nerves  of  the  brain,  and  the  law 
achievements  are  the  improvement  of  the  microscope  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles.  The  most  famous 
(Abb^,  Zeis),  the  method  of  colouration  and  pure  French  physiologist,  a  pioneer  in  the  field  of  ph^siolog- 
cultures.  ical  chemistry,  is  Claude  Bernard  (glycogemc  func> 

Jenner's  success  with  the  lymph  of  cowpox,  a  tion  of  the  liver,  the  consumption  of  glycogen  through 

weakened  poison  as  a  protection  against  a  full  poison,  work  of  the  muscles,  the  discovery  oi  vascular  nerves, 

as  weU  as  the  old  experience  that  those  who  had  once  the  chemistiy  of  the  bile  and  the  urine,  theory  of 

recovered  from  an  infectious  disease  usually  became  diabetes  melhtus,  assimiliation  of  sugar,  atrophy  of  the 

immune  from  new  infection,  led  savants  to  look  for  pancreas,  the  power  of  the  pancreatic  juice  to  digest 

the  cause  of  the  phenomena.    In  1880  Pasteur,  on  the  albumen,  and  the  theory  of  animal  heat).    The  physi- 

basis  of  his  experiments  concerning  chicken  cholera,  ology  of  the  ciroulation  was  elaborated  by  Etienne 

looked  for  the  cause  in  the  exhaustion  of  the  nutritive  Jules  Marey  (b.  1830;  blood  pressure,  mechanism  of 

material  necessary  for  the  bacteria  in  the  body  (theory  the  heart,  and  the  invention  of  the  ^hyginograph). 

of  exhaustion),  while  Chauveau  believed  in  a  residue  The  relation  of  muscles  and  nerves  to  electricity  was 

of  metabolic  products  which  prevented  a  new  settle-  studied  by  Guillaume  Benjamin  Duchenne  (1806-75), 

ment  of  bacteria  or  new  infection  (retention  theory),  while  Cluu'les  Edouard  Brown-S^uard  (1818-94),  the 

The  investigation  of  Metschnikoff,  and  in  1889  of  foimder  of  modem  organo-therapeutics,  investigated 

Buchner,   advanced  the  idea  that  blood-serum  pos-  the  reflex  irritability  of  the  spinal  coitl,  the  blood, 

sesses  a  certain  hostility  to  bacteria.    In  1890  Von  respiration,  and  animal  heat.     In  Great  Britain  were 

Behring  proved  that  the  blood-semm  of  animals  Marshall  Hall  (1780-1857;   theory  of  reflex  action), 

which  has  been  made  immune  against  diphtheria,  if  in-  William  Bowman  (1816-92;  structure  of  the  striated 

jected  into  another  animal,  would  make  the  latter  also  muscles,  and  theory  of  the  secretion  ot  urine),  Alfred 

immime  against  diphtheria.    That  element  in  the  Henry  Garrod  (1846-79;  sphygmography,  physics  of 

serum  hostile  to  bacteria  he  called  antitoxin.    The  the  nerves),  Augustus  Volney  Waller  (1816-70;  dia- 

introduction  of  antitoxin  into  the  therapeutics  of  pedesis  of  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood,    studies 

diphtheria  in  1892  was  so  far  the  greatest  practical  sue-  on  nerve-fibres  and  ganglia,  Waller's  degeneration) 

oess  of  bacteriology.    Efforts  were  naturally  made  to  and  William  Prout  (17S5-1869;    discovery  of  free 

secure  by  similar  methods  protection  against  other  in-  hydrochloric  add  in  the  gastric  juice). 

CeotiouB  diseases,  efforts  only  partly  crowned  with  The  Bohemian  Johann  Evangelist  Purkyi^e  C1787- 


139  HIDICm 

1869)  fcHinded  at  Breslau  the  first  Oennan  physio-  of  the  functions  of  the  kidneys,  endosmoris,   di>> 

logical  inatitute.     His  most  important  studies  were  cover?  of  the  nerves  of  secretion)  and  Ernst  Wil- 

eonoemed  with  the  physiology  or  the  organs  of  sense,  helm  Hitter  von  BrQcke  (1S19-92;  Btudies  of  the 

eq)eciaUy  of  sight,  tbe  physiology  of  the  muscles  and  ciliary  muscle  as  a  muscle  of  accommodation,  theoiy 

nerves,  the  dliary  movement  of  the  epithelium  of  the  of  colours,  physiology  of  the  voioe.  structure  of  tbe 

mucous  membrane,  the  structure  of  tbe  nerve-fibre  muscle-fibree,  biliary   capillaries,   digestion,   absorp- 

(axis-cyliuder)  and  of  the  ganglia,  the  glands  eecreting  tion).     Karl   von  Vieronit   (1818-83)   is   associated 

gastric  juice,  the  sympathetic  nervous  system,  and  the  with  the  chemistry  of  respiration  and  the  counting  rf 

history  of  aevelopment   (discovery  of  the  germinal  the  blood  corpuscles;    Adolf  Fick  (1829-1901)  with 

spot).     Fundamental  work  in  physiologicalphysics  physiology  of  the  muades  and  nerves;   Moriti  Schiff 

was  done  by  the  brothers  Weber.  Ernest  Heinrich  (1823-9G)  with  the  nervous  system,  ducovery  of  the 

(1795-1878),  and  Eduard  Fried  rich  Wilhelm  (1806-  harmful  results  of  the  extirpation  of  the  thyroid  gland, 

71),  both  pbysiciana,  and  the  physicist  Wilhelm  Edu-  (unction  ai  the  base  of  the  brain  and  the  cetebellum; 

ard  (IS04~9l);    mechanism  of  the  human  organs  of  Rudolf  Ileidenhain  (1834-97)  with  the  physiology  oi 

walking    (Wilhelm    and    Eduard),    experiments    in  the   glands;    Alexander  Rollett   (b.   1834)   with  the 

irritabiuty  by  means  of  induction  currents,  and  tbe  glands    of    the    stomach,   blood;    Eduard   Friedrich 

irritation   of   tbe   pneumogastric  and    sympathetic  Wilhelm  PflQger  (b.  1826)  with  the  gases  of  the  blood, 

nerves  and  its  influence  upon  the  heart  (Ernst  and  processes  of  oxidation  in  the  body;  Ewald  Hering  (b. 

Eduard).     Physiological  chemistry  is  represented  by  1834)  with  the  theory  of  self-regulation  of  the  act  (rf 

Friedriui  Tiedemann   and   Leopold    Gemlin    (1788-  breathing senBitiveness   of   retina   to   colours,   and 

1S53;   digestion,  absorption  and  aiunmilation,  the  im-  Theodor  Wilhelm  Engelmaa  (b.  1834),  with  electro- 

portaDoe  <rf  the  lympnatic  system  physiology,   motion   of   the   ciliary 

(or    absorption),   Friedrich  Wohler  — "-i- '—-="' '  "■"  '—-* 

{1800-82;  artificial  preparation  o* 
urea),  and  Karl  Bo^slav  Reichert 
(1811-83;  cnstallixation  of  blood 
pigment).  We  must  also  mention 
the  nerve  physiologist  Rudolf  Wag- 
ner (1805-64),  discoverer  of  the 
tactile  coipuscles.  The  greatest 
credit  for  developing  modem  physi- 
ology is  due  to  the  school  of  the  ver- 
satile Johannes  Mililer  (1801-58). 
Mllller's  importance,  comparable  to 
that  of  Albrecht  von  HaUer,  is  due 
on  tbe  one  hand  to  the  results  oS  his 
own  investigations  (studies  on  the 
physiology  of  the  or^oa  of  sense,  the 
^mpathetic  nervous  qrstero,  the 
tieory  of  reflex  action,  the  produc- 
tion M  voice  in  the  larynx,  and  the 
description  of  tbe  cartilag^nucleus), 

»nd  on  the  other  hand  to  hie  activity  -  .  .  , 
in  all  branches  of  physiolorar  and  in  cal  diagnosis.  Auenbrugger's  epoch- 
his  grasp  of  the  entire  field  of  physio-  (1835-1883)  making  discovery,  percussion  (1761), 
logical  knowledge.  The  most  important  Investigators  passed  over  in  silence  bv  van  Swieten  and  de  Haen, 
of  thecenturyinthedomainof  histologViPhysiotogical  the  leading  spirits  of  the  Vienna  school,  and  men* 
ebemistry,  and  physies,  were  pupils  of  Holier.  Be-  tioned  only  in  timid  fashion  by  Haximilian  BtoQ, 
■ides  the  above-mentioned  investigators,  Schwann,  might  have  been  altogether  forgotten,  if  Jean  Nicolas 
K6ltiker,  and  Virchow,  attention  may  be  called  to  Corvisart  de  Marest  (1755-1821),  after  an  objeetivB 
Robe'i  Remak  (1815-65;  description  of  the  marrow-  examination,  had  not  translated  AuenbruKer^  "In- 
less  nerve  fibres,  of  the  course  of  the  fibres  in  the  brain  ventum  novum"  into  French,  and  publisLed  it  in 
uid  the  spinal  cord)  and  Heinrich  Friedrich  Bidder  1808  with  a  commentary.  Rene  Theophile  Hyadnthe 
(1810-94;  mTnjjathetic  nerve  system,  nerves  of  the  Lafinnec  (1781-1826)  enriched  the  phyacal  method  of 
heart,  metaoohsm).  examination  by  the  invention  of  auscultation  (noting 
The  doctrine  of  metabolism  was  advanced  by  the  the  different  tanes  and  noises  in  tbe  chest  by  placing 
famous  chemist,  Justus  Freiherr  von  Liebi^  (1803-73;  the  ear  against  it).  His  pupil  Pierre  Adolphe  Piony 
excretion  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  urea,  importance  (1794-1879)  perfected  percussion  (definition  of  the 
of  uric  add,  albumen  as  a  source  of  muscular  strength),  borders  and  outlines  of^tbe  organs,  invention  of  the 
Theodor  Ludwig  Wilhelm  Bischoff  (1807-32;  urea)  plesstmeter,  improvement  <^  the  stethoscope).    LaGn- 


epithelium,  physiology  ot  the  heart 
and  of  the  oreans  of  sense.  The 
localisation  of  the  brain  was  investi- 
mted  especially  by  Gustav  Fritacb 
(h.  1838),  Eduard  Hitiig  (b.  1838), 
Leopold  GolU  (1835-1902)  and 
Sigmund  Exner  (b.  1845).  Of  emi- 
nent physiologiats  outside  of  Ger- 
many we  may  mention  the  Dutch- 
men Frans  Comeiis  D  o  n  d  e  rs 
(1818-89;  physiological  optics,  de- 
termination of  refraction)  and  Jakob 
Moleschott  (1822-93;  metabdijm 
and  doctrine  of  foods). 

Owing  to  the  progress  of  the 
theoretical  auxiliary  sdencee,  prao* 
tical  medicine  reached  a  high  state  of 
development,  especially  in  diagnosis, 
but  also  to  a  certain  extent  in  thera- 

Gutics.  A  general  revolution  wasef- 
rted  by  the  establishment  of  physi- 


and  Kaii  von  Vuit  (b.  1831;   metabolism  of  nitrogen  nec's  invention  attracted  attention  but  slowly. 

and  organic  albumen).     The  latter,  together  with  Max  chief  opponent  was  FranffHS  Joseph  Victor  Broussais 

Ton  Pettenkoter  (1818-1901),  made  numerous  eiperi-  (1772-1838),  but  in  England  John  Forbee  (1787-1861) 

ments  in  the  change  of  gases  in  man  during  rest  and  and   William   Stokes    (1804-78),   and   in   Germany, 

wofk.    Georg  Heissner  (b.  1829:   origin  of  the  con-  Christian  Friedrich  Nasse  (1778-1851)  Peter  Kruken- 

stituents  of  urine,  muscle  sugar),  Schwann  (discoverer  berg   (1787-1865),  Johann   Lukas  SwiOnlein   (1793- 

of  pepsin),  Karl GotthelfLehmann  (1812-65; pepton).  1864),  and  othersassumedafriendly attitude.   Auscui- 

Tne  chemistry  trf  the  blood  was  investigated  by  Ernst  tation  and  percussion  came  into  general  use  in  the 

Felix  Josef  Hoppe-Seyler  (1825-95;    blood  pigment,  Germanic  countries  much  later  thui  in  England  and 

blood  gases,  chemistry  of  cell  and  tissue),  Julius  France,  but  they  were  then  brou^t  to  great  perfeo- 

Robert  Meyer  (1814-78;  mechanism  of  heat),  Her-  tionby  the  Vienna  physician  Joseph  Skoda  (1805-81), 

mann  Ludwig  Ferdinand  von  Helmholtz  (1821-94;  whoinlS39treatedphysicaldiagnosissdent^eallyana 

Fhydological   optics),   and   Emil   du   Bois-Reymond  fundamentally   (auscultation  and  percussion).    The 

1818-96;  animal  electrical  phenomena,  physics  of  the  newmcthodsntadepossible  the  exact  clinical diagnoaia 

muscles  and  nerves).    Just  as  versatile  as  Johannes  of  diseases  of  tbe  heart  and  the  lunsi  to  a  degree  never 

MQller  were  Karl  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Ludwig  (1816-95;  previously  iraa^ned.    Besides  I^nnec  and  Skoda 

physiology  of  tiie  circulation  and  excretions,  theory  must  be  mentioned  among  the  great  number  of  Id- 


140 

• 

reslaeatoTS:  Jean  Baptiste  Bouillaud  (1796-1881)  and  Of  the  latter  we  may  mention  Morii  Hemricfa  Rom- 
James  Johnson  (1777-1845),  who  investigated  affeo-  berg  (1795-1873),  Wilhekn  Griesinger  ^1817-68), 
tions  of  the  heart  and  rheumatism  of  the  joints.  Duchenne,  and  the  universal  Jean  Blartin  Charcot  (d. 
August  Francois  Chomel  (1788-1855;  pericarditis  and  1893).  Faradization  (1831),  as  a  therapeutical  means 
rheumatism),  James  Hope  (1801-41;  valvular  insuffi-  especially  against  lameness,  was  introduced  by  Duch- 
ciency),  Hermann  Lebert  (1813-78),  Johann  Oppolser  enne  in  1847.  Among  special  studies  of  individual  dis- 
(1808-91),  Felix  Niemeyer  (1820-71),  Ludwig  Traube  eases  were:  on  tabes  dorsalis  by  Romberg,  Duchenne, 
(1818-76),  Heinrich  von  Bamberger  (1822-88),  and  Armand  Trousseau  (1801-66),  Nikolaus  Friedreich 
Adalbert  Duchek  (1824-82).  (d.  1882),  Leyden  (d.  1910),  Karl  Friedrich  Westphal 

Among  therapeutical  aids  the  introduction  of  digi-  (b.  1833),  Charcot,  and  Alfred  Foumier,  who  in  1876 
talis  purpurea  oy  Traube  deserves  special  mention*  pointed  out  the  connexion  between  tabes  and  lues;  on 
M.  J.  Oertel  (d.  1897),  tried  to  cure  certain  affections  mvelitis  by  Brown-S^uard,  Oppolser,  Friedreich, 
(fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart,  obesity)  by  means  of  Westphal,  Charcot.  A  peculiar  complex  of  symptoms 
dietetic  mechanical  treatment  (Terrainkur):  and  the  was  described  for  the  first  time  by  Robert  James 
brothers  August  and  Theodor  Schott  established  the  Graves  (d.  1853),  later  (1840)  by  Karl  von  Basedow 
so-called  Nauheim  method  (carbonic  add  baths  and  (Basedow's  Disease).  The  pict\ire  of  neiurasthenia 
gymnastics).  Great  credit  in  connexion  with  the  was  given  for  the  first  time  in  detail  in  1869  by  Georg 
diagnosis  of  lung  disease  is  due  to  M.  Anton  Wintrich  BeaiS;  Weir-MitcheU  together  with  Playfair  proposed 
(1812-82;  pleuritis),  Karl  August  Wunderlich  (1815-  for  it  ihe  so-called  fattening  cure. 
78;  range  of  temperature  in  pneumonia),  Leon  Jean  As  to  progress  in  psychiatry,  there  is  now  a  more 
Baptiste  Cruveilhier  (1791-1875;  pneumonia  in  chil-  humane  conception  of  the  care  for  the  insane  com- 
dren),  Theodor  Jttrgensen  (infectious  nature  of  pneu-  pared  with  that  obtaining  in  former  times.  This 
monia),  Robert  Bree  (1807;  bronchial  asthma),  Bier-  movement  originated  principally  in  England  (Thomas 
mer  (1870),  Leyden  (1875;  crystals  of  asthma),  and  Arnold,  d.  1816;  William  Perfect,  b.  1740;  Alexander 
Curscnmann  (1883;  ^irals).  The  subject  of  pulmo-  Crichton,  1763-1856),  and  France  (Philippe  Pinei, 
nary  tuberculosis  was  profoundly  treated  by  Gfaspard  175&-1826:  Jean  Etienne  Dominique  Esomrol,  1772- 
Laurent  Bayk  (1774-1816;  1810  discovery  of  miliary  1840),  and  found  in  Italy  in  Vincenzo  Chianigi  (d. 
tubereulosis,  tuberculosLS  a  general  disease) ;  Virehow  1822)  and  in  Germany  in  Johann  Christian  Reil  (1759- 
defined  the  anatomic  character  of  tubereulosis;  Ville-  1813),  zealous  supporters.  With  this  movement  came 
min  in  1865-8  proved  its  contagiousness,  and  his  ex-  a  general  and  profounder  study  of  the  subject 
periments  were  re-examined  and  confirmed  among  stimulated  by  the  results  of  pathological  anatomy, 
others  by  Lebert  Q866)  Klebs  (1868).  Baumgarten  more  judicious  therapeutics  conscious  of  its  aim, 
(1880),  Teppeiner  (1877),  and  Weichselbaum  (1882).  proper  physical  occupation  of  the  insane,  and  the  di»- 
With  the  discovery  of  the  tuberele  bacillus  by  R.  continuance  of  the  isolation  system.  Special  atten- 
Koch  in  1882,  the  path  to  the  suppression  of  tubercu-  tion  is  paid  to  the  etiology  and  therapeutics  of  dis- 
losis  was  indicated.  Comet  in  1888  showed  the  dan-  eases  occurring  most  frequently,  cretinism,  hysteria, 
ger  of  the  sputum,  which  resulted  in  prohibition  of  progressive  paralysis,  as  well  as  to  psychosis  of  in- 
spitting  and  the  placing  of  cuspidors  with  disinfecting  toxication,  alcoholism,  morphinism,  etc.  Hydro- 
solutions.  In  1890  Koch  appeared  with  his  remedy  therapeutics,  which  is  especially  effective  in  the  case 
tubereulin.  which  he  improved  in  1897  and  1901.  In  of  neurosis  and  psychosis,  was  much  cultivated  by 
1902  Behrmg  began  his  experiments  on  cows  to  secure  Anton  Frdhlich  (1760-1846)  and  the  two  la^en, 
immunity.  Of  late  the  treatment  of  tubereulosis  is  Eucharius  Ferdinand  Oertel  and  the  Silesian,  Vincenjis 
chiefly  duetetic.  Diagnosis  and  therapeutics  of  the  Priessnitz  (1790-1851).  It  was  treated  scientifically 
diseases  of  the  larynx  were  greatly  advanced  by  the  by  Wilhelm  Wintemits,  who  wisely  reduced  within 
invention  of  the  laryngoscope  in  1860  (Ludwig  Torek  due  bounds  a  great  deal  of  the  harshness  in  the  lay- 
1810-68.  Vienna;   and  Johann  Nepomuk  Czermak,  men's  hydrotherapy. 

1828-73).    The  taking  of  temperature,  which  was        Modem  Dermatology  begins  with  the  endeavours  of 

diligently  cultivated  by  de  Haen  and  later  by  James  Johann  Jakob  Plenk  (1738-1807)  at  Vienna  to  estab- 

Currie  (1733-1819),  was  systematically  done  for  the  lish  a  classification  of  skin  diseases  on  a  basis  of  exter- 

first  time  by  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Felix  von  B&ren-  nal  clinical  appearance.    Work  of  a  similar  nature 

sprung  (1822-64),  Traube,  and  Wunderlich.    In  the  was  done  by  Anne  Charles  Lorry  (1777),  Robert  Wil- 

treatment  of  metabolic  diseases  we  must  mention  the  Ian  (1798),  Thomas  Bateman  (1815),  all  of  whom 

noteworthy  zeal  of  Friedrich  Theodor  von  Frerichs  introduced  simplifications  into  Plenk's  system,  Lau- 

(181&<85).  rent  Beilt  (1781-1840),  and  Camille  Melchior  Gibert 

Diagnosisandtherapeuticsof  diseases  of  the  stomach  (1797-1866).  Jean  Louis  Alibert  (1766-1837)  made 
were  advanced  by  the  introduction  of  the  stomach  a  classification  according  to  pathological  principles, 
pump  invented  by  the  English  surgeon  Bush  in  1822,  an  while  Pierre  Francois  Oliver  Kayer  used  anatomy  and 
instrument  recommended  and  used  since  1869  by  Adolf  physiology  as  a  basis.  The  pathological-anatomical 
Kussmaul  (d.  1902),  in  enlargement  of  the  stomach,  method,  introduced  by  Julius  Rosenbaum  (1807-74), 
and  for  the  examination  of  the  stomach  with  a  specu-  was  established  by  Ferdinand  Hebra  in  Vienna  (1816- 
lum.  Faradization  was  employed  by  Karl  Friedrich  80).  Its  chief  merits  consist  in  creating  a  classifica- 
Canstatt  in  1846,  Duchenne,  and  later  by  Kussmaul  tion  of  twelve  groups,  valid  in  its  substantial  form 
(1877),  the  stomach  catheter  was  used  for  dlagnos-  even  to-day.  in  a  definition  of  the  general  course  of  the 
ticpumoses  by  Wilhelm  Leube  in  1871.  The  subject  disease,  and  in  simplifying  therapeutics.  His  chief 
of  typmitis  and  perityphlitis  was  investigated  among  special  studies  are  concerned  with  itch,  lepra,  and 
others  by  Puchelt  (1829),  Bume,  Smith,  Bamberger,  eczema.  With  him  we  must  mention  Friedrich  Wil- 
and  Oppolzer;  diseases  of  the  Icidneys  by  Richard  hehn  Felix  von  B&rensprung  a822-64;  eczema  mar- 
Bright  (1827),  Pierre  Francois  Oliver  Rayer  (1793-  ginatum,  erythrasma  caused  by  fungus^  and  herpes 
1867),  Johnson  (1852),  Julius  Vogel  (1814-80),  and  zoster)  and  his  successor,  Georg  Lewm  (1820-96; 
Hermann  Senator  (1896);  diseases  of  the  bladder  by  scleroderma).  Pierre  Antoine  Emest  Nazin  (1807- 
Josef  GrOnfeld  (1872),  Trouv4  (1878),  Max  Nitze  78)  worked  along  the  same  lines  as  Hebra  (parasitical 
hS79;  endoscopy),  Rovsing  (1890,  1898),  Krogius  and  constitutional  skin-diseases,  erythema  indura- 
(1890,  1894),  Guyon,  Leube,  and  Robert  Ultzmann  tum).  Hebra's  most  important  pupils  are  Heinrich 
(inflammation  of  the  bladder^  formation  of  stone).  Auspitz  (1835-86;  venous  stagnation,  soap  thera- 
The  development  of  modem  diagnosis  and  the  thera-  peutics),  Moriz  Kaposi  (1837-1902;  pigment  sarcoma, 
peutics  of  nervous  diseases  are  connected  with  the  sarcoid  swellings),  and  Ernst  Luawig  Schwimmer 
aames  of  eminent  physiologists  and  clinical  physicians.  (1837-98;    neuropathic  dermatosis).    For  a  number 


MEDIGINB  141  MSDICINX 

of  vrntoMe  mdal  investigationfl  we  are  indebted  der  Paeenstecher  (1827-79;  operation  for  cataract), 

Id  TObuiy   Fox    (1836-70;    impetigo    oontaciosa,  EduamJftger  von  Jaxthal  (1818-^;  letter  chart) , 

dermatitis  herpetiformis),  and  on  lepia  to  D.  G.  Karl  Stellwag  von  Canon  (1823-1004;    defects  of 

DanSeQswn  (18l&'04)  and  Karl  Wilhelm  Boeck  (1808-  accommodation,  innervation  of  the  iris),  Julius  Jaoob- 

75).    In  recent  times  we  notice  an  endeavour  to  son  (1828-^0;  diphtheritiB  con junctivse),  Otto  Becker 

define  more  olosely  the  course  of  the  disease,  a  mov&-  (1828-00;  pathological  topography  of  the  eye,  lens). 

ment  started  by  Paul  Gerson  Unna  in  Hamburg  joeef  Ritter  von  Hasner  (1810-02;  forensic  mjur^  of 

(b.  1860;  histodermatology,  histotherapy.  baoteriol-  the  eye),  Ludwig  Mauthner  ri840-04;  optical  defects 

olMyofacne^ecsema,  impetigo,  and  fa vus).  of  the  eye,  elaucoma),  Albrecht  Na^   (1833-05; 

OpfahdmMOffu,  as  an  independent  branch,   was  strychnia  in  the  case  of  amblyopia).  Rudolf   Berlin 

established  in  Germany  first  at  Vienna  and  Gottingen.  (1833-07;  word-blindness),  Richard  Forster  (1825- 

In  Vienna  the  anatomist  Josef  Barth  (1755-1818)  1002;    perimeter,    glaucoma,  general   diseases   and 

gave  ophthidmological  lectures  as  early  as  1774,  but  maladies  of  the  eye),  William  Bowman  (1816-02; 

two  of  nis  pupils,  Johann  Adam  Schxnidt  (1750-1800:  diseases  of  the  lachrymal  sac),  Geoige  Critchett  (1817- 

studies  on  intis  xerophthalmus  and  the  lachrymal  82;  iridodesis),  Cornelius  Agnew,  New  York  (1830-88; 

organs)  and  Georg  Josef  Beer  (1763-1821;  method  of  strabismus,  paracentesis  of  the  cornea,  canthoplas- 

extraetion  of  catsiract,  staphyloma,  pannus),  were  the  tics),    the    Russian   Alexander    Ivanoff    (1836-80; 

first  to  receive  special  professorships,  the  former  in  inflammation  of  the  retina  and  the  optic  nerves,  glass 

1705  at  the  militarv  academy  and  the  latter  at  the  eve),  and  Victor  Felix  Ssokalski  (1811-01;  textbook), 

university.  Of  Beers  school  may  be  mentioned  among  The  introduction  of  local  ansesthesis  by  means  of  co- 

othera  Konrad  Johann  Martin  Langenbeck  (1776-  caine  in  1884  by  RudolfKoUer  of  Viennai  greatly  facili- 

1851 ;  oeratonyxis,  formation  of  the  pupil,  amaurosis,  tated  operation  on  the  eye. 

entrcpium),  Karl  Friedrich  von  Grilfe  (1787-1840;  Obstetrics. — One  of  the  most  eminent  obstetricians 
teleangiectasis  in  the  eve),  Friedrich  J&ger  (1784-  was  Lukas  Johann  Bo6r  of  Vienna  (1751-1835),  who 
1871 ;  upper  cuttine  of  tne  cornea  in  the  operation  for  upon  the  request  of  the  emperor  studied  in  Paris  and 
cataract),  Johann  ^pomuk  Fischer  (1787-1847;  pyse-  lx>ndon  from  1785  to  1788.  He  represented  the  so- 
mic  inflammation  of  the  eye),  and  finally  the  most  called  "  waiting  method",  using  instruments  as  rarely 
eminent  finglish  ophthalmolo^st  of  his  time,  William  as  possible,  taught  rational  dietetics  during  pregnancy 
Mackensie  (1701-1868;  choroiditis,  accommodation,  ana  confinement,  and  was  the  first  to  employ  electric- 
asthencpy,  scotoma).  A  contemporary  of  Beer  was  ity  for  reviving  asphyxiated  children.  Work  of  a 
Carl  Hmily  of  Gdttingen  (1772-1837;  introduction  similar  nature  was  done  by  his  contemporary,  Wil- 
of  mydriatics).  Among  his  pui)ils  were  Friedrich  helm  Josef  Schmitt  (1760-1824;  forceps  operation  in 
AugustvonAmmon  (1700-1861;  iritis)  and  Christian  the  lon^tudinal  position,  methods  of  examination, 
Georg  Theodor  Ruete  (1810-67),  who  deserves  credit  mechanism  of  parturition).  In  contradistinction  to 
chiefly  for  the  introduction  into  practice  of  the  specu-  Bo6r,  Friedricn  Benjamin  Osiander  (1750-1822) 
lumdculi.  In  Italy  the  progress  of  ophthalmology  be-  represented  the  most  extreme  operative  tendencies, 
gins  with  Antonio  Scarpa  (1747-1832;  staphyloma  of  while  Adam  Elias  von  Siebold  (1775-1828)  took  a 
the  cornea).  We  must  also  mention  Paolo  Aasalini  middle  course.  Mechanism  of  parturition  and  pely- 
(1759-1840;  extraction  of  cataract,  artificial  pupil,  cology  was  treated  by  Ferdinand  Frans  August  von 
Egyptian  inflammation  of  the  eye,  1811),  Giovanni  Ritgen  (1787-1867)  and  Frans  Karl  von  Nfteele 
Battista  Quadri,  the  first  professor  in  Naples  (1815),  (1778-1851);  physiology  of  pregnancy  by  Frans  Al- 
and likewise  the  professors  of  the  clinics  established  at  wisch  von  Kotterau  (1814-52)  and  Johann  Christian 
Padua  and  Pavia  in  1810,  Anton  von  Rosas  ^1710-  Gottfried  von  Jorg  (1770-1856).  The  founder  of 
1855),  a  pupil  of  Beer,  and  Frans  Flarer,  (tricmasis,  the  modem  theoiy  of  labour  pains  is  Justus  Heinrich 
iritis,  1841).  In  England,  besides  Mackensie,  John  Wi^nd  (1760-1817).  A  new  period  of  development 
Cunningham  Saunders  (1773-1810)  of  the  German  begms  in  1847  with  James  Yo\ing  Simpson  (1811-70), 
school,  John  Vetch  (E^n^tian  inflammation  of  the  the  inventor  of  the  English  forceps  ana  cranioclast:  he 
eye,  1807),  George  James  Guthrie  (^ificial  pupil,  ex-  was  the  first  to  employ  narcosis  (first  with  ether  ana  in 
traction  of  cataract,  1818),  and  William  Lawrence  the  same  year  also  with  chloroform)  for  women  in 
(1785-1867),  author  of  a  textbook,  deserve  mention,  labour,  but  at  present  this  is  done  onljr  in  case  of 
In  North  America  are  Geoige  Frick  of  the  Viennese  operations.  Of  far  greater  importance  is  ^e  simul* 
school,  author  of  a  textbook  (Baltimore,  1823),  and  taneous  discovery  of  the  cause  of  puerperal  fever 
Isaac  Hays  of  Philadelphia.  More  than  anywhere  (pyaemia)  by  I^ms  PhUipp  Semmelweiss  of  Vienna 
else  was  Uerman  influence  felt  in  France,  and  here  we  (1818-65).  He  introduced  the  practice  of  disinfecting 
must  mention  in  the  first  place  the  pupils  of  Jftger:  hands  and  instruments  with  a  solution  of  chloride^ 
Viktor  Stdber  (1803-71),  professor  at  Strasbuig,  and  lime,  and  thereby  reduced  the  mortalitv  of  lyin^-in 
Julius  Siehel  of  Paris  (180^-58;  choroiditis,  glaucoma,  women  from  0*02  to  1*27  per  cent.  Tnis  most  im- 
cataract,  staphyloma).  Besides  these  we  have  Carron  portant  discovery  that  external  infection  causes 
du  Villards.  a  pupil  of  Scarpa  and  author  of  a  textbook  puerperal  fever  was  utilized  in  general  practice  only  at 
(1838),  and  Desmarres.  a  late  period.    Propositions  similar  to  those  of  Sem- 

Helmholts,  Arit,  and  Gr&fe  are  re^uded  as  the  melweiss  had  been  made  as  earlv  as  1843  by  Oliver 

founders  of  modem  ophthalmology.    Hermann  Lud-  Wendell  Holmes  of  Boston,  but  they  were  not  Imown 

wig  Ferdinand  von  Helmholts  (1821-04)  opened  an  in  Europe.    Important  advances  in  modem  times  are 

entirely  new  field  for  diagnosis  by  inventing  the  specu-  marked  by  descriptions  of  the  narrow  pelvis  by  Gus- 

lum  oeuli  in  1851.    Just  as  important  is  his  theory  of  tav  Adolph  Michielis  (1708-1848)  and  Karl  Aonrad 

accommodation  and  sensation  of  colours.    Ferdinand  Theodor  Litsmann  in  1851,  and  of  the  oblique  oval 

von  Arit  of  Vienna  (1812-87),  an  eminent  operator  pelvis  by  Litsmann  in  1853 ;  artificial  premature  birth 

(trichiasis  symblepharon)  and  teacher,   foimder  of  m  the  case  ofsuch  a  pelvis  by  Spiegelberg  in  1870;  the 

ophtbalmopathology,  recognised  the  true  cause  of  manual  removal  of  tne  placenta  in  1853,  and  prophy- 

myopia  (elongation  of  the  eye-ball)  and  introduced  a  laxis  against  blemorrhcea  of  the  newly  bom  bv  Crea^ 

chart  of  lettera,  later  improved  by  Snellen.    Albrecht  in  1884;  axial  traction  foreeps  by  Chassaeny  m  1861 ; 

von  Gr&fe  (1828-70)  of  Berlin,  a  pupU  of  Arit  but  in  combined  turning  by  Braxton  Hicks  in  1860-3;  the 

many  respects  outshining  his  master,  is  known  princi-  mechanism  of  delivery  by  Leishman  and  Hodge  in 

pally  through  his  woik  on  the  connexion  between  1864;  placenta  prsevia  by  Hofmeier  in  1888;   preg- 

bndn  and  blindness,  on  glaucoma,  iridectomy,  and  nancy  of  the  oviduct  by  Veit  in  1884 ;  extra-uterine 

linear  extraction  of  the  lens.    Besides  the  above-  pregnancy  by  Werth  in  1887;  asphysoa  of  the  new- 

mentiooed  DoDders  we  must  call  attention  to  Alexan-  bom  by  Schwarts  in  1858  and  by  Scbultse  in  1864< 


MKDIOIMB 


142 


The  claasical  Csesarean  operation,  as  previously  per- 
formed, consisted  in  opening  but  leaving  in  the  uterus, 
whereupon  death  usually  resulted  from  sepsis.  Porro 
of  Pavia  in  1875  performed  it,  therefore,  with  the 
subsequent  removal  of  the  uterus  and  ovaries,  and 
thus  obtained  much  more  favourable  results.  With 
the  perfection  of  antiseptic,  or  rather  aseptic,  treat- 
ment in  modem  times,  the  classical  Csesarean  opera- 
tion is  beine  again  performed.  The  total  removal  of 
the  ovaries  (ovariotomv)  on  account  of  their  degenera- 
tion was  performed  for  the  first  time  in  1809  by 
Ephraim  MacDowell  at  Danville,  Kentucky,  the  tech- 
nique of  the  operation  being  perfected  by  Hutchinson  in 
1859,  Spencer  Wells  and  Marion  Sims  in  1873,  Freund 
in  1878,  and  Csemy  in  1879.  Total  extirpation  of  the 
uterus  is  performed  especially  in  the  case  of  cancer. 

Surgery, — Of  all  the  branches  of  medicine,  surgery 
made  the  greatest  progress,  first  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, later  also  in  Germany.  Side  by  side  with  the 
renowned  surgeon-in-chief,  of  the  Napoleonic  armies, 
Jean  Dominique  Larry  (1766-1842),  we  have,  as  the 
most  versatile,  Guillaume  Dupuytren  (1777-1835); 
next  to  him  Philibert  Joseph  Roux  (1780-1854;  resec- 
tions). Jacques  Lisf ranc  ( 1 790-1847 ;  exarticulations) , 
Alfred  Armand  Louise  Marie  Velpeau  (1795-1868; 
treatment  of  hernia  by  injection  of  iodine),  Jacques 
Mathurin  Delpech  (1777-1832;  studies  about  phage- 
dBenas,  gangpcena  nosocomialis,  tenotomy  of  the  tendo 
Achillis),  Jean  Zul^ma  Amussat  (1796-1856;  litho- 
tripsy), Auguste  Vidal  (1803-56;  varicocele),  Joseph 
Fran9ois  Malgaigne  (1806-65;  fractures  and  disloca- 
tions), Auguste  N^laton  (1807-73;  lithotomy),  Edouard 
Chassaignac  (1805-79;  ^crasement  lin^aire,  drainage), 
and  Chaj-les  Gabriel  Pravaz  (1791-1853;  orthopsedia, 
subcutaneous  injection).  Of  English  surgeons  we 
must  mention  the  brothers  Bell,  Jotm  (collateral  circu- 
lation after  ligation)  and  Charles  (operative  surgery); 
John  Abemetny  (1763-1831;  ligation);  James  Syme 
(1799-1870;  exarticulation  of  the  hip  joint);  the 
famous  surgeon,  Astley  Patson  Cooper  (1768-1841; 
textbook),  and  William  Lawrence  (1785-1867).  In 
America  we  may  note  the  chief  surgeon  of  the  War  of 
Independence,  John  Collins  Warren  (1753-1815), 
Philipp  Syng  Physick  (1768-1837;  new  formations), 
Willard  Parker  (1800-84;  cystotomy),  and  Frank 
Hastings  Hamilton  ri8 13-86;  fractures  and  disloca- 
tions). Passing  to  the  German  surgeons  let  us  men- 
tion first  of  all  Vinoenz  von  Kern  of  Vienna  (1760- 
1829;  open  treatment  of  wounds),  his  successor. 
Joseph  von  Wattman  (1789-1866;  lithotomy),  and 
Franz  Schuh  (1805-65;  new  formations,  hernia);  in 
Germany  Louis  Strohmayer  Q804-76;  myotomy, 
tenotomy,  resections),  Jommn  Friedrich  Dieffenbach 
(1794r-1847;  plastic  operations),  and  Albert  Theodor 
Middeldorpf  (1824-68;  galvanocautery). 

A  new  epoch  of  progress  begins  in  1846  with  the 
introduction  of  narcosis.  The  discoverer  of  the  nar- 
cotic effect  of  ether  is  the  American  physician  and 
chemist.  Charles  Jackson  f  1805-80),  who,  together 
with  William  Morton,  maae  experiments  upon  his 
own  person.  The  first  narcosis  was  undertaken  in 
1846  oy  Warren,  and  in  the  same  year  in  London  by 
Robert  Liston.  Simpson  first  employed  ether  in  an 
obstetric  operation  in  1847,  but  soon  afterwards  intro- 
duced into  practice  chloroform.  In  modem  times  a 
mixture  of  ether  and  chloroform  is  generally  used. 
Besides  general  narcosis  we  must  also  mention  local 
ansesthesis  (evaporation  of  ether,  injection  of  cocaine, 
bromoethyl).  Of  still  greater  importance  than  narco- 
sis was  the  treatment  of  woimds  with  carbolic  acid  by 
the  Englishman  Joseph  Lister  in  1867  (antiseptic 
treatment  of  woimds).  In  the  course  of  time  carbolic 
acid  was  replaced  by  other  antiseptics,  as  salicvlio 
add,  iodoform  etc.,  until  finally  the  antiseptic  method 
had  to  yield  to  the  aseptic  method  (careful  protection 
of  the  field  of  operation  against  infecting  genns). 
A  third  achievement  of  m^em  times  is  operating 


with  an  artificial  absence  of  blood  (operations  on  the 
extremities),  mentioned  for  the  first  time  by  Friedrich 
Esmarch  in  1873.    Narcosis  and  antiseptics  now  make 

gossible  a  series  of  daring  operations,  Wore  impossi' 
le,  with  essentially  better  chances  of  success.  In 
the  recent  development  of  German  surgery  Bemhard 
von  Langenbeck  Q810-87),  known  especially  as  a 
military  surgeon,  nolds  a  leading  position.  Of  his 
school  we  have  among  others  Adolf  von  Bardeleben 
(1819-95),  author  of  a  textbook,  Karl  Thiersch, 
(1822-95;  transplantation),  Johann  Nepomuk  von 
Nussbaum  (1829^90:  tnmsplantation  of  bones,  ex- 
tension of  nerves),  Theodor  von  Billroth  (182&-94; 
extirpation  of  the  larynx  and  struma,  resection  of  the 
pylorus)  and  Richard  von  Volkmann  (1830-89;  sur- 
gery of  the  joints) .  A  very  important  means  of  locat- 
ing foreign  bodies  (e.  g.  projectiles),  in  the  human 
body,  and  for  the  examination  of  fractures  is  the  R6nt- 
gen  rays  discovered  by  William  Karl  Rdntgen  in  1895 
(Rdntgen  photography). 

General  bioliographical  works:  Index  medieuM  (Boston.  1879- 
1009) ;  Index  Caiatogue  of  the  Library  of  the  Surgeon  Oeneml'* 
Office,  U.  S.  A.  (Washington.  1800-):  Canst aot.  Jahreeber. 
nBer  die  FortechnUe  der  geeammten  Medigin  (Benin,  1842>j. 
Biographical:  Gurlt-Hirsch,  Biogr.  Lex.  der  hervorrtufenden 
AnU  alter  Zeiten  u.  Vblker  (6.  vols.  Vienna.  1884-8J;  Pagel. 
Biogr.  Lex.  hervorragender  Arxle  dee  19.  Jahrh.  (Berlin  and 
Vienna.  1901).  Historical:  Sprknpkl,  Vereuch  einer  pra4t- 
matiecften  Oeech.  der  Artneikunde  (5  voIb.^  Halle,  1821-8).  a 
fundamental  work,  but  written  from  a  partisan  and  Protestant 
point  of  view- Haeser,  Lehrbuch  der  Oeech.  der  Mediein  u.  der 
emdemiechen Krankfieiien  (3  vols.,  Jena,  1875-82) ;  Pubchmaitn, 
Oeech.  dee  medizin.  Unterrichtee  (Leipsig,  1889) ;  Die  Medixin  in 
Wien  toAhrend  der  lelzten  100  Jahre  (Vienna,  1884);  Nkubur- 
oer-Paoel,  Handbuch  der  Oeech.  der  Medixin  (Jena,  19()2-5), 
with  rich  international  Uterature  on  all  special  suDJects. 

Leopold  Senfelder. 
Medicine,  Pastoral.    See  Pastoral  Medicine. 

Medicine  and  Oanon  Law. — In  the  early  centuries 
the  practice  of  medicine  by  clerics,  whether  secular  or 
regular,  was  not  treated  with  aisapprovid  bv  the 
Church,  nor  was  it  at  all  uncommon  for  them  to  devote 
a  considerable  part  of  their  time  to  the  medical  avo- 
cation. Abuses,  however,  arose,  and  in  the  twelfth 
century  ecclesiastical  canons  were  framed  which  be- 
came more  and  more  adverse  to  clerics  practising  the 
art  of  medicine.  The  "  Corpus  Juris  Canonici "  con- 
tains a  decree  prohibiting  secular  clerics  and  regulars 
from  attending  public  lectures  at  the  universities  in 
medicine  and  law  (cap.  Nam  magnopere,  3,  Ne  derici 
aut  monachi).  The  reason  adduced  is,  lest  through 
such  sciences,  spiritual  men  be  again  plunged  into 
worldly  cares.  They  were  not  hereby  forbidden  to 
make  private  studies  in  medicine  or  to  teach  it 
publicly.  The  Council  of  Tours  (1163),  in  issuine  a 
similar  prohibition,  had  especially  in  view  monks  who 
left  their  cloisters  imder  pretext  of  attending  univer- 
sity lectures,  and  in  this  were  imitated  by  secular 
priests,  who  thus  violated  their  obligation  of  residence. 
This  law  was  extended  by  Honorius  III  to  all  clerics 
having  ecclesiastical  dignities.  It  is  not  binding,  con- 
sequently, on  the  lower  clergy,  or  on  those  clerics  who 
pursue  the  sciences  only  as  private  studies.  The 
penalty  imposed  for  violation  was  excommunication 
xp9o  facto. 

As  to  the  practice  of  medicine  by  clerics,  the  Fourth 
Coimcil  of  the  Lateran  (1215)  forbade  its  employment 
when  cutting  or  burning  was  involved.  In  tne  decree 
(o.  Sententiam  9,  Ne  der.  vel  mon.),  it  is  said:  ''Let 
no  subdeacon,  deacon  or  priest  exercise  sSav  art  of 
medicine  which  involves  cutting  or  burning''.  This 
was  especially  prohibited  to  regulars  (cap.  tua  noe,  19, 
De  Homicid.),  and  they  are  also  forbidden  to  exercise 
the  science  of  medicine  in  any  form  (c.  Ad  aures,  7.  de 
set.  et  (fual.).  This  general  prohibition  is  extendea  to 
all  clerics,  inasmuch  as  the  art  of  medicine  is  of  its 
nature  secular  and,  moreover,  involves  the  danger  of 
incurring  an  irregularity  (c.  9,  X,  V,  12).  GanonistB. 
however,  generally  hold  that  in  case  of  necessity  an^ 
where  danger  to  life  is  not  involved,  clerics  can  practisb 


143  MEDINA 

medicine  through  pity  and  charity  towards  the  poor,  St.  Pius  V  decreed  that  no  phydcian  should  recehra 
in  default  of  oroinaiy  practitioners.  The  Sacred  Con-  the  doctorate  unless  he  took  oath  not  to  visit  a  sick 
grpgations  have  on  several  occasions  granted  per-  person  longer  than  three  d&yB  without  calling  a  con- 
mission  to  priests  to  make  and  distribute  medical  lessor,  unless  there  was  some  reasonable  excuse.  If 
confections,  and  allowed  priests  who  had  formerly  he  violated  this  oath,  he  fell  under  ezeonmiimication. 
been  physicians  to  practice  the  art,  but  with  the  clause  Canonists  and  moralists  (among  them  St.  Alphonsus 
"gratis  and  through  love  of  God  towards  all  and  on  Liguori),  however,  declare  that  this  is  not  binding  in 
account  of  the  absence  of  other  physicians".  A  places  where  it  never  became  an  established  usage. 
clause  Is  likewise  sometimes  added  that  thev  may  ao-  They  also  teach  that  even  where  it  had  been  received, 
oept  recompense  if  spontaneously  offered,  out  never  it  applied  only  to  cases  of  mortal  sickness,  or  where 
from  the  poor.  In  cases  where  a  cleric  had  formerly  there  was  danger  that  it  might  become  mortal,  and  that 
been  a  physician,  he  may  not  practise  medicine  ex-  it  sufficed  for  the  physician  to  give  this  warning  by 
oept  through  necessitv,  without  obtaining  a  papal  in-  means  of  a  t^rd  party.  The  canons  also  declare  that 
diut,  which  is  generally  not  granted  except  for  an  im-  when  a  physician  is  paid  b^  the  public  community, 
peiling  cause  (Bened.  XIV,  ''De  Syn.  DiGec.",  1.  13,  he  is  bound  to  treat  ecclesiastics  gratis,  though  the 
c.  10).  This  has  been  frequently  insisted  on  in  de-  bishop  may  allow  them  to  make  volimtary  contribu- 
crees  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council.  The  tions.  Likewise,  the  precept  of  charity  binds  medical 
repiilatioDs  of  some  dioceses  (e.  g.  Brixen,  1857)  ex-  practitioners  to  give  their  services  to  the  poor  free  of 
plicitly  mention  that  homoeopathylikewise  fails  under  charge.  Physicians  who  prescribe  remedies  involving 
the  prohibition  of  exercising  the  medical  art.  Priests  infractions  of  the  Decalogue,  are  themselves  guUty  of 
are  reminded  that  it  is  preferable  to  study  theology  and  grave  sin.  This  is  also  the  case  if  they  experiment 
become  expert  physicians  of  souls  rather  than  to  cure  on  a  sick  person  with  unknown  medicines,  unless  all 
bodies,  which  is  a  secular  profession.  The  main  reason  hope  has  been  given  up  and  there  is  at  least  a  possi- 
why  clerics  should  not  practice  medicine  arises  from  bility  of  doing  them  good.  Physicians  are  to  be  re- 
the  danger  of  incurrm^  the  irregularity  which  is  caused  minded  that  they  have  no  dispensing  power  concerning 
by  accidental  homicide  or  mutilation.  Even  acci-  the  fast  and  abstinence  prescribed  by  the  Church, 
dental  homicide  induces  irregularity  if  the  perpetrator  They  may  however  give  their  prudent  judgment  as  to 
be  at  fault.  The  decretals  give  certain  rules  to  deter-  whether  a  sick  person,  owing  to  grave  danger  or  in- 
mine  whether  such  action  is  culpable.  Thus,  if  a  per-  convenience  to  his  health,  is  obliged  by  this  ecclesiasti- 
son  in  the  performance  of  a  licit  act  does  not  employ  cal  precept.  They  are  warned  that,  if  they  declare 
proper  diligence  and  as  a  consequence  the  deatn  or  unnecessarily  that  a  person  is  not  obliged  to  fast,  they 
mutilation  of  the  patient  ensues,  he  becomes  irregular  themselves  commit  grave  sin.^  They  also  sin  mortally 
if  he  could  have  foreseen  the  gravity  of  his  act  and  if  if  they  attempt,  without  being  forced  by  necessity, 
his  want  of  diligence  was  gravely  culpable.  Again,  if  to  cure  a  serious  illness,  when  they  are  aware  that 
a  person  performs  an  illicit  act  from  which  the  death  throu^  their  own  culpable  ignorance  or  inexperience, 
of  another  follows,  he  becomes  irregular  even  though  they  may  be  the  cause  of  grave  harm  to  the  patient, 
he  employed  all  diligence  in  avertm^  a  fatal  result.  Physicians  who  are  assigned  to  the  care  of  convents  of 
provided  there  was  a  natural  connection  between  the  nuns  should  be  not  less  than  fiftv  years  of  age,  and 
ulicit  act  and  the  danger  of  death,  so  that  the  act  was  younger  practitioners  are  not  to  be  emploved  unless 
both  illicit  and  imputable.  It  is  to  be  noted  that,  ac-  those  of  tne  prescribed  age  are  not  obtainable.  When 
cording  to  this  first  rule,  all  physicians  and  surgeons  they  have  the  ordinary  care  of  nuns,  they  are  to  have 
contract  irregularity  for  possible  future  sacred  orders  general  license  to  enter  the  cloister,  even  at  night  in 
if  any  of  their  patients  die  through  want  of  proper  cases  of  great  urgency.  They  are  not,  however,  to  be 
diligence  or  of  due  study  of  the  art  of  medicine  on  the  alone  with  the  patient;    Physicians  who  are  not  or- 

Eart  of  the  physician.  Hence,  Benedict  XIV  (De  dinary  require  special  faculties  to  enter  the  cloLster. 
yn.  Dicec.,  1. 13,  c.  10)  declares  that  in  general  when  Regulars  living  in  missionary  countries  have  the 
physicians  wish  to  enter  the  clerical  state,  a  dispensa-  privilege,  especially  by  the  Bull  of  Clement  XII, 
tion  should  be  obtained  ad  cavidam^  as  they  can  never  Cum  Sicut '^y  of  practising  medicine.  To  make  use 
certainly  know  that  they  have  always  used  aU  the  of  this  privilege,  however,  they  must  be  skilled  in  the 
means  prescribed  by  medical  science  in  behalf  of  those  art  of  medicine  and  prescribe  their  remedies  gratua- 
patients  who  died  under  their  treatment.  Accord-  tously.  They  must  also  abstain  from  cutting  and 
mg  to  the  second  decretal  rule,  all  are  irregular  who  bummg  {piira  aecHonem  et  adustionem).  It  is  re- 
practise  medicine  or  surgery  rashly,  through  want  of  quired,  however,  that  regular  missionaries  abstain 
proper  knowledge  and  experience,  il  they  thus  cause  from  medical  practice  where  there  is  a  sufficient  num- 
the  death  of  another.  Particularly  as  regards  clerics,  ber  of  proper  physioians.  Regulars  wjio  according  to 
this  irregularity  is  declared  to  be  incurred  by  regulars  their  institute  have  care  of  hospitals  may  not  exercise 
who  have  received  tonsure  and  by  seculars  in  sacred  the  art  of  medicine  outside  of  their  own  institutions, 
orders  who  practise  medicine  in  a  forbidden  manner,  Indults  for  clerics  to  engage  in  medical  practice  are 
with  burning  and  cutting,  and  thereby  bring  about  a  not  ordinarily  conceded  until  the  bishop's  testimony 
fatal  result.  Irregularity  is  aJso  contract^  by  mutila-  concerning  the  medical  skill  of  the  apphcant  and  the 
tion,  which  consists  in  the  severing  of  any  principal  want  of  lay  practitioners  has  been  considered.  The 
member  of  the  body,  that  is,  one  having  a  aistinct  and  religious  superior  of  the  regular  in  question  must  also 
peculiar  function.  Even  those  who  mutilate  them-  add  his  testimonial  concerning  the  moral  qualities  of 
selves,  even  if  it  be  done  through  indiscreet  zeal,  incur  the  candidate.  An  indult  to  practice  surgery  is  much 
canonical  irregularity.  As  regards  physicians  and  sur-  more  difficult  to  obtain  than  one  for  practismg  medi- 
geons  who  are  not  clerics,  they  incur  no  irregularity  cine,  and  it  is  granted  only  when  there  is  no  other 
for  couns^ing  or  performing  mutilation,  because  the  local  surgeon. 

cancmical  "defect  of  mildness"  (see  IrrbgULARITt)  ^AicmtKn,  Compendiwn  Jvrit  ^dmorfW  fBrixen.  1805); 

does  not  apply  to  them.    Should  they  afterwards  wish  J^^^JSiuf                      *^  ^'^'        ^'  "• ""' 

to  receive  sacred  orders,  they  should  be  dispensed  ad  William  H.  W,  Fanning. 
cautdam, 

'  The  toslesiastical  canons  contain  many  and  various  Medina,  Bartbolombw.  Dominican  theologiaii,  b. 

prQSpnptions  concerning  lay  physicians,  which  are  at  Medina,  1527;  d.  at  Salamanca,  1581.   With  Do- 

emiwieiAted  <at  length  by  Ferraris  (op^  dt.  infra),  minico  Soto,  Melchior  Canus,  and  Dominico  Bailez  he 

Thps  pHy^ieians  are  warned  that  they  must  endeavour  studied  theology  at  the  University  of  Salamanca  under 

to  per^hacle'tibeir  patients  to  make  sacramental  con-  the  celebrated  professor  Francis  Vittoria.   His  life  was 

fession  of  theirsins  (cap.Cum Infirmitas,  13,  de  pcenit.).  devoted  almost  entirely  to  teaching  theology  at  Sabr 


BBDDfA  144  BBDZTATIOK 

man(»,,  first  in  the  chair  of  Durandus.  afterwards  as  Medina  sajTs  "that  absolution  given  by  an  ezoom- 

princii>al  professor.    He  was  appointea  to  the  "  cathe-  municated  priest  is  invalid  " ;  and  again,  J'  at  a  time  of 

dra  primaria"  after  a  successful  ooncursus,  in  public,  necessity  (articulo  necessitatis)  any  priest,  not  sus- 

against  the  learned  Augustinian,  John  of  Guevara,  pended  or  excommunicated,  can  absolve  any  person". 

Although  he  was  well  versed  in  Greek  an^.  Hebrew,  he  His  opinions  on  the ''  materia  "  for  sacramentaj  absolu- 

loved  theology  more,  and  all  his  writings  preserved  are  tion,  and  on  the  "  Copia  confessariorum  "  seem  opposed 

theologicaL  being  principally  commentaries  on  the  to  the  teaching  of  the  council  on  these  points.  Alvaret 

Summa  of  St.  Thomas.    He  is  usually  called  the  Gomes  and  Andrea  Schott  state  that  Medina  was 

Father  of  Probabilism.    Writers  are  divided  as  to  his  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Hdefonsus.    Tlie  fint  lines 

teaching  on  this  important  question  of  moral  theologv.  of  the  epitaph  on  his  tomb  are :  ^ 
Some  hold  that  he  did  not  introduce,  but  merely  Complutense  decus  jaoet  hie,  attende  viator, 

formulated,  Probabilion  when  he  wrote: "  It  seems  to  Ter  timiulimi  lustra,  ter  pia  thura  crema 

me  that  if  an  opinion  is  probable,  it  may  be  foUowed.  Hoc  moriente  silet  vox,  qua  non  darior  unquam 

even  thou^  the  opposite  opinion  be  more  probable'  Compluti  fulsit,  nee  fuit  iUa. 

(I~II,  q.  XIX,  a.  6).   Others  say  he  proposed  that  prin-  Many  editions  of  Medina's  works  were  printed  in  the 

dple  in  the  abstract  (speculative),  restricting  it  in  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.    His  brother  John 

practice  so  that  there  was  no  departure  from  rules  of  de  Medina  brought  out  the  theological  books  at  AlcaU 

conduct  formerlv  followed.   Others  still,  e.  g.  Echard,  in  1544  and  sqa.;  Salamanca,  1555;  Ingoldstadt,  1681; 

followed  bv  Billuart,  maintain  that  the  ^stem  pro-  Brescia,  159G-1606;  Cologne,  1607  etc. 

posed  by  Medina  differed  greatly  from  Probabilism  as  ,  ^9f^^^^^^**J*  Medina;  db  Cabtra.  p«  poteti  Ugis  (Lyoium 

!th^  b^n  ^plained  by  ite  later  defendere,  and  they  ISSir^^JS^S'B'SSyS^SrSSSoJlTSS/^ 

ote  its  defimtion:  "  that  opmion  is  probable  which  is  BtbUoikeea  Hitp.  (Rome,  1672).  ^^ 

held  bv  wise  men  and  is  supported  by  first-class  argu-  Gbegort  Clbabt. 

ments'*.  Hurter  (Nomencl.)  writes:  "He  seems  to 
have  led  the  way  to  Probabilism".  Echard  admits, 
with  Vincent  Baron,  0.  P.,  that  Medina  opened  the 

way  for  a  flood  of  probabilistic  theories,  and  closes  — ^  --^— w-„„—  w.^^  —  «^w  ^w^  *>..«*  v.  .^.  ..»«»<»  *«* 

with  the  declaration:  St.  Thomas  is  our  Master,  othen  Angelia  at  Homachuelos,  in  the  Sierra  Morena.    After 

only  in  so  far  as  they  follow  his  teaching.    Probabil-  *"«  profession  he  went  to  the  college  of  SS.  Peter  and 

ionsts  are  imwilling  to  admit  that  Medina  is  against  P*^  **  AlcalA.   He  received  the  doctor's  degree  from 

them;  probabilists  are  loath  to  admit  that  he  pro-  ^  oitjr  of  Toledo;  and  in  1550  he  was  unanimously 

posed  a  new  doctrine,  or  do  not  wish  to  give  to  him  all  elected  to  the  chair  of  Holy  Scripture  m  the  University 

the  credit  of  introducing  a  new  system  for  forming  the  <>'  AksaW.   In  1560  Philip  II  sent  him  to  the  Council  of 

conscience  in  doubtful  cases.  The  following  is  a  lut  of  Trent;  onhisretumhe  became  superior  of  St.  John's 

his  most  important  works:  "  Commentaria  in  primam  o^  ^^  Kings  at  Toledo.   In  1553  the  "  Commentaries  " 

secundffi"  (Salamanca,  1577);  "Commentaria  in  ter-  ©^  ^ohn  Ferns  were  published  in  Rome  after  a  strict 

tiam  partem,  a  Q.  1  ad  60"   (Salamanca.  1584);  examination.    Dominicus  a  Soto  published  at  Salar 

"Breve  instruction  de  comme  se  ha  administrar  el  manca  a  work  censuring  Ferus's  commentaries,  aelect- 

sacramento  de  la  penitenda"  (Salamanca,  1580).  ing  sfarty-seven  passases  as  deserving  censure,  and 

QuimT'^cajatD,88.0rd.Praed.Al,2B6;BoiBDnof9,ThA>ne9  dedicated  them  to  Yaldds,  Arehbishop  of  Seville, 

if  tifUhne»  det  probabUiUM  en  thMogiemoraU  (Fribourg,  1894),  6.  MpHitih.  took  up  the  defence  of  Fenis,  which  was  pub- 

D.  J.  Kennedy.  Ughed  at  Alcali  (1567, 1578);  and  Mains  (1672).   This 

literary  controversy — ^for  no  doubts  were  entertained 

Medina,  Juan  de,  theologian:  b.  1490;  d.  1547;  he  ©^  ^  orthodoxy  of  Biiedinar-a«tated  the  Spanish 
occupied  the  first  rank  among  the  theologians  of  the  People.  A  process  was  instituted  agamst  Medma  in 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  bom  at  Medina  de  Pomar  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  at  Totedo.  He  was  cast 
in  the  Province  of  Burgos,  and  not  at  AlcaU  as  ^^  prison,  where  for  more  than  five  years  he  was 
some  writers  state.  Very  little  has  been  written  Bubjected  to  great  sufiFering  and  privations.  His  tem- 
about  his  life  though  he  is  repeatedly  quoted  and  Po^al  afflictions  and  the  rigour  of  his  life  brcoght  on  a 
praised  by  several  theologians  of  his  time.  He  en-  severe  lUness,  and  the  inquisitor-general  gave  ordera 
tered  the  CoUege  of  St.  Hdefonsus  at  AlcaU,  20  May,  V^*  Medina  was  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Convent  of  St, 
1516,  took  doctor's  degrees  in  philosophy  and  theol-  Jo*?  s  of  the  Kings,  where  evenrthing  possible  was  to 
ogy,  and  soon  after  was  made  canon  and  master  of  "^  ^^^e  ^  preserve  his  hfe.  Before  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
theology  at  the  university.     He  was  selected  as  ment,  he  made  his  profusion  of  faith,  calling  God  to 


twenty  years,  Medina  filled  his  position  with  the  grealr  Inquisition  issued  a  decree  declaring  that  the  accusa- 

est  distinction.    Alvarez  Gomes  says  that  Medina  had  ^^J^ns  brought  against  Medina  were  without  founda- 

a  wonderful  power  of  presenting  the  most  intricate  tion.   His  prmcipal  works  are:   '(pmstianiBpanBnesis 

questions  in  a  simple  and  clear  style  so  that  his  pupils  ?7®  ,^®.,^?^  *^  Deum  fide  libn  septem"  {Venice^ 

had  no  difficulty  in  understanding  him—"  nihil  esset  1^^)  J     Disputationes  de  mdulgentus  adversus  nostr 

tam  perplexum  aut  obscurum  quod  vel  taidissimus  tempons  hareticos  ad  PP.  s.  Concilii  Trident."  (Ven- 

non  assequeretiu-".    His  love  of  study  impaired  his  i^»  1564);  "De  sacrorum  hommum  contmentia  hbrt 

health  and  he  died  at  the  age  of  fiftynaeven  years.  V     fVemce,  1569),  written  a^inst  those  who  advo- 

Medina's  works  are  principally  on  moral  theology  and  cated  the  necessity  of  permitting  the  German  priests 

ethics.    Some  of  his  opimons  were  not  in  acco^ance  J?iJot*o^  "^®  example  of  the  Greeks  in  this  matter; 

with  the  doctrine  propounded  at  the  CouncU  of  Trent.  ^  ^  i«ne  purgatpno  "  (Vemoe,  1569) ;  "  De  la  verda^ 

The  "DiccionarioEnciclop.Hiapano-Americano"  says  dera  y  cristiana  humilida^"  ^^ 

that  hktreatise  "  de  Pcenk^^^^  on  the  Index  uA^^'St  f.^Ji'  SSa'^'^.ttlTiSi'lSKSKite 

?ublished  m  1707;  the  edition  of  the  Index  pnnted  m  Fnneiacana  (Madrid,  1732);   db  Castro;  ScHorr,  Hitpanm 

711  does  not  give  Medina's  work,  nor  does  any  of  the  Bibiioih^  (F>wildprt,  l60d);  NioolXb  Axtokxo,  Bih^fKmA 

subsequent  editions.    The  Councal  of  Trent  declares  Sffigr*'     ^' ^~^  •''*'*^r»S^^^ 

that  at  the  hour  of  death  there  is  no  ''reservatio"  and  *^*  ^^^^'  Gmookt  Cmakt. 

that  all  priests  can  absolve  "in  articulo  mortis".       Meditation.    See  Pb^tbb. 


MEDKANO 


145 


t  aa: 


liadnmo,  Francisco,  Spanish  lyric  poet,  b.  in 
Seville,  not  to  be  confounded  with  Sebasti^  Francisco 
de  Medrano  who  was  also  a  |X)et  and  lived  at  about  the 
same  time.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  un- 
known, but  he  lived  durine  the  latter  part  of  the  six- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  centuriea 
Little  18  known  of  nis  life  except  that  he  visited  Rome. 
His  works  were  published  at  ralermo  (1617)  as  an  ap- 
pendix to  the  imitation  of  Ovid's  "  De  Remedio  Amo- 
ris"  by  Pedro  Venegas,  a  poet  of  Seville.  According 
to  the  Spanish  critic  Adolfo  de  Castro,  Medrano  is  the 
best  of  the  Spanish  imitators  of  Horace,  comparing 
favourably  in  that  respect  with  Fray  Luis  de  Le^n. 
Endowed  with  literary  taste,  he  writes  in  good  Span- 
ish, and  his  style  is  free  from  the  eongorism  of  his  tune. 
Among  the  odes  of  Medrano,  his  *'La  profec(a  del 
Tajo"  is  ver^  similar  to  one  of  Fray  Luis  de  Le6n  of 
the  same  title.  Although  both  are  based  upon  Hor- 
ace's ode  to  Mark  Antony  in  which  he  would  separate 
him  and  Cleopatra,  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
them.  Le6n's  ode  departs  from  the  original  of  Horace, 
while  Medrano's  is  an  imitation  of  the  latter  so 
close  as  to  amount  almost  to  a  translation.  The 
poema  of  Medrano  are  reprinted  in  *'  La  Biblioteca  de 

Autores  Eepanoles".  

BiblioUea  de  AutortB  EtpaAolea,  Vob.  XXXII,  XXXV,  and 
XUI  (Madrid.  1848-86). 

Ventura  Fubntes. 

Medulid,  Andreas,  Croatian  painter  and  engraver, 
called  by  Italian  authors  Medola,  Medula,  Schiavone, 
Schiaon,  etc.,  b.  at  Sibenik,  Dalmatia,  1522;  d.  at 
Venice,  1582.  The  son  of  poor  parents,  Andreas  was 
aocustmned,  while  still  a  ooy,  to  study  closely  the 
pictures  and  woodwork  on  the  walls  of  the  chiuiches 
and  public  buildings  of  his  native  town,  and,  on  his 
return  home,  to  sketch  on  paper  all  that  he  had  seen. 
So  tireless  was  his  devotion  to  his  drawing  that  his 
father  took  him  to  Venice,  and  there  entrusted  him 
to  his  godfather,  Rooco,  a  painter  of  very  Httle  merit. 
Under  Rooco  Medulid,  first  as  apprentice  and  then  as 
salaried  assistant,  coippelled  to  work  from  early 
morning  till  evening  to  procure  bare  nourishment  and 
clothing,  strove  to  peitect  himself  in  his  art.  He 
began  by  studying  and  copying  the  works  of  the  then 
renowned  painter,  Francesco  Mazzuola  (known  as 
Parmigiano),  and  the  paintings  of  Titian.  From 
these  celebrated  painters  Medulid  learned  that  grace 
and  delicate  lightness  of  touch,  that  animation  of  col- 
our, which  constitute  the  pre-eminent  characteristics 
of  nis  own  pictures.  Wnile  still  joung  in  years, 
chance  procuied  for  him  the  acouamtance  of  Pietro 
Aretino,  conmionly  known  as  "tne  Divine"  and  the 
"scoum  of  princes"  (Flagellum  principum),  from 
whom  Meduhd  received  always  a  most  Iriendly  re- 
ception and  much  valuable  instruction.  About 
this  time  Medulid  began  to  copy  the  engravings  of 
Parmigiano,  the  first  to  execute  pictures  on  copper 
with  nitric  acid.  J.  Paolo  Lomazzo,  contemporary 
painter  and  writer,  states  that  Parmieiano  was 
Medulid's  instructor  in  this  branch.  Medulid,  how- 
ever, was  no  mere  imitator;  the  individual  character 
of  his  painting  &Lve  rise  to  a  special  school  in  Venice, 
the  "  »;uola  di  Schiavone  ". 

Tintoretto  was  not  ashamed  to  work  with  the  needy 
youth,  to  assist  hhn,  and  even  to  study  his  beautifm 
style  of  colouring,  recommending  in  writing  all  paint- 
ers to  study  colour  from  MeduBd's  pictures,  adding 
that  ''every  painter  is  blameworthy,  who  does  not 
possess  at  least  one  picture  of  Medulid's  in  his  studio." 
Among  those  who  occasionally  purchased  his  pictures 
and  greatly  prized  them,  was  Titian  himself  who 
when  commissioned  by  the  Venetian  Government  to 
choose  the  best  painters  in  Venice  to  decorate  with 
muni  paintings  the  public  library  of  St.  Mark,  in- 
cluded Medulid '&  name  with  those  of  Tintoretto,  Paul 
Veronese,  Battista  Zelotti,  Giuseppe  Salviati,  and 
Battista  Franco.  M^iulid  retained  throughout  life 
X.— 10 


ereat  veneration  for  Titian  and  is  indeed  proclaimed 
By  many  authors  (Filibeau,  Rahmdor,  Nailer)  his 
most  celebrated  imitator.  For  the  Ruzzini  family  in 
Venioe,  Medulid  painted  the  "Baptism  of  Jesus", 
but  the  subdued  colouring  cannot  bear  comparison 
with  his  other  artistic  achievements.  For  the  Pelle- 
grini he  painted:  "Jesus  at  Emmaus  with  Luke  and 
Cleophas  ,  for  colour  one  of  the  0«atest  masterpieces 
of  the  Venetian  school;  "Pilate  Washing  his  Hands", 
an  equally  typical  example  of  Medulid's  style;  "Ma- 
donna with  child  in  the  Desert,  with  St.  Joseph  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist".  For  the  Gussoni  he  painted 
"St.  Cecilia  Playins  the  Organ"  (half  length),  with 
two  attendant  angels,  and  "Madonna  Presenting  her 
Son  to  Holy  Simeon  ".  In  the  house  of  the  Priuli  in 
the  Via  San  Salvadore,  Medulid  painted  in  fresco  some 
scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  John;  for  the  Foscarini  the 
"Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost".  A  great  number  of 
works,  now  scattered  throughout  the  world,  were 
painted  for  the  churches  of  Venice  and  other  cities  and 
tor  individual  collectors.  On  22  May,  1 563,  the  j udges 
from  among  the  celebrated  painters  of 


'enice  to  decide  the  process  of  the  brothers  Zuccati 
were  Titian,  Jacob  of  Pistoia,  Andreas  Medulid,  Paul 
Veronese,  and  Tintoretto.  Medulid  also  worked  with 
nitric  acid  on  copper,  and,  according  to  some  author- 
ities, was  the  first  to  engrave  with  a  dry  needle.  His 
etchings  are  highly  praised  for  their  special  elegance, 
beauty,  and  vigour;  among  his  best  works  of  this  class 
may  oe  mentioned,  "Moses  Saved  by  Pharaoh's 
Daughter",  "Abduction  of  the  Trojan  Helen",  "Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul",  "Curing  of  the  Lame  Man"  (after 
Raphael).  Medulid  died  m  poverty,  leavine  scarcely 
sumcient  to  pay  for  his  interment  in  the  cnurch  of 
St.  Luke  at  Venice.  The  following  works  must  be 
placed  in  the  same  rank  as  the  pictures  of  Titian 
nimself:  "The  Last  Supper"  in  the  Borghese  Palace, 
Rome;  "Madonna  and  Child,  with  Sts.  Francis  and 
Jerome"  in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts,  Venice; 
"Jesus  Bound  Between  a  Malefactor  and  Two  Sol- 
diers" at  Paris;  "Pilate  Washing  his  Hands"  in  the 
Royal  Academy,  Venice. 

Gaodrt,  Deacnplum  of  the  PietureM  at  the  Earl  of  Pembroke* a 
Houee  at  Wilton  (London,  1751);  Pilkinoton,  The  Qentleman*» 
artd  Connoieeeure  •  Dictionary  of  Paintere  (London,  1708) ; 
Fo^iKL.  Etchinae  after  Draitinge  and  Enqravingeb\/Parme(fianino 
atui  AfeUoUa  (London,  1822);  Basan,  xHcCumnatre  deegraveure 
aneiene  et  modemee  (Paris.  1767);  BRUiiUor,  Dictionnafre  de 
Monogrammee,  etc.  (Munich,  1832);  UmBcamo^Nachrichtenvon 
eehenaipikrdigen  Oemdlden  undKupfereticheamnUtm^en  inDetUeeh- 
land  (Erlangen.  1786);  Naolbb.  Neuee  aOgemeinea  Kiknailer' 
Uxikon  (Munich,  1835-^52);  Kukulxevk?,  Andreae  MeduiiS 
Schiavone  (Zagreb,  1863);  Px£Zou,  Elogio  di  Andrea  Schiavone 
(Venice.  1840r 

Aiythont-Lawrence  Qancsvi(5. 

Meehan,  Charles  Patrick,  Irish  historical  writer 
and  translator,  b.  in  Dublin,  12  July,  1812;  d.  there  14 
March,  1890.  His  parents,  natives  of  Ballymahon, 
Co.  Longford,  where  his  ancestors  for  thirteen  centu- 
ries were  custodians  of  the  Shrine  of  St.  Molaise,  now 
one  of  the  most  famous  relics  in  the  Royal  Irish  Acad- 
emy, Dublin,  sent  him  to  the  Irish  College,  Rome,  to 
study  for  the  priesthocxi.  Ordained  priest  in  1834,  he 
returned  to  Ireland,  then  in  enjoyment  of  five  years  of 
Catholic  Emancipation.  His  first  mission  was  the 
rural  parish  of  Rathdrum  in  Wicklow,  from  which  he 
was  soon  transferred  to  the  metropolitan  parish  of  Sts. 
Michael  and  John,  where  he  remamed  until  his  death. 
While  working  zealously  in  the  ministry,  he  was  un- 
tiring in  historical  research.  From  materials  gathered 
while  in  Wicklow,  he  compiled  a  ''History  of  the 
OTooles,  Lords  Powerscourt'',  published  without  his 
name  and  long  out  of  print.  His  other  works,  with 
date  of  publication  are: ''  Histonr  of  the  Confederation 
of  Kilkenny"  (1846);  "The  Geraldines,  their  Rise, 
Increase  and  Ruin"  (1847);  translation  of  Man- 
soni's  "La  Monaca  di  Monza"  (1848),  out  of  print; 
"  Portrait  of  a  Christian  Bishop,  Life  and  Death  of  the 
Most  Rev.  Francis  Kirwan,  Bishop  of  Killala,  trana- 


146 

lated  from  the  Latin  of  Archdeacon  John  Lynch"    been  the  Megarian  designation  for  the  unchangeable 


(1852),  out  of  ^nt;  "  Fate  and  Fortimee  of  the  Earls  practical  portion  of  their  teaching  the  Megarians  em- 

of  Tyrone  and  Tyroonnell"  (1868);  "  Rise  and  Fall  of  phasised  the  supremacy  of  the  notion  of  goodness, 

the  Irish  Franciscan  Monasteries  and  Memoirs  of  the  Knowledge,  Socrates  taught,  is  the  onlv  virtue;  it  is 

Irish  Hierarchy  in  the  Seventeenth  Century"  (1870).  identical  with  moral  exceUence.    The  highest  object 

These  works,  all  published  in  Dublin,  have  earned  of  knowledge  is  the  highest  good.   But,  as  the  Eleatics 

renown,  and,  except  those  marked  out  of  print,  have  taught,  the  highest  object  of  knowledge  is  the  highest 

S^ne  through  numerous  revised  editions.      Father  reafity,  being.   Therefore,  Uie  Megarians  conclude,  the 

eehan  wrote  "  Tales  for  the  Young  ",  and  translated  highest  f^oS  and  the  highest  reiuity  are  one  and  the 

others   which  he   named   "Flowers   from   Foreign  same.     Whatever  Parmenides  predicated  of  being. 

Fields".    He  edited  Davis's  "  Essavs  "  (1883),  Man-  namely  oneness,  immutability,  etc.,  may  be  predicated 

can's  "Essays  and  Poems"  (1884),  and  Madden's  of  the  good  also.   The  good  is  insight,  reason,  God;  it 

"Literary  Remains  of  the  United  Irishmen"  (1887).  alone  exists.    In  order  to  defend  these  tenets,  which 

He  also  wrote  some  graceful  verse,  which  is  to  be  to  the  popular  mind  seemed  not  only  untrue  but  ab- 

found  in  various  anthologies.  surd,  the  Megarians  developed  to  a  high  degree  the  art 

SiLLAHD  in CoiAoZie TForUCSQpi..  1800).  of  disputation.     This  art  (the  eristic  method,   or 

Peter  A.  Sillabd.  method  of  stiife,  as  it  was  called  in  contradistinction 

MMTBchiArt,  Thbofhilb.    See  Oklahoma.  ^  the  heuristic  method,  or  method  of  finding,  advo- 

cated  by  Socrates),  was  introduced  into  philMophy  by 

*  ?*V*"^,^*  titular  see,  suffrMan  to  Corinth^  in  the  Eleatic,  Zew),  sumamed  the  Dialectican.    It  was 

Achaia.    The  city,  which  was  built  on  an  and  strip  of  adopted  m  the  Megarian  School,  and  carried  by  the 

land  between  two  rocks,  had  two  ports,  on  the  Sa^-  followers  of  Euclid  to  a  point  whera  it  ceased  to  serve 

vonic  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  respectively.  In  any  useful  or  even  serious  purpose.   To  EucHd  himself 

toe  eighth  and  seventh  centuries  b.  c,  Me^ra  became  ^e  owe  the  use  of  the  method  of  argumentation  known 

the  metropolis  of  flounshmg  colonies,  the  chief  of  as  the  reductio  ad  absurdum,  which  consists  in  attack- 

which  were  Megam  Hyblsa,  and  Selmus,  in  Sicily,  ing,  not  the  premises,  but  the  conclusion,  of  the  oppo- 

Selymbria,  Chaloedon,  Astakos,  Byzantium,  and  the  nent's  argument  and  showing  the  absurd  consequencew 

Pontic  Heradea.    The  exclusion  of  Megara  from  the  which  follow  if  his  contention  is  admitted.     This 

Attic  market  byPericlw,  in  432,  was  one  cause  of  the  method,  however,  was  germinally  contamed  in  Zeno's 

Peloponnesian  War.    The  Meganan  territory,  already  procedure  by  which,  in  a  series  of  specious  fallacies  he 

very  poor,  was  then  ravaged  year  after  year,  and  in  tad  striven  to  show  that  motion,  change,  and  multi- 

427  Nicias  even  established  a  permanent  post  on  the  plicity  are  illusions. 

island  of  Minoa  over  against  Nissea.     Shortly  before  Plato,  Diahaues.  MpedaUy  Savhittet,  242  B;   ScRuaBx- 

this  Mmvra  had  become  the  birthplace  of  the  Sophist,  ^^hbr-  PUUonjB .  Werke,  11  (Berfin.  1804-10).  2;   Phamtx, 

Eudeides,  a  disciple  of  Socrates  who,  about  the  year  &H?5o^a;Sit'l5S3?'5J*^ 

400  B.  C,  foimded  the  philosophic  school  of  Megara,  1885),  26Osqq.;T0RNBR,  Hx$l.  ofPhilM.  (Boston.  1003).  SSsqq. 

chiefly  famous  for  the  cultivation  of  dialectic.    It  Wiujam  Tuhnkb. 

subsequently  shared  the  political  vicissitudes  of  the  -_^        .               _                »»      ._^  «      j.  ^.       ». 

other  Greek  cities.    About  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  . '  ***f*' A^'''^::'^?^.?'  f  ^M"?*  Benedictme,  b. 

after  Christ,  under  the  Emperor  Anastasius  I,  its  for-  ^  ^^25  at  Clermont:  d.  15  April,  1691,  at  the  monaa- 

tifications  were  restored.    The  names  of  some  early  teiy  of  St.-<3ermam-des-Prfs  near  Pans.  O 

Greek  bishops   of  Megam  are  given  in  Le  Quien,  J^^^j^*^®  became  a  Benedictme  at  the  monastery  of 

''Oriens   Christianus",   II,    205.    In   the   "Notitia  Venddme.    In  1659  he  taught  theolopr  at  Uie  Abbey 

episcopatuum  "  of  Leo  the  Wise  (c.  900),  the  earliest  9^  St.  Denw  and  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  preach- 

authority  of  the  kind  for  this  region,  the  name  of  m-    ^,  1681  he  was  made  pnor  of  the  monastcn^  at 

Megara  does  not  appear.    Numerous  Latin  bishops  ^}^f  ^  9^P?P®"   Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he 

in  ae  Middle  Ages  are  mentioned  in  Eubel,  "Hfe-  J^t^^"^^^  St.-Germam-des-Pr&,  where  he  divided 

larohiacatholicamedufiBvi",  1, 348;  11,208.    Megaia  his  time  between  prayer  and  study.    His  most  impor- 

is  now  a  town  of  6500  inhabitants,  the  capital  of  a  ^*  ^»^"^  groductiwi  is  *;  Commentaire  sur  la  i^le 

deme  of  the  same  name.    On  Easter  Sunday  the  °?  S.  Benott    and  a  MS.  histoiy  of  the  cong^tion 

women  there  perform  an  antique  dance  which  people  of  St.  Maur  from  1610  tiU  1653  (Pans,  168?)     This 

come  from  Athens  to  see.    Not  a  vestige  remains  of  commentapr  is  an  attack  upon  the  rjrons^ 

the  temples  which  Pausanias  described.    Efforts  are  ^^^^  ^[^^f  ™«  %i^  u  *  ^^^  ?^  ^  ^^i^'  *?^ 

made  to  locate  the  acropoles  of  Minoa  and  Nissea  on  ^^s  forbidden  in  1689  by  a  chapter  of  the  Maunst 

various  little  eminences  along  the  coast.  supenors  at  tiie mstonce of  Bossuet.   His otherworks 

RmNGANUM.Do«o/toAf«^m(Bertlii.  1825):  hmAxx.Narthgm  are  a  translation  of  St.  Ambrose  s  treatise  "On  Vir- 

Oreeoe,  II.  388:  Smith,  Did.  Greek  and  Roman  Oeoo-,  II,  310-17.  ginitv    (Paris,  1655) ,    La  Morale  chr^tienne    (Paris, 

S.  Vailh£.  1661),  a  few  ascetical  writing  and  translations. 

Tamxn,  HiaUnre  lUUraire  d$  *a  eongrigaHon  de  SL'Maut 

Megariami. — ^The  Megarian  School  is  one  of  the  (Bnuaeb.  1770).  a.  v.;  LbCbrt,  Biblioih^Qus  hiaiorique  ei  orv- 

imperfectly  Socratic  Schools,  so  caUed  because  they  gK^*(S ^Vwr'.S'.'^iSSI^^ 

de^loped  in  a  one^rided  way  the  doctrines  of  Socrates.  SteiiFalr^MSii^S^^                        canoH^otaan 

TheMegarians,  of  whom  the  chief  representatives  were  Michael  Ott. 

Euclid,  the  foimder  of  the  school,  and  Stilpo,  flour-  Maffiddo.    See  Maoeddo 

i^ed  at  Athens,  during  the  firet  half  of  the  fourth  cen-  ^^ 

tury  B.  c.    Borrowing  from  the  Eleatics,  especially  Mefanran,  formerly  a  Benedictine,  now  a  Cister- 

from  Parmenides,  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  change  cian  Abbey,  is  situated  on  Lake  Constance,  west  of 


lows  from  this  that  the  onlv  realitv  is  the  unchange-  spot  and  built  a  monastery  after  the  model  of  Luxeuil. 

able  essential  nature,  that  toe  world  of  our  sense  expe-  A  convent  for  women  soon  arose  near  the  monastery 

rience  is  an  illusion,  and  that  there  is  nothing  possiole  for  men.    Little  has  been  preserved  of  the  eariy  hi»- 

except  what  actually  exists.    The  aflBrmation  of  the  tory  of  either  foundation  up  to  1079.    In  this  yjBMg 

existence  of  "bodiless  forms'',  which  seems  to  have  the  monastery  was  reformed  by  the  monk  Gottfried^ 


KIIONAN  147  KIILLBUB 

Bent  by  Abbot  William  of  Hirsau,  and  the  Benedictine  at  Chauvign^,  France,  12  April,  1817;  d.  at  Tours,  20 

rule  was  introduced.    It  is  probable  that  when  the  January,  1896.    Having  ascertained  his  vocation  to 

reform  was  effected  the  convent  for  women  was  sup-  the  priesthood,  on  the  completion  of  his  academic 

pressed.    In  1097-98  the  abbey  was  rebuilt  by  Count  studies  at  the  Angers  lycSe  and  at  ChAteau-Gontier,  he 

inrich  of  Bregenz,  its  secular  administrator  and  pro-  studied  philosophy  in  the  seminary  of  Le  Mans,  where 

tector.    During  the  twelftJ^  and  thirteenth  centuries  he  received  the  subdiaconate  in  1839.    From  this  in- 

the  abbey  acquired  much  landed  property;  up  to  the  stitution  he  pasoed  to  the  Ck>lldge  de  Tessd,  which  be- 

middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  had  the  right  of  longed  to  the  Diocese  of  Le  Mans,  where,  while  teach- 

patronage  for  sixty-five  parishes.    In  the  era  of  the  ing  in  one  of  the  middle  grades,  he  continued  his  own 

Kefonnation  the  abbey  was  a  strong  support  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  studies.    All  through  his  career  he  seems 

FaiUi    in   Voraribex^g.    In   particular   Ulrich   Motz,  to  have  been  blessed  with  the  friendship  and  sympa- 

afterwards  abbot,  exerted  much  influence  in  Bregen-  thetic  counsel  of  the  most  eminent  men  among  the 

lerwald  (a  mountainous  district  of  northern  Vorarl-  Catholics  of  his  time  and  country.     The  Abb^  Bercy, 

berg)  by  preaching  with  great  energy  against  the  an  Orientalist  of  some  distinction,  whose  notice  he  at- 

spread  of  religious  innovations  while  he  was  provost  tracted  at  Le  Mans  and  later  at  Tess^,  advised  him  to 

of  Ungenau  (1515-33).    During  the  Thirty  Years  War  make  Scriptural   exegesis    his  special  study.    Mgr 

the  abb€^  suffered  from  the  devastation  wrought  by  Bouvier  ordained  him  priest  (14  June.  1840)  and  sent 

the  Swedes,  from  the  quartering  upon  it  of  soldiers,  him  to  Paris  for  a  further  course  in  pnilosophy  under 

and  from  forced  contributions;  it  was  also  robbed  of  Victor  Cousin.    Meignan  made  the  acquamtance  of 

neariy  all  its  revenues.    Nevertheless,  it  often  offered  Ozanam^  Montalembert,  and  others  like  them,  who 

a  free  refuse  to  religious  expelled  from  Germany  and  urged  him  to  prepare  for  the  special  controversial 

Switzerland.    At  a  later  date  it  was  once  more  in  a  needs  of  the  day  by  continuing  his  studies  in  Germany, 

very  flourishing  condition ;  in  1738  the  church  was  Following  this  advice,  he  became  the  pupil  at  Munich 

completely  rebuilt^  and  in  1774-81  the  monastic  build-  of  such  teachers  as  Gdrres  (q.  v.^,  DOUinger,  and 

in^  were  also  entirely  reconstructed.    The  existence  Windschmann;  and  when  his  earher  attraction  for 

of  Mehrerau  was  threatened,  as  was  that  of  other  re-  Scriptural  studies  was  thoroughl^^  reawakened  under 

Ugious  foundations,  by  the  attacks  upon  monasteries  in  the  stimulus  of  the  then  fresh  Tilbingen  discussions,  he 

the  rei^  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.    However,  Abbot  repaired  to  Berlin  where  he  attended  the  lectures  of 

Benedict  was  able  to  obtain  the  withdrawal  of  the  Neander,  Hengstenberg,  and  Schelling.    In,  or  soon 

decree  of  suppression,  although  it  had  alreadv  been  after  May,  1843,  Meignan  returned  to  Paris  to  be  num- 

signed.    The  reace  of  Presburg  (1805)  gave  Vorari-  bered  among  the  clergy  of  the  archdiocese,  but  was 


berg,  and  with  it  the  abbey,  to  Bavaria,  which  in  April,  soon  (1845)  obliged  to  visit  Rome  for  the  good  of  his 
1806,  took  an  inventory  of  the  abbey.  In  reply  to  the  health,  which  had  become  impaired.  He  seemed  to 
last  attempt  to  save  the  abbey,  namely  the  offer  to  recover  immediately,  and  was  able  to  prosecute  his 
turn  it  into  a  training-school  for  male  teachers,  the  sacred  studies  so  successfully  that  he  won  a  Doctorate 
State  declared  in  August,  1806,  that  on  1  September  of  Theology  at  the  Sapienza  (March,  1846).  Here 
the  monastic  organization  would  be  dissolved  and  the  a^n  he  was  helped  by  the  friendly  interest  and  ad- 
monks  would  lui.ve  to  leave  the  abbey.  The  valuable  vice  of  many  eminent  men,  of  Perrone  and  Gerbet,  as 
library  was  scattered,  part  of  it  was  burnt.  The  well  as  by  the  teaching  of  Passaglia,  Patrizzi,  and 
forest  and  agricultural  lands  belonging  to  the  monas-  Theiner.  Between  this  period  and  1861,  when  he  be- 
tery  were  tal^en  by  the  State;  in  February,  1807,  the  came  professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  at  the  Sorbonne, 
church  was  closed,  and  the  other  buildines  were  sold  at  he  filled  various  academical  positions  in  the  Arch- 
auction.  In  1808-09  the  church  was  taKen  down  and  diocese  of  Paris,  of  which  Mgr  Darboy  made  him 
the  material  used  to  build  the  harbour  of  Landau,  vicar-general  in  1863.  In  1864  he  was  elevated  to 
When  the  district  came  again  under  the  rule  of  Aus-  the  Bishopric  of  Chalons,  in  1882  transferred  to 
tria,  the  monastic  buildings  were  used  for  various  pur-  the  See  of  Arras,  and  in  1884  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
poses.     In  1853  they  were  boucjht  from  the  last  owner,  Tours. 

along  with  some  pieces  of  land  connected  with  them,  By  the  logic  of  circumstances  he  was  one  of  the 

by  the  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey^  of  Wettingen  in  chief  antagonists  of  Ernest  Renan.    In  his  work  he 

Switzeriand  (see  Wettingen).    This  monastery  had  aimed  to  enlighten  the  lay  mind  on  current  topics  of 

been  forcibly  suppressed  by  ^e  Canton  of  Aargau  in  controversy  and,  while  giving  a  knowledge  of  the 

1841,  and  for  thirteen  years  the  abbot  had  been  seeking  assured  results  of  criticism,  to  supply  his  readers  with 

a  new  home;  on  18  October,  1854,  the  Cistercian  Abbey  the  Christian  point  of  view.    His  aggressive  and  tri- 

of  Wettingen-Mehrerau  was  formally  opened.    In  the  umphant  career  as  an  apologist  began  as  early  as  1856 

dame  year  a  monastery  school  was  started.    In  1859  witn  the  publication  of  "  Les  proph^ties  messianiques. 

a  new  Romanesque  church  was  built;  its  greatest  oma-  Le  Pentateuque"  (Paris).    In  1860  appeared  ''M. 

ment  is  the  monument  to  Cardinal  Hergenrdther  (d.  Renan  et  le  Cantique  des  Cantic^ues"  (Paris);  in  1863 

1890),  who  is  buried  there.    About  the  middle  of  the  "M.  Renan  refute  par  les  rationalistes  allemands" 

last  century,  during  the  fifties  and  sixties,  the  build-  (Paris)  and  "  Les  Evangiles  et  la  critique  au  XIXe 

ings  were  gradually  enlarged.    In  1910  besides  the  sidde"  (Paris);  in  1886  '' De Tirr^Iigion syst^matique, 

amwt  (from  1902  Eugene  Notz)  the  abbey  had  32  ses  influences  actuelles "  (Paris);  in  1890  "Salomon, 

priests;  including  those  that  had  been  connected  with  son  rdgne,  ses  Writs''  (Paris) :  in  1892  "  Les  prophdtes 

the  abbey  but  were  at  that  date  engaged  in  work  out-  d'lsra^l  et  le  Messie,  depuis  Daniel  jusqu'^  Jean-Bap- 

side,  64  priests ;  in  addition  there  were  5  clerics,  30  lay  tiste' '  (Paris) .   He  wrote  many  other  works  on  kindred 

brotiiers,  and  4  novices.    The  monastery  has  a  house  topics.    His  treatment  of  Messianic  prophecy  ex- 

of  studies,  and  a  college,  in  which  some  200  pupils  tends  far  beyond  mere  verbal  exegesis,  and  includes 

are  tau^t  by  the  monks  of  the  abbey.    The  period!-  a  critical  examination  of  historical  events  and  condi- 

cal  "Cistercienserchronik",  edited  by  Father  Gregor  tions.    Like  other  great  Catholic  controversialists  of 

Mailer,  has  been  issued  since  1889.  his  time,  he  had  to  suffer  ad  verse  criticism;  these  crit- 

Beromaitn,  Nekrolopium  AuQta  majoria  Brmntina  Ord.  3.  idsms  were  finally  answered  by  the  action  of  Leo 

buJE.  1881).  453-^7,  giva  an  account  of  Wettingen-Mehrerau;  Bowsoxkot,  Le  eard%nal  Mmonan  (Pans.  1809). 

CitUrciofetxhronik  (1904),  289-^13;  Lindner,  Album  Augia  E.  MaCPHEBSON. 
BnarnHnm  (1904) ;  Schematigmw  von  Brixen  (1910). 

Joseph  Lins.  Mellleur,  Jean-Baptistb,  a  French  Canadian  phy- 

MaJgnaa,  Guillauicb-Ren^,  Cardinal  Archbishop  sidan  and  educator,  b.  at  St.  Laurent,  P.  Q.,  9  May, 

of  Tours,  Frendi  apologist  and  Scriptural  ezegete,  b.  1796;  d.  7  Dec,  1878.   He  studied  the  classics  at  th« 


HEINBAD 


148 


Sulpioian  college  of  Montreal,  philosophy  at  Middle- 
bury,  N.  H.,  and  medicine  at  Ue^letown.  Vt.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  flourishing  college  of  L'A»- 
tomption,  P.  Q.  In  1834  he  edited  "  L'Echo  du  pays  " 
and  was  returned  the  same  year  to  the  Lower  Cana- 
dian Parliament.  He  was  the  first  superintendent  of 
education  for  that  province,  an  office  which  he  held 
from  1842  to  1855.  He  assumed  the  arduous  task  of 
enforcing  the  educational  law  framed  by  the  Act  of 
Union  of  the  two  Canadas  (1841),  a  law  which,  owing 
to  prejudice  and  to  undue  political  influence,  was 
highly  unpopular.  Meilleur  thoroughly  organised  the 
Department  of  Ekiucation,  and  witnessed,  before  retir- 
ing from  office,  the  remarkable  progress  achieved  by 
education,  botn  primary  and  classical,  thanks,  in  a 
^eat  measure,  to  the  generous  and  devoted  co-opera- 
tion of  the  dergv.  Besides  contributing  to  different 
periodicals,  articles  on  education,  agriculture,  botanv, 
and  geology,  and  on  medicine  to  the  ''Journal  de 
m^ecine  ",  he  wrote  textbooks  on  French  and  Eng- 
lish grammar  and  correspondence,  and  on  chemistry. 
His  chief  work  is ''  Memorial  de  TEducation  "  (1860),  a 
historjr  of  education  in  Canada.  He  died  the  verjr  day 
on  which  he  was  publicly  to  receive  the  insignia  of 
Officer  of  Public  Instruction  of  France. 

Morgan.  Bibliotheca  eanaderuia  (Ottawa,  1867);  Chauvbau, 
L*  Jnttruetion  publique  au  Canada  (Quebec,  1876);  Le  Cour- 
tier  du  Canada  (Quebec,  1878). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 
Mcfinradf  Saint.    See  Einbiedeln,  Abbey  of. 

Meinwork,  Blessed,  tenth  Bishop  of  Paderbom,  d. 
1036.  Meinwerk  (Meginwerk)  was  oom  of  the  noble 
family  of  the  Immedinger  and  related  to  the  royal  house 
of  Saxony.  His  father  was  Imad  (Immeth),  Count  of 
Teisterlxintand  Radichen,  and  his  mother's  name  was 
Adela  (Adala,  Athela).  In  early  vouth  he  was  dedi- 
cated by  his  parents  to  serve  Goa  in  the  priesthood. 
He  began  his  secular  and  ecclesiastical  studies  at  the 
church  of  St.  Stephen  in  Halberstadt  and  finished 
them  at  the  catheoral  school  of  Hildesheim,  where  he 
had  as  schoolmate  St.  Bemward  of  Hildesheim  and 

Srobably  the  later  Emperor  Henry  II.  After  his  or- 
ination  he  became  a  canon  at  Halberstadt,  then  chap- 
lain at  liie  Court  of  Otto  HI.  Henry  II,  who  greatly 
esteemed  him,  named  him  Bishop  of  Paderbom,  for 
the  express  purpose  of  raising  the  financial  condition 
of  the  impoverished  church.  He  was  consecrated  at 
Goslar,  13  March,  1009,  by  Archbishop  Willigis  of 
Mainz.  For  twentv-seven  years  he  laooured  with 
restless  energy  anci  zeal,  and  deserves  the  title  of 
second  foun£r  of  the  diocese.  His  cathedral  and  a 
large  portion  of  Paderbom  had  been  destroyed  by  a 
conflagration  in  1000;  he  rebuilt  the  cathedral  on  a 
much  grander  scale  and  consecrated  it  on  15  Sept., 
1015.  He  employed  Greek  workmen  to  build  the 
chapel  of  St.  Bartholomew,  which  was  considered 
a  work  of  art.  In  1031  he  founded  the  Abbey  of  Ab- 
dinghof,  for  which  he  obtained  thirteen  Benedictine 
monks  from  the  Abbev  of  Cluny.  Between  the  years 
1033-36,  he  established  the  collegiate  church  for 
canons-regidar  at  Bussdorf.  He  built  an  episcopal 
palace  and  new  walls  for  the  city.  He  divided  nis 
diocese  into  parishes,  caused  the  erection  of  many 
churches  and  chapels,  held  frequent  visitations,  in- 
sisted on  a  clerical  life  amons  his  priests,  observance  of 
rules  in  the  monasteries,  ana  was  much  interested,  not 
only  in  the  spiritual  welfare  of  his  subjects,  but  also  in 
their  temporal  well-being,  for  which  he  introduced  im- 

E roved  methods  in  agriculture,  etc.  According  to  his 
iography  his  own  education  was  not  of  a  high  grade, 
but  he  did  much  for  the  spread  of  knowledge;  he 
called  in  noted  teachers  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  of  other  sciences  and  put  his  cathedral  school  into 
a  flourishing  condition,  which  it  retained  for  many 
years  after  his  death,  many  prominent  men  receiving 
their  education  in  it,  among  others,  Altmann  of  Pas- 
•au,  Anno  of  Cologne,  Frederic  of  MOnster,  and  others. 


To  defray  the  expenses  of  his  buildings  and  charitable 
works,  he  made  use  of  church  festivals,  social  gather- 
ings, and  other  occasions  to  call  upon  the  generosity  of 
kinffs  and  princes,  of  the  rich  ana  noble,  of  the  clergy 
and  of  the  laity,  frequently  importuned  the  emperor 
himself,  relying  upon  his  friendship  and  often  appeal- 
ing to  his  own  labours  for  the  state;  but  he  also  very 
liberally  used  his  personal  means  for  the  benefit  of  tfaie 
Church.  Towsras  his  subjects  Meinwerk  was  fre- 
quently harsh,  but  kind  at  heart,  and^  if  anv  serious 
offence  had  been  (;iven,  he  would  conciliate  tne  party 
by  presents.  Twice  he  made  a  journey  to  .Rome,  the 
first  time  in  1014,  to  assist  at  the  coronation  of  Henxy 
II,  then,  in  1026,  as  companion  of  Otto  III.  On  this 
trip  he  received  from.Wougang,  Patriarch  of  Aquileia, 
the  body  of  St.  Felix  for  Aodinghof .  Similarly  ne  ob- 
tained for  his  diocese,  entirely  or  in  part,  the  relics  of 
Sts.  Valerian,  Minias,  Philip,  Juvenal,  and  of  the  great 
martyr-bishop  Blasius.  His  body  was  buried,  ac- 
cording to  his  wish,  in  the  crypt  of  the  ehurch  of 
Abdinghof .  Abbot  Conrad  von  Allenhause  raised  the 
relics  and  25  April,  1376,  placed  them  in  a  beautiful 
monument  in  the  sanctuary.  This  has  been  con- 
sidered equal  to  a  canonisation,  but  his  feast  is  not 
in  the  Proprium  of  Paderbom  of  1884,  nor  does  the 
schema  of  the  diocese  for  1909  show  any  church, 
chapel,  or  altar  dedicated  to  his  name.  On  the  secular- 
ization of  Abdinghof,  1803,  the  remains  were  brought 
to  the  church  of  Bussdorf.  The  "  Vita  "  (Mon.  Germ. 
SS.,  XI,  104),  written  anonymously  by  a  monk  of  Ab- 
dinghof, soon  after  1150,  is  a  history,  not  a  legend, 
though  somewhat  ornamented  by  legendary  additions. 

(Giesebrecht, "  Deutsche  Kaiserzeit^',  II,  578.) 

Acta  SS.,  June,  1. 600;  Stadleb,  Heiliomlex^'  Wattbnbacb, 
Deutsche  Qesehicktmiudlen,  II.  27,  30;  EbkunOp  Dm  deutwehen 
Biachdfe,  II  (Leipiic.  18^).  346. 

FRANas  Mebshman. 

BSfliaaon,  a  former  see  of  north-east  Germany.  The 
present  city  of  Meissen,  situated  in  the  Kin^om  of 
Saxony  on  botii  banks  of  the  Elbe,  owes  its  ongin  to  a 
castle  Duilt  by  King  Henry  I  about  928  to  protect  Ger- 
man colonists  among  the  Wends.  To  insure  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Christian  missions,  Otto  I  suggested  at  the 
Roman  Synod  of  962  the  creation  of  an  archiepiscopal 
see  at  Magdeburg.  To  this  proposal  John  All  con- 
sented, and,  filiortly  before  the  execution  of  the  plan 
in  968,  it  was  decided  at  the  Synod  of  Ravenna  (967) 
to  create  three  other  sees — ^namelv  MeiBsen^ersbuig, 
and  Zeitz — as  suffragans  of  Magaeburg.  The  year  in 
which  the  Diocese  of  Meissen  was  established  is  not 
known,  the  oldest  extant  records  being  forgeries ;  how- 
ever, the  record  of  endowment  by  Otto  I  in  971  is  gen- 
uine. The  first  bishop,  Burchard  (d .  969) ,  established 
a  foimdation  (moruutenum)  which  in  the  courae  of  the 
eleventh  century  developed  a  chapter  of  canons.  In 
1346  the  diocese  stretched  from  the  Erzgebirse  in  the 
south  to  the  mouth  of  the  Neisse  and  to  the  Quels,  on 
the  east  to  the  Oder,  on  the  north  to  the  middle  course 
of  the  Spree.  It  embraced  the  five  provostries  of 
Meissen,  Riesa,  Wurzen.  Grossenhain,  and  Bautzen, 
the  four  archdeaneries  of  Nisani  (Meissen),  Chemnitz, 
ZschUlen  (Wechselburg),  and  Niederlausitz,  and  the 
two  deaneries  of  Meissen  and  Bautzen.  Poorly  en- 
dowed in  l^e  beginning,  it  appears  to  have  acquired 
later  lai^  estates  under  Otto  III  and  Heniy  II. 

The  chief  task  of  the  bishops  of  the  new  see  was  the 
conversion  of  Uie  Wends,  to  which  Bishops  Volkold 
(d.  992)  and  Eido  (d.  1015)  devoted  themselves  with 
great  zeal ;  but  the  work  of  evangelization  was  slow, 
and  was  yet  incomplete  when  the  investiture  conflict 
threatened  to  arrest  it  effectively.  St.  Benno  (1066- 
1106),  bishop  at  the  time  when  these  troubles  were 
most  serious,  was  appointed  by  Henry  IV  and  ap- 
pears to  have  been  m  complete  accord  with  the  em- 
peror until  1076;  in  that  year,  however,  although  he 
nad  taken  no  part  in  the  Saxon  revolt,  he  was  impris- 
oned by  Henry  for  nine  months.    Escaping,  he  joined 


149 


the  Saxon  princes,  espoused  the  cause  of  Gregory  VII, 
and  in  IO80  took  part  in  the  Gregorian  Synod  of  Qued- 
linburg,  for  whicn  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  by  the 
emperor,  a  more  imperially  aisposed  bishop  being  ap- 
pointed in  his  place.  On  tne  death  of  Gregory,  Bemio 
made  peace  with  Henry,  and,  being  reappointed  to  his 
fonnersee  in  1086,  devoted  himself  entirely  to  mission- 
aiy  work  among  the  Slavs .  Among  his  successors,  Her- 
wig.(d.  1119)  sided  with  the  pope,  Godebold  with  the 
emperor.  In  the  thirteenth  centuj^y  the  pasan  Wends 
were  finally  converted  to  Christianity,  chiefly  throudi 
the  efforts  of  the  great  Cistercian  monasteries,  the 
most  important  of  which  were  Dobrilugk  and  Neu- 
selle.  J^on^  the  convents  of  nuns  Heifigenkreuz  at 
Meissen.  Manental  near  Zittau,  Marienstem  on  the 
White  Elster,  and  Mflhlberg  deserve  mention .  Among 
the  later  bishops,  who  were  after  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury princes  of  the  empire,  the  most  notable  are  Wit- 
tigo  I  (1266-93)  and  John  I  of  Eisenbei^  (1340-71). 
The  former  began  the  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral, 
in  which  are  buried  nine  princes  of  the  House  of  Wet- 
tin  ;  the  latter,  as  notary  and  intimate  friend  of  the 
Margrave  of  Meissen,  afterwards  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV,  protected  the  interests  of  his  church  and  increased 
the  revenues  of  the  diocese.  During  the  latter 's  ad- 
ministration, in  1344,  Prague  was  made  an  archiepis- 
oopal  see. 

In  1365  Urban  V  appointed  the  Archbishop  of 
Prague  legahu  nofus,  or  perpetual  representative  of  the 
Holy  See,  for  the  Dioceses  of  Meissen,  BambeiiK,  and 
Regensbuiig  (Ratisbon) ;  the  opposition  of  Ma^eburg 
made  it  impossible  to  exerdse  m  Meissen  the  privileges 
of  this  office,  and  Meissen  remained,  though  under 
protest,  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  tne  Metropolitan 
of  Magaebuiig.  John's  successor,  John  II  of  Jenstein 
(1376-9),  who  resigned  Meissen  on  his  election  to  the 
See  of  Prague,  Nicholas  I  (1379-92),  John  III  (1393-8), 
and  Thimo  of  Colditz  (1399-1410)  were  appointed  di- 
rectly from  Rome,  which  set  aside  the  elective  rigihts 
of  t^e  cathedral  chapter.  Thimo^  a  Bohemian  by 
birth,  neglected  the  diocese  and  ruined  it  financially. 
Margrave  WUliam  I  of  Saxony  prevailed  on  Boniface 
IX  in  1405  to  free  Meissen  from  the  authoritv  of  the 
metropolitan  and  to  place  it  directly  imder  the  Holy 
See.  The  illustrious  Bishop  Rudolf  von  der  Planitz 
(1411-27),  through  wise  regulations  and  personal  sac- 
rifices, brought  order  out  of  chaos.  The  Hussite 
wars  caused  great  damage  to  the  diocese,  then  ruled 
over  by  John  TV  Hofmann  (1427-51);  imder  the  gov- 
ernment of  ^e  able  brothers  Caspar  (1451-63)  and 
Dietrich  of  SchOnberig  (1461-76),  it  soon  recovered, 
and  on  Dietrich's  deatn  tliere  was  a  fund  of  8800  gold 
florins  in  the  episcopal  treasury.  John  V  of  Weissen- 
bach (1476-87)  throu^  his  mania  for  building  and  his 
travels  soon  spent  this  money,  and  left  a  heavy  bur- 
den of  debt  on  the  diocese.  John  VI  of  Salhausen 
( 1488-1518)  further  impoverished  the  diocese  through 
his  obstinate  attempt  to  obtain  full  sovereignty  over 
his  see,  which  brougnt  him  into  constant  conffict  with 
Duke  George  of  Saxony;  his  spiritual  administration 
was  also  open  to  censuro.  John  VII  of  Schleinits 
(1518-37)  was  a  resolute  opponent  of  Luther,  whose 
revolt  b^gan  in  the  neighbouring  Wittenbei^,  and, 
conjointly  with  George  of  Saxony,  endeavoured  to 
crush  the  innovations.  The  canonization  of  Beimo 
(1523),  urged  by  him,  was  intended  to  offset  the  prog- 
ress of  the  Lutheran  teaching.  John  VIII  of  Maltitz 
(1537-49)  and  Nicholas  II  of  Carlowitz  (1549-55)  were 
unable  to  withstand  the  ever-spreading  Reformation, 
which,  after  the  death  of  Duke  George  (1539),  tri- 
umphed in  Saxony  and  gained  ground  even  among 
the  canons  of  the  cathedral,  so  that  the  diocese  was  on 
the  verge  of  dissolution.  The  last  bishop,  John  of 
Haugwitz  (1555-81),  placed  his  resignation  in  the 
han<u  of  the  cathedral  chapter  in  virtue  of  an  agree- 
ment with  Elector  Augustus  or  Saxony,  went  over  to 
Protestantism,  married,  and  retired  to  the  castle  of 


Ruhetal  near  MOgeln.  The  electors  of  Saxony  took 
over  the  administration  of  the  temporalities  of  the 
diocese  which  in  1666  were  finally  adjudged  to  them. 
The  canons  turned  Protestant,  and  such  monasteries 
as  still  existed  were  secularised,  their  revenues  and 
buildings  being  devoted  principally  to  educational 
works.  (For  thepresent  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Lau- 
sitz-Meissen  see  Saxont.) 

Urkundbuch  de*  HocfutiftM  MeUatn,  ed.  QaBSi>ORr  (3  vob., 
Leipsig.  VBKAr^),  in  the  Codex  DiphmaticuM  Saxonia  Rtoia: 
M^CBATSCBBK,  Gtach.  der  Butch/ife  aea  HoehstifU  Meiaaen  (Dras- 
deD,  1884) ;  yon  Bruk  (yon  Kauftunobn).  Dcm  Domkapitei  von 
M.  im  MtttelalUr  (Meisaea.  1902);  Mitteti,  dee  VemnefHrQem^ 
der  Stadt  M.  (8  vols.,  MeisMui.  1882-1010);  Neuee  Archiv  for 
tOcheiache  Ouch,  (Dresden,  1880—). 

Joseph  Linb. 

Iffsiuoiiior,  Ernbst,  French  painter,  b.  at  Lyons 
21  February,  1815;  d.  at  Paris,  31  Januar^r,  1891.  If 
the  Lyonnese  genius  in  painting  is  found  in  such  ar- 
tists as  Chenavard,  Flandrin,  Puvis  de  Chavazmes,  and 
in  such  landscape  painters  as  Ravier,  Meissonier  does 
not  belong  to  this  family.  At  an  eariy  age  his  parents 
took  him  to  Paris  where  they  set  up  chemical  works 
in  the  Marais.  A  family  friend  introduced  him  to  the 
much  frequented  studio  of  L^on  Cogniet  (1794-1880). 
His  first  efforts  date  from  1831.  These  are  portraits, 
generally  busts,  of  the  bourgeois  of  the  nei^Dourhood 
(there  is  one  at  the  Louvre),  life-size,  and  somewhat 
commonplace  in  execution.  At  the  S(uon  of  1834  there 
appearea  a  more  significant  picture,  the  ''  Visit  to  the 
Burgomaster's",  three  middle-class  Hollandere  in 
eighteenth-century  costume,  seated  at  a  table  and 
smoking.  Herein  the  painter  for  the  first  time  at- 
tempted those  small  genre  subjects  in  costumes  of  the 
past  whose  pleasing  picturesqueness  was  to  contribute 
so  much  to  his  fame.^  But  lame  was  to  be  delayed; 
for  ten  years  Meissonier  had  to  earn  his  living  by  il- 
lustration; and  so  he  made  vignettes  for  a  number  of 
works,  to-day  much  sought  after  as  "  romantic  edi- 
tions'^  "Paul  et  Virginie",  Lamartine's  "ChAte  d'un 
Ange"  (1839),  *'Le  Vicaire  de  Wakefield"  and  "Les 
Frangais  peints  par  eux-mdmes  "  (1840-42).  Byde< 
grees,  however,  tne  young  artist  attracted  attention. 
Between  the  "  classicists",  or  partisans  of  Ingr^  and 
the  "romanticists"  ardent  followers  of  Delacroix,  he 
found  favour  with  a  public  rather  indifferent  to  the 
quarrels  of  the  schools  and  very  willing  to  become 
acquainted  with  a  style  of  art  which  did  not  require  so 
much  thought.  In  fact  Meissonier  seems  to  have  quite 
ignored  these  great  movements.  A  contemporary  of 
many  artistic  controversies,  e.  g.,  the  renovation  of  art 
by  the  school  of  Barbison  and  the  wonderful  natural- 
istic revolution  inaugurated  by  Paul  Huet,  Corot,  and 
Rousseau,  he  seems  a  stranger  to  all  these  interests 
and  passions. 

There  was  on  the  other  hand  a  small  genre  school, 
to-day  somewhat  forgotten,  that  of  Eugdne  Isabey, 
Eugene  Lami,  C^lestin  Nanteuil.  and  the  brothers 
Johannot,  which  was  occupied  witn  representing  small 
scenes  of  mannere  in  the  quaint  every-day  costume 
of  the  Middle  Ages  or  the  Renaissance.  They  were 
pleasing  extemporizera,  skillful  and  brilliant  story- 
tellers who  put  on  canvas,  often  with  spirit,  the  hia- 
toric  bric-a-orac  popularised  by  Walter  Scott.  To 
this  important  school  Meissomer  attached  himself. 
But  he  aid  so  in  a  very  original  manner,  bringing  with 
him  individual  methods,  aims,  and  talents,  which 
marked  him  out  among  his  contemporaries.  He  was 
obviously  inspired  by  the  Dutch,  and  he  set  himself  to 
paint  with  tne  same  composure,  conscientiousness, 
and  perfection  as  Terboroh,  Mi^ris,  or  Gerard  Dow.  It 
was  a  stroke  of  genius  to  choose  as  models  these  men 
who  are  among  the  best  masters  of  painting,  and  this 
at  a  time  when  Romanticism  had  begun  to  overload  its 
canvases  with  violence  and  excesses.  Besides,  these 
artists  had  been  for  a  long  time  greatlv  esteemed  by 
collectors,  and  by  suggesting  relationship  with  them 
Meissonier  increased  his  chances  of  success  with  am- 


150 


KmSOMlIB 


wAean.  Htweover  no  other  manner  suited  so  weU  the 
■peci&l  faculties  of  Meisftonier,  his  extmordimtry  gift  of 
oMervation  and  his  almost  absolute  lack  of  imagina- 
tion. But  he  waa  clever  enough  to  restore  genre 
painting  and  to  blend  imitation  with  invention;  thus, 
for  Dutch  aubjecta  be  substituted  those  of  the  ReRenej 
or  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Above  all  he  excelled  in 
microscopic  canvaaea,  wherein  the  wonderful  repro- 
duction of  the  minutest  details  is  a  perpetual  source 
of  astonishment.  In  painting,  the  "finished"  pro- 
duct is  always  sure  to  appeal  to  the  philistine,  and 
when  found  together  with  smallness,  and  when  to  the 
pleasure  of  accuracy  is  joined  that  of  a  feat  of  skill, 
admiration  knows  no  bounds.  No  more  is  needed  to 
explain  the  incredible  success  of  Meissonier. 

In  1842  began  that  series  of  small  thumb-nail  pic- 
tures, the  reputation  of  which  so  long  outshone  that  of 
his  larger  works.  First  came  "  The  Young  Man  play- 
ing the  Bass-viol",  then  the 
"Painter  in  his  studio  "(1S43) , 
the  "Guard-room",  the 
"Readers",  the  "Smokers", 
the  "Bravi"  (1M7),  the 
"Reading  at  the  House  of 
Diderot",  the  "Bowling- 
party"  ''La  Rixe"  or  "The 
Quarrel"  (1856).  This  year, 
which  mariied  the  first  Uni- 
versal Exhibition,  marked 
also  the  apogee  of  Heissonier's 
triumphs.  He  was  already 
the  favourite  painter  of  bis 
ttmei  he  now  became  the 
most  illustriouH.  He  was 
compared  with  the  classio 
artists  and  the  masters  (d 
genrt;  this  was  an  examr- 
ation,  and  to-day  we  find 
muchtocriticicein  him.  GUs 
art  dealt  only  with  what  had 
been  already  observed .  It  is 
regrettable  that  he  did  not 
make  better  use  of  bis  own 
pits  of  observation;  that  he 
did  not  take  his  subjects  di- 
rectly from  Ufe,  as  did  Dau-  liaisjoKiBH 
mier,  instead  of  treating  ^^ '"°' 
scenes  of  mere  curiosity;  that  he  did  not  cn-eate  somn-  r 
tlung  "new"  instead  of  ^ving  us  a  modernised 


scenes  of  the  Imperial  ipop^.  In  1864  be  submitted 
hU  "1814"  (Louvre);  in  1867  bis  "Desaix  to  the 
Army  of  the  Rhine";  next  came  "1805",  "1807" 
(Mefjropolitan  Museum,  New  York),  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  other  military  pictures.  This  style,  which 
answered  the  public  demand  after  the  events  of  1870, 
brought  tlie  artist  increased  popularity.  For  bis 
"  1314  "  Cliauchani  paid  a  million  of  francs.  It  is  triie 
that  in  these  new  subjects  the  artist  displayed  the 
same  scrupulous  conscientiousness  of  which  he  had 
^ven  protrf  in  his  earUer  manner.  He  painted  from 
nature,  even  to  the  very  sods  of  earth.  To  convey  the 
impression  of  a  broken  road,  he  selected  a  comer  of  his 
garden,  hod  it  trampled  by  men  and  horses,  had 
trucks  and  carts  drawn  over  it,  and  sprinkled  the  whole 
with  flour  to  imitate  melting  snow.  To  paint  Napo- 
leon, he  made  use  of  the  grey  cloak  and  the  very  bat 


the  emperor  w 


But 


ipit«  of  it  all  he  falls  short 
of  the  lithographs  of  Raffet 
with  their  prodigious  mystery 
and  their  breath  of  the  heroic. 
What  will  last  of  these  curi- 
ous pictures  is  the  fa  bu- 
llous amount  of  studies  and 
sketches  accumulated  by  the 
painter  in  preparation  for  hie 
pictures.  One  is  filled  with 
respect  before  the  mass  of 
observations;  there  are  draw- 
ings, studies  of  soldiers,  of 
equipments,  of  horses,  which 
are  priceless  documents.  It 
is  remarkable  that  nothing  is 
more  rare  tlion  an  ensemble 
study,  there  is  never  more 
than  a  detail,  a  gesture,  a 
movement,  a  muscle,  caught 
and  reproduced  with  unheard- 
of  precision  and  strength,  as 
by  the  surest  and  most  in- 
fallible instruments.  There 
is  no  other  example — «ven 
if  we  count  Mensel  himself — 
of  a  similar  nower  of  analysis 
applied  to  the  realm  of  facts. 
To  unravel  a  detail  from  the 
confusion  of  nature  Meisso- 


tableau  de  muaie.  This  criticism  is  perhaps  unjust; 
sixteenth-century  scenes  have  nothing  better  to  show 
than  "La  Rixe"  and  "The  Bravi";  and  neither 
Stendhal  nor  M^rim^e  is  reproached  for  his  Renais- 
sance style  of  novels.  Nevertheless  it  is  true  that 
despite  superficial  resemblances  Meissonier  is  far  in- 
ferior to  tbe  Dutch  masters.  To  compare  him  with 
Terborch  is  to  pay  him  too  great  an  honour.  His 
sharp  facetted  drawing,  engraved  with  painful  pre- 
ddon  (cf .  Fromentin,  "LesMattresd'autrefois",  1876, 
228),  his  barren,  dry  painting,  swarmiug  with  trifles, 
without  aim  or  restraint,  his  indefinite  analysis  of  a 
host  of  insignificant  objects,  all  grouped  in  the  com- 
pass of  an  amaiingly  small  space,  go  to  moke  up  a 
series  of  quaint  harah  works,  unattractive  and  useless, 
like  those  pieces  of  embroidery  which  distress  us  when 
we  reahse  the  immense  waste  of  labour  they  give  proof 
of.  What  is  wanting  in  these  pictures  is  that  which 
constitutes  tlie  value  of  art,  emotion  and  life. 

In  1850  Meissonier  waa  charged  to  paint  the  "  Battle 
of  Bolferino"  (Louvre),  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
new  series  of  works,  which  date  from  the  Second  Em- 
pire, and  in  which  the  artist  undertook  to  celebrate 
the  glories  of  the  First  Empire.  Renouncing  his  small 
interiors  and  subjects  of  fantasy  he  attempted  histori- 
cal and  open  air  subjects,  movements  of  crowds  and 
ftrmies,  and  set  himself  the  task  of  paintdng  the  great 


like  the  lens  of  a  magnif  ving  glass,  or  like  the  eye  of  a 
primitive  man  capable  of  registering  thousands  of  sen- 
sations which  our  civilised  retina  no  longer  perceives. 
For  example,  he  was  successful  in  catchmg  the  move- 
ment of  a  running  horse,  which  no  one  has  been  able  to 
do  since  the  caveman,  and  later  the  cinematograph 
confirmed  the  marvellous  truth  of  his  observations. 
Only  everything  remained  for  him  in  a  fragmentary 
state.  His  was  the  eye  of  a  myopic,  tbe  eye  of  a  fly. 
cut  like  a  crystal  into   millions  of  facets,  the  most 


worid  of  the  infinitesimal,  but  this  prodi^ous  power  of 
decomposition  left  him  incapable  of  putting  anythiug 
together  again. 

It  is  not  astonishing  that  his  "1807"  cost  him  four- 
teen years  of  labour;  he  was  no  longer  able  to  weld  to- 
gether his  scraps,  his  extracts  from  nature.  He  scru- 
tiniied,  rummaged,  ransacked  to  infinity,  and  found 
Wmse If  powerless  to  give  life  to  anything.  He  spoke 
truly  when  he  wished  to  do  nothing  but  design  and 
when  he  dreamed  of  a  picture  which  should  be  no 
more  than  a  collection  ot  sketches,  of  fragments  and 
disconnected  events,  like  the  "  Pensdcs  "  ot  Pascal,  yet 
giving  at  the  same  time  the  shock  and  the  sensation  of 
Ufe.  The  difference  was,  however,  that  the  "PensSes" 
wer«  to  become  a  book.  Meissonier,  overwhelmed  by 
his  materials,  never  succeeded  in  producing  a  great 
work,  and  not  even  in  giving  the  impression  that  be 


MBLUrCBTBON  151  MSLANOBTROlf 

bad  deaiiy  conceived  one.    So  this  man  loaded  with  time^  of  Georg  Simler.  who  was  then  teaching  humanf- 

honoura,  wealth  and  ^ory,  was  perpetually^  unhappy  ties  in  TObingen.  and  was  later  professor  of  jurispni* 

and  discontented.    His  pride  ana  his  suspicious  sensi-  dence.    He  studied  astronomy  and  astrology  under 

tiveness  were  proverbial.    This  sickly  self-love  was  Johaxm    StOffler.    With    Franciscus    Stadianus    he 

the  chief  cause  of  the  division  among  the  French  art-  planned  an  edition  of  the  genuine  Greek  text  of  Aris- 

ists  in  1889  when  to  the  traditional  Salon  Meissonier  totle,  but  nothing  ever  came  of  this.    His  thirst  for 

opposed  tlMS  Salon  of  the  "Champ -de-Mars"  or  of  the  knowledge  led  him  into  jurisprudence,  mathematics, 

Soci^t^  Nationale.    This  unreasonable  schism  had  and  even  m^dne. 

regrettable  consequences  and  introduced  into  the        In  1514  he  won  the  master's  d^;ree  as  first  among 

school  the  anarchical  system  which  for  twenty  yean  eleven  candidates,  and  was  made  an  instructor  in  the 

has  gone  on  developing.  university.    His  subjects  were  Vergil  and  Terence : 

Such  was  this  emment  and  most  unfinished  of  later  he  was  assigned  the  lectureship  on  eloquence  ana 

artists^  assuredly  little  deserving  of  the  mark  of  hon-  expounded  Cicero  and  Livy.    He  also  became  (1514) 

our  paid  him  by  erecting  his  statue  in  the  Garden  of  the  press-corrector  in  the  printing  office  of  Thomas  An- 

Louvre^  but  still  less  deserving  of  the  unjust  criticisms  shelm,  pursued  his  private  studies,  and  at  last  turned 

he  has  since  had  to  bear  in  expiation  of  his  great  glory,  to  theology.  For  the  antiquated  scholastic  methods  of 

He  was  in  reality  the  victim  no  less  than  the  product  this  science  as  taught  at  Tubingen,  and  for  Dr.  Jacob 

of  a  vahiable  faculty  carried  to  hypertrophia  and  Lemp,  who,  as  Melanchthon  said,  had  attempted  to 

monstrosity.    He  may  perhaps  be  more  equitably  picture  Transubstantiation  on  the  blackboard,  ne  had, 

judged  by  the  less  known  portions  of  his  work,  in  tateron,  only  words  of  derision.    He  studiedpatristics 

which  his  faculties  for  analysis  and  observation  found  on  his  own  account  and  took  up  the  New  Testament 

their  true  use,  as  in  the  small  portraits  such  as  that  of  in  the  original  text,  but  did  not  at  this  time  reach  anv 

"The  Younger  Dumas"  (liouvre),  those  of  "Stan-  definite  tneologicai  point  of  view;  in  this  branch 

ford  "  or  "  Vanderbilt ",  or  again  his  small  studies  from  of  knowled^,  as  he  himself  afterwards   repeatedly 

nature  as  in  his  "  Views  of  Venice "  at  the  Louvre,  and  declared,   his   intellectual  father  was   Lutner.    He 

especially  his  peerless  collection  of  drawings  at  the  naturally'  took  Reucfalin's  part  in  the  latter's  contro- 

Luxembourg.    If  these  are  not  a  great  work,  or  their  versy  with  the  Cologne  professors  (see  Humanism), 

author  a  great  artist,  they  are  at  least  the  materials,  and  wrote  in  1514  a  preface  to  the  "  Epistolse  clarorum 

the  remains  or  the  fragments  thereof.    On  13  October,  virorum" ;    but  he  did  not  come  prominently  to  the 

1838,  he  married  Jenny  Steinheil.  who  died  in  Jime,  fore.    His  own  earliest  publications  were  an  edi- 

1888;  in  August,  1890,  he  married  Mile  Bezancon;  he  tion   of  Terence    (1516),    and    a    Greek   grammar 

died  31  January,  1891,  and  after  a  Requiem  Mass  at  (1518).    In  1518  he  was  offered,  on  Reuchlin's  recom- 

the  Madeleine,  3  February,  1891,  he  was  buried  at  mendation,  a  professorship  of  Greek  at  Wittenbei^. 
Poissy  where  a  monument  was  erected 

Grbard,  MeiMonier  (1897);  Gautibr, 
Europe^  II  (1856);  Saions  (not  collected 
Salon*  (1855);  Chssnbau,  Le»  naiiona  rivalea 

yLtcBKU  Notes  tur  Vart  modems  (1806);  Breton,  iVo«pe»ncre«  man,        auis  unsi;  uupz^xniua  mauts   ujr    vuv  simute, 

dunMe:  AvKXASDRE,  La  Peinhirtmilitaire  en  France;  MxjrHVR,  bashful  and  frail-looking  youth  was  not  favourable. 

Bin  Jahrhundertfranzr,eieeherMaUrei  {1901).  But  his  opening  address:    "De  corrigendis  adoles- 

1.0UIB  uiLLBT.  ^^^^  studiis"(29  Aug.,  1518),  elicited  enthusiastic 

MeUnchthon»  Phiupp,  collaborator  and  friend  of  applause.    He  extolled  the  return  to  the  authentic 

Luther,  b.  at  Bretten  (in  Unterpfals,  now  Baden),  16  sources  of  genuine  science  as  a  signal  merit  of  the  new 

February,  1497;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  19  April,  1560.  humanistic  and  scientific  spirit,  and  he  promised  to 

(1)  His  Rbarinq  and  Education. — ^Melanchthon  apply  this  method  to  the  study  of  theology. 
was  of  respectable  and  well-to-do  parentage.    His        (2)  Mblanchthon  and  the  German  Reforma- 

father.  Georg  Schwanerd  (Schwarzert)  was  a  cele-  tton. — Luther  was  a  strong  believer  in  making  human- 

brated   armourer,  while   his  pious  and  intelligent  ism  serve  the  cause  of  the '' Gospel",  and  it  was  not 

mother  was  the  daughter  of  Renter,  the  burgomaster  long  before  the  still  plastic  Melanchthon  fell  under  the 

of  Bretten.    He  received  his  first  instruction  at  home  swa^  of  Luther's  powerful  personality.    He  accom- 

from  a  private  tutor,  and  in  1507  he  went  to  Pfors-  pamed   the   latter  to   his    Leipzig   disputation   in 

heim,  wnere  he  lived  with  his  grandmother  Elizabeth,  1519;  though  he  did  not  participate  in  the  discussion 

fiaster  of  the  great  humanist,  Johann  Reuchlin.    Here  itself,   he   seconded   with   his   knowled^   Luther's 

the  Rector,  Georg  Simler,  made  him  acquainted  with  preparatorv  labours.    After  the  disputation  he  com- 

the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  and  with  the  philosophy  of  posed,  with  the  co-operation  of  OScolampadius,  a 

Aristotie.    But  of  greater  influence  still  was  his  inter-  report  which  was  the  occasion  of  an  attack  upon  him 

course  with  Reuchlin,  his  grand-uncle,  who    |ave  a  by  Eck  to  whom  he  replied  with  his  "  Defensio  Phil, 

strong  impetus  to  his  studies.    It  was  Reuchlm  also  Melanchthonis  contra  Joh.   Eickium  piofessorem". 

who  persuaded  him  to  translate  his  name  Schwarzerd  He  was  now  persuaded  by  Luther  to  take  up  theologi- 

into  the  Greek  Melanchthon,  (written  Melanthon  after  cal   lectures,  and   became  in   1519  a  Bachelor  of 

1531).    In  1509  Melanchthon,  not  yet  13  years  of  age.  Theology,  then  a  professor  of  the  same  science.    For 

entered  the  University  of  Heidelberg.    This  institu-  42  years  he  laboured  at  Wittenberg  in  the  very  front 

tion  had  already  passed  its  humanistic  prime  under  raxik  of  university  professors.    His  theological  courses 

Dalberg  and  Agncola  (see  Humanism).     It  is  true  were  followed  by  500  or  600,  later  by  as  many  as  1500 

that  Pallas  Spangel,  Melanchthon's  eminent  teacher,  students,  whereas  his  philological  lectures  were  often 

was  also  famOiar  with  humanists  and  humanism,  but  but  poorly  attended.     Yet  he  persistently  jef used  the 

he  was  none  the  less  an  able  scholastic  and  adherent  of  title  of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  and  never  accepted  ordina- 

Thomism.    Melanchthon  studied  rhetoric  under  Peter  tion;  nor  was  he  ever  known  to  preach.    His  desire 

Giintbery  and  astronomy  under  Conrad  Helvetius,  a  was  to  remain  a  humanist,  and  to  the  end  of  his  life 

Eupil  of  Giesarius.    Meanwhile  he  continued  eageriy  he  continued  his  work  on  the  classics,  along  with  his 

is  private  studies,  the  reading  of  ancient  poets  and  exegetical  studies.    And  yet  he  became  the  father  of 

historians  as  well  as  of  the  neo-Latins,  grammar,  rhet-  evangelical  theology.   He  composed  the  first  treatise  on 

oric,  and  dialectics.    He  obtained  the  baccalaureate  "evangelical"  doctrine  (Loci  commimes  rerum  theo- 

in  1511,  but  his  application  for  the  master's  degree  in  logicarum,  1521).    It  deals  principally  with  practical 

1512  was  rejected  because  of  his  youth.    He  there-  reG^ous  questions,  sin  and  grace,  law  ana  gospel, 

fore  went  to  TObingen,  where  the  scientific  spirit  was  justification  and  regeneration.    This  work  ran  through 

in  full  vigour,  and  he  became  there  a  pupil  of  the  cele-  more  than  100  editions  before  his  death.    He  was  a 

brated  Latinist  Heinrich  Bebel^  and,  for  a  second  friend  and  supporter  of  Luther  the  Reformer,  and  de- 


162 

fended  Um,  e.  g.  eeuiut  the  lUli&n  Domiaiwi,  bnig  Confenlan  (eonfewio  AqBoatUMO  in  whieh  be 

Tbomaa  RAoinua  of  Piaoeoia,  and  the  Sorbonne  in  aimed  to  prove  that  the  Pmtem&ntB,  in  apits  o(  the 

Paris  (1521).  innovations,  Htill  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Chureb  and 

But  he  was  DOt  qualified  to  play  the  i»rt  of  a  leader  had  a  ri^ht  to  leroain  within  her  fold.    To  this  end  he 

amid  the  turmoil  erf  a  troublous  period.    The  life  alleged  m  defence  of  Protestant  doctrine  the  Scriptures 

whiob  he  waa  fitted  for  was  the  ^uiel  exiitonee  o(  the  and  statemente  of  Tecognised   Catholic  authorities. 

■oholBr.    He  was  always  of  a  retiring  and  timid  dispo-  The  innovations  in  question  were   represented  as 

sition,  tonperate,  prudent  and  peace-loving,  with  a  meielv  a  reformation  of  abuaee  which  had  crept  into 

e'ous  turn  of  mind  and  a  deeply  religious  training,  the  Caurch.    The  tenor  of  the  Confession  in  general 

enevereompletelyloethisattaclunentfortheCatho-  and  its  voiding  in  particular,  were  the  work  of  Me- 

lio  Church  and  for  many  of  her  cetemonies.    Hia  lanchthon.    Luther  saw  its  outline  and  gave  it  his  ap- 

Umitations    first    became    apparent    when,    during  proval.    It  received  numerous  additions  and  changes 

Luther's8tayontheWartburg,I521,hefoundhimselfin  at  Augsburg,  and  its  final  form  was  determined liy 

Witt«nbeig  confronted  with  the  task  of  maintaining  common  agreement  of  theologians  from  all  the  evan- 

order  against  the  Zwickau  fanatics,  with  their  wild  gelical  bodies. 

notions  as  to  the  eetablialiment  of  Christ's  Kingdom  Melaochthon's  desire  for  peace  appears  even  in  this 

upon  eanb,  communism,  and  so  forth.     What  Luther  basic  dociunent  of  Protestantism,  and  he  has  often 

accomi>lished  in  a  few  davs  on  his  return  had  proved  beenreproachedwithlaekofvieourin  his  opposition  to 

bnpossible    to    Meianchtnon.  the  Catholic  Church.      Luther 

On  the  other  hand  be  showed  himself  explained  (only,  it  is 

his    ability  as  an   organiser  true,  after  the  hopes  of  ob- 

when  be  undertoolc  the  reor-  tainmg  for  the  Confession  the 

Baniiation  of  Church  afTaire  in  ear  of  the  emperor  and  of  Cat  fa- 

'  '  '     '                     '  obcs  proved  vain),  that  he  had 

no  intention  of  soowins  "ser- 
Fortlie  visitations  ordered  by  vile  submission",  andUiat  he 
tbeElector,.Velanchthondrew  regretted  the  Ofnissian  of  an 
up  the  "  Instructions  for  Visit-  attack  on  Purgatory,  tlie  ven- 
ors  of  the  parochial  clergy"  eration  of  the  Saints  and  tbe 
(printed,  1S28),  which  workis  Papacy.  The  formal  merits 
remarkable  for  its  practical  of  the  Confession,  its  simple, 
sense  and  simplicity.  Here  clear,  calm,  and  terse  state- 
also  appears  the  diFTerence  be-  men!  of  doctrine  won  the 
tween  Luther  and  Melanch-  unanimous  praise  OF  the  Evan- 
tbon,  for  Melanchthon  warns  gelical  party.  His  "masterful 
pastors  against  revilinE  pope  clearness  and  vigorous  doc- 
or  bisliop;  whereas  Luther  trine"  were  also  admired  in 
remarks:  "You  must  de-  the  "Apolt^"  for  the  Augs- 
nounoe  vehemently  tbe  Papacv  'burg  Confession,  which  is  more 
and  its  followers,  for  it  is  sX-  decided  in  tone  because  writ- 
nady  doomed  I^  God  even  ten  at  a  later  date  (when 
aatbedevit  and  hiskingdom."  Melanchthon  himself  had  de- 
Helanchthon.   it    is    true,  termined   "to  throw    aside 

{iieached    the    doctrine   that  moderation")     and     directed 

aith  alone  justifies  and  that  against  the  Catholic  "Confu- 

"God  will  forgive  sins  for  tbe                          Phiutp  Hn.ufCRT>cHC  tatio".     On  the   other  hand, 

sake   of  Christ,   and  without              LaowOruiuh,  Itor*IQ>llay.  Drnda  Melanchthon  was  sharply  criti- 

works  on  our  part";    but   be  added:  "We  must  ciied  for  his  personal  conduct  in  the  Reichstag,  for  bis 

nevertheless   do  good  works,  which  God  has  com-  apprehensionandconeem,hisfai!uretotakeafinnand 

manded. "     Later  also  he  invariably  sought  to  pre-  dignified  attitude  against  the  Catholic  party.   Hebim- 

serve  peace  as  long  as  might  be  possible,  and  no  one  self  once  declared,  in  justificatLon  of  his  course:  "Iknow 

took  so  much  to  heart  as  he  tlie  break  between  the  that  the  people  decrj'  our  moderation ;  but  it  does  not 

churches.  become  us  to  heed  the  clamour  of  the  multitude.    We 

While  Luther,  in  the  Smalkaldic  Articles  (1537),  must  labour  for  peace  and  for  the  future.    It  will 

described  the  pope  as  Antichrist  and  other  theoli^paus  prove  a  great  blessing  for  us  all  if  luity  be  restored  in 

subscribed  to  this  declaration,  Meloncbthon  wrote:  Germany."     He  feared  the  overthrow  of  all  order. 

"Hy  idea  of  the  pope  is  this,  that  if  he  would  give  due  Hence  he  made  decided  concessions  to  the  Catholics 

recognition  to  the  Gospel,   his  supremacy  over  the  at  the  subsequent  conferences  and  debates  on  religion, 

bishops,  which  be  enjoys  by  human  consent  (not  by  He  seems  to  have  been  lured  by  some  dream  of  an 

Divine  ordinance)  should  also  be  acknowledged  by  us  Evangelical-Catholic  Church.     He  thought  it  possible 

for  the  sake  of  peace  and  of  the  unity  of  those  Chris-  to  remain  within  the  Catholic  Church,  even  with  the 

tians  who  are  now,  and  in  the  future  may  be,  subject  new  theology.     But  he  was  never  a  Cryptocatholic, 

to  him."     He  had  to  make  a  diplomatic  plea  for  the  as  has  been  laid  to  hischaige,  and  while  evincing  in 

Reformation  at  the  Reichstag  in  Speyer  (1529).     He  every  other  way  a  spirit  of  conciliation,  he  held  fast  to 

hoped  that  it  would  fa«  recc^ised  without  difficulty  the  "purified  doctrine",  and  repeatedly  aualtfied  as 

by  the  emperor  and  tbe  Catholic  party,  but  instead  of  blasphemy  the  lending  of  a  band,  even  in  toe  cause  (^ 

this,  a  resolution  was  adopted  to  carry  out  vigorously  peace,  to  any  supprCEsion  of  the  truth. 

tiie  Edict  of  Worms  (1521)  which  prohibited  all  1000-  The  story  that  when  his  mother  asked  which  was 

▼ations.    The  evangelical  element,  "asmallhandful,"  the  better  of  the  two  religions,  he  replied  that  the 

protested  against  this  (whence  the  name,   "Prote»-  modified  one  was  the  more  plausible,  while  the  old  one 

tants"),  and  Melanchthon  felt  gravecODcemovertbis  was  the  surer,  is  nothing  but  a  ridiculous  invention, 

"terrible  state  of  things".     At  a  religious  conference  Hisattempt  to  brin^about  a  reconciliation  between  the 

with  the  Zwinglians  in  Matbuig  (autumn  of  1529),  he  two  brought  him,  mstead  of  thanks,  only  mortifica- 

ioined  hands  with  Luther  in  opposing  a  union  with  tion  and  abuse.     From  the  age  of  30  to  that  of  50, 

Zwingli.    The  latter's  views  on  tne  Eucharist  seemed  Melanchthon  was  at  the  height  of  his  career  as  spokM- 

to  him  an  "impious  doctrine".    Melanchthon  com-  man  and  advocate  of  the  Reformation,  which,  as  had 

posed  for  tbe  Reichstag  of  Aupburg  (1530)  the  Augs-  formerly  been  the  case  in  Hesse  and  Prussia,  was  in- 


MBLANCHTHON 


153 


MBLANCHTHON 


troduoed  under  his  guidance  into  WOrtembeig.  Bran- 
denbuig,  and  Saxony.  He  never  absented  nimself 
from  a  convention  of  theoloeians  or  statesmen,  but 
found  himself  differing  from  Luther  on  many  points, 
for  as  time  went  on  Melanchthon  emancipated  him- 
self more  and  more  from  Luther's  teachmg.  More 
eventful  still  and  more  painful  was  the  last  portion  of 
his  life,  following  the  death  of  Luther  (1546).  He 
rejected  the  Augsbuig  Interim  (1548)  which  was  to 
r^ulate  Church  affairs  imtil  they  should  be  defini- 
tivelv  settled  by  the  Coimcil,  on  the  f^round  that  it  did 
not  nimnonize  with  Evangelical  prmciples.  On  the 
other  hand  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  take  part  in  a 
conference  for  a  modified  interim,  the  so-called  Leip- 
zig Interim,  and  he  addressed  on  this  occasion  a  letter 
(28  April,  1548)  to  Minister  Carlowits,  of  Saxony, 
which  once  more  provoked  bitter  criticism.  He  la- 
mented therein  the  thraldom  in  which  he  had  been 
held  by  the  violence  of  Luther,  and  again  showed  him- 
self favourable  to  the  Catholic  system  of  church  organ- 
ization and  was  even  readv  to  accept  Catholic  practices, 
though  he  desired  to  hold  fast  to  the  ''evangelical" 
doctrmes. 

A  result  of  this  was  the  Adiaphora  controversy,  in 
which  Melanchthon  declared  Catholic  practices  adi- 
aphorous (indifferent  things,  neither  good  nor  bad), 
hence  permissible  provided  that  the  proper  doctrine 
were  maintained  and  its  import  made  dear  to  the 
people.  Bfatthias  Fladus  Ill3rricus  and  other  zealots 
objected  that  these  practices  had  heretofore  been  the 
centres  of  impiety  and  superstition,  and  Melanchthon 
was  attacked  and  revilea  by  Fladus,  Amsdorf,  and 
the  other  "  Gnesiolutherans  ",  as  a  renegade  and  a  here- 
tic. The  Lutheran  theologians  met  at  Weimar  in 
1556,  and  declared  their  adhesion  to  Luther's  teaching 
as  to  ^ood  works  and  the  Last  Supper.  Melanchthon 
participated  in  the  religious  discussion  which  took 
place  at  Worms,  in  1557,  between  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant theologians.  His  Lutheran  opoonents'  be- 
haviour toward  him  here  proved  grossly  insulting. 
The  last  ten  3rears  of  his  life  (1550-60)  were  almost 
completely  taken  up  with  theological  wrangles  (adi- 
aphoristic,  osiandric,  stankaristic,  majoristic,  Calvin- 
istic  and  cryptocalvinistic)  and  with  attempts  to  com- 
pose these  various  differences.  He  continued  in  spite 
of  all  to  labour  for  his  Chiurch  and  for  her  peace.  But 
one  readily  understands  why,  a  few  davs  before  he 
died,  he  gave  as  a  reason  for  not  fearing  death:  "  thou 
shalt  be  freed  from  the  theologians'  fury  (a  rabie 
theologarum)  ".  His  last  wish  was  that  the  Churches 
might  become  reunited  in  Christ.  He  died  praying, 
quietly  and  peacefully,  without  apparent  struggle. 

(3)  Melanchthon  as  a  Theologian. — Melanch- 
thon considered  it  his  mission  to  bring  together  the 
religious  thoughts  of  the  Reformation,  to  co-ordinate 
them  and  give  them  a  clear  and  intelligible  form.  He 
did  not  feel  himself  odled  upon  to^  seek  out  their 
original  premises  or  to  speculate  on  their  logical  results. 
His  theology  bears  the  substantial  impress  of  his 
himuuiistic  thought,  for  he  saw  in  andent  philosophy 
a  precursor  of  Christianity  and  sought  to  reconcile  it 
with  Christian  Revelation.  Even  in  dogma  he  took 
up  whatever  adapted  itself  most  easily  to  the  general 
trend  of  humanistic  religious  thought,  and  his  dogma- 
tic departures  from  Luther  were  a  softening  of  doc- 
trine. His  theological  system  is  contained  in  the 
"  Lod  Communes  ",  as  revised  by  him;  in  substance  it 
was  brought  to  completion  by  the  edition  of  1535. 
As  late  as  1521  he  had  upheld  the  harsh  tenets  of  fatal- 
ism with  regard  to  all  events  and  of  determinism 
with  regard  to  the  human  will.  He  subsequently 
gave  "Synergism"  his  support,  as  against  the  deteiv 
ministic  tendency  of  the  Kef  ormation.  That  God  is 
not  the  cause  of  sin,  and  that  man  is  responsible  for  his 
acts,  must  be  firmly  maintained.  Man's  salvation 
can  only  be  wrought  out  with  the  co-operation  of  his 
own  will,  althouc^  there  can  be  no  question  of  merit 


on  his  part.    Likewise  he  emphasized  the  necessity  of 

food  works  from  the  practical,  ethical  standpomt. 
[e  went  so  far  as  to  say,  ia  the  Lod  of  1535,  that  good 
works  are  necessary  for  eternal  life,  inasmuch  as  they 
must  necessarily  follow  reconciliation  with  God.  This 
was  again  attenuated  later  on:  what  is  necessary,  he 
said,  is  a  new  spiritual  life  or  sense  of  duty.^  i.  e.  a 
righteous  consdence. 

As  years  went  by  he  even  abandoned  Luther's 
doctrine  as  to  the  Last  Supper,  and  looked  on  Christ's 
spiritual  communication  of  Himself  to  the  faithful 
and  their  internal  \inion  with  Him  as  the  essential  fea- 
ture of  the  Sacrament;  1.  e.  he  inclined  towards  Cal- 
vin's theory.  In  1560  his  teachings  were  introduced 
into  all  the  churches  of  Saxony,  through  the  "Corpus 
Philippicum"  (a  collection  of  Melanchthonian  doctnnal 
writings).  But  there  came  a  change  fourteen  years 
after  his  death.  The  Philippists  or  Cr3rpto-Calvinists 
were  thrown  iQto  prison  and  sent  into  exile.  They 
subse(^uently  identified  themselves  more  and  more  with 
Calvimsm,  even  on  the  question  of  predestination. 
Lutheranism,  narrow  and  harsh,  won  the  day  with  its 
Formula  of  Concord  (1580).  So  strong  indeed  was 
this  opposition  that  the  saying  ran:  better  a  Catholic 
than  a  Calvinist.  From  that  time  on  xmtil  well  into 
the  eighteenth  century,  Melanchthon's  memory  was 
assailed  and  reviled,  even  in  Wittenberg.  It  is  said 
that  Leonard  Hutter,  the  leading  theologian  there  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  so  en- 
raged by  an  appeal  to  Melanchthon  as  an  authority, 
made  in  the  course  of  a  public  disputation,  that  he  had 
the  latter's  portrait  torn  down  from  tne  wall  and 
trampled  under  foot  before  the  eyes  of  all.  It  was  not 
until  the  period  of  the  Enlightenment  that  Melanch- 
thon was  again  appreciated  and  recognized  as  the  real 
founder  of  a  German-Evangelical  theology.  Indeed, 
he  carried  his  labours  into  all  the  other  theological 
fields,  in  some  of  which  he  worked  as  a  pioneer,  while  in 
all  he  toiled  at  least  as  a  contributor.  He  promoted 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures  not  only  by  his  own 
active  work  thereon  from  first  to  last,  but  also  by  his 
teachings,  and  by  his  exhortations  to  the  clergy.  Like 
Luther,  he  laid  particular  stress  on  the  necessity  of  a 
thorough  philological  training,  as  well  as  of  a  Imowl- 
edge  of  histonr  and  archaeology,  for  the  proper  in- 
terpretation of  the  Bible.  He  assisted  Luther  con- 
stantly in  his  German  translation  of  the  Bible,  and 
also,  it  is  said,  in  the  production  of  the  Latin  transla- 
tion which  appearea  at  Wittenberg,  in  1529.  In 
exegesis  he  stood  out  vigorously  for  one  sense,  and 
that  the  literal,  {sensus  literaHa),  as  against  the  ''four 
senses  "  of  the  scholastics.  Beyond  this,  he  held,  there 
was  nothing  to  be  sought  in  the  words  of  the  Bible 
save  the  dogmatic  and  practical  application  and  de- 
velopment. His  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament 
are  not  as  important  as  those  which  he  wrote  on  the 
New.  The  most  noteworthy  are  those  on  the  Epistles 
to  the  Romans  and  the  Colossians,  which  have  been 
published  repeatedly.  These  are  largely  given  to  the 
discussion  of  facts  and  of  dogmatic  and  polemical 
matters,  and  they  have  exerted  considerable  influence 
on  the  history  of  Protestant  doctrines.  The  impulse 
also  which  he  gave  to  the  study  of  theology  by  histori- 
cal methods,  was  felt  for  a  long  time.  Inhis  lumdling 
of  the  Chronicle  of  Cario  he  treated  of  the  history  of 
the  Church  jointly  with  that  of  the  state,  and  thereby 
set  an  example  which  f  oimd  many  imitators.  He  was 
also  the  first  to  attempt  a  history  of  dogma,  and  led 
the  way  in  Christian  biography.  In  homiletics  he  was 
early  recognized  as  the  originator  of  a  more  methodi- 
cal form  of  pulpit  oratory,  as  contrasted  with  the 
"heroic"  sermons  of  Luther.  He  did  not  himself 
appear  as  a  preacher,  but  was  content  with  expound- 
ing selections  from  the  Gospel  on  Sundays  ana  Feast 
days,  in  his  house  or  in  a  lecture-hall,  using  for  this 
purpose  the  Latin  tongue  for  the  benefit  of  the  Hun- 
garian students  who  did  not  understand  the  German 


MELANU  154  MELANU 


of  theological  study.  for  whom  he  obtained  professorships,  taught  in  ac- 

(4)  Mblanchthon  as  Propbsbor  and  Pedagogue,  cordanoe  with  his  ideals  and  his  method.    The  new 

— Melanchthon  was  the  embodiment  of  the  entire  in-  imiversities  of  Marbui^  (1527),  Kdnigsberg  (1644), 

tellectual  culture  of  his  time.    His  learning  covered  and  Jena   (1548),  which  were  founded  under  th« 

all  the  branches  of  knowledge  as  it  then  existed,  and  Reformation,  also  found  in  Melanchthon  a  guide 

what  is  more  remarkable,  he  possessed  the  gift  of  im-  and  a  coimsellor.    Hence  his  title,  "Prseceptor  Ger- 

parting  his  knowledge  aJwavs  in  the  simplest,  clearest  manise  ". 

and  most  practical  form.     On  this  account  the  numer-  Worka  of  Melanchthon.  edited  by  Br«t8chneider  and  Bind- 

niiB  maniiflLla  anA  miiH^kfl  f^  thft  T^tin  skxiA  OrM»k  ffTftm-  ■«*'  "*  Corput  ReformtUorum,  I-XXVIII  (Leipiig,  1834-60); 

ous  manuals  and  gmaes  to  tne  lAtm  ana  urecK  gram-  g^,^^^^  pKuipp  MeUmeKUum  (Elbcrfeld.  I86i) ;  EUjrrFEij»K». 

mars,  to  dialectics,  rhetonc.  ethics,  phvsiCS,  politics,  Melanchthon  aU  Praceptor  Germantcg  (Berlin.  1889):  Elunoer, 

and  history,  which  he  produced  in  addition  to  his  PA.  Melanchthon  (Berlin.  1902);  Moller.  Lehrbueh  der  Kirch- 

many  editions  of   and   commentaries  on    cla«ical  ^^g^^^S^^JU^  f^rT^o^^^l^^^ 

authors,  were  quickly  adopted,  and  were  retained  for  i^ry  of  the  OennanPeopU  (London.  1908-O9).  passim. 

more  than  a  century.  The  exposition  shows  the  ut-  Klemens  LOffler. 
most  care;  the  style  is  natural  and  clear.  In  his  aca- 
demic teaching  also,  he  disdained  all  rhetorical  die  vices.  Melaiiia»  Saint  (the  Younger),  b.  at  Rome, 
His  power  lav  not  in  brilliant  oratory,  but  in  clearness  about  383;  d.  in  Jerusalem,  31  December,  439.  8he 
and  in  the  choice  of  the  most  appropriate  expression  was  a  member  of  the  famous  family'  of  Valerii.  Her 
(proprietos  sermonis).  He  did  not  look  upon  learning  parents  were  Publicola  and  Albina,  her  paternal 
and  literature  as  ends  in  themselves,  but  as  means  for  grandmother  of  the  same  name  is  known  as  Melania, 
inculcating  morality  and  religion.  The  union  of  Senior.  Little  is  known  of  the  saint's  childhood,  but 
knowledge  with  the  spirit  of  religion,  of  humanism  after  the  time  of  her  marriage,  which  occurred  in  her 
with  the  "  Gospel",  was  ever  the  keynote  of  his  public  thirteenth  year,  we  have  more  definite  information, 
activitjr,  and  tnrough  him  it  became  for  centunes  the  Through  obedience  to  her  parents  she  married  one  of 
educational  ideal  of  "  Evangelical "  Germany,  even,  her  relatives,  Pinianus  a  patrician.  During  her  mar- 
in  a  certain  sense,  of  Germany  as  a  whole.  It  is  not  ried  life  of  seven  years  she  had  two  children  who  died 
easy  therefore  to  overrate  Melanchthon 's  importance  young.  After  their  death  Melania's  inclination  lo- 
in this  field.  By  this  many-sided  practical  activity  ward  a  celibate  life  reassertine  itself,  she  secured  her 
and  his  work  as  an  organizer  he  became  the  founder  husband's  consent  and  entered  upon  the  path  of  evan- 
of  higher  education  in  ''Evangelical"  Germany;  the  gelic  perfection,  parting  little  by  little  with  all  her 
elementary  school  la^  outside  his  sphere.  Numerous  wealtn.  Pinianus,  who  now  assumed  a  brotherly 
Latin  schools  and  universities  ow^  to  him  their  es-  position  toward  her,  was  her  companion  in  all  her 
tablishment  Or  reorganization;  and  in  numberless  efforts  toward  sanctity.  Because  of  the  Visieothic  in- 
cases he  was  written  to  for  advice,  or  was  called  on  to  vasions  of  Italy,  she  left  Rome  in  408,  ana  for  two 
recommend  competent  instructors,  to  settle  contro-  years  lived  near  Messina  in  Sicily.  Here,  their  life  of 
versies,  or  to  give  his  opinion  on  the  advantage  ^  or  a  monastic  character  was  shared  by  some  former 
necessity  of  courses  of  study.  His  ideas  on  teaching  slaves.  In  410  she  went  to  Africa  where  she  and 
in  the  three-class  Latin  schools  are  more  fully  set  forth  Pinianus  lived  with  her  mother  for  seven  years,  during 
in  the  "  Unterricht  der  Visitatoren  "  (1528)  already  re-  which  time  she  grew  well  acquainted  witn  St.  Augus- 
ferred  to.  and  the  "  Wittenberger  Kirehen-imd  Schul-  tine  and  his  friend  Alypius.  She  devoted  herselT  to 
ordnung''  (1533).  Hieir  novelty  lies  partlv  in  the  works  of  charity  and  piety,  especially,  in  her  zeal  for 
selection  of  subjects,  but  chiefly  in  the  method.  Latin  souls,  to  the  f oimdation  of  a  nunnery  of  which  she  be- 
naturally  holds  the  place  of  honour.  came  superior,  and  of  a  cloister  of  which  Pinianus  took 
Melairohthon  put  an  end  to  grammatical  torture  charge.  In  417,  Melania,  her  mother,  and  Pinianus 
and  the  **  Doctrinale  "  of  Alexander  de  Villa  Dei:  gram-  went  to  Palestine  by  way  of  Alexandria.  For  a  year 
mar  exereises  were  appended  to  the  texts.  ^  He  him-  they  lived  in  a  hospice  for  pilgrims  in  Jerusalem, 
self  had  a  Latin  school,  the  Schola  Privata,  in  his  own  where  she  met  St.  Jerome.  She  again  made  generous 
house  for  ten  years,  in  which  he  prepared  a  few  boys  donations,  upon  the  receipt  of  money  from  the  sale  of 
for  the  university.  In  1526,  he  founded  a  second  her  estates  in  Spain.  About  this  time  she  travelled  in 
^rade  of  the  more  advanced  school,  the  Obere  Schule,  Egypt,  where  she  visited  the  princip^  places  of  mo- 
rn Nuremberg  near  St.  ^gidien.  He  looked  on  this  nastic  and  eremetical  life,  and  upon  her  return  to  Jeni- 
as  a  connectmg  link  between  the  Latin  school  and  salem  she  lived  for  twelve  years,  in  a  hermitage  near 
the  university.  It  comprised  dialectics  and  rhetoric,  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Before  the  death  of  her  mother 
readings  from  the  poets,  mathematics,  and  Greek.  (431),  a  new  series  of  monastic  foundations  had  begun. 
This  tYge  of  school,  however,  did  not  meet  with  any  She  started  with  a  convent  for  women  on  the  Mount  of 
great  success.  The  reorganization  of  universities,  as  Olives,  of  which  she  assumed  the  maintenance  while 
advocated  by  Melanchthon.  affected  chiefly  the  arts  refusing  to  be  made  its  superior.  After  her  husband's 
and  theological  courses.  Tne  faculty  of  Aits  became  death  sne  built  a  cloister  for  men,  then  a  chapel,  and 
wholly  humanistic.  Logic,  till  then  dominant  in  edu-  later,  a  more  pretentious  chureh.  During  this  last 
cation,  gave  way  to  the  languages,  and  Greek  and  period  (Nov.,  436),  she  went  to  Constantinople  where 
Hebrew  assumed,  more  prommence.  As  sources  of  she  aided  in  the  conversion  of  her  pagan  uncle,  Yolu- 
philolcjgy  the  classic  authors  replaced  the  writers  of  sian,  ambassador  at  the  Court  of  Theodosius  II,  and 
the  Middle  Ages.  For  the  scholastic  study  of  the  in  the  conflict  with  Nestorianism.  An  interesting 
liberal  arts  a  more  simple  and  practical  course  in  dia-  episode  in  her  later  life  is  the  journey  of  the  Empress 
lectics  and  rhetoric  was  substituted.  Likewise  in  Eudocia,  wife  of  Theodosius,  to  Jerusalem  in  438. 
theologv.  Scriptural  interpretation  was  broi^ht  to  the  Soon  after  the  empress's  return  Melania  died, 
fore.  Dogmatic  principles  were  developed  by  exe-  The  Greek  Church  began  to  venerate  her  shortly 
gesis;  to  tnese  then  were  gradually  added  special  lee-  after  her  death,  but  she  was  almost  unknown  in  the 
tures  on  dopma.  The  essential  fact  was  a  decided  re-  Western  Churon  for  many  years.  She  has  received 
turn  to  original  sources.  This  transformation  was  sreater  attention  since  the  publication  of  her  life  by 
wrought  not  only  in  the  University  of  Wittenberp,  but  Cardinal  RampoUa  (Rome,  1905).  In  1908,  Pius  X 
also  in  that  of  TQbingen,  where  Melanchthon  himself  granted  her  office  to  the  congregation  of  clergy  at 
took  part  in  the  work  of  reform,  in  those  of  Frankfort,  Somascha.  This  may  be  considered  as  the  beginning 
Leipzig,  Rostock,  and  Heidellierg,  where  in  1557  he  of  a  zealous  ecclesiastical  cult,  to  which  the  saint's 


MEXaOlIBMl                            155  HKLBOIIBMI 

fife  and  works  have  entitled  her.    Melanla's  life  has  Archbishop  Goold  died,  11  June,  1886,  there  were 

been  shrouded  in  obscurity  nearlv  up  to  the  present  11,661  children  receiving  Catholic  education  without 

time;  many  people  having  wholly  or  partially  con-  costixiff  a  penn v  to  the  state,  while  their  parents  were 

founded  her  with  her  grandmother  Antonia  Melania.  contributing  their  share  as  taxpayers  to  the  state 

The  accurate  knowledge  of  her  life  we  owe  to  the  dis-  system. 

covery  of  two  MSS. ;  the  first,  in  Latin,  was  foimd  bv  (2)  Most  Rev.  Tho&cab  Joseph  Cabr,  on  the  solid 

Cardinal  R^polla  in  the  Escorial  in  1884,  the  second,  foundation  laid  by  his  predecessor,  the  first  Bishop 

a  Greek  bi(^;raphy,  is  in  the  Barberini  library.    Car-  of  Melbourne,  has  raised  a  stately  and  imposing  edi- 

dinitl  RampoUa  published  both  these  important  dis-  fioe.    The  present  archbishop  was  transferred  from 

ooveries  at  the  Vatican  printing-office.    A  new  biog-  the  ancient  see  of  Galway,  and  arrived  in  Melbourne 

raphy  (1908)  by  Georges  Goyau  is  worthy  of  mention,  on  the  first  anniversary  of  Dr.  Goold's  death,  11  June, 

AnaUefa  SanetcB  Sedia  (1908);  Ecelenaaiicai  Review  (July,  1887.    Three  years  after  lus  arrival  he  Undertook  the 

1908;;  Got Au,  iSointo  AfAinw  in  the  collection  L«a  Aitnto  great  task  of  completing  St.  Patrick's  cathedral.    For 

tFaru^     os>.                                  Chakles  Schutz.  o^er  forty  years  the  bmlding  of  thw  momificwit  tern- 

pie  absorbed  every  thought  of  the  first  Yicar-General, 

Melboume,  Archdiocese  or  (Melburnbn.),  in  the  Right  Rev.  John  Fitspatrick,  D.D.    Yet  a  sum  of 

the  State  of  Victoria,  Southeastern  Australia.    Its  one  hundred  thousand  poimds  was  required  to  cany 

history  is  closely  interwoven  with  Uie  rise  and  progress  out  the  ori^nal  design,  exclusive  of  the  towers  which 

of  the  State  of  Victoria.    When  the  first  Catnolic  are  still  unfinished.    On  the  death  of  Dr.  Fitzpatrick 

Bishop  of  Melbourne  was  consecrated  in  1848,  the  pres-  in  1889,  the  archbishop  enlisted  the  practical  sym- 

ent  metropolis,  from  which  the  see  takes  its  name,  was  pathy  and  hearty  co-operation  of  the  cter^  and  laity 

known  as  the  Port  Philip  Settlement,  and  was  part  of  of  the  archdiocese  in  this  laige  imdertakmg.    On  31 

the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Svdney.    Dr.  Folding,  October,  1897,  the  cathedral  was  consecrated,  entirely 

the  newly  consecrated  bi^op  of  that  see,  placed  the  free  from  debt.    The  total  cost  from  the  day  the  foun- 

Rev.  Patrick  Bona  venture  Geoghegan  in  charge  of  dation  stone  was  laid  in  April,  1850,  to  the  day  of  dedi- 

Port  Philip  in  1839 ;  and  the  first  Mass  was  celebrated  in  cation  was  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  poimds. 

Melbourne  on  Pentecost  Sunday,  15  May,  of  that  year.  No  modem  cathedral  in  Ireland  approaches  the  Mel- 

The  entire  population  of  Fort  Philip  in  1841  was  11,-  bourne  fane,  and  even  the  two  ancient  cathedrals, 

738,  and  the  Catholics  numbered  2411.  Christ's  Qiiurch,  and  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin,  fall  far 

(i)  Most  Rev.  James  Altpius  Goold,  the  first  short  in  seating  accommodation  and  massive  beauty, 

bishop,  an  Irishman,  journeyed  overland  from  Sydney  The  episcopal  silver  jubilee  of  the  archbishop  was 

after  his  consecration,  arriving  in  Melbomne,  4  October,  celebrated  26  August,  1907,  with  imbounded  enthusi- 

1848.     In  April.  1850,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  St.  asm,  when  over  10,000  found  standing  or  sitting  room 

Patrick's  cathedral,  and  this  event  was  followed  in  a  within  ttie  walls  of  the  cathedral.    The  cleigy  and 

few  months  by  a  declaration  from  the  imperial  au-  laity  took  occasion  of  this  celebration  to  mark  their  ap- 

thorities  which  changed  the  Settlement  of  Port  Philip  preciation  of  Archbishop  Carr's  great  services  to  the 

into  the  independent  Colony  of  Victoria.    The  disco  v-  Church  in  Australia  during  the  twenty  years  of  his  rule, 

ery  of  the  ^oldfields  of  Ballarat,  Bendigo,  and  Castle-  Because  of  his  deeply  rooted  objection  to  a  personal 

maine  at  this  period  was  responsible  for  a  lar^  increase  testimonial,  a  debt  of  eight  thousand  pounds  was 

in  the  population.    Ireland  found  in  Victona  a  refuge  cleared  off  the  cathedral  hall  and  a  thousand  pounds 

and  a  home  for  many  of  her  exiled  children.    Ine  oversubscribed  handed  him  for  educational  purposes. 

Catholic  population.  In  1851  only  18,000,  had  by  1857  In  connexion  with  that  event  a  review  was  made,  and 

grown  to  88,000.  official  statistics  compiled,  of  the  growth  and  progress 

During  the  next  decade  and  a  half  laige  centres  of  of  the  Church  during  that  period.    The  number  of 

population  had  sprung  up  in  places  so  remote  from  clerey  had  increased  from  66  to  142,  30  new  churches 

Melbourne  that  it  was  utterly  impossible  for  Bishop  had  oeen  built,  old  churches  had  been  replaced  by  sub- 

Goold  to  attend  to  the  wants  of  his  widely  scattered  stantial  and  stately  edifices,  and  the  existing^nes  im- 

flock.   When  at  Rome  in  1874  he  placed  his  difficulties  proved  in  ornamentation  and  equipment,  and  the 

before  the  Holy  See,  and  had  the  northern  and  western  number  of  parishes  had  risen  from  26  to  56.    The  total 

portions  of  Victoria  cut  off  from  Melbourne  and  formed  cost  in  the  erection  of  churches,  schools,  presbyteries, 

mto  the  dioceses  of  Sandhurst  and  Ballarat,  and  re-  halls,  educational  and  charitable  institutions  amounted 

eeived  the  pallium  as  first  Archbishop  of  Melbourne  to  the  enormous  sum  (considering  the  population)  of 

and  Metropolitan  of  Victoria.    The  strain  in  getting  £1^272,874. 

through  ecclesiastical  work  in  the  pioneer  days  of  Aus-  The  development  of  Catholic  education  and  the  in* 

tralia  demanded  a  physical  strength  and  a  mental  crease  in  the  number  of  schools  not  only  kept  pace 

firmness  of  no  ordinary  capacity.    The  work  accom-  with  the  general  growth,  but  led  the  van  <A  progress, 

plished  by  Archbishop  Goold  from  1848  to  1886  proves  The  archbishop  adhered  religiously  to  the  principle  of 

nim  a  man  of  wondenul  endurance  and  great  oiganis-  his  predecessor  in  his  endeavour  to  provide  as  tar  as 

ing  ability.    He  made  five  voyages  to  Rome,  and  in-  possible.  Catholic  education  for  every  Catholf^^  child, 

troduced  several  religious  orders  devoted  to  educa-  To  make  effectual  and  permanent  provision  in  the  de- 

tion  and  works  of  charity,  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  the  partmentof  education,  new  teaching  orders  were  intro* 

Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Good  Shepherd  duced.    In  addition  to  those  alrea^  fighting  the  edu- 

Nuns,  Presentation  Order.  Faithful  Companions  of  cational  battle  the  archbishop,  within  a  few  years, 

Jesus,  and  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor.    The  most  im-  had  the  Marist  Brothers,  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  the 

portant  action  of  Dr.  Goold  and  most  far-reaching  in  Sacred  Heart  Sisters,  the  Sisters  of  Loretto,  the  Sisters 

its  consequences,  was  the  determined  and  consistent  of  St.  Joseph,  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Samaritan, 

fight  he  inade  a^inst  the  state  system  of  purely  secu-  £500,679  was  expended  during  these  twenty  years  on 

lar  education.    The  seal  he  displayed  in  the  erection  school  buildings  and  residences  for  religious  engaged 

of  Catholic  schools,  and  the  sacrifice  he  demanded  of  in  Catholic  education.    In  1887  the  number  of  pupils 

his  people  in  maintaining  them,  show  how  fully  con-  attending  the  Cal^olic  schools  of  the  archdiocese  was 

vinced  he  was  that  religious  instruction  can  never  be  11,661  as  compared  with  25,369  at  the  close  of  1908. 

separated  from  genuine  education.    When  the  denom-  This  building  and  maintaining  of  a  separate  school  sys- 

inational  system  in  1872  gave  way  to  a  svstem  from  tem  means  a  double  tax  on  the  Catnolic  community* 

which  the  name  of  God  was  banished,  the  bishop  pro-  as  rate  payers  they  contribute  their  share  of  State  edu- 

claimed  that  no  matter  what  the  cost,  or  what  the  cation,  and  as  Catholics  they  pay  for  their  own;  and 

sacrifice  involved,  the  Catholic  children  of  Victoria  count  the  cost  as  nothing  compared  with  the  eternal  in- 

should  be  provided  with  a  Catholic  education.   When  terests  at  stake.    When  the  purely  secular  system  of 


156  MXLCHZ8XDECH 

education  was  introduced   into  Victoria  in   1872.  Council.    On  his  return  to  Cologne  he  proclaimed  in 

some  anti-Catholics  leagued  together,  and  declared  an  eloquent  address  (24  July)  the  dogma  defined  IS 

that  the  new  svstem   would   *'rend   the   Catholic  July.    ^As  a  means  of  ensuring  obedience  to  the  Coun- 

Church  asimder' •    The  opposite  has  been  the  result.  cil»  the  bishops  assembled  by  nim  at  Fulda,  published 

The  very  suffering  and  disabilities  associated  with  the  (1  Sept.)  a  joint  letter  which  produced  a  deep  and 

maintenance  of  their  own  schools  have  united  solidly  salutaiy  impression,  and  for  which  Pius  IX  expressed 

l^e  Ca^olic  body;  while  the  absence  of  religion  from  (20  Oct.)  his  gratitude  to  Archbishop  Melchers.    To 

the  State  schoolsnas  " rent  asimder "  Protestantism  in  eliminate  ibe  opposition  at  Bonn,  the  archbishop  (20 

producing  a  generation  of  non-believers.    No  review  Sept.  and  8  Oct.)  called  on  Professore  Diennger, 

of  the  Archcuocese  of  Melbourne  would  be  complete  Reusch,  LaDgen  and  Knoodt  to  sign  a  declaration  ao- 

without  reference  to  the  growth  of  Catholic  literature,  cepting  the  Vatican  decrees  and  pledging  conformltv 

particularly  during  recent  years.    To  stem  the  tide  of  thereto  in  their  teaching.    Diennger  alone  complied ; 

irreligious  reading,  splendid  efforts  have  been  made  in  the  others  were  suspended  and  eventually  (12  March, 

Melbourne  to  provide  Catholic  homes  with  Catholic  1872)  excommunicated. 

literature.    When  the  archbishop  came  to  Melbourne  The  encroachments  and  repressive  measures  of  the 

(1887)  there  was  only  one  Cathohc  paper,  the  "  Advo-  Kulturkampf  (q.  v.)  were  firmly  resisted  by  Arch- 

cate    in  Victoria.    Since  then  a  monthly  magazine,  bishop  Melchers.    In  June.  1873.  he  excommunicated 

the  "Austral  Light,"  under  his  direction  (1892),  a  twopriests  who  had  joined  the  Old  Catholics;  for  this 

penny  weekly  paper,  the  "Tribune"  (1900),  and  the  and  for  other  administrative  acts  he  was  fined  and 

Australian  Catholic  Truth  Society  (1904),  have  come  imprisoned  six  months  (12  Mareh — 9  Oct.,  1874).  On 

into  existence,  and  are  doing  great  apostolic  work  in  2  Dec.,  1875,  the  president  of  the  Rhine  Province  de- 

the  diffusion  of  Catholic  truSi.    The  Catholics  of  the  manded  his  resignation  on  pain  of  deposition ;  he  re- 

arehdiocese  are  almost  entirelv  Irish  or  of  Irish  origin,  fused,  but  learning  that  preparations  were  being  made 

The  priesthood  was  exclusivel^r  Irish  till  recent  years,  to  deport  him  to  KOstrin,  he  escaped  (13  Dec.)  to 

when  vocations  amonf;  the  native  bom  are  rapidly  on  Maestricht  and  took  refuge  with  the  Franciscans, 

the  increase.    The  rehgious,  teaching  in  the  schools  or  From  their  monastery  he  administered  his  diocese 

conducting  the  charitable  institutions,  were  in  the  during  ten  years.    Knowing,  however,  the  temper  of 

early  days  Irish,  but  are  now  largely  Australian.  the  German  government  and  fearing  that  his  absence 

SuMMART  OF  THB  Abceidiocese  OF  MsiiBOURNE. —  from  his  SCO  would  prove  injurious  to  religion,  he  on 

Districts,  57;  Churches,  168;  Secular  Cleixy,  113;  Beg-  different  occasions  informed  Leo  XIII  of  his  willing- 

ular  Cleigy,  38;  Relifinous  Brothers,  54;  Nuns,  851 ;  Su-  ness  to  resign  for  the  eeneral  good.    The  pope  at  last 

perior  Schools,  for  Bovs,  8;  for  Girls,  28;  number  of  reluctantly  consented,  but  cSled  him  to  Rome  and 

pupils,  3443;  Parochial  Primary  Schools,  107;  number  created  him  cardinal  (27  July,  1885).    In  1892  dur- 

of  pupils,  21,926:  Total  number  of  pupils  in  Parochial  ing  a  serious  illness,  he  was  received  into  the  Society 

and  High  Schools,  25,369;  Orphanaees,  4;  Industrial  oi  Jesus  and  lived  as  a  Jesuit  until  his  death  three 

Schools,  for  Boys.  1,  for  Girls,  1;  ReformatoiySchool  years  later.    He  was  laid  to  rest  in  the  cathedral  of 

for  Girls,  1;  MiHZoalen  Aeylums  for  Penitent  Women,  Cologne  amid  obsequies  that  attested  the  people's  ad- 

2 ;  Home  for  N^lected  Children,  1;  Home  for  the  Poor,  miration  and  love.    St.  Paul's  chureh  in  tne  same 

1;  Home  for  Women  and  Girls  out  of  employment,  1;  city,   completed   in    1908/   fittis^y  commemorates 

Foimdling  Hospital,  1 ;  Receiving  Home  m  connexion  Melcher's  heroic  struffile  for  the  liberty  of  the  Chureh. 

with  Foimdling  Hospital,  1;  Catholic  population  of  the  His  principal  publications  are:  "  Erinnerungen  an 

arehdiocese  according  to  (Government  census  returns  die  Feier  des  50  j&hrigen  Bischofsjubil&ums  des  h. 

of  1901, 145,333.  Vaters  Pius  IX"  (Colome,  1876);  "Eine  Untcrwei- 

Patrick  Phelan.  sung  Qber  das  Gebet"  (Cologne,  1876):  "Eine  Unter- 

weisuns  Qber  das  heilige  Messopfer  "  (Cologne,  1879); 

Melehflra,  Paul,  Cardinal,  Arohbishop  of  Cologne,  '^  Das  Sendschreiben  des  heiligen  Vaters  Papst  Leo 

b.  6  Jan.,  1813,  at  MOnster,  Westphalia;  d.  14  Dec.,  XIII  Qber  den  Socialismus"  (Cologne,  1880);  "Die 

1895,  at  Rome.    He  studied  law  at  Bonn  (1830-^3),  katholische  Lehre  von  der  Kirehe''  (Cologne,  1881); 

and  after  a  few  years  practice  at  Monster,  took  up  *'Das  eine  Nothwendigje "  (Cologne,  1882);  "De  cano- 

theology  at  Munich  under  Klee,  Gdrres,  windisch-  nicadioecesium  visitations''  (Rome,  1892). 

nrmnn  and  Ddllingcr.     Ordained  in  1841,  he  was  as-  Ludwios.  Kardinal  ErAUkoJ  ur,  PatUtu  MdcKen  und  dis 

mtnxfid  fjn  duiv  in  thp  vilUfm  of  HAlfnm       In  1844  hi»  ^'   P*^uluMkirche   in  Koln   (Cologne,   1009);    Orandbrat»- 

ngnea  to  auty  in  tne  viuaM  oi  naitren.    in  im^jie  kxkch,  Oeachichu  dM  VatikaniachenKongiu  I.  //.  ///.  (Prei. 

became  vice-rector  of  the  diocesan  senunaiy,  rector  burg,  (1903-1906):  Qranderatb,  Acta  ei  Decnta  s,  S.  con- 

(1851),  canon  of  the  cathedral  (1852),  vicar-general  cUiorum  neenHarum,  torn.  VU  (Freiburg,  1800). 

(1854) .    Pius  IX  appointed  him  Bishop  of  OsnabrQck  J-  Fobost. 

(1857)  and  Archbishop  of  Cologne  (1866)-  Here  he  MelchiadeB.    See  Miltiadbb,  Saint,  Pope. 
laboured  sealously  and.  moreover,  inaugurated  (1867) 

at  Fulda.  those  annual  reunions  of  the  German  bish*  Melchiaedech    [Gr.  McXx(^«8^ir.    Heb.    p^lins^D, 

ODs  which  have  since  produced  such  excellent  results.  "  King  of  righteousness  "  (Gesenius)]  was  King  of  Salem 

Though  he  had  always  accepted  and  taught  the  doc-  (Gen.  xiv,  18-20)  who,  on  Abraham's  return  with  the 

trine  of  papal  infallibility,  he  regarded  its  formal  defi-  booty  taken  from  the  four  kings,  "bringing  forth 

nition  as  untimely,  a  conviction  which  he,  with  thir-  bread  and  wine,  for  he  was  the  priest  of  the  most  high 

teen  other  bishops,  expressed  in  a  letter  to  the  pope,  4  God.  blessed  him",  and  received  from  him  "  the  titl^ 

Sept.,  1869.    At  tne  same  time,  however,  the  bishops,  of  all"  (v.  20).    Josephus,  with  many  others,  identi- 

in  a  pastoral  letter  which  they  signed  without  excep-  fies  Salem  with  Jerusalem,  and  adds  that  Melchisedech 

tion,  warned  the  faithful  a^iinst  reports  unfavour-  "supplied  Abram's  army  in  a  hospitable  manner,  and 

able  to  the  future  (Vatican)  Council  and  exhorted  gave  them  provisions  in  abimdance  .  •  •  and  when 

them  to  await  calmly  its  decisions.    In  the  Council  Abram  gave  him  the  tenth  part  of  his  prey,  he  ac- 

itself  Archbishop  Melchers  took  a  prominent  part,  oepted  of  the  gift"  (Ant.,  I.  x,  2).    Cheyne  sajrs  "it  is 

At  the  session  of  13  July,  1870,  he  voted  negatively  on  a  plausible  conjecture  that  ne  is  a  purely  fictitious  per- 

the  question  of  papal  infallibility;  but  he  refused  to  sonage"  (Ency.  Bib.,  s.  v.),  which  "plausible  conject- 

sign  an  address  in  which  fifty-five  other  members  of  ure"  Kaufmann,  however,  rightly  condemns  (Jew. 

the  minority  notified  the  popMS  of  their  immediate  de-  Ency^  s.  v.).    The  Rabbins  identified  Melchisedech 

parture  and  reiterated  their  non  placet.    He  left  with  bem,  son  of  Noe,  rather  for  polemic  than  historic 

Rome  before  the  fourth  solemn  session,  ^ving  as  his  reasons,  since  they  wished  to  set  themselves  against 

reason  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  what  is  said  of  him  as  a  type  of  Christ  "without  father, 

declariiig  his  readiness  to  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  without  mother,  without  genealogy  "  (Heb.,  vii,  3). 


MXLCmSEDECHIANS 


157 


HELCHinS 


In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  the  typical  character 
of  Melchisedeoh  and  its  Messianic  import  are  fully  ex- 
plained. Christ  is  "a  pnest  forever  according  to  the 
order  of  Melchisedech'  (Heb.,  vii,  6;  Ps.,  cix,  4);  "a 
high  priest  forever",  etc.  (Heb.,  vi,  20),  ^mm-7j^,  i.  e. 
order  or  manner  (Gesenius),  not  after  the  manner  of 
Aaron.  The  Apostle  develops  his  teaching  in  Heb.,  vii: 
Melchisedech  was  a  type  by  reason  (a)  of  his  twofold 
dieoity  as  priest  and  lung,  (b)  by  reason  of  his  name, 
"  king  of  ii^ce  ",  (c)  by  reason  of  the  city  over  which 
he  nded,  ^'  King  of  Salem,  that  is,  king  of  peace  "  (v.  2), 
and  also  (d)  because  he  "without  father,  without 
mother,  without  genealogy,  having  neither  beginning 
of  days  nor  end  of  life,  but  likened  unto  the  Son  of 
God,  continueth  a  priest  forever"  (v.  3).  The  silence 
of  Scripture  about  the  facts  of  Melchisedech's  birth 
and  death  was  a  part  of  the  divine  plan  to  niake  him 
prefigure  more  strikingly  the  mysteries  of  Christ's  gen- 
eration, the  eternity  of  His  priesthood.  Abraham, 
patriarch  and  father  of  nations,  paid  tithes  to  Melchise- 
dech and  received  his  blessing.  Tins  was  all  the  more 
remarkable  since  the  priest-ldng  was  a  stranger,  to 
whom  he  was  not  boimd  to  pay  tithes,  as  were  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  to  the  priests  of  the  Aaronic  line.  Abra- 
ham, therefore,  and  Levi  "in  the  loins  of  his  father" 
(Heb.  vii.  9),  bv  acknowledging  his  superiority  as  a 
type  of  Christ  (for  personally  he  was  not  greater  than 
Abraham),  therebv  confessed  the  excellence  of  Christ's 

Sriesthood.  Neitner  can  it  be  fairly  objected  that 
ihrist  was  in  the  loins  of  Abraham  as  Levi  was,  and 
paid  tithes  to  Melchisedech;  for,  though  descended 
from  Abraham,  he  had  no  human  father,  but  was  con- 
ceived of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  the  history  of  Melchise- 
dech St.  Paul  says  nothing  about  the  bread  and  wine 
which  the  "  priest  of  the  most  High "  offered,  and  on 
account  of  which  his  name  is  placed  in  the  Canon  of 
the  Mass.  The  scope  of  the  ApcNstle  accounts  for  this; 
for  he  wishes  to  show  that  the  priesthood  of  Christ  was 
in  dignity  and  duration  superior  to  that  of  Aaron,  and 
therefore,  since  it  is  not  what  Melchisedech  offered,  but 
rather  the  other  circumstances  of  his  priesthood  which 
belonged  to  the  theme,  they  alone  are  mentioned. 

Mf^TULT,  An  BxvpB,  o/theE^a.  of  St.  Paul  (Heb.,  vii);  Px- 
como.  Triplex  Bxpontio  (Heb.,  vii);  Hoonackbr,  Le  Sacerdoce 
LiviUaue  0899),  281-287;  Hastinos,  Diet,  oj  the  Bible,  b.  v.; 
Rflbbuuo  references  in  Jew.  Ency.,  8.  v.;  St.  Thomas.  Ill,  Q. 
•g^i,  a.  6;  Hommxl,  The  Ancient  Heb.  Tradition  Ctr.  from  the 
Qcr.,  1897),  14«.  JOHN  J.  TiERNBY. 

MelcldaedechianSv  a  branch  of  the  Monarchians, 
founded  by  Theodotus  the  banker.  (See  Monarch- 
lAXS.)  Another  quite  distinct  sect  or  party  is  refuted 
by  Mareus  Eremita,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  disciple 
of  St.  John  Chryaostom.  His  book  E/r  rbv  MeXxi^-cd^K, 
or  according  to  Photius  ''Against  the  Melchisedek- 
ites"  (P.  G.,  Ixv,  1117),  speaks  of  these  new  teachers 
as  making  Melchisedech  an  incarnation  of  the  Logos. 
They  were  anathematised  by  the  bishops,  but  would 
not  cease  to  preach.  They  seem  to  have  been  other- 
wise orthodox.  St.  Jerome  (Ep.  73)  refutes  an  anonv- 
mou8  work  which  identified  Melchisedech  with  the 
Holy  Ghost.  About  a.  d.  600,  Timotheus,  Presbyter 
of  Cdnstantinople,  in  his  book  *'  De  receptione  Hceretico- 
rum"  (CoteHer,  ''Monumenta  eccles.  Grseca",  III, 
392;  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  34),  adds  at  the  end  of  his  list 
of  heretics  who  need  rebaptism  the  Melchisedechians, 
"now  called  Athin^ani"  (intangibles).  They  live  in 
Phrygia,  and  are  neither  Hebrews  nor  Gentiles.  They 
keep  the  Sabbath,  but  are  not  circumcised.  They 
will  not  touch  any  man.  If  food  is  ofifered  to  them, 
they  aflJc  for  it  to  be  placed  on  the  ground;  then  they 
come  and  take  it.  They  give  to  otnere  with  the  same 
precautions.    Nothing  more  is  known  of  this  curious 

sect. 

For  the  Monarehian  Ifelchisedechtans  the  ancient  authorities 
are  PesuDO-TBBTUUJAN,  Praaeripl.t  liii:  PmLAsnuus,  Har., 
Ki;  EnpHAjmra,  H<er.,  Iv;  AuouarxNa,  Har..  zxxivj  PR^DBa- 
iDfATDa,  Bmr.,  zzxiv;  TRaoDORBT,  H<Br.  Fab.,  II,  vi.  Alaosee 
KuNSB,  MarcuMBremita  (Ldpsig,  1806) ;  Idem  in  ReaJLeneyd-.,  n.  v. 
(See  Moif AaomAira.)  John  Chapman. 


BUehites  (Melkites).  I.  Origin  and  Namb. — 
Melchites  are  the  people  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egvpt 
who  remained  faithful  to  the  Council  of  Chaloedon 
(451)  when  the  greater  part  turned  Monophysite. 
The  origin'al  meanmg  of  the  name  therefore  is  an  oppo- 
sition to  Monophysism.  The  Nestorians  had  their 
communities  in  eastern  Syria  till  the  Emperor  Zeno 
r474-491)  closed  then-  school  at  Edessa  in  489,  and 
arove  them  over  the  frontier  into  Persia.  The  people 
of  western  Sjrria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt  were  either 
Melchites  who  accepted  Chalcedon,  or  Monophysites 
(called  also  Jacobites  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  Copts  in 
Egypt)  who  rejected  it,  till  the  Monothelete  heresy  in 
the  seventh  centur^r  further  complicated  the  situation. 
But  Melchite  remained  the  name  for  those  who  were 
faithful  to  the  great  Chureh,  Catholic  and  Orthodox, 
till  the  Schism  of  Photius  (867)  and  Cerularius  (1054) 
again  divided  them.  From  that  time  there  have 
been  two  kinds  of  Melchites  in  these  countries,  the 
Catholic  Melchites  who  kept  the  communion  of  Rome, 
and  schismatical  ("Orthodox")  Melchites  who  fol- 
lowed Constantinople  and  the  great  mass  of  eastern 
Christians  into  schism.  Although  the  name  has  been 
and  still  is  occasionally  used  for  both  these  groups,  it  is 
now  commonlv  applied  only  to  the  Catholic  Uniates. 
For  the  sake  of  clearness  it  is  oetter  to  keep  to  this  use ; 
the  name  "Orthodox"  is  sufficient  for  the  others, 
whereas  among  the  many  groups  of  Catholics,  Latin 
and  UAiate,  of  various  rites,  we  need  a  special  name  for 
this  group.  It  would  be,  indeed,  still  more  convenient 
if  we  could  call  all  Uniates  of  the  Byzantine  rite  Mel- 
chites. But  such  a  use  of  the  word  has  never  ob- 
tained. One  could  not  with  any  propriety  call  Ru- 
thenians,  the  Uniates  of  southern  Italy  or  Rumania, 
Melchites.  One  must  therefore  keep  the  name  for 
those  of  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  all  of  whom 
speak  Arabic. 

We  define  a  Melchite  then  as  any  Christian  of  these 
lands  in  communion  with  Rome,  Constantinople,  and 
the  great  Chureh  of  the  Empire  before  the  Photian 
schism,  or  as  a  Christian  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  in 
communion  with  Rome  since.  As  the  word  implied 
opposition  to  the  Monophysites  originally,  so  it  now 
marks  the  distinction  between  these  people  and  all 
schismatics  on  the  one  hand,  between  them  and  Latins 
or  Uniates  of  other  rites  (Maronites,  Armenians,  Sy- 
rians, etc.^  on  the  other.  The  name  is  easily  ex- 
plained philoloeically.  It  is  a  Semitic  (presiunably 
Syriac^  root  with  a  Greek  ending,  meaning  imperialist. 
Melk  IS  Syriac  for  king  (Heb.  mdek,  &ah,  malik). 
The  word  is  used  in  all  the  Semitic  languages  for  the 
Roman  Emperor,  like  the  Greek  /ScuriXei^.  By  adding 
the  Greek  endiug-iriys  we  have  the  form  /uXkIttis. 
equal  to  paffi\uc6s.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  third 
radical  of  the  Semitic  root  is  kaf:  there  is  no  guttural. 
Therefore  the  correct  form  of  the  word  is  Afelkite, 
rather  than  the  usual  form  Melchite.  The  pure  Syriac 
word  is  mdUcoyo  (Arab,  malakiyyu;  vulgar,  miUdyyu). 

II.  History  before  the  Schism.— The  decrees  of 
the  Fourth  General  Council  (Chalcedon,  451)  were 
unpopular  in  Syria  and  still  more  in  Egypt.  Mono- 
physism began  as  an  exa^eration  of  the  teaching  of 
St.  Cjrril  of  Alexandria  (d.  M4^,  the  Egyptian  national 
hero,  against  Nestoriiis.  In  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
the  Egyptians  and  their  friends  in  Syria  saw  a  betrayal 
of  Cynl,  a  concession  to  Nestorianism.  Still  more  did 
national,  anti-imperial  feeling  cause  opposition  to  it. 
The  Emperor  Marcian  (450-457)  made  the  Faith  of 
Chalcedon  the  law  of  the  empire.  Laws  passed  on  27 
February  and  again  on  13  March,  452,  enforced  the 
decrees  of  the  council  and  threatened  heavy  penalties 
against  dissenters.  From  that  time  Dyophysism  was 
the  religion  of  the  court,  identified  with  loyalty  to  the 
emperor.  In  spite  of  the  compromising  concessions  of 
later  emperors,  the  Faith  of  Chalcedon  was  always 
looked  upon  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  demanded  and 
enforced  on  all  subjects  of  C»sar.    So  the  long-smoul- 


MILGHITI8  158 

detrng  disloval^  of  these  two  provinces  broke  out  in  sent  out  from  Constantinople  who  spoke  Greek.    For 

the  form  of  reDellion  against  Chaloedon.    For  oen-  a  long  time  the  history  of  these  coimtried  is  that  of  a 

tunes  (till  the  Arab  conquest)  Monophysism  was  the  continual  feud  between  Melchites  and  Monoph^tes; 

symbol  of  national  Egyptian  and  Syrian  patriotism,  sometimes  the  government  is  strong,  the  heretics  are 

The  root  of  the  matter  was  always  political.    The  persecuted,  the  patriarchate  is  occupied  by  a  Melchite; 

people  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  keeping  their  own  Ian-  then  again  the  people  get  the  upper  hand,  drive  out 

euages  and  theur  consciousness  of  being;  separate  races,  the  Melchite  bishops,  set  up  Monopnydtes  in  their  place 

Had  never  been  really  amalgamated  with  the  Empire,  and  murder  the  Greeks.    By  the  time  of  the  Arab 

originally  Latin,  now  fast  becoming  Greek.    They  conquest  the  two  Churches  exist  as  rivals  with  rival 

haa  no  chance  of  political  independence,  their  hatred  lines  of  bishops.    But  the  Monophysites  are  much 

of  Rome  found  a  vent  in  this  theological  question,  the  larger  party,  especially  in  Egypt,  and  form  the 

The  cry  of  the  faith  of  Cyril, ''  one  nature  in  Christ, "  national  religion  of  the  country.    The  difference  by 

no  betrayal  of  Ephesus,  meant  really  no  submission  to  now  expresses  itself  to  a  great  extent  in  lituiigical 

the  foreign  tyrant  on  the  Bosphorus.    So  the  great  Lmguage.    Both  parties  used  the  same  lituijpies  (St. 

majority  of  the  population  in  .these  lands  turned  Mark  in  Egypt,  St.  James  in  Syria  and  Palestine),  but 

Monophysite,  rose  in  continual  rebellion  against  the  while  the  Monophysites  made  a  point  of  using  the 

creed  of  the  Empire,  committed  sava^  atrocities  national  language  m  church  (Coptic  and  Syriac),  the 

against  the  Chalcedonian  bishops  and  ofiSsials,  and  in  Melchites  generally  used  Greek.    It  seems,  however, 

return  were  fiercely  persecuted.  that  this  was  less  tne  case  than  has  been  thought ;  the 

The  b^lnning  of  these  troubles  in  Egypt  was  the  Melchites,  too,  used  the  vuljgar  tongue  to  a  consider- 

deposition  of  the  Monophysite  Patriarch  Dioscur,  and  able  extent  (Charon, ''  Le  Rite  bysantin",  26-29). 

the  election  by  the  government  party  of  Proterius  as  When  the  Arabs  came  in  the  seventh  century,  the 

his  successor,  immediately  after  the  council.    The  Monophysites,   true   to  their  anti-imperial   policy, 

people,  especially  the  lower  classes  and  the  great  rather  helped  than  hindered  the  invaders.    But  they 

crowd  of  Eg^tian  monks,  refused  to  acknowfedge  gained  little  by  their  treason :  both  churches  received 

Proterius,  and  began  to  make  tumults  and  riots  that  the  usual  terms  granted  to  Christians;  they  became 

2000  soldiers  sent  from  Constantinople  could  hardly  two  sects  of  Rayas  under  the  Moslem  Khalifa,  both 

put  down.    When   Dioscur  died  in   454  a  certain  were  equally  persecuted  durine  the  repeated  outbursts 

Timothy,  called  the  Cat  or  Weasel  (of Xovpor),  was  or-  of  Moslem  fanaticism,  of  which  the  reign  of  Al-H&kim 

dained  by  the  Monophysites  as  his  successor.    In  457  in  Egypt  (996-1021)  is  the  best  known  instance.    In 

Proterius  was  muraered;  Timothy  drove  out  the  the  tenth  centui^y  part  of  Syria  was  conquered  back  by 

Chalcedonian  clergy  and  so  began  tne  oivanised  Cop-  the  empire  (Antioch  reconquered  in  968-969,  lost  again 

tic  (Monophysite)  Church  of  Egypt,    m  Syria  and  to  the  Seljuk  Turks  in  1078-1081).    This  caused  for  a 

Palestine  there  was  the  same  opposition  to  the  council  time  a  revival  of  the  Melchites  and  an  increase  of 

and  the  government.    The  people  and  monks  drove  enthusiasm  for  Constantinople  and  eveiything  Greek 

9ut  the  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Martyrius,  among  them.    Under  the  Moslems  the  characteristic 

and  set  up  one  Peter  the  Dyer  (7ra^<dt,/u//o),  a  Mono-  notes  of  both  churches  became,  if  pomible,  stronger. 

physite.  as  his  successor.    Juvenal  of  Jerusalem,  once  The  Monophysites  (Copts  and  Jacobites)  sank  into 

a  friena  of  Dioscur.  gave  up  his  heresy  at  Chalcedon.  isolated  local  sects.    On  the  other  hand,  the  Melchite 

When  he  came  back  to  his  new  patriarchate  he  found  minorities  clung  all  the  more  to  their  union  with  the 

the  whole  country  in  rebellion  ajgainst  him.    He  too  great  church  that  reigned  free  and  dominant  in  the 

was  driven  out  and  a  Monophysite  monk  Theodosius  empire.    This  expre^ed  itself  chiefly  in  loyalty  to 

was  set  up  in  his  place.    So  be^an  the  Monophysite  Constantinople.    Home  and  the  West  were  far  off;  the 

national  churches  of  these  provmces.    Their  opposi-  immediate  ooject  of  their  devotion  was  the  emperor's 

tion  to  the  court  and  rebellion  lasted  two  centuries,  till  court  and  the  emperor's  patriarch.    The  Bielchite 

the  Arab  conquest  (Syria,  637;  Egypt,  641).    During  patriarchs  imder  Moslem  rule  became  insignificant 

this  time  the  eovemment,  realizing  the  danger  of  the  people,  while  the  power  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constant!- 

disaffection  ofthe  frontier  provinces,  alternated  fierce  nopie  ^rew  steadily.    So,  looking  always  to  the  capital 

persecution  of  the  heretics  with  vain  attempts  to  con-  for  guidance,  they  gradually  accepted  the  position  of 

cUiate  them  by  compromises  (Zeno's  Henotikon  in  being  his  depencfents,  almost  suffrasans.    When  the 

482,  the  Acacian  Schism,  484-519,  etc.).    It  should  be  Bishop  of  Constantinople  assumed  the  title  of  "  CEcu- 

realiz^  that  Egypt  was  much  more  consistently  menical  Patriarch"  it  was  not  his  Melchite  brothers 

Monophysite  than  Syria  or  Palestine.    Eg3rpt  was  who  protested.    This  attitude  explains  their  share  in 

much  closer  knit  as  one  land  than  the  other  provinces,  his  schism.    The  quarrels  between  Photius  and  Poj^ 

and  so  stood  more  uniformly  on  the  side  of  the  na-  Nicholas  I,  between  Michael  Cerularius  and  Leo  IX 

tional  party.     (For  all  this  see  Monophtbism.)  were  not  their  affair;  they  hardly  understood  what 

Meanwhile  against  the  nationalist  party  stood  the  was  happening.     But  natuially,  almost  inevitably, 

mfaiority  on  the  side  of  the  government  and  the  coim-  when  the  schism  broke  out,  in  spite  of  some  protests 

cil.    These  are  the  Melchites.    Why  they  were  so-  [Peter  III  of  Antioch  (1053-1076?)  protested  vehe- 

called  is  obvious:  they  were  the  loyal  Imperialists,  the  mently  against  Cerularius's  schism;    see  Fortescue, 

emperor's  party.   The  name  occurs  first  in  a  pure  "Orthodox  Eastern  Church",  189-192],  the  Melchites 

Greek  form  as  ^i\ik6s.    Evagrius  says  of  Timothy  followed  their  leader,  and  when  orders  came  from 

Sakophakiolos  (the  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  Constantinople  to  strike  the  pope's  name  from  their 

set  up  by  the  government  when  Timothy  the  Cat  was  diptychs  they  quietly  obeyed. 

driven  out  in  460)  that "  some  called  him  the  Imperial-  III.  From  the  Schism  to  the  Beqinninq  of  the 

jst  (6v  ol  fjukv  iKdXovw  ftoffCKucSv) "  (H.  E.,  II,  11).    These  Union. — So  all  the  Melchites  in  Sypa,  Palestine,  and 

Melchites  were  naturally  for  the  most  part  the  govern-  Egypt  broke  with  Rome  and  went  into  schism  at  the 

ment  offici<Us,  in  Egypt  ahnoet  entirely  so,  while  in  command  of  Constantinople.    Here,  too,  they  justified 

Syria  and  Palestine  a  certain  part  of  the  native  popu-  their  name  of  Imperialist.    From  this  time  to  almost 

lation  was  Melchite  too.    Small  in  numbers,  they  were  our  own  day  there  is  little  to  chronicle  of  their  history, 

until  the  Arab  conouest  strong  through  the  support  of  They  existed  as  a  "  nation  "  (millef)  under  the  Khalifa; 

the  government  and  the  army.    The  contrast  tetween  when  the  Turks  took  Constantinople  (1453)  they  made 

Monophysites  and  Melchites  (Nationalists  and  Im-  the  patriarch  of  that  city  head  of  this  "  nation '  {Rum 

Siriahsts)   was  expressed   in   their  language.    The  millet,  i.  e.,  the  Orthodox  Church)  for  civil  affairs, 

onophysites  spoke  the  national  language  of  the  Other  bishops,  or  even  patriarchs,  could  only  approach 

country  (Coptic  in  Egypt,  Syriac  in  Syna  and  Pales-  the  government  through  him.    This  further  increased 

tine),  Melcmtes  for  tne  most  part  were  foreigners  his  authority  and  influence  over  all  the  Orthodox  io 


BBLGHITIS  159  MXLCHinS 

the  Turkish  Eminre.  During  the  dark  ages  that  fol-  they  have  now  succeeded  m  the  recognition  of  their 
low,  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  continuaUy  strove  native  Patriarch,  Gregory  IV  (Hadad)  after  a  schism 
(and  generally  manaoed)  to  assert  ecclesiastical  juris-  with  Constantinople.  The  troubles  caused  by  the 
diction  over  the  Melchites  (Orth.  Eastern  Ch.,  240,  same  movement  at  Jerusalem  are  still  fresh  in  every- 
285-289,  310,  etc.).  Meanwhile  the  three  patriarchs  one's  mind.  It  is  certain  that  as  soon  as  the  present 
(of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem),  finding  little  Greek  natriarchs  of  Jerusalem  (Damianoe  v)  and 
to  do  among  their  diminished  flocks,  for  long  periods  Alexanoria  (Photios)  die,  there  'wiH  be  a  determined 
came  to  live  at  Constantinople,  idle  ornaments  of  the  effort  to  appoint  natives  as  their  successors.  But 
Phanar.  The  lists  of  these  patriarchs  will  be  found  in  these  quarrels  affect  the  modem  Orthodox  of  these 
Le  Quien  (loc.  cit.  below).  Gradually  all  the  people  of  lands  who  do  not  come  within  the  limit  of  this  article, 
Elgypt,  S^rria,  and  Palestine  since  the  Arab  conquest  inasmuch  as  they  are  no  longer  Melchites. 
foigot  their  original  lai^uages  and  spoke  only  Arabic,  IV.  Uniates. — ^We  have  said  that  in  modem  times 
as  they  do  stilL  This  further  affected  their  liturgies,  since  the  foundation  of  Uniate  Byzantine  churches  in 
little  by  little  Arabic  began  to  be  used  in  church.  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Egnrnt,  only  these  Uniates  should 
Since  the  seventeenth  century  at  the  latest,  the  native  be  caJled  Melchites.  Why  the  old  name  is  now  re- 
Orthodox  of  these  countries  use  Aralnc  for  all  services,  served  for  them  it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  is,  however, 
though  the  great  number  of  Greeks  among  them  keep  a  fact  that  it  is  so.  One  still  occasionally  in  a  western 
their  own  language.  book  finds  all  Christians  of  the  Byzantine  Rite  in  these 

But  already  a  much  more  important  chaxige  in  the  countries  called  Melchites,  with  a  further  distinction  be- 

lituigy  of  the  Melchites  had  taken  place.    We  have  tween  Catholic  and  Orthodox  Melchites;  but  the  present 

Been  that  the  most  characteristic  note  of  these  comr-  writer's  experience  is  that  this  is  never  the  case  among 

munities  was  their  dependence  on  Constantinople,  themselves.    The  man  in  union  with  the  great  Eastern 

That  was  the  difference  between  them  and  their  old  Oiurch  in  those  parts  never  now  calls  hin^lf  or  allows 

rivals  the  Monoph^tes,  long  after  the  quarrel  about  himself  to  be  called  a  Hfelchite.   He  is  simply  **  Ortho- 

the  nature  of  Cnnst  had  practically  been  forgotten,  dox"  in  Greek  or  any  Western  language,  RUml  in 

The  Monophvsites,  isolated  from. the  rest  of  Cmisten-  Arabic.    Everyone  there  understands  by  Melchite  a 

dom,  kept  the  old  rites  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch-  Uniate.    It  is  true  that  even  for  them  the  word  is  not 

Jerusalem  pure.    Thev  still  use  these  rites  in  the  old  very  conunonly  used.    Thev  are  more  likely  to  speak 

languages  (Coptic  and  Syriac).   The  Melchites  on  the  of  themselves  as  rUml  kOthnWol  or  in  French  ureca 

other  muid  submitted  to  B^santine  influence  in  their  eaJlholiquea;   but  the  name  Melchite,  if  used  at  all, 

titurgies.    The  Byzantine  htanies  {Synaptai),  the  ser-  always  means  to  Eastern  people  these  Uniates.    It  is 

vice  of  the  Ptoskomide  and  other  elements  were  intro-  convenient  for  us  too  to  have  a  definite  name  for  them 

duoed  into  the  Greek  Alexandrine  Rite  before  the  Iras  entirely  wrong  than ''Greek  Catholic" — ^f or  they 

twelfth  or  thirteenth  centuries;  so  also  in  ^ria  and  are  Greeks  in  no  sense  at  all.    A  question  that  has 

Palestine  the  Melchites  admitted  a  number  of  Byzan-  often  been  raised  is  whether  there  is  any  continuitpr  of 

tine  elements  into  their  services  (Charon,  op.  cit.,  9-25).  these  Byzantine  Uniates  since  before  the'great  schism, 

Then  in  the  thirteenth  century  came  the  final  whether  there  are  any  communities  that  have  never 

change.    The  Melchites  gave  up  their  old  rites  alto-  lost  communion  with  Rome.    There  are  such  com- 

gether  and  adopted  that  of  Constantinople.   Theodore  munities  certainly  in  the  south  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and 

rV  (Balsamon)  of  Antioch  (1185-1214?)  marks  the  0>rsica.    In  the  case  of  the  Melchite  lands  there  are 

date  of  this  change.   The  crusaders  held  Antioch  in  his  none.    It  is  true  that  there  have  been  approaches  tx) 

time,  so  he  retired  to  Ck>nstantinople  and  lived  there  reimion  continually  since  the  eleventh  century,  indi- 

under  the  shadow  of  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch,  vidual  bishops  have  made  their  submission  at  various 

While  be  was  there  he  adopted  the  Byzantine  Rite,  times,  the  uiort-lived  unions  of  Lyons  (1274)  and 

In  1203  Mark  II  of  Alexandria  (1195-c.  1210)  wrote  to  Florence  (1439)  included  the  Orthodox  of  these  coun- 

Theodore  asking  various  questions  about  the  liturgy,  tries  too.    But  there  is  no  continuous  line;  when  the 

Theodore  in  his  answer  insists  on  the  use  of  Constanti-  union  of  Florence  was  broken  all  the  Byzantine  Chris- 

nople  as  the  only  right  one  for  all  the  Orthodox,  and  tians  in  the  East  fell  away.    The  present  Melchite 

Mark  undertook  to  adopt  it  (P.  G.,  CXXXVIII,  953  Church  dates  from  Uie  eighteenth  century, 
sq.).    When  Theodosius  IV  of  Antioch  (1269-1276)        Already  in  the  seventeenth  century  tentative  efforts 

was  able  to  set  up  his  throne  again  in  his  own  city  he  at  reunion  were  made  by  some  of  the  Orthodox  bish- 

impoeed  the  Byzantine  Rite  on  all  his  cleigy.   At  Jeru-  ops  of  Syria.    A  certain  Euthymius,  Metropolitan  of 

aaiem  the  old  liturgy  disappeared  at  about  the  same  Tjn^  and  Sidon,  then  the  Antiochene  Patriarchs 

time  (Charon,  op.  cit.,  11-12,  21,  23).  Athanasius  IV  (1700-1728)  and  the  famous  CJyril  of 

We  have  then  for  the  lituigies  of  the  Melchites  these  Berrhcea  (d.  1724,  the  rivsJ  of  Cyril  Lukaris  of  0>n- 
periods:  first  the  old  national  rites  in  Greek,  but  also  stantinople,  who  for  a  time  was  rival  Patriarch  of 
m  the  languages  of  the  country,  especially  in  Syria  and  Antioch)  approached  the  Holy  See  and  hoped  to  re- 
Palestine,  gtadually  Byzantinized  till  the  thirteenth  ceive  the  pailiimi.  But  the  professions  of  faith  which 
century.  'Tben  the  Byzantine  Rite  alone  in  Greek  in  they  submitted  were  considered  insuflicient  at  Rome. 
E^pt,  in  Greek  and  Syriac  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  The  latinizing  tendency  in  Syria  was  so  well  known 
with  ^«dually  increasing  use  of  Arabic  to  the  six-  that  in  1722  a  s3mod  was  held  at  Constantinople  which 
teenth  or  seventeenth  century.  Lastly  the  same  rite  drew  up  and  sent  to  the  Antiochene  bishops  a  warning 
in  Arabic  only  bv  the  natives,  in  Greek  by  the  foreign  letter  with  a  list  of  Latin  heresies  (in  Assemani,  **  BibL 
(Greek)  patriarchs  and  bishops.  Orient.".  111,639).  However,  in  1724  Seraphim  Tanas, 

The  liUBt  development  we  notice  is  the  steadjr  in-  who  haa  studied  at  the  Roman  Propa^nda,  was 

crease  of  this  foreign  (Greek)  element  in  all  the  higher  elected  Patriarch  of  Antioch  by  the  latimzinff  party. 

places  of  the  clergy.   As  the  Phanar  at  Constantinople  He  at  once  made  his  submission  to  Rome  and  sent  a 

Sew  more  and  more  powerful  over  the  Melchites,  so  Catholic  profession  of  faith.    He  took  the  name  Cyril 

d  It  more  and  more,  m  ruthless  defiance  of  the  feelinj^  (Cyril  VI,  1724-1759) ;  with  him  begins  the  line  of 

of  the  people,  send  them  Greek  patriarchs,  metropoli-  Melchite  patriarchs  in  the  new  sense  (Uniates).    In 

tans,  and  archimandrites  from  its  own  body.     For  1728  the  schismatics  elected  Sylvester,  a  Greek  monk 

centuries  the  lower  married  clergy  and  simple  monks  from  Athos.    He  was  recognized  by  the  Phanar  and 

have  been  natives,  speakmg  Arabic  and  using  Arabic  the  other  Orthodox  churches:  through  him  the  Ortho- 

in  the  lituigy,  while  all  the  prelates  have  been  Greeks,  dox  line  continues.    Cyril  VI  suffered  considerable 

who  often  do  not  even  Imow  the  language  of  the  counr  persecution  from  the  Orthodox^  and  for  a  time  had  to 

try.    At  last,  in  our  own  time,  the  native  Orthodox  flee  to  the  Lebanon.    He  received  the  pallium  from 

have  rebelled  against  this  state  of  things.   AtAntioch  fieaadict  XIV  in  1744.   In  1760,  wearied  by  the  eon- 


MXLCHmS 


160 


MXLCHITE8 


tlnual  struggle  against  the  Orthodox  majority,  he 
resided  his  office.  Ignatius  Jauhar  was  appointed  by 
Cyril  to  succeed  him,  but  the  appointment  was  re- 
jected at  Rome  and  Clement  XIII  appointed  Maximus 
nakim.  Metropolitan  of  Baalbek,  as  patriarch  (Maxi- 
mus II,  1760-1761).  Atbanasius  Dahan  of  Beirut 
succeeded  bv  r^;ular  election  and  confirmation  after 
Maximus's  death  and  became  Theodosius  VI  (1761- 
1788).  But  in  1764  Ignatius  Jauhar  succeeded  in 
beinff  re-elected  patriarch.  The  pope  exconununi- 
cated  him,  and  persuaded  the  Turkisn  authorities  to 
drive  him  out.  In  1773  Clement  XIV  united  the  few 
scattered  Melchites  of  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Melchite  ^triarch  of  Antioch. 
When  Theodosius  VI  died,  Ignatius  Jauhar  was  again 
elected,  this  time  lawfully,  and  took  the  name  Atba- 
nasius V  (1788-1794). 
Then  followed  C^^  VII  (Siage,  1794-1796),  Aga^ 

gius  III  (Matar,  formerly  Metropolitan  of  Tyre  and 
idon,  patriarch  1796-1812).  During  his  time  there 
was  a  movement  of  Josephinism  and  Jansenism  in  the 
sense  of  the  aynod  of  Pistoia  (1786)  among  the  Mel- 
chites, led  by  Germanus  Adam,  Metropolit^  of  Baal- 
bek. This  movement  for  a  time  invaded  nearly  all 
the  Melchite  Church.  In  1806  they  held  a  synod  at 
Qarqafe  which  approved  many  of  the  Pistoian  de- 
crees. The  acts  of  the  synod  were  published  without 
authority  from  Rome  in  Arabic  in  1810:  in  1835  they 
were  censiu^d  at  Rome.  Pius  VII  haa  already  con- 
demned a  catechism  and  other  works  written  by 
Germanus  of  Baalbek.  Amon^  his  errors  was  the 
Orthodox  theory  that  consecration  is  not  effected  by 
the  words  of  institution  in  the  Utuigy.  Eventually 
the  patriarch  (Agapius)  and  the  other  Melchite  bish- 
ops were  persuaaed  to  renoimce  these  ideas.  In  1812 
another  svnod  established  a  seminary  at  *  Ain-Trai  for 
the  Melcnite  ''nation".  The  next  patriarchs  were 
Ignatius  IV  (Sarruf.  Feb.-Nov.,  1812,  murdered), 
Athanasius  VI  (Matar,  1813),  Macarius  IV  (Tawil, 
1813-1815),  Ignatius  V  (Qattan,  1816-1833).  He 
was  foUowed  by  the  famous  Maximus  III  (Mazlum, 
1833-1855).  His  foimer  name  was  Michael.  He  had 
been  infected  with  the  ideas  of  Gennanus  of  Baalbek, 
and  had  been  elected  Metropolitan  of  Aleppo,  but  his 
election  had  not  been  confirmed  at  Rome.  Then  he 
renounced  these  ideas  and  became  titular  Metropoli- 
tan of  Myra,  and  procurator  of  his  patriarch  at  Rome. 
During  this  time  he  foimded  the  Melchite  chureh  at 
Marseilles  (St.  Nicholas),  and  took  steps  at  the  courts 
of  Vienna  and  Paris  to  protect  the  Melchites  from  their 
Orthodox  rivals. 

Hitherto  the  Turkish  government  had  not  recog- 
nized the  Uniates  as  a  separate  millet;  so  all  their 
communications  with  the  State,  the  berat  given  to 
their  bishops  and  so  on,  had  to  be  made  through  the 
Orthodox.  They  were  still  officially,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
law,  members  of  the  rum  millet ^  that  is  of  the  Orthodox 
community  under  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
This  naturally  gave  the  Orthodox  endless  opportuni- 
ties of  annc^rmg  them,  which  were  not  lost.  In  1831 
Mazlum  went  back  to  Syria,  in  1833  siter  the  death  of 
Ignatius  V  he  was  elected  patriarch,  and  was  con- 
firmed at  Rome  after  many  difficulties  in  1836.  His 
reign  was  full  of  disputes.  In  1835  he  held  a  national 
synod  at  *Ain-Traz,  which  laid  down  twenty-five 
canons  for  the  regulation  of  the  affairs  of  the  Melchite 
Church;  the  synod  was  approved  at  Rcnne  and  is  pub- 
lished in  the  Collectio  Lacensis  (II,  579-592).  During 
his  reign  at  last  the  Melchites  obtained  recognition  as 
a  separate  millet  from  the  Porte.  Maximus  III  ob- 
tained from  Rome  for  himself  and  his  successors  the 
additional  titles  of  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem,  which 
sees  his  predecessors  had  administered  since  Theodo- 
sius VI.  In  1849  he  held  a  synod  at  Jerusalem  in 
which  he  renewed  many  of  the  errors  of  Germanus 
Adam.  Thus  he  got  into  new  difficulties  with  Rome 
«8  well  as  with  his  own  people.    But  these  difficulties 


were  gradually  composed  and  the  old  patriarch  died  in 
peace  in  1855.  He  is  the  most  famous  of  the  line  of 
Melchite  patriarchs.  He  was  succeeded  by  CHement  I 
(Bahus,  1856-1864),  Gregoiy  II  (Yussef,  1865-1897), 
Peter  IV  (Jeraljiri,  1897-19&),  and  Cynl  VIH  (Jeha, 
the  reigning  patriarch,  who  was  elected  27  June, 
1903,  confirmed  at  once  by  telegram  from  Rome,  en- 
throned in  the  patriarchal  church  at  Damascus,  8 
Auffust,  1903). 

V.  Constitution  op  thb  Mslchitb  Cbjtbxjb., — ^The 
head  of  the  Melchite  Church,  under  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  pope,  is  the  patriarch.  His  title  L<^ 
*'  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  and  ail 
theJSast".  "Antioch  and  all  the  East  "is  the  old  title 
used  by  all  patriarchs  of  Antioch.  It  is  less  arrogant 
than  it  sounos  *  the  "  East ''  means  the  orijsinal  Roman 
Prefecture  of  the  £^t  (Proefectura  OrientiB)  which  cor- 
responded exactly  to  tne  patriarchate  before  the  rise 
of  (jonstantinople  (Forte8cue,''Orth.  Eastern  Church  ", 
21).  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem  were  added  to  the 
title  under  Maximus  III.  It  should  be  noted  that 
these  come  after  Antioch^  although  noimally  Alexan- 
dria has  precedence  over  it.  This  is  because  the  patri- 
arch is  fundamentally  of  Antioch  only;  he  traces  his 
succession  through  Cjrril  VI  to  the  old  line  of  Antioch. 
He  is  in  some  sort  only  the  administrator  of  Alex- 
andria and  Jerusalem  until  the  number  of  Melchites  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine  shall  justify  the  erection  of 
separate  patriarchates  for  them.  Meanwhile  he  rules 
equally  over  his  nation  in  the  three  provinces.  There 
is  also  a  grander  title  used  in  Polychronia  and  for 
specially  solemn  occasions  in  which  he  is  acclaimed  as 
'^Father  ctf  Fathers,  Shepherd  of  Shepherds.  High 
Priest  of  Hi^h  Priests  and  Thirteenth  Apostle''. 

The  patriarch  is  elected  by  the  bisnojps,  and  is 
nearly  always  chosen  from  their  number.  Tne  election 
is  suomitted  to  the  Congregation  for  Eastern -Rites 
joined  to  Propaganda;  if  it  is  canonical  the  patriarch- 
elect  sends  a  profession  of  faith  and  a  petition  for  con- 
finnation  ana  for  the  pallium  to  the  pope.  He  must 
also  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope.  If  the 
election  is  invalid,  nomination  devolves  on  the  pope. 
The  patriarch  may  not  resign  without  the  pope's  con- 
sent. He  must  miake  his  visit  ad  limina,  personally  or 
by  deputy,  every  ten  years.  The  patriarch  has  ordi- 
nary jurisdiction  over  all  his  church.  He  confinns  the 
election  of  and  consecrates  all  bishops ;  he  can  translate 
or  depose  them,  according  to  the  canons.  He  founds 
parishes  and  (with  consent  of  Rome)  dioceses,  and  has 
considerable  rights  of  the  nature  of  dispensation  from 
fasting  and  so  on.  The  patriarch  resides  at  the  house 
next  to  the  patriarchal  cnuroh  at  Damascus  (near  the 
Eastern  Gate).  He  has  also  residences  at  Alexandria 
and  Jerusalem,  where  he  spends  at  least  some  weeks 
each  year;  he  is  often  at  the  seminaiy  at  *Ain-Trai, 
not  far  from  Beirut,  in  the  Lebanon. 

The  bishops  are  chosen  according  to  the  bull 
"Reversums'',  12  July,  1867.    All  the  other  bishops 
in  synod  with  the  patriarch  choose  three  names»  of 
which  the  pope  selects  one.    All  bishops  must  be  celi- 
bate, but  they  are  by  no  means  necessarily  monks. 
Priests  who  are  not  monks  may  keep  wives  married 
before  ordination,  but  as  in  all  imiate  churches  celi- 
bacy is  very  common,  and  the  married  cleigjr  are 
looked  upon  rather  askance.    There  are  seminaries  at 
•Ain-Traa,  Jerusalem  (the  College  of  St.  Ann  under 
Cardinal   Lavigerie's  White  Fathers),   Beirut,  etc. 
Many  students  go  to  the  Jesuits  at  Beirut,  the  Greek 
College  at  Rome,  or  St.  Sulpice  at  Paris.   The  monks 
follow  the  Rule  of  St.  BasS.    They  are  divided  into 
two  great  congregations,  that  of  St.  John  the  Baptn^ 
at  Shuweir  in  the  Lebanon  and  that  of  St.  8ai 
near  Sidon.     Both  have  numerous  daughter-b 
The  Shuweirites  have  a  further  distinction, 
tween  those  of  Aleppo  and  the  Baladites. 
also  convents  of  Basilian  nuns. 

Practically  all  Melchites  are  natives  r' 


161 


MELST1U8 


Arabs  in  tongue.  Their  rite  is  that  of  Constantinople, 
afanost  alwavs  celebrated  in  Arabic  with  a  few  versi* 
des  and  exclamations  (vpSax^M^^  ffwt>la  6p$ol,  etc.)  in 
Greek.  But  on  certain  solemn  occasions  the  liturgy  is 
celebrated  entirely  in  Greek. 

The  sees  of  the  patriarchate  are:  the  patriarchate 
itself,  to  which  is  joined  Damascus,  administered  by  a 
yicar;  then  two  metropolitan  dioceses,  Tyre  and 
Aleppo;  two  archdioceses,  Bosra  with  Hauran,  and 
Horns  with  Hama;  seven  bishoprics,  Sidon,  Beirut 
(with  Jebail),  Tripolis,  Acre,  Furzul  (with  Zahle),  and 
the  Beqaa,  Paneas,  and  Baalbek.  The  patriarchates 
of  Jeruaalem  and  Alexandria  are  administered  for  the 
patriarch  by  vicars.  The  total  number  of  Melchites  is 
estimated  at  130,000  (Silbemagl)  or  114,080  (Wer- 
ner).  * 

For  the  orisin  and  histozy  see  any  history  of  the  Monophystte 
heresy.  Nkaub,  Hidoru  of  the  Holy  EaaUm  Church  (liondon, 
1S47-1850),  IV  and  V:  Th^  PatriarehaU  o/ A 2exan<f no— supple- 
mentaiy  volume:  Th»  Patriarehate  of  Antioch,  ed.  Wilxjabib 
(liondoai  1873);  Chabon,  Hitioirt  de%  PalriarctUa  MelkiUt 
(Rome,  m  ooone  of  publication),  a  most  valuable  work;  Rab- 
BATH,  Documents  mSaita  pour  »eroir  h  VhtBloire  du  ChriBttanismB 
sn  Orient  (3  vols.,  Paxia,  1007):  Lb  Quibn.  Onens  ChruUanuB 
(Paris,  1740).  II,  386^12  (Alezandrine  Fatriarahs),  600-730 
(Antioeh),  lit.  137-527  (Jerusalem). 

For  the  preseat  constitution:  StiABRNAOL,  Verfasauna  «. 
90g€moikrtio0r  BtMand  M&mUieher  Kirehen  des  OnenU  (Ratisbon, 
1004).  334-341 ;  Wbrnbr,  OrbU  Terrarum  Catholieue  (Freibuis, 
1800),  161-155;  BchoM  d'OrierU  (Paxi^  since  1807).  articles  by 
Cbabom  and  othen;  K6hlbr,  Dit  Katholiaehen  Kirehen  dee 
Morgenlandee  (Darmstadt,  1806),  124-128;  Charon,  Le  Rile 
'    KoUin  dona  lea  PatriareaU  MeUniee  {extraii  dee  Chryaoetomika) 

ome,  1008) ;  Rbbours,  TraiU  de  Paaltigue.  Thiorie  el  Pratique 

Chant  dona  VBgliee  Grecque  (Paris,  1006). 

A.  FORTESCUE. 

Melchiaedack.    See  Melchisedech. 

MeMndes  Vald^S,  Juan,  Spanish  i)oet  and  politi- 
cian, b.  at  Ribera  del  Fresno  (Badajoz)  11  Marchi 
1754;  d.  in  exile  at  Montpellier,  Fknnce.  24  May,  1817. 
He  studied  law  at  Salamanca  and  while  there,  began 
his  poetical  career.  In  1780,  with  his  "Batilo",  he 
won  a  price  offered  by  the  Spanish  Academy  for  the 
best  eclogue  on  the  pleasures  of  life  in  the  counUy .  In 
1781  he  went  to  Madrid  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  minister  and  author,  JoveUanos,  whose  fa- 
vour he  enioyed,  and  who  had  him  appointed  to  a 
<diair  in  the  Universitv  ot  Salamanca.  In  1784  Mel^n- 
des  was  one  of  over  fifty  competitors  for  a  prize  offered 
b|jr  the  city  of  Madrid  for  the  best  dramatic  composi- 
tion. His  comedy,  "Las  bodas  de  Camacho  el  nco" 
founded  on  the  uunous  story  of  Cervantes,  was 
awarded  the  prise  and  presented  Jbut,  as  a  stage  pro- 
duction, it  was  not  successful.  This  failure  save  his 
detractors  opportunity  for  much  unfavourable  criti- 
cism. Mel^naez  answered  by  publishing  in  1785  the 
first  volume  of  his  poems  which  met  with  such  success 
that  it  Quickljr  ran  through  several  editions  and  firmly 
establisned  his  literary  reputation.  He  now  entered 
upon  a  political  career  which  was  to  prove  his  ruin. 
Tnrough  the  favour  of  his  friend  JoveUanos,  he  ob- 
tained the  posts  successively  of  judge  of  the  court  of 
Sarsgossa  in  1789,  judicial  chancellor  at  VaJladolid  in 
1791,  and  fiscal  of  the  supreme  court  in  Madrid  in 
1797.  On  the  fall  of  JoveUanos,  Mel^ndez  was  or- 
dered to  leave  Madrid,  and  after  brief  stays  in  Medina 
del  Campo  and  Zamora,  he  finaUy  established  his  resi- 
dence at  Salamanca.  After  the  revolution  of  1808, 
Mel^ndei  accepted  from  the  government  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte  the  post  of  councillor  of  state,  and  late 
that  of  minister  of  public  instruction.  This  lack  of 
patriotism  naturally  involved  him  in  trouble  with  his 
countrymen,  so  that  when  the  Spaniards  returned  to 

g>wer  in  1813,  he  was  compelled  to  flee  to  France, 
ere  he  pa»ed  four  years  amid  misery  and  misfor- 
tune, ana  died  at  Montpellier  poor  and  neglected  in 
his  sixty-fourth  year. 

Though  Mel^ndez  cannot  be  considered  a  great  poet, 
he  was  not  lacking  in  talent.    His  ix)ems  are  charac- 
terised by  delicacy  of  expression  and  grace,  rather 
ttuui  by  vigour  and  gr^t  flight?  of  ffuicy .    He  shows  to 
X-— U 


best  advantage  in  his  eclogues  and  romances,  which  an 
distinguished  for  their  easy  flow  and  facility.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  he  is  but  Uttle  read  to-day,  he  imdenia- 
bly  exercised  some  influence  in  the  literary  restoration 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  III,  and  has  sometimes 
been  called  by  admiring  Spaniards  "Restaurador 
del  Pamaso"  (Restorer  of  Parnassus).  Besides  ihd 
works  already  mentioned,  Mel^ndez  wrote  a  l3rrio 
poem  on  the  creation,  an  epic  entitled  "La  Caida  de 
Lusbel'',  an  ode  to  Winter,  and  a  translation  of  the 
iBneid.  Complete  editions  of  the  poems  of  Mel^n- 
des,  with  a  life  of  the  author  by  Quintana,  were  pub* 
lished  in  Madrid  in  1820  (4  volumes),  and  in  Barce- 
lona in  1838.  "  La  BlbUoteca  de  Autores  Espaftolea  " 
(LXIII)  reproduces  the  poems. 

QmNTANA,  NoUee  eur  la  made  MiUndaa  Valdia  (prefixed  to 
the  edition  of  the  poet's  worloi  publiehed  at  Madrid,  1820); 
PoSeiaa  iniditaa  in  Revue  hiepaniq^a  (Paris,  1894-07). 

Vejitura  Fuentbb. 

Meletlan  Schism.  See  Mbletius  of  Antioch; 
Meletius  of  Ltcofous. 

Meletlufl  of  Antioch,  Bishop,  b.  in  Melitene,  Les- 
ser Armenia;  d.  at  Antioch,  381.  Before  occupying 
the  see  of  Antioch  he  had  been  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  capi* 
tal  of  Armenia  Prima.  Socrates  supposes  a  transfer 
from  Sebaste  to  Beroea  and  thence  to  Antioch;  his  ele- 
vation to  Sebaste  may  date  from  the  year  358  or  359. 
His  sojourn  in  that  city  was  short  and  not  free  from 
vexations  owing  to  popular  attachment  to  his  prede- 
oessor  Eustathius.  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  were  troub- 
led at  the  time  by  theological  disputes  of  an  Arian,  or 
semi-Arian  character.  Under  Eustathius  (324-330) 
Antioch  had  been  one  of  the  centres  of  Nioene  ortho- 
doxy. This  great  man  was  set  aside,  and  his  first  suo- 
oessors,  Paulinus  and  Eulalius  held  tne  see  but  a  short 
time  (330-332).  Others  foUowed,  most  of  them  un- 
equal to  their  task,  and  the  Church  of  Antioch  was 
rent  in  twain  by  scnism.  The  Eustathians  remained 
an  ardent  and  ungovernable  minority  in  the  orthodox 
camp,  but  details  of  this  division  escape  us  until  the 
election  of  Leontius  (344-358).  His  sjjrmpathy  for 
the  Arian  heresy  was  open,  and  his  disciple  ^tius 
preached  pure  Arianism  which  did  not  hinder  his  being 
ordained  deacon.  This  was  too  much  for  the  patience 
of  the  orthodox  under  the  leadership  of  Flavins  and 
Diodorus.  ^tius  had  to  be  removed.  On  the  death 
of  Leontius.  Eudoxius  of  Germanicia,  one  of  the  most 
influential  Arians,  speedily  repaired  to  Antioch,  and  by 
intri^e  secured  his  appointment  to  the  vacant  see.  He 
held  it  only  a  short  time,  was  banished  to  Armenia,  and 
in  359  the  Council  of  Seleucia  appointed  a  successor 
named  Annanius,  who  was  scarcely  instaUed  when  he 
was  exiled.  Eudoxius  was  restored  to  favour  in  360, 
and  made  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  whereby  the  An- 
tiochene  episcopal  succession  was  re-opened.  From 
aU  sides  bishops  assembled  for  the  election.  The  Aca- 
dans  were  tne  dominant  party*  Nevertheless  liie 
choice  seems  to  have  been  a  compromise.  Meletius, 
who  had  resigned  his  see  of  Sebaste  and  who  was  a  per- 
sonal friend  of  Acacius,  was  elected.  The  choice  was 
generaUy  satisfactory,  for  Meletius  had  made  promises 
to  both  parties  so  that  orthodox  and  Arians  thou^^t 
him  to  be  on  their  side. 

Meletius  doubtless  believed  that  truth  lay  in  deli- 
cate distinctions,  but  his  formula  was  so  indefinite  thai 
even  to-day,  it  is  difficult  to  seize  it  with  precision.  He 
was  neither  a  thorough  Nicene  nor  a  decided  Arian. 
Meanwhile  he  passed  alternately  for  an  Anomean,  an 
Homoiousian,  an  Homoian,  or  a  Neo-Nicene^  seeking 
always  to  remain  outside  any  inflexible  classification. 
It  is  possible  that  he  was  yet  uncertain  and  that  he  ex- 
pected from  the  contemporary  theological  ferment 
some  new  and  ingenious  doctrinal  combination,  satis- 
factory to  himself,  birt  above  all  non-committal.  For- 
time  had  favoured  him  thus  far;  he  was  absent  from 
Antioch  when  elected,  and  had  not  been  even 
Qonpemin^  hi^  doQtrixial  leanin^B.    Men  we>9  T 


MILITZnS                              162  MEUTXUS 

Intenninable  discufiBion,  and  the  kindly,  gentle  temper  measures  of  his  successor  Julian  was  to  revoke  his  pred' 

of  Meletius  seemed  to  promise  the  much-desired  peace,  ecessor's  decrees  of  banishment.    Meletius  quite  prob- 

He  was  no  Athanasius,  nor  did  unheroic  Antiocn  wish  ably  returned  at  once  to  Antioch,  but  his  position  was 

for  a  man  of  that  stamp.    The  qualities  of  Meletius  a  cUfScult  one  in  presence  of  the  Eustatiiians.    The 

were  genuine;  a  simple  fife,  pure  morals,  sincere  piety  Council  of  Alexandria  (362)  tried  to  re-establish  har- 

and  liable  manners.   He  had  no  transcendent  merit,  mon^  and  put  an  end  to  the  schism,  but  failed.  Both 

unless  the  even  harmonious  balance  of  his  Christian  parties  were  steadfast  in  their  claims,  while  the  vehe- 

virtues  might  appear  transcendent.    The  new  bishop  pence  and  injudicioiisness  of  the  orthodox  medidtor 

held  the  affection  of  the  large  and  turbulent  popula-  increased  the  dissension,  and  ruined  all  prospects  of 

tion  he  governed,  and  was  esteemed  by  such  men  as  St.  peace.    Though  the  election  of  Meletius  was  beyond 

John  Chrysostom,  St.  Gregory  Naziansen,  St.  Gregory  contestation,  the  hot-headed  Lucifer  Cagliari  yielded 

of  Nyssa,  St.  Baul,  and  even  his  adversary  St.  £pi-  to  the  solicitations  of  the  opposing  faction,  and  mstead 

phamus.  ^  St.  Gregory  Naziansen  tells  us  that  he  was  of  temporising  and  awaitmg  Meletius's  approaching 

a  very  pious  man,  simple  and  without  guile,  full  of  return  trom  exile,  assisted  by  two  confessors  he  has- 

godUness;  peace  shone  on  his  coimtenance,  and  those  tily  consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Antioch  the  Eustathian 

who  saw  him  trusted  and  respected  him.    He  was  leader,  Paldinus.    This  unwise  measure  was  a  great 

what  he  was  called,  and  his  Greek  name  revealed  it,  calamity,  for  it  definitively  established  the  schism.  Me- 

f  or  there  was  honey  in  his  disposition  as  well  as  his  letius  and  his  adherents  were  not  responsible,  and  it  is 

name.    On  his  arrival  at  Antioch  he  was  greeted  by  an  a  peculiar  injustice  of  history  that  this  division  should 

immense  concourse  of  Christians  and  Jews;  every  one  be  known  as  the  Meletian  scmsm  when  the  Eustathians 

wondered  for  which  faction  he  would  proclaim  him-  or  Paulinianswere  alone  answerable  for  it.   Meletius's 

self,  and  already  the  report  was  spread  abroad,  that  he  return  soon  followed,  also  the  arrival  of  Eusebius  of 

was  simply  a  partisan  of  the  Nicene  Creed.    Meletius  Vercelli,  but  he  could  accomplish  nothing  under  the 

took  his  own  time.    He  began  by  reforming  certain  dreumstances.    The  persecution  of  Emperor  Julian, 

notorious  abuses  and  instructing  his  people,  m  which  whose  chief  residence  was  Antioch,  brought  new  vex- 

latter  work  he  might  have  aroused  enmity  had  he  not  ations.    Both  factions  of  the  orthodox  party  were 

avoided  all  ouestions  in  dispute.    Emperor  Constans,  equally  harassed  and  tormented,  and  both  bore  bravely 

a  militant  Arian,  called  a  conference  calculated  to  their  trials. 

force  from  Meletius  his  inmost  thought.    The  em-  An  unexpected  incident  made  the  Meletiana  promi- 

peror  invited  several  bishops  then  at  Antioch  to  speak  nent.    An  anti-Christian  writing  of  Julian  was  an- 

upon  the  chief  text  in  the  Arian  controversy.       The  swered  by  the  aforesaid  Meletian  Diodorus,  whom  the 

Lord  possessed  me  in  the  beginning  of  His  way"  emperor  had  coarsely  reviled.    "For  many  yeare'', 

(Prov. .  viii,  22) .  saia  the  imperial  apologist  of  Hellenism, ' '  his  chest  has 

In  tne  beginning  Meletius  was  somewhat  long  and  been  sunken,  his  limbs  withered,  his  cheeks  flabby,  his 
tedious,  but  exhibited  a  great  Scriptural  knowledge,  countenance  livid".  So  intent  was  Julian  upon  de- 
He  cautiously  declared  that  Scripture  does  not  contra-  scribing  the  morbid  symptoms  of  Diodorus  that  he 
diet  itself,  that  all  language  is  adequate  when  it  is  a  seemed  to  forget  Bishop  Meletius.  The  latter  doubt- 
question  of  explaining  the  nature  of  God's  only  begot-  less  had  no  desire  to  draw  attention  and  persecution 
ten  Son.  One  does  not  get  beyond  an  approximation  upon  himself,  aware  that  his  flock  was  more  likely  to 
which  permits  us  to  understand  to  a  certain  extent,  lose  than  to  gain  by  it.  He  and  two  of  his  chorepU- 
and  which  brings  us  gently  and  progressively  from  copi^  we  are  told,  accompanied  to  the  place  of  mart%'i> 
visible  things  to  hidden  ones.  I^ow,  to  beheve  in  dom  two  officere,  Bonosus  and  Maximilian.  Meletius 
Christ  is  to  believe  that  the  Son  is  like  unto  the  Fa-  also  is  said  to  have  sent  a  convert  from  Antioch  to 
ther,  His  image,  Who  is  in  everything,  creator  of  all;  Jerusalem.  This,  and  a  mention  of  the  flight  of  all 
and  not  an  imperfect  but  an  adequate  image,  even  as  Antiochene  ecclesiastics,  led  to  the  arbitrary  suppoei- 
the  effect  corresponds  to  the  cause.  The  generation  tion  that  the  second  banishment  of  Meletius  came  dur- 
of  the  only  begotten  Son,  anterior  to  all  time,  carries  ing  Julian's  reign.  Be  that  as  it  mi^,  the  sudden  end 
with  it  the  concepts  of  subsistence,  stability,  and  ex-  of  the  persecuting  emperor  and  Jovian 's  accession 
dusivism.  Meletius  then  turned  to  moral  considered  must  have  greatly  shortened  the  exile  of  Meletius. 
tions,  but  he  had  satisfied  his  hearers,  chiefly  by  re-  Jovian  met  Meletius  at  Antioch  and  showed  him  great 
frainmg  from  technical  language  and  vain  discussion,  respect.  Just  then  St.  Athanasius  came  to  Antiocn  by 
The  orthodoxy  of  the  bishop  was  fully  established,  and  order  of  the  emperor,  and  expressed  to  Meletius  hia 
his  profession  of  faith  was  a  severe  blow  for  the  Arian  wish  of  entering  into  communion  with  him.  Meletius, 
party.  St.  Basil  wrote  the  hesitating  St.  Epiphanius  ill-advised,  delayed  answering  him,  and  St.  Athana- 
that  "Meletius  was  the  first  to  speak  freely  in  favour  sius  went  away  leaving  with  Paulinus,  whom  he  had 
of  the  truth  and  to  fight  the  good  fight  in  the  reign  of  not  yet  recognised  as  bishop,  the  declaretion  that  he 
Constans".  As  Meletius  ended  his  discourse  his  audi-  admitted  him  to  his  communion.  Such  blimdering 
ence  asked  him  for  a  summary  of  his  teaching.  He  resulted  in  sad  consequences  for  the  Meletian  cause, 
extended  three  fingere  towards  the  people,  then  closed  The  moderation  constantly  shown  by  Athanasius,  who 
two  and  said,  "  Three  Persons  are  conceived  in  the  thoroughly  believed  in  Meletius's  orthodoxy,  was  not 
mind  but  it  as  though  we  addressed  one  only ''.  This  found  in  ms  successor,  Peter  of  Alexandria,  who  did  not 
gesture  remained  famous  and  became  a  rallying  sign,  conceal  his  belief  that  Meletius  was  an  heretic.  For  a 
The  Arians  were  not  slow  to  avenge  themselves.  On.  long  time  the  position  of  Meletius  was  contested  by  the 
vague  pretexts  the  emperor  banished  Meletius  to  his  very  ones  who,  it  seemed,  should  have  established  it 
native  Armenia.  He  had  occupied  his  see  less  than  a  more  firmly.  A  council  of  26  bishops  at  Antioch  pre- 
month.  sided  over  by  Meletius  was  of  more  consequence,  out 

This  exile  was  the  immediate  cause  of  a  long  and  a  pamphlet  ascribed  to  Paullnus  aeain  raised  doubts 

deplorable  schism  between  the  Catholics  of  Antioch,  as  to  tne  orthodoxy  of  Meletius.    Moreover,  tiew  and 

henceforth  divided  into  Meletians  and  Eustathians.  unsuspected  difficulties  soon  arose. 

The  churehes  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the  Arians,  Jovian 's  death  made  Arianism  again  triumphant 

Paulinus  governed  the  Eustathians,  while  Flavins  and  a  violent  persecution  broke  out  under  Emperor 

and  Diodorus  were  the  chiefs  of  the  Meletian  flock.   In  Valens.    At  the  same  time  the  quiet  but  persistent 

every  family  one  child  bore  the  name  of  Meletius,  rivalry  between  Alexandria  and  Antioch  helped  the 

whose  portrait  was  engraved  on  rings,  reliefs,  cups,  cause  of  Meletius.    However  illustrious  an  Egyptian 

and  the  walls  of  apartments.    Meletius  went  into  exile  patriarch  might  be,  the  Christian  episcopate  of  Sjnria 

in  the  early  part  of  the  year  361.    A  few  months  later  and  Asia  Minor  was  too  national  or  racial,  too  self- 

ISmperor  Constans  died  suddenly,  and  one  of  the  first  centred,  to  seek  or  accept  his  leadership.    Athanasius 


HSLETIUS                              163  MELSTXU8 

indeed,  remained  an  authoritative  power  in  the  East,  were  needed  and  deputies  of  more  heroic  character: 

but  onl^  a  bishop  of  Antioch  could  unite  all  those  who  but  the  difficulties  were  great  and  the  "statu  quo'' 

were  now  ready  to  franklv  accept  the  Nioene  Creed,  remained. 

In  this  way  the  r61e  of  Meletius  became  daily  more  After  many  disheartening  failures,  there  was  finally 
prominent.  While  in  his  own  city  a  minority  con-  a  glimpse  of  hoi)e.  Two  legates  sent  to  Rome,  Doro- 
tested  his  risht  to  the  see  and  questioned  his  ortho-  theus  and  Sanctissimus,  returned  in  the  sprine  of  377, 
doxy,  his  influence  was  spreading  in  the  East,  and  bringing  with  them  cordial  declarations  which  St. 
from  various  pMurts  of  the  empire  Bishops  accepted  his  Basil  instantly  proceeded  to  publish  everywhere. 
leadc*rship.  Chalcedon,  Ancyra,  MeUtene,  Pergama.  These  declarations  pronounced  anathemas  against 
GsBsarea  of  Cappadocia,  Bostra,  parts  of  S^pa  ana  Anus  and  the  heresy  of  Apollinaris  then  spreadinj;  at 
Palestine,  looked  to  him  for  direction,  and  tms  move-  Antioch,  condemnations  all  the  more  timely^as  theo- 
ment  grew  rapidly.  In  363  Meletius  could  count  on  26  logical  excitement  was  then  at  its  highest  in  Antioch, 
bishops,  in  379  more  than  150  rallied  aroimd  him.  and  was  gradually  reaching  Palest 'ne.  St.  Jerome  en- 
Theoio^cal  unity  was  at  least  restored  in  Syria  and  tered  into  the  conflict,  perhafM  without  having  a  thor- 
Asia  Minor.  Meletius  and  his  disciples,  however,  had  ough  knowle^KC  of  the  situation.  Bejecting  Meletius, 
not  been  spared  by  the  Arians.  While  Paulinus  and  Vi&lian,  and  Paulinus,  he  made  a  direct  appeal  to  Pope 
his  party  were  seemingly  neglected  by  them,  Meletius  Damasus  in  a  letter  still  famous,  but  wnich  the  pope 
was  asain  exiled  (May,  365)  to  Armenia.  His  followers  did  not  answer.  Discontented,  Jerome  returned  to 
expel^  from  the  churches,  sought  meeting  places  for  Antioch,  let  himself  be  ordained  presbyter  by  Pau- 
worship  wherever  they  could.  This  new  exile,  owinff  linus,  and  became  the  echo  of  Paulinist  imputations 
to  a  luU  in  the  persecution,  was  of  short  duration,  and  against  Meletius  and  his  following.  In  3/8  Doro- 
probablv  in  367  Meletius  took  up  again  the  govern-  theus  and  Sanctissimus  returned  from  Home,  bearers 
ment  of  his  see.  It  was  then  that  John,  the  future  of  a  formal  condemnation  of  the  errofC  ^  minted  out  by 
Chzysostom,  entered  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  The  lull  the  Orientals;  this  decree  definitively  united  the  two 
was  soon  over.  In  371  persecution  raged  anew  in  halves  of  the  Christian  world.  It  seemed  as  though  St. 
Antioch,  where  Valens  resided  almost  to  the  time  of  his  Basil  was  but  waiting  for  this  object  of  all  his  efforts, 
death.  At  this  time  St.  Basil  occupied  the  see  of  for  he  died  1  Jan.,  379.  The  cause  he  had  served  so 
CssuaeA  (370)  and  was  a  strong  supporter  of  Meletius.  well  seemed  won,  and  Emperor  Valens's  death  five 
With  rare  insight  Basil  thoroughly  understood  the  months  earlier  warranted  a  hopeful  outlook.  One  of 
situation,  which  made  impossible  the  restoration  of  the  first  measures  of  the  new  emperor,  Gratian,  was 
religious  peace  in  the  East.  It  was  clear  that  the  the  restoration  of  peace  in  the  Church  and  the  recall  of 
antagonism  between  Athanasius  and  Meletius  pro-  the  banished  bishops.  Meletius  therefore  was  rein- 
tracted  endlessly  the  conflict.  Meletius,  the  only  stated  (end  of  378),  and  his  flock  probably  met  for 
legitimate  Bishop  of  Antioch,  was  the  only  acceptable  worship  in  the  "  Pakua"  or  old  churcn.  It  was  a  heavy 
one  for  the  East;  unfortunately  he  was  going  into  task  for  the  aged  bishop  to  re-establish  the  shattered 
exile  for  the  third  time.  In  these  circumstances  Basil  fortunes  of  the  orthodox  party.  The  most  uigent  step 
began  negotiations  with.  Meletius  and  Athanasius  for  was  the  ordination  of  bishops  for  the  sees  which  had 
the  pacification  of  the  East.  ^  become  vacant  during  the  persecution.  In  379  Mele^ 
Aside  from  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  situation,  tins  held  a  council  of  150  bishops  in  order  to  assure  the 
the  slowness  of  communication  was  an  added  hin-  triumph  of  orthodoxy  in  the  East,  and  published  a 
drance.  Not  only  did  Basil's  representative  have  to  profession  of  faith  wmch  was  to  meet  the  approval  of 
travel  from  Cnsarea  to  Armenia,  and  from  Armenia  to  the  0>\mcil  of  Constantinople  (382).  The  end  of  the 
Alexandria,  he  also  had  to  go  to  Rome  to  obtain  the  schism  was  near  at  hand.  Since  the  two  factions 
sanction  of  Pojie  Damasus  and  the  acquiescence  of  the  which  divided  the  Antiochene  Church  were  orthodox 
West.  Notwithstanding  the  blunder  committed  at  there  remained  but  to  imite  them  actually,  a  difficult 
Antioch  in  363,  the  generous  spirit  of  Athanasius  gave  move,  but  easy  when  the  death  of  either  bishop  made 
hope  of  success,  his  sudden  death,  however  (May,  373),  it  possible  for  the  survivor  to  exercise  full  authority 
caused  all  efforts  to  be  abandoned.  Even  at  Rome  without  hurting  pride  or  discipline.  This  solution 
and  in  the  West,  Basil  and  Meletius  were  to  meet  with  Meletius  recognized  as  early  as  381,  but  his  friendly 
disappointment.  While  they  wrought  persistently  to  and  peace-making  proposals  were  rejected  by  Paulinus 
restore  peace,  a  new  Antiochene  community,  declaring  who  refused  to  come  to  any  agreement  or  settlement, 
itself  connected  with  Rome  and  Athanasius,  increased  Meanwhile,  a  great  council  of  Eastern  bishops  was  con- 
the  number  of  dissidents,  aggravated  the  rivalry,  and  voked  at  Constantinople  to  appoint  a  bishop  for  the 
renewed  tiie  disputes.  There  were  now  three  Antio*  imperial  city  and  to  settle  other  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
chene  churches  that  formally  adopted  the  Nicene  in  the  absence  of  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  the  pres- 
Creed.  The  generous  scheme  of  Basil  for  appeasement  idency  rightfully  fell  to  the  Bishop  of  Antioch,  whom  the 
and  union  had  ended  unfortunately,  and  to  make  mat-  Ebnperor  Theodosius  received  with  marked  deference, 
ters  worse,  Evagrius,  the  chief  promoter  of  the  at-  nor  was  the  imperial  favour  unprofitable  to  Meletius 
tempted  reoonciSation,  once  more  joined  the  party  of  in  his  quality  of  president  of  the  assembly.  It  began 
Pauunus.  This  important  conversion  won  over  to  the  by  electing  Gregory  of  Nasiansus  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
intruders  St.  Jerome  and  Pope  Damasus;  the  very  nople,  and  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  the  orthodox  it 
next  year,  and  without  any  declaration  concerning  the  was  Meletius  who  enthroned  him.  The  Council  im- 
schism,  the  pope  showed  a  decided,  preference  for  mediately  proceeded  to  confirm  the  Nicene  faith,  but 
Paulinus,  recognised  him  as  bishop,  ^eeted  him  as  during  this  important  session  Meletius  died  almost 
brother,  and  considered  him  papal  le^pte  in  the  East,  suddenly.  Feeling  his  end  was  near,  he  spent  his 
Great  was  the  consternation  of  lleletius  and  his  com-  remaining  days  re-emphasising  his  eagerness  for  unity 
munity.  which  in  the  absence  of  the  natural  leader  and  peace.  The  deatn  of  one  whose  mmness  and  gen- 
was  still  governed  by  Flavins  and  Dodorus,  encouraged  tlen&ss  had  kindled  great  expectations  caused  univer- 
by  the  presence  of  the  monk  Aphrates  and  the  support  sal  sorrow.  The  obsequies,  at  which  Emperor  Theo* 
of  St.  Basil.  Though  disheartened,  the  latter  did  not  dosius  was  present,  took  place  in  the  church  of  the 
entirely  give  up  hope  of  bringing  tne  West,  especially  Apostles.  The  funeral  panegyrics  were  touching  and 
the  pope,  to  a  tuUer  understandmgof  the  situation  of  magnificent.  His  death  blasted  many  hopes  and  justi- 
the  Antiochene  Qiurch.  But  the  West  did  not  grasp  fied  grave  forebodings.  The  body  was  transferred 
the  complex  interests  and  personal  issues,  nor  appre-  from  Constantinople  to  Antioch,  where,  after  a  second 
ciate  the  violence  of  the  persecution  asainst  whicn  the  and  solemn  fimeral  service,  the  body  of  the  aged  bishop 
orthodox  parties  were  strugsUng.  In  order  to  en-  was  laid  beside  his  predecessor  St.  Babylas.  But  his 
lighten  these  weD-intentionea  men,  closer  relations  name  was  to  live  after  him,  and  long  remained  for  the 


164 


MBLBTIU8 


Easiem  faithful  a  rallying  sign  and  a  Bynonym  of 
orthodoxy. 

AixABo,  JuUen  VApotlat  (Paris,  1903);  BrnwrniM,  EUloin  det 
tgneOeB,  ea._LBCLBBOQ,  11,  1 ;  Loovs  in  Healeneyk.  fQr  vroi. 


ThtolL  find  Kirche,  s.  v.;  Catallxra,  L*  tehimne  dA 

IK  iCFMteb  (Paris,  1906).  H.  Leclercq. 

Melttiiu  of  lorcopoliai  Bishop  of  Lyoopolis  in 
Egypt,  gave  his  name  to  a  schism  of  short  duration. 
There  is  uncertainty  as  to  the  dates  of  his  birth,  his 
death,  and  his  episcopate.  It  is  known,  however,  that 
he  was  bidiop  of  the  above-mentioned  city  as  early  as 
303,  since  in  a  council  held  about  306  at  Alexandria  by 
Peter,  archbishop  of  that  dty,  Meletius  was  deposed 
for  several  reasons,  among  others  for  sacrificmg  to 
idols.  Meagre  references  by  St.  Athanasius  were  our 
only  source  of  information  until  important  documents 
were  discovered  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  Scipio 
Maffei  at  Verona  in  a  manuscript  dealing  with  the 
Meletian  schism  in  Egypt.  The  three  documents  pre- 
served in  Latin  are  undoubtedly  authentic.  There  is 
first,  a  letter  of  protest  by  four  Egjmtian  bishops, 
Heenrchius,  Padiomius,  Theodore,  and  f  hileas,  datmg 
at  the  latest  from  307,  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
schism  of  Meletius,  and  before  the  excommunication 
<^  the  latter  who  was  termed  by  the  bishops,  dXLedtw 
cilfmvtiinitier  in  Domino  (beloved  feUow  minister  in  the 
Lord).  "We  have  heard''  said  the  bishops,  "griev- 
ous reports  regarding  Meletius  who  is  accused  of 
troubhng  the  divine  law  and  ecclesiastical  rules.  Oaiie 
recently,  a  number  of  witnesses  having  confirmed  the 
repoits,  we  feel  compelled  to  write  this  letter.  Mele- 
tius is  undoubtedly  aware  of  the  very  ancient  law 
which  forbids  a  bittiop  to  ordain  outside  his  own  dio- 
cese. Nevertheless,  without  regard  for  this  law,  and 
without  consideration  for  the  great  bishop  and  father, 
Peter  of  Alexandria,  and  the  incarcerated  bishops,  he 
has  created  general  confusion.  To  vindicate  hmiiself 
he  win  perhaps  declare  that  he  was  compelled  to  act 
thus,  as  the  congregations  were  without  pastors.  Such 
a  detence  however,  is  worthless,  as  a  number  of  visitors 
(eircvmeunies)  had  been  appointed.  Were  they  neg- 
lectful of  their  duties,  their  case  diould  have  been  pre- 
sented before  the  incarcerated  bishops.  If  the  latter 
had  beoi  mart3rred,  he  could  have  appealed  to  Peter 
of  Alexandria,  and  thus  have  obtained  the  authority 
to  ordain  ".  Second,  an  anonymous  note  added  to  the 
foref^oing  letter  and  worded  thus:  "Meletius  having 
received  the  letter  and  read  it.  paid  no  attention  to  the 
protest  and  presented  himseli  neither  before  the  incar- 
cerated bishops,  nor  Peter  of  Alexandria.  After  all 
these  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  had  died  in  their 
dungeons  at  AJexandria,  he  immediately  repaired  to 
that  city.  Among  other  intriguers  there  were  two.  a 
certain  Isidore  and  one  Arius,  seeminglv  honourable, 
both  of  them  desirous  of  being  admitted  to  the  priest- 
hood. Aware  of  the  ambition  of  Meletius  and  what  he 
sought,  they  hastened  to  him,  and  gave  him  the  names 
d  the  vistors  (circumeuntea)  appointed  by  Peter.  Mele- 
tius excommunicated  them  and  ordained  two  others, 
one  of  them  detained  in  prison,  the  other  in  the 
mines. "  On  learning  this.  Peter  wrote  to  his  Alexan- 
drian flock.  Here  comes  the  third  document,  in  which 
occurs  the  phrase  interpreted  as  follows:  "Having 
heard'',  saidPeter,  "that Meletius,  without  considering 
the  letter  of  the  blessed  bishops  and  martyrs,  has  in- 
truded himself  into  my  diocese,  and  deprived  my  depu- 
ties of  their  power,  and  consecrated  others,  I  advise 
vou  to  avoid  aU  communion  with  him  until  I  can  bring 
nim  before  me  face  to  face  in  the  presence  of  prudent 
m^  and  investigate  this  afiPair". 

Tne  conduct  ctf  Meletius  was  all  the  more  reprehen- 
sible in  as  much  as  his  insubordination  was  that  of  one 
in  very  high  office.  St.  Epiphanius  and  Theodoret 
tell  us  that  Meletius  stood  next  in  rank  to  Peter  of 
Alexandria,  of  whom  he  was  jealous  and  whom  he  was 
basely  endeavouring  to  supplant  at  the  moment,  when 
Peter  was  forced  to  flee  from  persecution  and  live  in 


hiding.  It  was  not  only  against  Peter,  but  also  against 
his  immediate  successors.  Achillas  and  Alexander,  that 
Meletius  maintained  his  false  position.  This  we  know 
from  St.  Athanasius,  an  authoritative  witness.  Com- 
paring the  information  given  us  by  St.  Athanasius 
with  that  furnished  by  the  documents  above,  the  date 
of  the  be^pnning  of  the  Meletian  schism  may  be  deter- 
mined with  fair  accuracy.  It  was  evidently  during 
the  episcopate  of  Peter,  who  occupied  the  See  oi  Alex- 
andria from  300  to  311.  Now  St.  Athanasius  in  his 
"Epistola  ad  episcopos"  states  positively  that  "the 
Meletians were  declared  schismatics  over  fifty-five  years 
ago".  Unfortunately  the  date  iji  this  letter  is  oon- 
teeted:  the  choice  Ues  between  356  or  361.  However, 
St.  Athanasius  adds:  "The  Arians  were  declared  her- 
etical thirtv-six  years  ago",  i.  e.  at  the  Council  of 
Nicaea  (325).  Apparently,  therefore.  Athanasius  was 
writing  in  361.  if  now  we  deduct  fifty-five  years,  we 
have  the  year  306  for  the  condemnation  of  tlw  Mele- 
tian schism;  and  as  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  raged 
bitterly  between  303  and  305,  the  beginnings  of  the 
schism  seem  to  belong  to  the  ^rear  304,  or  305.  St. 
Epiphanius.  Bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus  gives  a  cir- 
cumstantial accoimt  (Haer.  Ixviii)  m  contradiction 
with  the  foregoing  narrative.  According  to  him,  the 
schism  arose  from  a  disagreement  between  Meletius 
and  Peter  regarding  the  reception  of  certain  of  the 
faithful,  particularly  of  ecclesiastics^ho  had  abjured 
the  Faith  during  the  persecution.  This  accoimt,  pre- 
ferred b^  some  historians  to  the  statement  of  St.  Atha- 
nasius, is  no  longer  credible  since  the  discovery  of  the 
aforesaid  docunients  by  Maffei  at  yerona.  How,  then, 
explain  the  origin  of  the  accoimt  given  by  Epiphanius? 
It  seems  to  us  it  arose  in  this  maimer:  after  Peter's 
death  Meletius  was  arrested  and  sent  to  the  mines;  on 
his  way  he  stopped  at  Eleutheropolis,  and  there 
foimded  a  church  of  his  sect;  Eleutheropolis  being  the 
native  town  of  Epiphanius,  the  latter  naturally  came 
in  contact  with  Meletians  in  his  early  davs.  They 
would  of  course  represent  in  a  most  favourable  h^t  the 
origin  of  their  sect;  and  thus  their  partial  and  mislead- 
ing narrative  was  afterwards  inserted  by  Epiphanius 
in  his  great  work  on  heresies.  Finally,  the  ret^renoes 
to  the  Meletian  schism  bj^  Sosomen  and  llieodoret 
quite  accord  with  the  original  documents  discovered 
at  Verona,  and  more  or  less  with  what  St.  Athanasius 
has  upon  the  same  subject.  As  to  St.  Augustine,  he 
merely  mentions  the  scnism  in  passing  and  veiy  Ukely 
follows  St.  Epiphanius. 

The  suppression  of  the  Meletian  schism  was  one  of 
the  three  important  matters  that  came  before  the 
Council  of  Nicsea.  Its  decree  has  been  preserved  in 
the  sjmodical  epistle  addressed  to  the  Egyptian  bish- 
ops. Meletius,  it  was  decided,  should  remain  in  his 
own  city  of  Lycopolis,  but  without  exercising  author- 
ity or  the  power  of  ordaining;  moreover  he  was  for- 
bidden to  po  into  the  environs  of  the  town  or  to  enter 
another  diocese  for  the  purpose  of  ordaining  its  sub- 
jects. He  retained  his  episcopal  title,  but  the  ecclesias- 
tics ordained  by  him  were  to  receive  again  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  the  ordinations  performed  by  Meletius 
being  therefore  regarded  as  invalid.  Tliroughout  the 
diocese  where  they  were  f  oimd,  those  ordained  by  him 
were  always  to  3aeld  precedence  to  those  ordained  by 
Alexander,  nor  were  they  to  do  anything  without  tlte 
consent  of  Bishop  Alescander.  In  the  event  of  the 
death  of  a  non-Meletian  bishop  or  ecclesiastic^  the  va- 
cant preferment  might  be  given  to  a  Meletian,  pro- 
vided he  were  worthy  and  the  popular  election  were 
ratified  by  Alexander.  As  to  Meletius  himself,  epis- 
copal rights  and  prerogatives  were  taken  from  him 
owing  to  his  incorrigible  habit  of  everywhere  exciting 
confusion.  These  mild  measures,  however,  were  in 
vain;  the  Meletians  joined  the  Arians  and  did  more 
harm  than  ever,  being  among  the  worst  enemies  of  St. 
Athanasius.  Keferring  to  this  attempt  at  reunion  the 
latter  said:  "Would  to  God  it  had  never  happened." 


165  MlLX88ini 

About  325  the  Ifeletiana  counted  in  Eigypt  twenty-  supporter  of  the  Bourbon  regime,  and  among  his  lyrics 

Qtne  biahops,  Meletiuji  included,  and  in  Alexandria  "  Anaoreontiche"  and  *'Odi^^  is  an  ode  innonour  of 

itself,  four  priestB,  three  deacons,  and  one  army  chap*  Nelson,  which  however,  he  is  said  to  have  suppressed 

lain.    Gonformably  to  the  Nicene  decree,  Meletius  after  the  latter's  execution  of  the  Neapolitan  patriots, 

lived  first  at  LycqpoUs  in  the  Thebaid,  but  after  His  last  work,  the  "Favulimorali",is  a  collection  of 

Bishop  Alexand^s  death  he  took  a  personal  part  in  Esopian  fables  in  verse  with  an  underlying  allegorical 

the  negotiations  which  united  his  party  to  the  Arians.  or  satirical  meaning. 

The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known.    He  nominated       Open  di  OiovANNxMau  (Palenno,  1857);  La  Bueeolica,  la 

his  friend.  John,  as  his  successor.    Theodoret  men-  ^^Y^M^^i'^^^^^ied^Qior^jpnUaurtdotudMn^ 

wo  AA^ouu,  tfuuu,  M  uiB  ou«^^7wvr.     xuowufvb  uieu-  ^    Haliono  da  Aoosttno  Qax«lo  CPalenno.  1868):  Nav4jita81. 

^ons  very  superstiUous  Bfeletian  m(mks  who  practised  8tudio^!SiaiiuWavSSiiMM^^  wavantam. 

Jewish  ablutions.    The  Meletians  died  out  after  the  Edmund  G.  Gabdnsb. 

middle  of  the  fifth  centuiy. 

CxoAsmn,  HiMtoire  GfnSrau  det  aufotir*  rnxUtiawUguea,  JH        BSeUa,  Pius,  Italian  theologian,  b.  at  Rome,  12 

O^iis,  1732).  678-81.  U  ^765).  615-16:  Hwbl*.  ^eMiia  in  Jan..  1800 :  d.  in  London.  June.  1883.    He  entered  the 

Kwthmilex.,  ed.  Kaulxn,  VIII  (1803).  1221  aq. ;  Acbxzjb,  MeU-  qZ'  i  ^*'  t         **'"""">•'  ""^>  o  ic  1        u^i  •T^      x 

Hua  mm  LyiopoHa  in  Reiuneudopodii,  ed.  HXuck.  xSliWH).  Society  of  Jesus  on  14  Aug.,  1816,  taught  hteratUPB 

558-^;  ukwiom,  HiMoin  dn  Ccmdlm,  ed.  Lbclbboq,  I  (1007),  at  Reggio,  and  afterwards  was  engaged  in  preaching. 

211-12, 488-«03.  H.  Lecueboq.  He  irft  the  Society  in  1853.    He  wrote  two  books: 

mv^M  .-^  n*««^ii.  rfc. ^  rkM  "Alcune  ragioni  oel  P.  Pio  Melia  della  C.  di  G." 

p  }t^J^J^^^  DiocBSB  OF  (MBLPHIBNM8  ET  (L^cca,  184?),  a  defence  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and 

Rapollenms),  m  the  province  of  Potensa,  m  Basih-  « Alcune  affii^zioni  del  Sig.  Antom^  Rosmin/^r- 

^ta,  southern  Italy,  ^elfi  is  situated  on  a  plewant  bati"  (Pisa.  s.  d.),  an  attack  upon  Rosmini  (q.  v.). 

hiU,  on  thestoDM  of  Mt.  Volture.    The  ongm  of  the  j^  his  "Li/e  of  R;>8mini",  Father  Lockhart  merely 

city  w  not  weU  known;  but  the  town  be^  declares  that  the  latter  work  was  written  by  cei 

1043,  when  It  was  chosen  capital  of  the  new  mihtaiy  ^am  Italian  Jesuits:  Father  de  Backer,  in  his  "Dio- 

state  created  m  southern  Italy  by  the  twelve  Norman  tionnaire  des  Antonymes''  attributed  it  to  Passaidia 

wunts  foundereoftheKingcfomofN^^^       Nicholas  but  his  "Biblioth^qie  deli  CompagniedeJ6e^ir'ri^^ 

S  i!^?i?fil2^K°^^iJ®  X  dependent  on  tiie  edited  by  SommenJogel,  foUows fcStjhia,  who attrib- 

5?l^i''?^i,*'"^'i?-r*^^'*'^-    ^**)^"i!flS  utcs  it  to  Melia.    fiefia.  who  attacked  especially 

?^*^S?3^Vm«:^?'^  "^^''PJ^/i:  "^""J^  ^^'I  Rosmini's  doctrine  on  original  sin,  was  answ^  by 

Gmscard  (1156)  was  destrpved  by  the  earthqua^  of  Rosmini  (MUan,  1841)  andl>a«ani  (Milan,  1842) ;  theb 

1851.     i^ong  Its  other  bwhoM,  mention  should  be  began  a  bitter  controversy  which  had  to  be  ended  by 

made  of  Fra  Alessandro  da  &m  Elpidio  a  former  gen-  ;fJi^|.  command  of  Pius  IX.  ^ 

eral  of  ttie  Augustmians  (1328),  and  a  learned  theolo-       Sommbhvoobl.  BibLdelaC.de  J.,  V  (Bniaaek  and  Paria. 

gian.     In  1528,  Clement  VII,  m  view  of  the  scarcity  of  1894) ;  Lockhart.  Life  ofRoemini  (London.  1886). 

its  revenues,  united  the  Diocese  of  Rapolla  to  that  Wm.  T.  Tallon. 
of  Melfi,  "sBQue  principaliter''.  Rapolla  is  a  city  --  „  #  ■  _  /-•  i  u-i  v  ^  xx. 
founded  by  the  tbmbards,  on  the  b^  of  the  Oh-  ^,'*«i"«??  ^  ?™^'  ^  ^^  philosopher,  of  the 
vento  River.  The  Normans  took  it  from  the  Greeks  Eleatic  School,  b.  at  Samoe  about  470  b.  c.  It  is 
in  1042,  and  fortified  it  with  works  still  to  be  seen.  P^^^  ^^  ^«  7". »  ^i^^Ujf®  ^^  Paraienides,  and 
The  town,  which  has  a  beautiful  cathedral,  was  an  *****  ^«  ^  l^®^^,^*^.^®  Mehssus  who.  according 
episcopal  see,  suffragan  of  Siponto,  in  the  time  of  Greg-  Jp  Y^^^^  i?®T^?ii?^^i  ,«>minand^  tiie  Samian 
oiy  VIL  Other  blaiope  were  Cardinal  Giovanni  Vin-  S^et  which  defeased  the  Athen^ns  off  the  coast  of 
censo  Acquaviva  (1537),  who  mve  a  noble  organ  to  ^S^]^  ^'  v?®  ^^^  a  work  which  is  vanouslv 
the  cathedral,  and  Lauro  Caiaffini  (1622),  founder  of  entitled  we^  rod  6rrot  wapl  4^awf  ete.,  and  of  which 
the  seminary.  Seveial  councils  were  hefd  at  Melfi:  only  a  few  f ragmwits  have  come  down  to  us.  In  at- 
one in  1048;  another  1059,  under  Nicholas  II,  impor-  tempting  to  combine  the  doctnnes  of  Parmemdes  with 
tant  on  account  of  the  proliibition  of  the  marria^of  ^^  o^  the  wirhest  philosophere  of  Greece  (see  Ionian 
priests,  the  deposition  of  the  Bishop  of  Trani,  promo-  School  of  Philosopht),  Mehwus,  though  he  fdl  into 
ter  of  the  schism  of  Cerularius,  and  the  investiture  of  ™«oy  contnwhctions,  forestalled,  ma  sense,  AnstotJe's 
Robert  Guiscard  of  the  Duchy  of  Apulia  and  Calabria;  ?^»  successful  effort  to  define  the  mfinite  and  the 
the  council  of  1067;  the  one  of  1089,  against  simony  mcornoreal.  Like  Paimemdes,  he  depreciated  sense- 
and  the  concubinage  of  priests,  and  for  flie  freedom  of  knowledge,  and  held  tjat  change,  motion,  and  miUti. 
the  Church;  lastly,  the  council  of  1100.    The  united  piicity  are  illusions.    At  the  same  time,  he  was  mflu- 


U.  Benigni.  which  has  neither  bc^nning  nor  end",  and  in  his  con* 

ception  of  "that  which  has  no  body",  he  does  not,  as 

ly  Giovanni,  Sicilian  poet.  b.  at  Palermo,  4  Aristotle  points  out  (Metaph.  I,  5,  086  b.)  attain  a 

Msrch,  1740;  d.  20  Dec.,  181o.    Me  was  the  son  of  a  correct  understanding  of  the  immaterial.    The  physi- 

goldsmith  of  Spanish  origin,  and  received  his  first  edu-  cal  doctrines  ascribed  to  Melissus  by  Philoponus, 

cation  horn  tbe  Jesuits.    He  afterwards  studied  nat*  Stoboeus,  Epiphanius,  and  others  do  not  seem  to  have 

ural  science  and  medicine,  and  practised  as  a  physi-  been  held  by  him.    There  is,  however,  a  possibility 

cian  in  the  hamlet  of  Cinisi  and  later  at  Palermo  itself ,  that,   as   Diogenes   Lafirtius   informs   us,    Melissus 

where  for  nineteen  years  he  held  the  chair  of  chemistry  avoided  all  mention  of  the  gods  because  we  can  know 

at  tike  university.    Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  took  nothing  about  them.    Like  Plato.  Aristotie,  and  some 

minor  orders.    In  childhood  he  had  been  led  to  poetry  of  the  other  Greek  philosophers,  he  probably  thought 

by  reading  ^osto,  and  in  poetical  composition  found  it  wisest  to  take  refuge  in  a  profession  of  ignorance 

relief  from  domestic  unhappiness.     His  poems  are  regarding  the  gods,  so  as  to  avoid  the  imputation  of 

written  in  the  Sicilian  dialect,  and  as  a  vernacular  poet  hostility  to  the  popular  mjrthology. 

of  this  kind  he  has  no  rival  in  Italian  literature.    His  ,^F^'»»V'"v  ^♦'■•*  ^**«?P*f^»  «/  ^'•■^  <N« 


AnliM»  mml^^^Mm^  ^^A  {<4vlla  ^f  ♦!*-»  f^..»  aAoa^«,<i  «/  ♦!*-»  AixBYNB.  I  (Loiid..  1881),  827  8q.;  Tannbrt,  Pour  rhutoire  de 

cohca  ,  Mlpguei  and  idylls  of  the  four  seasons  of  the  ^  ^.g^^;  ^J^^  (i>arw,  1887)7202  bq.;  Turwbb.  Biuory  oj 

year,  is  full  of  Sicilian  colour,  and  has  won  him  the  PhUoaophy  (Boston,  1903),  51  sq. 

title  of  <'  the  modem  Theocritus".  Meli  was  a  staunch  Wiluam  Turnbb. 


166  MIUTO 

Melitene,  residonce  of  an  Aimenian  Catholic  see,  burned  and  1000  Ghristiaiui  maaaacred.    About  five 

also  a  titulary  archbishoprio.    According. to  Pliny  rnil^^ from ^'«^1M'> i« tha villAgft ryf F^Vi-M|>.latia on thft 

(Nat.  Hist.  VI,  3^,  the  city  was  founded  by  Queen  site  of  the  ancient  Melitene;  apart  of  the  mdk  is  stiil 

Semiramis  at  a  little  distance  from  the  Euphrates ;  the  preserved.    The  whole  region  is  like  an  immense  fruit 

earliest  mention  of  it  is  foimd  in  Tacitus  (Annal.,  XV,  garden  in  a  delightful  climate  and  a  'v^'ell-watered  land. 

26) .    A  Roman  camp  was  there  imder  Nero,  and  Trajan  The  Catholic  Armenian  •  diocese  numbers  5100  souls, 

made  it  the  principal  stronghold  of  this  frontier.   Its  9  priests,  10  churches  and  diapels,  7  stations,  0  pri- 

name  is  probably  derived  from  the  river  Melas  which  marv  schools,  and  an  establishment  of  Armenian  Sisters 

empties  mto  the  Euphrates.    Under  Marcus  Aur»lius  of  the  Immaculate  Concepticm.    The  schismatic  Ar- 

the  Legio  XII  fulminaia  was  stationed  there  (Euse-  menian  diocese  b  under  tne  Catholicos  of  Sis.    There 

bius,  H.  E.  V.  V,  4) ;  to  this  legion  belonged  the  forty  is  also  established  there  a  Protestant  mission, 

martyrs  of  Sebaste.    Ptolemy  (V,  vi,  21)  and  Strabo  „  Texwr,  UAtuMineure  (Paria.  1862).  687;n590;  Cuwbt.  La 

(Xlli,  2,4;aee.»l«oXI  xii,  2;XI,xiv  2)  makeitone  l!;S^\'rkV±?^?{-(P^J^^ 

of  the  ten  provmces  of  Cappadocia.    Justmian  forti-  Hem  (Rome,  1007),  757. 

fied  it  and  tilled  it  with  magnificent  monuments  (Pro-  S.  VailhA. 

copius,  De  .£dificiis.  III,  4),  which  have  all  disap- 

p^u^.  In  577  the  Romans  gained  a  ^reat  victory  Blelito,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Sardis,  prominent  ec- 
over  the  Persians  in  the  vicinity  of  Melitene ;  two  desiastical  writer  in  the  latter  half  of  tne  second  cen- 
years  before  the  city  had  been  burned  by  the  Shah  tury.  Few  details  of  his  life  are  known.  A  letter  of 
Chosroes.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen-  Polycrates  of  Ephesus  to  Pope  Victor  about  194 
tury  Melitene  again  became  Byzantine;  it  was  after-  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl. ",  V,  xxiv)  states  that  "  Melito 
wards  taken  by  the  Arabs  and  later  recaptured  by  the  eunuch  [this  is  interpreted  "the  virgin"  by  Rufinus 
Emperor  Constantine  Copronyn*  is  in  751.  The  lat-  in  his  translation  of  Eusebius],  whose  whole  walk  was 
ter  transported  the  Christian  u  /pulation  to  Thrace,  in  the  Holv  Spirit",  was  interred  at  Sardis,  and  had 
dispersed  the  Mussulmans  of  the  province,  destroyed  been  one  of  the  sreat  authorities  in  the  Church  of  Asia 
the  city  and  rased  the  walls.  In  760  Caliph  Al-Man-  who  held  the  Quartodeciman  theory.  His  name  is 
lur  took  possession  of  it  and  restored  to  it  something  cited  also  in  the  "  Labyrinth  "  of  Hippolytus  as  one  of 
of  its  former  importance.  In  the  tenth  century  the  the  second-century  writers  who  taught  the  duality  of 
Byzantines  re-established  their  domination  and  in  965  natures  in  Jesus.  St.  Jerome,  speaking  of  the  canon 
the  Emperor  Nioephorus  Phocas  successfully  under-  of  Melito,  quotes  TertuUian's  statement  ^at  he  was 
took  to  colonise  the  region.  The  Greek  Government  esteemed  a  prophet  by  many  of  the  faithful, 
had  faithfully  promised  not  to  molest  the  Monophy-  Of  Melito\  numerous  works  almost  ail  have  per- 
sites,  whether  Armenian  or  Ssrrian;  but  it  did  not  keep  ished ;  fortunately,  Eusebius  has  preserved  the  names 
its  promise.  In  the  eleventh  century  the  city  counted  of  the  majority  and  given  a  few  extracts  (Hist.  Eccl., 
no  less  than  fifty-six  churches,  and  was  able  to  furnish  IV,  xiii,  xxvi).  They  are  (1)  "An  Apology  for  the 
60,000  armed  men  from  among  its  own  citizens  and  Christian  Faith  ",  appealing  to  Marcus  Aurelius  to  ex- 
its environs,  an  index  of  its  great  prosperity.  The  amine  into  the  accusations  against  the  Christians  and 
number  of  suffragan  sees  increased  at  this  time  and  to  end  the  persecution  (written  apparently  about  172, 
was  suddenly  changed  from  three  to  nine  (Gelzer,  or  before  177).  This  is  a  different  work  from  the 
"  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitis  episcopa-  Syriac  apology  attributed  to  Melito,  published  in 
tuum",  579).  The  Monophvsftes  had  at  that  time  Svriac  and  English  by  Cureton  from  a  Bntish  Museum 
seven  sees  in  the  vicinity  of  Melitene  (Barhebrseus,  MS.  The  latter,  a  vigorous  confutation  of  idolatry 
H.  E.  II,  460).    The  city  fell  afterwards  into  the  and  pol3rtheism  addressed  to  Antoninus  Caesar,  seeni^ 

Emer  of  the  Seljuk  Turks  of  Iconium;  then  of  the  from  internal  evidence  to  be  of  Syrian  origin,  though 
ongols  in  1235;  of  the  Osmanlis  in  1396;  of  Timur  in  some  authorities  have  identified  it  with  Melito's  Uq>l 
1401 ;  then  of  different  Turkish  princes.  Finally,  at  the  dXiiSeUtt.  (2)  IIcpl  toD  wd^xo-y  on  Easter,  written  prob- 
begiiming  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  annexed  to  ably  in  167-8.  A  fragment  cited  by  Eusebius  refers 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  of  which  it  is  still  a  part.  to  a  dispute  that  b>^J  broken  out  In  Laodicea  re- 
Christianity  seems  to  have  reached  Melitene  very  garding  Easter,  bu\  does  not  mention  the  precis 
early.  The  Roman  soldier,  St.  Polyeuctus,  immor-  matter  in  controversy.  (3)  'EKkoyal,  olx  books  of 
talized  by  Comeille,  was  mart3rred  there  in  254  or  259.  extracts  from  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  concerning 
Another  third  century  martyr  is  known,  St.  Eudoxius,  Christ  and  the  Faith,  the  passage  cited  by  Eusebius 
whose  relics  were  found  in  966.  as  indicated  by  an  contains  a  canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  (4)  *H  kkelt, 
inscription  carved  on  the  door  of  a  church.  St.  Mele-  for  a  loi^  time  considered  to  be  preserved  in  the 
tius^  the  celebrated  Bishop  of  Antioch,  was  a  native  of  "  Melitonis  clavis  sanctse  scripturse  ,  which  is  now 
Mehtene,  as  was  also  Saint  Euthymius,  to  whom  known  to  be  an  original  Latin  compilation  of  the 
was  chiefly  due  the  organization  of  monastic  life  in  Middle  Ages.  (5)  Ilepi  ipcttfjdrov  &ew,  on  the  cor- 
Palestine  during  the  fifth  century.  A  council  against  poreity  of  God,  of  which  sonoe  Syriac  fragments  have 
the  Arians  was  held  there  in  363.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  oeen  preserved.  It  is  referred  to  by  Origen  (In  Gen., 
Christianus,  I,  439-46)  gives  a  long  list  of  its  Greek  i,  26),  as  showing  Melito  to  have  been  an  Anthropo* 
bishops,  the  last  of  whom  belongs  to  the  3rear  1193.  morphite,  the  S3rriac  fragments,  however,  prove  tnat 
Among  them  are  St.  Acacius,  who  died  about  438;  the  author  held  the  opposite  doctrine, 
and  Saint  Domitian,  first  cousin  to  the  Emperor  Fourteen  additional  works  are  cited  by  Eusebius. 
Maurice,  who  played  a  most  important  r61e  in  the  re-  Anastasius  Sinaita  in  his  '08177^  (P.  G.,  LXXXIX) 
ligious  and  political  life  of  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  quotes  from  two  other  writings:  E/t  t6  wd6ot  (on  the 
century.  For  its  Jacobite  bishops  see  Le  Quien  (II,  Passion),  and  Uepl  trapKiifftuf  XpurroO  (on  the  Incam&' 
1451-58)  and  "  Revue  de  TOrient  chr^en ''  (VI.  201).  tion),  a  work  in  three  books,  probably  written  a^inst 
To-day  the  city  of  Malatia  forms  a  sanjak  of  tne  vil-  the  Marcionites.  Routh  (see  below)  has  published 
ayet  of  Mamouret-ul-Aziz ;  it  numbers  about  30,000  four  scholia  in  Greek  from  a  Catena  on  the  Sacrifice 
inhabitants  of  whom  16,000  are  Turks;  4500  Kurds;  of  Isaac  as  typifying  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Cross,  prob- 
6500  Kizil  Bach  (a  Mussulman  sect) ;  and  about  3000  ably  taken  from  a  corrupt  version  of  the  'lUXoyal. 
Armenians.  Among  the  last  mentioned  are  800  Four  Svriac  fragments  from  works  on  the  Body  and 
Catholics.  The  Capuchins  have  established  there  a  Soul,  the  Cross,  and  Faith,  are  apparentlv  composi' 
mission  with  a  church  built  in  1884  and  an  orphan  tions  of  Melito,  though  often  referred  to  Alexander  of 
asylum.  The  city,  which  was  disturbed  by  an  earth-  Alexandria.  Many  spurious  writings  have  been  at^ 
quake  in  1893,  was  still  more  sorely  troubled  by  the  tributed  to  Melito  in  addition  to  the  *'  Melitonis  clavis 
massacres  of  1895,  during  which  500  houses  were  aancts  scripture  **  ahneady  mentioned — e.  g.,  a  "  Let- 


167 


MlXJiERAT 


ter  to  Eutiepius ",  "Catena  in  Apocalypsin  ",  a  mani- 
fest foigery  compiled  after  a.  d.  1200;  "De  passione 
S.  Joaonis  Evangelistse "  (probably  not  earlier  than 
the  seventh  century),  "  De  transitu  Beatse  Maris  Vir- 
ginia" (see  Apocrypha  in  I,  607).    Melito's  feast  is 

observed  on  1  April. 

BiiBDBNHawBm  Pairologu,  tr.  Sbaban  (St.  Louis,  1908),  62-3, 
«ontaina  a  bibUogn4>by  or  the  printed  fracmentB;  Salmon  in 
Diet,  Chritl.  Biog.,  b.  v.;  HsraLB,  Hiat.  o/th»  ChriaL  CouneiU,  tr. 
Clakk,  I  (Edinburgh,  1894)«  310-12;  Curkton,  SpieiUffium 
Swriaeum  (Loodon,  1855);  Routb,  ReliquitB  8oerm^  I  (Oxford, 
1834).  110;  PmiA,  SpidUaium  Soletmenae,  II  (Paria.  1854), 
czzvii,  Izt;  Tillbmont,  Mimoimt  II  (Pftria,  1694),  407,  663; 
Acta  SS.,  Ainil,  I,  10-12;  Mdito  of  Sard%$  and  h%$  Remain*  in 
Kzno,  Journal  of  Saend  Lit.  (1856-6).  XV.  121;  XVI.  434; 
XVU.  121. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Malk  (MoLCK,  Mellicijm),  Abbey  and  Conoreoa- 
TiON  OF.— -Situated  on  an  isolated  rock  commanding  the 
Danube,  MeUc  has  been  a  noted  place  since  the  days  of 
the  Romans.  A  Slav  settlement,  Magalicha,  replaced 
the  Roman  fort,  and  in  its  turn  was  destroyea  by  a 
Magyar  invasion  about  955,  when  it  received  the  name 
Eisenburg.  The  Magyars,  however,  were  driven  out 
bv  Luitpold  the  Illustrious,  first  Maigrave  of  Austria, 
wno  here  fixed  his  capital  and  foimded  a  church  for 
secular  canons.    These  having  become  lax,  were  re- 

fflaced  bv  twelve  monks  of  Subiaco,  whom  Luitpold 
I  brougnt  from  Lambach  with  Sijibold  as  their  abbot 
in  1(^9.  Melk  was  much  favoured  by  St.  Luitpold 
III,  and  the  new  foundation  rapidly  grew  and  flour- 
ished, its  com  tithes  being  so  abundant  that  the  folk- 
name  for  Melk  was  ''at  the  full  bushel".  It  became 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Coloman,  and 
was  famed  for  its  great  relic  of  the  Holy  Cross.  Bv 
the  fifteenth  century  monastic  observance  at  Melk 
had  become  relaxed,  but  in  1418,  at  the  request  of 
Albert  V.  Archduke  of  Austria,  Martin  V  sent  the 
Yen.  Nicnolas  of  lilagen  with  five  other  monks  of 
Subiaco  from  the  Council  of  Constance  to  begin  a  re- 
form of  the  monasteries  of  Lower  Austria.  The  Ab- 
bot of  Melk,  John  of  Flemming,  voluntarily  resigned, 
and  Nicholas,  elected  in  his  stead,  soon  so  reformed 
the  observance  in  accordance  with  the  constitutions  of 
Subiaco  that  the  abbey  became  a  model  for  other 
houses  in  Austria.  Several  monasteries  followed  its 
example,  among  them  Obenbuxg,  Salsburg,  Mariazell, 
the  Scottish  abbey  at  Vienna,  Kremsmunster,  Ratis- 
bon,  and  Tegemsee.  All  these  houses  followed  the 
same  observance  and  styled  themselves  the  Congr^a- 
tion  of  Melk.  They  in  no  way  depended,  however,  on 
Melk,  nor  had  thev  any  general  superior,  soliciting 
visitors  when  needful  from  the  pope.  The  Abbey  of 
Melk  continued  in  its  first  fervour  of  reform,  and 
several  attempts  were  made  from  1460  onwards  to 
effect  a  more  formal  union.  In  1470  seventeen  ab- 
bots of  various  neighbouring  dioceses  met  at  Erfurt 
and  decided  to  establish  in  their  monasteries  the  com- 
mon observance  and  ceremonial  of  Melk.  Nothing 
more  definite  occurred  until  Caspar,  Abbot  of  Melk,  in 
1618  invited  the  abbots  of  Austnfi  to  meet  at  Melk  and 
form  a  congr^ation.  The  negotiations  continued  un- 
til 1623,  wnen  the  Abbots  of  Melk,  Kremsmunster, 
Gaisten,  the  Scots'  Abbey  of  Vienna,  Altenburg, 
Gdttweich  and  Mariasell  signed  the  constitutions 
agreed  upon  for  the  new  congregation.  These  were 
confirmed  by  Urban  VIII  in  1625.  In  addition  the 
congregation  included  the  houses  of  Lambach,  Monsee, 
Leittenstaden  and  Kleinck.  It  was  governed  by  a 
superior  general,  elected  every  two  years,  who  acted  as 
visitor  <H  all  the  monasteries  of  the  congregation. 
'Each  province  also  had  its  own  visitor.  In  1630 
there  was  an  attempt  to  form  a  united  congregation  of 
all  the  monasteries  of  the  empire,  but  the  Swedish  in- 
vasion frustrated  this  project,  though  many  of  the 
German  monasteries  thenceforth  observed  the  con- 
stitutions of  Melk.  In  the  fourteenth  century  Melk, 
by  permission  of  Duke  Frederic  I,  had  been  fortified, 
aaa  was  thus  able  to  resist  successive  sieges  by  Matthias 


Corvinus,  by  the  revolted  peasantrv,  bv  the  Protes- 
tant States  of  Austria  and  by  the  Turks,  though  on 
each  occasion  the  property  of  the  abbey  suffered. 
Great  losses,  too,  were  sustained  at  the  handa  of  Na- 
poleon's troops.  In  1889  the  Abbey  d  Melk  was  in- 
cluded by  Leo  XIII  in  the  Austrian  Congregation  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception.  In  1905  the  congrega- 
tion numbered  85,  of  whom  75  were  priests.  Tne 
present  abbot,  Joseph  Charles  (b.  1824,  appointed 
1875),  exercises  jurisdiction  over  29  parishes,  with 

45,145  souls. 

AnnaUa  MdUcenaes,  ed.  Wattenbacb,  in  Pbrts.  if  on. 
Oerm.  Hitt,  Script.,  IX  (Hanover.  1851).  480-535;  BsRUkRC. 
La  rihrme  de  MeUe  au  XV'  SikcU  in  Revue  B/n/dietine,  XII 
(1895),  204-13,  289-309:  Hbxmbuchbr,  Die  Orden  tmd  Kon- 
greoationen  der  Katholiachen  Kirche,  I  (Paderbom.  1907).  286- 
95.344;  H&LTOT,I>icf to nnairedes  .  .  .  ordresreUgeuXtll  (Patvb, 
1863),  1033-39:  Katbchthalbr,  Meik  (Vienna,  1905);  Kbib- 
UNOBR,  Geachichte  dee  Benediktineretifta  Melk  (Vienna,  1851-69) ; 
KROPr,  Bibliotheca  Melliceneie  (Vienna,  1747);  Mabillon.  An" 
nalee  O.  S.  B,^  V  (Lucca,  1740).  248-4;  Pes,  Ephemeridee  rerum 
in  Monaeteno  Mdlicenei  .  .  .  gealarum  .  .  .  1741-46.  ed. 
Staufer  in  Studien  O.  S,  B.,  VIII-X  (1886-9);  Schramb. 
Chronicon MeUicenee (Vienna,  1702):  WoLFBORf bbr and HCbl. 
Abteien  unde  KlOeter  tn  (Eaterreieh  (Vienna,  n.  d.). 

Lesue  a.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Melleray  (Melleariuh),  situated  in  Brittany 
(Loire-Inf4rieure),  Diocese  of  Nantes,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Chateaubriand,  was  founded  about  the  year  1134. 
Foulques,  Abbot  of  Pontron,  in  Anjou,  founded  from 
Loroux  (a  daughter  of  Ctteaux),  sent  monks  for  the 
foimdation  of  a  monastery  in  Brittany.  They  were 
delighted  with  the  solitude  of  a  place  near  Old  Melle- 
ray,  shown  them  by  Rivallon,  pastor  of  Auvem6, 
which  Alain  de  Moisdon,  proprietor  of  the  place,  do- 
nated to  them.  Guitem,  the  first  abbot,  erectea  the 
original  monastery  in  1145,  but  the  church  was  not 
completed  until  1183,  under  Geffroy,  the  fourth 
abbot.  Melleray,  a  small  monastery  built  for  about 
twelve  religious,  remained  regular  until  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  when  relaxa- 
tion prevailed  as  a  result  of  the  acquisition  of  great 
wealth  and  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  com* 
mendatory  abbots.  Etieime  de  Brez6  (1544)  was 
the  first  commendatory  abbot,  and  from  his  time 
both  spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  declined,  until 
toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  when, 
through  the  efforts  of  Dom  Jouard,  vicar-general  of 
the  onier,  the  rule  of  St.  Bernard  was  re-introduced, 
and  the  monastic  buildings  restored.  In  1791  it  was 
suppressed,  and  the  few  religious  were  dispersed. 
This,  however,  was  not  the  end  of  Melleray.  The 
Trapplsts,  expelled  from  France,  took  refuge  at  Val 
Sainte,  Switzerland;  from  there,  urged  by  their  rapid 
increase,  and  for  fear  of  the  spread  of  the  revolution, 
Dom  Augustine  de  Lestrange  established  them  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  Through  thegenerosity  of 
Sir  Thomas  Weld,  a  wealthy  English  Catholic,  the 
father  of  Cardinal  Weld,  they  settled  (1795)  at  Lul- 
worth,  Dorsetshire,  England.  Their  monasterv  was 
soon  created  an  abbey,  and  Dom  Antoine  was  elected 
the  first  abbot  (1813).  In  1817,  with  changed  condi- 
tions and  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  uie  monks 
of  Lulworth  returned  ^o  Melleray.  The  restored  ab- 
bey flourished,  increasing  from  fifty-seven  to  one 
hundred  and  ninety-two  members  in  twelve  years. 
During  the  Revolution  of  1830  they  were  again  perse- 
cuted, especially  those  of  foreign  birth,  of  whom  they 
had  a  great  number.  To  make  homes  for  these  they 
founded  Mount  Melleray  (1833)  in  Ireland  and  Mount 
Saint  Bernard  (1835)  in  England.  Dom  Antoine  (d. 
1839)  was  succeeded  first  bv  Dom  Maxime,  then  by  a 
second  Dom  Antoine,  and  finally  by  Dom  Eugene 
Vachette,  the  present  abbot.  Under  Dom  Antoine  11 
several  monasteries  were  established,  amoiig  theno- 
Gethsemani,  in  the  United  States.  Dom  Eugtoe. 
elected  in  1875,  was  for  many  years  the  vicar-general 
of  the  Congregation  of  La  Grande  Trappe,  and  was 
instrumental  in  effecting  the  reunion  of  the  three  con- 
gregations into  one  order  (1892).    Since  then  he  has 


MELLBEULT                           168  lOLLITini 

been  vicar  to  the  Most  Reverend  General  of  the  Re-  Mellif onti  Abbbt  of,  three  mike  from  Dros^ieda, 

formed  Cistercians.    Recently  he  has  established  an  Co.  Louth,  Diocese  of  Armagh,  was  the  first  CistereiaD 

annex  to  his  monastery  in  Woodbarton,  Diocese  of  monastery  established  in  Ireland.    In  the  year  1140, 

Plymouth,  England.  St.  Malachy,  en  route  for  Rome,  visited  St.  Bernard  at 

Mbllsrat,  Mount. — Situated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Clairvaux,  and  was  so  edified  that  he  resolved  to  es- 
Knockmealdown  Mountains,  near  Cappoquin,  Diocese  tablish  a  similar  monastery  in  his  own  diocese  of  Ar- 
of  Waterford,  Ireland,  was  founded  m  1833.  Father  nia^.  He  therefore  left  several  of  his  companions 
"V^cent  Ryan  was  chosen  leader  of  the  reli^ous  sent  at  Clairvaux,  to  make  their  novitiate  imder  the  diiec- 
b^  Dom  Ajitoine,  Abbot  of  Melleray,  for  this  founda-  tion  of  St.  Bernard.  In  1142  they  returned  to  found 
tion.  After  many  efforts  to  locate  ms  community  he  Mellifont  under  Christian  O'Conarchy,  who  had  been 
accepted  the  offer  of  Sir  Richard  Keane,  of  Cappoquin,  Archdeaoon  of  Down,  and  who  became  the  first  abbot, 
to  rent  a  tract  of  barren  mountain  waste,  some  five  A  French  monk,  Fatner  Robert,  an  able  architect,  di- 
hundred  acres,  subsecuentl^r  increased  to  seven  hun-  rected  the  construction  of  the  mcmasUc  building  ao- 
dred.  In  the  work  of  reclaiming  the  soil,  they  were  cording  to  the  plans  of  the  Abbey  of  Clairvaux.  The 
assisted  by  the  oountry  folk;  entire  pi^ishes,  led  by  consecration  of  the  church  in  1157  was  the  occasion  of 
their  pastom,  came,  each  in  turn,  to  give  free  a  full  great  religious  celebrations.  So  numerous  were  the 
day's  work.  In  1833  the  corner-stone  was  laid  by  Sir  postulants  that  sue  important  monasteries  were  founded 
Richard  Keane,  in  the  presence  of  the  bishop  and  a  during  the  first  ten  vears:  BecUve  (1 146)  ;B(^le  (1148); 
large  concourse  of  clergy  and  people.  In  1835  the  Monastemenagh  (1148);  Baltinglas  (1148);  Schrule 
monasteiy  was  created  an  abbey,  and  Father  Vincent,  (1150);  Newry  (1153).  ^  In  1150  the  venerable  Ab- 
unanimously  elected,  received  the  abbatial  blessing  bot  Christian  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Lismore,  and 
from  Dr.  Aoraham,  bishop  of  the  diocese,  this  being  Pope  Eugene  III.  who  had  been  his  fellow-novice  c^t 
the  first  abbatial  blessing  m  Ireland  since  the  Refor-  (IHiurvaux,  namea  him  legate  for  Ireland.  Soon  after 
mation.  Abbot  Vincent  vigorously  undertook  tiie  his  death  (1186)  his  name  was  inscribed  in  the  calen- 
work  of  completing  the  abbey,  but  died  9  Dec.,  1845.  dar  of  the  saints,  and  he  has  long  been  venerated  as 
Under  the  short  rule  of  his  successor,  Dom  M.  Joseph  one  of  the  most  powerful  protectors  of  his  oountiy. 
Ryan,  but  little  was  accomplished;  as  he  resigned  after  His  brother  Bialchus.  equally  illustrious  for  his  science 
only  two  years.  To  Dom  Bruno  Fitspatricl^  who  sue-  and  sanctity,  suoceeaed  nim.  For  sixty  years  Mellifont 
ceeded  as  abbot  in  September,  1848,  it  remained  to  rejoiced  in  great  prosperity,  and  when  the  Entfish  in- 
consolidate  and  perfect  the  work  so  well  begun.  He  vaded  Ireland  there  were  already  twenty-five  great 
also  founded,  in  1849,  the  monastery  of  Kew  Melleray,  Cistercian  abbeys.  During  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
near  Dubuque,  Iowa,  U.  S.  A.,  and,  in  1878,  Mount  teenth  centuries  the  rivalries  between  the  Entfish  and 
Saint  Josepn,  Roecrea,  Co.  Tipperary .  Ireland.  But  Irish  exerted  a  baneful  influence,  peace  gave  wav  to 
the  most  conspicuous  of  Abbot  Bruno's  works  was  the  discord,  and  in  more  than  one  case  the  general  cnap- 
founding  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Seminary  of  Mount  ter,  ana  even  the  sovereign  pontiff,  were  forced  to  in- 
Melleray.  Origmating  in  a  small  school  formed  by  tervene.  Not  until  the  fifteenth  century  did  Mellifont 
Abbot  Vincent  in  1843,  it  was  developed  by  Abbot  regain  its  ancient  prestige,  which  was  maintained  until 
Bruno  and  his  successors,  until  it  attained  its  present  its  suppression  by  Henry  VIII  on  23  July,  1539,  when 
rank.  Abbot  Bruno  died  4  Dec.,  1893,  and  was  sue-  one  hundred  and  fifty  monks  were  compelled  to  leave 
ceeded  by  Dom  C!arthafle  Delaney,  who  was  blessed  15  with  Richard  Contour,  the  last  Abbot  of  MeUifont. 
Jan.,  1894,  and  presided  over  Mount  Melleray  for  The  king  seised  the  treasures  of  the  abbey,  and  the 
thirteen  years;  his  successor,  Dom  Maurus  Phelan,  amuJs  were  either  lost  or  destroyed,  and  with  them 
solemnly  blessed  by  Dr.  Sheahan,  Bishop  of  Water-  the  names  of  many  remarkable  men.  Several  reUg- 
ford,  15  Aug.,  1908,  is  the  present  abbot.  The  com-  ious  continued  to  hve  in  the  environs,  whieh  explains 
munity  numbers  thirty-eight  choir  religious  (of  whom  why,  in  1623.  the  title  of  Abbot  df  ^  Mellifont  was 
twenty-nine  areprieste)  and  twenty-nine  lay  brothers,  granted^  by  Apostolic  Brief,  to  Patrick  BamewaU, 

Mbllerat,  Mew. — ^Mount  Melleray  having  become  and  agam  m  1^  to  John  Devreux  when  the  title  dis- 

crowded,  it  was  decided  to  attemnt  a  new  foundation,  appears.    In  1566  the  abbey,  with  ite  dependencies, 

While  plans  were  being  discussed,  Bishop  Lorans,  of  was  given  to  Edward  Moore,  chief  of  the  family  Dro- 

Dubuque,  Iowa,  visited  the  abbey  (1849).    He  ex-  gheda,  and  passed,  in  1727,  to  Balfour  of  Townley 

preosed  a  strong  desire  to  have  a  colony  of  Trappisto  Hall,  during  whose  term  of  ownership  all  fell  to  the 

m  his  diocese^nd  offered  a  tract  of  land  about  twelve  speedy  decay  and  desolate  nun  of  the  present  day. 

miles  from  Dubuque.    Abbot  Bruno  immediately  Hekhebset.  MeiUfoni  Abbey,  lu  Ruiiu  and  AMtodatiomB 

sent  two  of  his  religious  to  inspect  the  land,  and  re-  ©"^in.  ,1897);  Havtrt  ^ISilkJ^^^T^uKJ^'^SS^?^ 

ceivinf  a  favourable  report,  he  accepted  the  offer.  ci«.'mnttmHi6ernorim  Vtm/OiMfH&u*  (Dublin,  1896);  Jonqb- 

Later  m  the  same  year  he  laid  the  foundation  of  New  umm,  NoUtim  Abbaiiatwn  O,  Cul  (Oolom,  1840);  Jamau- 

Melleray  Abbey,  appointing,  as  ite  first  superior.  •cpK.c>rHKntmCMjmrt«n«M«^^ 

r^«*tr^-    T™-r^rk»r{lCCw.«r^«^  "«^  CitUrctenaea  (Lyons.  1642);  Dugdalb,  Momutuson  An^ 

Father  Jiunes   O  Gorman    (later  wnsecrated   first  «H«num.  VI.  part  2  (Ltmdon.  ifeo);  Abchdaij^  M«ii««ci«^ 

Bishop    of    Omaha,    Nebraska).    Father    Clement  Sibemievm  (London,  1786). 

Smyth,  the  third  superior,  was  also  elected  bishop,  Eomond  M.  Obbbcht. 
being  placed  in  charge  of  the  Diocese  of  Dubuque,   in 

1859  tne  monastery  was  made  an  abbey,  and  Father  MeDitas,  Saint,  Bishop   of  London  and  third 

Ephraim  McDonald  elected   ite  first  abbot.    The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  d.  24  April,  624.    He  was 

second  abbot,  still  in  office,  is  Dom  Alberic  Dunlea,  the  leader  of  the  second  band  of  missionaries  whom  St. 

whose  community  now  numbers  thirty-six  members.  Gregory  sent  from  Rome  to  join  St.  Augustine  at  Can* 

UjMBXQVK^AnnaUMCidenieMeaq^oDB,  1642);  Janattbchbk,  terbury  in  601.    Venerable  Bede  (Hist.  Bed.,  H.  vii) 

^?»^<^lS?.?^ft^?f'Vf"  (Vienna,  1877):  HAURiAu. OaUux Chria-  describes  him  as  of  noble  birth,  and  as  he  is  styled  ab- 

fS^fS^X^JiSZ^JjifZ:^^^^  Jyt  by  the  pop«  (Epp^  Gregoni,  xi    54,  66),  it  i. 

■ON*  tAbbau€  d«  Mdlerav  avani  la  Revolution  (St.  Brieuc.  thought  he  may  have  been  Abbot  of  the  Monastery  of 

l89Shy%aduR.P.  D.  ArUoine  (Pana,  1840);  GAnxARDiN.  Let  St.  Andrew  on  the  Ccelian  Hill,  to  which  both  St.  Greg- 

teS%^Sr'S.?S^;;j^/i'VF^^  ory  and  St.  Augustine  belonged.    Several  commenda. 

Onndmaiaon  y  Bruno  (Paris.  1852);  Archivea  of  Mount  Mellc  tory  epistles  of  the  pope  recommendmg  MeUltUS  and 

rw:  Rtan.  Hut.  of  the  Foundation  and  FirM  Six  Yeof  of  Mt.  hig  companions  to  various  Gallic  bishops  have  been 

feSbl'^fS"'?^'?^:  "^^^T^C^p/l-^l^llSg  Vr^^^  (Epp..  »Jij62).    With  the  band  he  B^t 

Chronotogiea  Monam.  S.  Crueia,  ed.  Murpht  (Dublin,  1891);  abo  "all  thmgs  needed  for  divme  worship  and  the 

K99BicT.Cofic»ff0^M^.  qfthtCietercian  Order  (London,  1862).  Church's  service^  vis.  sacred  vessels  and  altar  cloths, 

EoMOKD  M.  Obbs(»t.  Tostment^  for  prmt9  wi  derios,  9iid  ftiao  reliop  qftbe 


HltO 


160 


lOBLOZZO 


hdy  u)08tleB  and  martyra.  with  many  books"  (Bede, 
«ffi«t.  Ecd.",  I,  29). 

The  consecration  of  Mellitus  as  bishop  by  Augustine 
took  place  soon  after  his  arrival  in  England,  and  his 
first  missionary  efforts  were  among  the  East  Saxons. 
Their  king  was  Sabert,  neohew  to  Ethelbert,  King  of 
Kent,  and  b^  his  support  Alellitus  was  able  to  estab- 
lish his  see  m  London,  the  East  Saxon  capital,  and 
build  there  the  church  of  St.  Paul.  On  the  death  of 
Sabert  his  sons,  who  had  refused  Christianity,  gave 

S^rmission  to  their  neople  to  worshif)  idols  once  more, 
oreover,  on  seeing  AfeUitus  celebrating  Mass  one  day, 
the  young  princes  demanded  that  he  should  give  them 
also  ibe  white  bread  which  he  had  been  wont  to  give 
tb^  father.  When  the  saint  answered  them  that 
this  was  impossible  until  they  had  received  Christian 
baptism,  he  was  banished  from  the  kingdom.  Melli- 
tus went  to  Kent,  where  similar  difficulties  had  ensued 
upon  the  death  of  Ethelbert,  and  thence  retired  to 
G&ul  about  the  year  616. 

After  an  absence  of  about  a  year,  Mellitus  was  re- 
called to  Kent  by  Laurentius,  Augustine's  successor  in 
the  See  of  Canterbury.  Matters  had  improved  in  that 
kingdom  owinj;  to  the  conversion  of  the  new  king  Ead- 
bald,  but  Melhtus  was  never  able  to  regain  possession 
of  his  own  See  of  London.  In  619  Laurentius  died,  and 
Mellitus  was  chosen  archbishop  in  his  stead.  He  ap- 
pttLTB  never  to  have  received  the  pallium,  though  he  re- 
tained the  see  for  five  years — a  fact  which  may  ac- 
count for  his  not  consecrating  any  bishops.  During 
this  time  he  suAred  constantly  from  ill-nealth.  He 
consecrated  a  church  to  the  Blessed  Mother  of  God  in 
the  monastery  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  at  Canterburv, 
and  legend  attributes  to  him  the  foundation  of  the  Ad- 
bey  <rf  St.  Peter  at  Westminster,  but  this  is  almost  cer- 
tamljy  incorrect.  Among  the  many  miracles  recorded 
of  hmi  is  the  quelling  of  a  great  fire  at  Canterbury 
whidh  threatened  to  destroy  the  entire  city.  ^  Tne 
saint,  although  too  ill  to  move,  had  himself  carried  to 
the  ^K>t  where  the  fire  was  raging  and,  in  answer  to 
his  prayer,  a  strong  wind  arose  which  bore  the  flames 
souuiwards  away  from  the  city.  Mellitus  was  buried 
in  the  monastery  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  afterwards 
St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury.  Some  relics  of  the  saint 
were  preserved  in  London  m  1298.  The  most  reliable 
account  of  lus  lif e  is  that  nven  by  Bede  in  "  Hist. 
Ecd.",  I,  29,  30;  II,  3-7.  Ehnham  in  his  "Historia 
Monasterii  S.  Augustini  Cantuar.",  edited  by  Hard- 
wick,  gives  many  additional  details,  but  the  authen- 
ticity of  these  is  more  than  questionable.  His  feast 
is  observed  on  April  24. 

Bbdb,  HiA  Bed,,  I,  zziz,  zxz;  H,  tti-vU,  in  P.  L.,  XGY;  Ada 
83.,  Apxil,  III,  280:  Barokius,  Ann.  Bed.  (Rome,  1690),  ad 
sn.  624;  Caporatb,  Nova  Uganda  AntAim  (London,  1516),  228; 
Haodoit  and  Stubbs,  CowieiU  and  Bed.  Documenia  rdatinffto 
Great  Britain.  Ill  (Oxford.  1871).  62-71;  Hardt,  DMcrtpCiM 
eaUdogme  of  m88.  rdating  to  the  hiatory  of  Oreai  Britain  aand 
trdtrnd,!  QMUSerieo,  London.  1862),  i.  210-220:  Habiijx>n, 
Ada  Bamdoram  Boned.  (Paris,  1660),  II,  00-04;  Stanton, 
Meaolooy  of  Bnoland  and  Walee  (London,  1887),  178;  Cbait- 
lOKMB,  BfUamma  Banda,  I  (London,  1746),  266-268. 

G.  ROQBB  HUDLESTON. 

KelOi  DiocBBB  OF,  in  Uruguay.  It  was  decided  in 
1807  to  erect  two  sees  suffragan  to  Montevideo,  one 
of  which  was  to  be  Melo,  but,  owing  to  political  causes, 
no  appointments  have  been  made  as  yet.  How- 
ever, n^otiations  for  a  renewal  of  diplomatic  re- 
lations between  the  Republic  and  the  Holv  See  are 
now  in  progress,  and  as  the  recognition  of  the  new 
dioceses  oy  tne  State  is  a  condition  of  their  resumption, 
this  probably  will  be  shortly  accorded.  The  Diocese 
of  Melo  is  to  embrace  the  north-eastern  part  of  Uru- 
guay and  so  will  include,  in  part  or  in  wnole,  the  De- 
par&nents  of  Cerro  Laigo,  Riviera,  Tacuaremb6,  and 
TVeinta  y  Tres.  This  region  has  an  area  of  about 
19,600  square  miles;  the  population,  practically  all 
Catholic,  barely  numbers  145,000  (1906).  The  dis- 
triet  k  very  fertile,  but  there  is  little  agriculture, 


most  of  the  inhabitants,  a  large  and  the  most  impor- 
tant element  of  whom  are  Brazilians,  being  engaged  in 
cattle  breeding.  The  town  of  Melo,  foimded  m  1796, 
is  the  capital  of  Cerro  Largo  and  contains  about  7000 
persons.  It  is  situated  near  the  Tacumari  River  about 
315  miles  north  of  Montevideo.  It  has  a  fine  church 
and  also  a  pretty  chapel  of  our  Lady  of  Mt.  Carmel. 
Artigas  (25()b  inhabitants)  lies  60  miles  north  of  Melo, 
on  tne  Brazilian  frontier.  San  Fructuoso,  the  capi- 
tal of  Tacuaremb6,  has  about  3000  inhabitants.  Tne 
other  centres  of  population  are  little  more  than  hamlets. 

Handbook  of  Uruguay.  Bur.  of  the  Amer.  Rep.  (Waahinston, 
1802);  Brtbbsl,  La  riptMique  orienlale  de  VUruguay  (1880);  Pub- 
licaiiona  of  the  Direecidn  de  mtadietiea  generol  (Montevideo); 
MuLBALL,  Handbook  of  ihe  River  Plate  itapuMtet  (London.  1806). 

A.  A.  MacErlban. 

MelOB,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Naxos  in  the  Cy- 
clades.  The  name  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  a 
Phoenician  navigator,  M^t,  though  others  ascribe  it 
to  its  rounded  or  apple  shape,  M^Xor.  The  island  has 
had  different  names:  Zephyria,  Memblis,  Mimallis,  Si- 

Ehis,  Acyton,  Byblis,  etc.  The  Phoenicians  seem  to 
ave  been  the  first  to  colonise  the  island;  then  came 
the  Dorians  from  Laconia  in  the  twelfth  century  b.  g. 
This  Dorian  colony  lasted  for  seven  hundred  years, 
when  the  Athenians,  jealous  of  their  fidelity  to  the 
Spartans,  took  possession  of  the  island  in  416  b.  g.  All 
the  men  were  massacred  and  replaced  by  five  hundred 
Athenian  colonists;  the  women  and  children  were  car- 
ried captive  to  Attica.  Later  on,  when  these  children 
were  grown,  they  returned  to  occupy  the  island.  Melos 
then  passed  uncfer  the  domination  of  the  Macedonians, 
then  under  that  of  the  Romans,  and  finally  under  that 
of  the  Byaantines,  who  retained  possession  of  it  until 
1207,  when  Marco  Sanudo  annexed  it  to  the  Italian 
Duchy  of  Naxos.  In  1537  it  was  taken  by  the  corsair 
Barbarossa  and  joined  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The 
island  continuea  to  prosper,  serving  as  a  market  and 
even  as  a  refuge  to  tne  corsairs  of  the  West,  especially 
the  French;  it  was  so  until  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  it  began  to  decline  because  of  a  volcano  which 
arose  in  the  vicinity.  From  20,(XX)  inhabitants  the 
population  decreased  to  about  2()00;  united  to  Greece 
m  1827  the  island  now  contains  5000  souls.  The  chief 
town,  called  Plaka,  possesses  a  very  fine  harbour; 
nearby  are  the  ruins  of  ancient  Melos,  with  a  ceme- 
tery, two  citadels,  a  temple  of  Dionysius,  a  necrop- 
olis, and  a  theatre.  Near  the  theatre  was  foimd  m 
1820  the  celebrated  Venus  of  Melos,  now  at  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  the  work  of  a  sculptor  of 
Antioch  on  the  Meander,  in  the  second  century  b.  c. 
The  earliest  known  Bishop  of  Meloe,  Eutychius,  as- 
sisted at  the  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council  in  681.  Le 
Quien  (Oriens  Christianus,  I,  945)  mentions  a  number 
of  Greek  titulars,  especially  at  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Venetians. 
T^  Greek  diocese  was  a  suffra^;an  of  Rhodes.  A  verjr 
long  list  of  the  Latin  residential  or  titular  bishops  is 
found  in  Le  Quien,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  1055-58,  and  in  Eubel, 
"Hierarchia  Cathohca  medii  svi",  Munich,  I,  355; 
II,  21 1 .  Melos  had  Latin  bishops  until  1 700,  in  which 
vear  John  Anthony  de  CJamillis  died.  The  see  was 
then  joined  to  that  of  Naxos  until  1830,  when  the 
islima  was  made  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Santorin. 
The  Bishop  of  Santorin  now  ministers  to  the  few 

Catholics  who  live  there. 

Smith,  Did.  Oreek  and  Roman  Oeog..  U  (London,  1870). «.  v.; 
Lacboix.  Ileedela  Orice  (Paris,  1858),  473-78. 

S.  VAILHi. 

Melono  da  Fcyrii,  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Um- 
brian  School,  b.  at  Forll,  1438 ;  d.  there  1494.  Lansi's 
suggestion  that  Melosso  studied  under  Ansuino  da 
Fonl  appears  to  rest  on  no  foundation.  Little  is 
known  of  this  Ansuino,  save  the  slight  part  he  took  in 
the  frescoes  of  the  Eremitani  Chapel  at  Padua,  which 
were  finished  prior  to  1460.  He  would  thus  have 
brought  to  his  pupU  the  teachings  of  Mantegna,  but  it 


l.^/,l^ 


ITON  172 


notes  on  the  master's  life,  and  to  him  we  are  indebted  dignity  for  his  position  as  commander.    God  im- 

for  the  preservation  of  the  wonderful  collection  of  the  pressed  upon  his  soul  a  greater  idea  of  Christianity 

artist's  writings.    Whether  he  was  a  painter,  how-  than  he  has  been  able  to  form  from  hearing  about  it, 

ever,  we  are  unable  to  state.    There  is  not  an  actual  and  he  has  often  said^  to  me  in  his  savage  tongue, 

authentic  work  by  him  that  can  be  mentioned;  Vasari  'Learn  our  language  auickly,  for  as  soon  as  thou  know* 

does  not  say  a  word  about  his  artistic  talent.    Lo-  est  it  and  hast  taught  me  well  I  wish  to  become  a 

mazso  compliments  Meisi  in  extra  vagrant  language,  as  preacher  like  thee'.    Even  before  his  conversion  he 

a  wonderfm  miniature  painter,  and  it  was  suggested  never  cared  to  have  more  than  one  living  wife."    In 

in  1523,  in  a  letter  from  Bendedei,  the  ambassador  at  accordance  with  a  imiversal  Indian  dislike  to  name  the 

Milan,  to  his  master  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  that  dead,  his  people  referred  to  him  after  his  death  simply 

Melsi  was  a  skilful  painter;  but  the  letter  only  implies  as  the  "  Great  Chief  ".    At  the  Micmac  mission  town 


most  eminent  and  most  skilful,  and  a  pictiue  of  Ver^  ^^  ^^'*^:^  TSl^"**  ^'  5.*  ™  (Biard,  Lbbgabbot, 

tumnus  and  Pomona  in  the  Berlin  Gallery,  a  Madonna  •^^  (Cleveland.  1806-1897).           Father  Pactfiqub. 

at  Bergamo,  another  Madonna  at  Vaprio,  and  two  poi^  Membte,  Zenobius,  b.  1646  at  Bapaume,  Depart- 

traite  at  IsoU  Bella  have  been  attrjbutedto. him,  but  ^^^nt  of  pi^le^lais,  France,  was  a  member  oHhe 

all  of  them  without  definite  authonty.    He  is  spoken  Franciscan  province  of  St.  Antony.     He  arrived  in 

of  as  II  ^nte,  and  is  mentioned  naore  than  once  m  let-  Canada  in  1675,  and  in  1679  he  accompanied  Robert 

ters  wntten  in  France,  deahng  with  Leonardo,  as  the  j^  j^  Salle  to  the  country  of  the  Illinois,  of  which  he 

"^urxl**^'  ^^^  ^^^  ^  ^  nuniaturwt,  but  m  aU  ^^^e  a  description.    Though  Membre  laboured  seal- 

probabihty  he  was  merely  a  skilful  amateur,  devoted  ^usly  for  the  conversion  ofthe  natives,  owing  to  their 

to  Leonardo,  and  perhajje  a  clever  draughtsman,  who  j^^^  degradation  the  success  was  smaU.    In  1681  he 

practised  pamtmg  occasionally  as  an  amusement.  Hefl«i»ndpd  thp  MiBsimiinni  with  La  Salle  to  the  Gulf  of 

LoMASso/rnxttatocMr  Arts ddiaPittura (MUan,  1684);  Idbm.  af»c«"aea/^e  jnississippi  wiiin  la  oaue  w  uie  uuii  m 

OrotUmM  (MUan,  1687);  Dou»,  Dialoao  deUa  PiUum  (Venioe,  Mexico,  returned  With  the  leader  Of  tne  expedition  to 

1667  {  Floranoe.  1736):  Amobbiti,  Memorie  di  Leonardo  da  Europe  by  way  of  Canada,  and  became  superior  of 

L22S?/?IS;Si,^%^^\?^  the  fVanciscan  monastery  in  his  native  city.   In  1684 

^  <^d<--  ''^^•G'L^o^SrcSkSls*^^  Membre  wit^  two  Fi^nciscans  and  three  Sulpicians 

followed  La  Salle  mto  Texas.  The  commander  erected 

«-     .  ^.           •     •     1    u«  f   r  xu    w          T  j»  Fort  St.  Louis  at  Espiritu  Santo  Bay  in  1685,  but 

MamlMrton,  pnnapftl  ^[^^  ^^  ^^T^  *  T??®  Membre  endeavoured  to  establish  a  mission  among  the 

ofNova  Scotia  at  the  lime  of  the  estebhsh^^^  Cenis  Lidians.    Ir  this  he  failed.    After  about  two 

FYench  colony  under  De  Monts  and  PouWourt  m  ^^  ^oil  he  was  killed  by  the  savages,  along  with 

1605,  and  notedm  mission  annals  as  the  first  Christian  {^^  Maximus  Le  Cerq,  Rev.  Chefde  vilSfand  the  smaU 

m  the  tnbe.    The  French  form  Memberton  is  a  dialee-  garrison  which  La  Salle  had  left  at  the  settlement, 

tic  corruption  of  the  Micmac  name  Maopeltu,  which  Baroa,  Bnmuo  Cranoldoieo  (Madrid,   1728);    HsMNspxir. 

IS  itself  a  contracted  form  for  Maoi-NapeltU.  "chief  DMcripiion  de  la  LoumofM  (Paris,  1683);   Thwaitbs,  a  New 

of  all",  L  e.  "  principal  chief  ",  from  nuun  (all)  and  P^'^V^  ^^^S'"'^'^ i^^'^^^L^Si^fni^^ 

I...^^?iu.    /*u:«*     ^-   w^^«\        rw,    a*     t«Wo    -n-.,,  mCotomaZ  Doi/«  (New  York,  18867;  Cat^Aftawoiw  (New  York, 

napdtu   (chief,    or   leader).      On  bt.  Johns   Day,  jsm);  Waxjjict, /ttinow and  fx>ui«ami  (CSnclimatt.  1883). 

24  June,  1610,  he  was  baptised  with  twenty  others  2.  Engelhardt. 

?«^P»«^^P^  1^;  SSf  aSX^'C  ^,«Srf  •    9-  C.KOK  o,  TH.  BUSS,  «b.taie  HI; 

Scotia,   Poutrincourt  and  hw  son  acting  as  spon-  ^^*^"C^' 

sors  for  the  Sang  and  Dauphin  of  France.  He  was  Memling,  Hanb,  Flemish  painter,  b.  about  1430-^6; 
given  the  name  of  Hennr,  after  Henry  IV,  his  d.  at  Bruges  11  August,  1494.  This  date  was  disoov- 
wife  was  named  Marie  after  the  queen  regent,  while  his  ered  ia  1^9  by  Pdre  Henri  Dusart  in  a  MS.  chronicle 
children  and  other  relatives  were  called  alter  mem-  of  the  library  of  St.  Omer,  which  adds  that  this 
bers  of  the  royal  family.  Then  very  old,  although  painter,  ''the  best  in  Christendom",  was  bom  at 
vigorous  mentally  and  physically,  he  claimed  to  re-  Mainz  (oriundua  MogurUiaco),  and  that  he  was  buried 
member  the  first  visit  of  Cartier  to  the  Saint  Lawrence  in  the  church  of  St.  Gilles.  This  valuable  text  do- 
in  1534.  Formanyyears  the  acknowledged  chief  and  stro3r8  the  celebrated  legend  of  Memling,  which  re- 
war  captain,  medicine  man  and  priest  of  tribal  cere-  lates  that  this  great  painter,  a  soldier  of  Charles  the 
monies,  in  tne  midst  of  paganism  he  led  a  temperate  Bold,  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Granson,  and  was 
and  moral  life,  even  before  baptism  Umiting  himself  carea  for  at  Bruoes  by  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  John, 
to  one  wife,  where  poly^my  was  the  rule  among  the  Through  gratitude  the  injured  soldier  painted  the 
great  men,  one  chief  havmg  as  many  as  ei^t.  Oa  ac-  marvellous  pictures  still  to  be  seen  there.  Here  in 
ooimt  of  tneir  good  offices  in  the  serious  illness  of  his  an  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi "  is  seen  his  own  portrait, 
son,  he  became  strongly  attached  to  the  Jesuit  mis-  wan  and  bearded,  wearing  an  invalid's  cap.  It  waa 
sionaries  Biard  and  Mass^,  who  arrived  in  June,  1611,  said  at  Bruges  that  he  desired  to  be  buried  in  the  oon- 
and  proved  an  earnest,  practical  Christian,  frequently  vent  which  held  so  many  of  his  masterpieces,  but 
expressing  a  fervent  hope  for  the  conversion  of  his  another  tradition  relates  that  he  died  in  Spsan  at 
whole  tribe.  ^  Towards  the  end  of  August.  1611,  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Miraflores  near  Burgos, 
seized  with  his  last  illness,  he  was  brought  at  his  own  where  a  picture  ascribed  to  him  is  found.  These  two 
request  to  Father  Biard's  house,  where  he  died  a  week  accoimts  of  a  pleasing  hagiographical  tint  are  there- 
later,  after  having  received  eveij  attention,  and,  hav-  fore  mere  fables,  evidentlv  the  tales  of  sacristans, 
ing  9ven  consent  to  be  buried  m  the  Christian  ceme-  inspired  by  the  pictures  which  they  endeavoured  to 
tery  as  an  example  to  his  people,  whom  he  repeatedly  explain.  They  did  not  arise  until  the  middle  of  the 
exhorted  to  maintain  friendsnip  with  the  French,  he  eighteenth  century  (cf.  Descamps,  "  Vies  des  pein- 
was  buried  with  full  ecclesiasncal  solenmity  as  be-  tres  flamands'',  1753, 1,  12).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fitted  his  rank  and  character.  Father  Biard  says  of  researches  of  Mr.  James  Weale  show  Memling  imder 
him, "  This  was  the  greatest,  most  renowned ,  and  most  quite  a  different  aspect.  The  wretehed  and  pitiable 
formidable  savage  within  the  memory  of  man;  of  soldier  of  Charles  the  Bold  received  by  charity  into  a 
splendid  physique,  taller  and  longer-limbed  than  is  hospital  of  Bruges  becomes  in  reality  an  important 
usual  among  them;  bearded  like  a  Frenchman,  al-  burgher  of  that  prosperous  city.  If  he  had  no  official 
tiiough  scarcely  any  of  the  others  have  hair  upon  the  station  at  the  court,  it  was  because  droumstances  no 
ehin;  grave  and  reserved;  feeling  a  proper  sense  of  longer  permitted;  he  had  nevertheless  property  of  his 


Cradfoim  in  alupe,  built  in  English  Perpendicular,  is  founded  aolelf  upon  the  Cottonuui  Hanuacript, 
Deeorated,  and  Flamboyant  stylea,  two  hundred  and  Faustina  B.  ix,  in  the  British  Huseum,  the  only 
fifty  feet  in  length,  Helroae  was  diatinguished  for  the  ancient  copy  preserved.  All  others  are  transcript* 
fairy-}ike  lightness  of  its  carvings  and  window-trac-  from  this  one  ordinal.  The  names  of  ita  authors  are 
ery,  finished  with  exquisite  care.  Not  only  the  royal  unknown,  but  some  expresgions  used  by  them  prove 
founder,  but  succeeaing  sovereigns,  and  countless  this  chronicle  to  have  been  written  in  the  abbey, 
benefactors,  nobles  and  commoners,  so  richly  en-  whilst  evidence  from  writing  shows  it  to  have  been 
dowed  Melroee  with  lands  and  possessions  that  its  on-  the  work  of  monks  who  were  inmates  of  Melrose  in 
nual  revenue  is  computed  at  one  hundred  thousand  Buceesaive  periods.  The  first  portion,  namely  from 
pounds  of  present  money  value.  One  examnle  of  the  the  commencement  to  about  the  year  1140,  is  a  corn- 
application  of  such  revenues  is  told  in  twelfth  century  pilation  from  the  Anglo^xon  Chronicle  and  other  ex- 
recorda.  During  a  time  of  famine  four  thousand  uting  histories  by  Simeon  of  Durham  and  Hoveden. 
ftarving  people  were  fed  by  the  monastery  for  thrao  Thia  portion  should,  therefore,  be  used  with  caution, 
months.  Many  of  the  abbots  were  men  of  aistinction:  The  second  portion,  namely  from  about  the  year  1140 
Abbot  Waltheot  (1148),  stepson  of  David  I,  and  hon-  to  the  abrupt  termination  of  the  Chronicle  m  1270, ia 
oured  as  a  saint;  Abbot  Joscelin,  afterwards  Bisho))  of  considered  by  historians  to  be  possessed  of  the  higbeat 
Glasgow  (1175),  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  erection  credibility.  The  information  is  then  quite  on^nal 
of  the  fine  catnedral  of  that  city,  as  a  shrine  for  the  and  the  numerous  and  progressive  variations  in  the 


body  of  Bt.  Hungo;  Ahbot  Robert  (t2ftS)  bad  been  handwriting  show  that  it  is  generally,  if  not  always, 

formerly    Chancellor    of    Scotland;    Abbot    Andrew  contemporaneous.     The    Manuscript,    now    in    the 

(1449)  became  Lord  High  Treasurerj  many  others  were  British  Museum,  was  probably  carried  oft  from  Helrose 

niaed  totheepiscopate.     The  Enghsh  troops  of  Henry  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.     It  was  edit«d  in 

VTII  burned  Mehoae  in  1544.    Although  the  monks  1S35  by  J.  Stevenson,  S.J.,  for  the  Bonnatyne  Club, 

once   numbered   two   hundred,  and   there  were   one  The  Oxford  edition  issued  in  1684  by  Fulman  is  by  no 

hundred  and  thirty  as  late  as  twenty  years  before  the  means  satisfactory,  as  the  editor  had  no  opportunity 

Reformation,  eleven  only  received  pensions  at  the  dis-  of  collating  the  Oxford  transcript  with  the  originu. 

solution,  BO  quickly  must  they  have  been  dispersed.  Besides   its   chronicle,    Melrose   has    handed   down 

After  many  iidssitudes,  the  posseasions  of  the  abbey  hundreds  of  charters  and  royal  writs,  dating  from  tho 

came  finally  to  the  Buccleuch  family.     The  ruins  were  reign  of  David  I  to  that  of  Bruce,  and  forming  a  most 

further  devastated  by  a  fanatical  mob  in  1569,  when  valuable  collection,  rich  in  illustrations  of  the  social 

statues  and  carvings  were  ruthlessly  destroyed;  but  life  and  economy  of  the  period.     They  were  edited 

more  wanton  still  was  the  subsequent  carting  away  of  by  Cosmo  Innes. 

the  sacred  stones  in  great  numbers  to  serve  as  building  Stivihsom,  Chnmva  di  Ma<lroi  (Edinbureb.  1836);  Imjas, 
materials,    llie  result  is  seen  m  the  carved  religious  em*  £?r«/«^i^lw>?.            '"          """■"* 
blems  stUl  appearing  upon  surrounding  houses.    The  W,  Fobbea-Lbitb. 
ruins  of  the  once  noble  abbey  form  a  strikingly  beau- 
tiful picture  from  the  North  British  Railway,  about  Hdai,FiUNCBBCO,b.  at  Milan,  about  1490;  d.  1568. 
thirty-seven  miles  south  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  a  mysterious  personage.    He  was  a  friend  of 

Mxr  de  Mam.  ed.  Ikmm  «  «b.,  BMumtynB  Oub,  1837);  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Vasari  tellfl  US  that  he  was  a 

^^la^'TS^Ji^'^i^iMJii'a^^  MiUneae  nobleman,  an  exceedingly  handsome  young 

'MicttABL  BARaorr,  "1*°.  ^-^^  that  he   possessed  the   principal  part  of 

the  anatomical  drawmgs  of  I^onarao.     He  inherited 

KdrOH.CBRONiCLEOr  (C^HBONiunEMAiLBOs).—  Leonardo's    manuscripts,    instruments,    books,    and 

It  opens  with  the  year  73G,  ends  abruptly  in  1270,  and  drawings;  he  furnished  both  Vasari  and  Lomazso  with 


^.^,^l, 


174 


MEMORY 


princesses.  He  endows  them  with  slender  figures^ 
white  and  graceful  necks,  sweet  and  long  proles, 
long  drooping  eyelashes,  pure  brows  and  clear  tem- 
ples^ with  that  immaterial  something  which  tolerates 
m  its  vicinity  only  virginal  dreams  and  chaste 
thoughts.  Whatsoever  is  too  worldly  in  their  grace 
he  corrects  by  an  ideal  but  natural  atmosphere,  by 
the  familiar  and  serene  charm  of  his  landscapes.  A 
delicate  symmetry  lends  a  m  vsterious  rhvthm  to  these 
peaceful  compositions  and  dominates  them  with  the 
narmony  of  unheard  music.  Angel  lute  players  with 
blue  and  rose-coloured  wings  seem  the  expression  of 
this  unuttered  song,  the  personified  voice  of  the 
choir.  Grace  of  figui^,  nobility  and  richness  of  deco- 
ration, serenity  of  landscapes,  balancing  of  groups, 
melody  of  colours,  lines,  and  sentiment  all  unite  to 
produce  a  masterpiece  of  mystical  poetry,  pious 
romance,  and  supernatural  beautv. 

But  all  these  things,  it  must  be  repeated,  are  al- 
most inexplicable  in  the  Flemish  school,  at  once  the 
most  natural  and  the  most  commonplace.  These 
characteristics  have  their  origin  elsewnere,  and  the 
very  legend  concerning  Memlmg,  the  story  of  a  man 
coming  as  a  stranger  to  art  by  a  special  vocation,  is 
an  unhistorical  attempt  to  account  for  this  singular- 
ity. Mr.  James  Weak  had  already  conjectured  that 
Memling's  name  contained  the  ke^  to  the  enigma 
and  concealed  the  clew  to  the  pamter's  origin;  he 
thought  that  it  was  according  to  a  frequent  custom 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  name  of  a  country.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  there  was  a  borough  called  Memelynck  near 
Alkmaar  in  Holland,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
AschafTenburg  in  Germany  there  was  another  called 
MumUng  or  Momling.  For  a  time  it  was  difficult  to 
decide  ^diich  of  these  two  was  the  psdnter's  birthplace, 
but  PSre  Dusart's  discovery  has  definitely  cut  short 
all  uncertainty.  The  solution  of  the  problem  is  that 
Memling  was  a  German  from  Mainz,  as  is  shown  by  his 
exclusively  German  Christian  name,  Hans.  Before  tak- 
ingup  his  residence  atBruges  he  studied  art  at  Cologne, 
for  northern  Europe  the  home  and  fatherland  ot 
Christian  art.  Vasari  and  Guicciardipi  relate  that 
Memling  was  the  pupil  of  Roger  Van  der  Weyden, 
but  the  only  work  of  Memling  s  with  a  trace  of  Roger's 
influence  is  after  a  Piet^  in  a  church  of  Cologne.  His 
"  Reliquary  of  St.  Ursula  "  again  proves  that  he  lived  a 
long  time  m  that  city;  the  views  of  Basle  and  Rome 
are  fancifully  depicted,  whereas  in  those  of  Cologne 
the  slightest  details  of  the  cathedral  then  in  course  of 
construction,  the  steeples  of  the  churches  of  St.  Martin 
and  St.  Pantaleon  are  reproduced  with  a  fidelity 
which  shows  that  the  author  had  grown  up  in  the 
familiar  shadow  of  these  monuments.  Memling's 
whole  work  breathes  a  spirit  of  poetry  rarely  found  in 
the  fifteenth  century  save  in  a  few  painters  of  Cologne 
and  Sienna.  His  favourite  themes  are  the  devotions 
honoured  in  Cologne,  the  cityof  the  Magi  and  of  the 
Eleven  Thousand  Virgins.  The  mystical  peace  and 
beautv  which  surrounds  his  figures,  those  calm  brows 
and  clear  temples  are  not  met  with  prior  to  him  save 
in  certain  works  of  the  Rhenish  school  such  as  the 
**  Adoration  of  the  Magi ''  of  the  great  Stephen  Lochner 
or  in  his  "Virgin  of  the  rosebush".  This  alliance  of 
German  spirituality  with  Flemish  technic,  this  in- 
fusion of  soul,  of 'the  spiritual,  the  immaterial,  into 
the  school  best  able  to  paint  the  reaL  constituted  the 
^nius  and  the  r61e  of  Memling.  liirough  him  the 
Flemish  school  was  rescued  from  the  shallow  natural- 
ism where  for  fifty  years  it  had  grown  barren.  Mem- 
ling's  influence  was  as  great  as  it  was  beneficial. 
When  we  compare  the  early  works  of  Gerard  David, 
so  harsh  and  brutal,  such  as  the  "  Justice  of  Otto"  and 
the  "Marriage  of  Cana"  of  the  Louvre,  with  those 
which  were  later  executed  under  Memling's  influence, 
we  can  estimate  the  service  which  the  stranger,  the 
"duitscher  Huis"^  rendered  to  the  country  of  his 
«H«intion.    There  is  no  doubt  that  he  owes  to  it  a 


Eractical  skill  whidi  he  would  not  otherwise  have  had. 
ut  in  return  he  brought  it  the  spirit  which  revivified 
it.  The  worics  of  the  next  generation  show  this  more 
clearly;  the  "Mystical  Marriage"  of  the  Museum  of 
Brussels  and  the  "  Deposition  "  of  Antwerp  by  Quentin 
Metzys.  And  when  we  remember  that  of  all  the 
masters  of  his  country  it  was  Metsvs  whom  Rubena 
esteemed  most,  we  can  understand  the  importance 
of  the  r61e  played  in  the  destinies  of  the  Flemish  schocrf 
by  the  young  painter  from  Aschaffenburg  who  taught 
it  Doetry  and  idealism. 

Carel  van  Man  >br,  Livre  dea  Peintres  (1004),  ed.  Htmajts 
(Farifl,  1884);  DjcecAMPS,  Vies  dea  peintrea  fiamanda  (1753); 
Crowb  AND  Cavalcasellb,  Lea  andena  peinim  fiamanda.  with 
notes  and  additions  by  Ruelenb  and  Pinchart  (1863);  Vitst* 
Ettuiaa  d:AH,  III  (1864):  Weale,  Hana  Memling  (1865);  Fro- 
MENTiN,  Lea  Maftrea  d^ autre foia  (1876);  Kuoler,  Handbook 
of  Paintinp,  ed.  Crowb  (1^79):  ConwaTp  Early  Flemiah  ArtiaU 
(1887):  KjUiMERER,  Memling  (Bielefeld,  1899);  Jameb  Weali« 
Hana  Memline  (London,  IvOl) iWrEmwA,  Peintrea  de  jatHa^ 
d'avjourd'hui  (1903). 

LOUIB  GlUiST. 

Mernxni,  Simone.    See  Maktini,  Simone. 

Memory  (Lat.,  memoria),  is  the  capability  of  the 
mind,  to  store  up  conscious  processes,  and  reproduce 
them  later  with  some  deeree  of  fidelity.  Strictly 
speaking,  however,  a  revived  conscious  process  is  not 
remembered,  unless  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  recognized 
as  something  which  occurred  before.  Memory,  there- 
fore, involve  a  process  of  recp^ition.  Voluntary 
reproduction  of  mental  processes  is  frequently  spoken 
of  as  recollection,  and  involuntary^,  as  recall. 

Divisions  of  Memory. — St.  Thomas  distinguishes 
two  kinds  of  memory,  sensory  and  irUdledual,  He 
excludes,  however,  from  the  former  the  fuinction  of 
merely  storing  up  the  mental  image;  this  he  assigns  to 
imagination.  Sensory  memorjr  preserves  that  which 
can  not  be  received  by  the  special  senses  and  yet  is  in« 
dividual,  and  therefore  does  not  belong  to  the  intellec- 
tual memory,  which  takes  cognisanoe  of  nothing  but 
the  universal.  For  instance,  the  utility  of  an  object 
and  its  setting  in  past  time ;  by  the  utility  of  an  obiect 
must  not  be  understood  any  abstract  concept  oi  its 
purpose,  but  only  the  sensory  experience  which  all 
animals  acquire,  that  certain  things  are  beneficial  or 
harmful.  Sensory  memory  is  located  by  St.  Thomas 
in  the  bodily  organism  (I,  Ixxviii,  a.  4}.  The  intel- 
lectual memory  receives  and  stores  up  the  abstract 
and  universal.  Its  seat  is  the  passive  intellect,  & 
division,  or  perhaps  only  an  aspect  of  the  faculty  of 
understanding.  The  complement  of  the  passive  in- 
tellect is  the  irUeUectus  aaens,  which  is  conceived  of  as 
activelv  working  over  the  data  of  sense,  abstracting 
from  them  the  universal  {species  irUelligtbilis)  which 
they  contain  and  impressing  it  on  the  passive,  intel- 
lect. St.  Thomas  aigues  ttu^t  there  must  be  an  in- 
tellectual memory,  because  that  which  is  acted  upon 
must  retain  the  effect  of  the  agent  all  the  more  per- 
fectly in  proportion  to  its  own  stability.  Since  the 
impressions  of  sense  leave  lasting  traces  on  the  bodily 
organism,  which  is  subject  to  decay, — a  fortiori  the 
imiversal  must,  in  some  way,  be  stored  up  in  the 
passive  intellect,  which  is  a  spiritual  faculty,  perma- 
nent as  the  soul  itself  (I,  Q.,  Ixxix,  a,  6-7). 

This  argument  assumes  that  there  are  cognitive 
processes  specifically  different  from  those  of  sensation, 
a  doctrine  which  has  received  scant  recognition  in 
modem  psychology  until  quite  recently.  The  tacit 
or  expressed  assumption  of  many  experimental  psy- 
chologists has  been  the  very  opFK)Bite,  vis.:  that  ul 
our  cognitive  processes  are  sensations  or  sensory  com- 
plexes. Recently,  however,  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  demonstrate  experimentally  the  existence  of 
abstract  thought,  totally  distinct  from  mental  ima- 
genr  (phantasms).  Along  with  this  admission  of  a 
difference  between  sensation  and  thought,  ezperi- 
inental  psychology  is  beginning  to  emphasise  the  dia- 
tinction  between  sensory  and  intellectual  memozy. 


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MEMORY 


175 


2IKM0BT 


Sensory  memory  has  long  been  subdivided  by  psychol- 
ogists into  several  "types",  chief  among  which  are 
the  auditory,  visual,  and  motor.  Anyone  may  re- 
member at  times  by  visual,  auditory  or  other  sensory 
images;  but  the  prevailing  character  of  his  imagery 
determines  his  memory*  type.  To  some  extent  the 
tvpe  depends  on  trainme;  out  there  is  evidence  to 
show  that  it  is  in  part  oetermined  by  anatomic^  or 
physiological  conditions  of  the  brain.  This,  however, 
does  not  exclude  the  modification  of  images  by  any 
exercise  of  memory  in  which  they  fimction;  for  the 
type  is  quite  elastic  (Watt,  **  Experimentelle  Beitr&ge 
zu  einer  Theorie  des  Denkens  "  in  ''  Archiv  f  Qr  die  Ge9. 
Psychol.",  1905,  IV,  367-8). 

Besides  sensory  and  intellectual  memory,  a  third 
division,  affective  memory,  is  often  mentioned.  Meu- 
znazm  (Vorlesungen  zur  EinfUrhung  in  die  expNeri- 
xnentelle  P&dagogik.  I,  174)  recognizes  it  as  a  distinct 
form,  because  in  cnildren  under  thirteen,  it  is  but 
little  developed;  whereas  other  forms  of  memory  are 
already  far  advanced.  Meumann's  view  is  based  on 
the  experiments  of  Netschajeff  and  Lobsien.  Ribot, 
who  was  the  first  to  make  a  special  study  of  affective 
memory,  maintained  that  to  tne  visual,  auditory,  and 
motor  types,  we  must  add  another,  which  is  iust  as  well 
defined,  i.  e.  the  affective  type  (La  Psycnologie  des 
sentiments,  166) .  Titchener  C*  Affective  Memory  "  in 
"Philos.  Review",  IV,  1896),  objected  to  the  type 
theory  of  affective  memory,  on  the  ground  that  affec- 
tions, unlike  mental  images,  are  recalled  in  company 
with  ideational  mental  processes.  They  are  not  in- 
dependent but  dependent  mental  processes,  and  HStar 
only  be  attended  to,  or  recalled  in  company  with  if^[ 
representative  processes,  of  which  they  are  but  qfialiti^ 
or  tones.  Conclusive  evidence  is  atpresent  laci|in^^''to. 
decide  whether  or  not  feelings  are  dependent  dr  inde- 
pendent processes.  But  the  settlement  of  this  problem 
18  not  necessary  for  the  recognition  of  an  anectjve 
memory  of  some  kind.  The  expression  "anectiye. 
memory"  is  justified  because  affective  procesi^  are 
distinct  from  sensory  and  intellectual. 

The  Development  of  Memory. — The  growth^'of 
memorv  from  childhood  to  maturity  is  dependent 
upon  the  development  of  nianj^  mental  faculties,  and 
is  therefore  a  very  complex  afirair.  It  is  a  growth  of 
many  memories,  rather  than  of  a  single  faculty.  For 
purposes  of  experiment,  the  following  forms  of  mem- 
ory have  been  distinguished:  (1)  memory  for  special 
sensations,  (2)  for  impressions  of  space  and  time,  (3) 
for  things  and  events  of  the  outside  world,  (4)  for 
numbers  and  abstract  concepts,  (5)  for  emotional 
states  of  mind.  Each  shows  a  period  of  rapid  growth, 
followed  by  a  standstill  or  even  a  retardation.  The 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  vear  of  childhood  is  especially 
unfavourable  for  the  cfevelopment  of  all  kmds  of 
memory.  The  order  in  which  these  forms  of  memory 
undergo  their  period  of  rapid  development,  is,  for 
boys:  (1)  external  objects,  (2)  words  of  visual  con- 
tent, (3)  words  of  auditory  content,  (4)  tones,  (5) 
touch  and  sensations  of  movement,  (6)  numbers  and 
abstract  ideas,  (7)  emotions  (cf.  Meumarm,  "Vorle- 
fluneen  zur  Einf  Qhning  in  die  experimentelle  P&da- 
go^'',  I,  178).  It  is  not  true  that  the  memory  of 
children  is  better  than  that  of  adults.  Except  for  a 
retardation  at  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  fifteen,  mem- 
ory grows  continuously,  reaching  a  maximum  between 
twenty  and  twenty-five.  After  that,  for  those  in 
learned  pursuits,  it  declines  very  slowly,  until  about 
the  fiftiethvear,  when  it  commences  to  fall  off  more 
rapidly.  Ebbinghaus,  who  made  continual  tests  of 
his  powers  of  retention,  could  say  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
two,  that  for  twenty  years  his  memory  remained  al- 
most constant.  By  analogy  with  the  general  biologi- 
cal law  of  exercise,  Meumaim  concludes  that  memory 
fafls  more  slowly  the  more  frequently  it  is  used. 

The  Method  of  Memorizing. — The  experimental 
study  of  memory  has  not  been  barren  in  results  of 


practical  value.  It  is  now  possible  to  ^ve  sugges- 
tions for  the  practical  work  of  memorizmg  that  are 
based  upon  very  definite  data.  These  suggestions 
refer  pnmarily  to  the  mechanical  part  of  memory. 
Practical  experience  teUs  us  that  if  we  want  to  mem- 
orize any  kind  of  connected  narrative,  we  are  greatly 
helped  if  we  first  analyse  its  Ip^cal  sequence  of  thought. 
Memory  systems  for  translating  dates  into  words  and 
memorizing  the  words  which  can  be  re-translated  into 
dates,  are  so  cumbersome  that  their  value  is  doubtful. 
The  results  of  experimental  work  aid  us  chiefly  in  the 
drudgery  of  memorizing — just  where  conjecture  about 
the  l^t  method  is  most  likely  to  fail.  In  learning  a 
a  poem  by  heart,  the  usual  method  would  be  to  read 
the  first  few  lines  several  times,  then  read  from  the 
beginning  on  down  a  few  lines  further  and  so,  little  by 
little,  commit  the  whole  to  memory.  Another  method 
would  be  to  read  it  each  time,  from  b^inning  to 
end,  imtil  it  was  perfectly  memorized.  Although 
there  is  a  prejudice  m  favour  of  the  first  method,  it  is 
the  one  that  consumes  the  greatest  amount  of  time. 

Several  pieces  of  experimental  work  have  shown 
that  memorizing  by  reading  from  beginning  to  end,  is 
the  quicker  and  more  permanent  method.  The  rea- 
son IS  to  be  sought  in  the  mechanics  of  association, 
by  which  onepart  of  the  piece  memorized  is  bound  to 
the  other.  When  a  series  of  words  is  memorized,  it 
may  be  shown  that  a  word  is  not  merely  associated 
with  the  one  that  precedes  and  the  one  that  follows  it, 
but  also  with  every  other  word  of  the  series.  Conse- 
quently the  "toisA"  method,  avoids  the  trouble  of 
"*dt)ill£ffiR?ttf!^tfi^  separate  sections  of  the  partial  method, 
;,^niik^  |;l^'t)$nds  ^between  the  divisions  more  secure, 
*  and  &Vfi^  ,to  jb^\L  tie  parts  a  certain  equalitjr  of  value 
.  tsy.Wnid^  iDb-^lioie  is  better  united.  (Steffens,  "  Ex- 
perimentelle Beitl&ge,  etc."  Ch.  iii.)  One  will,  of 
course,  combine  at  times  the  two  methods.  When 
eertwi  po^oos  of  a  piece  present  special  difficulties, 
t^es^  Da^.will-4^  more  deeply  impressed  by  a  few 
special ' r^bdmgs.  fit  has  also  been  found  that,  in 
memorizmg,  it  is  |t)etter  to  read  half  aloud  than  en- 
"lEirely  lo  oneself.  In  memorizing  poetry,  it  should  be 
read  with  the  rhythmic  swing  of  the  metre.  As  to  the 
rate  of  reading,  it  has  been  found  that,  if  one  wants 
to  learn  a  piece  so  as  to  be  able  to  repeat  it,  as  soon  as 
he  has  memorized  it,  he  will  save  time  by  reading 
rapidly.  But  he  will  forget  it  more  quickly  than  if  he 
reads  leisurely.  Since  one  generally  wants  to  remem- 
ber what  he  has  learned  for  some  hours  at  least,  it  is 
better  to  read  through  the  material  at  a  leisurely  rate. 
Meumaim  recommends  that  in  the  first  part  of  the 
memorizing,  one  should  read  slowly,  and  more  rapidly 
later  on,  as  the  material  becomes  familiar. 

Theory  of  Memory. — As  a  psychological  process, 
memory  includes  three  elements:  (1)  retention,  (2) 
reproduction,  (3)  recognition.  The  process  of  recog- 
nition is  usually  treated  more  or  less  as  a  separate 
problem,  so  that  the  discussion  of  the  theory  of  mem- 
ory has  centred  around  the  Question,  how  it  is  possible 
for  ideas  to  be  retained  ana  reproduced.  Wnat  be- 
comes of  the  idea  after  it  leaves  the  present  state  of 
consciousness?  Does  it  continue  to  exist,  preserving 
its  own  peculiar  being,  somewhere  in  the  depths  of  the 
mind,  and  reappear  when  the  occasion  is  propitious? 
Such  was  the  opinion  of  the  German  philosopner  and 
pedagogue  Herbart  (1776-1841).  This  would  only  be 
possible,  if  the  idea  were  a  substantial  being,  which 
•  rose  up  from  the  depths  of  consciousness  whenever 
the  mind  became  aware  of  it,  disappearing  when  it  was 
forgotten — a  theory  more  picturesque  than  true.  If 
the  idea  is  not  a  substantial  entity,  it  must  be  a  kind 
of  accident — a  transient  something  that  continues  to 
exist  only  in  the  traces  that  it  leaves  in  passing.  This 
is  the  common  theory  of  memory,  which  takes  on 
many  forms,  according  as  the  ''  trace  **  is  located  and 
explained.  Descartes  located  the  trace  primarily  in 
the  bodibr  organism.    In  remembering,  the  soul  has 


176 

^o  drive  the  "animal  spirits"  hither  and  thither  in  The  function  of  memonr  is  further  significant  aa 
the  brain,  till  they  encounter  the  trace  of  the  idea  it  evidence  for  the  substantial  nature  of  the  soul.  Since 
wishes  to  recall.  But,  besides  the  cerebral  traces,  ideas  are  transient  processes,  there  must  be  a  penna- 
there  are  also,  according  to  Descartes,  vestiges  left  in  nent  something  in  toe  mind  to  account  for  their  reten- 
thought  itself.  Leibnits  located  the  trace  in  the  tion  and  reappearance;  and  since  they  are  recognized 
monad  of  the  soul  and  conceived  of  it  as  becoming  as  ideas  that  were  fonnerlv  in  consciousness  there 
vanishingly  small,  but  never  equal  to  sero.  For  others  must  be  something  that  iaentifies  them  and  that 
again,  the  trace  is  entirely  material.  Some  even  go  so  consequentlv  persists  during  their  absence  from  con- 
far  as  to  locate  each  image  in  a  special  ganglion  cell  of  sciousness  (see  Soul).  The  attempt  to  explain  re- 
the  cortex.  On  account  of  its  definite  character  tention  by  means  of  psychical  dispositions  distinct 
and  picturesqueness,  this  theory  has  f oimd  many  pop-  from  cerebral  traces,  is  obviously  futile  unless  it 
ular  expositions.  But  there  are  facts  that  seem  to  postulates  a  substance  of  mind  in  which  such  disposi- 
make  it  untenable.  For  instance,  disturbances  of  vis-  tions  are  preserved, 
ion  caused  by  unilateral  lesion  in  one  visual  area  of  the       St.,  Tboi^as  Aqudtab,  I.  Q.  famii,  a.  4;  bcziz.  a,  yi-vU;  Bs- 

cortex  01  a  aog,  wear  on  aiier  apoui  six  weeKS.      l  nis  B^jbray.  The  Theory  ofPeyehieal  Diepoeitione,  Diee.  (Wadiiii.. 

was  explamed  by  supposmg  that  new  memory  images  ton.  1906);  LoBsmr,  BxpenmenietU  UnUreuehun^eti  nber  dU 

are  deposited  in  the  surroimding  area.     But  it  was  OediUhinieeenhciekduiui  oei  SehuUtindem  in    ZtUaekrift  for 

shown  by  Loeb  that  when  dop,  are  tept  in  complete  5«JJ|^^^',ife^ki?SiSrPSSS^^S?^ 

darkness  after  the  operation  (so  that  the  acquisition  of  chnmo  in  dxe  experimenielU  Plkdaoogik  (2  vob..  Leipiic.  1007): 

new  visual  images  would  be  impossible),  on  being  re-  N«mchaj«w.  ExperimmUUe  ynUrauehunpmi1iba-^eGed6M^ 

lea^d  after  a  period  of  •«  weeETthev  a«,  neverth.^  ?IS^?^r32'hff?1S^li°P.SaSSE^^ 

less,  entirely  normal  (Loeb,  op.  Cit.  infra,  XVU).  (3nl  ed..  Pans.  1899).  oh.  xi;   RoBsimoM.  8ur  la  dinamigum 

More  recently,  it  has  been  maintained  (Robertson,  chimique  dueutf^nervn^  '^Al^  fntemahonaUe  dm 

"Sur  1.  dynandque  du.S«tdme  nerve,«,etc  ".438),  ^?',!:S:;^it'ii^^^ 

that  the  trace  is  a  chemical  condition  left  m  the  bram  XIX,  367-^336:    ^rBrrors,  BxpenmenlMe  BeUrOge  mr  Lehrm 

by  the  passing  activity  of  the  original  impression.  jw»»  dkonomiteMnLemm.  Diet.  (QAttincen.   Leipnc,    1900): 

Oii.  contention  k  not  p«re..p«ulaSon.  but  i.  b»^  IS^^'^l^fH^iJUSZ  f,£^J'^  »  2i 

upon  experiments  which  aim  to  show  that  sensory  Dmkene  m  Arekiv,  fiirdk  Gee,  Pm^  (I905),l\,  29^-436. 
processes  are  connected  with  the  liberation  of  acids  in  TsoiiAB  V.  Moobx. 

the  cerebral  tissues.    This  leads  to  the  assumption 

that  "  the  extent  of  the  memoiy-trace  is  oroportional  MemphiSi  ancient  capital  of  Efgypt;  diocese  of  the 
to  the  amount  of  material  transformea  in  a  sdf-  province  of  Arcadia  or  Heptanomos,  suffragan  of 
catalysed  chemical  reaction,  that  the  number  of  syl-  Oxyrjnichus.  Memphis  was  called  in  E^^rptian  Men- 
lables  memorised  must  be  connected  with  the  number  nophir,  "the  good  place".  This  name,  at  first  ro- 
of repetitions  (or  time  of  learning)  according  to  the  fol-  served  to  the  pyramid  of  Pharaoh  Pepi  I  (sixth  dy- 
lowing  function:  Log.  n=Kr+b;  where  n  is  the  num-  nasty)  afterward  passed  to  the  surrounding  quarter, 
bw  ofsyllables  memorised,  r  is  the  number  of  repeti-  then  to  the  whole  city.  The  I^ptian  inscriptions 
ticms,  and  k  and  b  are  constants  (that  is,  do  not  vary  give  it  other  names,  several  of  which  properly  indicate 
when  n  and r  vary)  "C'Monist",  1909,  XIX,  383).  The  Quarters  of  the  city.  It  is  called  Aneo  or  Aneb-u, 
quantity  n  also  corresponds  to  the  amount  of  substance  the  city  of  the  wall "  or  "  of  the  walls  " ; .  Aneb-had  j, 
transformed  in  the  chemical  reaction,  and  r  to  the  time  "the  white  wall ",  an  appellation  properly  signifying 
during  which  it  goes  on.  (Calculations  based  on  this  the  citadel  (Herodotus,  III.  91);  Ua-ka-Pti£,  "the 
equation,  compared  with  observed  results,  gave  very  dwelling  of  the  person  of  Ptah  ",  an  expression  first  ap- 
small  percentages  of  error:  0*46  per  cent,  to  2*5  per  plied  to  the  temple  of  Ptah,  then  to  the  city  and  which 
cent.  Such  results  seem  to  incQcate  that  the  term  according  to  certain  authors  became  in  the  Greek 
''sensory  trace"  wfil  eventually  receive  a  definite  ex-  tongue  Anrvrrot,  Egypt;  Eha-nofer,  **^  food 
planation,  but  they  are  far  from  affording  us  the  crown":  Khu-to-ui,  the  "fight  of  the  two  countnes'% 
basis  of  a  complete  explanation  of  memory.  The  in-  i.  e.  of  Upper  and  Lower  E^^t :  Ha-ka-knum-nuteru, 
sufficiency  lies  in  the  fundamental  defect  of  all  mate-  "the  house  of  the  worship  of  the  divine  architects"; 
rialistic  theories.  They  fall  short  of  that  which  they  Ma-kha-to-ui, "  the  balance  of  the  two  countries",  i.  e. 
start  out  to  explain:  the  omscious  processes  of  the  dividing  point  between  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt, 
memory.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  show  that  there  Memphis  is  considered  to  have  been  founded^  oy 
are  cerebral  traces.  This  has  Ions  been  a  priori  Menes,  a  native  of  Thini  (Herodotus.  11,99;  Diod.  Sic, 
evident,  and  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  such  traces  I,  50,  51, 67).  It  was  the  capital  of  several  dynasties 
will  obey  a  definite  law.  Over  and  above  this,  (third,  fourui,  sixth,  eighth,  twenty-fourth).  It  was 
a  complete  theory  of  memory  must  show  how  these  after  Thebes,  sa3r8  Brugsch,  the  city  "  concerning^  which 
cerebral  traces  recaU  definite  conscious  processes,  the  epigraphical  monuments  and  the  papyri  have 
This  problem  remains  unsolved.  In  our  haste  to  find  most  to  teach  us".  Memphis  is  often  mentioned  in 
some  solution  we.  must  neither  deny,  with  the  mate-  the  Bible  under  the  name  of  M6f  or  Ndf  (Osee,  ix,  6; 
rialist,  the  first  facts  known  to  us,  our  conscious  pro-  Is.,  xix,  13;  Jer.,  ii,  16;  xlvi,  14,  19;  Execn.,  xxx,  13, 
cesses,  nor  with  the  idealist  refuse  to  allow  one  of  the  16).  The  Prophets  predicted  in  strong  terms  the  de- 
primary  deductions  from  these  facts,  an  external  struction  of  this  city,  and  the  prophecies  were  ao  well 
sometmng  that  gives  rise  to  our  sensations.  Scbolas-  fulfilled  that  the  scholars  of  the  French  expedition 
tic  philosophy  has  always  recognised  the  fact  of  could  scarcely  discover  the  true  site  of  Memi^iia. 
man's  dual  nature — a  fact  which  must  be  taken  ao*  Memphis  has  often,  but  incorrectly,  been  identified, 
count  of  in  any  theory  of  memory.  St.  Thomas  pos-  with  the  ancient  Cairo,  the  Babylon  of  I^ypt.  It  is 
tulated  the  existence  of  ph3rsiological  traces  in  the  now  certain  that  Memphis  extended  into  the  plain 
organism.  But  he  aJso  pointed  out  that  there  must  where  stand  the  villages  of  Bedrashen  and  Mit-Kahi- 
be  some  kind  of  residue  of  the  ideas  left  in  the  soul  net,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  about  twelve  and  a 
itselt.  Since  the  ideas  are  but  acts  of  intelligence,  and  half  miles  from  Cairo.  Ite  size  must  have  been  con- 
not  intelligent  substances^transient  activities  of  the  siderable.  In  this  plain  are  sometimes  eidiumed 
soul  itself — and  not  complete  beings  on  which  the  colossal  stotues  like  that  of  Rameses  II;  but  there  re- 
mind turns  its  gase,  they  can  only  live  on,  as  dynamic  mains  none  of  the  monuments  of  Memphis  unless  we 
traces  in  the  passive  intellect,  awaiting  the  time  when  except  the  neighbouring  tombs  of  Saq^arah,  where  ite 
they  will  exert  their  influence  on  some  future  process  inhaoitente  were  formerly  buried.  Linant  Pacha  ro- 
of thought — apparently  rising  from  the  depths  of  covered  the  great  dike  built  by  the  founder  Menes  to 
conscunisness,  m  the  act  of  memory.  turn  aside  the  course  of  the  Nile;  this  must  be  the 


UBXJL 


177 


MENAION 


mat  dOcB  of  Gocheiche  at  prenent  utilixed.  Accord- 
ing to  Revillout  in  "Le  Nil^'  (1880),  19,  25,  "terrible 
floods  must  have  buried  the  great  cities  of  llxebes  and 
MemphZB  under  enormous  masses  of  clay".  Tlie 
great  Egyptologist  Mariette  sees  in  this  destruction  of 
Memphis  the  verification  of  the  prophetic  predictions. 
"There  is  no  city",  he  writes,  '^whose  end  was  so  la- 
mentable as  that  of  Memphis.  It  was  formerly  l^e 
chief  of  cities,  the  pride  of  I^pt.  It  astonished 
the  world  by  the  number  and  the  magnificence  of  its 
buildings.  To-dav  it  is  not  even  a  ruin.  Thus  is 
fulfilled  the  word  of  the  prophet  (Jer.,  zlvi,  19): 
"  Furnish  thyself  to  go  into  captivity,  thou  daughter 
inhabitant  of  Egypt,  for  Memphis  shall  be  made 
desolate  and  shaU  be  forsaken  and  uninhabited" 
(Mariette,  "Voyage  en  Haute-Egypte",  1878,  I, 
31). 

See  in  Le  Quien,  II,  585-88  (Gams,  461)  the  list  of 
the  known  bishops  of  Memphis.  John,  the  first  on 
this  list,  was  one  of  the  opponents  of  St.  Athanasius 
(Athan.,  *'ApoL  de  fu^  sua";  "Apol.  contra  Ari- 
anos";  "Epist.  ad  sohtarios";  Sosomen,  II,  zxxi). 
Antiochus  of  Memj^is  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Nicssa.  PaUadius  (Hist,  laus.,  LXXVI)  and  Rufinus 
(Vit.  Patrum,  II,  v)  state  that  they  saw  in  the  neigh- 
bomiiood  of  Memphis  and  Babylon  innumerable  mul- 
titudes of  monks.  Some  Synaxaria  mention  for  5  Oct., 
the  holy  virgin  St.  Hierals  of  Memphis  (Delehaye, 
*'Synaxarium  Eccles.  Constantinop.i  Propylsa  ad 
ActaSanctor."112,8). 


60;   DB 


2<H«  xoo:  111.  ii  iDV,  lew;  iv,  /o,  eus.:  xoabfbro,  jattnon 
oreMoL  wuUlut  fiimcau,  II.  ii.  133;  Db  Vit.  Toiiu»  laHniUUiM 
onomattieon,  IV  (18S7),  cites  all  the  panageB  from  ancient 
atsthon,  Greek  and  Latin,  where  mention  is  made  of  Memphia; 
LikKiOVAi  in  Vio..  IHd.  de  la  Bible,  a.  v.  Memphie:  Lb  Quibn. 
Orieae  ehtiat.  (Paris.  1740),  II,  686-88;  Smitb.  DteC  of  Greece 
amd  Roman  Oeogr,t  a.  v. 

S.  Salavillb. 

Meiuii  Juan  db,  Spanish  poet^  b.  1411  at  Cordova: 
d.  1456  at  Torrelaguna.  Promment  at  the  court  of 
Juan  II  of  Castile,  Mena  was  for  a  while  the  monarch's 
Moretario  de  cartaa  latinaa  and  then  the  roysA  histo- 
riographer. In  his  work  as  a  poet  he  manifests  little 
originality,  and  shows  to  a  considerable  degree  the 
influence  of  Italian  and  classic  Latin  models,  for  the 
impress  of  the  Renaissance  is  already  clear  in  him. 
The  Dantesoue  allegory  gave  form  to  his  poem  "  La 
Coronacion  ,  an  allegorical  vision  in  which  ne  makes  a 
journey  to  Parnassus  to  witness  the  coronation  of  his 
friend,  the  Marquis  of  Santillana^  as  poet  and  hero. 
Didactic  and  allegorising  tendencies  are  visible  in  his 
versified  "  Siete  pecados  mortales  '\  Along  with  a  para- 
mount influence  of  Dante  there  is  noticeable  also  a 
considerable  influence  of  the  Latin  poet  Lucan  in  his 
poetical  masterpiece,  the  "  Laberinto  (also  termed  Las 
Trecientas).  Here  the  poet  pictures  himself  as  wan- 
dering in  a  forest  where  he  is  threatened  by  wild 
beasts.  A  beautiful  woman  (Providence)  appears  and 
offers  to  guide  him  and  explain  the  secrets  of  life.  A 
description  of  the  universe  is  then  given.  It  consists 
of  three  wheels  of  fate  set  within  a  number  of  circles 
or  spheres*  The  wheels  are  those  <A  the  past,  present, 
anafuture.  That  <A  the  present  is  in  motion,  the  other 
two  are  constantly  movmg.^  In  these  wheels  are  seen 
various  ^rsonages^  whom  his  ^de  points  out  to  him, 
ezpatiatmg  on  their  characteristics.  The  machinery 
is  dbviouslv  borrowed  from  the  Divine  Comedy  and 
especially  froin  the  Paradise.  Certain  passages  are 
genmnely  poetical.  ^  Of  the  prose  works  of  Mena  there 
may  be  mentioned  his  "  Iliaaa  ".  an  arid  compendium  of 
the  otory  of  Troy,  and  his  peoantic  Commentary  on 
X— 12 


his  own  poem  "La  Coronacion".    His  minor  lyriG(> 
found  in  the  Cancioneros  are  of  slight  importance. 

06nM,  ed.  SxifCBBS  (Ifadrid,  1804);  Laberinto,  ed.  Foulchs- 
Dblbosc  (Maeon,  1004);  Revue  Hivpanique,  IX,  75  aqq.;  Mbn- 
BZTDBS  T  PBLikTo,  AfUologio^  V,  105  aqq^ 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Menacharyy  John.  See  Tricbttb,  Vzcariatb 
Apostolic  of* 

Menahsfm.    See  BLlkahbm. 

Menaion  (M^wtbr  from  m4^  "month")  is  the  name 
of  the  twelve  books,  one  for  every  month,  that  contain 
the  offices  for  immovable  feasts  m  the  Byzantine  rite. 
As  iif  the  West,  the  Byzantine  Calendar  consists  of 
two  series  of  offices.  First  there  are  the  movable 
days,  the  days  of  the  ecclesiastical  vear  turning  around 
Easter  {vroprium  de  tempore) ;  overlying  this,  as  it  were, 
are  the  feasts  of  our  Lord,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the 
Saints  that  are  fixed  to  certain  days  of  the  month  of 
the  civil  year.  The  offices  for  these  feasts  are  con- 
tained in  the  menaia,  which  therefore  correspond  to 
the  proprium  sanctorum  in  the  Roman  breviary. 

Tne  origin  and  first  compilation  of  the  menaia  is 
obscure.  Apparently  the  various  elements  that  make 
up  the  collection  were  put  together  gradually.  It 
seems  that  the  Synaxarion  (now  an  extract  from  the 
menaia)  was  composed  first.  The  Synaxarion  con- 
tains onlv  short  accounts  of  the  saints'  lives,  the  his- 
tory of  the  feast  and  so  on,  like  the  lessons  of  the  sec- 
ond noctum  in  the  breviary.  These  lives  of  saints  are 
attributed  to  Symeon  Metaphrastes  (q.  v.).  The 
menaia  include  the  S3maxarion  and  suppuy  also  all  the 
other  texts  and  poems  (the  Canons  with  their  heirmoi, 
troparia,  stichera,  kontakia,  and  so  on)  required  to 
complete  the  office.  A  great  part  of  these  poems  are 
ascribed  to  Romanos,  tne  chief  hymn-writer  of  the 
Byzantine  Church  (fifth  century^.  The  menaia  do 
not  affect  the  holy  liturgy  (which  is  hardly  influenced 
by  the  ralendar),  being  used  only  in  the  Divine  Office. 
Tne  Byzantine  ecclesiastical  year  begins  with  Septem- 
ber. That  month  therefore  forms  uie  first  menaion; 
there  is  then  one  for  each  month  to  August.  The 
rules  for  coincidence  of  feasts  and  the  manner  of  say- 
ing the  office  on  any  day  must  be  sought  in  the  typi- 
kon;  but  extracts  from  the  tjrpikon  are  printed  in  tne 
menaia.  Each  office  fills  five  or  six  small  folio  pages, 
the  rubrics  being  printed  in  red.  The  ^neral  arrange- 
ment is  this:  firat  come  the  verses  (stichera)  sung  at 
the  Hesperinos.  then  the  Biblical  lessons  with  the 
prokeimena  ana  any  troparia  that  may  be  wanted. 
The  Canon  sung  at  the  Orthros  follows  with  all  its  odes 
and  their  troparia.  The  Synaxarion  of  the  feast  fol- 
lows the  sixtn  ode.  ^  The  psalms  and  other  unchang- 
ing matter  are  not  given.  They  are  found  in  the  other 
books  (Triodion,  Parakletike,  Oktoechos).  The 
churches  of  the  Byzantine  rite  that  do  not  use  Greek 
Hturgically  have  translations  of  the  menaia  with  ad- 
ditional offices  for  their  special  feasts  and  any  other 
modifications  they  may  have  introduced.  ^  The 
Slavonic  name  for  the  book  is  minejaf  Arabic  minaiun, 
Rumanian  mineiu.  Parts  of  the  menaia  were  trans- 
lated into  Syriac  by  the  Melchites  during  the  time  that 
they  used  that  language  (a  list  in  Charon:  "Le  Rite 
byzantin  dans  les  Patriarcats  melkites",  Rome,  1908, 
pp.  3S-44).  The  whole  has  not  been  translated  into 
Alrabic.  The  Orthodox  and  Melchites  of  Egypt  and 
Syria  use  instead  a  selection  from  them  called  in 
Greek  "AwdoUyiow"  (but  "minaiun"  in  Arabic).  The 
"Menology"  (firipoxiyiow)  is  either  an  ecclesiastical 
calendar  or  a  kind  of  Synaxarion.  The  first  printed 
edition  of  the  menaia  was  made  by  Andrew  and 
James  SpineUi  at  Venice  (1528-^1596)^  and  reprinted 
(1596-1607).  The  latest  Greek  editions  were  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  in  1873  (Orthodox),  and  at  Rome,  in 

1888  (IJniate). 

Allahus,  De  librie  eeelee.  OnteoHim  (Paxia,  IMS  and  1646): 
Kbumbachsr,  Geedi,  der  bytaiU.  JJiU,  (Munich,  1897),  658-659; 
NiLLBS.  KaJUndarium  manuale  (2nd  ed.,  Innsbruck,  1896) :  Mai/p< 


MKNABO  178  UBSMB 

I860):  Beleotions  from  the  Ruisian  meaaUi  in  Ensliah  Are  pub^  anon^oualy)  a^inst  Launoy,  in  defence  of  Millet 

liahed  by  Orlofv,  Tfu  General  Menaion  (Loadon,  1899),  and  (^^"8;  1643)  ;''S.  Bamabffi  Apostoli  (ut  fertur)  EpistoU 

Th0  Fenal  Menaion  (Umdon,  1900).  Gatholica.  ab  antiquis  olim  ecclesuB  patribus  suo  ejna- 

Adrian  Fortbscub.  dem  nomine  laudata  et  usurpata  "  (Paris,  1645).   The 

--^ a  T-t  •xuxm  «Acix  Greek  text  had  been  found  by  Sirmond  at  Rome,  and 

t-rT^A^'  ^^^^'  t^^''  i^o?*   w3[**^^'  Pa  ^P*'  Menard  discovered  a  Latin  translation  at  the  Abbey  of 

1706;  d.  m  Pans,  1  Oct.,  1767.    When  he  had  com-  Corvey. 

pleted  his  humanities  under  the  Jesuits  at  Lyons,  he       KMiinUxicon,  s.  v.;  Tabbin,  Conor,  von  St,  Afawr  (Frenk- 

studied    jurisprudence    at    Toulouse    and    became  fort,  1773).  I.  27:  Th^olooitehs  Quariaiaehri/t,  XV,  391,  421; 

counsellor  at  the  Superior  Court  of  Nimes.    From  Hubtki,  Nom^neL  (lanabnick,  idOg.  III.  ii48. 
1744  he  was  constantly  in  Paris  busied  with  historical  FKANas  Mebshman. 

research.    His  first  work  concerned  the  history  of  hjs        ■m*^—- -■    t>-..^   -«!    •  u     * -o    •     «»a^    j 

native  city  and  its  bishops,  and  was  entitled  "  fflstoire  .u  w'Sf  ?'  ^^^'A  ?^^°?^'  ^'  ^^  ^*™'  ^^i^' 

des  Evdqies  de  Nlmes ^(2  vols..  The  Hague,  1737).  f^f ^*  ^?i^^«' ^^.^ V *5-^^^ ^°''T J^i«>onsm.    After 

Later  he  enlaced  this  work,  anh  between  1750  and  fe^^^^f^^'Sfj^i  *^^r  ^!  "^-^^t  ^7  n^^SPl""  ^^"^ 

1758hepublisl^  at  Paris  tW;'Histoi«  Civile,  Ec-  ^?^^«J^L^S^d^^^^  .i'"J?,e?  *S?l!^^i^^ 


et  de  Charicl^e",  The  Hague,  1740,  Paris,  1753  (also  "^  ^^''J  ^  ^¥  9*1^!^'  .^^J^l.  *^?i.  ^J^  ^^ 

Paris,  1765,  under  thTStle  of  -CallistUe  ou  le  S^^±l^fJ?f,^^^^ 

module  de  I'kmour  et  de  Pamiti^  ") ; "  Mcbuts  et  usages  **^  affection  of  the  savages.  When  the  Iroquois  missions 

/4«rp««r»'  n^r!r^ai7Ai\T^A^\^  ^Vi  w.x*i^  «v!Sk  '^^^^  mtemiptcd,  he  agam  went  to  Three  Rivers,  but 

h^Sr?h«^iSSf'nffiSur  r^^^^  '^  1^59  started  with  300Ottowas  for  the  Far  T^Test. 

especially  on  detached  subjecte   of   tLnUstoiTof  tl^eP^^te  endeavoured  to  esteblishw^^^ 

F^ce  i  Romantimes.    1^1762  the  MaS^  of  =fW,  one  himdred  leagues  west  of  SaultSte.  Mane.  T^ 

Avignon  sent  for  him  and  confid«l  to^  the  Lk  J^t?et?^  X^^^^^r^^^^^^^         ^^kS^^ee^:^ 

o^W^Si^'rSe^tyiU^^L^^^^  h^' ^^Wt^I'^^^^ 

unfinished.    He  wwamember  of  the  Acad6^e  des  ^^^r  wntten  by  him  m  Jvdy^  1661   hved  three  hun- 

Inscriptions,  and  several  other  learned  bodies.  t^  Jf*«^  ^f^^f .  °?;    r^^  ^f^  was  a  single 

^^^Sh^ dsM^'m  MSm^VAcad.  ^JhMcrijd.,  Frenchman,  not  Gu^rm  the  famous  "Donn6",  but  an 

armourer  or  blacksmith.    They  became  separated  m 


Patbicihb  Schlaoer.  the  forests,  and  Menard  was  never  heard  of  again.   He 

„-       .  ^^            ^               .  ,     ^               .        .  was  probably  murdered  at  the  first  rapid  of  the  Menom- 

Menard,  Nicolaa-Hugues,  of  the  Congregation  of  inee. 

St.  Maur,  b.  in  Paris,  1585;  d.  21  Jan.,  1644.     His  fa-  M&nard.  JetuU  Relatunu  CCleveknd);  Shba,  HitUm/  of  the 

ther  was  private  secretary  to  Catherine  de  Medici,  his  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  Stalee,  I  (New  York.  8.  d.) :  RocHS- 

mother  tos  a  native  of  Blois.  After  a  liberal  educa-  "i^^cSti^^HiSSTof  ArSl^^  '  NarraHve 
tion  Menard  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  3  T.  J.  Campbell. 
Feb.,  1607,  at  St.  Denis,  and  made  his  religious  pro- 
fession 10  Sept.,  1612.  In  the  next  year  he  ioined  the  MenM,  Saint,  mart3rr  under  Diocletian,  about  295. 
reform  movement  of  St.  Vannes  in  Verdim  which  some  According  to  the  Greek  Acte,  published  with  Latin 
years  later  developed  into  the  Con^eation  of  St.  translation  in  "Analecta  Bollandiana '',  III,  258 
Maur;  and  he  became  one  of  ite  mam  helps.  After  (Surius,  XI,  241)^  Menas,  a  Christian,  and  an  Elgyptian 
some  time  he  was  called  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  be-  by  birth,  served  m  the  Roman  army  under  the  tribune 
came  a  favourite  preacher  and  frequently  occupied  the  firmilian.  When  the  aimy  came  to  Cotyieus  in  Phry- 
principal  pulpito.  For  sixteen  years  he  teugnt  rhet-  gia,  Menas  hearing  of  the  impious  edicte  issued  against 
oric  at  the  College  of  Clugny.  ^  By  word  and  deed  he  the  Christians  by  the  Elmperors,  Diocletian  and  Max- 
sought  to  induce  his  fellow  religious  to  unite  an  exem-  imian,  left  the  army,  retired  to  a  solitude  in  the 
plaiy  life  with  love  for  study  especiall v  of  Chureh  his-  mountains  and  served  God  by  fasting,  vigils,  and 
tory  and  patrolo^.  On  account  of  railing  health  he  prayer.  During  the  celebration  of  a  ^^eat  festival 
was  placed  by  his  superiors  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Ger-  Menas  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  populace  in  the 
main  des  Pr^,  where  he  lived  in  great  seclusion.  In  circus,  ana  fearlessly  professed  his  faith.  He  was  led 
his  small  circle  of  intimate  friends  the  Jesuit  Sirmond  before  the  prefect  JP3rrrhus,  cruelly  scourged,  put  to 
stood  foremost.  Menard  is  much  praised  for  his  pro-  torture,  ana  finally  oeheaded.  His  body  was  Drought 
foimd  lc»ming,  his  great  modesty  and  his  wonderful  to  Egypt  and  the  mai-tyr  was  soon  invoked  in  many 
memory.  ^  ^  needs  and  affiictions.  The  fame  of  the  miracles 
Works:  "  Martyrologium  Sanctorum  ordinis  St.  wrought,  spread  far  and  wide,  and  thousands  of  pil- 
Benedicti  *\  to  which  he  added  several  biographies  and  grims  came  to  the  grave  in  the  desert  of  Mareotis  oe- 
explanatoiv  notes  which  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  tween  Alexandria  and  the  valley  of  Natron.  For 
the  work  (Paris,  1629);  "Concordia  regularum,  auc-  centuries  Bumma  (Karm-Abum-Abu  Mina)  was  a 
tore  St.  BenedictoAniansabbate",  from  a  manuscript  national  sanctuary  and  grew  into  a  large  city  with 
found  in  the  Abbey  of  Fleury,  which  is  supplemented  costly  temples,  a  holy  well,  and  baths.  A  beautiful* 
by  a  life  of  St.  Benedict  of  Amane  (Paris,  1638);  ''St.  basilica  was  erected  by  the  Emperor  Arcadius.  The 
Grei^orii  I  Papse  Liber  Sacramentorum",  from  a  man-  cult  was  spread  into  other  countries,  perhaps  by  trav- 
uscript  Misfi»i  of  St.  Eligius  (Paris,  1642).  This  also  elling  merchants  who  honoured  him  as  their  patron, 
appears  in  the  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Gregory  of  As  a  result  of  various  vicissitudes,  the  doctrinal  die- 
tne  year  1705.    The  commentanr  on  the  book  is  highly  putes  and  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the  Arabians 

S raised  by  Muratori  (Dissert,  oe  rebus  liturgicis.  ch.  under  Omar  in  641,  the  sanctuary  was  neglected  and 

),  who  states  that  Tomassi  and  Mabillon  would  nave  ultimately  forgotten.    During  1905  Mgr  C.  M.  Kauf- 

'    "^       "      L   .  ^t^    %r      V.       1^  _  mann  of  FranWort  led  an  expedition  into  Egypt  which 

made  excavations  at  Bumma.    He  found  in  a 


preferred  the  text  of  Pamelius.  but  the  Mauriste,  when 
publishing  the  notes  of  Menard  had  also  to  use  lus  text 

^T^^v   ..sK^^K^^  T^i«vn«*m.#«    A  «A^v*%A  fvi^n     A  4'l^^rta  i.i*mt   ^¥    l^nvnoi— 


^De  unico  Dionysio  Areopagita  Athenarum  et  Parisi-    field  of  ruins,  the  grave,  the  well  and  thermar^  tbs- 
rum  episcopo",  a  defence  ot  the  identity  of  the  Areo-    basilica,  the  monastery,  numerous  inscriptiona^oin  tlisi 


M1NCI08                               179  IBNDAfiA 

mllg  imploring  aid  through  the  interoession  of  the  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  attempts  to  teach  moral- 

nint,  and  thousands  of  little  water  pitchers  and  oil  ity  independently  of  religion.   The"6ookof  Mcncius" 

lamps.    The  rich  finds  are  partlv  in  the  Museum  of  is  genemlly  accepted  as  g^enuine.thouffh  the  evidence  of 

Alexandria  and  Cairo,  and  partly  in  Frankfort  and  its  Mencian  autnorship  is  of  a  Kind  that  would  not  be 

Berlin.    The  monsignor  published  an  official  report  of  judged  sufficient  if  it  fell  within  the  scope  of  modem 

his  expedition  in  1908,  ^'  La  d6couverte  des  Sanctu-  nistoric  criticism.    In  a  Chinese  history  dating  from 

aires  de  Menas  dans  le  dtert  de  Mareotis  "•   His  feast  100  b.  c,  a  short  account  of  Mencius  is  given,  in  which 

is  celebrated^  on  11  November.  he  is  declared  to  be  the  author  of  the  work  in  seven 

Several  saints  of  the  name  Menas  were  highly  hon-  books  that  bears  his  name.    There  are  extant  portions 

oured  in  the  ancient  Church  about  whose  identity  or  of  litemry  works  composed  as  early  as  186-178  b.  c, 

diversity  much  dispute  is  raised.    Delahaye  (Anal,  containing  (quotations  from  the  "Book  of  Mencius". 

Boll.,  XXIXf  117)  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  Menas  There  remains  still,  somewhat  more  than  a  centuiy  to 

of  Mareotis,  Menas  of  Cotysus,  and  Menas  of  Constanti-  bridge  over,  but  tne  reputation  for  accuracy  of  the 

nople,  sumamed  KaUikeUuh$j  are  one  and  the  same  Chinese  annals  is  taken  as  a  warrant  that  tne  work 

person,  that  he  was  an  E^rptian  and  suffered  martyr-  goes  back  to  the  days  of  Mencius  and  issued  from  his 

dom  in  his  native  place,  that  a  basilica  was  built  over  pen. 

his  grave  which  b^uime  one  of  the  great  sanctuaries  of  ^  A  partial  acquaintance  with  the  teachings  of  Men- 
Christendom,  that  churehes  were  built  in  his  honour  dus  was  obtained  by  European  scholars  through  the 
at  Cotyseus  and  Constantinople,  and  gave  rise  to  local  writings  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  to  China  m  the 
legends.  eighteenth  century.    The  "Book  of  Mencius"  was 

Qunrrnr.  £««  Martmhoea  AMtoj^gtiw  (Paris,  1008),  271;  translated  into  Latin  by  Stanislaus  Julien  in  the  early 

fi^.  QuofiaUchr.,  XX.  188;  ^«^'Wf  JSt  ^^^J^^            41.  p^rt  of  the  last  century.    English  readers  have  ready 

H  RANCI8  MEBSHMAN.  ^^^^j^^g  ^  ^^iB  sayings  of  Menciusin  the  admirable  edi- 
tion and  version  of  the ' '  Chinese  Classics  ",  by  J.  Legge. 

ManeilU  (Latinized  form  of  Chinese  MenO-TZE,  i.  e.  Leoob.  The  Works  ofMendua,  Chinete  CUuaiea,  II  (London, 
Mengths  Sage),  philosopher,  b.  371  or  372  b.  c.    He  IWD?  J^"wj.  ^TSlJ'^  (Paria.  1829);  FAnmn.  The  Mind  of 
was  a  disciple  of  the  granaieon  of  Confucius,  and  ranks  (ffS^Yo^^i)l     ^''          '     Htstory  of  Chinese  LtUmttsre 
next  to  the  great  master  as  an  expounder  of  CJonfu-  Chables  F.  Aikek. 
dan  wisdom.    His  work,  known  as  the ''  Book  of  Men- 
cius", or  simply,  "Mencius"  is  one  of  the  four  iSAu)^,  --     •  ^     -    ••            »                       «       .. 
or  books,  given  the  place  of  honour  in  Chinese  litera-  Mendafia  de  Neyra,  Alvaro  de,  a  Spwush  navi- 
ture  after  the  King,  or  classics.    Of  Mencius'  life  only  g»<»r  ^4  ^^Plo'?^,  b.  m  Sara^ossa,  1541 ;  d.  m  Santa 
a  meagre  account  has  been  handed  down,  and  this  F™»»  Solomon  Islands,  18  October,  1596.    Little  is 
is  so  like  the  story  of  Confucius  in  its  main  outUnes,  ^^^  o^  ^  ^y  T®*"*  *>M*  a^"*  ^^  he  went  to 
that  one  is  tempted  to  quesUon  its  strictly  historical  J:"n*  ^P^^  mvitation  of  hjs  uncle.  Lope  Garofa  de 
charecter.    He  is  said  to  have  Uved  to  the  advanced  Castro,  who  was  then  Viceroy  of  Peru.   At  that  tune 
age  of  eighty-four  years,  being  thus  a  contemporary  ^^  Spaniards  were  weU  aware  that  the  Pacific  offered 
of  the  great  Greek  philosophere,  Plato  and  Arwtotle.  an  extensive  field  for  exploration  and  discovery,  and 


ever  since,  among  the  Chinese  of  all  classes  as  the  ^ion  set  out  from  Callao  in  November,  1567.  In  the 
pattern  of  the  true  mother.  After  a  thorough  in-  course  of  about  a  year  they  discovered  several  islands 
struction  in  the  doctrine  of  Confucius,  Mencius  was  ^f  Oceanica,  and  returned  to  Peru  m  1568.  Men- 
honoured  with  the  position  of  mmister  of  state  to  one  of  <^'8  travels  did  not  awaken  much  mterest  at  first, 
the  feudal  princes,  EEsOan.  But  after  some  years,  see-  so  he  gave  an  elaborate  and  glowmgdescnptiwi  of  the 
ing  that  the  prince  was  not  disposed  to  f  oUow  his  coun-  archipelago  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Solomon 
sels,  he  resigned  his  charge,  and  for  years  went  about  Islands,  as  it  was  supposed  that  here  Kmc  Solomon 


promoting  ..^  ..^^-..^  ^. «.«  .            _                 .                             _ 

people  through  his  wise  measiu«s  of  reform.    After  a  second  expedition  for  the  purpose  of  colomsing  them, 

the  death  of  the  prince  he  retired  to  private  life^  and  %  Of^er  of  Philip  II,  Mendafia  was  placed  in  epm- 

spent  his  last  years  instructing  his  disciples,  and  pre-  °^?<i»  and  the  expedition  sailed  1 1  Apnl,  1595.     Sev- 

paring  with  them  the  book  that  bears  his  name.  «ral  groups  of  islands  were  discovered,  amone  them 

The  "Book  of  Mencius"  oonsiBts  of  seven  parte  or  ^^^  Marquesas  Islands  which  he  so  named  in  nonour 

books,  and  treate  of  the  proper  regulation  of  human  ^^  *^o  ^"®  of  Garofa  de  Mendosa,  Marquis  of  Cafiete, 

conduct  from  the  point  of  view  of  society  and  the  state.  ^^^  ^as  at  the  time  Viceroy  of  Peru.    The  explorer 

Religion  as  a  motive  of  right  conduct  seems  to  have  Cook,  in  1774,  gave  the  name  of  Nuk^iva  to  this 

concerned  him  much  less  tW  it  did  Confucius.    He  group,  that  being  the  native  name  of  the  lai^gest  island 

is  interested  in  human  conduct  only  in  so  far  as  it  leads  «  *?«  archipelago.    The  expedition  continued  west- 

to  the  highest  common  weal.    One  of  his  recorded  ^ard.  visitinfl;  several  other  groups  of  islands,  but 

sayings  runs:— "The  people  are  of  the  highest  impor-  Mendafia  diedbef  ore  he  reached  the  end  of  the  voyage. 

tanoe ;  the  gods  come  second ;  the  sovereign  is  of  lesser  Before  his  death,  he  del^ated  his  powers  to  his  wife  in 

weight."    His  work  abounds  in  sententious  utter-  whom  he  had  great  confidence  and  who  was  with  him 

anoes.    If  we  may  trust  the  records,  he  knew  how  to  <>»  ,^«  voyage.    The  widow,  a  very  resolute  woman, 

speak  trfainly  and  strongly.    To  Prince  Hui,  whom  he  took  charge,  and  led  the  expedition  into  Manik,  where 

found  living  in  careless  luxury,  while  his  people  were  ^°^y  arrived  safely  m  February,  1596.    Mendafia  left 

perishing  for  lack  of  economic  reforms,  he  said :— "  In  notes  describing  both  of  his  voyages  which  -were  col- 

youp  kitchen  there  is  fat  meat,  and  m  your  stables  lected  after  his  death  by  the  historian  Pedro  Gu^rico 

there  are  sleek  horses,  while  famine  site  upon  the  faces  ^^  Victoria  under  the  title  of  "  Derrotero  de  Mendafia 

of  jroup  people,  and  men  die  of  hunger  m  the  fields,  de  Neyra".    The  manuscnpt  is  now  m  the  National 

This  18  to  be  a  beast  and  prey  on  your  fellow  men."  Library  in  Paris. 

MeneillS  was  a  Stetmch  champion  of  the  Confucian  MendaffadeNeirraia  BuUetindelaSoci^deOiom^hieCPKnM^ 

prmcipte  that  human  nature  tends  to  what  is  morally  '^''J<Sr^g^^{^,  fS^l^&^^of^l^^ 

^ood,  and  only  runs  to  evil  by  reason  of  the  perverse  mPvblieatwne  ofthebakluyi  SoeietuCLimdoii,  1901). 

mfluenees  of  external  envinmment.    His  treatise  is  VENTtTRA  Fuibnteb. 


180 


Mendei  Diocsbb  of  (Miuatbnrib),  indudes  the  de- 
partment of  Loidre,  in  France.  Suffragan  of  Bourges 
under  the  old  Hg^ne,  it  was  le-establisbed  by  the  Can- 
cordat  of  1801  as  a  suffragan  of  Lyons  and  united  with 
the  department  of  Arddcne.  The  See  of  Mende  lost 
this  second  department  in  1822  by  the  creation  of  the 
Diocese  of  Vivieis  and  became  a  suffragan  of  AlbL 
According  to  late  legends  belonging  to  the  Limousin 
<r)rcle  of  legends  relating  to  St.  Martial,  he  passed 
through  the  territory  oi  the  Gabali  (G^vaudan)  of 
which  Mende  is  the  capital,  and  appointed  as  its  first 
bishop.  St.  Severian  nis  oisciple,  about  the  begin- 
ning oi  the  first  century.  (See  Limoobb.^  The  first 
bishop  known  to  history  is  Saint  Pnvatus,  who 
according  to  Gregory  ctf  Tours,  died  in  a  grotto  of 
Moimt  Mimmat,  a  victim  of  the  ill  treatment  he  suf- 
fered at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Alamanni  under 
their  King  Chroous.  Gregory  of  Tours  places^  this 
event  about  260;  though  Fredegarius  puts  the  inva* 
sion  of  Chrocus  at  407.  Mgr.  Duchesne  places  the  in^ 
vasion  of  Chrocus  and  the  death  of  St.  Privatus  at  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Gonstantine,  perhaps  before 
the  Council  of  Aries.  It  is  certain  that  there  was  an 
organised  church  in  the  country  of  the  Gabali  from 
about  314.  since  in  that  year  it  was  represented  at  the 
Council  01  Axles.  We  do  not  know  tne  exact  date  of 
the  episcopate  of  Saint  Firminus  whom  the  church  of 
Menae  honours  to-day.  Other  bishops  of  the  Gabali, 
who  doubtless  resided  at  Javoubc,  near  Mende,were: 
Saint  Hilary,  present  at  the  Council  of  Auvergne  in 
535,  and  founder  of  the  monastery  of  Canourgue,  and 
whose  personality  has  been  wrongly  described  in  cer- 
tain traditions  concerning  Saint  Ilfier,  and  St.  Fr6sal 
of  Canour^e  (ninth  century)  assassinated,  it  is  said, 
under  Louis  le  D^bonnaire. 

Towards  the  year  1000  Mende  became  the  seat  of 
the  bishopric.  Under  Venerable  Aldebert  III  (115}- 
86),  Alexander  III  passed  some  days  at  Mende  in  1 162; 
Aldebert  wrote  two  works,  on  the  passion  and  on  the 
miracles  of  St.  Privatus,  whose  rekcs  were  discovered 
at  Mende  in  1170.  M.  Leopold  Delisle  has  shown  us 
the  historical  interest  of  these  two  works  of  this 
bishop.  Mende  had  later  as  bishops,  Guillaume  Du- 
rand  (1285-96),  the  author  of  "Sp^nilum  juris",  and 
of  the  "Rationale  divinorum  omciorum' ,  who  was 
secretary  of  the  general  council  of  Lyons  in  1270,  and 
his  nephew,  Durand  le  Jeune  (1296-1328)  who.  by  the 
act  called  "  Pariage ",  agreed  upon  with  Philippe  le 
Bel,  definitively  settled  in  G^vaudan  the  respective 
rights  of  king  and  bishop,  and  who  left  a  work  on  the 
general  councils  and  on  the  reform  of  abuses.  Guil- 
laume de  Grimoard,  bom  about  1310  at  the  castle  of 
Grisao  near  Mende,  was  sickly  and  deformed,  but  was 
restored  at  the  prayer  of  his  godfather,  St.  Els^ar  de 
Sabran,  who  had  come  to  baptise  him.  Elected  pope  in 
1362  under  the  name  of  Urban  V,  he  administerea  the 
Diocese  of  Mende  himself  from  1368  to  70.  as  it  had 
been  left  vacant  by  the  removal  of  his  nepnew  to  the 
See  of  Avignon. 

Among  the  bishops  of  Mende  were:  Guillaume  de 
Chanac,  who  occupied  the  see  but  a  few  months,  when 
he  became  cardinal  in  1371;  Pietro  Riario  (1473-74), 
nephew  of  Sixtus  IV  and  a  cardinal;  Giuliano  della 
Rovere  ^1478-83)  later  pope  imder  the  name  of  Julius 
II;  and  nis  nepliews,  Caroinal  Clement  della  Rovere 
(1483-1504)  and  Francesco  della  Rovere  (1504-24); 
Castellane  (1768-92)  massacred  at  Versailles,  9  Sept., 
1792. 

Urban  II  visited  the  Dioeeee  of  Mende  in  1095  and 
had  consecrated  in  his  presence  the  church  of  the  mon- 
astery of  Saint  Sauveur  de  Chirac  or  of  Monastier 
foimded  in  1062  and  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  Saint 
Victor.  Mende  was  captured  for  the  first  time  bv  the 
Huguenots  in  1562;  the  celebrated  adventurer  Merle 
from  1573-81  led  into  the  region  bands  of  Protestants 
who  were  masters  of  Mende  for  eighteen  months, 
and  destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  cathedral  that  Urban 


▼  had  caused  to  be  rebuilt.  The  Diocese  of  Mende 
was  one  of  the  regions  where  the  insurrection  of  the 
Camisaids  (q.  v.)  br«te  out  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Cardinal  Dominique  de  la  Roche- 
foucauld, Archbishop  of  Rouen,  who  presided  in 
1789  over  the  last  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  France, 
was  bom  in  1712  at  Saint  Cb61y  d'Apcher,  in  the  dio- 
cese. The  chemist  Chaptal  (1756-1832)  was  one  of 
the  last  of  those  who  profited  by  the  scholarships 
founded  by  Urban  V  for  twelve  young  students  at 
Montpellier.  ^ 

The  following  saints  are  speoiany  venerated  in  the 
diocese:   St.   iTpide,   martyr   (third   century);   the 

greacher  St.  Veran,  Bishop  of  CavaiUon,  a  native  of 
t^vaudan  (sbcth  century) ;  St.  Lupentius,  abbot  of  the 
basilica  of  St.  Privatus,  oeheadea  by  oraer  of  Brune- 
haut  whom  he  reproached  for  the  irregularities  of  her 
life  (sixth  century);  the  nun  St.  Enimie,  daughter  of 
Clotaire  II  and  sister  of  Dagobert  (seventh  century), 
foundress  of  a  monastery  of  Benedictine  nuns  in  the 
present  St.  Enimie.  The  prindpal  pilgrimages  of  the 
diocese  are:  at  Mende  itself,  Notre  Dune  de  Mende 
where  the  statue  of  the  Black  Virgin  was  brought,  per- 
haps in  1213,  by  the  Crusaders  of  G^vaudan,  and  the 
hennita|;e  of  Samt  Privatus;  Notre  Dame  de  la  Caroe, 
the  origm  of  the  dty  of  Blarv^jols;  Notre  Damede 

Su^sac,  a  pilgrimage  dating  from  1052  and  where 
rban  V  founded  a  cnapter-house  of  eight  canons,  and 
Our  Lady  All-powerful,  at  Langogne.  There  were  in 
the  diocese,  before  the  application  of  the  law  of  associa- 
tions of  1901,  various  teaching  oiders  of  brothers 
and  several  teaching  orders  of  nuns  of  a  local  origin: 
the  Sisters  of  Christian  Unity  (L'Union  chr6tienne). 
founded  in  1696  (mother-house  at  Mende);  tJie  Unit^ 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  founded  at  Palhers  in  1750, 
transferred  to  Mende  in  1824;  the  Sisters  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (mother-house  at  Me3miei8)  founded  in  1837. 
The  religious  congregations  in  1900  directed  in  the  dio- 
cese fifteen  infant  schools,  one  orphan  asylum  for  boys, 
four  orphan  asylums  for  girls,  nine  hospitals  and  alms- 
houses, twelve  relipous  houses  for  the  care  of  those  ill 
at  home,  and  one  insane  asylum.  In  1905  at  the  end 
of  the  regime  of  the  Concordat,  the  diocese  had  128,- 
866  inhabitants,  26  parishes,  191  suocurssl  churches, 
and  135  vicarages,  supported  by  the  state. 

OaUia  chrutiana  (nova  1716).  I,  »>110. 205-6;  tMCnonenla, 
23-7, 202-3;  DucHswrx.  FtuUt  ipiaeopava,  U,  S4-^  and  124- 
6:  Pascal,  Oab€Uum  chruHanum  (Pans,  1853);  Cbarbonnbl, 
Oriffine  «l  hUUnn  oMffSe  d€  F^Ixm  ds  Mendt  (Uande,  1850); 
LioPOLD  Dblisub,  Un  numuMerit  d€  la  eaiMdraU  da  Mende 
in  Jaurrud  dea  Savania  (Oct..  1008);  Ollxxr.  ATotioe  hdMlorique 
aur  le  Oivaudan,  ad.  Rbmub  (Mende,  1008);  Idbm,  Hiaioire  dea 
qutrrea  de  rdioion  en  Oivaudan  avx  26*,  17*  ait  IS*  aUdaa 
(Touxs,  1886);  Chbyaubb.  Toj^oWU.,  1002-3. 

GSOBGSS  GOTAU. 

Mendaly  MendeHsm, — Gregor  Johann  Mendel 
(the  first  name  was  taken  on  entrance  to  his  onier), 
b.  22  Jul^,  1822.  at  Heinsendorf  near  Odrau,  in 
Austrian  Silesia;  a.6Januaiy,  1884,  at  the  Auguititin- 
ian  Abbey  of  St.  Thomas.  BrOnn.  His  father  was  a 
small  peasant-farmer,  ana  the  pecuniaiT  resources  of 
the  family  were  veiy  meagre,  as  is  snown  by  the 
fact  that  a  younger  sister  of  Mendel's  voluntarily 
gave  up  a  lar^  part  of  her  dowry  in  order  that  the 
plans  which  his  family  had  formed  for  his  education 
might  be  carried  out.  The  debt  was  afterwards 
repaid,  and  more  than  repaid,  by  Mendel.  After  a 
pMeriod  of  study  at  the  school  of  L^nik,  Mended  dis- 
tinguished himself  so  much  that  his  parents  made  a 
great  effort  and  sent  him  to  the  gymnasium  at  Trop- 
pau,  and  subsequently,  for  a  year,  to  OlmOts.  At 
the  former  place  one  of  his  teachers  was  an  Augus- 
tinian,  and,  whether  post  or  vropUr  hoc^  at  the  aid 
of  tas  period  of  studv  at  tne  gymnasium  MsbmM 
applied  to  be  admitted  as  a  novice  in  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Thomas  at  BrOnn,  commonly  known  as  the 
"Kdnigskloster".  This  was  in  1843,  and  in  1847 
he  was  ordained  priest  and  seems  to  haye  occupied 


181  IBNDXL 

himself  in  teaching  until  1851,  when  he  waa  sent,  impoaaible  that  he  may  have  destroyed  them  himself 

for  a  two  years'  coune  of  study  in  mathematics,  in  some  of  ^  dark  hours  which  he  wa^  nailed  upon 

physics,  and  the  natural  sciences,  to  the  University  to  endure  during  the  last  years  of  his  life. 

of  Vienna.    When  this  coune  tenninated,  in  1853.  he  The  BrOnn   Societv  was  not  a  wholly  unknown 

returned  to  his  abbey,  and  was  appointed  a  teacher,  organisation,  but  its  Journal  was  scarcely  one  which 

prindpfldly  of  physics,  in  the  Reolschule.    He  con-  could  be  expected  to  give  the  widest  publicity  to  a 

tinuea  in  this  position  for  fifteen  years  and  appears  to  new  discovery  or  theory.    It  is  perhaps  largely  on 

have  been  genuinely  devoted  to  teaching  ana  to  have  this  account  that  Mendel's  views  seemed  for  a  third 

gained  the  reputation  of  being  extraordinarily  sue-  of  a  century  to  have  been  still-bom.    Bateson,  how- 

oessful  in  interesting  his  pupils  in  their  work.    In  1868  ever,  thinks  that  this  would  not  so  lon^  have  delayed 

he  was  obliged  to  relinquish  his  educational  laboiuiB  his  recognition,  but  that  "the  cause  is  unquestion- 

on  assuming  the  position  of  abbot  of  his  monastery,  ably  to  be  found  in  that  neglect  of  the  experimental 

to  which  omce  he  was  then  elected.  study  of  the  problem  of  Species  which  supervened 

When  appointed  to  this  important  post,  Mendel,  al-  on  the  general  acceptance  of  the  Darwinian  doctrines  ", 

ready  mucn  engrossed  with  his  biological  experiments,  and  Bateson 's  opinion,  as  that  of  the  man  who  has 

hoped  that  he  ini^t  have  more  time  for  his  researches  done  more  than  any  other  to  make  Mendel's  views 

than  was  possime  in  the  midst  of  his  labours  at  known,  is  worthy  of  all  consideration.    Whatever 

the  Realschule.    But  this  was  not  to  be.    Tlie  juris-  may  hiave  been  the  cause,  the  fact  remains  that 

diction  and  privileges  of  the  abbev  are  somewhat  Mendel's   work   Was   unreco^^nised   until,   in    1899, 

extensive,  and  its  abbot  must,  in  orcunarv  times,  find  three  men  of  science — de  Vnes  in  Holland,  Gorrens 

himself  with  plenty  of  occupation.    Mendel,  however,  in   Germany,   and   Tschermak  in   Austria — almost 

in  addition  to  the  multiplicity  of  his  duties  as  abbot,  simultaneouslv  called  attention  to  his  publications 

became  involved  in  a  lengthy  controversy  with  the  and  started  the  interest  in  his  line  of  investigations 

Government  which  absorbed  his  attention  and  em-  which  has  steadilv  continued  to  grow  and  increase 

bittered  the  last  years  of  his  life.    The  Government  since  that  date.    Mendel  himself,  though  grievously 

had  imposed  special  taxes  on  religious  houses,  and  disappointed  at  the  nedect  of  his  views,  never  lost 

these  Mendel  refused  to  pay,  allege  that,  as  all  connaence  in  them,  and  was  wont  to  exclaim  to  his 

dtisens  were,  or  should  be,  ecjual  in  the  eye  of  the  friends,  "Meine  Zeit  wird  schon  kommen".    He  was 

law,  it  was  unjust  to  ask  one  kind  of  institution  to  pay  abundantly  justified  in  his  belief, 

a  tax  from  which  another  kind  was  free.    At  the  It  now  remains  to  give  some  account  of  the  theorv 

commencement  of  the  struggle  several  other  monaster-  put  forward  by  Mendel  and  the  influence  of  his  work 

ies  sided  with  him,  but  one  by  one  they  submitted,  auring  the  past  ten  years.    Mendel  himself  confined 

until  at  last  Mendel  was  left  alone  in  his  opposition  his  experiments  to  plants,  and  his  most  important 

to  the  tax.    Great  efforts  were  made  to  inauce  him  observations  were  made  on  the  garden  pea,  Pisum 

to  yield  but  he  refused,  and  even  allowed  the  goods  aativum.    Later  observers  have  dealt,  not  only  with 

of  the  abbey  to  be  distrained  upon  rather  than  sub-  a  number  of  other  members  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 

mit.    In  the  end — ^though  not  till  after  Mendel's  but  also  with  a  variety  of  animals,  using  that  word 

death — ^the  obnoxbus  tax  was  repealed.    The  result  in  the  widest  possible  sense.    With  the  details  of  their 

of  all  this  strain,  as  may  easily  be  understood,  was  publications  it  is  not  possible  here  to  deal,  but  a 

a  complete  cessation  in  Mendel's  scientific  work,  short  account  of  Mendel's  own  work  will  suffice  to 

His  appointment  as  abbot  may  have  been  an  ex-  show  the  lines  of  his  theory.     He  did  not,  as  others  had 

oellent  thing  for  the  monastery,  but  it  cannot  be  done  and  have  since  done,  direct  his  attention  to  the 

denied  that  it  was  a  great  misfortune  for  science,  entire  group  of  characteristics  making  up  the  indi- 

The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  rendered  unhappy,  vidual,  but  concentrated  his  attention   on   certain 

not  oidy  b^r  constant  strife  with  the  Government,  and  pairs  of  opposed  features  observable  in  certain  plants. 

by  the  racial  controversies  which  tore  that  part  of  In  the  case  of  the  pea,  he  observed  that  some  were 

Austria  at  the  time  in  ouestion,  but  also  by  constant  tall,  some  dwarf  in  habit ;  some  had  round  seeds, 

ill-health  due  to  the  cnronic  nephritis  of  which  he  others  wrinkled;  some  had  green  endosperm,  others 

ultimately  died.    The  result  of  these  various  troubles  yellow.    For  the  purpose  of  nis  own  observations  he 

was  to  change  that  sunny  cheerful  nature,  which  had  selected  seven  such  characters  and  studied  their  be- 

secured  Mendel  many  friends,  into  a  somewhat  mo-  haviour  under  hybridization.    From  what  occurred 

rose  disposition  and  suspicious  attitude  of  mind.    A  he  was  led  to  believe  that  the  progeny  of  the  various 

gublic  monument  to  his  memory  was  unveiled  at  crosses  behaved  in  regard  to  these  characters,  not  in 
irOnn,  2  October,  1910.  a  haphazard  manner,  out  in  one  which  was  reducible 
Mendel's  experiments,  on  which  his  fame  rests,  to  the  terms  of  a  so-called  "Natural  Law".  One 
were  commenced  while  he  was  still  a  novice,  and  car-  instance  given  by  Bateson  will  explain  what  happens: 
lied  out  in  the  larse  f^ardens  attached  to  his  mon-  there  are  tall  and  short  (or  "Cupid")  sweet  peas. 
asteiy.  DisBatisfiea  with  the  Darwinian  views,  then  and  in  them  we  have  plants  showing  a  pair  of  markea 
commencing  to  be  known,  he  undertook  a  series  of  and  easily  recognizable  opposite  characters.  The 
experiments  on  peas  which  occupied  his  spare  time  tail  and  Short  forms  are  crossed  with  one  another, 
for  eight  jjrears.  The -results  of  these  observations  and  the  seeds  collected  and  sown.  The  resultant 
were  published  in  the  "Transactions"  of  the  Brtlnn  plants  will  be  found  to  belong  entirely  to  the  tall 
Natund  Historjr  Society  in  1866,  and  a  further  variety,  which  has  apparently  wiped  out  the  short. 
paper  on  Hieracium  appeared  in  the  same  periodical  If,  however,  this  generation  of  seeds  is  sown  and  the 
m  1869.  Two  short  papers  of  less  importance  were  flowers  of  the  resultant  plants  be  self-fertilized  the 
published  during  the  period  of  study  at  Vienna,  result  is  that,  when  their  seeds  are  sown,  and  have 
and  this  seems  to  complete  the  list  of  the  communica-  sprung  up  into  plants,  it  is  found  that  these  are 
taona  whidi  he  gave  to  the  worid,  with  the  exception  mixeo,  and  mixea  in  definite  proportions,  for,  on  the 
of  his  annual  meteorological  records,  also  published  average,  it  will  be  foimd  that  there  are  three  tall  forms 
by  the  same  society.  It  is,  however,  known  that  he  for  eveiy  one  of  the  short.  It  follows  that  the  dwarf- 
devoted  himself  to  various  lines  of  investigation,  ishness  was  not  wiped  out,  but  that  it  was  temporar^v 
bestowing  much '  labour  on  the  heredity  of  bees,  obscured  in  the  second  generation,  though  present  all 
He  collected  queen  bees  of  all  attainable  races,  the  time  potentially.  To  the  character  wnich  alone 
European,  Egyptian,  and  American,  and  made  many  appears  in  the  first  cross  is  given  the  name  dominant 
crosses  between  the  various  races.  Unfortunately,  (m  this  instance  tallness  is  dominant),  and  to  the 
the  notes  whidi  he  is  known  to  have  made  on  this  hidden  character  that  of  recessive  (dwarfishness, 
subject  have  completely  disappeared,  and  it  is  not  in  the  example).    When  the  tails  and  dwarfs  of  the 


182 


third  generation  are  allowed  to  be  aelf-feitiliced. 
it  is  found  that  all  the  recessives  (dwarfs)  breea 
true  and,  what  is  more^  will  00  on  breeding  true  as 
lon^  as  uninterfered  with.  Not  so  the  dominants, 
which,  after  self-fertilization,  produce  both  tails 
and  dwarfs.  Some  of  the  tails  of  this  generation 
will  breed  true  and  continue  to  breed  true;  others 
will  not|  but  will  produce  a  mixed  progeny.  Hence, 
out  of  the  first  plants,  seventy-nve  wul  be  tails 
(dominants),  and  twenty-five  dwarfs  (recessives), 
these  last  being  pure.  Of  the  seventy-five  tails, 
twenty-five  will  be  pure  and  will  go  on  producing 
tails  j  fifty  will  be  mixed,  and  their  progeny  wiU 
consist  01  pure  dominants,  mixed  dominants,  and 
recessives,  as  has  been  stated  above. 

Davenport  thus  enunciates  the  laws  underlying 
these  facts:  "Of  the  two  antagonistic  peculiarities 
possessed  by  two  races  that  are  crossed,  the  hybrid, 
or  mongrel,  exhibits  only  one;  and  it  exhibits  it 
completely,  so  that  the  mongrel  is  not  distinguish- 
able as  regards  this  character  m>m  one  of  the  parents. 
Intermediate  conditions  do  not  occur.  .  .  .  Second: 
in  the  formation  of  the  pollen,  or  egg-cell,  the  two 
antagonistic  peculiarities  are  segregated;  so  that 
each  ripe  germ-cell  carries  either  one  or  the  other 
of  these  peculiarities,  but  not  both.  It  is  a  result 
of  the  second  law  that  in  the  second  generation  of 
mongrels  each  of  the  two  qualities  of  their  grand- 
parents shall  crop  out  on  distmct  individuals,  and  that 
the  recessive  quality  shall  appear  in  twenty-five  per 
cent  of  ihe  individuals,  the  remaininp;  seventy-nve 
per  cent  having  the  aominant  quahty.  Such  re- 
cessive individuals,  crossed  inter  se,  should  never 
produce  anytJiing  out  recessive  offspring." 

Such,  in  orief,  are  the  main  outlmes  of  Mendel's 
theory;  but  in  the  few  years  which  have  elapsed 
since  it  first  engaged  the  attention  of  the  scientific 
world,  there  has  grown  up  an  enormous  literature 
on  the  subject  which  has  much  added  to  the  com- 
plexity of  the  minor  developments  of  the  laws 
above  enimciated,  and  has  still  more  added  to  the 
difficulty  of  the  terminolo^  of  Mendelism.  With 
these  developments  it  is  impossible  to  deal  here: 
they  will  be  foimd  very  fully  treated  in  Bate- 
Bon^s  work  (see  below).  It  would,  however,  be 
negligent  to  omit  all  mention  of  the  estimation  in 
which  the  theory  itself  is  held  by  men  of  science 
of  the  present  day.  Bateson  claims  that  "his  ex- 
periments are  worthy  to  rank  with  those  which 
mid  the  foimdation  of  the  atomic  laws  of  chemis- 
try"; and  Lock,  that  his  discovery  was  "of  an 
importance  Utile  inferior  to  those  of  a  Newton  or  a 
Dalton '  \  Punnett  also  states  that,  owing  to  MendeFs 
labours,  "the  position  of  the  biologist  of  to-day  is 
much  me  same  as  that  of  the  chemist  a  century 
ago,  when  Dalton  enunciated  the  law  of  constant 

Sroportions.  In  either  case  the  keynote  has  been 
discontinuity — ^the  discontinuity  of  atom  and  the 
discontinuity  of  the  variations  in  livinp  fonns". 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  Mendel's  writmgs  never 
appear  to  have  come  under  the  notice  of  Charles 
Darwin,  and  many  have  speculated  as  to  the  effects 
which  they  mig^t  probably  have  exercised  on  that 
u'ritcr  had  he  made  their  acquaintance.  T.  H. 
Morgan  does  not  hesitate  to  say  that  Mendel's  laws 
give  the  final  coup  de  grdce  to  the  doctrine  of  Natural 
selection y  and  others  consider  that  his  views,  if 
finally  proved  to  be  correct,  will  at  least  demand 
a  prof oimd  modification  in  the  theories  associated  with 
the  name  of  Darwin. 

It  would  not,  however,  be  by  any  means  correct 
to  suppose  that  Mendel's  views  have  been  received 
with  complete  acceptance  by  the  scientific  world; 
indeed  there  is  a  sharp,  and  at  times  even  embittered, 
controversy  between  the  supporters  of  Mendel  ana 
his  opponents,  amongst-  whom  the  late  Professor 
Weldon  may  pnerhaps  be  considered  to  have  been  one 


of  the  most  important.  The  end  of  the  eontmvenf 
18  not  yet  in  si^plit,  nor  is  it  likely  to  be  for  some  time, 
judging  by  the  extraordinarily  varied  results  ^diidi 
observers  have  drawn  from  even  identical  aeries  of 
facts.  For  instance,  from  the  same  materials  afforded 
by  the  colours  of  thoroughbred  horses  given  in  the 
pages  of  Weatherby's  "General  Studbook of  Horses ", 
a  Mendelian  (Mr.  Hurst)  has  deduced  evidence  in 
favour  of  the  view  which  he  upholds,  and  an  anti- 
Mendelian  (the  late  Professor  Weldon)  has  anived  at 
a  diametrically  opposite  oondusbn.  This,  at  least, 
may  safely  be  said:  that  Mendel's  views  nave  been 
endorsed  by  a  number — ^it  wouJd  probably  be  safe  to 
say  a  steadily  increasing  number--of  scientific  men: 
that  they  seem  to  be  likely  to  exeroise  a  profouna 
influence  on  agriculture  and  on  the  scientific  bre«ling 
of  horses  and  stock ;  and  that,  with  such  modifications 
as  farther  experience  may  suggest,  the  main  undcuiy- 
ing  principles  of  the  worx  wiuprobably  become  more 
and  more  firmly  established. 

As  above  stated  the  papers  in  which  Mendel's  the- 
ories were  made  public  are  contained  in  the  "Pro- 
ceedings" of  the  BrAnn  Society.  They  have  bec«i 
made  availab^  ^  for  English  readers  by  the  translation 
which  appears  in  Bateson 's  work  (see  bibliography 
below). 

Batbbon,  MendtCB  Principles  of  Heredity  (Cambridge,  1909) 
(this  is  the  most  important  T7ork  in  Enghsh,  and  oontaina 
a  translation  of  Mendel's  papeie  and  a  biography  as  weO  as  a 
full  account  of  all  leoent  work  on  Mendelian  Imes);  Puknbtt, 
MendUitm  (Cambridge,  1905).  a  good  brief  account  of  the  sub- 
ject; Lock,  Recent  Progreae  in  the  Study  of  Variation^  Heredi^ 
emd  EvoluHon  (London,  1906);  Walah,  Catholic  Churchmen  m 
Science  (Philadelphia,  .1906).  See  also  Royal  Society  Reporta  on 
Evolution,  In  Bateson 'b  book,  and  in  ICklloo,  Darwwiam 
To-Day  (New  York,  1907),  manv  references  to  foreign  periodi- 
cal  litexature  on  the  subject  will  be  found. 

B.  C.  A.  WiNDUB. 

BCendes  da  Silva,  Joao,  better  known  as  Amadeus 
of  Portugal,  b.  1420,  d.  at  Milan,  1482,  b^an  his  re- 
ligious lue  in  the  Hieronymite  monastery  of  Notre- 
Dame  de  Guadalupe  (Spain),  where  he  spent  about  ten 
years.  Desirous  of  joining  the  Franciscans,  he  went 
to  Italy,  where  after  some  delay  he  was  received 
into  the  order  and,  living  in  various  convents,  cldefly 
at  Milan,  attracted  attention  by  his  virtue  and 
miracles.  Under  the  protecti<Mi  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Milan,  he  established  the  convent  of  Notre-Dame 
de  la  Paix  (1469)  which  became  the  centre  of  a  Fran- 
ciscan reform.  The  minister  general  of  the  order, 
Francesco  della  Rovere,  later  pope  under  the  name  of 
Sixtus  IV,  extended  hjs  protection  to  him.  Other 
foundations  were  made  in  Italy,  among  them  one  at 
Rome.  Supernatural  favours  obtain^  through  his 
intercession  aided  in  the  spread  of  his  cult,  and  the 
Bollandists  testify  to  the  authenticity  of  the  title 
"Blessed"  bestowed  on  him.  He  eomposed  a  yet 
unpublished  treatise  entitled  "De  revelationibus  et 

Srophetiis",  two  copies  of  which  are  mentioned  by 
ficnolas  Antonio.  The  work  of  another  Amadeus, 
"Homilies  on  the  Blessed  Vixgin",  has  been  errone- 
ously attributed  to  him.  The  convents  he  founded 
continued  after  his  death  to  form  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  Franciscans ;  the  friars  were  called  the  Amadeans 
or  Amadists,  and  they  had  twentv-^ight  houses  in 
Italy,  the  chief  one,  Saint  P^ter  de  Montorio,  in  Rome. 
Innocent  VIII  gave  them  the  convent  of  Saint  Genesto 
near  Cartagena  in  Spain  (1493).  The  successors  of 
Blessed  JoSo,  Geoiges  de  Val-Camonique,  GUles  de 
Montferrat,  Jean  Allemand,  Bonaventurade  Cremona, 
preserved  his  foundation  in  its  original  spirit  until 
Saint  Pius  V  suppressed  it  along  with  similar  branches 
of  the  Franciscan  Order  imiting  them  into  one  great 
family  of  Friars  Minor  Observants  (1668). 

Ada  SS.,  AuEust.  IL  6d2--606:  Antonio.  Bibliolheea  vehu 
hiepana,  II,  21^18;  Waddino,  Annalee  Aftnonim,  VT,  VII« 
VIII;  H*LYOT,  HiBtoire  dee  ordrea  rdioieux,  VII.  106-12. 

J.  M.  Bbswif. 


MtNDXZ  183  aBNDICANT 

ftnd  QualaquisA,  Vicariate  Apoffrouc  remained.    Arnold  of  Brescia  (q.  v.)  preached  that 

OF,  estsbUshed  by  Leo  AlII  on  3  February,  1893,  in  monks  and  clerics  who  possessed  property  could  not 

the  southern  part  of  the  province  of  Oriente,  Ecua-  be  saved.    A  little  later  John  valdes  founded  the 

dor.     It  depends  directly  on  the  Congregation  of  "  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  '\  soon  followed  by  similar  sects. 

Extraordinary   Ecclesiastical   Affairs.     The   vicar-  The  movement  thus  started  in  France  and  Itafy  had 

Apostolic  is   ligr  Giacomo  Gostamagna,  Salesian,  spread  among  the  poorer  classes  at  the  beginnmg  of 

titular  Bishop  of  Colonia.  elected,  18  March,  1895.  the  thirteenth  century  and  threatened  to  become  dan- 

The  mission  was  entrustea  to  the  Salesians,  who  sent  gerous  to  the  Church.    By  uniting  utter  poverty  to 

thither  three  fathers,  two  scholastics,  and  one  cate-  entire  subjection  towards  the  Church.  St.  fVancis  be- 

chist.   T^y  were  sll  expelled  imder  the  anti-clerical  came  with  St.  Dominic  the  bulwark  of  orthodoxy 

regime  in  1895.     Tlie  province  of  Oriente  is  popu-  against  the  new  heretics,  and  the  two  orders  of  Friare 

la  ted  almost  exclusively  by  Indians  of  the  jibaro  Minor  and  Preachers  proved  themselves  a  great  help 

(q.  v.)  stock.    In  the  eighteenth  century  many  of  both  to  the  inner  and  to  the  external  life  of  the  Church, 

the  tribes  had  been  converted  by  the  Jesuits,  but  on  Nor  was  absolute  poverty  the  only  characteristic  of 

the  expulsion  of  the  latter  in  1767  the  missionaries  the  new  orders.    They  did  not  coimne  themselves  to 

who  replaced  them  failed  in  the  work  of  evangeliza-  the  sanctification  of  their  own  members;  their  maxim 

tion  and  the  natives  relapsed  into  paganism.   Oriente  was  von  sibi  soli  vivere  aed  et  aliia  proficere  (not  to  live 

is  estimated  to  contain  150,000  Indians.  for  themselves  only,  but  to  serve  others).    At  once 

Woi^,  (Tmv.  V  QMioota  da  Beuadcr  (Leipng.  1892).  contemplative  and  active,  to  the  complete  renimda- 

A.  A.  MacErlean.  tion  of^all  things  they  joined  the  exereise  of  the 

lyr^^fKnvn   itr.»^«T  «»  K  -♦  t;«,«   oon^^^K^*  apostolic  ministry,  devoting  themselves  to  thee  vaneel- 

1  JfT^??'  ^^^?L?*'  fe  *i^'^'i?^^^"i  i^tion  of  the  miises,  and  thus  introducing  another 

1805;  d,  21  Jwiuary,  1885     He  was  edu^t«i  m  the  element  into  monastic  Ufe.  A  necessary  consequence  of 

Umversjty  of  S.  Marcos  del  Rimac  under  the  direction  their  close  contact  with  the  people,,  the  converts  of  the 


army  as  an  ensign  and  was  afterwards  promoted  by  century,  communal  Ufe  was  rapidly  developing.    Now 

Genem^  San  Martin  to  the  rank  of  heutenant.    Hav-  „  ^J^^  (Monumenta  Fmnds^na  I,  p.  xvii)  ob- 

mg  been  presMit  at  the  battJesof  Calana  Locucuba,  ^         ^^^  ^^  ^^^^         ^       ,i^  ^  'J^y^^  ^^di- 

T<TOto,  and  M(>a««ua,  captured  by  the  Spaniards,  ^ants,  "it  was  to  this  clkss  of  t^e  population,  in  the 


was 
the 


r«rasu»na^nenoBi«oi»m     r^iymxoo*^^  towns)  his  Convent  and  order  were  seated.    A  glance 

known  m  pohtics.  and  m  1851  was  promoted  to  bna.  ^  the  more  important  wiU  show  the  general  correct- 

diergeneni.    After  serving  as  prefect  of  wveralde^  ness  of  this  statement.    In  London,  York,  Warwick, 

^^I^'^^i^S^^'^fi^  "^ ^T^i^J:^^^^  Oxfofd,  Bristol,  Lynn  and  elsewhe^,  thei'r  convent^ 

rector  of  the  School  of  Arts  and  iVades  at  Luna.    He  ^^^  ^  ^^^urbi  ahd  abutted  on  the  dty  walls  ".   The 

alsoteld  at.vanous  times  the.portfohos  of  agnculture,  ^ork  of  the  mendicants  in  the  pulpit,  in  tfie  confessional, 

foreign  affami,  war  and  marine,  served  several  tenns  -^  ^^^  ^^^  ^f  the  sick  and  the  socially  weak,  in  the 

as  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies   became  ^      .      ^lissions,  had  no  pamUel  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

?t^?^Tf^^uiy^JS°7i'  vice-presiaent  of  the  con-  TWssameapo^tolicalactivity  had  two  consequences, 

rtitutent  Assembly,  and  cfiplomatic  representative  of  ^^  j^^  ^  *^rther  characteristics  of  the  mendicant 

Pem  m  Great  Britain,  Bohvia  and  Chire,m  which  lart  ^^      ^  ^^^  organisation  of  daustral  Ufe  and  the 

post  be  w<m_  general  esteem  by  bis  upn^tness  and  -      '-                 ^  - 


aaurus  «  great  uuuiy  to  tnoee.  engagea  in  ine  special  ^  ,  ^^ey  could  be  sent  aU  over  th4  world.  The 

"^'il^y  *^£*™y^  ^^^L***^*  *^„"^  "^  *^"J?f  foni  of  government  itself  was  mther  democratic,  as 

and  m  the  colonial  period.    He  also  reorganised  the  f„,  ^  „«^     ^  t^^  superiors  were  not  elected  for  life 

^^^^.SS^^^i^j:Z^^^\3.«>^.  1892).  «»lr,^  T'biect  to  the  Geneml  Chapter    From  thdr 

Camillus  Crivelu.  apostolical  ministry  the  mendicants  denved  the  right 

of  support  from  all  Christian  people:  dignu8  est  operor- 

Mo&dicailt  Frimrs  are  members  of  those  religious  rius  mercede  sua.    (The  labourer  is  worthy  of  his  hire.) 

orders  which,  originally,  by  vow  of  poverty  renounced  It  was  only  iust  that  having  left  everything  in  the 

all  proprietorship  not  only  individually  but  also  (and  world  in  obeaienoe  to  Christ's  counsel  (Matt.,  xlx,  21; 

in  this  differing  from  the  monks)  in  common,  relying  xvi,  24;  Luke,  ix,  1-6)  in  order  to  devote  themselves 

for  support  on  their  own  work  and  on  the  charity  of  to  the  well-being  of  the  people,  thev  should  look  to  the 

the  faithful.    Hence  the   name  of  begging  f nars.  people  for  their  support.    Ana  in  fact  those  alms  were 

There  remain  from  the  Middle  Ages  four  great  mendi-  regarded  as  the  due  of  their  apostolic  work.    When 

cant  orders,  recognized  as  such  by  the  Second  Council  later  the  Apostolici  (q.  v.)  tried  to  live  in  the  same 

of  Lyons,  1274,  Sess.  23  (Man8i,XXiy,  96),  the  Order  way  as  the  mendicants  without  doing  their  work, 

of  Preadiers,  the  Friars  Minor,  the  Carmelites,  and  Sabmbene  rebuked  them  indignantly:  ''They  wish  to 

the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine.    Successively  other  con-  live  ".  he  writes,  "  on  the  charity  of  the  Christian  peo- 

gregations  obtained  the  privilege  of  the  mendicants,  pie,  although  they  do  nothing  for  it,  they  hear  no  con- 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  cap.  iii)  granted  to  tessions,  they  do  not  preach;  nor  do  they  mve  edifica- 

all  the  mendicant  orders,  except  the  Friars  Minor  and  tion,  as  do  the  Friars  Minor  and  the   Preachers" 

the  Capuchins,  the  liberty  of  corporate  possession  (see  (Mon.  Ger.  Hist.  Script.  XXXII,  255-57,  259,  264). 

Friab).    The  object  of  the  present  article  is  to  outline  But  provision  for  the  necessities  of  life  was  not  left  to 

I.  the  origin  and  characteristics  of  the  mendicants;  11,  chance.    Each  convent  had  its  limit  or  district  (limes, 

tne  oppositien  which  they  encountered.  terminus),  in  which  brothers,  generally  two  and  two, 

I.  mstorical  reasons  for  the  origin  of  the  mendicants  made  regular  visits  to  solicit  alms.    This  institution 

are  obvious.    Since  the  struggle  regarding  investi-  still  exists  in  Catholic  countries,  as  in  Italy,  Spain  md 

tures  A  certain  animosity  against  chureh  property  had  some  parts  of  Germany  and  in  the  Tjrrol,  while  in 


mMDICAMT  184  MKMDICIMT 

others,  even  Catholic  countries,  it  is  forbidden  by  law,  a  special  vocation,  to  take  the  place  of  the  aecdiar 

as  in  some  parts  of  Austria-Hungarv.  clergy  in  the  near  future  (1260).    The  answer  was  not 

II.  This  new  form  of  conventual  life  was  not  intro-  long  delayed.    Williun  of  St.  Amour,  ibe  leader  of  the 
duced  without  strong  opposition.    With  what  feelings  opposition  ag^nst  the  mendicants,  publicly  attacked 
the   older   orders   occasionally   regarded   the   rapid  the  treatise  in  his  sermon  "Qui  amat"  (ed.  Brown, 
spread  of  the  mendicants  may  be  gathered  from  the  "Fasciculus  rerum  expetendanim "    .    .    .    London, 
bitter  words  of  Biatthew  of  Paris,  "Chronica  majora,  1690,  II,  51;  Gull,  a  S.  Amore,  "Opera  omnia,"  Con- 
ad  an.  1243",  ed.  Luard,  IV,  London,  1877,  279,  80;  stance.  1632,  491).    It  has  been  made  evident  of  late 
"ad.  an.  1246",  ibid.,  511-17.    Still  it  is  well  known  that  the  professors  extracted  from  Gerard's  treatise 
that  St.  Francis  was  indebted  to  the  Benedictines  for  and  from  Joachim's  "  Concordia  "  the  thirty^ne  prop- 
the  "  Portiuncula",  the  first  church  of  his  order.    The  ositions,  partly  falsifying  them  (Matt.  Parisiensis, 
chief  opposition  came  from  elsewhere;  from  the  uni-  first  ed.,  Vl,  London^  1882,  335-39;  "Chartulaiium'* 
versities  and  from  the  bishops  and  secular  clergy.  I,  272),  and  denouncing  them  with  the  book  to  Inno- 
Tlie  mendicants  did  not  connne  themselves  to  tne  cent  Iv.    William  went  farther  and  wrote  his  famous 
sacred  ministry,  but  had  almost  from  the  beginning  treatise  against  the  mendicants,  "  De  periculis  novissi- 
learned  members  who  claimed  equality  with  other  morum  temporum"  ("Opera  (xn.",  op.  dt.,  17-72; 
doctors  at  the  universities.    The  Dominicans  were  the  Brown,  op.  cit..  II,  18-41,  here  under  a  fiuse  title) .  The 
first  religious  order  to  introduce  the  higher  studies  as  author  starts  from  II  'Hm.,  iii  sqq.,  and  sees  the  ful- 
a  special  point  in  their  statutes  and  if  they  probably  fiUment  of  those  words  in  the  nse  of  the  mendicant 
owe  their  mendicancy  to  the  influence  of  St.  Francis  friars,  who  however  are  not  specified^  though  everybody 
over  St.  Dominic,  the  Friars  Minor  are  probably  in-  knew  the  significance.  The  whole  list  of  vices  enumer- 
debted  for  their  higher  studies  to  the  influence  or  at  ated  by  the  apostle  is  applied  to  the  mendicants, 
least  to  the  example  of  the  Preachers.    On  the  other  whom  William  blames  on  all  the  points  which  formea 
hand  the  Church  appreciated  the  work  of  the  new  their  characteristic  note.    The  danger,  he  goes  on,  is  at 
ordere  and  ezemptea  them  from  the  jurisdiction  of  our  doors,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  bishops  to  avert  it. 
the  bishops,  granting  them  extensive   faculties  for  In  order  that  those  impostors  and  psetKio-preacherB 
preaching   axid   hearing   confessions,  together  with  may  be  the  more  easily  detected,  William  draws  up 
the  ri^t  of  burial  in  their  own  churches,  ri^ts  re-  forty-one  signs,  by  which  they  are  to  be  recognisea. 
served  hitherto  to  the  secular  clergy.    It  should  be  This  treatise  made  an  enormous  impression, 
stated  here  that  this  opposition  was  not  inspired        Alexander  IV.  however,  in  the  Bull  "  Quasi  Umum 
merely  by  envy  or  other  mean  motives,  but  rather  vit«",  14  April.   1255  ("Bull.   Franc."  II;   *^ull. 
from  economical  reasons.    For  the  parish  priests  de-  TraBd."  I,  276;  "Chartularium"  I,  279),  settled  the 
pended  in  great  part  for  their  income  on  the  ofi'erings  questions  at  issue  between  the  university  and  the 
of  the  faithful,  which  threatened  to  diminish  throujdx  mendicants,  independently  of  the  case  of  Gerard  di 
the  great  popularity  enjoyed  by  the  mendicants.    On  Borgo  S.  Donnino.    The  pope  annulled  the  statutes 
the  whole  it  might  be  said  that  the  Church  protected  of  the  imiversity  against  the  mendicants,  who  were 
the  regulars  agSLinst  unjust  attacks,  while  on  the  other  authorised  to  continue  their  public  schools,  even  with 
huid  she  found  means  to  redress  abuses,  tending  to  the  two  chairs  of  the  Dominicans,  as  a  part  of  the  uni- 
endanger  the  legitimate  interests  of  the  secular  clergv.  versity.    On  the  other  hand,  the  Master  General  of 
The  opposition  to  the  mendi(^ts  was  particularly  the  Dominicans  wrote  from  Milan,  May,  1255,  to  his 
strong 
generally, 
m  England, 

other  countries.    As  early  as  1231-32  Gregory  IX  Rome,  1900, 21).    At  the  same  time  the  common' in^ 

had  to  protect  the  mendicants  against  the  pretensions  terests  of  the  Preachers  and  Friare  Minor  inspired  the 

of  some  j)relates,  who  wanted  the  friars  to  be  subject  beautiful  letter  of  John  of  Parma  (€].  v.)  and  liumbert 

to  their  jurisdiction  like  the  ordinary  faithful.    See  of  Romans,  Milan,  May,  1255  (Reichert,  op.  cit.,  V, 

different  forms  of  the  Bull  "Nimis  iniqua"  (Bull.  25; Wadding, "Annals Ord.Min. ",111,380).  Thepro- 

Franc.  I,  74-77),    repeated  by  Innocent  IV,  1245  fessors  and  students  of  Paris  nevertheless  did  not  ao- 

(op.  cit..  368).  Although  this  Bull  speaks  in  a  general  cept  the  Bull "  Quasi  lignum  vitse  " :  thev  wrote  2  Oct., 

way  ana  is  aadressed  to  different  countries,  the  abuses  1255,  a  sharp  protest  against  it  (Chartularium  I,  292). 

enumerated  by  it  were  probably  of  local  character.  Alexander  iV,  23  Oct.,  1255,  condemned  the  "  Intro- 

The  first  great  storm  broke  out  at  Paris,  where  the  ductorius  in  Evangel  ium  sternum  *'  (Denifle, "  Arefalv. 

Dominicans  had  opened  their  schools  (1229-30)  and  f.  Litt.  u  Kirehengesch.",  I,  87  sq<][.).    Moreover  5 

erected  two  chairs  of  theology;  the  Friare  Minor  fol-  Oct.,  1256,  he  condemned  the  treatise  "De  Periculis 

lowed  them  (1231).    At  first  (1252)  the  opposition  novissimorum  temporum"  in  the  Bull   "Romanus 

was  directed  against  the  Dominicans,  the  umversity  Pontifex''  (Chartularium  I,  531).    Reluctantly  the 

wishing  to  grant  them  only  one  professorehip  [Denifle,  imiversity  submitted  to  the  orders  of  the  pope.    Wi|. 

"Chartularium"  (see  below)  I,  226].    The  university  liam  alone  resisted  and  having  been  banisned  from 


sought  allies  and  so  drew  the  bishops  and  the  secular  Paris  and  France,  he  wrote  another  attack  against 
clergy  into  the  struggle  (Chartulanum  I,  252),  with  mendicants,  "Liber  de  antichristo  et  eiusdem  nunis- 
the  result  that  Innocent  IV,  at  first  favourable  to  the  tris"  (ed.  under  a  false  name  by  Mart^ne>ruran<l, 
mendicants  (Chartularium  I,  247),  took  away  their  "  Vet.  Scriptor.ampliBsimacollectio'MX,  Paris,  1733, 
privileges  with  regard  to  preaching,  confession,  and  1271).  Tnls  redoubtable  attack  against  the  mem':- 
burial  rights  in  the  Bull  "  Etsi  animorum ",  21  cants,  conducted  by  the  most  famous  university,  was 
Nov.,  1254  (Chartularium  I,  1267).  This  sudden  met  by  the  ablest  writers  from  among  the  friars.  St. 
change  of  attitude  towards  the  mendicants  in  In*  Thomas  Acminas  wrote  "  Contra  impujgnantes  Dei  cul- 
nocent  IV  has  not  yet  been  sufi[iciently  explained,  tum'';  St.  Bonaventure,  "Quaestio  disputata  de  pau- 
The  first  step  of  Alexander  IV  was  to  suspend  the  dis-  pertate"  (Op)era  omnia,  ed.  Quaracchi,  V,  125), 
positions  of  his  predecessor.  Bull  "Nee  insolitum",  "  Apologia  pauperum "  (VIII,  233),  ^' De  tribus  quas- 
22  Dec,  1254  (Chartularium  I  1276),  m  which  he  tionibus"  (VIII,  331).  Duwtly  against  William's 
promised  new  dispositions  and  forbade  meanwhile  to  "  De  p)ericuliB "  another  Franciscan,  Bertrand  of 
act  against  the  mendicants.  In  these  critical  circum-  Bayonne,  or  perhaps  Thomas  of  York,  wrote  the 
stances  it  was  doublv  unfortunate  that  Gerard  di  Bor-  treatise,  "  Manus  quse  contra  omnipotentem  "  (Char- 
go  8.  Donninoshould  publish  his  book  "  Introductorius  tularium  1, 415).  John  of  Peckham,  later  Arehbishm) 
in  Evangelium  sternum  "  (1254),  which,  besides  many  of  Canterbury,  took  part  in  the  controversy  with  bn 
other  Joachimite  errore,  attributed  to  the  mendicants  "De  perfectione  evangelica",  partly  ed.  by  Little  m 


185  IBNDIETJl 

*'PmtiJi  Johannis  Peoham  .  .  .  tractatiu  ties  de  stating  that  their  chief  enemy  was  Nicholas  Hereford, 

pAupeiiate"  (British  Society  of  Franciscan  Studies,  II,  Professor  of  Holy  Scripture,  who  in  a  sermon  an- 

Aberdeen,  1910).    The  seculars  continued  the  fight,  nounced  that  no  religious  sho\ild  be  admitted  to  any 

even  with  popular  compositions,  of  which  the  Best  degree  at  Oxford.    This  letter  is  inserted  in  Thomas 

known  is  the  "Roman  ae  la  Rose".    At  the  second  Netter's  ''Fasciculi  Zizaniorum magistri  Joh.  WyclLf" 

Council  of  Lyons  new  attempts  were  made  against  the  (ed.  Waddington,  Rer.  Brit.  Script., London,  1858, 292' 

mendicants,  partly  because  of  the  rise  of  other  men-  95).    There  are  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 

dicant  bodies,  some  of  which  were  of  objectionable  turies  many  other  instances  of  hostility  with  which 

form,  as  the  "Apostolici"   and  the  "Friars  of  the  the  friars,  especially  the  Minorites,  were  regarded  by 

Sack"  (SaceaH)  (see  Salimbene,  "Mon.  Genn.  Hist,  the  University  of  Oxford.    Though  the  Black  Death 

Script. ",  XXXII,  245  sqq.^     All  mendicants   were  and  the  Great  Schism  had  evil  effects  on  their  general 

abolished,  but  the  four  great  orders  were  excepted  on  discipline,  the  mendicants,  thuiks  to  the  rise  of  nu- 

account  of  the  manifest  good  they  wrought.    Martin  merous  branches  of  stricter  observance,  on  the  whole 

IV,  "Ad  fructus  uberes",  13  Dec.,  1281,  and  10  Jan.,  flourished  until  the  Reformation.    Notwithstanding 

1282  (Bull.  Franc,  III,  480)  extended  the  privileges  of  the  heavy  losses  sustained  during  that  period,  the  men- 

the  mendicants  with  regard  to  preaching  and  hearing  dicants  have  nevertheless  continued  to  take  their 

confessions,  a  measure  which  caused  much  opposition  part,  and  that  a  considerable  one,  in  the  life  of  the 

amons  the  bishops  and  cleigy,  especially  in  France.  Church  down  to  the  present  day. 

Only  m  late  years  have  we  come  to  know  of  the  exist-  For  full  bibliography  see  the    several  Mendicant  OrdwB. 

en«  of  a  great  t«pB«tion  on  this  Bubject,  ^Paris.  ?V|?^,f ^STu^^S? '^.^Sg^^JT^X^ 

1290,   where  Cardmal  Gaetano,  later  on  Boniface  Rome.  1750  sqq.);  DBNxrLE-CHATEIJiI^^  CAar<u2aKiim  ^mim^ 

VIII,    skilfully   defended   the   regulars    (see   bibliog-  ntoHs  Pannentu  (Fam,  1889  Bqq,);'WBiaBT^  Political  Poema 

mphjr)     Boniface  VIII  revised  the  legislation  re-  ^^'S?^1^)tfSS'itf^J^>^^:^iS•M^^ 

garding  the  pnvileges  of  the  mendicants  m  favour  of  aon.  1858).  II  (ed.  Howlett,  London,1882);  Little.  The  Grey 

the  deiKy.     His  Bull  "Super  Cathedram",  18  Feb.,  Frian  in  Oxford  (London.  1892):  Brtcb.  The  SooUieh  Grey 

2,  III,  6;  "Bull  Franc",  IV, 498)  is  m substance  even  Kirchenieechiehte.  1  (BerUn,  1885).  16&-227.  of.  V  (Freibum, 

now  in  force.  1889).  530-^;  Mobher,  Hietoire  dee  Maitrea  Oiniraux  ae 

The  controversies  between  the  mendicants  and  the  ^'^^^edee  Frir^Prichewre^j  yob.  (Paria.  1903-09);  Homap- 

ALK7  wuMVT«;Ao«no  u^wTvvcu  WW  uA«u^«Av«uxm  cMA^a  w»*»  yjjj^^  Manuale  Hulorta  Ordtnte  Fratrum  Mtnorum  (Freiburgt 

secular  pnests  m  England  and  Ireland  took  an  acri-  1909);  Oennan  ed..ibid.:  Koch.  Dm  frUheaten  Niederlaeaungen 

monious  form  in  the  fourteenth  century.     We  have  a  derMinoriUn  im  Rheina^tiete  tand  ihre  Wirkungen  aufd.  kireh.  u, 

neculiarly  interesting  instance  of  this  in  the  case  of  y'*«--t^(L«pM.lfei);PAULU8.K^«ttundp^ 

trr^r**"VJ^»^-r      1   u^*A  ^^iT^iT^        *    *          ^  **  ^-^o*'  ^a  A.uaaang  dee  XII f.  Jahrhunderte  xm  Kampfe  um  die  P/arr' 

Richard  Fltsralph,  Archbishop  of  Annaeh   (q.  y.),  UecAt*  (Essen-Ruhr.  1900);  Ott.  Thomae  von  Aguin  vnd  dot 

who  preached  seven  or  eight  times  in  London  against  MendikatUenttmi  (Freiburgt  1908);  Wiebbhofp.  Die  SteUuno 

the  mendicants  and  in  nine  propositions  attacked  ?*^,?«^^''9«'?»A"  «gi^      fi"*^  Rnc^etadun  imMittelat- 

zr   .  "       ™T         j^t   .    **a**w   t/*v|#««  v*««  «          .Tv  ter(Leipzis,l90S);FmKEtDaeParteerNationalkonx%lvomJahre 

their   poverty  and  theu*  privileges  mterfermg  with  jggo,  einBeitrag  svr  Oeaehichte  Bonifae  VIII  und  der  Parieer 

parochial  rights.    Denounced  at  the  papal  court  of  tTmverciMt  in iS^^Mc^QuartoiscAW/f.  IX  (Rome,  1895).  171-82; 

Avignon,  he  was  .cited. by.  Innocent  vHnd  defended  5^!4^«  i|,«^^y^3;,iS;^^^^^ 


riumCuratorum"inGoldast,  "MonarchiaS.Romani  Sf n  ^'^'*^S&i"'i  "^  «>v    m  "^     1^    ^u    *    ^ 

A&uua  ^uAMvwa  uaaa     aaa  v^  Vf!.?    i/.^^    Von-i  ^Att\     ^j  aUlluno  dte  WUrdturger  P/afrklenu  mu  den  Mendtkantenorden 

Impeni  .  .  .",  11,  Frankfort,   1614,   1391-1410,  and  w&hrenddeeMittdaUeninPaeeauertheohoieh-jmUUieehenMonat' 

in  Brt>wn,  ''Fasciculus  rerum",  II,  466-487.     There  se^rif/,  1. 481-94;  Bbhnouilli. Die  XtrcA«nipemeifuienBa«e{««or 

IS  a  compendium  of  the  nine  propositions  in  Old  Eng-  ^  RefomtuionXBtjAe^isW:  Rashdauj.  JA*  UnivereiHeeof 

IB  a  wu*^fcuM^xuu.^n^^^  auu^  ^wpv»ii««Avuo    >,  >T    n^  EuTope  tfi  the  Middle  Agee,  I  (Oxford,  1898);  Sbppblt,  Der 

lish  m  Howlett,  "  Monumenta  FranciSCana  ",  II,  276-  Kamvfder  Bettelorden  an  der  Untvereitdt  Parte  eeU  der  MiUe  dee 

77       This  curious  document  might  be  called  a  n^a-  IS,  /ahrhunderle.  part  I  in  KirchengeeehicfUliche  Abhandlungen. 

tive  exposition  of  the  rule  of  the  Friars  Minor.    Si  m,^Sf  T908)%-?Sr^"'  ^®^^'  W7-244;  part  n,  Urid.,  Yt 

English  Franciscan,  Richard  Conway,  defended  the  ^  •         •  ■  LrvARiirs  Ouoeb. 

friars  against  Fitsralph;  his  treatise  is  edited  by 

Coldest,  op.  cit.,  II,  1410-44.    Innocent  VI  gave  a        Memdiata,  Jer6nimo,  Spanish  missionary;   b.  at 

Bull,  1  Oct.,  1358,  in  which  he  stated  that  a  commis-  Vitoria,  Spain,  1525;  d.  in  the  City  of  Mexico^  9  May, 

sion  had  been  named  to  examine  the  differences  be-  1604.    While  still  a  youth  he  took  the  habit  of  St. 

tween  the  Archbishop  of  Armagh  and  the  mendicants  Francis  at  Bilbao,  and  arrived  in  New  Spain  at  the 

and  forbade  meanwmle  the  prelates  of  England  to  hin-  end  of  June,  1554.    Being  desirous  of  helpinji  in  the 

der  the  four  mendicant  orders  from  exeroising  their  conversion  of  the  Indians,  he  applied  himself  with  seal 

rights  (Bull.  Franc.,  VI,  316).    In  the  following  year  to  study  the  Mexican  language,  and  it  is  said  that,  al- 

a  Bull  prescribing  the  observance  of  the  Decretal  though  a  natural  defect  mterfered  with  his  speaking 

''Super  Cathedram''  of  Boniface  VIII  was  directed  Castman  and  kept  him  from  preaching  to  Spaniards, 

to  different  bishops  of  the  continent  and  to  the  Arch-  3ret,  when  he  mounted  the  pulpit  to  address  the  In* 

bishop  cd  York,  26  Nov.,  1359  (Bull.  Franc,  VI,  322).  dians  in  their  language,  he  crooke  clearly  and  without 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  mendi-  stammering.    At  Tlaxcala  ne  probably  had  for  his 

cants  in  England  were  attacked  more  fiercely  and  on  a  father  guardian  F.  Toribio  de  Motolinia,  the  last  sur- 

broader  swe  by  the  Wicliffites.    Wiclif  himself,  at  vivor  of  the  first  band  of  twelve  Franciscans.    He  was 

fint,  was  not  on  bad  terms  with  the  friars :  his  enmity  so  highly  esteemed  in  his  province  that  the  provincials, 

was  confined  to  the  last  few  years  of  his  life.    While  Diego  de  Olarte  and  Miguel  Navarro,  took  him  with 

Wiclif  had  only  repeated  the  worn-out  arguments  them  on  their  visitation  of  the  convents  and  the  In« 

against  the  mendicants,  his  disciples  went  much  far-  dians,  while  the  entire  province,  assembled  in  chapter, 

t&er  and  accused  them  of  the  lowest  vices.    Nor  did  judged  him  capable  of  selecting  at  his  own  individual 

thev  confine  their  calumnies  to  learned  treatises,  but  discretion  all  the  provincial  officers,  a  selection  which 

embodied  them  in  popular  poems  and  son^,  mostly  in  the  event  proved  satisfactory  to  all. 
English,  of  which  we  have  many  examples  m  the  two        In   1569  Mendieta  accompanied  Miguel  Navarro 

volumes  published  by  Wright   (see  bibliography),  on  his  way  to  the  general  chapter  in  France,  and 

The  chief  place  of  controversy  was  Oxford,  where  the  while  on  his  journey  he  remained  in  his  native  town, 

frian  were  accused  even  of  sedition.    On  18  Feb.,  Vitoria.    Here  he   put  himself  in   communication 

1382,  the  heads  of  the  four  mendicant  orders  wrote  a  with  Juan   de   Ovando,    the   distinguished   magis- 

joint  letter  to  John  of  Gaimt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  pro-  trate  of  the  Council  of  the  Inquisition,  who  had  been 

testing  BffSnBi  the  calumnies  of  the  Wicliffite9  and  nominated  visitpr  of  the  Coun^  of  the  Indies  and  waa 


ICENDOZl  186  MSNDOZl 

afterwards  its  president.  Ovando  no  doubt  already  execution  of  his  commission.  In  1591  he  was  guar* 
knew  Mendieta  by  name,  through  his  letters  written  dian  in  Santa  Ana  of  Tlaxcala,  and  in  1597  of  Xocfai- 
from  New  Spain  in  1562  and  1565  to  the  commissary,  milco.  He  was  buried  in  the  convent  of  Blexico. 
Bustamanta  and  to  King  Philip  II.  The  questions  Havinf^  undertaken  to  write  the  histoiy  of  the  In- 
propounded  to  Mendieta  by  Ovando  concerned  the  dies  on  his  return  from  Spain,  he  was  delayed  in  eze- 
oivil  as  well  as  the  religious  administration,  the  two  cuting  the  woik  for  twenty-five  yem  by  the  larp 
being,  in  consequence  of  the  existing  relations  between  number  of  duties  which  he  had  to  dischargee,  and,  m 
Church  and  Crown,  very  closely  interwovenj  and  addition,  the  consultations  and  negotiations  with 
Mendieta's  replies  reveal,  not  merely  isolated  opinions,  which  he  was  chaiged  by  the  Government.  It  is 
but  a  fairly  complete  ana  systematic  theory  of  govern-  known,  for  instance,  that,  while  he  was  guardian  at 
ment.  In  his  view  the  authoritv  of  the  Viceroy  of  Tlaxcala,  he  was  busy  witn  the  work  of  removing  f our 
New  Spain  should  be  increased;  ih&t  o(  the  Audiencia  hundred  families  of  Christian  Indians,  to  colonise 
diminished,  and  limited  exclusively  to  judicial  matters,  among  the  Chichimecas.  Mendieta's  principal  work 
In  the  administration  of  justice,  except  in  criminal  ia  his  "Historia  Edesiastica  Indiana''.  The  general, 
cases,  he  would  desire  separate  tnbunals  for  Spaniards  Cristobal  de  Capitef ontium,  gave  him  the  command  to 
and  lor  Indians,  particularly  in  suits  concerning  the  write  on  27  June,  1571;  the  work  was  not  completed 
possession  of  land.  As  to  the  question  of  compulsory  until  1596.  He  sent  it  immediately  to  Spain,  as  he 
Indian  labour,  in  agriculture  and  mining,  he  was  per-  had  been  ordered  to  do,  and  never  had  any  further 

Slexed.    The  difficultv  was  a  serious  one:  if  the  In-  knowledge  of  it.    No  writer  later  than  Torquemada 

ians  were  not  compelled  to  work,  then,  perhaps  con-  ever  quoted  it,  until,  through  the  exertions  of  Sefior 

tent  with  their  land  and  what  little  they  obtained  from  Joaaum  Garcia  Icasbalceta.  the  manuscript,  acquired 

it,  they  would  not  assist  the  Spaniards,  and  these  lat-  at  Madrid,  was  printed  in  Mexico  in  1870.    It  is  di- 

ter  could  not  by  their  own  unaided  efforts  provide  for  vided  into  five  books.    The  first  book,  consisting  of 

themselves  and  for  the  other  Spaniards  who  inhabited  seventeen  chapters  and  a  prologue,  treats  "  Of  the  in- 

the  cities,  nor  could  they,  without  the  Indians,  derive  troduction  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Christian  religion  in 

from  the  mines  the  profit  which  they  looked  for.  the  islands  of  Espafloia  and  the  neighbouring  re^ons 

Lastly,  however,  Mendieta  pointed  out  that  in  some  which  were  first  discovered  ".  The  second,  containing 

eases  the  Indians  voluntarily  entered  into  contracts  forty-one  chapters  and  a  prologue,  tells  "  Of  the  rites 

to  work  for  hire,  and  that  this  ought  to  be  wisely  en-  and  customs  of  the  Indisms  of  New  Spain  and  their 

couraged  and  facilitated.    His  love  of  the  Indians  im-  infidelity  **,    The  third,  containing  sixty  chapters  and 

peUed  him  to  speak  unfavourably  of  the  Spanish  a  prologue,  treats  "  Of  the  manner  in  which  the  Faith 

colonists.    He  advocated  complete  separation  of  the  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  introduced  and  planted 

two  races  in  different  towns  and  villages,  8a3ring  that  among  the  Indians  of  New  Spain".    The  fourth,  con- 

the  Spaniards  ought  to  have  only  such  settlements  as  taining  forty-six  chapters  and  a  prologue,  treats  "  Of 

might  be  necessary  to  secure  the  countrv  against  for-  the  improvement  of  tne  Indians  of  New  Spain  and  the 

eign  invasion;    and  he  would  have  these  Spanish  progress  of  their  conversion."    The  fifth  book  is  di- 

aettlements  situated  on  the  borders  of  the  Chichimecas  vided  into  two  parts:   the  first  contains  fifty-eight 

and  the  savage  tribes,  with  the  sole  object  of  guarding  chapters,  and  "  There  are  related  the  lives  of  the  noble 

the  frontier.    The  Indians,  he  said,  ought  all  to  be  men,  apostolic  workera  of  this  new  conversion,  who 

confined  to  certain  towns  chosen  by  themselves,  and  have  ended  in  peace  with  a  natural  death":    the 

some  of  these  towns  ought  to  be  transferred  from  their  second  part,  only  ten  chapters,  treats  "  Of  the  Friara 

actual  sites  to  others  more  suitable.    To  Ovando's  Biinor  who  have  died  for  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in 

inquiry,  by  what  means  the  friars  and  the  bishops  this  New  Spain ".    In  this  work  he  displays,  without 

could  De  made  to  dwell  together  in  peace,  his  answer  fear  or  human  respect,  and  even  exagp^erates  at  tinties, 

clearly  betrays  his  fiery  character  and  the  partiality  the  vices,  disorders,  abuses,  tyranmes,  and  wrongs 

of  his  views.    He  su^^ests  the  appointment  of  two  done  by  the  colonists;  he  goes  so  far  as  to  flout  the 

bishops  in  each  diocese,  one  for  the  Spaniards  and  one  Government^  not  excepting  the  sovereign  Imnaelf. 

for  the  Indians,  clearly  giving  it  to  be  understood,  at  The  lofty  spirit  of  rectitude  and  justice  which  domi- 

the  same  time^  that  the  bishops  ought  {Jl  to  be  chosen  nates  the  work  enhances  the  value  of  its  simple,  terse 

from  the  rekgious  orders.    The  secular  clergy  he  narration,  while  the  vigour  and  freedom  with  which  it 

treats  without  either  mercy  or  justice,  although  it  ap-  is  written,  as  well  as  its  clarity  and  propriety  of  Ian- 
peara  from  the  testimony  of  Bishop  Montufar  that  at  •  guage,  render  it  pleasing  to  the  reader. 

that  time  they  were  performing  their  duties  correctly,  ,  ^=''""^^' j?>f?^  ^?'^*fe?  h%diana  (Mgrioo.  1870); 

au«4.  *u«,,  l.m!L«.  «k^  i»»^.<«»a.^«  *u^  «u^^«p:»«c.    --TJ  Icasbalcbta,  Obraa  (Mexico,  1005);  Bbristaim.  BibhoUea  Am- 

that  they  knew  the  language  of  the  aboneines,  and  pano^merica^ta    sejOefUrion^    (Amecameoa.    1883);  Bbtam- 

were  on  good  terms  with  the  f nars.  Mendieta  con-  cx>nRT,  Mwnoloaio  franeUcano  (liexioo,  1873). 
duded  by  proposing  that  a  commissary-general  of  Camillus  Cbivelij. 
the  Indies  should  be  appointed,  with  residence  at  Se- 
ville, who  should  arrange  all  tne  afTaira  of  his  order  Mendoia,  Dibgo  Hxtrtaob  db,  a  Spanish  diplomat 
with  the  Council  of  the  Indies.  This  last  was  the  only  and  writer,  and  one  of  the  sreatest  figures  in  tne  his- 
one  of  his  suggestions  which  met  with  approval,  the  tory  of  Spanish  politics  ana  letters:  b.  in  Granada,  of 
first  commissary-general  appointed  being  Francisco  noble  parentage,  about  1503;  d.  in  Madrid,  1575.  He 
de  Guzman,  in  1572,  to  whom  Mendieta  immediately  received  his  early  education  under  private  tutors  and 
wrote  his  congratulations.  later  at  the  University  of  Salamanca.  A  powerful 
On  26  June,  1571,  his  general  ordered  him  back  to  personality,  he  was  a  man  who  carried  to  a  successful 
New  Spain,  askin^^  permission,  as  was  usual,  from  the  termination  whatever  he  imdertook.  He^  was  des- 
Councu  of  the  Indies.  Jer6nimo  de  Albomoz,  Bishop  tined  originally  for  the  Church,  and  acquired  much 
of  Tucuman,  a  member  of  the  council^  opposed  the  knowledge  suited  to  further  his  ecclesiastical  advance- 
granting  of  the  permission,  but  these  difficiUties  were  ment,  both  at  home,  where  he  learned  to  speak  Arabic 
overcome  in  1573,  when  Mendieta  set  out,  taking  with  fluently,  and  at  Salamanca,  where  he  studied  Latin, 
him  several  religious  of  his  order.  In  1575  and  1576  Greek,  philosophy,  civil  and  canon  law.  But  he 
he  was  guardian  of  Xochimilco;  in  15S0  he  was  at  preferred  politics  and  literature,  and  attracted  the 
Tlaltelolco,  and  in  1585  was  superior  of  the  convent  oi  notice  of  Charles  V,  who  sent  him  in  1530  as  ambassa- 
Tlaxcala.  Soon  after  this  he  accompanied  the  com-  dor  to  the  Republic  of  Venice.  In  1543  the  em- 
missary,  AJonso  Ponce,  on  visitations,  and  by  his  ad-  peror  sent  him  as  one  of  his  representatives  to  the 
mirable  tact  and  prudence  kept  himself  out  of  those  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  successfully  sustained 
troubles  which  arose  within  the  order  from  the  opposi-  the  imperial  interests.  While  at  the  Council  he  was 
tioQ  of  the  provincial  and  his  partisans  to  Ponce's  appointed  in  1547  special  ambaBBador  to  Roma  and 


L'  i-  .  -Iw     1.1  \  ■  *   1 


- .»  -«.% 


I  .l.»N. 


U. 


MENDOZA 


187 


MENIVIA 


Medina  t  Mbndosa,  Vida  del  cardinal  Pedro  GonaaUtt  de 
Mendosa  in  Memorial  hUtor.  Eapaflol  VI  (Madrid,  1853),  147- 
310;  Salazar  dk  Mendoza,  Cronioa  de  el  oran  cardenal  de  E^- 
ra/Io,  don  Pedro  Oonralu  de  JWfendo^  ^Toledo,  1625) ;  Prbsoott, 


ist.  of^the  Reion  of  Ferdinand  and  laabeUa,  passim,  especially 

BIichaelOtt. 


captain-genei-al  of-  Siena  in  Tuscany,  whence  he  re-  days  he  lived  a  life  of  laxity,  but,  during  the  twenty- 
turned  to  Spain  in  1554.  two  years  of  iiis  chanoellorsnip,  he  used  his  great  ia- 
As  a  poet  Mendoza  excelled  in  both  the  older  Span-  fluenoe  for  the  good  of  the  Cnurch  and  his  country, 
ish  and  the  new  Italian  measures,  but  his  specimens  being  one  of  the  few  great  men  of  Spain  who  advocated 
of  the  latter  show  more  richness  of  thought,  and  he  the  cause  of  Columbus.  His  great  revenues  were 
probably  exercised  considerable  influence  in  popular-  oonsiuned  in  the  erection  of  magnificent  churches 
uing  and  securing  the  triumph  of  the  Italian  school  of  and  charitable  institutions;  at  VaUadoUd  he  erected 
lyric  poetiv  in  Spain.  In  his  *'  Guerra  de  Granada",  at  his  own  expense  the  College  of  Santa  Cnus  for  poor 
published  m  Lisbon  in  1627,  he  shows  himself  a  master  students,  and  at  Toledo  a  hospital  of  the  same  name 
of  prose.  It  was  written  during  his  esdle  at  Granada  for  foundlings.  To  the  latter  he  bequeathed  his  en- 
(156^-1571),  whither  he  had  been  sent  by  Philip  II  tire  fortune  of  75,000  ducats.  On  his  death-bed  he 
after  some  trouble  with  a  noble  at  court,  and  is  a  recommended  the  great  Ximenes  as  his  successor, 
master Iv  piece  of  Spanish  prose  writing.  His  "  La- 
nuriJlo  ae  Tormes"  is  a  work  of  genius.    He  is  said  to 

have  written  it  while  he  was  at  tne  university  or  soon         

after  leaving  it.    It  is  the  autobiography  of  a  Doy  bom  « "?.-  ^^J^  ^ 

on  the  banks  of  the  Tonnes  near  Salamanca,  and  its  ^    "•  ^  ^^'  ^ 

object  is  to  satirize  all  classes  of  Spanish  society.    It  is 

written  in  rich  Idiomatic  Spanish,  and  after  1553,  when        Menendes  da  Aviles,  Pedro.    See  Florida. 

it  &^  appealed  it  went  tWugh  many  ed^^^^^^     both        Menases,  Osorio  Francisco,  Spanish  painter,  b.  at 

I^!?^nnUrifv  h"^H  t^^nv  ^mU^^^  ^^^  ScviUc,  1630;  d.  probably  in  the'same  pla<£,  17051  It  is 

^^Mf^'4'd^t^^^  II  for  extraoniinaryth^atsoyerylittlei^^ 

th^  &c^  library  h£  valuable  collection  o?  boo'ks  ^ZTtXlliil^^ aXtiK^S'oU^ 

and  manuscripts  mcluding  the  Arabic  ones  he  had  ^forS  c^nToS^  a&       to  thfSr^me  f rom 

found  in  Gianada,  and  they  remam  there  to  this  day.  J^  bJiK^hS  du^^^ 

^K?*^J^^^^^"^^.^^^^  bySoaThStd^^^^^^ 

pubhshcs  htt  "If •arU^o''  m  the  third  volume  h^  ^iaintance  of  Juan  Garzon,  with  whom  he  worked, 
poems  m  the  thirty-second,  and  selected  works  m    A^*  i^^  .         x^^  aecretarv  and  later  on  nivsil 

fK-*  ^wiMifv-fiiHif  ««/4  fkif^^^v-afviii  voiiimAa  ^"**  "5  was  ai  ouc  ume  secreiary,  aiia  laier  on  presi- 

dent of  the  Academy  of  Seville,  and  that  while  m  that 
city  he  had  a  high  reputation,  not  onlv  for  his  skill,  but 
also  for  his  personal  devoutness.  This  reputatioiL  it 
"ia  Bfti'dj  wns  s»iiM!iwhnt  discounted  after  his  death,  oe- 
MendoiSi   Francisco    Sarmiento    de,   Spansih    eaus%  %7^  TW^dered  that  some  of  his  copies  of 

■"       ^       niamlo  8  wdrks  Were  so  accurate  that  he  should  have 

was  in  fact  suggested  that 
accepted  as  genuine  works 
occupied  a  professorial  chair  in  canon  law.  Afier  by  Murillo.  On  the  otlier  hanci,  these  statements  are 
being  auditor  for  six  years  at  Valladolid,  he  was  db-  ,  ,deplare^  4)y  Qp^  ^pan  sh  author  to  have  been  made 
pointed  auditor  of  the  rota  in  Rome  and  held  tto    oiJy'\^tli*aViet^^^  His  princi- 

offioe  for  twelve  years.  In  1574  he  became  Bishop  {or  '  P^l  V6rk^lims  p^t^  f  »r  the  church  of  Saint  Martin  at 
Asrtorga,  whence  he  was  transferred  to  the  more  ifi-  -Madrid,  and  reprAent^  the  Prophet  Elijah.  There  is  a 
portant  See  of  Jaen  in  1580.  He  was  a  model  bish»p'""fiflg  work-byten-tit-the  museum  at  Cadiz,  and  in  the 
and  extremely  charitable.  He  wrote  some  works  on  museum  at  Seville,  a  picture  dealing  with  the  Order  of 
canon  law,  ttie  best  known  of  which  are  "Selectarum  St.  Francis.  A  work  representing  St.  Catherine,  which 
interpretationum  libri  VHI "  (Rome,  1571,  Burgos,  is  preserved  at  Cadiz,  is  said  to  have  been  commenced 
1673,  1575.  Antwerp,  1616),  and  "  De  redditibus  eccle-  by  Murillo.  Meneses  is  stated  to  have  had  a  special 
siaatids"  (Rome,  1569,  Burgos,  1573,  1575).  In  the  devotion  for  St.  Philip  Neri,  and  to  have  been  buried 
latter,  which  is  dedicated  to  Pius  V,  he  argues  against    ui  the  chureh  dedicated  to  that  saint. 


the  twenty-first  and  thirty-sixth  volumes. 

TiGCNOR,  Hidoru  of  Spantah  Literal.  (Boston,  1866);  Fm- 
maubics-Kbllt,  aialory  of  Spaniah  Literal.  (New  York,  1006). 

Ventura  Fuentes. 


to  the  poor  that  part  of  their  revenues  which  is  not     aon,  1848);  Huaro,  Vie  Compute  dee  Peintree  EapagnoU  (Paris, 

necessary  for  their  own  sustenance.    His  complete    1^®)-  ^  -.  ,_. 

works  were  published  in  three  volumes  (Antwerp,  George  Charles  Wiluamson. 

MenBvla.  Diocebe  of  (Menevbnsib). — Mervevia  is 
said  to  be  oerived  from  Menapiay  the  name  of  an  an- 
cient Roman  settlement  supposed  to  have  existed  in 
Pembrokeshire,  or  Hen  Meneu  (vetua  nUma)  where  St. 
David  was  bom.  From  the  time  of  the  establishment 
of  the  four  vicars  Apostolic  in  England,  in  1688,  Wales 
belonged  to  the  Vicariate  of  the  Western  District.  In 
1 840  it  was  made  a  separate  vicariate  by  Gregory  XVI : 
in  1850  the  Catholic  hierarchy  was  re-estabhshed,  and 
Wales  was  divided  between  the  Dioceses  of  Shrewsbury 
and  Newport.    In  1895  the  principality,  with  the 


1616). 

ANTomo,  BiMiothecaHiapana  nova  (Madrid,  1783-8),  1, 470; 
ScBULTS,  Dm  OeachichU  der  Qudlen  und  Literalur  dee  tanonir 
acKen  Reeklea  (Stuttgart,  1880),  I,  729. 

Michael  Ott. 

MemdoiA,  Pedro  Gonzalez  de,  Cardinal  and  Pri- 
mate of  Spain,  b.  at  Guadalajara,  3  May,  1428;  d. 
there,  11  January,  1495.  He  came  to  the  court  of 
King  Juan  II  of  Castile  in  1450,  was  made  canon  of 
Toledo  the  same  year,  and  became  Bishop  of  Calahorra 
on  28  November,  1453,  and  of  Siguenza  on  30  October, 


1467.    On  7  May,  1473,  he  was  created  cardinal-  exception  of  Glamorganshire  was  again  formed  into 

deacon  with  the  titular  chureh  of  S .  Maria  in  Dominica ;  a  separate  vicariate  Apostolic.     Right  Rev.  Francis 

on  9  Blay,  1474,  he  became  Arehbishop  of  Seville;  on  Joseph  Mostyn,  son  of  Sir  Pyers  Mostyn,  eija^th  bar- 

6  July,  1478,  cardinal-priest  with  the  titular  church  of  onet,  of  Talacre  in  North  Wales,  was  appointed  first 

Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme;  and  finallv,  on   13  vicar  Apostolic,  his  titular  see  being  Ascalon.    In 

November,  1482,  Arehbishop  of  Toledo  and  Primate  1898  he  was  transferred  to  Menevia  when  the  vicariate 

of  Spain.    From  8  July,  1482,  to  15  January,  1483,  was  made  a  diocese  by  Leo  XIII.    The  Bishop  of 

he  was  also  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Osma.    In  Menevia  is  the  only  member  of  the  hierarchy  who  holds 

1473  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  King  Henry  IV  one  of  the  ancient  titles  of  pre-Reformation  times. 

of  Castile  and,  after  Henry's  death  in  1474,  grand  The  diocese  is  under  the  patronage  of  Our  Lady  Help 

fshanceUor  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.    In  his  younger  of  OiriBtians,  St.  David,  and  St.  Winefride,  patrons  of 


wwaABtin                    188  ihnoaeini 

WsIm.    It  raven  6500  square  miles  of  oountiy,  moat  of  Olamoiganahire,  in  bU  some  3600  sqtttn  milea. 

<rf  which  ia  rugged  and  mountftinouB;   then  sre  no  lliough  it  wu  never  an  arehbishoraie,  it  ia  far  from 

lane  towne,  ao  that  the  Catholic  population  of  some  clear  vben  St.  David's  came  definitelr  under  the 

8500  aoula  is  much  scattered  in  fiounti7  distriotfl.    To  metropolitan  jurisdiotion  of  Canterburj'.   About  11  IS, 

meet  the  spiritual  needs  of  this  little  Sock  there  are  however,  Henry  I  intruded  a  Nonnan,  Bernard  (1115- 

forty-thiee  public  churches,  chapels,  and  stations,  be-  1147},  into  the  see.     Bernard's  rule  was  wise  and 

Bides  twelve  chapels  bekui^ng  to  religious  communitiee.  vigorous;    but  on  the  death  oif  Henry  he  claimed 

The  number  of  priests  (in  1910)  is  eighty-two,  twenty-  metropoUtan  jurisdiction  over  Wales,  and  presented 

ei^t  seculars  and  fifty-four  rq^ars;  more  than  half  his  suit  unBucceesfully  before  six  suocessive  popee>. 

this  number  of  regulars  is  accounted  for  by  the  raonas-  This  claim  was  afterwards  revived  in  the  time  of 

tery  of  Breton  Benedictines,  at  Caermana,  near  Car*  Giraldus  Cambrensis  (q.  v.).    Among  the  more  f»- 

dipm,  liiB  convent  of  Franciscan  Capuchins  at  Pant-  mous  bishops  who  held  the  eee  before  the  ReformstioD 

asaph,  and  St  Beuno's  College,  the  theoli^te  of  the  may  be  mentioned  Peter  deLeia  (1176-1203),  who  be- 

English  Jesuits,     lliese  reli^ous,  as  wellaeOblatesof  nnthebuildingofthepresenteatnedralof  St.  David's; 

Kuy  Immaculate  and  Fassionists,  serve  various  mis-  Henry  Gower  (1328-^7) ;  and  Edward  Vaughan  (1609- 

sions  throughout  the  diocese.    There  are  convents  of  23),  who  made  considerable  additions  to  the  same;  ths 

nine  congre^tions  of  nuns,  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  learnedJohnThorBby(1347-S0)afterwardstranBfe>Ted 

Ghoet  (White  Sisters)  having  no  leea  than  seven.  totheArchbishopricofYork;  Henry Chicheley  (q.  v.) 

The  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Dotouis,  Wrexham,  serves  (1408-14),  afterwards  Archbishop  «  Canterbluy ;  and 

as  pro-oathedral;    on  10  August,  1909,  a  cathedral  t^  notorious  William  Barlow  (lS3ft-48),  the  so-called 

chapter,     consisting  consecrator  of  Arcb- 

of  a  provost  and  four  bishop   Parker   in 

canons,  was  erected.  1569.  'The  last  Catlt- 

The  diocese  is  rich  olio  bishop,   Henry 

in  ralics  of  the  Afss  Morgan     (1554-59), 

of   Faith,   thiolily  was,  like  the  rest  of 

strewn  as  it  is  with  the  Catholic  bishops, 

churches  once  Oath*  deprived  of  his  see  oy 

olic,  but  now  used  Elisabeth,   but  was 

for  Protestant  wor<  saved  by  death  from 

ship,  and  with  ruins  sharing  their  impris- 

of  ancient  Catholic  onment  for  the  Faith. 

sanctuaries  and  holy  The    oldest     por- 

wells  named  after  the  tionsof  tfaecathednU, 

countless    saints    of  dating  from   1180, 

the  British  Church;  belong  to  the  period 

most  famous  of  these  of    transition    from 

is  the  holy  well  of  St.  the  Early  English  to 

Winefride  (q.  v.)  at  the  Decorated  style 

Holywell,    which   is  of  architecture;  the 

and  always  has  been                                East  Cbooi.  8t.  Datid'b  Catbidrai,  additions  of  Bishop 

in    Catholic    hands.                               (fonnerly  CatboBi),  St  DmtU'*,  Walts  Gower,  including  Ibe 

This  miraculous  well  has  been  a  centre  of  pilgrim-  beautiful  stone  rood  screen,  are  excellent  examples  of 

'■■'-'  ---•'--  -■-  ■"'-'-'-  >-^-  "-  Decorated8tyle,whiletothenorthofthecatliedntl 
the  ruins  of  his  magnificent  episcopal  palace.  In 
2  a  partial  restoration  of  the  cathedral  was  bc^un 
Sir  G.  G.  Scott.     The  shrine  of  St.  David  in  ths 

BiaauH  uver  t^tin  wcu  vma  vrvciwi  lun&iue  tuc  (.ivoQ  VI  ukthedral  WE^  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage;   it  is  sud 

the  fifteenth  century.     The  mission  has  been  served  that  by  fsvourof  CallistusII.whocanonised  thesaint 

by  the  Society  of  Jesus  since  about  1600.    St.  Hary's  two  pilgrimages  to  St.  Davia's  were  to  be  accounteo 

College  is  a  small  episcopal  college  in  the  town,  for  the  equal  to  one  to  Rome: — 

education  of  boys  to  supply  priests  for  the  diocese;  the  Meneviam  pete  bis,  Roman  adiie  si  vis; 

Welsh  language  is  a  prominent  feature  inthecurricu-  Mercea  (equa  tibi  redditur  hie  et  ibi; 

lum.    TheDiocescofMcnevia  is  the  restoration  of  the  Roma  semel,  quantum  dat  bis  Uenevia,  tantum 

ancient  Catholic  Dioceae  of  St   Ds^d's,  the  tamda-  f^^j^^j  [^^  f^^d  ^t  (i„  ^^^^^  ,,y  Archbishop  Peek- 

tion  of  which,  m  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  century,  J^  1240-92)                                                       "f*""* 

is  ti*ditionally  attributed  to  that  saint.      The  con-  ^aiMic  Dirodorg  tl840-1860j  1S86-IB10):   Folbt.  R«mu 

tention  of  recent  hLstonans  that  there  were  no  tern-  a/ Englith  Pnmna  S.  J..  IV  (Ltmdon,  187B),  £28  {for  Holy- 

torial  bishops  in  Wales  at  so  early  a  date,  but  only  ye!!):  Beyab.  ZH««m  Hi*™,  SI.  OmfT,  (lomlon.  isifi; 

monastic  bishoi«  without  .sees,  is  considered  hsscle^  ir^oToJ^'^T^S.tT!j!,fB^S2fs%^S^iJ:!S,: 

by    Dr.  Zimmer,  no    partisan    authonty.       'Thoueh  190»),2S5:aiRiLi.DVaCi.UBin.Kau,DeJurtttStaitiUmevtiuu 

monsBtieism  was  strong  in  it,  it  did  not  impart  to  the  Ectlrria  (Rnll»  Sena):   ZiiuiEn  in  Rm^KykL  fir  pnt.  TAot, 

(W,l.h)  Chuxch  .ith„  i»  .hj«ct.r  or  it.  torn."  Sj'^J^'iir/.rSiiJ'SX.tJKS.^.SM 

(ResJencyklopadie,  X,  224).     The  four  independent  Baiitw.                                                                        — — •- 

Welsh  sees  were  co-extensive  with  the  four  independ-  Keneui  Dicbt  Bevtx. 
ent  principalities  that  had  come  into  being  during 

the   sixth   century;    Menevia  with  Dyfed,  LlandaS  Mangulnl,  Greoorio,  pioneer  missionary  of  the 

Gwyned„,  , .,, , , 

"The  records  of  the  history  of  the  diocese  before  Nor-  nia,  23  September,  1886.    He  entered  the  Jeaiiit  novi- 

man  times  are  very  fraementary,  consisting  of  a  few  tiate  in  1828,  when  barely  seventeen,  and  later  served 

chance  references  in  oldchronicles,  such  as  "Annaiea  as  instructor  in  grammar,  for  which  his  philolo^cat 

C^mbriEe"  and  "Brut  y  Tywysogion"  (Rolls  Series),  bent  particularly  fitted  him,  at  Rome,  Modeua,  and 

Originally  corresponding  with  the  bounds --- -"^-      " «ri-:'-  -.-.j-.: .  .u-  n r._ii —  ;_ 

fed  (Dometia),  St.  David's  eventually  co    ,  .            „ 

the  country  south  of  the  River  Dovey  and  west  of  the  the  appeal  of  the  Flatheads  for  missionary  priests, 

Enigjish  border,  with  the  exception  of  the  greater  part  was  read  out  in  the  refectory,  and  Mengarini  was  at 


189  ihkob 

QDce  moved  to  volunteer  for  the  work.    Ordained  in  Powers's  " Tribes  of  California's  volume  III  of  the 

Marah,  1840,  he  sailed  with  Father  Coiling,  another  same  series,  published  in  the  same  year.    He  eon^ 

volunteer,  from  Leghorn  on  23  J\ily,  ana  after  a  tributed  some  Unguistio  notes  in  the  "Journal  of  the 

tedious  nine  weeks'  vo^a^  landed  at  Philadelphia.  Anthropological  lostitute  of  New  York",  I  (1871-2). 

From  Baltimore  the  missionaries  found  their  way  to  His  interesting  personal  memoir,  "  The  Rocl^  Moun- 

the  University  of  Georgetown,  District  of  Colum-  tains",  published  in  the  Woodstock  Letters  for  1888, 

bia,  and  a  little  later  to  St.  Louis,  where  it  was  de-  was  dictated  a  few  months  before  his  death. 


IMftTujr  Mil  nuvwuuv  w  ujB  vviuv  ouu  juiuwicuiSo  ui  music  ed.,  uruflseu  and  Jfans,  15M}:  riLUNo.  tsuntoorapnu  oj  Ui& 

— possessions  of  no  little  value  in  Indian  mission  Saliahan  Lanquages  in  Bur.   Amer.   Ethnology  (WMnincton, 

work.    On  24  April,  1841,  FatheraDeSmet,Mengarini,  1803);  SH*A.&a«^toMimow  (New  York.  l864). 

and  Point,  with  the  lay  brothera  Specht,  Huett,  and  ''^^  moonby. 

Classens,  and  nine  other  companions,  bc^an  the  long  MengB,  Anthon  Rafael,  Bohemian  painter,  usu* 

journey  by  river  and  overland  trail  to  Fort  Hall,  ally  re^uxied  as  belonging  to  the  Italian  or  Spanish 

Idaho,  then  a  trading  i>06t,  where  they  arrived  on  the  school,  D.  at  Aussig  in  Bohemia,  12  liarch,  1728;  d.  in 

Feast  of  the  Assumption  (15  August),  and  foimd  a  Rome,  29  June,  1/79.    He  received  his  instruction 

party  of  Flatheads  waiting  to  conduct  them  to  their  from  his  father,  Ismael  Mengs,  who  went  to  Dresden 

final  destination.    It  was  nearly  a  month  later  when  while  his  son  was  quite  young,  and  in  1741  moved  to 

they  arrived  at  the  chosen  site  on  St.  Mary's  river,  Rome,  where  he  copied  in  miniature  some  works  of 

Montana,  in  the  Flathead  country,  and  be^^  the  Raphael  for  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  which  were  in- 

foundations   of  the   log  mission,   the   missionaries  tended  for  Dresden.    From  his  youth  Mengs  was  an 

themselves  leadingthe  work  of  cutting  the  froaen  energetic  and  skilful  artist,  and  he  was  appointed  a 

earth  with  axes.    The  church  and  house  were  of  Iocs  painter  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  before  he  was  sixteen 

plastered  between  with  clay,  and  were  thatched  witn  years  old,  his  skill  in  crayon  portraiture  having  at- 

reeds,  the  rooms  being  partitioned  with  curtains  of  tracted  attention  in  Dresden.    He  did  not.  however, 

deerskin  and  thin  scraped  deerskin  being  used  in  feel  disposed  to  accept  the  position,  and  declined  it 

lieu  of  glass  for  the  windows.    The  winter  cold  was  so  with  becoming  modesty,  returning  to  Rome,  devoting 

intense  that  the  buffalo-skin  robes  in  which  they  himself  to  his  studies,  and  working  with  his  father  for 

wrapped  themselves  at  night  were  frozen  stiff,  and  had  four  years.    In  Rome  he  married  Margarita  Quazzi,  a 

to  be  thawed  out  each  momizig.     To  the  native  of  poor  and  virtuous  peasant  girl  who  had  sat  for  him  as 

sunny  Italy  these  early  winters  in  Montana  mountains  a  model.    At  the  same  time  Mengs  became  a  Catholic, 

were  among  the  most  vivid  recollections  of  later  and  the  marriage  took  place  in  the  Catholic  church. 

years.  Shortly  afterwards  he  returned  again  to  Dresden  with 

The  missionaries  at  once  began  the  study  of  the  Ian-  his  fauier,  but  speedily  had  a  serious  difficulty  with 

euage,  translating  into  it  simple  prayers  and  hymns,  him,  being  turned  with  his  wife  and  daughter  into  the 

Mengarini  composed  a  Salish  grammar  which  is  still  street.    The  King  of  Poland,  who  was  then  Elector  of 

the  standard  for  the  connate  dialects.    He  taught  tiie  Saxony,  promptly  named  him  a  second  time  as  a  painter 

children  to  sing  in  Salish  hymns  of  his  own  compo-  in  ordinary  to  the  Royal  household,  and  employed 

sition,  and  even  trained  an  Indian  band  for  service  him  to  decorate  the  Catnolic  church  in  Dresden.    Ow- 

on  feast  days.    The  work  progressed  imtil   1849,  ing  to  difficulties  in  the  king's  finances-,  Mengs  went 

when,  in  consequence  of  the  inroads  of  the  Blackfeet  again  to  Rome  in  1752,  and  was  there  employed  by  the 

and  the  defection  and  relapse  of  a  large  part  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  to  make  copies  of  several 

Flathead  tribe  under  a  rival  claimant  for  the  chief-  important  pictures  by  Raphael  still  in  the  possession 

tainship,  it  was  decided  to  close  the  mission,  and  of  the  present  holder  of  the  title,  and  to  be  seen  at  Al- 

Mengarini  was  summoned  to  join  Father  Accolti,  the  bury  and  Alnwick.    For  many  years  Mengs  supported 

superior  of  the  north-western  Jesuit  missions,  in  Ore-  himself  in  Rome  by  various  commissions,  as  all  lus  in- 

gon.     About  a  year  later,  on  request  of  Archbishop  come  from  Dresden  had  been  stopped,  the  Emperor 

Alemany  of  San  Francisco  for  Jesuit  workers,  he  was  fVederick  having  driven  the  King  of  Poland  out  of 

sent  to  aid  in  establishing  at  Santa  Clara  the  Califor-  Saxony.    It  was  at  this  time  that  Mengs  painted  a 

nian  mission  which  was  the  nucleus  of  the  present  superb  fresco  on  the  dome  of  the  church  of  St.  Euse- 

coUege.     In  the  meantime  the  repentant  Flatheads  bins  in  Rome,  and  another  very  important  work  in  the 

had  sent  to  Oregon  to  ask  for  his  return.    They  were  Villa  Albani.    He  then  went  on  to  Naples,  and  exe- 

told  this  was  impossible  as  he  was  then  assigned  to  cuted  various  commissions,  painting  an  important 

another  station,  but  on  their  ureent  desire  the  Flat-  altar-piece   for  Caserta,    ana   some   portraits,    but 

head  mission  was  re-established  at  St.  Ignatius  in  auickly  returned  to  Rome  for  a  short  time,  and  was 

1851.     Mengarini  remained  at  Santa  Clara  for  the  rest  tnen  pressed  to  enter  the  service  of  the  SjpaniBh  King, 

of  his  life,  acting  for  thirty  years  as  treasurer  or  vice-  Charles  III.    He  arrived  at  Madrid  in  1761.    Here  he 

president,  until  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  and  failing  sight  carried  out  a  very  large  number  of  commissions,  and 

caused  his  retirement  from  active  duties.    The  hard-  was  a  member,  and  eventually  the  director  of  the 

est  trial  came  when  his  eyes  became  too  weak  to  allow  Academy  of  St.  Ferdinand.    Once  more  he  went  back 

him  to  read  Mass.    A  third  stroke  of  apoplexy  ended  to  Rome  for  the  sake  of  his  health,  and  was  employed 

his  life  work  in  his  seventy-sixth  year.  by  Clement  XIV  in  the  Vatican.    He  then  returned  to 

Mengarini's  principal  contribution  to  philology  is  Madrid  in  1773,  and  painted  "the  Apotheosis  of  Tra- 

his  "  S3ish  or  Flathead  Grammar ;  Grammatica  lingus  jan  "  in  the  royal  palace,  and  several  other  pictures  for 

SelicflB" — published   by  the  Cramoisy  Press   (New  Charles  III.    Again  his  health  broke  down,  and  he 

York,  1861)  from  the  tnird  manuscript  copy,  the  first  finally  returned  to  Rome,  where  his  wife  died.    He 

two,  laboriously  written  out  by  him,  naving  been  lost  also  died  there,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  San 

by  Indian  carelessness  or  accident.     Ori^nally  in-  Michele,  where  there  is  a  bronse  monument  to  his 

tended  solely  for  the  use  of  the  missionaries,  it  was  memory. 

written  in  Latin,  and  he  himself  always  said  that  the  Mengs  was  a  skilful  writer,  as  well  as  a  clever 

first  draft  was  the  most  correct.     He  also  furnished  painter,  but  a  man  of  melancholy  disposition,  and  of 

vocabularies  of  the  cognate  Salishan  languages — of  strange,  stem  habits,  too  sparing  in  his  diet,  and  given 

Shwoyelpi  (Colville),  S'chitzui  (Coeur  d'Alene),  and  to  over-exertion.    He  was  an  affectionate  father  and 


MBnrAB  idO 


•  ih:i(« 


srtraordinaiy  merit,  and  his  original  pictures  are  eo-  1516  he  was  ordained  to  the  Catholic  priesthood  and 
lectic  in  their  composition  and  techmque,  correct  in  appointed  assistant  at  Pingjum  not  far  from  Witmar- 
design,  smooth  in  execution,  but  somewhat  too  sweet,  sum.  Later  (1532)  he  was  named  pastor  of  his  native 
and  a  trifle  insipid.  As  a  portrait  painter,  he  had  place,  but  12  January,  1536,  resigned  his  char^  and 
great  success,  and  his  works  in  pastel  and  crayon  are  became  an  Anabaptist  eider.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
amongst  his  finest  creations.  There  are  many  of  his  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  new  sect  which  he  had 
paintings  in  Dresden  and  Vienna,  and  in  the  former  joined.  Though  not  an  imposing  personality  he  ex- 
city  are  some  excellent  miniature  portraits  and  some  ercised  no  small  influence  as  a  speaker  and  more  par- 
copies  in  miniature  of  paintings  by  Raphael.  ticularly  as  a  writer  among  the  more  moderate  holders 
Quihujn,  Dui,  dea  Peinirea  EmaanoU  (Paris,  1816);  Palo-  of  Anabaptist  views.     His  death  occurred  13  Januaiy, 

SS?  l?lSrSSi;!^iSi!?W/i^S^?^/K£^^  1550^  «*  WortenfeWe  m  Hobtein.    The  opinions  hefd 

(London,  1848);  Huard,  Fm  CampUte  des  Peintna  EwpoQnoU  by  Menno  Simons  and  the  Mennomtes  originated  m 

(Paris,  1839).             r^             ^               „r  Switserland.     In  1525  Grebel  and  Mans  founded  an 

Geobob  Chaslbs  Williamson.  Anabaptist  community  at  Zurich.    Persecution  fol- 

MeniiAS,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  from  636  to  ^^^  upon  Uie  veiy  foundation  of  the  »bw  sect,  and 

eeo      -CI    1'   •     r 00  Ti       '*^**««»"w*"wi'*»  ***#«*  ww  vu  ^^^^  excrciscd  ainunst  its  members  until  1710  m  van- 

^ntinWo'a^^Mca^.^itfffflo^ml.y'^^  ous  p«t»  of  sKiand.    It  was  powerless  to  effect 

Gothic  lSp«,  iClahad.    Anthimus,  _Archbiaho^p  of  rn?.''TCt'^'6^'"'r's;r"]Sfn^^tr?nrt'^^ 

Amish  or  Upland  Mennonites  and  Lowland  Mennon- 
ites.    The  former  differ  from  the  latter  in  the  belief 


T«bi«n|Ei^iustbeenWer«du;;^nsUntinU  ^^Tulli^M^oS  l^rCwSl^^S^- 

through  the  influence  of  the  Empress  Theodora,  with  ^     The  farmer  differ  from  the  latter  in  the  belief 

whose  Monophys  te  leanmgs  he  was  in  sympathy,  ^^  e»x>mmumcation  dissolves  marriage,  in  their  re- 

^PS*'S?~^P^?:i!P?K^*fe!!!*^.^>^-*?i!*^  jection  of  buttons  and  of  the  praSof  shavinjj. 


^Jh^  ^^hK'iS.^^;  tt^^^^'t.  It^  Oaring  Menno's  Hfetime  his  foUowets  in  Holland  dt 

S^ fn^^^Wn<?^W^^^L?^f^;.TS.f  vided  (1554)  into  "Flemings"  and  "Waterlandere". 

T^T^h^^'l^^^U^^^^^ti^t  01  •"'wunt  «f  their  diverged  views  on  excommunica^ 

A«nM^2S™H^  ^^^  Wa^l?^  ^™^«^!  «»«»•    The  former  subsequently  split  up  into  different 

w.^^™5^rH~l^J^hf»^-^«n^fcA^i^  parties  and  dwindlediSto  uiiig^caSce,  not  more 

was  prepanng  to  deal  with  this  question  when  he  died.  ful„  ak-^^  a»»»^»«4:^»o  ^.v«.:,X««  ««  .««»1^«4-  :•»  ir^i 

MeZs^JJSLded  with  the  affl^  at  a  sypod  held  .in  te.*^vwSI^^"Lke'STt'?e*"^?Lndf™" 

Constantmople  the  same  year  636  nresidmg  over  it.  until  in  1811  they  united,  dropped  the  name  of  Mennon- 

the  pUce.of  honour  on  his  right  handW  assigned  to  ^^  ^j  ,,,,1,^  then^ves  ^^psgesinde"  (Baptist 

iri.  'fcs'i!lfXth5?A^Si^^?^hS^faikffa';  n""r^'  ^'f  ^5^°*  official^ignatK,nSn  V 

p.^  «id  vindicate  his  orthodoxy, 'was  excommu|  ^IndZd  '^^^.X%'^r^l^:^Z.^ 

cated  together  with  several  of  his  adherents.     In  543  **"*"*"** ..?""    xw*  w*.tcoi«ja*x    v^<.au«»uj.     a«xcuuvuiuc 

yr^ni  ^^       J    A-  •         X*             »«**^*'^"*w.     *ii  w-xw  communities  existed  at  an  early  date,  however,  m 

^dl^tE^  proiwtS'a^n^'lltCS'rep^  ^-^,  ^^JHS^  ^^^  ^y  ^T  ^^""l"^  Tl 

SSn^^'^&lt'll^'t^S^li^'afc  Pntl^^t^J/JTofXrA'Se^ii''^™ 

No  record  of  this  synod  has  been  preserved,  but  Hefele  ^^  "lil^'fnZ^^'^r^^  VZ^S^L?^! 

demonstrates  it  tb  be  more  than  probable  that  the  mS«^     TT,T^{.^tfri^™™„f^St^«H  ^^ 

celebrated  Fifteen  Anathematisms  of  Origen,  mistak-  R^Ln^iIfSttTf^Hl^^  „f^^,^*^v^w 

enly  ascribed  to  the  Fifth  (Ecumenical  Suncil,  were  l^J^J^^t^^J^J^t^^^^'^  aJ^^^III^ 

there  promulgated.    We  now  come  to  the  part  played  ™J^^<*iJ^*SS2^j!,^^T'ifi^  If  al^^^L^ 

by  Mennas  in  the  initial  stage  of  the  ThrlTciiapters  S.'S^^J^^S,  ^..Ktlf  ^  i,^i J^tS^T^*^ 

cintrove«y(8eeCoNOTANni3BpM,CouNaMOp).*^The  ^l^^i'SS^J  <w^^^  LT-?n^OTn&^ 

first  from  wlim  the  emperor  Justiiiian  demand«l  sulv  f^^'^SShi^^n^!^  itS  n^ui^?tV^^^ 

^^ji^'^L" ^eX""' H^S'^t^eSv^^^v^  iTo^^^lrii;'^  Tir^^^twelvT^erenftrThS 

»Il rif^fc^n^.;rfJ?H,w f  M/.  .?^fir,^°!^i^. w  in  the  United  States  in  some  of  which  the  membership 

JL  L?°J?^'S^1fh?^Ah^S^  H^n^^  do«  not  "^oh  lOOO-    Among  the  peculiar  views  of  thi 

h!^^<I?fcf  «.ff^i?^?E^^d"    te  „f  Mennomtes  are  the  following:  re'pudiaUon  of  infant 

nfp^^^^fin^  ♦!^fS'^^ni^^^Sf;hif^7th.  baptism,  oaths,  law-suite,  civil  o«6ce-holding  and  the 

^n^t^S'^i^ll^  th^iT^JlS^  htl^yJ^  »^°«  of  ami.    Baptisin  of  adults  and  tEe  Lord's 

constramt  put  upon  them,    btephen  broke  off  com-    o,,^,^  ;«  «,u:«k  i,^,S nx.^^  :«  «^^  ..^^lUr  .«....«^»4.  « 

munion  witli  Meinas.    When  I^pe  Vigilius  arrived  l^PPfl^i'^T^^^'ifT^i^i^^  n^-^lS^^ 

at  Constantinople  in  547,  he  cut  MeSias  off  from  ^^r^^'J'^^J'?^  Z^^?f^^^J^^I^,  f^i^^A 

te^^S'T'*'?/'''  ^"^  month^    Mennas  re-  ^"^X^W^'^il'S  "f  Sc^^fc^tfor 'Xu 

^«»u^'ir%^?,Lt  2:^  t^o'were  '^  ?}•>-.  J^---.  -  -  ."">«er  univereally  held, 

reconciles^  In  551  Mennas  was  agaiA  excommun"  '^ff  Mennonites  now  accepting  secular  offices.    The 

cated.    When  VigiUus  and  Jufltini«S^came  to  terms,  f^^V  T^.'lSi^Z^i^rA^h^Tth!. fe^^^^ 

Mennas  once  more  made  his  peace  with  the  former  ^^\J^^,f^X!^}^^<S^.^ih^y^^^ 

«,king  pardon  for  having  coiS^unicated  with  thos^  ^me'STo^rSZt^rS'S^G;^^  W^ 

A^  552^*^          excommumcated.    He  died  m  r^j^.  'jgoQ  ,„  gwitserUd ;  20,000  in  Cankda,  and  a^ 

^JSuiit  ta  knotm  ri>oat  Mam»  will  be  found  in  Hcnuc,  «2'^»n«  to  Dr.  Carroll  (Christian  Advo^te,  New  York. 

CowteiU,  IV  (Eng.  tr.).     The  most  important  of  tlie  orunnai  27  January,  1910),  55,007  in  the  United  States, 

■ouroea  are  tlie  Aett  of  tlie  synod  at  Constantinople  in  536  Bar-  Cramer,  Bibtiotheea  Refitrmaloria  Neerlandica,  II  and  V  (The 

Doum,  II,  Uanai.  VIII,  and  Facundus,  Pro  dejfauion*  trium  Riupie,  1903,  aqq.):  Carroll,  Ac/jstoiu  Forcet  of  (Ac  United 

CapMlorum  (JP.  L,  LXVlI.  CUiawK,  XI).  Slates  (New  York,  1800),  206-320;  Wedel,  GrmJiidiU  dtr  Mm- 

F.  J.  Bacchus.  nonttcn  (Newton,  Kansas,  1900-Oi);  Shitb,  Th*  Mtmumiltt  o* 

America  (Goshen,  Indiana,  1009);  Cramer  and  Horscb  in  iVos 

MennoxdteB,  a  Protestant  denomination  Of  Europe  Sch^-BerMpgEncycLB.v.ifiew^oTKi9i0h 

and  America  which  arose  in  Switzerland  in  the  six-  * 
teenth  century  and  derived  its  name  from  Menno 

Simons,  its  leader  in  Holland.     Menno  Simons  was  Menochio,   Giovanni    Stbfano^   Jesuit    Biblical 

bom  in  1402  at  Witmarsum  in  Friesland.    In  1515  or  scholar,  b.  at  Padua,  1575;  d.  in  Rome,  4  Feb.,.  1655. 


MEN  191  MENOLOGIUM 

Heenteied  the  Society  of  Jesus,  25  May,  1594.  Aftertlie  Bishop  of  Oambrai,  seems  to  have  taken  the  first  steps 

usual  years  of  training  and  of  teaching  the  classics,  he  towu^  the  suppression  of  the  heresy.    William  of 

became  professor  of  sacred  scripture  and  then  of  moral  Hildermssen  consented  to  a  retractation,  the  sincerity 

theolosr  at  Biilan ;  thereafter  began  his  long  life  of  su-  of  which  appeared  doubtful.    In  141 1  a  second  inves- 

periorsnip.     He  was  successively  superior  of  Cremona,  tigation  resulted  in  another  retractation,  but  also  in  a 

Milan,  and  Genoa,  rector  of  the  Koman  College^  provin-  sentence  compelling  Williai  .  to  return  permanently  to 

cial  of  the  provinces  of  Milan  and  Rome,  assistant  of  an  jztra-dioccsan  Caimelite  monastery  after  three 

Italy,  and  admonitorto  the  Fathers-General  Garafa  and  y^ears'  detention  in  one  of  the  episcopal  castles.    No 

Piocolomini.     The  ex^etical  work  of  Menochio  is  still  information  has  reached  us  respecting  the  result  of  the 

deservedly  famous.    His  first  essay  along  this  line  wcs  a  inquisitorial  procedure  against  the  other  members  of 

politico-Biblical  study: '' Hieropolitioon,  sive  Institu-  the  sect. 


tics  was  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Alessandro  Orsini.    A  1S88).  '       '  '     N.  A .  Webbb. 

second  edition  (Cologne,  1626)  was  dedicated  to  Fer- 
dinand III.    Tne  Jesuit  poet  Sarbiewski  made  this        Ifeiioloffliim. — Although  the  word  Menologium  (in 

study  the  subject  of  an  ode  (see  "Lyrica",  II,  n.  English  also  written  Menology  and  MenolQge)  has 

18).  been  in  some  measure,  as  we  shall  see,  adopted  for 

The  next  year  there  appeared  an  economic  study  of  Western  use,  it  is  originally  and  in  strictness  a  name 

the  Bible:  " Institutiones  CEconomic®  ex  Sacris  Lit-  describing  a  particiuar  service-book  of  tib«  Greek 

tens  depromptee '',  543  pages  (Lyons,  1627).    The  Church.    From  its  derivation  the  term  Menologium 

author  transtated  into  ItaliiEui  these  lessons  on  the  (mypoX^iof,  from  m^*'"  a  month")  means  "month-set", 

care  of  one's  own  household ;  this  translation  was  in  other  words,  a  book  arranged  according  to  the 

a  posthumous  publication:  "Economia  Christiana",  months.    Like  a  good  many  other  liturgiciu  terms, 

542  pages  (Venice,  1656).    The  woric  by  which  Meno-  e.  g.  lectionaiy  (q.  v.),  the  word  has  been  used  in 

chio  lives  and  will  live  is  his  "  Brevis  Eiqplicatio  Sensus  several  qmte  distinct  senses  by  writers  of  authority, 

LitteraUs  SacrsB  Scriptune  optimis  quibusque  Auo-  and  the  main  piirpose  of  the  present  notice  must  be  to 

toribus  per  £2pitomen  Collecta",  3  vols.,  115  pa^,  try  to  elucidate  this  confusion. 
449,   549 + 29  (Cologne,  1630) .    Many  other  editions        (1)  In  the  first  place  Menoloeium  is  not  unf  requently 

of  this  commentary  have  been  published  in  many  used  as  synon^rmous  with  Menaion  (jiiipahp).    The 

lands:  Cologne,  1659;  Antwerp,  1679;  Lyons,  1683,  Menaia  usually  in  twelve  volumes,  one  to  each  month, 

1697,  1703;  the  revised  editions  of  Toumemine,  S.J.,  but  sometimes  bound  in  three,  form  an  office-book« 

published  at  Paris,  1719,  1721,  1731:  Avignon,  1768;  which  in  the  Greek  Church,  corresponds,  though  very 

Ghent,  1829 ;  the  enlarged  and  revised  editions  of  Zao-  roughly,  to  the  Propnum  Sanetarum  of  the  Breviary, 

caria,  SJ.,  published  at  Venice,  1743, 1755, 1761.  The  They  mdude  all  the  movable  parts  of  the  services 

at^ioUa  of  Menochio  are  introduced  into  the  **  Biblia  connected  with  the  commemoration  of  saints  and  in 

Maspa"  and  "Biblia  Maxima"  of  de  La  Have;  the  particular  the  canons  sung  in  the  Orthros,  the  office 

"  Biblia  Sacra"  of  Lucas  Brugensis;  the  ''^Cursus  which  corresponds  with  our  Lauds,  including  the 

Script.  Sacr."  of  Migne;  fourteen  editions  of  the  synaxaries,  i.  e.  the  historical  notices  r^arding  the 

"Samte  Bible''  of  Carridre,  S.J.;  and  "La  Sainte  saints  of  the  day,  which  are  always  inserted  between 

Bible  "  of  Drioux  (Paris,  1873) .  the  sixth  and  seventh  odes  of  the  canon.    The  Svnax- 

T^e  clearness,  brevity,  and  critical  acumen  of  Meno-  aries  are  read  in  this  place  very  much  as  the  Marty- 
chio  have  won  him  the  praise  of  friend  and  foe.  The  rologium  for  the  day  is  interpolated  in  the  choral 
father  of  modem  criticism,  Simon,  though  not  at  all  recitation  of  Prime  in  the  offices  of  Western  Christen- 
in  sympathy  with  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Jesuit,  says:  dom.  (2)  Secondlv  and  more  freauently,  the  term 
"  Cest  un  des  plus  judicieux  scoliastes  que  nous  Menolo^um  is  used  to  denote  the  CMue  collection  of 
ayons  tant  sur  le  Vieux  que  sur  le  Nouveau  Tes-  those  historical  notices  just  mentioned,  without  the 
tament"  (Hist.  Crit.  du  N.  T.,  xliv).  Reusch  odes  and  the  other  matter  of  the  canons  in  which  they 
(Kirchenlex.)  prefers  the  notes  of  Menochio  to  those  of  are  inserted.  Such  a  collection,  consisting  as  it  does 
8a  and  Mariana.  The  I^ethod  of  this  great  commen-  purelv  of  historical  matter,  bears  a  considerable  ro- 
tator was  that  of  the  best  Catholic  exegetes  of  to-day;  semblance,  as  will  be  readilv  understood,  to  our 
a  method  which  sought  to  find  the  literal  meaning  of  Martyrology,  although  the  notices  of  the  saints  are  for 
Holy  Writ  in  the  Bmle  and  the  Fathers.  Menochio  the  most  part  considerably  lander  and  fuller  than  those 
stuaied  the  text  in  its  original,  and  brought  to  bc&r  found  in  our  Martyrology,  whue  on  the  other  hand  the 
upon  that  study  a  vast  store  of  knowledge  of  Jewish  number  of  entries  is  smaller.  The  "Menology  of 
antiquities.  Basil",  a  work  of  eariy  date  often  referred  to  in  con- 

BoMiautyooBL,  BMwtMqu*  de  la  Compagnie  de  J.,  V,  IX.  nexion  with  the  history  of  the  Greek  Offices,  is  a  book 

Wai/feb  Drttm.  of  this  class.     (3)  Thirdly,  it  frequently  happens  that 

the  tables  of  scriptural  lessons,  arranged  aocordinff  to 

Men  of  Understanding  (Hominsb  Intblligen-  months  and  saints'  days,  which  are  often  founa  at 

Ttx),  name  assumed  by  a  heretical  sect  which  in  141(V-  the  beginning  of  manuscripts  of  the  ^pels  or  other 

11  was  cited  before  the  Inquisition  at  Brussels.    Its  lectionaries,  are  described  as  menologia.    The  saints' 

leaders  were  E^dius  Cantoris,  an  illiterate  la3rman,  da^  are  briefly  named  and  the  readings  indicated 

and  the  Carmehte  William  of  Hildemissen,  near  Ber-  beside  each  *  thus  the  document  so  designated  corre- 

gen-op-Zoom.    Tlie  sect  was  doctrinally  related  with  sponds  much  more  closely  to  a  calendar  than  anything 

the  earlier  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit.    It  taught  ^e  else  of  Western  use  to  which  we  can  compare  it.    (4) 

eventual  salvation  of  all  human  beings  and  even  of  the  Lastly  the  word  Menologium  is  very  widely  applied  to 

demons,  maintained  that  the  soul  of  man  cannot  be  the  collections  of  long  lives  of  the  saints  of  toe  Greek 

defiled  by  bodily  sin,  and  believed  in  a  mystical  state  of  Church,  whenever  these  lives,  as  commonly  hapnens, 

illumination  and  union  with  God  so  perfect,  that  it  are  arranged  according  to  months  and  days  of  the 

exempted  from  all  subjection  to  moral  and  ecclesias-  month.    This  arrangement  has  always  been  a  favour- 

tical  laws  and  was  an  infallible  pledg^  of  salvation,  ite  one  also  in  the  great  Legendaria  of  the  West,  and  it 

Both  leaders  gloried  in  the  visions  with  which  they  might  be  Olustratod  from  the  "Acta  Sanctorum"  or 

claimed  to  have  been  favoured.  Cantoris  in  a  moment  the  well-known  lives  of  the  Saints  by  Surius.    The 

of  reliffious  exaltation  went  so  far  as  to  run  nude  Greek  compilers  however  regard  September  as  the  first 

throun^  the  streets  of  Brussels  declaring  himself  the  and  August  as  the  last  month  of  the  fHWlflsimrtioal 

saviour  of  mankind.    About  1410  Peter  d'Ailly,  year. 


192 

As  for  proprietor  of  usage  it  must  be  oonfessed  that    Though  Fathers   Nurembeig  and   Nadad  compiled 
the  question  is  primarily  one  of  convenienoe ;  but  on    ooUeetions  of  a  similar  character,  they  did  not  bear  the 

the  whole  it  seems  desirable  that  the  term  Menologium  name  Menologium.    The  eariiest  Jesuit  compilation 
should  be  limited  to  the  fourth  acoeptatioD  among    which  is  so  styled  seems  to  have  been  printed  in  the 

those  just  given.    One  of  the  most  important  collec-  year  1669.    A  more  elaborate  Mencdogium  was  that 
tions  of  this  kind  is  Uiat  made  by  a  writer  in  the  second    compiled  by  Father  Patri^uini  in  1730|  and  great 

halfofthetenthoentuiy  knowntous  asSymeonMeta-  collections  were  made  during  the  last  century  by 
phrastes.    Something  more  than  ten  years  ago  Father    Father  de  Guilhenny  for  the  production  of  a  series  A 

Delehaye  and  Professor  Albert  Ehrhard  working  inde-  such  menologies,  divided  according  to  the  groups  of 

pendently  succeeded  for  the  first  time  in  correctly  provinces  of  the  Society  called  "Aasistencies''.    The 

grouping  together  the  works  which  are  really  attribut-  author  did  not  live  to  complete  his  task,  but  the  me- 

able  to  tnis  author,  but  great  uncertainty  still  remains  nologies  have  been  published  b^  other  hands  since  his 

as  to  the  provenance  of  his  materials,  and  as  to  the  re- .  death.    The  term  Menologium  is  also  loosely  used  for 

lation  betii^een  this  collection  and  certain  contracted  any  calendar  divided  into  months,  as,  for  example, 

biographies  many  of  which  esdst  among  the  manuscripts  the  "Anglo-Saxon  Menologium"  fint  published  by 

of  our  great  libraries.    The  synaxaries,  or  histories  for  Hickes. 

llturgi^  use,  are  nearly  all  extracted  from  the  older  ,  The  whole  subjeci  of  the  Greek  MenoIosU  hM  been  treated 

\rpnnlocnft.    hut   Fr    fW^lphavn  whn  him  tnvtnt  anAriAl  ^  lulIeBt  detail  by  Fathxr  Dblbhatb  in  the  Anai,  Bottand. 

wenoiogia,  out  ^r.  ueicnaye  wno  nas  given  special  ^gg^j  ^g^         f^gg^.  3jj  nsos),  448  saq.,  as  weU  as 

ai  tention  to  the  studv  of  this  class  of  documents,  con-  in  the  Sjfnaxanum  CofutanUnopoHtttnum  whieh  fonna  the 

aiders  that  the  autnors  of  these   compendia  have  Pit>pyl»um  of  the  Ada  SS.  for  November.    Cooault  abo 

«dd«l   though  8pa«ely,  materi^of  thdr  own.de-  g'i^Sw^'^SJlPiSS.JSi'T^oSr^a^^ 

nved  from  vanous  sources.     (See  Delehaye  m  his  Heariohgu  (Eng.  tnns.,  London,  1008). 
preface  to  the  "  Synaxarium  Eccles.  Cp. ",  published  Hkbbebt  Thubston. 

as  a  Propylsum  to  the  ''Acta  SS."  for  November, 

lix-lxvi.)  Mimominiw   Tndiftna,    a   considerable    tribe   of 

Menohgies  in  the  West, — The  fact  that  the  word  Algonquian  linguistic  stock,  formerly  niiujng  over 

Martyrology  (q.  v.)  was  alread;^  consecrated  to  a  north-eastern  Wisconsin  to  the  west  of  Ifoiominee 

lituiip;ical  or  quasi-lituigical  compilation  arranged  ac-  River  and  Green  Bay,  and  now  occupjrin^  a  reeervsr 

cordmg  to  months  and  days,  and  including  onlv  tion  in  Shawano  and  Oconto  counties  withm  the  same 

canonSed  saints  and  festivals  universally  received,  territory.    The  name  bv  which  they  are  commonly 

probably  led  to  the  employment  of  the  tenn  Menolo-  known  (translated  Fouea  Avoinea  by  the  French) 

gium  for  works  of  a  somewhat  analagous  character,  of  is  taken  from  their  term  for  the  wild  rice,  menamin, 

private  authority,  not  Intended  for  uturgical  use  and  Lat.  Zixania  aquaiica,  which  grows  abundantly  in  the 

mcluding  the  names  and  elogia  of  persons  in  repute  for  small  lakes,  and  forms  a  staple  food  of  the  tribes  of 

sanctity  out  not  in  any  sense  canonised  Saints.    In  that  r^on.    Before  their  first  contact  with  the  whites 

most  of  the  reliffious  orders  it  became  the  custom  to  the  Menominee  may  have  numbered  about  3000  souls; 

commemorate  the  memory  of  their  dead  brethren  in  1909  they  were  officially  reported  at  1487.    The 

specially  renowned  for  holiness  or  learning.    In  more  eariiest  known  explorer  amons  the  Menonunee  was 

tnan  one  such  order  during  the  seventeenth  and  Champlain's  interpreter,  Jean  Nicolet,  who  visited  the 

eighteenth  centuries,  the  collection  of  these  short  eulo-  tribes  about  Green  Bay  in  1634,  being  probably  the 

S'stic  biographies  was  printed  under  the  name  of  first  white  man  within  the  present  State  of  Wisconsin, 

enologium  and  generally  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  In   1640  they  are  mentioned  under  tibie  name  of 

selection  for  each  day  of  the  year.    Since  they  were  Maroumine  by  the  Jesmt  Le  Jeime,  as  one  of  the 

made  by  private  authority  which  could  not  pronounce  tribes  still  without  missionaries.    In  the  "  Relation  " 

judgment  on  the  sanctity  of  those  so  commemorated,  for    1657-8   they   are   spoken   of   as   Afo/oumtndb, 

the  Church  prohibited  tne  reading  of  these  compila^-  allied  with  the  Noukek  and  Winnebapo  and  "  rei^ 

tions  as  oart  of  the  Divine  Office;   but  this  did  not  ing  without  sowing"  a  wild  rye  considered  superior 

prevent  tne  formation  of  such  menolo^es  for  private  to  com,  the  first  notice  of  the  now  well-known  wild 

use  or  even  the  reading  of  them  aloud  m  the  cnapter-  rice. 

house  or  in  the  refectory.    Thus  the  collection  made        In  May,  1670,  the  Jesuit  explorer  Claude  Alloues 

by  the  Franciscan  Fortunatus  Haber  of  the  abbrevi-  visited  them  near  the  mouth  of  the  Menominee  River. 

ated  lives  of  those  of  the  Friars  Minor  who  had  died  in  They  were  then  greatly  reduced  by  wars,  probably 

the  odour  of  sanctity,  printed  in  1691  imder  the  title  of  with  their  hereditsiry  enemies,  the  Sioux.    They  lis- 

" Menologium   Franciscanum'',   was   evidently    in-  tened  to  his  teaching  and  asked  him  to  remain.    A 

tended  for  public  recitation.    In  lieu  of  the  concluding  small  mission.  St.  Michel,  was  established,  and  placed 

formula"Etalibialiorum"etc.  of  the  Roman  Martyr-  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  central  rotawatomi 

ology,  the  compiler  sug^ts  (364)  as  the  feriaiis  ter-  mission  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  on  Green  Bay.     In 

minatio  cuiitacumque  diet  the  tnree  verses  of  the  Apoc-  1673  the  Jesuit  Louis  Andr^  arrived  and  ministered 

alypee  (vii,  9-11)  oeginning:  ''Poet  htec  vidi  turbam  for  several  years  both  to  the  Menominee  and  to  other 

magnam".    The  earliest  printed  work  of  this  kmd  is  tribes,  travelling  in  summer  by  bark  canoe  and  in 

possibly  that  which    bears  the  title    **  Menologium  winter  over  the  ice.    Soon  after  his  arrival  he  found 

Carmelitanum"  compiled  by  the  Carmelite,  Saracenus,  set  up  an  image  of  the  sun,  with  a  number  of  net 

and  printed  at  Bologna  in  1627;  but  this  is  not  ar-  floaters  attached,  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  sun  for  a  prosper- 

ranged  day  by  day  m  the  order  of  the  ecclesiastical  ous  fishing  season,  their  exertions  having  been  uius 

year,  and  it  does  not  include  members  of  the  order  yet  far  disappointing.    After  explaining  that  the  sun  was 

uncanonised.    A  year  or  two  later,  in  1630,  Father  not  a  goa,  he  persuaded  them  to  allow  him  to  substi- 

Henriquez  published  at  Antwerp  his  "Menolo^um  tute  a  crucifix.    The  next  morning  the  fish  entered  the 

Cisterciense  .    That  no  general  custom  then  existed  river  in  such  abundance  that  the  Indians,  firmly  con- 

of  reading  the  Menology  at  table  appears  from  his  re-  vinced  of  the  efficacy  of  his  teadiing,  crowded  to  be 

mark:    "It  would  not  appear  unsuitable  if  it  (the  instructed  every  evenine  on  their  return  from  their 

Menologium)  were  read  aloud  in  public  or  in  chapter  fishing.     Following  up  this  victory,  he  induced  them 

or  at  least  in  the  refectorjr  at  the  beginning  of  dinner  to  abandon  their  superstitious  dream  ceremonies  on 

or  supper".    Again  quite  a  number  of  works  have  setting  out  against  the  Sioux,  althou^  apparently 

been  printed  under  the  name  Menologium  by  Fathers  he  was  unable  to  prevent  the  expedition.     Among 

of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  one  or  other  of  which  it  has  his   converts   was   a   principal   medicine-man,    who 

been  and  still  is  the  custom  of  the  orHer  to  read  aloud  claimed  the  thunder  spirit  as  his  special  medictns,  and 

in  the  fefei^tory  during  part  of  ^he  ^v^ning  meal,  was  £iccu8ton[)e4  to  invoke  it  witn  eonp  and  n^94 


MBNOMIMSB 


103 


MENOMINEE 


antics  during  storms.  Father  Andr6  was  slow  to  bap- 
tize adults,  however,  and  records  how  one  man  thus 
bapUxed  on  fervid  assurance  of  chance  of  heart  had 
called  in  the  medicine-man  on  his  deatn-bed. 

In  1673  Father  Marquette  visited  the  Menominee 
on  his  way  to  the  Mississippi,  and  describes  in  detail 
their  manner  of  gathering  and  preparing  the  wild  rice. 
Three  years  later  Father  Andi^'s  cabin,  with  all  that 
it  contained,  was  burned  by  an  Indian  whose  two 
small  children,  after  one  had  been  baptized,  had  been 
killed  by  an  enemy,  the  grief-stricken  lather,  in  Indian 
fa^ion.  attributing  his  misfortune  to  the  ceremon^r. 
The  Menominee  mission  grew  and  flourished  until 
/tie  outbreak  of  the  long  war  inaugurated  by  the  Foxes 
against  the  French  (1712),  which  continued  some  thirty 
yean,  and  resulted  in  the  almost  complete  destruction 

of  the  Fox  tribe 
and  the  ruin  of  the 
Wisconsin  mis- 
sions. Close  upon 
this  came  the 
seven  years* 
French  and  Indian 
War  (1754-60); 
the  Pontiac  war 
(1763-4);  the 
Revolution  and  its 
Indian  aftermath 
(1775-95);  and 
finally  Tippecanoe 
and  the  War  of 
1812  (1811-15). 
In  all  of  these  the 
Menominee,  like 
the  other  tribes 
of  the  central  re- 
gion, had  their 
Bamuml  Massuchblu  part,  fighting  on 

the  Ttesuitk  side  until  the  fall  of  Qaebec  and  afterwards 
supporting  the  English  against  the  United  States. 
In  1817  they  made  their  peace  with  the  United  States, 
and  by  various  suhsequent  treaties,  have  disposed  of 
all  of  their  ancient  territory  excepting  their  present 
reservation  of  about  360  square  miles. 

In  1762  the  Jesuit  misoons  had  been  suppressed  by 
the  French  Government,  and  "for  thirty  years  there 
was  no  priest  west  of  Detroit ''  (Shea  quoting  McCabe). 
Deprived  of  their  teachers  and  for  sixty  years  com- 
pelled to  make  almost  constant  war  against  the  ad- 
vancing whites,  a  large  part  of  the  former  mission 
Indiana  in  all  the  tribes  rdapsed  into  paganism, 
while  still  cherishing  an  affection  for  their  former 
friends.  In  1823  the  Ottawa  tribe  of  lower  Michigan 
addressed  to  Congress  two  remarkable  petitions  ask- 
ing to  have  Jesuit  missionaries  again  sent  among  them. 
No  response  came,  but  in  1825  Father  J.  V.  Badin 
made  a  tour  of  the  lake  tribes,  in  1827  Father  Dejean 
visited  tJie  Ojibwa  at  Mackinaw  and  in  1829  founded 
the  new  Ottawa  mission  at  Arbre  Croche  (Harbor 
Springs.  Michigan),  and  in  1830  Father  Samuel 
Mazzucnelli  established  a  school  and  church  among 
the  Menominee  at  Green  Bay,  for  which  the  Govern- 
ment, in  accordance  with  the  policy  at  that  period, 
made  an  appropriation.  Soon  aiterwards  Father 
Mazzuchelli  extended  his  labours  to  the  Winnebago. 
A  church  for  the  few  white  residents  had  already  been 
begun  by  Father  Gabriel  Richard  in  1823.  Father 
Mazzuchelli  was  assisted  in  the  school  bv  two  sisters 
and  by  Mrs.  Rosalie  Dousman  (1831),  who  continued 
in  the  work  for  a  number  of  years.  Later  missionaries 
of  the  same  period  were  Fathers  Simon  S&nderl, 
Redemptorist,  and  T.  J.  Van  den  Broeck.  In  1827 
an  Episcopal  mission  was  started,  but  was  discontin- 
ued m  1838  owing  to  non-attendance  of  the  Indians. 
In  1844  Fr.  Van  den  Broeck  established  a  second 
mission,  St.  Francis,  at  Lake  Powahegan  on  the  Wolf 
^ver,  which  within  a  9bort  tjme  had  400  Indiaost 


In  1847  he  was  succeeded  by  Father  F.  J.  Bonduel, 
who  added  another  school,  and  who  in  turn  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1852  bv  Fr.  Otho  Skolla,  the  first  of  the 
Franciscans,  to  wnich  order  the  Menominee  work  has 
now  been  confided  for  nearly  two  cenerations.  The 
present  mission  of  St.  Michaers,  atlCeshena,  Wiscon- 
sin, in  chaige  of  Reverend  Blase  Krake,  assisted  by 
two  other  Franciscan  fathers,  counts  upon  its  rolls 
about  two-thirds  of  the  tribe,  being  the  whole  Chris- 
tian body.  The  attached  St.  Joseph's  industrial 
school,  conducted  by  eleven  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  and 
three  Franciscan  brothers,  is  in  a  prosperous  condition 
The  official  reports  of  Agent  Ellis  (lfiPl7)  and  Superin- 
tendent Murrav  (1852)  exhibit  the  high  appreciation 
of  the  civil  authorities. 

Physically  the  Menominee  are  among  the  finest  of 
the  native  tribes  of  America,  being  well  formed, 
straight,  and  of  a  rather  light  complexion,  with  manly, 
intelligent,  and  mild  expression.  In  their  primitive 
condition  they  derivea  their  subsistence  chiefly 
from  the  wild  rice,  fishing  and  hunting,  wild  berries, 
and  the  syrup  and  sugar  prepared  according  to  the 
Indian  method  from  the  maple.  Wild  rice  still  con- 
stitutes an  important  part  of  their  diet,  being  boiled 
with  meat  and  seasoned  with  svrup.  They  do  but 
little  farming,  and  devote  their  cniei  energies  to  lum- 
bering. Their  houses  were  formerly  circular  frame- 
works covered  with  bark  or  mats  of  rushes,  but  log 
houses  are  now  the  rule.  The  art  of  making  potteiy 
has  become  extinct  among  the  Menominee,  but  their 
women  still  produce  basketware,  mats  of  rushes  and 
cedar  bark,  and  beautifully  woven  bead  and  porcupine 
quill  work.  The  primitive  weapons  were  the  bow, 
knife,  and  hatchet.  They  had  both  bark  and  dugout 
canoes.  Snowshoes  were  used  for  winter  travel. 
Their  amusements  included  the  ball  game  (lacrosse), 
dice,  hunt  the  button,  foot  races,  and  several  minor 
dances.  Their  dead  were  usually  buried  in  bark 
coffins,  over  which  was  built  a  roof,  with  an  open- 
mg  through  which  food  was  inserted  for  the  spirit. 
The  corpse,  dressed  in  its  best  attire,  was  sometimes 
placed  in  a  sitting  position  facing  the  west,  over  it 
being  erected  a  bark  shelter  on  which  was  carved  or 
painted  an  inverted  figure  indicating  the  totem,  or 
gens,  to  which  the  deceased  had  belonged. 

Their  mythologv  and  religious  belief  and  ritual 
closely  resembled  that  of  their  neighbours,  the  Ojibwa, 
centering  about  Manabush,  the  "Great  Rabbit'',  or 
dawn  go9,  and  the  son^  and  ceremonies  of  the  secret 
society  of  the  Midewiwm  or  "  Grand  Medicine  ",  which 
still  flourishes  among  the  pagan  members  of  the  tribe. 
They  had  the  clan,  or  gentue,  system,  with  (as  now 
existing)  twenty-four  ^ntes  grouped  into  three 
phratries,  the  Bear,  Big  Thunder,  and  Wolf.  In 
ancient  times,  it  is  said,  they  had  twenty-two  gentes 
in  five  phratries.  The  members  of  the  same  gens 
were  considered  near  relatives,  and  were  not  allowed 
to  intermarry.  Descent  and  inheritance  were  in  the 
female  line.  The  tribe  council  included  a  principal 
chief,  a  war  chief,  and  a  number  of  subordinate  band 
or  gentile  chiefs,  and  chieftainship,  was  usually  heredi- 
tary. Among  distinguished  chiefs  have  been  Thomas 
Carron,  a  French  Canadian  half-breed  (d.  1780),  his 
son  Tomah  (i.  e.  Thomas,  d.  1818) ;  Keshena  (Swift 
Flyer);  Oshkosh  (Claws;  d.  1858);  and  Niopet 
(Four-in-arden),  his  son  and  successor  elected  in  1875. 

The  literature  of  the  Menominee  language,  which  is 
distinct  from  all  others  of  its  kindred  Algonquian 
stock,  consists  chiefly  of  a  series  of  prayer  books  and 
hymn  collections  by  Father  Zephyrin  (Charles  An- 
thony) Engelhardt,  former  Franciscan  missionary  in 
the  tribe;  these  were  issued  between  1881  and  1884, 
the  hymn  book  being  printed  by  the  author  upon  a 
small  hand  press.  Father  Engelhardt  is  also  the 
author  of  a  collection  of  Menominee  translations  of 
the  Gospel,  a  volume  of  sermons  and  instructions,  an 

extended  vocf^bvdfuy  and  o^v^nU  Imguistic  tr^ti?^ 


194 

on  the  language,  all  still  in  TnanuBcript.    His  present  other  than  the  maintenance  of  prelates;  these  propepi 

successor  at  the  mission,  Father  Blase  Krake  of  the  ties  or  foundations  may  be  real  **  opera  pia "  or  piouf 

same  order,  is  also  a  master  of  the  language,  of  which  works  in  the  canonical  sense.    In  tnis  wav  some  epi»- 

he  has  written  a  manuscript  grammar  and  dictionary,  copal  menss  control  property  and  houses  for  the  binie- 

A  vocabulary   of  some   thirty  pages  accompanies  fit  of  aged  or  infirm  priests,  also  for  educational  and 

Ho£f man's  monc^raph.  other  establishments;  to  some  curial  menss  schools  or 

HomcAN  in  Fourth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnolooy,  I  hospitals  are  attached,  and  for  these  various  good 

ffiSl'iCfeiS  fr^''^'ii%^''aiS:^TMZ'^  WO&8  adminirtmtive  rulee  may  be  provided,  at  tie 

(WaBhington.  1900);  JeeuU  Relatioru,  ed.  Thwaitks  (Cleve-  tmae  01  their  foimdation.    But  such  cases  It  IS  easily 

bmd).  oBpecially  vola.  xyill,  XLIV,  LIV,  LV.  LVIII.  LIX,  seen  are  later  extensions,  foreign  to  the  primary  and 

SL*?.&TJ?J'^'???£^  chief  dm  of  the  mena».    Even  m  respect  to  Uje« 

Jnd.  Miuiona  (New  York.  iss4){wiaconnn  HUl.  Soc.  Coiu.,  properties  the  old  rule  apphes,  m  the  sense  that  they 

3Cry  (MaduKm,  1898);  Anon.,  Rise  and  Frf^oresa  of  the  Prownee  are  not  common  ecclesiastical  possessions  and  are  not 

cfSLJoeephoftheCapuchtnOrder »" '^ ^V^^^jjork. ^7).  administered  as  such,  but  after  the  manner  of  mensal 

*  property. 
Meiuia,  Mensal  Sevenue  (Lat.  Mensa,  table). —  Althou^  appropriated  to  the  maintenance  of  oei^ 
The  Latin  word  mensa  has  for  its  primitive  significa-  tain  defimte  persons,  mensal  property  is  nevertheless 
tion  "a  table  for  meals";  it  designates  by  extension  church  propert3r,  ana  its  administrator  is  bound  to  ob- 
the  expenses,  or  better,  the  necessary  resources  of  sua-  serve  the  canonical  rules  concerning  it.  As  to  the  ad- 
tenanoe,  and  generally,  all  the  resources  for  personal  ministration  strictly  speaking,  he  must  keep  the  prop- 
support.  He  who  lives  at  the  expense  of  another,  and  erty  in  good  condition  and  execute  all  works  expedient 
at  his  table,  is  his  "  commensal ".  In  ecclesiastical  to  that  end;  in  short,  he  must  act  like  a  good  head  of  a 
language,  the  mensa  is  that  portion  of  the  property  of  household.  But  he  cannot  do  anything  that  would 
a  church  which  is  appropriated  to  def raym^  the  ex-  infringe  upon  proprietary  rights,  for  he  is  not  the  pro- 
penses  either  of  the  prelate  or  of  the  commumty  which  prietor:  any  alienation,  or  any  contract  which  the  law 
serves  the  church,  and  is  administered  at  the  will  of  regards  as  similar  to  alienation^  is  forbidden  him,  ex- 
the  one  or  the  other.  Thus,  in  a  cathedral,  to  which  cepting  under  prescribed  juridical  formalities,  imder 
both  the  bishop  and  the  chapter  belong,  the  bishop's  pam  of  excommunication  (Extrav.  Ambidosie  '' De 
mensa  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  chapter,  the  former  reb.  eccl.  non  alienandis";  see  also  Benefice;  jPbof^ 
consisting  of  property  the  revenues  of  which  are  en-  brtt,  Auenation  op  Cetcirch).  The  chief  of  these 
joyed  by  the  prebte,  the  latter  by  the  chapter.  The  prescribed  formalities  is  the  Apostolic  authorisation, 
capitular  mensa  consists  chiefly  of  individual  prop-  given  either  directly  or  by  Indmt,  and  that  only  when 
erty,  for  the  primitive  mensa  of  the  chapter  has  al-  the  alienation  or  similar  contract  is  to  the  advantage 
most  eveiTwhere  b^n  divided  among  the  canons,  eadi  of  the  Chureh.  For  the  alienation  of  mensal  property, 
of  whom  has  his  personal  share  under  the  designation  or  for  making  any  similar  contract,  the  bishop  is,  m 
of  a  "  prebend ".  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  abbeys  particular,  bound  to  safeguard  himself  with  the  con- 
given  in  commendam  (cf.  c.  Edooeri,  21,  De  rescriptis),  sent  of  the  chapter  (S.  G.  Concilii,  25  July,  1891). 
the  abbatial  mensa,  which  the  abbot  enjoys,  is  di^inct  History. — ^Like  all  ecclesiastical  institutions,  the 
from  the  conventiml  mensa,  which  is  applied  to  the  mensa  has  reached  its  present  juridical  status  as  the 
maintenance  of  the  religious  community.  The  curial  result  of  various  modincations.  In  the  first  ages,  all 
mensa,  which  is  of  later  origin,  is  of  the  same  nature:  the  church  property  of  a  diocese  formed  but  one  mass 
the  property  reserved  for  the  personal  maintenance  of  connected,  like  everything  else^  with  the  principal,  or 
the  parish  priest,  as  distinct  from  that  applied  to  the  cathedral  church.  The  administration  of  it  belonged 
expenses  oi  worship  or  to  the  support  of  other  clergy,  to  the  bishop  alone,  who  administered  it  himself  or 
has  been  regarded  as  curial  mensa.  To  constitute  a  through  his  oBconomus  or  his  deacons.  The  deigy 
mensa  in  the  canonical  sense,  therefore,  it  is  not  received  a  portion  of  the  revenues  of  this  property, 
enough  that  a  certain  portion  of  church  property  be  sometimes  fixed  (one-fourth  in  Italy,  one-third  m 
appropriated  to  the  maintenance  of  the  ctergy  (for  in  Spain;  see  the  collected  texts,  c.  23-30,  C,  XII,  q.  ii; 
that  case  every  benefice  would  be  a  mensa,  which  is  c.  1-3,  C,  X,  (J.  iii),  sometimes  left  to  the  equitable  de- 
untrue) ;  it  is  necessaiy  that  there  be  a  partition  made  cision  of  the  bishop.  Soon  the  churches  outside  of  the 
in  the  property  of  one  particular  church  so  as  to  episcopal  city  had  distinct  administrations  of  their 
appropriate  certain  property  to  the  maintenance  of  own,  and  the  wealth  apprca>iiated  to  religious  worsh^ 
the  prelate  or  rector,  or  of  the  clergy  subject  to  him;  or  to  the  support  of  tne  clergy  was  regarded  as  their 


Lop,  the  secular  abbot,  the  chapter,  the  precarium ' ,  i.  e.  property 
religious  commumty,  administer,  each  within  appro-  such  clerics  used  for  their  own  support.  So  long  as  the 
priate  limits,  the  property  of  their  respective  mensse,  bishop,  the  abbot,  or  the  rector  of  the  church  remained 
without  being  liable  to  any  accounting  for  the  employ-  faithnul^  in  resiaence  and  discharged  his  ecclesiasti- 
ment  of  its  revenues;  this  is  true  of  the  parish  priest  cal  functions,  there  was  no  reason  for  surrendering  to 
who  has  a  curial  mensa.  The  other  resources  of  the  the  inferior  clergy,  or  the  monks,  a  part  of  the  ecdesi- 
cathedral  or  parish  church,  or  monastery,  destined  for  astical  wealth  that  they  mi^t  tnence  draw  their  sup- 
religious  worship,  pious  works,  the  maintenance  of  port.  But  when  the  early  Carlovingians,  especially 
buildings,  etc.,  are  subject  to  the  general  or  special  Charles  Martel,  habitually  gave  abbeys  and  cnurches 
rules  for  the  administration  of  church  property,  to  their  companions  in  arms,  and  when  bishops  nomi- 
whether  this  be  done  by  church  committees,  trustees,  nated  by  royal  favour  ceased  to  reside  habitually  at 
or  other  administrative  organ,  or  by  the  rector  of  the  their  sees,  there  arose  a  kind  of  division  and  opposition 
ehurch  as  sole  administrator;  in  all  cases  an  accounting  between  the  prelate,  abbot,  or  bishop  and  the  coin- 
is  due  to  the  bishop  and.  in  general,  to  the  ecclesiasti-  munity  of  monks  or  clerics,  who  were  on  more  than 
cal  authorities,  for  the  aclministration  of  such  property  one  occasion  left  in  want  by  greedy  or  negligent  supe- 
and  for  the  uses  to  which  all  the  revenues  and  re-  riors.  The  remedy  for  tnis  was  the  institution  of 
sources  accruing  may  have  been  put,  whereas  no  one  is  mensse. 

accountable  for  the  use  of  his  mensal  property.    There  To  secure  what  was  necessary  to  the  community, 

are,  however,  some  exceptions  to  this  pnnciple.  Since  the  beneficiary  was  compelled  to  reserve  for  its  use  a 

menssB,  particularly  episcopal  mensse^  are  legal  enti-  sufficient  portion  of  the  property  of  the  church  or  mon- 

ties,  property  and  foundations  have  m  the  course  of  astery.    Thus  the  superior  s  administration  was  made 

ooQturiee  often  been  annexed  to  them  for  purposes  lighter  for  him,  while  ne  could  enjoy  in  peace  and  quitt 


MINSINa  195  KBMTAL 

the  balance  of  the  property  reserved  for  his  own  proper  knowledge  and  remarkable  command  of  the  German 

use  (incUnninicatum);  on  the  other  hand  the  commu-  language  made  him  one  of  the  foremost  oontroversxal* 

nit^  gained,  besides  material  security,  a  renovation  of  ists  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.    A  com- 

rehgious  life,  sinoe  material  privation  was  inevitably  a  plete  list  of  his  works,  all  of  which  bear  a  polemical 

cause  of  relaxation  of  discipline.    The  Carlovingian  tinge,  is  given  by  Streoer  in  the  ''Kirchenlexikon". 
reforms,  notably  those  of  Louis  Uie  Pious,  were  chiefly        Quinr-EGHARD.  ss.  Ord,  Prmd.,  11,  84;  Paulus,  Die  deut- 

resp^'ble  for  the  establkhment  of  inenM,  property  J^sjXiJJS^^itiGl/SS^J.SJTl^S:*^^^"*  "^^' 
unposed  and  regulated  m  regard  to  monastenes;  as  to  Jobbfh  Schbosdeb. 

cathedrals  the  mensa  was  more  commonly  a  benevo- 

lent  concession  on  the  part  of  the  bishop,  who  in  this        Mental  BaMfvationy  the  name  applied  to  a  doo- 

way  fostered  commumty  life  (vUa  canonica)  among  trine  which  has  grown  out  of  the  conmion  Catholic 

his  clergy.    This  communi^  life  becoming  more  and  teaching  about  lying  (q.  v.)  and  which  is  its  comple- 

more  rare  after  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  each  ment.   According  to  tne  common  Catholic  teaching  it 

canon  received  his  own  share  of  the  noensal  revenues —  is  never  allowable  to  tell  a  lie^  not  even  to  save  human 

his  "prebend".    Later  on,  indeed,  the  canons  often  life.    A  lie  is  something  intrmsically  evil,  and  as  evil 

had  the  separate  administration  of  their  respective  may  not  be  done  that  good  may  come  of  it,  we  are 

prc^rties.  either  as  the  result  of  partition  or,  more  never  allowed  to  tell  a  lie.   However' we  are  also  under 

particulany^  in  pursuance  of  provisions  made  in  an  obli^tion  to  keep  secrets  faithfully^  and  sometimes 

the  foundation.    The  menses^  of  whatever  character,  the  easiest  way  of  fulfilling  that  duty  is  to  sav  what  is 

were  legally  capable  of  acquiring  additions.    It  was  false,  or  to  tell  a  lie.   Writers  of  all  creeds  and  of  none, 

through  them  tnat  church  property,  intended,  as  be-  both  ancient  and  modem,  have  frankly  accepted  this 

fore  the  division,  not  only  for  the  support  of  the  clergy,  position.  They  admit  the  doctrine  of  the  lie  of  neces- 

but  for  all  religious  and  charitable  works,  was  re-  sity,  and  maintain  that  when  there  is  a  conflict  be- 

established.  tween  justice  and  veracity  it  is  justice  that  shoukl 

LssNB.  VorigvM  dn  mmMadanfle  f«m»mr2 1^  49Km«  «<  dM  prevail.    The  common  Catholic  teaching  has  fonnu- 

OT^^Jf^iftt^C?'^  "^iTISSIl-SSj;  feted  tto  theory  of  mental  reaervation  as  a.means  by 

TnoujLBBm,  Vebu  H  nova  diseiplina,  pais.  HI.  Ub.  u;  SXoiiOx/-  which  the  claims  of  both  justice  and  veracity  can  be 

lSiv^*l~gi/fJU**=»^^  KYchennchuCFnibm  im  Bxwm^,  satisfied.   The  doctrine  was  broached  tentatively  and 

i^^'J^^l^^?in'^l^>SiS^J^'^^^^'  With  eneat. diffidence  by  St.  Ravmujrf  of  Pennafort 

A.  BouDiNHGN.  ^he  first  writer  on  casuistry.   In  his  "Summa'  (1236) 

8t.  Raymund  quotes  the  saying  of  St.  Augustine  that 
Mensliig  (Mbnbinox).  John,  theologian  and  cele-  a  man  must  not  slay  his  own  soul  bv  lying  in  order  to 
brated  opponent  of  Lutner,  b.  according  to  some  at  preserve  the  life  of  another,  and  that  it  would  be  a 
Zotphen,  HoUand,  but  more  probably  at  Magdeburg,  most  perilous  doctrine  to  admit  that  we  may  do  a  less 
Saxony,  date  unknown;  d.  about  1641.  In  1496  he  evil  to  prevent  another  doing  a  greater.  And  most 
entered  the  Dominican  Order  and  made  part  of  his  doctors  teacJi  this,  he  says,  though  he  allows  that 
theological  studies  in  the  studium  of  his  province,  others  teach  that  a  lie  should  be  told  when  a  man's  life 
Matriculating  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg  in  1616,  is  at  stake.  Then  he  adds:  "  I  believe,  as  at  present 
he  received  there  in  1617  the  licentiate  in  theology,  advised,  that  when  one  is  asked  by  munierers  bent  on 
and  the  following  year  received  in  Frankfort-on-the-  taking  the  life  of  someone  hiding  m  the  house  whether 
Oder  the  doctorate  in  theology  from  the  hands  of  the  he  is  in,  no  answer  should  be  given;  and  if  this  betrays 
general  of  his  order.  Accoiding  to  the  Dominican  him,  his  death  will  be  imputable  to  the  murderers,  not 
historian,  Qu^tif,  he  taught  theology  in  1614  in  the  to  tne  other's  silence.  Or  he  may  use  an  equivocal 
monasteiy  at  Ulm,  but  it  is  highly  improbable  that  expression,  and  say '  He  is  not  at  home ',  or  something 
Mensing,  oelonging  to  the  province  of  Saxony,  should  like  that.  And  this  can  be  defended  by  a  great  num- 
act  as  professor  in  another  province  which  had  no  ber  of  instances  found  in  the  Old  Testament.  Or  he 
studium  generals  of  its  own.  He  lived  at  a  time  when  may  say  simply  that  he  is  not  there,  and  if  his  con- 
controversy  was  rife,  when  men,  abandoning  beaten  science  tells  nim  that  he  ought  to  say  that^  then  he 
paths^  began  to  set  up  systems  of  their  own.  The  will  not  speak  against  his  conscience,  nor  will  he  sin. 
heretical  teachings  of  the  reformera  spread  rapidly  Nor  is  St.  Augustine  really  opposed  to  any  of  these 
throughout  Germany.  No  province  seemed  exempt  methods."  Such  expressions  as,  "  He  is  not  at  home  ", 
from  the  invasions  of  Luther  s  emissaries.  To  prevent  were  called  equivocations,  or  amphibologies,  and  when 
these  doctrinal  innovations  from  gaining  a  foothold  in  there  was  good  reason  for  using  them  their  lawfulness 
his  province,  Mensing  sealously  entered  into  all  the  was  admitted  bv  all.  If  the  jperson  inouired  for  was 
controversies  with  the  sectaries.  From  1622  to  1624  really  at  home,  but  did  not  wish  to  see  tne  visitor,  the 
he  occupied  the  pulpit  in  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg,  meaning  of  the  phrase,  "He  is  not  at  home",  was 
where  he  also  composed  his  first  apologetic  works  on  restricted  by  the  mind  of  the  speaker  to  this  sense, 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  Notwithstanding  his  efforts,  "  He  is  not  at  home  for  vou,  or  to  see  you  ".  Hence, 
the  bpldness  of  the  enemy  forced  him  to  leave  and  seek  equivocations  and  amphibolojgies  came  to  be  called 
other*  fields  of  labour.  Upon  the  invitation  of  the  mental  restrictions  or  reservations.  It  was  commoiUy 
Princess  Margaretha  von  Anhalt .  who  ruled  during  the  achnitted  that  an  equivocal  expression  need  not  neces- 
minority  of  &r  sons,  he  proceeded  to^  Dessau  to  sup-  sarily  be  used  when  the  words  of  the  speaker  receive  a 
port  her  in  her  efforts  against  heresy  in  her  territory,  special  meaning  from  the  circumstances  in  which  he  is 
in  1520  he  was  professor  in  the  Umversity  of  Frank-  placed,  or  from  the  position  which  he  holds.  Thus,  if 
f ort-on-the-Oder  and  preacher  in  the  cathedral.  The  a  confessor  is  asked  about  sins  made  known  to  him  in 
following  year  he  attended,  as  theologian  to  the  Elec-  confession,  he  should  answer: ''  I  do  not  know",  and 
tor  Joachim  vcm  Anhalt,  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  and  such  words  as  those  when  used  by  a  priest  mean:  "  I 
secured  from  Charles  V  a  renewal  of  the  letter  of  pro-  do  not  know  apart  from  confession' ,  or  ''I  do  not 
tection  for  the  Dominican  Order  in  Germany  which  know  as  man  ",  or  "  I  have  no  knowledge  of  the  matter 
Chaiies  IV  had  granted  them  in  1366  and  1369.  In  which  I  can  communicate".  All  CathoUcwritera  were, 
1634  he  wss  elected  provincial  of  his  own  province,  but  and  are^  agreed  that  when  there  is  good  reason,  sudi 
before  the  termination  of  his  office  Paul  ill  made  him  expressions  as  the  above  mav  be  made  use  of,  and  that 
suffragan  Bishop  of  Halberstadt.  In  1640  and  1641  he  they  are  not  Ues.  Those  who  hear  them  may  under- 
attended  the  theological  conferences  of  Worms  and  stand  them  in  a  sense  which  is  not  true,  but  their  self- 
Ratisbon,  where  with  Eck,  the  vice-chancellor  of  the  deception  may  be  permitted  by  Uie  speaker  for  a  good 
Universil^  of  Ingolstadt,  and  Pelar^,  he  took  a  lead-  reason.  If  there  is  no  good  reason  to  the  contrary, 
iag  part  m  the  deUbexatioos.    His  vast  theological  veracity  requires  all  to  speak  frankly  and  openly  m 


196 

8Uoh  a  way  as  to  be  understood  by  thoae  who  are  ad-  goldsmiths*  guilds.  It  was  as  an  illuminator  that  he 
dressed.  A  sin  is  committed  if  mental  reservations  are  became  connected  with  printing;  and  he  received  hia 
used  without  just  cause,  or  in  cases  in  which  the  ques-  printer's  training  at  Mainz;  he  began  printing  at 
tioner  has  a  right  to  the  naked  truth.  In  the  sixteenth  Strasburg  before  1400.  ^  His  establishment  at  once  de- 
century  a  further  development  of  this  conunonly  re-  veloped  great  activity;  in  a  few  vears  it  produced  quite 
ceived  doctrine  began  to  be  admitted  even  by  some  a  number  of  immense  folio  volumes  with  a  masterly 
theologians  of  note.  We  shall  probably  not  be  far  finish.  He  also  procured  the  sale  of  his  prints  by 
wrong  if  we  attribute  the  change  to  the  very  difficult  means  of  printed  catalogues.  These  "publisher's 
political  circumstances  of  the  time  due  to  the  wars  of  catalogues  have  proved  a  very  valuable  means  of 
religion.  Martin  Aspilcueta,  the ''Doctor  Navamis",  identifying  and  ascertaining  facts  about  Mentelin's 
as  he  was  called,  was  one  of  the  first  to  develop  the  new  prints,  because  he  usually  appended  neither  name, 
doctrine.  He  was  nearing  the  end  of  a  long  life,  and  place  nor  date  to  his  works.  His  type  is  neariy  always 
was  regarded  as  the  foremost  authority  then  living  on  conspicuous  as  being  a  simplified  Gothic  round-hand 
canon  law  and  moral  theology,  when  he  was  consulted  (the  imnuscule  used  in  tne  books  of  the  period), 
on  a  case  of  conscience  by  tne  Fathers  of  the  Jesuit  Though  they  cannot  compare  either  in  design  or  tech- 
oollege  at  Valladolid.  The  case  sent  to  him  for  solu-  nical  finish  with  those  of  Gutenberg  and  Schdfferj  they 
tion  was  drawn  i^p  in  these  terms:  "  Titius,  who  pri-  are  not  without  some  original  features  es{)ecially  m  the 
vately  said  to  a  woman,  'I  take  thee  for  my  wife',  capital  letters,  which  occur  both  in  flourishing  Gothic 
without  the  intention  of  marrying  her^  answered  the  and  in  the  simple  Roman  lapidarv  st^rle.  Of  his  larger 
judge  who  asked  him  whether  he  had  said  those  words,  printed  works,  about  30  in  number,  including  at  least 
that  he  did  not  say  them,  understanding  mentally  that  35  large  folio  volumes,  the  following  are  the  most  con- 
he  did  not  say  them  with  the  intention  of  marrying  the  spicuous:  the  Latin  edition  of  the  Bible  of  1460,  and 
woman."  Navamis  was  asked  whether  Titius  told  a  1463;  the  German  Bible,  about  1466;  also  the  first  edi- 
lie,  whether  he  had  committed  perjury,  or  whether  he  tions  of  the  writings  of  St.  Augustine,  St.  Chrysostom, 
committed  any  sin  at  all.  He  drew  up  an  elaborate  St.  Jerome,  Aristotle,  Isidore,  and  the  "Cuion"  of 
opinion  on  the  case  and  dedicated  it  to  the  reigning  Avicenna.  The  business  was  carried  on  bv  his  son-in- 
pontifF,  Gregory  XIII.  Navamis  maintained  thatTi-  law  Adolf  Rusch,  and  afterwards  by  Johann  Priiss. 
tins  neither  lied,  nor  committed  perjury,  nor  any  sin  Although  Mentelin  cannot  be  reckoned  the  inventor  of 
whatever,  on  the  supposition  that  he  had  a  good  rea-  the  art  of  printing  books,  as  his  grandson  Johann 
son  for  answering  as  he  did.  This  theory  became  Schott  claimed  in  1521,  he  was  nevertheless  one  of  the 
known  as  the  doctrine  of  strict  mental  reservation,  to  most  skilful  of  the  early  typographers, 
distinguish  it  from  wide  mental  reservation  with  which  Schmidt,  Oneh.  der  oUett.  Bibliotheken  und  der  eraten  Btick' 
we  have  thus  far  been  occupied.    In  the  strict  mental  Jrgdfc«r»u5ira«6ti»w  (1882);  AUo.  deuUch.  Biog.,  XXI  (Letpsic. 

reservation  the  speaker  mentally  adds  some  qualifica-  Heiniuch  Wilh.  Walulu. 

tion  to  the  words  which  he  utters,  and  the  words  to- 
gether with  the  mental  quaimcation  make  a  tm^^  Menaliii,  Bbnkdetto;  priest  and  poet,  b.  at  Flor- 

tion  m  accordance  with  fact.   On  the  other  hand,  m  a  ence,  1646;  d.  at  Rome,  7  Sept.,  1704.    His  family  be- 

wide  mentel  reservation,  the  quahfi<»tion  comes  from  ^  y^^  ^^rly  gave  himself  up  to  teaching,  becom- 

the  ambiguity  of  the  words  themselves,  or  from  the  J^  Vprofessor  of  belles-lettres  at  Floi^S  and  at 

cu-cumstances  of  tune,  place,  or  person,  m  whidi  they  pjato.    He  was  abeady  in  Holy  Orders.    In  1681  he 

are  uttered.   The  opinion  of  Navamis  was  received  as  failed  to  obtain  the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  University 

probable  by  such  contempomry  theologwns  of  differ-  ^f  ^-^  partly  because  of  the  jealousy  of  other  clerics, 

ent  schools  as  Salon,  Savers  Snares  and  Ussius.  The  ^^d  partty  because  of  the  acrimony  constantly  shown 

Jesuit  theologian  Sanchez  formula^  it  m  clear  and  j^y  him  in  his  words  and  acts.    In  1685  he  went  to 

distinct  terms,  and  added  the  weight  of  his  authonty  1^^^  ^nd  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Queen  Christina  of 

on  the  side  of  Its  defenders.    Laymann,  however,  an-  Sweden,  until  her  death  in  1689.    Pope  Innocent  XII 

other  J^t  theologian  of  en ual  or  ^ter  weight,  re-  ^^^  g^ve  him  a  canonry,  and  appointed  him  to  a  chair 

iected  the  doctrme,  as  did  Asor,  S.J.,  the  Domimcan  ^f  rhetoric  in  one  of  the  institutions  of  the  city  of 

Soto  and  othera.    Layinann  shows  at  conaderable  j^^jg     Following  the  models  provided  by  the  poems 

length  that  such  reservations  are  lies.    For  that  man  ^j  Chiabrera  and  Testi,  Mensmi  wrote  his  Pindaric 

telkahewhomakesuseofwoidswhichare  "CansonieroicheemoraU"  (1674-80).   Theseobserve 

the  mtention  of  deoeivmg  another.    And  this  is  what  w  ^he  Greek  division— strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode, 

done  when  a  strict  mental  reservation  is  made  use  of.  ^^j  jj^^l  with  subjects  that  were  also  engaging  the  at- 

The  words  uttered  do  not  express  the  truth  as  faiown  ^^^^^j^  ^f  ^he  contemporary  poet  Filicaja,  ^  g.,  the 

to  the  sp^ker.    They  are  at  variance  with  it  and  freeing  of  Venice,  thrtakingof  Budapest.    I^me 

therefore  they  constitute  a  he.  The  ppmion  of  Navar-  seventeen  of  his  elegies  treat  of  mattera  oivarious  in- 

ruswM  freely  debated  m  the  schwte  for  some  years,  ^j^^^     The  poem^  II  Paradise  terrestre"  is  almost  a 

and  It  was  airted  upon  by  some  of  the  CathoUc  con-  continuation  of  the  "  Mondo  create  "  of  Tasso,  Men- 

fessors  of  the  Faith  m  England  m  the  difficult  carcum-  ^^»^  favourite  poet.    In  the  "  Academia  Tusculana  ", 

stances  m  which  they  were  frequently  pla<»d.   It  was,  ^  mingled  prose  and  verse,  he  introduces  leadmg 

however,  condemned  as  formulated  by  Banches  by  ^^^^^  ^f  ^^  time,  who  discuss  subjects  of  many 

Innocent  XI  on  2  March,  1679  (propoegions  xxvi,  g^^ts.   The  pastoral  note  was  struck  by  him  with  no 

":?)•.  After  this  condemnation  by  the  Holy  See  no  u^^i^  guccesshi  his  "Sonetti  pastorali",  and  in  his 

Cathohc  theologian  has  defended  the  lawfuhiess  of  "Canaonette  anacreontiche"  he  produced  a  number 

stnct  mental  reservatioDs.  of  graceful  little  lyrics.    Perhaps  the  most  famous 

St.  Ratmund,  Summa  de  PomttetUia  (Rome,  1603);  Aspii^  «^fL  ^t  iLr<««.:.«:  :«  i.:«  <i«4-:«»<i   aJ^^  4^i«;«4-<^.«  i^  %^«i»%- 

cuBTA.  Opera  oinnia  (Venice.  1618);  Sii^cHM,  In  Decahgum,  ^ork  of  Mensmi  IS  his  satffes,  spme  thirteen  m  num- 

(Antwexp.  1631);  Latmanh,  Theotogia  moroHa  (Munich.  1634);  ber,  m  which  he  assails  in  acnd  terms  the  hypocnsy 

Blatbr,  Manual  of  Moral  TheoUw,  I  (New  York,  1908).  prevailing  in  Tuscany  in  the  last  years  of  the  Medici 

T.  Slateb.  Yiile,    In  like  fashion  he  lashes  in  ms  "Arte  poetics" 

«>^«Ai«  VT  t.       4^«/>j4rk  the  artificiality  and  the  uncouthness  of  the  versifiers 

Mentelin  (Mentel),  Johannes,  b.  c.  1410;  d.  12  of  his  time. 

Dec,  1478;  an  emment  German  typographer  of  the        opere  (4  vote..  Florence.  1731);  Saiire (Amateidam.  1728)  uul 

fifteenth  century,  and  the  first  pnnter  and  bookseller  Borghini,  III  (l876);  Paoluccx,  Vita  di  BmedeUo  Maumi 

at  Strasburg  (Alsace).    He  belonged  to  a  respected  (£»o™<»» JJ??);  MAowNi.Shidio  m<t»  «tt.B«n«^  Mannni 

fanulyat^Schlettstadt     After  1447  he  ^  a  fgold-  \^^^i^T''F^1^^J^i^oJ!'^^JLJ^::^^^ 

schreiber"  (lUuminatCM-)  at  Strasburg,  where  he  be-  rinuBUUeraaeeUediBenedeUoMenziniiFloTeDce,  187 a). 
came  a  burgess  and  member  of  the  painters'  and  J.  D.  M.  Ford, 


MKftCADi                      Id?  MK&ceDA&iAini 

Mercmdtfy  Ettstachb,  French  dramatio  poet  of  the  tatter's  suppression,  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  order, 
fifteenth  oentuiy.  The  dates  of  hia  birth  and  death  Christopher  Columbus  took  some  members  of  the 
are  not  known.  In  1414  he  was  official  of  the  Abbey  of  Order  of  Mercy  with  him  to  America,  where  they 
Corbie  near  Amiens.  According  to  a  document  that  founded  a  great  many  convents  in  Latin  America, 
has  been  discoveied  quite  recently,  he  was  removed  throughout  Mexico,  Cuba,  Brazil,  Peru,  Chile,  and 
from  his  office  in  1427  but  was  reinstated  in  1437,  in  Ecuador.  These  formed  no  less  than  eight  provinces, 
accordance  with  a  decision  of  the  court  of  the  ChAtelet  whereas  they  onlv  had  three  in  Spain  and  one  in 
which  was  ratified  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris  on  2  France.  This  order  took  a  very  active  part  in  the 
May,  1439.  Martin  Franc,  or  ''le  Franc",  who  wrote  oonveraion  of  the  Indians.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  mentions  Mer-  seventeenth  century  Father  Gonzales,  who  had  made 
cack  as  one  of  the  most  famous  "rhetoriciaa^ "  of  the  his  profession  at  ihe  convent  of  Olmedo  in  1573,  con- 
time.  In  the  "Mysteiv"  that  he  composed,  the  author  oeived  the  idea  of  a  reform,  at  that  time  necessary. 
is  mentioned  on  the  back  of  the  last  but  one  sheet:  The  commander-general,  Alfonso  de  Montoy,  at  first 
Ustasae  Mercade,  Docteur  en  decret,  Bachelier  en  supported  this  scheme,  but  ended  by  opposing  it.  In 
thi6ologie.  Official  de  Corbie.  The  complete  title  of  the  this  undertaking  Gonzales  was  assistea  oy  the  Coirn- 
Mystery  to  which  he  has  attached  hia  name  is:  "La  tess  of  Castellan,  who  obtained  for  him  the  necessary 
Vie,  la  Passion  et  la  Vengeance  de  J^sus  Christ."  It  is  authorization  from  Clement  VIII,  and  presented  him 
kept  in  the  library  of  Arras  imder  No.  625;  the  last  with  three  convents  for  his  reformed  monks  (at  Viso, 
part  only,  or  the  Vengeance,  should  be  considered  as  Diocese  of  Seville;  Almoragha,  Diocese  oi  Cadiz: 
the  work  of  Mercadd.  It  contains  312  characters,  of  Ribas).  The  reform  was  coimrmed  at  the  provincial 
whom  112  have  a  speaking  part.  chapter  of  Guadalajara  in  1603.    Father  Gonzales 

Pbtit  DB.JuLMrraxB.  ^««'fJg»„(PfS.  18f5>J  5^!:  took  the  name  of  John  Baptist  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 

AX;2SS?d?p£r3Srvi8^  ment,  and  died  at  Madrid  &  1618.    Paul  V  approved 

P.  J.  Mariqxte.  his  reform  in  1606;  in  1621  Gregory  XV  declared  it 

•mir^  -*-.-   \M  «.^«     o^  u.«*^«  TLr»»^Am^,>  independent  of  the  monks  of  the  Great  Observance. 

Mercator,  Mabius.    See  Mabius  Mebcatob.  TheiTconvents  formed  two  provinces,  with  houses  at 

Meroedariana  (Order  of  Oitr  Ladt  of  Merct),  Madrid,  Salamanca,  Seville,  and  Alcald,  with  a  few 

a  congregation  of  men  founded   in   1218   by   St.  foundations  in  Sicily. 

Peter  Nolasco,  b.  1189,  at  Mas-dee-Saintes-Puelles,  Fatter  Antoine  Velasco  founded  a  convent  of  nuns 
Department  of  Aude,  France.  Joining  Simqn  de  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  at  Seville  in  1568,  of  which  the 
Montf  ort's  army,  then  attacking  the  Albigenses,  he  was  first  superioress  was  Blessed  Anne  of  the  Cross.  This 
appointed  tutor  to  the  young  king,  James  of  Aragon,  foundation  had  been  authorized  by  Pius  V.  The  re- 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  the  death  of  his  formed  branch  also  established  houses  of  barefooted 
father,  Pedro  II.  killed  at  the  battle  of  Muret.  Peter  nuns,  or  Nuns  of  the  Recollection,  at  Lura,  Madrid, 
Nolasco  followed  his  pupil  to  his  capital,  Barcelona,  in  Santiago  de  Castile,  Fuentes,  Thoro,  and  elsewhere. 
1215.  From  the  year  1192  certain  noblemen  of  that  The  female  tertiaries  go  back  to  the  very  beginning  of  the 
city  had  formed  a.confratemitv  for  the  purpose  of  order  (1265).  Two  widows  of  Barcelona,  Isabel  Berti 
caring  for  the  sick  in  the  hospitals,  and  also  for  rescu-  and  Eulalie  Peins,  whose  confessor  was  Blessed  Ber- 
ing Christian  captives  from  the  Moors.  Peter  Nolasco  nard  of  Corbario,  prior  of  the  convent  there,  were  the 
was  requested  by  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  a  vision  to  foundresses.  They  were  jomed  by  several  compan- 
found  a  religious  order  especially  devoted  to  the  ran-  ions,  among  them  St.  Mary  of  Succour  (d.  31  Decemb.. 
som  of  captives.  His  confessor,  St.  Raymond  of  1281),  the  first  superior  of  their  community.  Blessed 
Pennafort,  then  canon  of  Barcelona,  encouraged  and  Mar^r  Anne  of  Jesus  (d.  1624),  founded  another  com- 
assisted  him  in  this  project:  and  King  James  also  ex-  munity  of  tertiaries,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  re- 
tended  his  protection.  The  noblemen  already  re-  formed  branch.  TheOrderof  Mercy  of  late  years  has 
ferred  to  were  the  first  monks  of  the  order,  and  their  much  decreased  in  membership.  The  restoration  of  the 
headquarters  was  the  convent  of  St.  Eulalie  of  Bar-  reformed  convent  at  Thoro,  Diocese  of  Zamora,  Spain, 
oelona,  erected  1232.  They  had  both  religious  in  holy  is  worthy  of  note  (1888).  At  present  the  order  has 
orders,  and  lay  monks  or  knights;  the  choir  monks  one  province  and  one  vice-province  in  Europe,  and 
were  clothed  m  tunic,  scapular,  and  cape  of  white,  four  provinces  and  two  vice-provinces  in  America. 
These  religious  followed  the  rule  drawn  up  for  them  with  thirty-seven  convents  and  five  to  six  hundred 
by  St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort.  The  order  was  ap-  members.  The  Meroedarian  convents  are  in  Pa- 
proved,  first  by  Honorius  III  and  then  by  Gregory  IX  lenno:  Spain;  Venezuela  (Caracas,  Maracaibo);  Pern 
(1230),  the  latter,  at  the  request  of  St.  Raymond  rLima);  Chile  (Santiago);  Argentina  (Cordova,  Men- 
Nonnatus  presented  by  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  granted  a  doza);  Ecuador  (Quito);  and  Uruguay.  The  Meroe- 
Bull  of  confirmation  and  prescribed  the  Rule  of  St.  darians  of  Cordova  publish  "Revista  Meroedaria". 
Augustine,  the  former  rule  now  forming  the  con-  Besides  the  foimder,  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  the  following 
stitutiona  (1235).  St.  Peter  was  the  first  superior,  illustrious  members  of  the  order  may  be  mentioned: 
with  the  title  of  Commander-General;  he  also  filled  St.  Raymond  Nonnatus  (d.  1240),  the  most  famous  of 
the  office  of  Ransomer,  a  title  given  to  the  monk  sent  the  monks  who  gave  themselves  up  to  the  woric  of 
into  the  lands  subject  to  the  Moors  to  arrange  for  the  ransoming  captives;  Blessed  Bernard  of  Corbario,  al- 
ransom  of  prisoners.  The  holy  founder  died  in  1256,  ready  mentioned;  St.  Peter  Paschal,  Bishop  of  Jaen, 
seven  years  after  having  resigned  his  superiorship;  he  who  devoted  all  bis  energies  to  the  ransom  of  captives 
was  succeeded  by  Guillaume  Le  Bas.  and  the  conversion  of  the  Mussulmans,  martyred  in 

The  development  of  the  order  was  immediate  and  1300;  St.  Raymond  was  a  cardinal,  as  also  were  Juan 

widespread  throughout  France,  England.  Germany,  de  Luto  and  Father  de  Salazar.    It  is  unnecessaiy  to 

Portugal,  and  Spam.    As  (he  Moors  were  driven  back,  enumerate  the  archbishops  and  bishops.     Writers 

new  convents  of  Mercy  were  established.  Houses  were  numerous,  especially  m  Spain  and  Latin  America 

were  founded  at  Montpellier,  Perpignan,  Toulouse,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century.    To  mention  only  a  few: 

Vich.    This  great  number  of  houses,  however,  had  a  Alfonso  Henrfquez  de  Aunendaris,  Bishop  of  Cuba, 

weakening  effect  on  the  uniformity  of  observance  of  who  had  founded  a  college  for  his  order  at  Seville,  ana 

the  rule.    To  correct  this,  Bernard  de  Saint-Romain,  from  whom  Philip  III  received  an  interesting  report  on 

the  third  commander-genend   (1271),   codified  the  the  spiritual  and  temporal  condition  of  his  diocese  in 

decisions  of  the  general  chapters.    In  the  fourteenth  1623;  Alfonso  de  Monroy,  who  drew  up  the  constitu- 

centuiy,  disputes  arising  from  the  rivalry  between  the  tions  of  the  reform,  and  was  a  bishop  in  America;  Air- 

convents  of  Barcelona  and  Puy,  and  from  the  discord  fonso  Ram6n,  theologian,  preacher,  and  annalist  of 

between  the  priests  and  knights,  which  ended  in  the  his  order;  Alfonso  VeUsquez  de  Miranda  (1661),  who 


mbbcub  Ids  MUteT 

took  a  oofurfdemble  part  in  political  afiFain;  Fernando  friends  at  Rome  that  he  was  persuaded  to  take  up  his 

de  OriO|  general  of  the  oixler,  who  translated  and  residenoe  there.    He  studied  the  old  classic  medical 

learnedly  commented  on  Tertullian's  treatise  "De  writers  for  some  seven  yean  and  then  wrote  his  "De 

Pcenitentia";  Fernando  de  Santiago  (1539),  one  of  the  arte  gymnastica".  in  which  he  gathered  all  that  the 

favourite  preachers  of  his  time;  Francisco  Henriauez;  ancients  had  taught  with  regard  to  the  use  of  natural 

Francisco  de  Santa  Maria;  Francisco  Zumel;  Gaoriel  methods  for  the  cure  of  disease.    This  gave  him  a 

de  Adarso  (1674),  theologian,  preacher,  and  states-  great  reputation  throughout  Europe.    Appreciation 

man;  Gabriel  Tulles  (1650),  dramatic  author;  Caspar  of  it  by  the  Venetian  senators  led  to  his  c^  to  the 

de  T6rrez,  Bishop  of  the  Canaiy  Islands;  Pedro  de  chair  of  medicine  of  Padua  in  1569.    Here  he  devoted 

Ona,  whom  Phibp  III  sent  on  important  missions  himself  to  the  critical  study  of  the  works  of   Hippo- 

both  in  America  and  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  crates.    His  exhaustive  monograph,  "  Cenmira  et  ois- 

IUm6n,  Hidoriapeneral  de  la  Ord^  de  Ntiutra  Setiora  de  la  positio  operum  Hippocratis"  (Venice,  1583),  enhanced 

iJi:St^*^fe^'a^'i?a^'d."fr;^^'te  ETreDutaOon  ^He  beg»>  th.  prep«aU<m  of  a 

eapiivarum,  2  vols.  (Palenno,  1619);  Sin ao,  BuUariwn  emleelie  Critical  study  of  Hippocrates'  WOrks  m  Greek    and 

ae  regalie  Ordinia  Beatm  Maria  KiryinM  de  Mereede  (Baroe*  Latin,  which  was  published  at  Venice,  1588.     In  the 

ini  *5Si;  S°^i3^^^"<g^i«"2'^ot  ?553iS:  meantime  h«repuUtionl«d  gone  abn^d,  and  in  1573 

1609);  Qabi  t  StumsLL.  Bibliotkeoa  mertedaria  CBaraelonA.  hewascalledto  Vienna  for  Consultation  dunng  the  lll- 

1875);  HiLTOT,  ATMtoire  deBonireatiumattique9,in  ness  of  Emperor  Maximilian.    The  emperor  was  so 

CuBBiBB,  Htai.  oSRdxgioua  Ordere  (New  York.  1896).  180-4.  pleased  with  his  Service  that  he  madehim  Count 

J.  M.  BsssE.  Falatine.    After  the  pubUcation  of  further  works  on 

the  medical  classics,  he  was  called  in  1587  to  the  chair 
Merdor,  Louib-Honor£,  a  French  Canadian  states-  of  medicine  in  Bologna.  The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany 
man,  b.  15  October,  1840,  at  Iberville,  Quebec,  of  a  was  sparing  no  effort  to  increase  the  prestige  of  the 
family  of  farmers;  d.  30  October,  1894.  He  received  University  of  Pisa,  so  he  tempted  Mercurialisto  accept 
his  classical  education  at  the  Jesuit  college,  Montreal,  thechairof  medicine  there  by  the  offer  of  a  salary  prob- 
and prepared  for  the  Bar  in  the  employ  of  a  prominent  ably  the  laigest  ever  paid  to  a  professor  up  to  this 
legal  firm  of  St-Hyacinthe,  acting  meanwhile  (1862),  time,  1800  gold  crowns  to  become  2000  crowns  after 
when  only  22,  as  editor  of  "Le  Courrier  de  8t-Hya-  the  second  year. 


year.   He  remained  at  Pisa  till  his  sevoity- 

cinthe  ".    His  views  were  then  opposed  to  the  conf ed-  fif ^  year  when  he  retired  to  Forli.    His  great  merit  is 

eration  of  the  provinces,  which  he  considered  as  the  his  critical  study  of  the  ancient  medical  classics,  espe- 

death-blow  to  French  Canadian  influence.   In  his  later  cially  Hippocrates  and  his  discipjes.    He  wrote  many 

years  he  inclined  towards  annexation  to  the  United  other  medical  works  including  text  books  of  the  dis- 

States.    In  1873  Rouville  county  elected  him  for  the  eases  of  children,  of  women,  of  the  skin,  and  on  prae- 

Federal  Parliament;  and,  in  1881,  St-Hyacinthe  re-  tical  medicine;  all  of  which  werewidely  read  and  used 

turned  him  to  the  local  House  of  Assembly,  Quebec,  in  numy  of  the  medical  schools  of  his  tune. 

The  general  indignation  caused  among  the  Canadians  Diaionnaire  hieumque  de  la  Msdedne  (Moos,  1778);  Bbam- 

of  French  origin  by  the  execution  of  the  half-breed  M"^.  ^Uma  dMe  eeaperie  faUe  daoH  uomini^uatri  KaUam 

leader,  Louis  Riel,  at  Regina,  an  act  rightly  attributed  (MHan,  1780);  Btographu  mSdtcaUJPi^^A). 

to  Orange  fanaticism  and  vindictiveness,  nrovided  ai-bh. 

Meroier  with  the  opportunity  of  founding  the  National  BSercy,  Bbothebs  of  Oub  Ladt  of,  founded  at 

party  (1885)  which  comprised  elements  fit>m  the  ranks  Mechlin  in  1839  by  Canon  J.  B.  Cornelius  Scheppers  for 

of  both  Liberals  and  Conservatives.   It  was  during  his  the  instruction  and  care  of  prisoners  and  of  the  sick. 

premiershii>  (1887  to  1892),  that  was  passed  the  fa-  They  were  invited  to  S.  Balbina  at  Perugia  by  Car- 

mous  Jesuit  Estate  Bill,  partly  indemnifying  the  dinal  Pecci,  afterwards  Leo  XIII,  who  had  witnessed 

Society  for  the  properties  confiscated  by  the  British  their  work  while  he  was  nuncio  at  Brussels.     It  was 

Crown  after  the  cession  of  Canada.    It  was  Mercier's  at  his  instance  that  Pius  IX  confirmed  the  constitution 

honour  and  merit  to  have  brought  to  a  successful  con-  of  the  Brothera  in  1854.    In  1855  Caidinal  Manning 

elusion  the  negotiations  to  that  effect  pursued  under  invited  them  to  London,  where  they  have  undertaken 

his  predecessors  in  ofl&ce — an  event  almost  unparal-  the  care  of  the  prisoners  in  Catholic  reformatories  and 

elled  in  modem  legislation,  and  to  which  the  Ottawa  are  also  occupied  with  the  education  of  the  children  of 

Federal  Parliament,  with  its  conservative  majority,  poor.    They  are  under  simple  vows  and  the  term  of  the 

lent  its  concurrence.   His  devotedness  in  behalf  of  the  novitiate  is  one  year.    They  wear  a  black  habit  and 

interests  of  his  former  teachers  proved  his  fidelity  and  scapular  with  a  brown  cross  on  the  breast. 

attachment  to  his  Alma  Mater.    In  recognition  of  this  ^ombuchbr.   Die   Orden   w»d   Konoreoatumen,   IXI.   361; 

act  of  justice,  he  was  knighted  by  Leo  XlII.    A  vig-  ^""i**  ^S^iSf'li^  "^  RefMiioue  Houaee  of  Oreat  BrOoM 

orous  and  redoubtable  debater  rather  than  an  elo-  <*^<><»«  l»03>»  *i-                     Blanche  M   Kkllt 

quent  orator,  Mercier  spoke  with  great  clearness  and  * 

force.   He  possessed  a  remarkable  talent  of  exposition  Marcy,  Cokporal  and  Sfibitual  Wobkb  of.— 

and  argmnentation,  which  gave  him  a  prominent  rank  Mercy  as  it  is  here  contemplated  is  said  to  be  a  virtue 

in  the  Canadian  Bar.    Certain  utterances  in  some  of  influencing  one's  will  to  have  compassion  for,  and,  if 

his  published  speeches  unfortunately  betray  the  influ-  possible,  to  alleviate  another's  mitfortune.    It  is  the 

ence  of  a  reprehensible  school  of  thought  and  too  great  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  Aqumas  that  although  merey 

intimacy  with  the  literature  of  its  representative  is  as  it  were  the  spontaneous  product  of  charity,  yet  it 

minds.   The  Legislature  of  Quebec  has  voted  (1910)  a  is  to  be  reckoned  a  special  virtue  adequately  dSstin- 

monument  to  his  memory.  guishable  from  this  latter.    In  fact  the  Schcdastics  in 

H^:S^'e;c&&ii^^r§S^L^^  cataloguing  it  «n«der  it  to.be  re^^^^ 

bee,  1894).  of  justice  mainly  because,  like  justice,  it  controls  rela- 

LiONEL  LiNDSAT.  tlous  between  distinct  persons.    It  is  as  they  say  ad 

aUerum,    Its  motive  is  the  misery  which  one  discerns 

Mercnziali^  Geroniuo,  better  known  bv  his  Latin  in  another,  particularly  in  so  far  as  this  condition  is 

name  Mercunalis,  famous  philologist  and.  physician,  deemed  to  be,  in  some  sense  at.  least,  involuntary, 

b.  at  Forli,  30  September,  1530;  d.  there,  13  Novem-  Obviously  the  necessity  which  is  to  be  succoured 

her,  1606.    His  preliminary  studies  and  some  of  his  can  be  either  of  body  or  soul.    Hence  it  is  cus- 

medical  courses  were  taken  at  Bologna,  but  he  re-  tomary  to  enumerate  both   corporal  and  spiritual 

ceived  his  degree  at  Padua  and  then  settled  down  to  works  of  mercy.    The  traditioxud  enumeration  of 

practice  in  Forli.     He  was  sent  by  his  townfolk  on  a  the  corporal  woncs  of  mercy  is  as  follows:  (1)  To  feed 

political  mission  to  Paul  IV  and  made  such  good  the  hungry;  (2)  To  give  drink  to  the  thirsty;  (3)  'To 


199 

dothe  the  naked;  (4)  To  harbour  the  harbourleBs;  PennaforteBtabfiflhed  the  Older  of  Our  Lady  of  Ran* 
(5)  To  vint  the  nek;  (6)  To  ransom  the  captive:  som.  Both  of  these  oommunities  had  as  their  chief 
(7)  To  bury  the  dead.     The  spiritual  works   of    scope  the  recovery  of  Christians  who  were  held  captive 

mercy  are:  (1)  To  instruct  the  ignorant;  (2)  To  by  the  infidels.  In  the  religious  body  which  owes 
counsel  the  doubtful;  (3)  To  admonish  sinners;  (4)  its  origin  to  St.  Peter  Nolasco,  the  memben  took  a 
To  bear  wrongi  patiently;  (5)  To  forgive  offences  will-    fourth  vow  to  surrender  their  own  persons  in  place  of 

ipsiiy;  W  To  comfort  the  afflicted;  (7)  To  pray  for  the  those  whom  they  were  not  othemm  able  to  redeem 

living  am  the  dead.   It  will  be  seen  from  these  divi-  frmn  slaveiy. 

sions  that  the  works  el  mercy  practically  coincide  with         Sfiraoo,    The   Cateehiam   Explained   (New   York.    1890); 

the  various  forms  of  ahnsgiv&ig.    It  is  thus  that  St.  ?^^*f%2SSJ'S:^''{^^^i^^ 

Thomas  regaids  them    The  woidirfms  of  course  is  a  SSSS^XncS^/J^  ^SSTbSTSJo^ 

corruption  of  the  Greek  iknt/ioc^  (mercy).    The  do-  Thmloaiea  (Turin,  1886). 

ing  ofworks  of  inercy  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  exalted  Josbfh  F.  Dslaitt. 

counsel;  there  is  as  well  a  strict  precept  imposed  both 

by  the  natural  and  the  positive  Divine  law  enjoining       Mflirey.  Sisterb  op,  a  congrejntion  of  women 
their  performance.    That  the  natural  law  enjoins  founded  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1§27,  l>y  Catherine 
worica  el  mercy  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  we  are  Elisabeth  McAuley ,  b.  29  September,  1787,  at  Stor- 
to  do  to  othen  as  we  would  have  them  do  to  us.  manstown  House,  Countv  Dublin.    Descended  from 
The  Divine  command  is  set  forth  in  the  meet  strin-  an  ancient  and  distinguished  Catholic  family,  she  was 
pent  terms  bv  Christ,  and  the  failure  to  comply  with  it  the  eldest  of  three  chi&en.    At  a  time  when  Catholi- 
18  visited  with  the  supreme  penalty  of  eternal  damna-  cism  was  crushed,  Mr.  McAuley  sUtive  as  much  as 
tion  (Bfatt..  zxv,  41) :  "  Then  he  shall  say  to  them  also  was  possible  to  keep  the  faith  alive  in  those  who  had 
that  shall  be  on  his  left  hand:  Depart  from  me,  you  so  many  inducements  to  relinquish  it,  and  en^aAed  in 
cursed,  into  everiasting  fire  which  was  prepared  for  the  many  charitable  works.    In  these  he  was  htUe  as- 
devil  ajid  his  angels.  For  I  was  hungry,  and  you  gave  sisted  by  Mrs.  McAuley,  whose  charm  and  accomplish- 
me  not  to  eat:  I  was  thirsty,  and  you  gave  me  not  to  ments  made  her  a  favourite  in  society.    After  Mr. 
drink.    I  was  a  stranger,  and  you  took  me  not  in:  McAuIey's  death  (1794)  the  pecuniary  affairs  of  the 
naked,  and  you  covered  me  not:  side  and  in  prison,  family  became  so  involved  that  the  widow  sold  Stor- 
and  you  did  not  visit  me",  etc.  Here  it  is  tnxe  there  manstown  House  and  removed  to  Dublin.    Here  the 
is  mention  directly  and  explicitly  of  onl]r  the  oorooral  family  came  so  completely  under  the  influence  of 
works  of  mercy.    As^  however,  the  spiritual  woncs  6i  Protestant  fashionable  society  that  all,  with  the  ex- 
men^  deal  with  a  distress  whose  relief  is  even  more  ception  of  Catherine,  became  Protestants.    She  re- 
imperative  as  well  as  more  effective  for  the  grand  pur-  vered  the  memory  of  her  father  too  greatly  to  em- 
pose  of  man's  creation,  the  injunction  must  be  sup-  brace  a  religion  he  abhorred.    Mrs.  McAuley  did  not 
posjed  to  extend  to  them  also.  /Besides  there  are  tne  long  survive  her  husband,  and  aft^  her  death  the 
plain  references  of  Christ  to  such  works  as  fraternal  orphans  passed  into  the  family  of  a  relative  who  in- 
eorreetion  (Matt.,  xviii,  15)  as  well  as  the  forgiveness  vested  their  patrimony  for  their  benefit.    From  one 
of  injuries  (Matt.,  vi,  14).    It  has  to  be  remembered  relative  to  another  the  orphans  passed,  each  guardian 
however  that  the  precept  is  an  affirmative  one,  that  doing  all  in  his  power  to  strengthen  the  children  in  the 
is,  it  ia  of  the  sort  which  is  always  binding  but  not  Protestant  relisjon.    Catherine,  however,  could  not 
always  ^lative,  for  lack  of  matter  or  occasion  or  be  induced  by  threats  or  promises  to  join  in  Protestant 
fitting  circumstances.    It  obliges,  as  the  theologians  worship,  for  she  clung  with  strange  pertinacity  to  the 
say,  semper  eed  non  fro  eemper.  Thus  in  general  it  may  very  name  Catholic :  out  having  no  one  to  consult  in 
be  said  that  the  determination  of  its  actual  obligatory  her  doubts,  she  final^  became  unsettled  in  her  religious 
force  in  a  given^  case  depends  largely  on  the  deg^  of  ideas.    Precocious  and  serious  beyond  her  years^  she 
distress  to  be  aided^  and  the  capacity  or  condition  of  grew  daily  more  alive  to  the  insecurity  of  her  spiritual 
the  one  whose  duty  m  the  matter  is  in  question.  There  position,  and  finally  acceded  to  the  desires  of  her 
are  easily  recognisable  liinitati(His  which  the  precept  mends  to  examine  the  religion  she  saw  practised 
undergoes  in  practice  so  far  as  the  performance  of  tne  among  her  tnilv  virtuous  relatives.    The  more  she 
corporal  worxs  of  mercy  are  concerned.    These  are  read,  the  more  she  thought  and  studied,  the  stronger 
treated  in  the  article  on  Alms  and  Almsgiving  (q.  v.).  her  doubts  in  regard  to  Protestantism  became.    Its 
Likewise  the  law  imposing  spiritual  works  of  mercsy  is  dissensions  and  contradictions,  the  coldness  and  the 
subject  in  individual  instances  to  important  reserva-  barrenness  of  its  spiritual  life,  repelled  her  and  aU 
tions.  For  example,  it  may  easily  happen  that  an  alto-  thought  of  becoming  a  Protestant  died  away.    Cath- 
gether  apodal  measure  of  tact  and  prudence^  or,  at  any  erine  is  described  as  being  beautiful,  her  complexion 
rate,  some  definite  superiority  is  required  for  the  die- 1  was  very  fair,  her  eyes  blue,  and  her  nair  golden;  her 
charge  of  the  oftentimes  difficult  task  of  fraternal  |  nature  was  singularly  unselfish,  amiable,  and  affeo* 
correction.  Similarly  to  instruct  the  ignorant,  ooun- 1  lionate.    Thouj^h  several  advantageous  alliances  were 
sel  the  doubtful,  and  console  the  sorrowing  is  not  proposed,  nothing  could  induce  her  to  marry, 
always  within  the  competency  of  eveiy  one.   To  bear        More  and  more  attracted  to  the  faith  of  her  father, 
wrongs  patiently,  to  forgive  offences  willingly,  and  to  Catherine  became  acquainted  with  Dean  Lub6  of  St. 
pray  for  the  living  and  the  dead^  are  thin^  from  which  James'  Church.  Dublin,  and  Dr.  Betagh,  whose  friend- 
on  due  occaaica  no  one  may  dispense  himself  on  the  ship  greatly  aided  her.  About  this  time  a  distant  rela- 
plea  that  he  has  not  some  special  array  of  ^ts  re-  tive  of  her  mother's,  returning  from  India,  purchased 
quired  for  their  observance.     Thev  are  evidently  Coolock  House,  a  few  miles  from  Dublin,  and  being 
within  the  reach  of  all.   It  must  not  oe  forgotten  that  attracted  by  Catherine's  appearance,  desired  to  adopt 
the  works  of  mercy  demand  more  than  a  humanitarian  her;  consequently.  In  the  year  1803  Cfatherine  removed 
basis  if  they  are  to  serve^  as  instruments  in  bringing  to  her  new  and  Mautif  ul  home.     Catherine's  interior 
about  our  eternal  salvation.    The  proper  motive  is  disquietude  now  became  such  that  she  determine  to 
indispensable  and  this  must  be  one  drawn  from  the  follow  the  dictates  of  her  conscience.     She  sou^t  an 
supernatural  order.    Finally  it  is  interesting  to  note  interview  with  Eev.  Dr.  Murray,  afterwards  Arch- 
that  for  the  exercise  of  the  sixth  among  the  corporal  bishopof  Dublinjand  shortly  after  was  received  into  Uie 
works  of  mercy  two  religious  orders  have  at  different  Chureh.    Her  kind  guardians  allowed  her  to  practise 
times  in  the  history  of  the  Church  been  instituted.   In  the  charitable  worl^  to  which  she  felt  inclincKl  and 
the  year  1198  the  Trinitarians  were  founded  by  St.  even  provided  her  with  the  necessary  means;  but  they 
John  of  Matha  and  St.  Felix  ol  Valois,  andjust  twenty  were  so  opposed  to  everjrthing  having  an  appearance 
years  later  St.  Peter  NoUsco  and  St.  Raymond  of  of  CatholiQisni  that  they  womd  not  allow  a  crucifix;, 


MEROT  200 

ieI{gioii8  picture^  or  any  pious  article  in  the  house,  nor  of  the  eontemplative  and  the  active  life  necessary  foi 

did  Uiey  make  any  provision  for  fast  days.    Her  the  duties  of  the  oongrecation  called  forth  so  much 

sacrifices  and  prayers  were  rewarded  by  the  oonver-  opposition  that  it  seemea  as  though  the  community, 

sion  of  Mrs.  Callahan,  on  her  death  bed;  and  in  1822  now  numbering  twelve,  must  disband;    but  it  was 

Mr.  Callahan  also,  when  d3ring.  was  duly  reconciled,  settled  that  several  of  the  sisters  shoukl  msJce  their 

To  Catherine  he  left  his  entire  fortune.    She  immedi-  novitiates  in  some  approved  reli^ous  house  and  after 

ately  devised  a  system  of  distributing  food  and  cloth-  their  profession  return  to  the  mstitute  to  train  the 

ing  to  the  poor  who  flocked  to  Coolock  House,  and  her  others  to  reli^ous  life.    In  June,  1830,  the  institute 

time  was  tuUy  devoted  to  these  works  of  chiuity,  to  received  from  Pope  Pius  VIII  a  Rescript  of  Indulgences 

visiting  the  sick  and  to  instructing  the  poor.    When  dated  23  May,  1830.    The  Presentation  G^er,  whose 

Catherine  came  into  full  possession  of  ner  property,  rules  are  based  upon  those  of  St.  Austin,  seemed  the 

Ehe  felt  that  God  requirea  her  to  do  something  per-  one  best  adapted  for  the  training  of  the  fint  novices  of 

manent  for  the  poor,  and  she  was  now  able  to  carry  the  new  congregation  and  Mii»  Catherine  McAulqr, 

out  her  early  visions  of  foimding  an  institution  in  Miss  ElisabetliHarley,  and  Miss  Anna  Maria  Doyle  be- 

which  women  might,  when  out  of  work,  find  a  tem-  gan  their  novitiate  at  George's  Hill,  Dublin,  on  8*Sept.» 

porary  home.    In  this  imdertakinff  Rev.  Dr.  Blake  1830.    Ontheseconddayof  the  Octave  of  the  Immac- 

and  Kev.  Dr.  Armstrong  were  her  aovisors.  ulate  Conception  1830  tne  three  postulants  received 

After  some  deliberation,  these  clergymen  selected  the  habit  and  on  12  December,  1831,  they  pronounced 
a  site  for  the  new  building  at  the  junction  of  lower  the  usual  three  vows  to  which  they  added  a  fourth, 
Baggot  and  Herbert  Streets,  Dublin,  and  in  June,  that  of  persevering  in  the  congregation  until  death. 
1824,  the  comerHstone  was  laid  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Miss  McAuley.  now  known  as  Stster  Mary  Catherine, 
Blake.  As  Dr.  Blake  was  called  to  Rome  soon  after,  was  appointed  first  superior  of  the  congregation,  an 
the  Rev.  Edward  Armstrong  undertook  to  assist  her,  office  which  she  held  for  the  remainder  of  ner  life.  The 
but  died  before  the  work  was  completed.  On  the  office  of  superior  of  each  mother-house  of  the  conr 
feast  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  24  September,  1827,  the  gregation  is  neld  for  three  years  except  in  the  case  of  a 
new  institution  for  destitute  women,  orphans,  and  foundress  when  it  may  be  held  for  six  years, 
poor  schools  was  opened  and  Catherine,  with  two  com-  The  costume  adopted  by  the  sisters  consists  of  a 
panions,  undertook  its  mana^ment.  There  was  no  habit  of  black  material  falling  in  folds  from  the  throat 
idea  ^en  of  foimding  a  religious  institution;  on  the  to  the  feet  and  lengthened  into  a  train  behind,  which  is 
contrary,  the  foundress's  plan  was  to  establish  a  worn  looped  up  except  in  the  chapel^  the  community- 
society  of  secular  ladies  who  would  spend  a  few  hours  room,  and  the  parlour.  The  habit  is  confined  to  the 
daily  m  instructing  the  poor.  Graduallv  the  interior  waist  by  a  leather  girdle,  or  cincture,  from  which  de- 
life  of  these  associates  and  their  external  occupations  pends  a  black  rosary  with  the  ebony  cross  of  the  con- 
and  relations  became  too  much  like  the  monastic  life  erection.  The  sleeves  are  long  and  wide  with  close- 
to  be  allowed  to  remain  imder  secular  rule.  The  fitting  undersleeves  of  the  same  material  as  the  habit, 
ladies  had  already  assumed  a  sombre  dress  and  play-  The  veil  is  black,  long,  and  flowing.  The  novices  wear 
fully  called  each  other  "Sister'';  moreover,  they  shorter  veils  of  white  cambric,  otherwise  their  dress  is 
occasionally  took  a  meal  on  the  premises  and  even  at  the  same  as  that  of  the  professed  sisters.  Church 
times  remained  over  night.  In  1828  the  archbishop  cloaks  of  white  woollen  material  are  worn  on  great 
permitted  the  staff  of  the  institute  to  assume  a  dis-  feasts  in  the  chapel  and  for  certain  ceremonies.  The 
tinctive  dress  and  to  publicly  visit  the  sick.  The  gimp  is  a  white  Imen  collar,  very  deep  in  front.  The 
uniform  adopted  was  a  black  dress  and  cape  of  the  coif  is  of  white  linen.  The  rule  and  constitutions  of 
same  material  reaching  to  the  belt,  a  white  collar  and  a  the  congregation  were  not  completed  until  1834,  nor 
lace  cap  and  veil — such  a  costume  as  is  now  worn  by  approved  until  1835,  yet  they  contained  in  substance 
the  postulants  of  the  congregation.  In  the  same  year  only  that  which  had  been  observed  from  the  year 
the  archbishop  desired  Miss  McAuley  to  choose  some  1827.  The  basis  of  the  rule  was  that  of  St.  Austin  al- 
name  by  whicn  the  little  community  might  be  known,  though  circumstances  required  many  alterations  be- 
and  she  chose  that  of  "  Sisters  of  Mercy  ",  havmg  the  fore  its  approval.  Kingstown  was  the  first  place  out- 
design  of  making  the  works  of  mercy  the  distinctive  side  the  capital  in  which  a  house  of  the  oonjeregation 
feature  of  the  institute.  She  was,  moreover,  desirous  was  openecl,  and  outside  of  the  archdiocese  'nillamore 
that  the  members  should  combine  with  the  silence  was  tne  first  town  to  welcome  the  sisters.  In  1838, 
and  praver  of  the  Carmelite,  the  active  labours  of  a  at  the  suggestion  of  Rev.  Peter  Butler  of  Bermondsey, 
Sister  of  Charity.  The  position  of  the  institute  was  some  English  ladies  came  to  Ireland  to  serve  a  novitiate 
anomalous,  its  members  were  not  bound  by  vows  nor  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the  conffreeation  into 
were  they  restrained  by  rules  and  Dr.  BLake  held  a  England.  U  pon  their  return,  Mother  M.  <3are  Moore 
consultation  with  the  archbishop  in  which  it  was  de-  was  appointed  the  superior  of  the  Bermondsey  Con- 
cided  that  itie  Sisters  of  Mercy  must  declare  their  in-  vent.  Lady  Barbara  fivre,  daughter  of  the  Ciitholie 
tentions  as  to  the  future  of  their  institute,  whether  it  Earl  of  Newbui:gh,  was  tne  first  one  to  be  received  into 
was  to  be  classed  as  a  religious  congregation  or  to  be-  the  new  congre^tion.  As  Sister  Maiy  de  Sales,  she 
come  secularized.  The  associates  unanimously  de-  made  her  vows  m  1841  and  after  a  very  edifying  life 
cided  to  become  religious.    It  was  deemed  better  to  died  in  1849. 

have  this  congregation  imconnected  with  any  already  From  England  the  congregation   rapidly  spread, 

existing  community.  beginningwith  Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel  Islands 

The  Sisters  of  Mercy  were  now  bound  to  the  labori-  (1868).    Throu^^h  the  efforts  of  Bishop  Murdock,  the 

ous  duties  of  instructing  the  ignorant,  visiting  the  sick  sisters  from  Limerick  opened  a  house  in  Glasgow 

and  imprisoned,  managing  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  (1849).    Under  the  patronage  of  Dr.  Brady.  Bi£op 

homes  for  distressed  women;  in  fact  to  every  work  of  of  Perth,  the  sisters  were  introduced  into  Australia 

mercy.    They  were  to  make  perpetual  vows,  observe  (1846).    Three  vears  later,  Bishop  Pompallier,  of  New 

choir,  and  spend  some  six  or  seven  hours  daily  in  Zealand,  brought  a  band  from  Carlow,  Ireland.    In 

spiritual  exercises  and  about  three  weeks  altogether  in  May,  1842,  at  the  reauest  of  Bishop  Flemming,  a  small 

strict  retreat;  the  midsummer  retreat  proper  covering  colonv  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  crossed  the  AUantic  to 

eight  full  days,  a  triduum  occupying  the  last  three  found  the  congregation  at  St.  John's,  New  Foundland. 

days  of  each  year,  and  the  first  Sunday  of  every  month  In  September,  1843,  Bishop  O'Connor,  of  Pittsbui^, 

except  two  being  devoted  in  silence  to  a  preparation  Pennsylvania,  U.  S.  A.,  applied  to  Carlow  for  a  colony 

for  death.    On  Uie  Octave  of  the  Ascension  1829  the  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  for  nis  diocese.    Seven  religious 

archbbhop  blessed  the  chapel  of  the  institution  and  were  appointed  for  this  mission  of  whom  Mother 

dedicated  it  to  Our  Lady  of  ^^rcy.    This  combination  Francis  Wfkr49  (se^  Wakpb}^  wi^  the  Sr9t  aupeiipri 


MXBOT 


201 


UBUBDtTS 


On  the  22  December,  1843,  the  sisters  opened  the  first 
house  of  the  congregation  in  the  United  States.  In 
1844  they  opened  the  parochial  school  attached  to  the 
cathedral.  In  1845  St.  Xavier's  Academy  and  Board- 
ing-school was  begun.  In  1846  the  sisters  took 
charge  of  the  orphans,  and  on  the  first  day  of  the  year 
1847  the  first  hospital  in  Western  Pennyslvania  was 
opened  under  their  management.  In  1846  Pitts- 
bun  sent  out  its  first  foundation  to  Chicago  imder 
Mother  M.  Agatha  O'Brien.  This  was  in  reality  the 
second  house  of  the  congregation  asked  for  in  the 
United  States,  although  it  could  not  be  opened  until 
several  months  after  the  New  York  communit^r  had 
crossed  the  ocean.  In  1850  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
O'Reilly  of  Pittsburg,  the  sisterc  opened  a  school  in 
Providence,  Rhode  Island.  This  state  was  considered 
the  most  bitter  opponent  of  Catholicism  in  the  Union, 
and  the  most  bitter  people  in  the  state  wero  thought 
to  be  concentrated  m  its  capital;  accordingly  this 
foundation  called  for  heroic  souls,  and  one  of  tne  fore- 
most of  these  was  Rev.  Mother  Warde.  who  had  just 
resigned  the  ofiice  of  superior  in  the  Pittsburg  com- 
munity. In  1855  Pittsburg  sent  out  its  third  foun- 
dation to  Baltimore  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Rev. 
Edward  McColgan.  Towards  the  close  of  1845  Bishop 
Hughes  of  New  York  applied  to  Baggot  Street,  the 
mother-house  of  the  entire  congregation,  for  sisters 
for  his  diocese.  This  was  a  difficult  rec^uest  to  grant, 
as  that  house  had  been  greatly  diminished  by  the 
mamr  calls  made  upon  it.  The  bishop  was  referred 
to  lifother  M.  Agnes  O'Connor,  who  haa  gone  to  Eng- 
land for  the  purpose  of  opening  a  new  convent  there 
and  then  returning  to  Dublin.  Upon  her  consent  to 
return  with  the  bishop,  five  sisters,  a  novice,  and 
a  postulant  from  different  houses  formed  her  band. 
Arriving  in  New  York  Citj;,  14  May,  1846,  the  sisters 
found  a  temporary  home  in  Washington  Place;  but 
two  years  later  secured  a  larger  house  at  the  comer  of 
Houston  and  Mulberry  Streets.  In  1860  St.  Joseph's 
Industrial  Home  for  girls  was  opened  on  Madison 
Avenue,  comer  of  Eighty-first  Street.  They  have 
abso  opened  a  Home  for  Boys  in  Tarrytown-on-the- 
Hudson  and  a  Home  for  Business  Women  in  West 
One  Himdred  and  Sixth  Street,  New  York  City.  Later 
the  community  moved  to  a  new  building  adjoining 
their  Industrial  Home  for  Girls  on  Madison  Avenue. 
From  New  York,  houses  have  been  established  in  St. 
Louis,  Brooklyn,  Worcester,  Greenbush  (now  Rensse- 
laer), and  in  Eureka,  California.  The  first  American 
postulant  to  enter  the  New  York  house  was  Josephine, 
second  daughter  of  Mother  Seton,  foundress  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  of  Emmitsbiug,  Maryland.  In  1854 
the  Rev.  Hugh  Gallaeher  visited  Kinsale  Convent,  Ire- 
Land,  on  the  part  of  Bishop  Allemany  to  procure  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy  for  his  diocese  of  San  Francisco,  Cali- 
fornia, Among  those  selected  for  this  mission  was 
Sister  Blary  Baptist  Russell,  a  sister  of  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Russell  of  Killowen.  From  these  beginnings, 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  spread  throughout  the  world. 
In  Ireland,  England,  the  United  States,  in  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  Newfoundland,  South  /iinerica,  Mexico, 
and  the  West  Indies  their  name  is  well  known. 

Statistiea, — Number  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  4732;  pupils  in  parochial 
schools,  104,726;  o  phans  and  children  in  Institutions, 
3834;  pupils  in  academies  and  high  schools,  9967; 
hospitals  conducted  by  Sisters  of  Mercy,  53;  orphan- 
ages, 67. 

AnnaU  of  the  SiMter*  of  Mercy;  Murphy,  Sketchee  of  Iri^ 
Nvnneriee  (London,  1866) ;  Carroll,  Life  of  Catherine  McA  tUey 
Qjoadoa,  b.  d.);  Mbmbsr  of  tbs  Order  of  Mkrct,  Life  of 
Catherine  MeAuUy.  MaKY  STANISLAS  AUSTIN. 

Hercy,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Borromeo,  originally  a 
pious  association  of  ladies  formed  in  1626  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of  St.  Charles  at  Nancy,  but 
constituted  a  religious  community  in  1652  after  being 
generously  endowed  by  the  father  of  Emmanuel  Chau^ 


venel,  a  young  advocate  who  had  given  his  life  in  thd 
service  of  the  sick.  The  members  placed  themselves 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  the 
Apostle  of  Charity,  and  adapted  the  rules  and  consti- 
tutions drawn  up  by  Pdre  Epiphane  Louys.  Abbot  of 
Estival  and  Vicar-General  of  the  Reformed  Premon- 
stratensians.  By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  congregation  was  in  charge  of  numerous  hospitals, 
and  shortly  afterwards  took  up  as  an  additional  task 
the  Christian  education  of  children.  During  the  Revo- 
lutionaxy  period  the  members,  although  dispersed 
and  deprived  of  their  garb,  continued  their  work 
so  heroically  as  to  win  the  encomiums  of  their 
persecutors.  On  22  July,  1S04,  they  reassumed  their 
religious  habit,  obtained  the  approval  of  Napoleon, 
and  were  soon  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Their  rule, 
based  on  that  of  St.  Augustine,  received  papal  appro- 
bation in  1859,  and  additional  constitutions  were  con- 
firmed by  Leo  XIII  in  1892.  Their  work  includes  the 
direction  of  all  manner  of  charitable  institutions,  such 
as  domestic  and  trade  schools,  homes  for  first  com- 
mimicants,  protectories,  poor-houses,  homes  for  de- 
fectiveSj  and  female  reformatories,  as  well  as  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  their  homes.  They  also  have  charge  of 
schools,  including  a  number  of  normal  institutes  in 
Austria.  Candidates  must  spend  one  year  as  postu- 
lants and  from  three  to  four  and  a  half  years  as  nov- 
ices before  being  admitted  to  the  congregation.  The 
auxiliary  sisters  for  the  care  of  the  sick  renew  their 
vows  annually. 

There  are  several  entirely  independent  branches  of 
Borromean  Sisters.  In  1838  one  was  established  by 
Aloysius  Joseph  Freiherr  von  Schrenk,  Prince-Bishop 
of  Prague  (d.  1849),  which  was  confirmed  as  a  separate 
congregation  in  1841,  and  now  numbers  900  members 
in  102  houses,  chiefly  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria.  In  1848  Melchlor  Freiherr 
von  Diepenbrock,  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau,  invited  the 
Prague  Borromeans  to  foimd  a  nouse  at  Neisse,  which, 
in  1857,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  the  mother-house  of 
a  separate  congregation.  Later  the  mother-house 
was  transferred  to  Trebnitz,  and  temporarily,  during 
the  Kulturkampf ,  to  Teschen,  where  a  provincial  house 
for  Austria  was  later  established  (1889).  A  house  of 
this  congregation  founded  at  Alexandria  in  1884  was, 
in  1894,  made  a  provincial  mother-house  and  a  noviti- 
ate for  the  Orient,  with  the  direction  of  schools,  an 
asjrlum  for  the  aged,  and  a  hospice  for  German  pil- 
gnms.  Affiliated  foimdations  have  been  made  at 
Jerusalem  (1886),  Haifa  (1888),  Cairo  (1904),  and 
Emmaus.  The  members  of  the  Trebnits  congregation 
number  1900,  in  211  houses.  In  1811  a  foundation 
was  made  from  Nancy  at  Trier,  whence  the  congrega- 
tion spread  to  other  cities  of  Western  Germany.  In 
1849  a  provincial  house  was  erected  at  Trier,  which, 
by  decree  of  Pius  IX  (18  September,  1872),  was  made 
the  mother-house  of  an  independent  congregation.  A 
famous  Borromean  institution  is  St.  Hedwig's  Hos- 
pital at  Berlin,  founded  in  1846  by  Angelika  Esch- 
weiler.  The  Trier  branch  comprises  over  1200  sisters 
in  70  houses.  A  foundation  was  also  made  at  Maas- 
tricht in  1837  by  Peter  Anton  van  Baer. 

Hiel.  de  la  cong.  dee  aceura  de  St.  Charlea  (Nancy,  1808); 
Horn,  Die  Nancy-Trierer  Borrom'irinnen  (1899);  Idem,  Barm- 
Iwnrige  Schweslem  von  M.  Karl  BorromAue  ieSS-1900  (1900); 
Heimbucber,  Orden  ti.  Konoregationen  (2  vols.,  1896). 

FliOBENCB    RUDQB    McGaHAN. 

Meredith,  Edward,  English  Catholic  controver- 
sialist, b.  in  1648,  was  a  son  of  the  rector  of  Landulph, 
Cornwall.  He  studied  with  distinction  at  Westmin- 
ster School  and  in  1665  was  elected  to  c  scholarship  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1668  he  went  to  Spain  as 
secretary  of  the  ambassador.  Sir  William  Gooolphin, 
and  whue  residing  there  embraced  the  Catholic  taith. 
He  returned  to  England  after  three  years  and  engaged 
in  a  religious  controversy  with  Stillingfleet  (8  August, 
1671).    In  this  discussion,  an  account  of  which  he  pub* 


202 

Kshed  in  1684,  he  was  aided  by  Edmund  Coleman,  M«rit. — ^By  merit  (meritum)  in  general  is  under 
who  was  executed  seven  years  later  for  alleged  com-  stood  that  |>ioperty  of  a  good  work  which  entitles  the 
plicity  in  the  Titus  Oates  plot.  In  1682  Meredith  doer  to  receive  a  reward  {prcBmivm,  merceM)  from  him 
wrote  a  reply  to  one  Samuel  Johnson,  who  had  libelled  in  whose  service  the  work  is  done.  By  antonomasia, 
the  Duke  of  York  in  a  work  entitled  "Julian  the  the  word  has  come  to  designate  also  the  good  work  it- 
Apostle".  On  7  September,  1684,  he  entered  the  self,  in  so  far  as  it  deserves  a  reward  from  the  person 
Jesuit  novitiate  at  Watten.  Flanders,  under  the  name  in  whose  service  it  was  perfonned.  In  the  theological 
of  Langford  (or  Lancsfora).  He  evidently  returned  sense,  a  supernatural  merit  can  only  be  a  salutary  act 
in  a  few  y^rs  to  England,  where  he  published  several  (actus  aahUaris),  to  whidi  God  in  consequence  of  his 
controversial  pamphlets.  On  the  tall  of  James  II»  infallible  promise  owes  a  supernatural  rewani,  con- 
he  withdrew  to  Saint-Germain.  He  was  resident  in  sisting  ultimately  in  eternal  me,  which  is  the  beatific 
Rome  during  the  years  1700  and  1701 ;  the  year  of  his  vision  in  heaven.  As  the  main  purpose  of  this  article 
death  is  uncertain,  but  his  will,  dated  1 7 1 5,  is  said  to  be  is  to  vindicate  the  Catholic  doctrme  of  the  meritorious- 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  English  Collie,  ness  of  good  works,  the  subject  is  treated  under  the 
Rome.  He  translated  from  the  Latin  a  devotional  four  following  heads:  I.  Nature  of  Merit;  II.  Existence 
woric  under  the  title  "A  Journal  of  Meditations  for  of  Merit;  III.  Conditions  of  Merit,  and  IV.  Objects  of 
every  day  of  the  year"  (London,  1687).  Merit. 
FoLBT,  CoOadasua  Eng.  Prov.  8.  /.,  part  I  (l^doo^  1882) ,  1502.        I.  Natubb  OF  Merit . — (a)  If  we  analyse  the  defi- 

A.  A.  MacEblean.  nition  given  above,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  prop- 

Blericiy  Angela.    See  Angela  Merici,  Saint.  ert^  of  merit  can  be  found  only  in  works  that  are 

MMda  (Emeritenbib  in  Indiis),  Diocese  of,  a  positively  good,  whilst  bad  works,  whether  thev  bene- 

suffragan  see  of  Santiago  of  Venezuela  or  Caracas,  ^t  or  injure  a  third  party,  contain  nothing  but  aemerit 

comprises  the  State  ofLos  Andes,  and  part  of  Zuiia  (demeritum)  and  consequently  deserve  punishment, 

and  Zamora.    It  lies  in  the  north-western  portion  of  'Hius  the  good  workman  certainly  deserves  the  reward 

the  republic,  to  the  south  of  Lake  Maxacaibo.    UntU  of  his  labour,  and  the  thief  deserves  the  punishment  of 

17  Jan.,  1905,  it  included  the  territory  of  the  Goajira.  ^  crime.    From  this  it  naturally  follows  that  merit 

M6rida  was  first  erected  into  a  bishopric  on  17  Feb.,  &nd  reward,  demerit  and  punishment,  bear  to  eadi 

1777.    Its  first  bi^op,  Juan  Ramos  cie  Lom,  a  Fran-  other  the  relation  of  deed  and  return ;  they  are  oorrela- 

ciscan,  b.  at  Palacios  y  Villaf ranca.  Diocese  of  Seville,  five  terms  of  which  one  postulates  the  other.    Reward 

in  1722,  was  nominated  in  the  consistory  of  23  Sept.,  *>  due  to  merit,  and  the  reward  is  in  proportion  to  the 

1782,  and  was  a  suffragan  of  Santa  Fe  de  Boeotd.  merit.    This  leads  to  the  third  condition,  vis.,  that 

His  immediate  successors  were  Emanuelo  Candioo  de  niorit  supposes  two  distinct  persons,  the  one  who  ao- 

Terrissos  in  1791 ;  and  in  1795  Antonio  Espinosa,  of  quires  the  merit  and  the  other  who  rewards  it;  for  the 

Corveza  in  the  Diocese  of  Saiagossa.    In  1801  Pius  idea  of  self-reward  is  just  as  contradictory  as  that  of  sdf- 

VII  appointed  Jaime  Hemindes  Milanes  of  Niesa,  in  punishment.    Lastly,  the  relation  between  merit  and 

tiie  Diocese  of  Salamanca.    By  a  Bull  of  the  same  reward  furnishes  the  intrinsic  reason  why  in  the  matter 

Bmtiff,  "In  Universalis  Ecclesi®'*,  24  Oct.,  1803,  of  service  and  its  remuneration  the  guiding  norm  can  be 
6rida  became  suffragan  to  Caracas,  which  had  just  only  the  virtue  of  justice,  and  not  disinterested  kind- 
been  raised  to  the  arohiepiscopal  rank.  In  1816  ness  or  pure  mercy;  for  it  would  destroy  the  very  notfon 
Rafael  Laso  de  La  Vega  was  elected  bishop.  Owing  of  reward  to^  conceive  of  it  as  a  free  gift  of  bounty 
to  the  troubles  consequent  on  the  rebellion  against  (cf-  Rom.,  xi,  6).  If,  however,  salutary  acts  can  in 
Spain,  Leo  XII  nominated  Bonaventura  Arias  m  the  virtue  of  the  Divine  justice  give  the  right  to  an  eternal 
consistory  of  2  Oct.,  1826,  as  auxiliary  bishop.  When  reward,  this  is  possible  only  because  they  themselveB 
Bishop  Laso  was  transferred  to  Quito,  15  Dec.,  1828,  bave  their  root  in  gratuitous  grace,  and  consequently 
Mgr  Arias  continued  to  govern  the  diocese  till  Gregory  a«  of  their  very  nature  dependent  ultimately  on  grace, 
XVI  declared  him  a  vicar  Apostolic.  His  successor,  m  the  Council  of  Trent  emphatically  dedares  (Sess. 
Jos^  Vicente  Unda  of  Guanaia,  was  nominated  in  the  vl,  cap.  xvi,  in  Doisinger,  10th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1908. 
consistory  of  11  July,  1836,  and  on  his  death,  27  Jan.,  ».  810):  "the  If  rd  .  .  .  whose  bounty  towards  all 
1842,  Juan  Ilario  Boset,  of  Puertode  Gueya,  was  elected.  5J?»  ^  ^  great,  that  He  will  have  the  things,  whitAk  are 

The  present  occupant  of  the  see  is  Mgr  Antonio  ^own  gifts,  be  their  merits." 
Raymondo  Silva,  b.  at  Caracas,  26  June,  1850,  and  Ethics  and  theology  cleariy  distinguish  two  kinds 
elected  21  May,  1894.  The  diocese  contains  16  vici^.  of  merit:  (1)  condign  merit  or  merit  m  the  strict  sense 
riates,  108  parishes,  150  churches  and  chapels,  100  of  the  word  (meritum  adcBquatum  9ive  de  amdiano),  and 
priests,  and  a  population  of  about  450,000,  all  Cath-  (?)  <»ngruous  or  ouasi-ment  {meritum  xnadaqwiiwn 
olics  except  about  20,000  pagans,  Timotes  and  Mucu-  ««*«  de  congruo) .  Condign  ment  supposes  lui  equality 
chic  Indians,  and  300  Protestants  and  Jews.  There  between  service  and  return;  it  is  m^ured  by  corn- 
are  only  two  religious  congregations  in  the  diocese  mutative  justice  (juatUui  commutohiw),  and  thus  gives 
at  the  present  time  (1910):  (1)  the  Sisters  of  a  real  daim  to  a  reward.  Congruous  merit,  owing  to 
Saint  Rosa  of  Lima,  at  M6rida,  San  Crist6bal,  and  its  madequacy  and  the  lack  of  mtrmsic  proportion 
Rubio,  a  diocesan  order  devoted  to  hospital  and  between  the  service  and  the  recompense,  daims  a 
orphanage  work :  (2)  the  Servants  of  the  Holy  Family,  reward  only  on  the  ground  of  eamty.  This  eariy-schp- 
with  houses  at  La  Grita,  San  Crist6bal,  and  Tdriba.  ^^<^  distmction  and  teirnmology,  which  is  aJrwidy 
The  fine  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Immaculate  recognized  in  concept  and  substance  by  the  Fathers 
Conception  of  Our  Lady.  The  city  of  M6rida  stands  of  the  Church  in  then- controversies  with  the  Pdagiana 
at  an  elevation  of  5500  feet  on  the  right  bank  of  the  and  Semipelagians,  were  agam  anphasised  by  Johann 
Rio  Chamo  in  a  valley  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  gck,  the  famous  adversary  of  Marbn  Luther  (cf . 
here  rises  to  about  15,000  feet.  It  is  about  60  miles  SEJjmg,  "Job.  Eck  aJs  junger  GdArter,"  MOnstcr, 
from  Lake  Maracaibo  and  300  from  Caracas.  The  city  1906,  pp.  163  sqq.).  The  essential  diflference  between 
was  founded  by  Juan  Rodrigues  Sudrea  in  1558  under  mentum  de  condigno  and  mmhwi  de  conaruo  is  based 
the  name  of  Santiago  de  Ids  Caballeros.  It  suffered  on  the  fact  that,  besid^  those  works  ^A  clam  a 
severely  from  earthquakes,  notably  in  1644,  1812,  and  remuneration  under  pam  of  violatmg  strict  justice 
1894,  notwithstanding  which  it  is  a  thriving  business  (^  P  contracts  between  employer  and  employee,  m 
town  with  12,000  inhS>itants.  The  old  seminary  was  buymg  and  selling,  etc.),  there  are  ateo  other  mento- 
changed  into  a  university  in  1810,  and  still  flourishes,  "ous  works  which  at  most  are  entitled  to  reward  or 
besides  that  of  Caracas.  ^onour  for  reasons  of  equity  (<»«?«*^)  or  m«o 

BoUiin  de  BttadUtka  d»  2m  SifaiM  VwUtot  de  VennuOa  (Cs»-  distributive  justice  (ex  tusMui  dltHbuhvd),  aS  in  the 

OM,  1906),  224-37.  A.  A.  MacEblsan.  case  of  gratuities  and  mibtary  decoratioiis.    From 


203 

an  ethical  point  of  view  the  difference  practically  Now,  if  the  concept  of  satiBfaction  in  its  twcffold 

amounts  to  this  that,  if  the  reward  due  to  condign  meaning  be  compared  with  that  of  merit  as  developed 

merit  be  withheld,  there  is  a  violation  of  ri^t  and  above,  tne  first  general  conclusion  will  be  that  merit 

justice  and  the  consequent  obligation  in  conscience  to  constitutes  a  debtor  who  owes  a  reward,  whilst  satis- 

make  restitution,  while,  in  the  case  of  congruous  merit,  faction  supposes  a  creditor  whose  demands  must  be 

to  wiUihold  the  reward  involves  no  violation  of  right  met.    In  Christ's  work  of  redemption  merit  and  satis- 

and  no  obligation  to  restore,  it  being  merely  an  offence  faction  materially  coincide  almost  to  their  full  ex. 

against  what  is  fitting  or  a  matter  of  personal  dis-  tent,  since  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  merits  of  Christ  are 

crimination  {acceptio  veraonarum).    Hence  the  reward  also  works  of  satisfaction  for  man.    But,  since  by 

of  conenious  merit  always  depends  in  great  measure  His  Passion  and  Death  He  truly  merited,  not  only. 

on  the  Idndneas  and  liberuity  of  the  giver,  though  not  axaces  for  us.  but  also  external  glory  for  His  own 

purely  and  simply  on  his  good  will.  Person  (His  glorious  Resurrection  and  Ascension,  His 

In  applying  these  notions  of  merit  to  man's  relar  sitting  at  the  riciht  hand  of  the  Father,  the  dorification 
taon  to  (jod  it  is  especially  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  of  His  name  of  Jesus,  etc.),  it  follows  that  His  personal 
the  fundamental  truth  that  the  virtue  of  j  ustice  cannot  merit  extends  further  than  His  satisfaction,  as  He  had 
be  brought  forward  as  the  basis  of  a  real  title  for  a  no  need  of  satisfying  for  Himself.  The  substantial 
Divine  reward  either  in  the  natural  or  in  the  super-  and  conceptual  distinction  between  merit  and  satis- 
natural  order.  The  simple  reason  is  that  God,  being  faction  holds  good  when  applied  to  the  justified  Chri»- 
self-existent,  absolutely  independent,  and  sovereign,  tian.  for  every  meritorious  act  has  for  its  main  object 
can  be  in  no  respect  bound  in  justice  with  r^ard  to  his  the  mcrease  of  grace  and  of  eternal  slory,  while  satis- 
creatures.  Properiv  speaking,  man  possesses  nothing  factory  works  have  for  their  object  ttte  removal  of  the 
of hisown;aU tmithemwandallthathedoesisagirt  temporal  pimishment  still  due  to  sin.  In  practice 
of  God,  and,  since  God  is  infinitely  self-sufficient,  there  and  generally  speaking,  however,  merit  and  satis- 
is  no  advantage  or  benefit  which  man  can  by  his  ser-  faction  are  founa  in  every  salutary  act,  so  that  every 
vices  confer  upon  Him.  Hence  on  the  part  of  God  meritorious  work  is  also  satisfactory  and  vice  versa, 
there  can  only  be  question  of  a  gratuitous  promise  of  It  is  indeed  also  essential  to  the  concept  of  a  satis- 
reward  for  certain  good  works.  For  such  works  He  factory  work  of  penance  that  it  be  penal  and  difficult, 
owes  the  promised  reward,  not  in  justice  or  equity,  which  qualities  are  not  connoted  oy  the  concept  of 
but  solely  because  He  has  freely  bound  himself,  i.e.,  merit;  but  since,  in  the  present  state  of  fallen  nature, 
because  of  His  own  attributes  of  veracity  and  fidelity.  tJ^ere  neither  is  nor  can  oe  a  meritorious  work  which* 
It  is  on  this  ground  alone  that  we  can  speak  of  Divine  in  one  way  or  another  has  not  connected  with  it 
justiceatall,  and  apply  the  principle:  Dou<d^8(cf.  St.  difficulties  and  hardships,  theologians  imanimously 
Augustine,  Serm.  dvxii,  c  ii,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  863).  teach  that  all  our  meritorious  works  ¥rithout  exception 

(d)  There  remains  the  distinction  betwe^i  merit  bear  a  penal  character  and  thereby  may  become  auto- 

and  satisfaction;  for  a  meritorious  work  is  not  identi-  matically  works  of  satisfaction.    Agamst  how  many 

cal,  either  in  concept  or  in  fact,  with  a  satisfactory  difficulties  and  distractions  have  we  not  to  contend 

work.    In  the  laneuage  of  theology,   satisfaction  even  during  our  prayers,  which  by  rig^t  should  be  the 

means:  (1)  atoning  oy  some  suitable  service  for  an  easiest  of  all  good  worksl    Thus,  prayer  also  becomes 

injury  done  to  another's  honour  or  for  any  other  a  penance,  and  hence  confessora  may  in  most  cases 

offence,  in  somewhat  the  same  fashion  as  in  modem  content  themselves  with  imposing  prayer  as  a  penance, 

duelling  outraged  honour  is  satisfied  by  recourse  to  (Cf.  De  Lugo,  ''De  poenitentia,'  disp.  xxiv,  sect.  3.) 

swords  or  pistols;  (2)  paying  off  the  temporal  punish-  (c)  Owing  to  the  peculiar  relation  betwe^  ana 

ment  due  to  sin  by  salutary  penitential  works  volun-  material  identity  of  merit  and  satisfaction  in  the 

tarily  undertaken  after  one's  sins  have  been  forgiven,  present  economy  of  salvation,  a  twofold  value  must 

Sin,  as  an  offence  against  God,  demands  satisfaction  m  general  be  distinguished  in  every  good  work:  the 

in  tlie  first  sense;  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  sin  meritorious  and  the  satisfactory  value.    But  each 

calls  for  satisfaction  in  the  second  sense  (see  Pen-  preserves  its  distinctive  character,  theoretically  by  the 

ance).    Christian  faith  teaches  us  that  Uie  Incarnate  difference  in  concepts,  and  practically  in  this,  that  the 

Son  of  God  bv  His  death  on  the  cross  has  in  our  stead  value  of  merit  as  such,  consisting  in  the  increase  of 

fully  satisfied  God's  anger  at  our  sins,  and  thereby  grace  and  of  heavenly  glory,  is  purely  personal  and  is 

effected  a  reconciliation  between  the  world  and  its  not  applicable  to  othen,  while  the  satisfactory  value 

Creator.    Not,  however,  as  though  nothing  were  now  may  oe  detached  from  the  meriting  agent  and  applied 

left  to  be  done  by  man,  or  as  though  he  were  now  re-  to  othere.    The  possibility  of  this  transfer  rests  on 

stored  to  the  state  of  original  iimocence,  whether  he  the  fact  that  the  residual  punishments  for  sin  are  in 

wills  it  or  not :  on  the  contrary,  God  and  Christ  de-  the  nature  of  a  debt,  which  may  be  legitimatelv  paid 

mand  of  him  that  he  make  the  fruits  of  the  Sacrificeof  to  the  creditor  and  thereby  cancelled  not  only  dv  the 

the  Cross  his  own  by  personal  exertion  and  co-opera-  debtor  himself  but  also  by  a  friend  of  the  debtor, 

tion  with  grac^,  by  justifyins  faith  and  the  reception  Ilus  consideration  is  important  for  the  proper  under- 

of  baptism.    It  is  a  definea  article  of  the  Catholic  standing  of  ^e  usefulness  of  suffrages  for  the  souls  in 

Faith  that  man  before,  in,  and  after  justification  de-  pxirgatory  (cf.  Council  of  Trent,  Seiss.  XXV,  Decret. 

rives  his  ^ole  capability  of  meriting  and  satiflfying,  de  purgat.,  in  Denzinger,  n.  98o).    When  one  wishes 

as  well  as  his  actual  merits  and  satisfactions,  solely  to  aid  the  suffering  souls,  one  cannot  apply  to  them 

from  the  infinite  treasure  of  merits  which  Christ  the  purely  meritorious  quality  of  his  work,  because 

gained  ibr  us  on  the  Croea  (cf .  Councfl  of  Trent,  Sess.  the  mcrease  of  grace  and  ^ory  accrue  only  to  the 

VI,  cap.  xvi;  Sess.  XIV,  cap.  viii).  aeent  who  merits.    But  it  has  pleased  the  Divine 

The  seoozia  kind  of  satisfaction,  that  namely  by  wisdom  and  mercy  to  accept  the  satisfactory  quality 

which  temporal  punishment  is  removed,  consists  in  of  one's  work  under  certain  circumstances  as  an 

this,  that  tne  pemtent  after  his  justification  gradually  equivalent  of  the  temporal  punishment  still  to  be 

cancels  the  temporal  punishments  due  to  nis  sins,  endured  by  the  faithful  departed,  just  as  if  the  latter 

either  ex  apere  aperato,  oy  conscientiously  performing  had  themselves  performed  the  work.    This  is  one  of 

the  penance  imposed  on  him  by  his  confessor,  or  ex  the  most  b«siutiiul  and  consoling  aspects  of  that  ^rand 

opere  operantie,  by  self-in^x)sed  penances  (such  as  social  organization  which  we  call  the  "Communion  of 

prajner,   fasting,   almsgiving,  etc.)   and   by   bearing  Saints"  (q.  v.),  and  moreover  affords  us  an  insight 

patiently  the  siifferings  andtrials  sent  by  God;  if  he  into  the  nature  of  the  "heroic  act  of  charity"  ap- 

neglects  this,  he  will  nave  to  give  full  satisfaction  (eo"  proved  by  Pius  IX,  whereby  the  faithful  on  earth,  out 

tiepaeno)  in  the  pains  of  purgatory  (cf.  Coundl  of  of  heroic  charity  for  the  souls  in  Purgatory,  volimtarilv 

Trent*  Seas.  XTV,  can.  zin,  in  Densbger,  a.  923).  renounce  in  their  favour  the  satismctory  fruits  of  all 


lOBBXT  204  BSEBIT 

their  good  works,  even  all  the  suffrages  which  shall  and  Tradition.  The  Old  Testament  already  decHares 
be  offered  for  them  after  their  death,  in  order  that  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works  before  God.  "But 
they  may  thus  benefit  and  assist  the  souls  in  purgatory  the  just  shall  live  for  evermore:  and  their  reward  is 
more  qmckly  and  more  efficaciously.  with  the  Lord"  (Wis.,  v,  16).  "Be  not  afraid  to  be 
The  efficacy  of  the  prayer  of  the  just,  be  it  for  the  justified  even  to  death:  for  the  reward  of  God  con- 
living  or  for  the  dead,  calls  for  special  consideration,  tinueth  for  ever"  (Ecdus.,  xviii,  22).  Christ  Himself 
In  the  first  place  it  is  evident  that  prayer  as  a  pre-  adds  a  special  reward  to  each  of  the  Eig^t  Beatitudes, 
eminently  good  work  has  in  common  with  other  andheendswi^  this  fundamental  tiioug^t:  "Be  glaa 
similar  goodworks,  such  as  fasting  and  almsgiving,  the  and  rejoice,  for  yoiu-  reward  is  veiy  great  in  heaven" 
twofold  value  of  merit  and  satisfaction.  Because  of  (Matt.,  v,  12).  In  lits  description  oi  the  Last  Judg- 
its  satisfactory  character,  prayer  will  also  obtain  for  ment.  He  makes  the  possession  of  eternal  bliss  depend 
the  souls  in  purgatory  by  way  of  suffraee  (per  modum  on  the  practice  of  the  corporal  works  of  mercy  (Matt., 
tuffragix)  eitner  a  diminution  or  a  total  cancelling  of  zxv,  34  sqq.).  Althou^  St.  Paul  insists  on  nothine 
the  penalty  that  remains  to  be  paid.  Prayer  has,  more-  more  strongly  tiban  the  absolute  gratuitousness  oi 
over,  the  characteristic  effect  of  impetration  {effectus  Christian  grace,  still  he  acknowledges  merits  founded 
im'petratoriuB\  for  he  who  prays  appeals  solelv  to  the  on  grace  and  also  the  reward  due  to  them  on  the  part 
goodness,  love,  and  liberality  of  God  for  the  fmfilment  of  God,  which  he  variously  calls  "prize"  (Phil.,  iii,  14; 
of  his  desires,  without  throwing  the  weight  of  his  own  I  Cor.,  ix.  24),  "reward"  (Col.,  iii,  24;  I  Cor.,  iii,  8), 
merits  into  the  scale.    He  who  prays  fervently  and  " crown  oi  justice"  (II  Tim.,  iv,  7  sq. ;  cf .  James,  i,  12). 


,      _  ipecial  efficacy    , ^    ^  , ^ 

of  prayer  for  the  dead  is  easily  explained,  since  it  part  causes  of  our  eternal  happiness.    And  the  ereater 

combines  effica^  of  satisfaction  and  impetration,  and  the  merit,  the  greater  will  be  the  reward  in  heaven 

this  twofold  efficacy  is  enhanced  bv  the  personal  (cf.  Matt.,  xvi,  27: 1  Cor.,  iii,  8;  II  Cot,,  ix.  6).    Thus 

worthiness  of  the  one  who.  as  a  friend  of  God,  offers  the  Bible  itself  refutes  the  assertion  that  "the  idea  of 

the  prayer.     (See  Dead,  Praters  for  the.)    Since  merit  is  originally  foreign  to  the  Gospel"  ("Realen- 

the  meritoriousness  of  good  works  supposes  the  state  cyklop&die  fQr  protest.    Theolo^e,''  XX,  3rd  ed. 

of  justification,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same,  the  Leipzig,  1908,  p.  501).    That  Chnstian  grace  can  be 

possession  of  sanctifying  grace,  supernatural  merit  is  merited  either  by  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  law 

only  an  effect  or  fruit  of  the  state  of  grace  (cf .  Council  or  by  mere  natural  works  (see  Grace),  this  alone  is 

of  Trent,  Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi).    Hence,  it  is  plain  that  foreign  to  the  Bible.    On  the  other  hand,  eternal 

this  whole  article  is  really  only  a  continuation  and  a  reward  is  promised  in  the  Bible  to  those  supernatural 

completion  of  the  doctrine  of  sanctifying  grace  (see  works  which  are  performed  in  the  state  of  g^ce, 

Grace).  and  that  because  they  are  meritorious  (cf.  Matt., 

II.  The  Existence  of  Merit. — (a)  According  to  xxv,  34  sqq.; Rom.,  ii,  6  sqq.;  II  Cor.,  v,  10). 
Luther  justification  consists  essentially  in  the  mere  Even  rrotestants  concede  that,  in  the  oldest  liter- 
covering  of  man's  sins,  which  remain  in  the  soul,  and  ature  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  and  Christian  Apolo- 
in  the  external  imputation  of  Christ's  justice;  hence  gists,  "the  idea  of  merit  was  r«Mi  into  the  Gospel," 
his  assertion  that  even  "the  uist  sin  m  every  good  and  that  Tertullian  by  defending  "merit  in  the  strict 
work"  (see  Denzinger,  n.  771;.  as  also  that  "every  sense  gave  the  key-note  to  Western  Catholicism" 
work  of  the  just  is  worthy  of  aamnation  [damruxbile]  (Realencykl.,  pp.  501,  502).  He  was  followed  by  St. 
and  a  mortal  sin  [peccatum  mortaleL  if  it  be  considered  C^rian  with  the  declaration:  "  You  can  attain  to  the 
as  it  really  is  in  the  judgment  of  God  "  (see  M6hler,  vision  of  God,  if  you  deserve  it  by  your  life  and  works  " 
"Symbolik",  22).  According  to  the  doctrine  of  Cal-  ("De  op.  et  elemos.",  xiv,  ed.  flartel,  I,  384).  With 
vin  (Instit.,  III.  ii,  4)  good  works  are  "impurities  St.  Ambrose  (De  offic,  I.  xv,  57)  and  St.  Augustine 
and  defilement''  (in^inamenta  et  sordea),  but  God  (De  morib.  eccl.,  I,  xxv),  the  other  Fathers  of  the 
covers  their  innate  hideousness  with  the  cloak  of  the  Church  took  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  merit  as  a  guide 
merits  of  Christ,  and  imputes  them  to  the  predestined  in  their  teaching,  especially  in  their  homilies  to  the 
as  good  works  in  order  that  He  may  requite  them  faithful,  so  that  uninterrupted  agreement  is  secured 
not  with  life  eternal,  but  at  most  with  a  temporsd  re-  between  Bible  and  Tradition,  between  patristic  and 
ward.  In  consequence  of  Luther's  proclamation  of  scholastic  teaching,  between  the  past  and  the  present, 
"evangelical  liberty",  John  Agricola  (d.  1566)  as-  If  therefore  "the  reformation  was  mainly  a  stru^e 
serted  that  in  the  New  Testament  it  was  not  allowed  against  the  doctrine  of  merit"  (Realencyklop&die, 
to  preach  the  "Law",  and  Nicholas  Amsdorf  (d.  1565)  loc.  cit,,  p.  506)  this  only  proves  that  the  Council  of 
maintained  that  good  works  were  positively  harmful.  Trent  defended  against  imjustified  innovations  the  old 
Such  exaggerations  gave  rise  in  1527  to  the  fierce  doctrine  of  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works,  founded 
Antinomian  controversy,  which,  after  various  efforts  alike  on  Scripture  and  Tradition, 
on  Luther's  part,  was  finally  settled  in  1540  by  the  (b)  This  doctrine  of  the  Church,  moreover,  fully 
recantation  lorced  from  Agricola  by  Joachim  II  of  accords  with  natural  ethics.^  Divine  Provideno^  as 
Brandenburg.  Although  tne  doctrine  of  modem  the  supreme  lawgiver,  owes  it  to  itself  to  give  emca- 
Protestantism  continues  obscure  and  indefinite,  it  cious  sanction  to  both  the  natural  and  the  super- 
teaches  generally  speaking  that  good  works  are  a  natural  law  with  their  many  commandments  and  pro- 
spontaneous  consequence  of  justifying  faith,  without  hibitions,  and  to  secure  their  observance  by  holding 
being  of  any  avail  for  life  eternal.  Apart  from  out  rewards  and  pimishments.  Even  human  laws  are 
earlier  domiatic  declarations  given  in  the  Second  provided  with  sanctions,  which  are  often  very  severe. 
Synod  of  Orange  of  529  and  in  the  Fourth  Lateran  He  who  denies  the  meritoriousness  of  good  works 
Coimcil  of  1215  (see  Denzin^r,  191,  430),  the  Council  performed  by  the  just  must  necessarily  also  deny  the 
rf  Trent  upheld  the  traditional  doctrine  of  merit  culpability  and  demerit  of  the  sinner's  misdeeds ;  must 
by  insisting  that  life  everlasting  is  both  a  grace  and  a  hold  that  sins  remain  without  pimishment,  and  that 
reward  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi,  in  Denzin^r,  n.  809).  It  the  fear  of  hell  is  both  firoundless  and  useless.  If 
condemned  as  heretical  Luther's  doctrme  of  the  sinful-  there  be  no  eternal  rewara  for  an  upright  life  and  no 
a<^68  of  good  works  ^Sess.  VI,  can.  xxv),  and  declared  eternal  chastisement  for  sin,  it  will  matter  little  to  the 
as  a  do^na  that  the  just,  in  return  for  their  good  works  majority  of  people  whether  they  lead  a  good  or  a  bad 
done  in  God  throu^  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  should  life.  It  is  true  that,  even  if  there  were  neither  reward 
PSpecr.  an  eternal  reward  (loc.  cit.,  can.  xxvi).  nor  punishment,  it  would  be  contrary  to  rational 

Tiu&  doctrine  of  the  Church  simply  echoes  Scripture  nature  to  lead  an  immoral  life ;  for  the  moral  obUgation 


BOBBIT                                205  MKBIT 

to  do  always  what  is  right,  does  not  of  itself  depend  personal  will"  (Realencyklopadie,  loc.  cit.,  |>.  508). 
on  retribution.  But  Kant  undoubtedly  went  too  far  Only  the  grossest  ienorance  of  Catholic  doctrine  can 
when  he  repudiated  as  immoral  those  actions  which  prompt  such  remarks.  In  accord  with  the  Bible  the 
are  performed  with  a  view  to  our  personal  happiness  Church  teaches  that  the  external  work  has  a  moral 
or  to  that  of  others,  and  proclaimed  the  "  categorical  value  only  when  and  in  so  far  as  it  proceeds  from 
imperative/'  i.  e.,  frigid  duty  clearly  perceived,  as  a  right  interior  disposition  and  intention  (cf.  Matt., 
the  only  motive  of  moral  conduct.  For,  though  this  vi,  1  saq.;  Mark,  xii,  41  sqq.;  I  Cor.,  x,  31,  etc.).  As 
80-ci^lea  '^ autonomy  of  the  moral  will"  may  at  first  the  body  receives  its  life  from  the  soul,  so  must  exter- 
sight  appear  hi^ly  ideal,  still  it  is  unnatural  and  nal  actions  be  penetrated  and  vivified  by  holiness  of 
cannot  be  carried  out  in  practical  life,  because  virtue  intention.  In  a  beautiful  play  on  words  St.  Augus^ 
and  happiness,  duty  and  merit  (with  the  claim  to  tine  says  (Serm.  iii,  n.  xi) :  Bonos  mores  faciunt  boni 
reward),  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  but,  as  correla-  amorea.  Hence  the  Church  ur^  her  children  to 
tives,  they  rather  condition  and  complete  each  other,  forming  each  morning  the  ''  good  mtention",  that  they 
The  peace  of  a  good  conscience  that  follows  the  faith-  may  thereby  sanctify  the  whole  day  and  make  even 
ful  performance  of  duty  is  an  unsought-for  reward  of  the  indifferent  actions  of  their  exterior  life  serve  for 
our  action  and  an  interior  happiness  of  which  no  the  glory  of  God;  "all  for  the  greater  glory  of  God", 
calamity  can  deprive  us,  so  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  the  constant  prayer  of  the  ^ithful  Catholic.  Not 
duty  and  happiness  are  always  linked  together,  onl^r  does  tiie  moral  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church 
(c)  But  is  not  this  continual  acting  ''witn  one  attribute  no  moral  value  whatever  to  the  mere  exter- 
eye  on  heaven  ",  with  which  Professor  Jodl  reproaches  nal  performance  of  good  works  without  a  correspond- 
Catholic  moral  teaching,  the  meanest  "mercenary  ing  good  intention,  but  it  detests  such  performance 
spirit"  and  greed  which  necessarily  vitiates  to  the  as  nvprocrisjr  and  pretence.  On  the  other  hand,  our 
core  all  moral  action?  Can  there  be  any  question  of  good  intention,  provided  it  be  genuine  and  deep- 
morality,  if  it  is  only  the  desire  for  eternal  bliss  or  rooted,  naturally  apura  us  on  to  external  works,  and 
sinraly  the  fear  of  hell  that  determines  one  to  do  good  without  these  works  it  would  be  reduced  to  a  mere 
ana  avoid  evil?    Such  a  disposition  is  certainly  far  semblance  of  life. 

from  being  the  ideal  of  Catholic  morality.    On  the  A  third  charge  against  the  Catholic  doctrine  on 

oontraiy,  the  Church  proclaims  to  all  her  children  merit  is  summed  up  m  the  word  "self-righteousness", 

that  pure  love  of  God  is  the  first  and  supreme  com-  as  if  the  just  man  utterly  disregarded  the  merits  oi 

manament  (cf.  Mark,  xii,  30).    It  is  our  bluest  ideal  Christ  and  arroeated  to  himself  the  whole  credit  of  his 

to  act  out  of  love.    For  he  who  truly  loves  uod  would  good  works.    Ii  any  Catholic  has  ever  been  so  phari- 

keep  His  commandments,  even  thous^  there  were  no  saical  as  to  hold  and  practise  this  doctrine,  he  has 

eternal  reward  in  the  next  life.    Nevertheless,  the  certainly  set  himself  in  direct  opposition  to  what  the 

desire  for  heaven  is  a  necessary  and  natural  conse-  Church  teaches.    The  Church  has  always  proclaimed 

Suence  of  the  perfect  love  of  God;  for  heaven  is  only  what  St.  Augustine  expresses  in  the  words:  "Non 
le  perfect  possession  of  God  by  love.  As  a  true  Deus  ooronat  merita  tua  tanquam  merita  tua,  sed 
friend  desires  to  see  his  friend  without  thereby  sinking  tanquam  dona  sua ' '  (De  grat.  et  lib .  arbitrio,  xv),  i.  e., 
into  ^otism  so  does  the  loving  soul  ardently  aesire  the  God  crowns  thy  merits,  not  as  thine  earnings,  but  as 
Beatific  Vision,  not  from  a  craving  for  reward,  but  out  His  gifts.  Notning  was  more  stronglv  and  trequently 
of  pure  love.  It  is  unfortunately  too  true  tnat  only  inculcated  by  the  Council  of  Trent  than  the  proposi- 
the  best  type  of  Christians,  and  especially  the  great  tion  that  the  faithful  owe  their  entire  capability  of 
saints  of  tne  Church,  reach  this  ni^  standard  of  meriting  and  all  their  good  works  solely  to  the  infinite 
morality  in  everyday  life.  The  great  majority  of  or-  merits  of  the  Redeemer  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  indeed 
dinary  Christians  must  be  deterred  from  sin  princi-  clear  that  meritorious  works,  as  "fruits  of  the  justifi- 
pally  by  the  fear  of  hell  and  spurred  on  to  good  cation",  cannot  be  anything  but  merits  due  to  grace, 
works  by  the  thou^^t  of  an  eternal  reward,  before  and  not  merits  due  to  nature  (cf .  Council  of  Trent, 
they  attain  perfect  love.  But,  even  for  those  souls  Sess.  VI,  cap.  xvi).  The  Catholic  certainly  must  rely 
who  love  God,  there  are  times  of  grave  temptation  on  the  merits  of  Christ,  and,  far  from  boasting  of  his 
when  only  the  thought  of  heaven  and  hell  keeps  them  own  self-ri^teousness,  he  must  acknowledge  in  all 
from  fallmg.  Such  a  disposition,  be  it  habitual  or  humility  that  even  his  merits,  acquired  with  the  help 
only  transitory,  is  morally  lessperfect,  but  it  is  not  of  grace,  are  full  of  imperfections,  and  that  his  Justin- 
immoral.  As,  according  to  Cnrist's  doctrine  and  cation  is  imcertain  (see  Grace).  Of  the  satisfactory 
that  of  St.  Paul  (see  above),  it  is  legitimate  to  hope  works  of  penance  the  Council  of  Trent  makes  this  ex- 
for  a  heavenly  reward,  so,  according  to  the  same  plicit  declaration:  "llius,  man  has  not  wherein  to 
doctrine  of  Christ  (cf.  Matt.,  x,  28),  the  fear  of  hell  glory,  but  all  our  glorying  is  in  C)hrist,  in  whom  we 
is  a  motive  of  moral  action,  a  "grace  of  God  and  an  Eve,  move,  and  makesatisraction,  bringing  forth  fruits 
impulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  worthy  oi  penance,  which  from  Him  have  their 
XlY,  cap.  iv,  in  Denzinger,  n.  898).  Only  that  desire  efficacnr,  are  by  Him  offered  to  the  Father,  and  througjti 
for  remuneration  (amor  mercenarCua)  is  reprehensible  Him  find  with  the  Father  acceptance'*  (Sess.  XI V, 
which  would  content  itself  ¥rith  an  eternal  happiness  cap.  viii,  in  Denzinger,  n.  904).  Does  this  read  like 
without  God  J  and  that  "doubly  servile  fear'^  IHmor  self-righteousness? 

Mrvi2t^semZi«)  is  alone  immoral  which  proceeds  from  III.  CoNDrriONa  of  Merit. — For  all  true  merit 

a  mere  dread  of  punishment  without  at  the  same  (vere  mereri;  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  VI,  can.  xxxil), 

time  fearing  Ciod.    But  the  dogmatic  as  well  as  the  by  which  is  to  be  understood  ovXymerUum  de  condigno 

moial  teaching  of  the  Church  avoids  both  of  these  (see  Pallavicini,  "Hist.  Concil.  Trident.",  VIII,  iy\ 

extremes  (see  Attrition).  theologians  have  set  down  seven  conditions,  of  which 

Besides  blaming  the  Church  for  fostering  a  "craving  four  regard  the  meritorious  work,  two  the  agent  who 

for  reward^"  Protestants  also  accuse  her  of  teaching  merits,  and  one  God  who  rewards, 

"justification  by  works".    External  works  alone,  they  (a)  In  order  to  be  meritorious  a  work  must  be 

allege,  such  as  fasting,  almsgiving,  pilgrimages,  the  morally  good,  morally  free,  done  with  the  assistance 

recitation  of  the  rosary  etc.,  make  the  Catholic  good  of  actual  grace,  and  inspired  by  a  supernatural  mo- 

and  holy,  the  interior  mtention  and  disposition  being  tive.    As  every  evil  deed  implies  demerit  and  deserves 

held  to  no  account.     "The  whole  doctrine  of  merit,  punishment,  so  the  very  notion  of  merit  supposes  a 

especially  as  explained  by  Catholics  is  based  on  the  morally  good  work.    St.  Paul  teaches  that  "  whatso- 

erroneous  view  which  places  the  essence  of  morality  ever  good  thing  [bonum]  any  man  shall  do,  the  same 

in  the  individual  action  without  any  regard  for  the  shall  he  receive  from  the  Lora,  whether  he  be  bond,  or 

interior  disposition  as  the  habitual  direction  of  the  free"  (Eph.  vi,  8).    Not  oody  are  more  perfect  works 


MIBIT 


206 


of  Bupeieiogation,  suoh  as  the  vow  of  peipetual 
chastity,  good  and  meritorious,  but  also  works 
of  obligation,  such  as  the  faithful  observance  of  the 
commandments.  Christ  Himself  actually  made  the 
attainment  of  Heaven  depend  on  the  mere  observance 
of  the  ten  commandments  when  he  answered  the 
youth  who  was  anxious  about  his  salvation:  "If  thou 
wilt  enter  into  life,  keep  the  commandments"  (Matt., 
ziz,  17).  Accoroing  to  the  authentic  declaration 
of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215).  the  married 
state  is  also  meritorious  for  heaven:  "Not  only  those 
who  live  in  virginity  and  continence,  but  also  those 
who  are  married,  please  God  b}r  their  faith  and  ^ood 
works  and  merit  eternal  happiness"  (cap.  Firmiter, 
in  Densinger,  n.  430).  As  to  morally  indifferent 
actions  (e.  g.,  exercise  and  play,  recreation  derived 
from  reading  and  music),  some  moralists  hold  with 
the  Scotists  that  such  works  may  be  indifferent  not 
only  in  the  abstract,  but  also  practically :  this  opinion, 
however,  is  rejected  by  the  majority  oi  theologians. 
Those  who  hold  *hiB  view  must  hold  that  such  morally 
indifferent  actions  are  neither  meritorious  nor  de- 
meritorious, but  become  meritorious  in  proportion  as 
they  are  made  morally  flood  by  means  of  the  "good 
intention".  Although  the  voluntary  omission  of  a 
work  of  obli^tion,  such  as  the  hearing  of  Mass  on 
Sundays,  is  sinful  and  thereby  demeritorious,  still, 
acoordmg  to  the  opinion  of  Suarez  (De  gratia,  A,  ii,  5 
sqq.),  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  converseljjr 
the  mere  omission  of  a  bad  action  is  in  itself  men- 
torious.  But  the  overcoming  of  a  temptation  would 
be  meritorious,  since  this  struggle  is  a  positive  act 
and  not  a  mere  omission.  Since  the  external  work 
as  such  derives  its  entire  moral  value  from  the  interior 
disposition,  it  adds  no  increase  of  merit  except  in  so 
far  as  it  reacts  on  the  will  and  has  the  effect  of  inten- 
sifying and  sustaining  its  action  (cf.  De  Lugo,  "De 
poenit.",  disp.  xxiv,  sect.  6). 

As  to  the  second  requisite,  i.  e.,  moral  liberty,  it  is 
dear  from  ethics  that  actions,  due  to  external  force  or 
internal  compulsion,  can  deserve  neither  reward  nor 
punishment.  It  is  an  axiom  of  criminal  j urisprudence 
uiat  no  one  shall  be  punished  for  a  misdeed  done 
without  free  will ;  similariy^  a  good  work  can  only  then 
be  meritorious  and  deservmg  of  reward  when  it  pro- 
ceeds from  a  free  determination  of  the  will.  This  is 
the  teaching  of  Christ  (Matt.,  xix,  21):  "If  thou 
wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what  thou  hast,  and  give  it  to 
thepoor,  and  thou  shalt  have  treasure  in  heaven." 

Tne  necessity  of  the  third  condition,  i.e.,  of  the 
influence  of  actual  crace,  is  clear  from  the  fact  that 
every  act  meriting  neaven  must  evidently  be  super- 
natural just  as  heaven  itself  is  supernatural,  and 
that  consequently  it  cannot  be  performed  without  the 
help  of  prevenient  and  assisting  grace,  which  is  neces- 
sary even  for  the  just.  The  strictlv  supernatural 
destiny  of  the  Beatific  Vision,  for  whicn  the  Christian 
must  strive,  necessitates  ways  and  means  which  lie 
alto^ther  be3rond  what  is  purely  natural  (see  Grace). 

Finally,  a  supernatural  motive  is  required  because 
good  works  must  be  supernatural,  not  only  as  regards 
their  object  and  circumstances,  but  also  as  regards 
the  end  for  which  they  are  performed  {ex  fine).  But, 
in  assigning  the  necessary  qualities  of  this  motive,  the- 
ologians differ  widely.  While  some  require  the 
motive  of  faith  (motivum  fidei)  in  order  to  have  merit, 
others  demand  in  addition  the  motive  of  charity 
(motivum  caritaiia),  and  thus,  bv  rendering  the  con- 
ditions more  difficmt,  considerably  restrict  the  extent 
of  meritorious  works  (as  distinguished  from  merely 
good  works).  Others  again  set  down  as  the  only 
condition  of  merit  that  the  good  work  of  the  just  man, 
who  already  has  habitual  faith  and  charitpr,  be  in  oon- 
formitv  with  the  Divine  law,  and  reauire  no  other 
special  motive.  This  last  opinion,  wnich  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  practice  of  the  majority  of  the 
faithful^  18  tenable,  provided  faith  and  chanty  exert 


at  least  an  habitual  (not  neoeBsarily  virtual  or  actual) 
influence  upon  the  ^xxi  work,  which  influence  essen- 
tially consists  in  this,  that  man  at  the  time  of  his 
conversion  makes  an  act  of  faith  and  of  love  of  God, 
thereby  knowingly  and  willin^v  beginning  his  super- 
natural journey  towards  God  m  neaven ;  this  intention 
habitually  retains  its  influence  as  long  as  it  has  not 
been  revoked  by  mortal  sin.  And,  since  there  is  a  grave 
obligation  to  make  acts  of  faith,  hope,  and  charity 
from  time  to  time,  these  two  motives  wul  thereby  beoo> 
casionally  renew^  and  revived.  For  the  controversy 
regardins  the  motive  of  faith  see  Chr.  Pesch,  "Prelect, 
dogmat.",  V,  drd  ed.  (1908),  225  sqq.;  on  the  motive 
of  charity,  see  Pohle,  "Dc^matik''  U  4th  ed.  (1900). 
565  soq. 

(b)  Ijie  agent  who  merits  must  fulfil  two  conditions: 
he  must  be  m  the  state  of  pilgrimage  (^atus  viai)  ana 
in  the  state  of  erace  (aUUua  mtUB).  Bv  the  state  of 
pilgrimage  is  to  be  understood  our  earthiv  life ;  death, 
as  a  natural  (although  not  an  essentially  neoessaiy) 
limit,  closes  the  time  of  meriting.  The  time  of  sowing 
is  confined  to  this  life;  the  reaping  is  reserved  for  the 
next,  when  no  man  will  be  able  to  sow  either  ^eat 
or  cockle.  Comparing  the  earthly  life  with  day  and 
the  time  after  aeath  with  night,  Chxiat  savs:  ''The 
night  Cometh,  when  no  man  can  work  y^P^^'^'^" 
(John,  ix,  4;  cf.  Eccl.,  xi,  3;  Ecclus.,  xiv,  IT),  The 
opinion  proposed  by  a  few  theologians  (EUrscher, 
Schell),  that  for  certain  classes  of  men  there  mav 
still  be  a  possibility  of  conversion  after  death,  u 
contraiy  to  the  revealed  truth  that  the  particular 
judgment  (judicium  parHcuiani)  determines  instantly 
and  definitively  whether  the  future  is  to  be  one  df 
eternal  happiness  or  of  eternal  misery  (cf .  Kleutgen, 
"Theologie  der  Vorseit",  II,  2nd  ed.,  MOnster,  1872, 
pp.  427  sqq.).  Baptised  diildren,  who  die  before 
attaining  the  age  of  reason,  are  admitted  to  heaven 
without  merits  on  the  sole  title  of  inheritance  (Htulu$ 
hareditatia);  in  the  case  of  adults,  however,  there  is 
the  additional  title  of  reward  (tUidus  msroadis),  and 
for  that  reason  they  will  enjoy  a  greater  measure  of 
eternal  happiness. 

In  addition  to  the  state  of  pilgrimage,  the  state  of 
grace  (i.e.,  the  possession  of  sandiiyu^  grace)  is 
required  for  meriting,  because  only  the  just  can  be 
"sons  of  God"  and  'M^eirs  of  heaven"  (cf.  Rom.,  viii, 
17).  In  the  parable  of  the  vine  Christ  expressly 
declares  the  "abiding  in  him"  a  necessary  condition, 
for  **  bearing  fruit":  **  He  that  abideth  in  me,  and  I  in 
him,  the  same  beareth  much  fruit"  (John,  xv,  5) ;  and 
this  constant  union  with  Christ  is  effected  only  by 
sanctif^ring  grace.  In  opposition  to  Vasquei,  most 
theologians  are  of  opinion  that  one  who  is  holier  will 
gain  greater  merit  lor  a  given  work  than  one  who  is 
less  holy,  although  the  latter  perform  the  same  woric 
under  exactly  the  same  circumstances  and  in  the  same 
way.  The  reason  is  that  a  hi^er  degree  of  grace 
enhances  the  godlike  dignity  of  the  agent,  andthis 
dignity  increases  the  value  of  the  merit.  This  ex- 
plains why  God,  in  consideration  of  the  ereater  holi- 
ness of  some  saints  specially  dear  to  Him,  nas  deisned 
to  grant  favours  wnich  otherwise  He  would  have 
refiised  (Job,  xlii,  8;  Dan.,  iii,  35). 

(c)  Merit  requires  on  the  part  of  God  that  fie  accept 
(in  adu  aecundo)  the  good  work  as  meritorious,  even 
though  the  work  in  itself  {in  adu  prima)  ana  pre- 
vious to  its  acceptance  by  God,  be  already  truly 
meritorious.  Theologians,  however,  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  necessity  of  this  condition.  The  Scotists 
hold  that  the  entire  condignity  of  the  good  work  rests 
exclusively  on  the  gratuitous  promise  of  God  and  His 
free  acceptance,  without  whi<ui  even  the  most  heroie 
act  is  devoid  of  merit,  and  with  whidi  even  mere 
naturally  good  works  may  become  meritorious. 
Other  theologians  with  Suarez  (De  ^tia,  XIII,  30) 
maintain  that,  before  and  without  Divine  aoeeptanoe, 
the  strict  equality  that  exists  between  medL  and  ro* 


MERIT                              207  MSBXT 

ward  founds  a  claim  of  justice  to  have  the  good  works  fluous  because,  notwithstanding  the  right  to  eternal 

rewarded  in  heaven.    Both  these  views  are  extreme,  glory,  tiie  actual  possession  of  it  must  necessarily  be 

The  Sootists  almost  completely  lose  sight  of  the  godlike  put  off  until  deatn,  and  even  then  depends  upon  the 

dignity  which  belongs  to  the  just  as  **  adopted  cnildren  condition:  '^  si  tamen  in  gratia decessent"  (provided  he 

of  God",  and  which  naturally  impresses  on  their  depart   in    grace).    With   this   last   condition    the 

supernatural  actions  the  character  ofmeritoriousness;  council  wished  also  to  inculcate  the  salutary  truth  that 

Suares,  on  the  other  hand,  unnecessarily  exaggerates  sanctifying  grace  may  be  lost  by  mortal  sm,  and  that 

the  notion  of  Divine  justice  and  the  oondignity  of  the  loss  of  the  state  of  grace  ipso  facto  entails  the 

merit,  for  the  abyss  that  lies  between  human  service  forfeiture  of  all  merits  however  great.    Even  the 

and  Divine  remuneration  is  ever  so  wide  that  there  greatest  saint,  should  he  die  in  the  state  of  mortal  sin, 

could  be  no  obligation  of  bridging  it  over  by  a  gratm-  arrives  in  eternity  as  an  enemv  of  God  with  empty 

tous  promise  of  reward  and  the  subsequent  acceptance  hands,  just  as  if  during  life  he  haa  never  done  anything, 

on  the  part  of  God  who  has  bound  himsdf  by  His  own  meritorious.    All  his  former  rights  to  grace  and  glory 

fid^ity.    Hence  we  prefer  with  Lessius  (De  perfect,  are  cancelled.    To  make  them  revive  a  new  justin- 

moribusque div.,  XIII,  ii)  and  De  Lugo  (De  incamat.  cation  is  necessary.    On  this  ''revival  of  merits" 

disp.  3,  sect.  1  sq.)  to  follow  a  middle  course.    We  {r^viviscentia  meritorum)  see  Schiffini,   "De  gratia 

therefore  say  that  the  condignity  between  merit  and  divina"  f Freiburg,  1901),  pp.  661  sqq.;  this  question 

reward  owes  its  origin  to  a  twofold  source:  to  the  in-  is  treated  in  detail  by  Pohle,  "Dogmatik",  III  (4th 

trinsic  value  of  the  good  work  and  to  the  free  accept-  ed..  PaderboriK  1910),  pp.  440  sqq. 

anoe  andgratuitous  promise  of  God  (cf .  James,  i.  12).  As  the  third  object  or  merit  the  council  mentions 

See  Schifioni,  "De  gratia  divina"  (Freiburg,  1901), pp.  the  "increase  of  glory"  {glorim  augmentum)  which 

416  sqo.  evidently  must  correspond  to  the  increase  of  grace, aa 

IV.  THB  Objects  of  Merit. — ^Merit  in  the  strict  this  corresponds  to  the  accumulation  of  gpoa  worxs. 

sense  (meritum  de  condigno)  ^ves  a  right  to  a  tiireefold  At  the  Last  Day,  when  Christ  will  come  with  his  angels 

reward:  increase  of  sanctifymg  grace,  heavenly  glory,  to  jud^  the  world,  "He  will  render  to  every  man 

and  the  increase  thereof;  other  graces  can  be  acquired  accordmg  to  his  works  [secundum  opera  eiua]'*  (Matt., 

onlyinvirtueof  congruous  merit  (meritum  deconj^rtio).  xvi,  27;  cf.  Rom.,  ii.  6).    And  St.  Paul  repeats  the 

(a)  In  its  Sixth  Session  (can.  xxxii),  the  Council  same  (I  Cor.,  iii,  8):  "Every  man  shall  receive  his  own 

of  IVent  declared:  "If  any  one  saith  .  •  •  that  the  reward,  according  to  his  own  labour  [secundum  suum 

justified  man  by  good  works  .  •  •  does  not  truly  merit  laboremY*,    This  explains  the  inequality  that  exists 

[vere  merer%\  increase  of  grace,  eternal  life,  and  the  between  the  glory  of  the  different  saints, 

attainment  of  that  eternal  life — ^if  so  be,  however,  (b)  By  his  good  works  the  just  man  may  merit  for 

that  he  depart  in  grace — cuid  also  an  increase  in  ^or^:  himself  many  graces  and  favours,  not,  however,  by 

let  him  be  anathema."    The  expression  "  vere  meren''  right  and  justice  {de  condigno),  but  only  oongruouslj 

shows  that  the  three  objects  mentioned  above  can  be  {ae  congruo).    Most  theologians  incline  to  the  opinion 

merited  in  the  true  and  strict  sense  of  the  word,  viz.,  that  the  grace  of  final  perseverance  is  among  the  ob- 

de  eondiano.    Increase  of  grace  {augmentum  graJbUz)  jects  of  congruous  merit,  which  grace,  as  has  been 

is  named  in  the  firat  place  to  exclude  the  first  grace  of  shown  above,  is  not  and  cannot  be  merited  condignlv. 

justification  concerning  which  the  council  had  already  It  is  better,  however,  and  safer  if,  with  a  view  to  ob- 

taught:  "  None  of  those  thinos,  which  precede  Justin-  taining  this  great  grace  on  which  our  eternal  happiness 

cation — ^whether  faith  or  works— merit  the  ^race  itself  depends,  we  nave  recourse  to  fervent  and  unremitting 

of  justification"  (Sess.  VI.  cap.  viii).    This  impossi-  prater,  for  C!hrist  held  out  to  us  that  above  all  our 

bility  of  meriting  the  first  habitual  grace  is  as  much  a  spiritual  needs  he  would  infallibly  hear  our  prayer  for 

dogma  of  our  faith  as  the  absolute  ixnpossibility  of  tnis  great  gift  (cf.  Matt.,  xxi,  22;  Mark,  xi,  24;  Luke, 

meriting  the  first  actual  grace  (see   Gtrace).    The  xi,9;  John,xiv,  13,  etc.).    For  further  explanation  see 

erowlh  m  sanctifying  grace,  on  the  other  hand,  is  per-  Bellarmine,   "De  justif.",   V,   xxii;  Tepe,   "Instit. 

tecUy  evident  from  both  Scripture  and  Tradition  (cf.  theoL",  III  (Paris,  1896),  258  sqq. 

Ecdus.,  xviii,  2^;  II  Cor.,  Ix,  10;  Apoo.,  xxii,  11  sq.).  It  is  impossible  to  answer  with  equal  oertaint^r  the 

To  the  question  whether  the  right  to  actual  graces  question  whether  the  just  xpan  is  able  to  merit  in 

needed  by  the  just  be  idso  an  object  of  strict  merit,  advance  the  grace  of  conversion,  if  perchance  he 

theologians  commonly  answer  that,  together  with  the  should  happen  to  fall  into  mortal  sin.    St.  Thomas 

increaseofhabitualgrace,  merely  sufficient  graces  may  denies  this  absolutely:  "Nullus  potest  sibi  mereri 

be  merited  de  condigno^  but  not  efficacious  graces,  reparationem  post  lapsum  futurum  neoue  merito  con- 

The  reason  is  that  the  right  to  efficacious  graces  dignineque  merito  congrui"  (SummaTheoL,  I-II,Q. 

would  necessarily  include  the  strict  ri^t  to  final  per-  cxiv,  a.  7).   But  because  the  Prophet  Jehu  declared  to 

severance,  which  lies  completely  outside  the  sphere  Josaphat,  the  wicked  King  of  Juda  (cf .  II  Par.,  xix,  2 

of  condi^  merit  although  it  may  be  obtained  by  sqq.).  that  God  had  regard  for  his  former  merits,  almost 

prayer  (see  Grace).    Not  even  heroic  acts  give  a  all  ouier  theologians  consider  it  a  "pious  and  probable 

strict  ri^t  to  graces  which  are  always  efficacious  or  to  opinion ' '  that  God .  in  granting  the  grace  of  conversion, 

^al  perseverance,  for  even  the  greatest  saint  is  still  does  not  entirely  aisregard  the  merits  lost  by  mortal 

obliged  to  watch,  pray,  and  tremble  lest  he  fall  from  sin,  especially  if  the  merits  previouslpr  acquirea  surpass 

the  state  of  grace.    Inis  explains  why  the  Coimcil  in  number  and  weight  the  sins,  which,  perhaps,  were 

of  Trent  purposely  omitted  efficacious  grace  and  the  due  to  weakness,  and  if  those  merits  are  not  crushed, 

gift  of  perseverance,  when  it  enumerated  the  objects  as  it  were,  by  a  burden  of  iniouity  (cf.  Suarez,  "De 

of  merit.                                                                   ^  gjratia",  Xll,  38).    Prayer  for  future  conversion  from 

life  everlasting  {vUa  cetema)  is  the  second  obiect  sin  is  indeed  morally  good  and  useful  (cf .  Ps.,  Ixx,  9), 

of  merit;  the  dogmatical  proof  for  this  assertbn  nas  because  the  disposition  bv  which  we  sincerely  wish 

been  given  above  in  treating  of  the  existence  of  merit,  to  be  freed  as  soon  as  possible  from  the  state  of  enmity 

It  stiUremains  to  inquire  whether  the  distinction  made  with  God  cannot  but  be  pleasing  to  Him.    Tempond 

by  the  Council  of  Trent  between  mto  oBtema  and  blessings,  such  as  health,  freedom  from  extreme  pov- 

mtw  €gtenuB  consecutio  is  meant  to  signify  a  twofold  erty,  success  in  one's  unaertakings,  seem  to  be  objects 

reward:  "life  everlasting"  and  "the  attainment  of  of  congruous  merit  onljr  in  so  far  as  they  are  oon- 

life  everiastmg",  and  hence  a  twofold  object  of  merit,  ducive  to  eternal  salvation ;  for  only  on  this  hypothe- 

But  theologians  ri^tly  deny  that  the  council  had  this  sis  do  they  assume  the  character  of  actual  graces  (cf . 

in  view,  because  it  is  clear  that  the  right  to  a  reward  Matt.,  vi,  33).    But,  for  obtaining  temponu  favomv, 

coincides  with  the  ri^t  to  the  payment  of  the  same,  prayer  is  more  effective  than  mentorious  works,  pro- 

Neverthdess,  the  disunction  was  not  useless  or  super-  vided  that  the  grant^g  of  the  petition  be  not  agamst 


IB&MILLOD                         208  UERNIPTAH 

the  designs  of  God  or  the  true  welfare  of  him  who  li^ous  conflict  Leo  XIII  made  the  newly  elected 

prays.    The  just  man  may  merit  de  congruo  for  others  Bishop  of  Lausanne  also  Bishop  of  Geneva,  without^ 

ye.  g..  parents,  relatives,  and  friends)  whatever  he  however,  depriving  Mermillod  of  his  office.    The  Go v- 

is  able  to  merit  for  himself:  the  gmce  of  conversion,  emment  did  not,  however,  alter  its  tactics,  and  Mer- 

final  perseverance,  temporal  blessing,  nay  even  the  millod  could  return  to  Switaerland  only  after  the  death 

very  nrstprevenient  grace  (gratia  prima  prcBveniens),  of  the  bishop  whose  successor  he  became.    The  conflict 

(Summa  llieoL,  I-II,  Q-  cxiv,  a.  6)  which  ne  can  in  no  was,  however,  by  no  means  at  an  end,  for  the  canton  of 

wise  merit  for  himself.    St.  Thomas  gives  as  reason  Geneva  refused  to  recognise  him  as  bishop^  and  normal 

for  this  the  intimate  bond  of  friendship  which  sancti-  relations  were  resumed  onlv  when  MemuUod  became 

fying  grace  establishes  between  the  just  man  and  God.  cardinal  in  1890.    Cardinal  Mermillod  was  one  of  the 

These  effects    are   immeasurably  strengthened    by  great  preachers  of  modem  times.    In  his  far-sighted 

prayer  for  others;  as  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  prayer  policy  he  founded  in  1885  the  "Union  Catholique 


plays  an  important  part  in  the  present  economy  of  d'6tudes  sociales  et  ^conomiques".    His  ''Lettres  k 

salvation.    For  further  explanation  see  Suarez,  "De  un  Protestant  siur  Fautorit^  de  r^glise  et  le  schisme" 

mitia",  XII,  38.    Ck}ntrary  to  the  opinion  of  a  few  (Paris,  I860)  made  a  great  impression.    Another  im- 

theolo^ns  (e.  g.,  Biiluart),  we  hold  tnat  even  a  man  portant  work  was  his  "  De  la  vie  sumatureUe  dans  lei 

in  mortal  sin,  provided  he  oo-operate  with  the  first  ames"   (Lyons,   1865:  Paris,   1881).    His  collected 

grace  of  conversion,  is  able  to  merit  de  congruo  by  his  works  were  edited  by  Grospellier  (Paris,  1893)  in  three 

supernatural  acts  not  only  a  series  of  graces  which  will  volumes. 

lead  to  conversion,  but  finally  justification  itself:  ,^KiJLLKH.7»mm«mor*o«(ParBii,  l883);BBifoc.L«oafrf 

at  all  events  it  is  certain  that  "he  may  obtain  thes^  MennxUod. » in«.  •«  ouvrtM  h  «m  y^Mat  (¥nhou.j^  1M2). 
graces  by  prayer,  made  with  the  assistance  of  grace  rAXRicius  ochlager. 

(cf.  Ps.,  1,  9;  Tob.,  xii,  9;  Dan.,  iv,  24:  Matt.,  vi,  14).        Memeptah  I  (12347-1214  b.  c),  the  fourth  king  of 

Fop  the  concept  of  merit  Bee  Tapabklu,  Saqgiotwreiiep  dd  the  nineteenth  Egyptian  dynasty  and  the  8upp<»ed 

8-4:   WiBTH,  Der  Bearif  dea  Meritum  bei  TertuUian  (Leip«i«,  ^'^rao'^  ©I  tne  Jl^oaus,  was  tne  tnirtewitn  son  Ot 

1892);  Idbm.  Der  Verdtsnstbegriff  in  der  chrisa.  Kirche  na!k  Rameses  II  whom  he  succeeded  m  Or  about  1234  B.  C. 


feiner  0efchi:hiL   Enlwickt^Mio.    II:  Der   Verdienatbegnff  bei  being  then  long  past  middle  age.     His   rule  lasted 

^iS^ni^^^,^Jh.f%S^'Ttl':^'^.  ILT^  some  twentsr  yean.,  during  whichL  carried  on  consid- 

1897).  For  merit  itself  cf .  Summa  Theol,  I-II^  Q.  cix,  a.  6;  q1  erable  buildmg  operations  m  the  Delta,  and  notably  at 

cxiv,  aa.  ]  ""  »v    ..   _..^.    «f  ,,     «  m      •    m         v       I  .     ,       ,  1         ,  1 

De  gratia, 

Ixxi-^cvi; 


l?or  ment  itsell  cl.  isumma  Theol.,  l-H^ti.  cix,  a.  6;  Q.     «5i«l»i«  uuuuuig  upt^ruuuua  lu  \,ua  i^reiiA,  ana  uoiauiy  ai 

..  1  Boq. ;  ^  Bezxarxxnk,  De  iutiifiC'*  V,  i-xxii;  Suarm,    Tanis  (Zoan),  where,  indeed  as  elsewhere,  he  usurped  a 
^  llL^-!S?:'z)^J^^^dSJ;>Sf vS?ri^'f  S^S:    "M^b*'  of  some  of  hb  predeceaBon.'  monuments    His 


ehriaU,  Eeehatoloffie  (Freiburg,  1896);  Kkkib,  Die  Aeteronomie  "es  m  the  SmaitlO  peninsula.     In  his  third  year,  be 

derchrua.  Moral  (y'wanak,  1903);  Idkm,  Die  ** Lohneueht"  der  quelled  a  revolt  to  the  N.  E.,  possibly  excited  by  the 

<Ar%ea,  iforaz  (Vigma,  1904);   Idbm,  DufJeneeUemoral  im  fiittites:  and  in  his  fifth  year,  he  repelled  an  invasion 

Kampfe  urn  ihre  Orundlaqen  (Freibunc,  1906);    Ernst,  Die  *^*^*'^^f^^*^,^':'^*'**j^^t^^^^k^"'°^^^\'^^^ 

NotwendiokeU  der  gutenMeinung,    UrUerauchungen   iib^  die  of  Egypt  by  the  Lybians  and  theU"  allies^  which  Victory 

OoUealiebe  ala  Prinxip  der  SiUlichkeit  und  Verdienallichkeit  (Frei>  is  boastfully  described  on  a  black  gramte  stela  found 

i*"'**iiSS?^'  Struhlbr,  Daa  lde<u  derkaihol.  Siuiichkeii  (W.  in  1896  in  his  funeral  temple  at  Thebes,  and  bearine 

lAu,  1907);    Cathrein,  Die  kathol.  Weltanaehauung  %n  ihren  Tv  *"«^  "*  "«»  »****«€*»  ww^^/to  av  au^i^,  wau  ^i^cuixu^ 

OrundlinierimitbeaondererBemckaietUigung  der  Moral  {2nd  ed,,  ^"^  earliest  known  reference  tO  Israel.     He  IS  COm- 

Fraibiux,  1910).  monly  regarded  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  on  the 

J.  PoHLE.  following  grounds.  On  the  one  hand,  recent  Egyp- 
111  J  /^  ^^  discoveries  have  shown  that  Rameses  II  founded 
Mermillod,  GasparDj  Bishop  of  Lausanne  and  car-  the  cities  represented  in  Ex.,  i,  11,  as  built  by  the  op- 
dinal,  b.  at  Carouge,  Switzerland,  22  Sept.,  1824;  d.  in  pressed  Hebrews,  and  therefore  point  to  him  as  the 
Rome,  23  Feb.,  1892.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuit  Col-  jpharaoli  i  the  oppression.  On  the  other  hand,  Ex., 
lege  at  Freiburg,  Switzerland;  became  a  priest  in  1847,  ii  23;  iv,  19,  imply  that  the  immediate  successor  of 
and  was  soon  after  a  curate  m  Geneva,  where  he  es-  tnat  Pharaoh  was  on  the  throne  when  Moses  returned 
tablished  two  periodicals:  "L'Observateur  Gatho-  to  Egypt  where  he  soon  delivered  his  people.  Whence 
lique"  and  ** Les  Annales  Catholiques".  In  1857  he  it  is  not  unnaturally  i: ierred  that  Memeptah  L  Ram- 
became  parish  priest  of  Geneva  and  at  the  same  time  eses'  son  and  successor,  is  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Ebcodus. 
Vicar-General  of  the  Bishop  of  Lausanne  for  the  can-  The  chief  objection  to  this  view  is  that  it  seems  to  con- 
ton  of  Geneva.  The  splendid  edifice  of  Notre-Dame,  tradict  the  final  strophe  of  Memeptah's  "Hymn  of 
still  the  principal  church  of  Geneva,  was  built  by  him  Victoiy "  over  the  Lybians  inscribed  on  the  granite 
from  1851  to  1859.  The  funds  were  subscribed  from  atela  alrcftdy  referred  to.  After  relating  the  subjec- 
all  parts  of  Christendom.  In  1864  he  became  titular  tion  of  CLanaaa  and  of  Ascalon  by  the  Egyptians,  this 
Bishop  of  Hebron,  and  auxiliary  of  the  Bishop  of  Lau-  inscription  adds:  "Israel  is  spoiled,  his  seed  is  not; 
sanne  for  the  canton  of  Geneva,  with  residence  at  Palestine  has  become  a  widow  for  Egypt. "  How  can 
Geneva.  ^  For  seven  years  he  pursued  without  hin-  Memeptah  I  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Ecodus  since  ao- 
drance  his  eoiscopal  functions,  and  was  especially  cording  to  the  obvious  meaning  of  this  passage,  the 
active  for  Cadiolic  education,  founding  with  Marie  de  Israelites  when  defeated  by  him  were  already  settled 
Sales  Chappuis  the  female  Oblates  of  Saint  Francis  of  in  Palestine,  a  settlement  which  as  we  know  from  the 
Sales  at  Troyes  for  the  protection  of  poor  working  Bible  was  effected  <Hily  after  a  forty  years'  wandering 
girls.  When  the  Holy  See  made  him  independent  and  therefore  after  Memeptah's  death?  This  diflB- 
Administrator  of  Geneva,  the  Radical  Government  of  culty  has  led  many  scholars  to  consider  an  earlier  king 
the  canton  protested,  and  a  long  and  serious  conflict  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  while  others  have  an- 
ensued.  He  was  at  first  forbiofden  to  exercise  any  swered  it  in  various  ways.  Tne  following  is  its  most 
episcopal  functions  whatever,  and  later  was  declared  probable  solution.  Scholars  not  expecting  the  exact 
deposed  even  as  regarded  his  fimctions  as  a  parish-  truth  to  be  told  in  an  Egyptian  inscnption  concerning 
pnest.  When  the  Bishop  of  Lausanne  renounced  un-  the  Exodus  disaster,  ancf  noticing  that  in  the  finiS 
conditionally  the  title  of  the  See  of  Geneva,  the  pope  strophe  of  Memeptah's  "  Hymn  of  Victory  "  an  actual 
appointed  Mermillod  to  be  Vicar-Apostolic  of  Geneva,  boastful  misrepresentation  of  his  relation  to  the  Hit- 
The  City  Council,  then,  caused  his  expulsion  from  tittes,  precedes  almost  immediately  the  distinct  refer- 
Switzerland,  whereupon  he  repaired  to  Feraey,  in  ence  to  Israel  as  "  spoiled  ",  will  readily  think  that  the 
French  territory,  from  which  place  he  governed  his  glory  therein  claimed  by  Memeptah  over  the  Israelites 
diocese  as  best  he  could.    At  the  cessation  of  the  re-  is  to  be  taken  as  a  boastful  misrepreseniatiop  cf  what 


IttftKOO 


209 


m&SSMKB 


feally  happened  to  him  as  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus. 
Merneptah's  mummy  was  diacovered  in  1896  and  iden- 
tified m  1900.  Thia  find  does  not  disprove  the  iden- 
tity of  that  monarch  with  the  Phaiaoh  of  the  Exodus, 
for  nothing  in  the  Sacred  Text  requires  the  admission 
that  Pharaoh  pursued  the  Israelites  in  person,  or  was 
drowned  as  a  result. 

VioouRonx,  BibU  H  DSeouvertea  Modemea,  6th  ed.,  XI 
rParv,  1896);  Von  HuMmuinBH.  Comm,  in  Ex,  (Paris, 
—  ~  "  -  -      lew  York); 

Breastbd, 

/M      V  _^  ,«««>v-      —     '         -- y  of  Egypt 

(New  Yosk.  1909). 

Fbancib  £.  GiooT. 
Msmocy  Saint.    See  Ernax. 

M^ode,  FB^DtRioFRANpoiB-XAViEB  Ghiblainde, 
a  Belgian  prelate  and  statesman,  b.  at  Brussels, 
1820;  d.  at  Rome.  1874.  The  son  of  F^lix  de  Mdrode- 
Westerloo  who  neld  successively  the  portfolios  of 
foreign  affairs,  war,  and  finances  under  King  Leopold, 
and  of  Rosalie  de  Grammont,  he  was  allied  to  the  best 
names  of  France, — ^Lafayette,  Montmorency,  Clemont- 
Tonnerre)  etc.;  the  M^rode  family  daimecf  saints  liJro 
Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  founders  like  Werner  who  en- 
dowed the  monastery  of  Schwartzenbroch,  and  a  long 
line  of  captains  from  that  Ravmond-B^renger  who 
took  the  cross  at  St.  Bernard's  call,  to  Fr^d^ric, 
Xavier's  grandfather,  who  gave  his  life  for  the  au- 
tonomy of  Bel|;ium.  Bereft  of  his  mother  at  the  a^ 
of  three,  Xavier  was  brou^t  up  at  Villersexel,  m 
Franche-Gomt6,  by  his  aunt  Philippine  de  Grammont, 
attended  for  a  time  the  Jesuit  College  of  Namur,  then 
entered  the  College  de  Juilly  presided  over  by  de 
Salims,  whence  he  passed  (1839)  to  the  MiUtaxy  Acad- 
emy of  Brussels.  Graduating  with  the  rank  of  second 
lieutenant,  after  a  short  service  at  the  armoury  of 
Ltdge,  he  loined  (1844)  as  foreign  attach^  the  staff  of 
Biar^chal  Bugeaud  in  Algeria,  taking  a  brilliant  part 
in  the  most  daring  engagements  and  winning  the 
cross  of  the  Limon  d'hanneur.  In  1847,  he  abruptly 
resigned  the  military  career  and  went  to  studv  for  the 
priesthood  in  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  (1849). 
Assigned,  after  his  ordination,  as  chaplain  to  the 
French  garrison  of  Viterbo,  he  was  being  pressed  by 
his  famify  to  return  to  Belgium  when  Pius  IX,  with  a 
view  to  attach  him  permanently  to  his  court,  made 
him  cameriere  seffreto  (1850),  an  office  which  entailed 
the  direction  of  the  Roman  prisons.  The  excellent 
work  done  by  de  M^rode  for  tne  material,  moral,  and 
religious  betterment  of  the  penitentiary  system  in 
Rome  is  described  by  Lefebvre  (Des  ^tabhssemente 
charitables  de  Rome,  p.  245.)  and  liagulre  (Rome, 
Ite  Ruler  and  Institutions,  p.  238) ;  de  Rayneval,  the 
French  envoy  at  Rome,  praised  it  in  an  official  report 
to  his  government  (see  "Daily  News",  18  March. 
1848);  Joachim  Peed,  Archbishop  of  Perugia,  wantea 
the  younp  cameriere  to  inaugurate  similar  work  in  his 
metropolis,  and  the  Piedmontese,  despite  their  bias 
against  evervthing  papal,  found  nothmg  to  change 
in  the  regulations  mtroduced  by  de  M^rode.  In 
I860,  when  it  became  evident  that  the  insincere  poUcy 
of  Napoleon  III  was  a  poor  safeguard  against  the 
greed  of  Piedmont,  de  M^rode,  much  agunst  the  views 
of  the  Roman  Prelature,  headed  by  Cardinal  Antonelli, 
persuaded  Pius  IX  to  form  a  papal  army  and  suc- 
ceeded in  enlisting  the  services  of  Lamorici^re  (9.  v.) 
as  commander-in-chief  and  was  himself  appomted 
minister  of  war.  The  task  assumed  bv  de  M^rode 
and  Lamorid^re  was  difficult  and  well-nigh  impossible ; 
yet,  the  disasters  of  Castelfidardo  and  Ancona  were  due, 
not  to  the  incompetence  of  the  chiefs,  nor  solely  to  the 
heterogeneous  nature  cf  the  recruite  and  the  lack  of 
proper  supplies,  but  to  the  treacheiy  of  the  Piedmont- 
ese who,  wnile  teigning  to  curb  the  uaribaldian  bands, 
led  them  to  the  assault  of  the  Papal  Stetes. 

The  ensuing  years  of  comparative  quiet  de  M^rode 
spent  in  various  public  works;  the  building  at  his  own 
expense  of  the  eampo  pr§toriano  outside  the  Porta  Pia, 
X.— 14 


the  clearing  of  the  approaches  of  Santa  Maria  degS 
Angeli,  the  opening  of  streete  in  the  new  section  of 
Rome,  the  sanitetion  of  the  old  quarters  by  the  Tiber, 
eto.  His  impetuous  temperament  and  progressive 
views  made  him  enemies  among  the  old  traditional 
Roman  element  just  as  the  vehemence  with  which  he 
branded  the  French  Emperor's  duplidty  turned 
against  him  the  heads  of  the  French  amnr  of  oocupfr- 
tion.  Lamorid^re's  death  (19  Sept.,  1865)  became 
the  signal  of  open  hostility.  Plus  TX.  was  forced  to 
discharge  his  minister  whose  continuance  in  office,  it 
was  freely  asserted,  meant  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  troops.  Reduced  to  a  simple  eamerieref  de 
M6rode  was  not  forgotten  by  Pius  IX  on  Hohenlohe's 
promotion  to  the  cardinalate,  he  was  given  the  vacant 
plaee  of  papal  almoner  and  (22  June,  1866)  conse- 
crated titular  Archbishop  of  Melitene.  His  new  duties 
were  to  distribute  the  papal  alms  and  to  confirm 
children  in  danger  of  death,  and  he  acc^uitted  him- 
self with  a  liberality  and  seal  that  won  him  the  love 
of  the  poor  and  afflicted.  At  the  Vatican  Council, 
he  shoired  the  influence  exercised  over  him  bv  his 
brother-in-law,  de  Montelembert,  and  sided  with  the 
minority  that  deemed  the  definition  of  papal  infalli- 
bilitv  inopportune  and  even  dangerous,  but  submitted 
the  day  tne  dogma  was  defined.  After  the  capture  of 
Rome  by  the  Piedmontese  (20  Sept.,  1870)  he  fol- 
lowed his  master  into  the  retirement  of  the  Vatican, 
leaving  it  only  to  fight  the  Piedmontese  government's 

Sretensions  on  the  campo  pretariano  or  to  share  de 
Lossi's  work  in  the  excavations  of  Tor  Marandno 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  Basilica  of  St. 
Petronilla.  It  is  there  he  welcomed  (14  June,  1874) 
the  pilgrims  from  the  United  States  and  his  last  public 
utterances  were  for  them.  Speaking  of  his  kinsman 
Lafayette,  he  regretted  his  defection  from  the  purity 
of  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  remarked  that  the  country 
which  the  great  general  had  so  loyally  served  was 
yielding  predous  elemente  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
Church;  then,  pointing  to  a  Damasian  inscription  re- 
cently found.  ''Oedite  per  Damasmn  possit  quid 
ploria  Christi  '*.  he  added  with  pathos  that  the  edify- 
mg  spectede  or  American  loyalty  to  Pius  IX  justified 
him  m  sajring,  ''Oedite  per  Pium  possit  qmd  gloria 
C!!hristi".  He  died  of  acute  pneumonia  in  the  arms 
of  Pius  DC,  only  a  few  months  oefore  the  Consistory  in 
which  he  was  to  have  been  made  a  cardinal.  His  re- 
mains were  laid  to  rest  in  the  Flemish  Cemetery  near 
the  Vatican,  amid  a  vast  concourse  of  people,  the  poor 
he  had  so  generously  assisted  mingling  with  the  pre- 
lates, ambassadors,  and  princes.  De  M^rode,  in 
spite  of  his  faulte,  will  be  remembered  as  a  model  of 
unswerving  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See.  Such  was  his 
popularity  that  when  Don  Margotti,  in  ''rnnit& 
Cattolica  ,  suggested  in  his  behalf  a  world-wide 
tribute  of  pravers,  the  subscriber's  names  filled  a  large 
album  published  at  Turin,  1875. 

Lamt.  Motueioneur  de  Mirode  (Louvahi,  1874);  BiisaoK,  F. 
F.  X.  de  Mhode.  ea  vie  ei  eea  emvrea  (Paris,  1886);  La  Pom- 
viN,  Mffr,  de  Mirode  in  hee  Contemporame  (Paris.  8.  d.); 
Vbuillot.  CfWmUe  Catholiquea  ConUmporaina:  Fu>rkot» 
Lamorieikn  (Paris,  1004). 

J.  F.  SOLUEB. 

MoroTlngiaiiB.    See  Fbanks/ 

Meraanxie,  Mabin,  French  theologian,  philoeo* 
pher,  and  mathematician;  b.  8  September,  15i88  near 
Oisd  (now  Department  of  Sarthe);  d.  1  Septemberi 
1648;  at  Paris.  He  studied  at  Le  Bfans  and  at  the 
Jesuit  College  of  La  Fldche,  where  a  lifelong  friendship 
with  Descartes,  his  fellow  student,  originated.  Mer- 
senne  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Minims  at  Nigeon 
near  Paris  (1611),  was  sent  to  Nevers  as  professor  of 
philosophy  (1614-1620),  and  retiuned  to  Paris.  His 
first  publications  were  theological  and  polemical 
studies  against  Atheism  and  Scepticism,  but  later, 
Mersenne  devoted  his  time  almost  exclusively  to 
flcienoe,  making  personal  experimental  researches,  aad 


HISA                               210  IBSOMTAMU 

gmbliflhing  a  number  of  works  on   mathematical  The  Moabite  Stone,  perhaps  the  greatest  Bit  h'cal 

sciences.    His  chief  merit,  however,  is  rather  the  en-  discovery  of  modem  times,  throws  some  light  on  the 

oouragement  which  he  gave  to  scientists  of  his  time,  period  referred  to.    Through  the  learning  and  enter- 

the  interest  he  took  in  their  work,  and  the  stimulating  prise  oi  M.  Clermont-Ganneau,  the  inscription  on  the 

influence  of  his  suggestions  and  questions.    Gassendi  stone  was  published,  and  the  stone  itself  is  now  one  of 

and  Galileo  were  amons  his  friends;  but,  above  all.  the  treasures  d  the  Louvre,  Paris.    The  monument, 

Mersenne  is  known  to-day  as  Descartes's  friend  and  discovered  in  1868  at  Dhlban  (Dibon)  in  the  land  of 

adviser.    In  fact,  when  Descartes  began  to  lead  a  free  Moab.  is  of  basalt,  about  three  feet  eight  inches  by  two 

and  dissipated  life,  it  was  Mersenne  who  brought  him  feet  three  inches  and  fourteen  inches  thick.    It  resem- 

back  to  more  serious  pursuits  and  directed  him  toward  bles  a  head-stone,  and  is  inscribed  with  thirty-four 

philosophy.  In  Paris,  Mersenne  was  Descartes's  assid-  lines  of  writing,  in  which  Mesa  gives  us  the  chief  events 

uous  correspondent,  au^dliary,  and  representative,  as  of  his  reign.    The  stone  was  unfortunately  broken  by 

well  as  his  constant  defender.  The  niunerous  and  ve-  the  Arabs  as  soon  as  they  saw  Europeans  taldng  an  in- 

hement  attacks  against  the  *  'Meditations''  seem,  for  a  terest  in  it;  but  s^ueeses  had  been  takenpreviously,  so 

moment,  to  have  aroused  Malebranche's  suspicions*  that  the  inscription  is  almost  intact,    'the  fragments 

but  Descartes's  answers  to  his  critics  gave  him  full  were  collected,  and  missing  parts  supplied  by  plaster, 

satisfaction  as  to  his  friend's  orthodoxv  and  sincere  the  inscription  on  which  was  written  trom  the  soueeses. 

Christian  spirit.   Mersenne  asked  that,  after  his  death,  A  writer  m  Smith's  **  Diet,  of  the  Bible  "  (s.  v.  Moab), 

an  autopsy  be  made  on  his  body,  so  as  to  serve  to  the  knowing  nothing  about  the  Moabite  Stone,  says: 

last  the  mterests  of  science.                                ^       ^  "From  the  origin  of  the  nation  and  other  considera- 

Mersenne's  works  are:  ''Qusstiones  celeberrimsD  in  tions,  we  ma^ perhaps  conjecture  that  their  language 

Genosim"  (Paris,  1623),  agamst  Atheists  and  Deists;  was  more  a  dialect  of  Hebrew  than  a  different  tongue  ". 

a  part  only  has  been  published,  the  rest  being  still  in  This  conjecture  the  Moabite  Stone  makes  a  certainty. 


par  raisons  ac  tneoioeie    witn  tne  u.  i .  tnat  a  suspicion 

et  do  philosophic"  (Paris,  1624);  "La  v^rit^  aes  the  genuineness  of  the  stone"  (Jour,  d  the  Am.  Or. 
sciences  contre  les  sceptiques  et  les  pyrrhoniens"  Soc.,  XXII,  61).  Suspicions  have  been  aroused,  but 
(Paris,  1625);  "Questions  the61ogiques,  physiques,  scholars  almost  unanimously  set  them  aside  as  ground- 
morales  et  math&iatiques"  (Paris,  1634);  "Ques-  less.  From  the  evidence  furnished  bv  the  stone  we 
tions  inouJes,  ou  r^reiations  des  savants"  (Paris,  may  conclude  that  Josaphat,  King  of  Juda,  and  Mesa, 
1634);  "Les  mtomiaues  de  Galil^"  (Paris,  1634),  a  King  of  Moab,  might  have  conversed,  eadi  in  his  own 
translation  from  the  Italian;  "Harmonie  univeraeUe.  tongue,  and  understood  each  other.  The  did  Phceni- 
contenant  la  th^orie  et  la  pratique  de  la  musique'  cian  character  (found  also  in  the  Siloam  inscription). 
(Paris,  1636^7);  "  Nouvelles  d^couvertes  de  Galilee",  the  words,  the  grammatical  forms  and  peculiarities  of 
and  "Nouvelles  pens^es  de  Galilte  sur  les  m^caniques''  syntax  in  the  two  lanji^uages  are  neariy  identical.  The 
(Paris,  1639),  both  translations-  "Cogitata  physico-  difference  (^pronunciation  we  caimot,  of  course,  esti- 
mathematica"  (Paris,  1644);  "Euclidis  elementorum  mate  since  the  vowels  were  not  written.  While  the 
libri,  ApoUonii  Pergsei  conica,  Sereni  de  sectione  coni,  stone  seems  to  be  somewhat  at  variance  with  Scrip- 
etc."  (Paris,  1626),  selections  and  translations  of  ture,  yet  the  two  substantially  agree:  Mesa  says  "Omri 
ancient  mathematicians,  published  again  later  with  (Amn)  King  of  Israel  oppressed  Moab",  mentions  his 
notes  and  additions  under  the  title,  "  Unlversss  geo-  own  revolt  and  adds,  '^Chemosh  (Chamos)  delivered 
metris  mixtsque  mathematicfe  synopsis"  (Paris,  me  from  all  kings".  Healsodescnbeshisworkof  for- 
1644).  tifying  Moab.  and  as  this  made  the  north  very  strong, 

Vm  Conrn,  Vie  du  R,  P.Mer»mn9  (Pari.,  1649);  Vwk,  Elope  we  see  why  the  allies  took  the  route  south  of  the  Dead 

fyf^'SrS^u'Kfi'/^  Sea  to  attack  him     The  Bible  hinte  at  som^ 

C.  A.  DuBRA-T.  *o  wW  mvaders,  who  withdrew  suddenly  on  the  veiy 

point  of  taking  the  city;  while  Mesa,  like  all  Oriental 

Mesa  (Gr.,  M«M'd;  Moabite  Stone,  PBtD;  Heb.,  yfi$^,  monarchs  in  their  reoords,  may  have  magnified  his  vio- 
meaning  ''deliverance"  according  to  Gesenius),  a  tories  and  either  omitted  or  minimised  his  defeats. 
King  of  Moab  in  the  ninth  century  b.  c,  whose  history  Tlie  discrepancies  therefore  are  only  apparent,  and 
is  given  in  IV  Kings,  iiL  He  paid  tribute  to  Achab,  chronological  difficulties  would  be  explained  with  bet- 
King  of  Israel,  "  a  hundred  thousand  lambs  and  a  hun-  ter  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  period, 
dred  thousand  rams  with  their  fleeces"  (verse  4).  ^CxjbrmontmQanneau,  JLa5<^ted«Af<M.iJotd«Afpa6  (i870): 
Thii.«»nM,  to  have  be«a  paid  annuaUy.  and.wa.  poBsi.  ^'^^:^X.?{^'^yXSi^-^W:^'^.tS^f 
ble  smoe  Moab  was  nch  m  pastures;  accordmgly  Mesa  the  BibU^  s.  ▼.  Moab,  gives  inscription,  lincuistic  featuiw.  van- 
is  styled  TpJ,  which,  though  left  untranslated  in  the  ou?  readings,  etc.;  Gkikzk,  Houra  with  the  Bible:  chap.  IV,  Re- 

Achab's  death  Mesa  refused  to  pay  tnbute^  on  which  ciem  and  the  Verdict  of  the  Manumente  (1894);  BoiacBL,  7A«^ii. 

account  Joram,  King  of  Israel,  Josaphat,  Kmg  of  Juda  «cfU  Heb,  Trad  (tr.  1897;,  273  sq.;  361  89.;  Dritkr  in  Eney, 

and  the  King  of  Edom  entered  into  an  allianoe  against  S^:  jonn^AJu^'n^VL^     mBcnption,  text,  referenoe*, 

him.    They  went  by  the  southern  route  passing  *              ....                  John  J.  Tikbnkt. 

through  an  arid  country,  where  they  would  have  per-  nci,-      a^.  xr^aA 

ished  of  drought,  had  not  the  prophet  Eliseus  miracu-  J«w»«    oee  mesa. 

ously  supplied  tiiem  with  water.    The  ditches  they  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistaii,  and  Annonla,  Dklb- 

had  dup  Dy  command  of  the  prophet  were  filled,  and  oation  Apostolic  of,  created  b^  Gregoiy  AVI,  17 

at  sunnse  the  Moabites  "saw  the  waters  over  ajgainst  Dec,  1832.    Mgr.  Trioche^  Archbishop  of  Babylon  or 

them  red,  like  blood  "  (verse  22).    Thinking  their  ene-  Bagdad,  became  its  first  titular;  he  resided  faabituaDy 

mies  had  killed  one  another,  they  rushed  to  the  camp  in  Bagdad.    Resigning  in  1850,  Mgr.  Trioohe  returned 

with  the  cry  "  Moab  to  the  spoils  "  (verse  23),  only  to  to  France,  retaining  his  title  of  Ardibishcp  of  Bagdad, 

be  driven  back  with  great  slaughter.    The  allies  fol-  but  losing  that  of  Apostolic  dele^te  which  passed  to 

lowed.    Mesa  having  tried,  with  seven  hundred  war-  other  bishops.    These,  while  havmg  charge  of  the  ad- 

riors,  to  cut  his  way  through  the  besiegers  and  failed,  ministration  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Bagdad,  resided  at 

took  his  eldest  son,  and  upon  the  wall  of  the  dty,  in  Mosul,  where  they  could  better  discharge  their  duties 

sijB^t  of  all,  put  him  to  death.    ''There  was  great  in-  as  Apostolic  delegates  in  behalf  of  the  Chaldeans,  Syri- 

dignation  in  Israel",  so  that,  for  reasons  not  given  in  ans,  and  Armenians.    Four  out  of  six,  from  1850  to 

detaili  "they  departed  from  him''.  1887,  were  DominicaDS.    When  Mgr«  Tiioohe  dkd  in 


211 


Fhmee  27  Nov..  1887^  the  delegate  Apostolic,  Mgr  Alt- 
mayer,  received  the  title  of  Archbishop  of  BabyloQ  or 
Bagdad,  but  continued  to  reside  at  Mossul.  In  1902  he 
resigned  and  was  replaced  in  the  See  of  Bagdad  by  a 
Carmelite,  Mgr.  Drure,  who  on  5  March,  1004,  received 
the  title  of  delegate  Apostolic  of  Mesopotamia  and  still 
bears  it.  He  usuallv  resides  at  Mossul.  The  Delega- 
tion ApostoUc  of  Mesopotamia  has  almost  the  same 
boundaries  as  the  Arehdiocese  of  Bagdad,  but  comprises 
part  of  the  mission  of  Greater  Armenia  and  the  Nes- 
torians  of  Turkish  Kurdistan,  which  mission  is  confided 
to  the  Dominicans  of  Mossul.  (See  Bagdad;  Mossul.) 

PzouBT,  L€9  MiuumM,  I  (Paris,  1900),  23(M4. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Masrob,  also  called  Mashtotb,  one  of  the  greatest 
figures  in  Armenian  history,  b.  about  361  at  I&sik  in 
the  Province  of  Taron;  d.  at  Valarsabad,  441.  He 
was  the  son  of  Vartan  of  the  family  of  the  Mamiko- 
nians.  Goriun,  his  pupU  and  bio^pher,  tells  us  that 
Mesrob  received  a  liberal  education,  and  was  versed 
in  the  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Persian  languages.  On  ac- 
count of  his  piety  and  learning  Mesrob  was  appointed 
secretary  to  King  Chosroes  III.  His  duty  was  to 
write  in  Greek,  Persian,  and  Syriac  characters  the  de- 
crees and  edicts  of  the  sovereign,  for,  at  this  time, 
there  was  no  national  alphabet.  But  Mesrob  felt 
called  to  a  more  perfect  life.  Leaving  the  court  for 
the  service  of  God,  he  took  Holy  orders,  and  withdrew 
to  a  monasterv  with  a  few  chosen  companions.  There, 
sayB  Goriun,  he  practised  great  austerities,  enduring 
hunger  and  thiist,  cold  and  poverty.  He  lived  on 
vegetables,  wore  a  hair  shirt,  slept  upon  the  ground, 
ana  often  spent  whole  nights  in  prayer  and  the  study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  This  life  he  continued  for  a 
few  vears,  preparing  himself  for  the  great  work  to 
which  Providence  was  soon  to  call  him.  Indeed  both 
Church  and  State  needed  his  services.  Armenia,  so 
long  the  battle-ground  of  Romans  and  Persians,  lost 
its  independence  in  387,  and  was  divided  between  the 
Byzantme  Empire  and  Persia,  about  four-fifths  beins 

given  to  the  latter.  Western  Armenia  was  governed 
y  Greek  generals,  while  an  Armenian  ki^  ruled, 
but  only  as  feudatory,  over  Persian  Armenia.  The 
Church  was  naturally  influenced  by  these  violent  polit- 
ical changes,  althoi^h  the  loss  of  civil  indepenaence 
and  the  partition  of  the  land  could  not  destroy  its 
organisation  or  subdue  its  spirit.  Persecution  only 
quickened  it  into  greater  activity,  and  had  the  effect 
of  bringing  the  clergy,  the  nobles,  and  the  common 
people  closer  toother.  The  principal  events  of  this 
period  are  the  invention  of  tne  Armenian  alphabet, 
the  revision  of  the  lituigy,  the  creation  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical and  national  literature,  and  the  readjustment  of 
hierarohical  relations.  Three  men  are  prominently 
associated  with  this  stupendous  work:  Mesrob,  Patri- 
arch Isaac,  and  King  Vramshapuh,  who  succeeded  his 
brother  Chosroes  III  in  394. 

Mesrob,  as  we  have  noted,  had  spent  some  time  in  a 
monastery  preparing  for  a  missionary  life.  With  the 
support  of  Prince  Snampith,  he  preached  the  Gospel 
in  the  district  of  Golthn  near  the  Araxes,  converting 
many  heretics  and  pagans.  However,  he  expen- 
enced  ^reat  difiiculty  in  instructing  the  people,  for  the 
Armenians  had  no  alphabet  of  their  own,  but  used  the 
Greek,  Peraian,  and  Syriac  scripts,  none  of  which  was 
well  suited  for  representing  the  many  complex  soimds 
of  their  native  ton^e.  Again,  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  the  liturgy,  being  written  in  Syriac,  were,  to  a 
large  extent,  unintelligible  to  the  faithful.  Hence  the 
constant  need  of  translators  and  interpreters  to  ex- 
plain the  Word  of  God  to  the  people.  Mesrob,  desir- 
ous to  remedy  this  state  of  things,  resolved  to  invent  a 
national  alphabet,  in  which  undertaking  Isaac  and 
King  Vramshapuh  promised  to  assist  him.  It  is  hard 
to  determine  exactly  what  part  Mesrob  had  in  the  fix- 
ing of  the  new  alphabet.    According  to  his  Armenian 


biographers,  he  consulted  Daniel,  a  bishop  of  Meso- 
potamia, and  Rufinus,  a  monk  of  Samosata,  on  the 
matter.  With  their  help  and  that  of  Isaac  and  the 
king,  he  was  able  to  give  a  definite  fonn  to  the  alpha- 
bet, which  he  probably  adapted  from  the  Greek. 
Others,  like  Lenormant,  think  it  derived  from  the 
Zend.  Mesrob's  alphabet  consisted  of  thirty-six  let- 
ters; two  more  (long  O  and  F)  were  added  in  the 
twelfth  century. 

The  invention  of  the  alphabet  (406)  was  the  begin- 
ning of  Armenian  literature,  and  proved  a  powerful 
factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  national  spirit.  ''The 
result  of  the  work  of  Isaac  and  Mesrob",  says  St. 
Bfartin  (Histoire  du  Ba»-Empire  de  Lebeau,  V,  320), 
"was  to  separate  for  ever  the  Armenians  from  the 
other  peoples  of  the  East,  to  make  of  them  a  distinct 
nation,  and  to  strengthen  them  in  the  Christian  Faith 
by  forbidding  or  rendering  profane  all  the  foreign 
alphabetic  scripts  which  were  employed  for  tran- 
scribing the  booKs  of  the  heathens  and  of  the  followers 
of  Zoroaster.  To  Mesrob  we  owe  the  preservation  of 
the  language  and  literature  of  Armenia;  but  for  his 
work,  tne  people  would  have  been  absorbed  by  the 
Persians  and  Syrians,  and  would  have  disappeared 
like  so  many  nations  of  the  East".  Anxious  that 
others  shoula  profit  by  his  discovery,  and  encouraged 
by  the  patriarch  and  the  king,  Mesrob  foimded  nu- 
merous schools  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  in 
which  the  youth  were  tausht  the  new  alphabet.  But 
his  activity  was  not  connned  to  Eastern  Armenia. 
Provided  with  letters  from  Isaac  he  went  to  Constan- 
tinople and  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Theodosiua 
the  Younger  permission  to  preach  and  teach  in  his 
Armenian  possessions.  He  evangelised  successively 
the  Geoieians,  Albanians,  and  A^ouanghks,  adapt- 
ing his  alphabet  to  their  languages,  and,  wherever  he 
preached  the  Gospel,  he  buut  schoob  and  appointed 
teachers  and  priests  to  continue  his  work.  iTaving 
returned  to  Eastern  Armenia  to  report  on  his  missions 
to  the  patriarch,  his  first  thougnt  was  to  provide 
a  religious  literature  for  his  countrymen.  Having 
gathered  around  him  numerous  disciples,  he  sent 
some  to  Edessa,  Constantinople,  Athens,  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  and  other  centres  of  learning,  to  study 
the  Greek  language  and  bring  back  the  masterpieces 
of  Greek  literature.  The  most  famous  of  his  pupils 
were  John  of  Egheghiats,  Joseph  of  Baehin,  Esnik, 
Goriun,  Moses  otChorene,  and  John  Manoakuni. 

The  first  monument  of  this  Armenian  literature  is 
the  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Isaac,  says 
Moses  of  Chorene,  made  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
from  the  Syriac  text  about  411.  This  work  must 
have  been  considered  imperfect,  for  soon  afterwards 
John  of  Egheghiats  and  Joseph  of  Baghin  were  sent  to 
Edessa  to  translate  the  Scriptures.  They  journeyed 
as  far  as  Constantinople,  anci  brought  back  with  them 
authentic  copies  of  the  Greek  text.  With  the  help  of 
other  copies  obtained  from  Alexandria  the  Bible  was 
translated  again  from  the  Greek  according  to  the  text 
of  the  Septuagint  and  Origen's  Hexapla.  This  ver- 
sion, now  in  use  in  the  Armenian  Church,  was  com- 
pleted about  434.  The  decrees  of  the  first  three 
councils — Nicsa,  Constantinople,  and  EphesusT-and 
the  national  liturgy  (so  far  written  in  Syriac)  wert 
also  translated  into  Armenian,  the  latter  being  re- 
vised on  the  liturgy  of  St.  Basil,  thouch  retaining  char- 
acteristics of  its  own.  Many  works  of  the  Greek 
Fathers  also  passed  into  Armenian.  The  loss  of  the 
Greek  originals  has  eiven  some  of  these  versions  a 
special  Importance;  thus,  the  second  part  of  Euse- 
bius's  "Chronicle",  of  which  only  a  few  fra^ents 
exist  in  the  Greek,  has  been  preserved  entire  in  Ar» 
menian.  In  the  midst  of  his  literary  labours  Mesrob 
did  not  ncfflect  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  people.  He 
revisited  the  districts  he  had  evangelised  in  his  earlier 
years,  and,  after  the  death  of  Isaac  in  440,  looked 
after  the  spiritual  administration  of  the  patriarchate 


BII88AXiZ4N8 


212 


BB88IA8 


He  survived  his  friend  and  master  only  six  months. 
The  Armenians  read  his  name  in  the  Canon  of  the 
Mass,  and  celebrate  his  memory  on  19  February. 

Smitb  Aif  d  Wacb,  Diet.  Chritt.  Biog.t  s.  v.  Metrvbt;  Lano- 
LOI8,  CoUecHon  det  HiMoneru  tU  rArminiej  II  (Paria,  1860); 
Wbbbr,  Die  kaihol.  Kirehe  in  Armenien  (1003);  Nbdmann, 
Vertueh  einer  ChmA.  der  artnen.  LiUeratw  (Leiptig,  1836); 
Gardtrausbn,  Ueber  den  grieck.  Urepruno  der  armen.Sekrift  in 
EeiUehr.  der  deuUch.  morgenlAnd.  QeeeUachaft,  XXX  (1876) ;  Lb- 
NORMANT,  Eeaai  aw  la  propaoaHon  de  Calphabel  pMnieien,  1 
(1872).  A.  A.  Vaschaldb. 

BSessaHaiiB  (Prayins  folk;  participle  Pa'el  of  kW» 
Aramaic  for  "to  pray"),  an  heretical  sect  which  origi- 
nated in  Mesopotamia  about  360  and  survived  in  the 
East  until  the  ninth  century.  They  are  also  called 
Euchites  from  the  Greek  translation  of  their  Oriental 
name  (cdxi^oi  from  e6xofuu,  to  pray);  Adelphians 
from  their  first  leader;  Lampetians  from  Lampetius, 
their  first  priest  (ordained  about  458);  Enthusiasts 
from  theirj>eculiar  tenet  of  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  by  Whom  theythought  themselves  inspired  or 
possessed  (UpSovs),  The  non-Christian  sect  of  the 
Euphemites  were  also  called  Messalians,  and  Epipha- 
nius  (Hser.,  haa),  our  sole  informant  about  these, 
considers  them  the  forerunners  of  the  Christian  Mes- 
salians.  The  non-Christian  Messalians  are  said  to 
have  admitted  a  pluraUty  of  gods,  but  to  have  wor- 
shipped only  one,  the  Almighty  (TlarroKpdTvp),  They 
were  forcibly  suppressed  by  Cliristian  masistrates  and 
many  of  them  put  to  death.  Hence  they  became  self- 
styled  Martyriani.  The  Christian  Messalians  were  a 
kind  of  Eastern  CircumcelUons  or  vagrant  Quietists. 
Sacraments  they  held  to  be  useless,  though  harmless, 
the  only  spiritual  power  being  prayer,  bv  which  one 
drove  out  the  evil  spirit  which  baptism  had  not  ex- 
pelled, received  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
arrived  at  union  with  God,  ^coming  so  perfect  that 
the  passions  ceased  to  trouble.  They  disregarded  dia- 
cipline  in  the  matter  of  fasting,  wandered  from  place 
to  place,  and  in  summer  were  accustomed  to  sleep  in 
the  streets.  To  avoid  persecution  they  would  conform 
to  ecclesiastical  usa^ges,  profess  orthodoxy,  and  deny 
any  heretical  doctrines  ascribed  to  them.  They  en- 
gaged in  no  occupations,  were  solely  occupied  in 
prayer,  as  they  saia,  or  rather  in  sleep,  as  Theodoret 
sarcastically  remarks.  The  intensity  of  their  prayer 
brought  them  into  immediate  communication  with  the 
Godhead.  When  they  had  reached  the  passionless 
state  (dTdBeuLy  "apathy"),  they  saw  the  Trinity,  the 
three  Divine  Persons  becoming  one  and  dwelling  within 
them.  They  likewise  saw  tne  evil  spirits  ^lat  go 
through  the  world  for  the  ruin  of  souls,  and  trod  them 
under  foot.  In  fact  everv  man  had  within  him  a 
demon,  who  could  only  be  replaced  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.    Even  Christ's  body  was  full  of  demons  once. 

Flavian,  the  Bishop  of  Antioch,  tried  to  suppress 
them  in  his  city  about  376.  By  feigning  sympathy  he 
made  Adelphius  disclose  his  real  doctrines;  and  then 
he  banished  him  and  his  followers.  They  then  wan- 
dered to  the  south-east  of  Asia  Minor.  Amphilochius 
of  Iconium  caused  them  to  be  again  condemned  at  the 
Synod  of  Side  (388  or  390).  Letoius,  Bishop  of  Meli- 
tene,  finding  some  monasteries  tainted  with  this 
Quietism,  burnt  them  and  drove  the  wolves  from  the 
sheepfold,  as  Theodoret  narrates.  The  "Asceticus'', 
''that  filthy  book  of  this  heresy  *\  as  it  is  called  in  the 
public  acts  of  the  Third  General  Council  (431),  was 
condemned  at  Ephesus,  after  it  had  already  been  con- 
demned by  a  Council  of  Constantinople  in  426  and 
by  the  local  coimcil  at  which  Amphilochius  of  Side 
presided.  Yet  the  sect  continued  to  exist.  At  first  it 
mcluded  onlv  laymen.  Lampetius,  one  of  the  leaders 
after  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  was  a  priest,  hav- 
ing been  ordained  b^  Alypius  of  Cssarea.  He  was 
degraded  from  his  priesthood  on  account  of  unpriestly 
conduct.  He  wrote  a  book  called  ''The  Testament  . 
Salmon  refers  to  a  fragment  of  an  answer  by  Severus 
of  Antioch  tc  this  work  of  Lampetius  (Wolf,  "  Anec- 


dota  GrsBca'',  III,  182).  In  Armenia  in  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  strict  decrees  were  issued  against 
them,  and  they  were  especially  accused  of  immorality; 
so  that  their  very  name  in  Armenian  became  the 
equivalent  for  " filthy".  The  Nestorians  in  83rria  did 
their  best  to  stamp  out  the  evil  by  legislation;  the 
Messalians  ceased  to  exist  under  that  name,  but  re- 
vived under  that  of  the  Bogomili.  In  the  West  they 
seem  hardly  to  have  been  known;  when  the  Marcian- 
ists,  who  held  somewhat  the  same  tenets  as  the  Mes- 
salians, were  mentioned  to  Gregory  the  Great,  he 
professed  never  to  have  heard  of  the  Marcian  heresy. 
EpipHANiuB,  Hot.,  Ixxz;  Tbbodorbt.  Hiel.  Be.,  IV,  z; 
Idem,  Hot.  fab.,  IV,  zi;  Ctril  of  Albx.,  De  Adorat.  in  Smr.  H 
Verit.,  Ill  in  P.  O..  LXVIII,  282;  TufOTHsrs  in  Ecdee.  Grwe. 
num..  III.  400  sqq.:  Ter-Mkrttschian,  Die  PaulUnaner  im  6vs. 
Kaieerreich  (Leipiig,  1803);  Photius  in  P.  O.,  CIII.  187  sqq. 

J.  P.  Arendzen. 

BSesaeney  a  titular  see,  suffragan  to  Corinth,  in 
Achaia.  Under  this  name  at  least,  the  city  dates  only 
from  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  When  Epaminondas 
had  crushed  the  Spartans  at  Leuctra,  he  recalled  the 
scattered  Messenians  and  caused  them  to  build,  on  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Ithome,  a  new  capital  which  they 
called  Messene  (370  b.  c).  The  fortified  walls  sur- 
rounding this  city  were  over  five  and  a  half  miles  m 
length,  and  were  accounted  the  best  in  Greece.  The 
portion  of  them  which  still  remains  justifies  this  repu- 
tation. Christianity  early  took  root  there,  though 
only  a  few  of  its  bishops  are  known  (Le  Quien,  "  Oriens 
chnstianus",  II,  195-98).  At  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century  the  "Notitia  episcopatuum"  of  Leo 
the  Wise  gives  Messene  as  an  mdependent  archbish- 
opric (GeUer,  "  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notiti« 
episcopatuum '',  551) ;  and  the  same  is  true  for  the  be- 
^nning  of  the  fourteenth  centurv  (op.  cit.,  612).  As 
this  diocese  does  not  figure  in  tne  ^Notitia"  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  it  may  be  assumed  that  it  had  then 
ceased  to  exist.  The  little  village  of  Mavromati,  with 
a  population  of  600.  the  capital  of  the  Deme  of  Ithome, 
now  stands  upon  the  ruins  of  ancient  Messene. 

Leake,  Morea,  I,  336;  Murb,  Tour  in  Greece,  II,  204;  Cur- 
nus,  Peloponneme,  II,  138;  Smith,  Dittununry  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Geography,  II,  338-d4a 

S.  Vajlh^. 

BSesaias. — ^The  name  Mco-Wat  is  a  translit^ntion  of 
the  Hebrew,  n^eiD,  "  the  anointed  ".  The  woid  appears 
only  twice  of  the  promised  prince  (Dan.,  ix,  26 ;  Ps. 
ii,  2) ;  vet,  when  a  name  was  wanted  for  the  promised 
one,  wno  was  to  be  at  once  King  and  Saviour,  it  was 
natural  to  employ  this  synonym  for  the  royal  title, 
denoting  at  the  same  time  the  King's  roval  dignity 
and  His  relation  to  God.  The  full  title  "Anointed  of 
Jahveh  "  occurs  in  several  passages  of  the  Psalms  of 
Solomon  and  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  but  the  ab- 
breviated form,  "Anointed"  or  "the  Anointed *',  was 
in  common  use.  When  used  without  the  article,  it 
would  seem  to  be  a  proper  name.  The  word  Xpicr^ 
so  occurs  in  several  passages  of  the  Gospels.  This, 
however,  is  no  proof  that  the  word  was  generally  so 
used  at  that  time.  In  the  Palestine  Talmud  the  form 
with  the  article  is  almost  universal,  while  the  common 
use  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  without  the  article  b 
not  a  sufficient  alignment  for  antiouity  to  prove  that 
in  the  time  of  Christ  it  was  regardea  as  a  proper  name. 
It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article:  I,  to  give  an  out* 
line  of  tne  prophetic  utterances  concerning  the  Mes- 
sias;  II,  to  show  the  development  of  the  prophetic 
ideas  in  later  Judaism;  and  III,  to  show  how  Christ 
vindicated  His  right  to  this  title. 

I.  The  Messias  of  Prophecy. — The  earlier  proph- 
ecies to  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Gen.,  xviii,  17-19;  xxvi, 
4-5)  speak  merely  of  the  salvation  that  shall  come 
througn  their  seed.     Later  the  royal  dignity  of  the 

Eromised  deliverer  becomes  the  prominent  feature. 
[e  is  described  as  a  king  of  the  Ime  of  Jacob  (Num.. 
xxiv,  19),  of  Juda  (C^n.,  xlix,  10:  "The  sceptre  shall 


MI88IA8  213  MI88ZA8 

not  pass  from  Juda  until  he  comeB  to  whom  it  be-    before  Christ.    Side  by  side  with  all  these  prophecies 

kingdom  under  Uie 
was  the  series 


longs  "—taking  rh\t^  as  standing  for  "h  IfiW),  and  of    speaking  of  the  establishment  of  a  kinj 
David  (II  Kings,  vii,  11-16).    It  is  suflBciently  estal>-    sway  ofa  Divinely-appointed  legate, 


shall  serve  Him  (Ps.  Ixxi,  11).  In  the  type  of  proph-  ings  to  Sion:  lift  it  up,  fear  not.  Say  to  the  cities  of 
ecy  we  are  considering,  the  emphasis  is  on  His  posi-  Juda:  Behold  your  God.  Behold  the  Lord  your  God 
lion  as  a  national  hero.  It  is  to  Israel  and  Juda  that  himself  shall  come  with  strength  and  his  arm  shall 
He  will  bring  salvation  (Jer.,  xxiii,  6),  triumphing  rule."  The  reconciliation  of  these  two  series  of  proph- 
over  their  enemies  by  force  of  anns  (cf .  the  warrior-  ecies  was  before  the  Jews  in  the  passage — ^notably 
king  of  Ps.  xlv).  Even  in  the  latter  part  of  Isaias  Ps.  ii  and  Is.,  vii-xi — ^which  clearly  foietold  the 
there  are  passages  (e.  g.  Ixi,  5-S)  in  which  other  na-  Divinity  of  the  promised  l^ate.  ''His  name  shall  be 
dons  are  regarded  as  sharing  in  the  kingdom  rather  as  called  Wonderful,  Counsellor,  God  the  Mighty,  the 
servants  than  as  heirs,  while  the  fimction  of  the  Mes-  Father  of  the  world  to  come,  the  Prince  of  Peace  "— 
sias  is  to  lift  up  Jerusalem  to  its  gloiy  and  lay  the  titles  ail  used  elsewhere  of  Jahveh  Himself  (cf .  David- 
foundations  of  an  Ismelitic  theocracy.  son,  " O.  T.  Prophecy",  p.  367),    But  there  seems  to 

But  in  this  part  of  Isaias  also  occurs  the  splendid  have  been  little  realisation  of  the  relation  between 
conception  of  the  Messias  as  the  Servant  of  Jahveh.  these  two  series  of  prophecy  until  the  full  light  of  the 
He  is  a  chosen  arrow.  His  mouth  like  a  shaip  sword.  Christian  dispensation  revealed  their  reconciliation  in 
The  Spirit  of  the  Loitl  is  poured  out  upon  Him,  and  the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation. 
His  word  is  put  into  His  mouth  (xlii,  1;  xlix,  1  sq.).  II.  Messianic  Doctrine  in  Later  Judaism  (see 
The  instrument  of  His  power  is  the  revelation  of  Jah-  Apocrypha). — Two  quite  distinct  and  parallel  lines 
veh.  The  nations  wait  on  His  teaching*  He  is  the  are  discemiDle  in  the  later  development  of  Messianio 
light  of  the  Gentiles  (xlii,  6).  He  establishes  His  doctrine  among  the  Jews,  accoraing  as  the  writers 
Kingdom  not  by  manifestation  of  material  power,  but  clung  to  a  national  id^,  based  on  the  literal  interpre* 
by  meekness  and  suffering,  by  obedience  to  the  com-  tation  of  the  earlier  prophecies,  or  an  apocalyptic 
mand  of  God  in  laying  down  His  life  for  the  salvation  ideal,  based  principally  on  Daniel.  The  national 
of  many.  "If  he  shall  lay  down  his  life  for  sin,  he  ideal  looked  to  the  establishment  on  earth  of  the  King- 
shall  see  a  posterity  and  prolong  his  days"  (liii,  10;  cf.  dom  of  God  under  the  Son  of  David,  the  conquest  and 
Knabenbauer,  in  loc.) ;  "Therefore  will  I  distribute  to  subjugation  of  the  heathen,  ih&  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem 
him  very  many,  and  he  shall  divide  the  spoils  of  the  and  the  Temple,  and  the  gatibering  in  of  the  Dispersed, 
strong,  because  he  hath  delivered  his  soul  unto  death,  The  apocalyptic  ideal  drew  a  snarp  distinction  be- 
and  was  reputed  with  the  wicked"  (liii,  12).  His  tween  afwr  o5roT  and  afwr  ftAXwr.  Ine  future  age  was 
Kingdom  shall  consist  of  the  multitude  redeemed  by  to  be  ushered  in  by  the  Divine  judgment  of  mankind 
His  vicarious  satisfaction,  a  satisfaction  confined  to  preceded  by  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  The  Me»- 
no  race  or  time  but  offered  for  the  redemption  of  all  sias,  existing  from  the  b^inning  of  the  world,  should 
alike.  (For  the  Messianic  application  of  these  pas-  appear  at  the  consummation,  and  then  shouldf  be  also 
sages,  especially  Is.,  lii,  13-iiii,  cf.  Condamin  or  manifested  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  which  was  to  be 
Knabenbauer,  in  loc.)    In  spite,  however,  of  Justin's  the  abode  of  the  blessed. 

use  of  the  last-mentioned  passage  in  "  Dial,  cum  Tiy-  National  Ideal, — ^The  national  ideal  is  that  of  ofi&- 
phone ",  Ixxxix,  it  would  be  rash  to  affirm  that  its  cial  Pharisaism.  Thus,  the  Talmud  has  no  trace  of 
reference  to  the  Messias  was  at  all  widely  realized  the  apocalyptic  ideal.  The  scribes  were  mainly 
among  the  Jews.  In  virtue  of  his  prophetic  and  busied  with  the  Law,  but  side  by  side  with  this  was 
priestly  offices  the  title  of  "the  Anointed  '  naturally  the  development  of  the  hope  of  the  ultimate  manifesta* 
belonged  to  the  promised  one.  The  Messianic  priest  is  tion  of  God's  Kingdom  on  earth.  Pharisaic  influence 
described  by  David  in  Ps.  cix,  with  reference  to  Gen.,  is  clearly  visible  in  w.  673-808  of  Sibyl.  Ill,  deserib- 
ziv,  14-20.  That  this  psalm  was  generally  under-  ing  the  national  hopes  of  the  Jews.  A  last  judgment, 
stood  in  a  Messianic  sense  is  not  disputed,  while  the  future  happiness,  or  reward  are  not  mentioned.  Manv 
univez«al  consent  of  the  Fathers  puts  the  matter  be-  marvels  are  foretold  of  the  Messianic  wars  whi<m 
yond  question  for  Catholics.  As  regards  its  Davidic  bring  in  the  consummation — lighted  torches  falling 
authorship,  the  aiguments  impugning  it  afford  no  war-  from  heaven,  the  darkening  of  the  sun,  the  falling  of 
rant  for  an  abandonment  of  the  traditional  view.  That  meteors — but  all  have  for  end  a  state  of  earthly  i>rQ9» 
bv  the  prophet  described  in  Deut.,  xviii,  15-22,  was  perity.  The  Messias,  coming  from  the  East,  aomi- 
aiso  understood,  at  least  at  the  b^inning  of  our  era,  nates  the  whole,  a  triumphant  national  hero.  Similar 
the  Messias  is  clear  from  the  appeal  to  his  gift  of  to  this  is  the  work  called  the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  writ- 
prophecy  made  by  the  pseudo-Messias  Theudas  (cf.  ten  probably  about  40  b.  c.  It  is  really  the  protest  of 
Josephus,  "  Antiq.",  XX,  v,  1)  and  the  use  made  of  Pharisaism  against  its  enemies,  the  later  Aononeans. 
the  paaaage  by  St.  Peter  in  Acts,  iii,  22-23.  The  Pharisees  saw  that  the  observance  of  the  law  was 

Special  importance  attaches  to  the  prophetic  de-  not  of  itself  a  sufficient  bulwark  against  the  enemies  of 

scrip  tion  of  the  Messias  contained  in  Daniel,  vii,  the  Israel,  and,  as  their  principles  would  not  allow  them  to 

great  work  of  later  Judaism,  on  account  of  its  para-  recognize  in  the  secularized  hierarchy  the  promised 

mount  influence  upon  one  line  of  the  later  develop-  issue  of  their  troubles,  they  looked  forwara  to  the 

ment  of  Messianic  doctrine.    In  it  the  Messias  is  de-  miraculous  intervention  of  God  through  the  agency  of 

scribed  as  "  like  to  a  Son  of  Man  ",  appearing  at  the  a  Davidic  Messias.    The  seventeenth  Psalm  describes 

right  hand  of  Jahveh  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,  maugu-  his  rule:  He  is  to  conauer  the  heathen,  to  drive  them 

rating  the  new  age,  not  by  a  national  victory  or  oy  from  their  land,  to  allow  no  injustice  in  their  midst; 

vicarious  satisfaction,  but  by  exercising  the  Divine  His  trust  is  not  to  be  in  armies  but  in  God ;  with  the 

right  of  judjging  the  whole  world.    Thus,  the  empha-  word  of  his  mouth  he  is  to  slay  the  wicked.    Of  earlier 

sis  is  upon  the  personal  responsibility  of  the  indiviaual.  date  we  have  the  description  of  the  final  glories  of  the 

The  consummation  is  not  an  earth-won  ascendancy  of  holy  city  in  Tobias  (c.  xiv),  where,  as  well  as  in  Eo- 

the  chosen  people,  whether  shared  with  other  nations  clesiasticus,  there  is  evidence  of  the  constant  hope  in 

or  not,  but  a  vindication  of  the  holy  by  the  solemn  the  future  gathering  in  of  the  Diaspora.    These  same 

judgment  of  Jahveh  and  his  Anointed  One.    Upon  nationalist  ideas  reappear  along  with  a  highly  devel- 

this  prophecy  were  mainly  based  the  various  apoca-  oped  system  of  eschatolo^  in  the  apocalyptic  works 

lyptic  works  which  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  the  written  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  which  are 

religious  life  of  the  Jews  during  the  last  two  centuries  referred  to  below. 


hbssias  214 

ApoetHypiic  Ideal, — ^The  status  of  the  apoealyptic  deepest  relieiouB  sentiment  of  the  nation  became  alien- 

vmters  as  regards  the  religious  life  of  the  Jews  nas  ated  from  the  Machabean  dynasty,  and,  when  liie  last 

been  keenly  disputed  (cf.  Sanday,  "Life  of  Christ  in  of  the  line  fell  in  27  b.  c,  it  was  realized  that  a  differ- 

Recent  Research",  pp.  49  sqq.).    Though  they  had  ent  interpretation  of  the  promises  was  called  for.    In 

small  influence  in  Jerusalem,  the  strcmghold  of  Rab-  the  new  apocalyptists  the  Messias  was  not  merely  the 

biniam,  they  probably  both  influenced  and  reflected  central  figure  of  the  age  to  come:  He  is  already  exist- 

the  reliffious  feeling  of  the  rest  of  the  Jewish  world,  ing  in  heaven,  waiting  to  appear  at  the  end  of  this 

Thus,  the  apocalyptic  ideal  of  Uie  Messias  would  seem  oraer,  oUav  o^rot. .  The  oppressors  of  Israel  were  now 

not  to  be  the  sentiment  of  a  few  enthusiasts,  but  to  ex-  the  Romans.    The  ultimate  failure  of  the  Macha- 

press  the  true  hopes  of  a  considerable  section  of  the  beans  had  shown  the  uselessness  of  human  efi'orts  at 

people.    Before  tne  Asmonean  revival  Israel  had  ,al-  liberation,  and  the  Jews  could  now  only  await  the 

most  ceased  to  be  a  nation,  and  thus  the  hope  of  a  na-  miraculous  intervention  tiiat  should  usher  in  the 

tional  Messias  had  grown  very  dim.    In  tne  earliest  Kingdom.    To  this  era  belongs  the  Assumption  of 

apocalyptic  writings,  consequently,  nothing  is  said  of  Moses.    In  it  there  is  no  marked  opposition  oetween 

tne  Messias.    In  the  first  part  of  the  Book  of  Henoch  just  and  unjust.    Israel  is  to  be  saved  by  a  sudden 

(i-xxxvi)  we  have  an  example  of  such  a  work.    Not  and  marvellous  manifestation  of  Divine  power.   There 

the  coming  of  a  hmnan  prince,  but  the  descent  of  God  is  no  gradual  evolution  of  this  age  into  the  next:  men 

upon  Sinai  to  judge  the  world  divides  all  time  into  two  will  be  transported  in  an  instant  to  the  already  exist- 

epochs.    The  just  shall  receive  the  gift  of  wisdom  and  ing  Kingdom  of  Heaven.    Similar  is  the  book  of  the 

become  sinless.    Thev  will  feed  on  the  tree  of  life  and  Similitudes  of  Henoch,  where  the  Messias  is  called  in 

enioy  a  longer  span  tnan  the  Patriarchs.  the  first  parable  "the  Elect",  and  in  the  following 

The  Machabean  victories  roused  both  the  national  ones  sometimes  "  the  Elect ",  and  sometimes  "  the  Son 
and  religious  sentiment.  The  writers  of  the  earlier  of  Man".  Lagrange  considers  the  passages  giving 
Asmonean  times,  seeing  the  ancient  glories  of  their  this  latter  title  interpolations,  whether  the  work  c» 
race  reviving,  could  no  longer  ignore  the  hope  of  a  per-  Christians  or  of  Jews  of  the  Christian  era.  Charles, 
sonal  Messias  to  rule  the  kis^om  of  the  new  age.  however,  considers  them  genuine,  believing  Christ's 
The  problem  arose  how  to  connect  their  present  de-  use  of  the  title  occasionea  by  its  anterior  use  as  in- 
liverers,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  with  the  Messias  who  stanoed  in  this  work.  In  any  case  we  have  the  au- 
should  be  of  the  tribe  of  Juda.  This  was  met  by  re-  thor's  mind  on  the  Messias  in  the  certainly  authentic 
garding  the  present  age  as  merely  the  besinnin^  of  the  picture  of  "  the  Elect ".  No  loncer  the  son  of  David, 
Messianic  aee.  Apocalyptic  works  of  this  penod  are  he  presides  over  the  upper  world,  the  abode  of  the 
the  Book  of  Jubilees,  the  Testament  of  the  Twelve  saints,  while  the  earth  is  under  the  domination  of  the 
Patriarchs,  and  the  Vision  of  Weeks  of  Henoch.  In  wicked.  This  order  will  be  terminated  by  the  judg- 
the  Book  of  Jubilees  the  promises  made  to  Levi,  and  ment,  when  the  elect  shall  sit  on  His  throne  in  glory 
fulfilled  in  the  Asmonean  priest-kings,  outshadow  and  judge  the  actions  of  men.  He  does  not  lielp 
those  made  to  Juda.  The  Messias  is  but  a  vague  fig-  towards  salvation,  except  in  so  far  as  men  are  sus- 
ure,  and  little  stress  is  laid  on  the  judgment.  The  tained  during  their  trials  by  the  knowled^  of  His  ex- 
Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs  is  a  composite  istence.  After  the  judgment  as  before  He  shall  pre- 
work.  The  foimdation  portion,  conspicuous  from  its  side  over  the  Kingdom  of  the  holy  ones,  which  snail 
glorification  of  the  priesthood,  dates  from  before  100  now  occupy  not  omy  heaven  but  also  the  transfigured 
B.  c. ;  there  are,  however,  later  Jewish  additions,  hoe-  earth.  The  whole  concept  bears  the  stamp  of  lofty 
tile  in  tone  to  the  priesthood,  and  numerous  Chris-  spirituality.  The  resurrection  of  good  and  wicked 
tian  interpolations.  Controversy  has  arisen  as  to  the  alike  marks  the  passage  from  the  order  of  sin  to  that 
principal  figure  in  this  work.    According  to  Charles  of  absolute  justice. 

(Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  p.  xcviii)  there  We  may  regard  this  as  the  cuhnizuition  of  the  apoc- 
is  pictured  as  the  Messias  a  son  of  Levi  who  realizes  all  alyptic  ideal.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  the  apoe- 
the  lofty  spiritual  ideals  of  the  Christian  Saviour.  La-  alyptic  writers  returned  to  more  directly  national 
grange  on  the  other  hand  (Le  Messianisme  ches  les  hopes ;  the  Messias  must  play  some  part  in  the  tem- 
Juifs,  pp.  69  sqc}.)  insists  that,  in  so  far  as  this  is  the  poral  salvation  of  Israel.  This  is  indeed  the  only  as- 
case,  tne  portrait  is  the  result  of  Christian  interpola-  pect  treated  in  the  fifth  Sibylline  Book.  The  Messias 
tions;  these  removed,  there  remains  only  a  laudation  comes  from  Heaven,  and  establishes  the  reign  of  Israel 
of  the  part  played  by  Levi,  in  the  person  of  the  Asmo-  in  peace  and  holiness  at  Jerusalem,  rebuilds  the  holy 
neans,  as  the  instrument  of  national  and  religious  liber-  citv  and  the  Temple.  There  is  no  universal  dominat icm 
ation.  A  conspicuous  instance  in  point  is  Test.  Lev.,  ana  the  rest  of  tne  world  is  almost  ignored.  IV  Es- 
Ps.  xviii.  Whfle  Charles  says  this  ascribes  the  Messi-  dras  is  a  work  on  a  much  grander  scale.  The  writer 
anic  characteristics  to  the  Levite,  Lagrange  and  Bous-  combines  a  temporal  Messianism  with  a  most  ad- 
set  deny  that  it  is  Messianic  at  all.  Apart  from  the  vanced  eschatology.  He  sees  the  whole  world  cor- 
interpolations,  it  is  merely  natural  praise  of  the  new  rupted,  even  the  chosen  seed  of  Abraham,  among 
royal  priesthood.  There  can  be  no  question  indeed  as  whom,  as  among  the  Gentiles,  many  transgressors 
to  the  pre-eminence  of  Levi;  he  is  compared  to  the  sun  may  be  found.  The  name  of  God  has  thus  lost  that 
and  Juda  to  the  moon.  But  there  is  in  fact  a  de-  honour  which  is  due  to  it.  The  world,  therefore,  must 
scription  of  a  Messias  descended  from  Juda  in  Test,  be  destroyed  to  be  replaced  bjr  a  better  one.  But 
Jud.,  Ps.  xxiv,  the  original  elements  of  which  belong  good  must  first  triumph  even  in  this  world,  which 
to  the  foundation  part  of  the  book.  He  appears  also  shall  witness  the  victory  of  the  Messias  over  the  Ro- 
in  the  Testament  of  Joseph,  though  the  passage  is  man  Empire,  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
couched  in  an  allegorical  form  difficult  to  follow.  The  union  of  all  Israel  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  Messias,  con- 
Vision  of  Weeks  of  Henoch,  dating  probably  from  the  ceived  as  existing  from  the  beginning  of  the  worid, 
same  period,  differs  from  the  h^t-mention^  work  comes  in  the  clouds  up  from  the  sea,  not  down  fran 
principally  in  its  insistence  on  the  judgment,  or  rather  heaven,  and  by  the  breath  of  His  mouth  destroys  the 
judgments,  to  which  three  of  the  world's  ten  weeks  armies  of  the  world  arrayed  a^inst  Him.  Then  there 
are  devoted.  Messianic  times  again  open  with  the  appears  the  holy  city,  before  mvisible.  At  the  end  of 
prosperity  of  Asmonean  days,  and  develop  into  the  time,  however,  the  Messias  saves  merely  Israel  upon 
roundation  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  earth .  He  has  no  concern  with  the  ultimate  salvat  ion 
Thus,  the  Asmonean  triumphs  had  produced  an  of  the  just.  After  accomplishing  His  work  of  national 
eschatology  in  which  a  personal  Messias  figured,  while  restoration  He  disappears,  and  the  final  judgment  is 
the  present  was  glorifiea  into  a  commencement  of  the  the  work  of  the  Most  High  Himself.  It  is  purely  indi- 
days  of  Messianic  blessings.    Gradually,  however,  the  vidual,  not  national.    Thus  this  work  c<»abxne8  the 


M1S8INA                             215  MK88mA 

oatkniai  and  apoealyptic  ideals.    The  Apocalypse  of  world  (Matt.,  xxy,  31-46;,  which  is  the  most  inaikdd 

Bunich,  wntten  probably  in  imitation,  contains  a  note  of  Daniel's  Messias.    A  double  reason  would  lead 

Bunilar  picture  of  the  Messias.    Thissvstem  of  escha-  Him  to  assiune  this  particular  designation:  that  He 

tology  finds  reflection  idso  in  the  chiliasm  of  certain  might  speak  of  Himself  as  the  Messias  without  making 

early  Christian  writers.    Transferred  to  the  second  His  claim  conspicuous  to  the  ruling  powers  till  the 

coming  of  the  Messias,  we  have  the  reign  of  peace  and  time  came  for  His  open  vindication,  and  that  as  far  as 

holiness  for  a  thousand  years  upon  earth  before  the  possible  He  might  hinder  the  people  from  transferring 

just  aze  transported  to  their  eternal  home  in  heaven  to  Him  their  own  material  notions  of  Davidic  king* 

(cf .  Papias  in  Eusebius,  "  Hist.  eccl. ",  III,  xxxix).  ship. 

III.  Thk  Vindication  of  the  Messianic  Dionitt  Nor  did  His  claim  to  the  dignity  merely  concern 

BT  Christ. — ^This  point  may  be  treated  under  two  the  future.    He  did  not  say/' I  shall  be  the  Messias", 

heads  (a)  Christ's  explicit  claim  to  be  the  Messias,  and  but  "  I  am  the  Messias  ".    Thus,  besides  His  answer 

(b)  the  implicit  claim  shown  in  His  words  and  actions  to  Caiphas  and  His  approval  of  Peter's  affirmation  of 

thiou|zhout  His  life.  His  present  Messiahship,  we  have  in  Matt.,  xi,  5.  the 

Under  the  first  of  these  two  headings  we  may  con-  guarded  but  clear  answer  to  the  question  of  the  Bap- 

sider  the  confession  of  Peter  in  Matt^  xvi,  and  the  tist's  disciples:  "Art  thou  6  4px6f4*P9f?**    In  St.  John 

words  of  Christ  before  his  judges.    Tnese  incidents  the  evidence  is  abundant.    There  is  no  question  of  a 

involve,  of  course,  far  more  than  a  mere  claim  to  the  future  dignity  in  His  words  to  the  Samaritan  woman 

'  '   '*      '  '       •    .1   • — ..•  -  -1- .;x..x_  -  (John,  iv}  or  to  the  man  bom  blind  (ix,  5),  for  He  was 

already  performing  the  works  foretold  of  the  Messias. 

any  comment.    The  Thougn  out  as  a  gram  of  mustard  seed,  the  Kingdom 

silence  of  the  other  Synoptists  as  to  some  details  of  the  of  God  upon  earth  was  already  established ;  He  had  al- 

incident  concern  the  proof  from  this  passage  rather  of  ready  b^gun  the  work  of  the  Servant  of  Jahveh,  of 

the  Divinity  than  of  Messianic  claims.    As  regards  preaching,  of  suffering,  of  saving  men.    The  oonsum- 

Christ's  dium  before  the  Sanhedrin  and  Pilate,  it  mation  of  His  task  ana  His  rule  in  glory  over  the  King- 

mixht  appear  from  the  narratives  of  Matthew  and  dom  were  indeed  still  in  the  future,  but  these  were  the 

Luke  that  He  at  first  refused  a  direct  reply  to  the  high  final  crown,  not  the  sole  constituents,  of  the  Messianic 

priest's  question:  "Art  thou  the  Christ?"    But  sJ-  dignity.    For  those  who,  before  the  Christian  dispen* 

though  His  answer  is  given  merely  as  c^  cTrat  (thou  sation,  sought  to  interpret  the  ancient  prophecies, 

hast  said  it),  yet  tiiat  recorded  by  St.  Mark,  iy6  tl/u  some  sizigle  aspect  of  the  Messias  sufficed  to  fill  the 

(I  am),  shows  clearly  how  this  answer  was  understood  whole  view.    We.  in  the  light  of  the  Christian  reve* 

by  the  Jews.    Dalman  (Words  of  Jesus,  pp.  309  sqa.)  lation,  see  realizea  and  hannonized  in  Our  Lord  all  the 

gives  instances  from  Jewish  literature  m  which  tne  oonfiictingMessianichopes,alI  the  visions  of  the proph* 

expression,  "thou  hast  said  it",  is  equivalent  to  "you  ets.     He  is  at  once  the  Suffering  Servant  and  the 

are  right " ;  his  comment  is  that  Jesus  used  the  words.  Davidic  King,  the  Judge  of  mankind  and  its  Saviour, 

as  an  assent  indeed,  but  as  showing  that  He  attached  true  Son  of  Man  and  G^  with  us.    On  Him  is  laid  the 

comparatively  little  importance  to  this  statement,  iniquity  of  us  all,  and  on  Him,  as  God  incarnate,  rests 

Nor  is  this  unreasonable,  as  the  Messianic  claim  sinks  the  Spirit  of  Jahveh,  the  Spirit  of  Wisdom  and  IJnder- 

into  insignificance  beside  the  claim  to  Divinity  which  standing,  the  Spirit  of  (Counsel  and  Fortitude,  the  Spirit 

immediately  follows,  and  calls  from  the  high  priest  the  of  Knowledge  and  Piety,  and  the  Fear  of  the  Lord, 

horrified  accusation  of  blasphemy.     It  was  this  which  ^Gloao.  jTAe  Measianie  ProphedeM  (Edinburgh,  1870);  Maas, 

«.ve  the  .Sanhrfna  a  pretert,  which  the  MeeBianic  Sro5'}<2J^''?&^Si&^^^ 

claun  of  itself  did  not  give,  for  the  death  sentence.  Condaxxn.  Le  Livn  d^Iaau  (Paris,  1906);  BocflssT,  Die  «•- 

Before  Pilate  on  the  other  hand  it  was  merely  the  as-  Uqion  da  JuderUwnM  (Berlin,  1903);  Laoranoe,  Le  MeMtia- 

^rtfon  of  Hi.  royal  dignity  which  gave  ground  for  His  ^:^'^JS,^flS^'^^:i^';'^'^^"lfJ: 

condemnation.  O^png.  1898).  tr.  The  WonU  of  Jtua  (Edinbor^  1902); 

But  it  is  rather  in  His  consistent  manner  of  acting  Lwin,  Ji»M  Menu  (Paria,  1904).            j   rxr  n 

than  in  any  specific  claim  that  we  see  most  clearly  L.  W.  Geddes. 
Clirist's  vindication  of  His  dienity.    At  the  outset  of 

His  public  life  (Luke,  iv,  18)  He  applies  to  Himself  in  BSessiiia,  Antonello  da,  b.  at  MessiDa,  about  1430; 

the  synagOG;ue  of  Nazareth  the  words  relating  to  the  d.  1497.    After  studying  for  some  time  in  Sicily  he 


LaWy  the  Lord  of  the  Sabbath,  the  Master  of  the  Tem-  ing  a  painting  of  John  Van  Eyck,  belonging  to  Alphon- 

pie.    In  His  own  name,  by  the  word  of  His  mouth.  He  sus  of  Aracon,  determined  to  devote  himself  to  the 

cleansed  lepers.  He  stilled  the  sea.  He  raised  the  dead,  study  of  the  Flemish  Masters.    It  would  seem  too 

His  disciples  must  regard  all  as  well  lost  merely  to  en-  that  he  set  out  for  Bruges  with  this  purpose:  others, 

loy  the  privilege  of  following  Him.    The  Jews,  while  however,  maintain  that  he  need  not  have  left  Italy 

fauing  to  see  all  that  these  things  implied,  a  dignity  to  ground  himself  in  the  new  technio  as  several  Hem- 

and  power  not  inferior  to  those  of  Jahveh  Himself,  ish  artists  of  renown  had  alreadv,  through  the  patron- 

eoula  not  but  perceive  that  He  who  so  acted  was  at  afi;e  of  the  princes  Ren^  of  Anjou  and  Alphonsus 

ICASt  the  Divinely  accredited^  representative  of  Jah-  of  Aragon,  won  for  their  pictures  no  slight  reputa- 

veh.    In  this  connexion  we  may  consider  the  title  tion.     The  question  will  remain  a  debated  point 

Christ  used  of  Himself,  "Son  of  Alan"     We  have  no  until  the  discovery  of  some  authentic  documen!^  shall 

evidence  that  this  was  then  commonly  regarded  as  a  decide  definitively  whether  the  Sicilian  painter  did 

Messianic  title.    Some  doubt  as  to  its  meaning  in  the  or  did  not  sail  for  Glanders.    It  is  certain,  however, 

minds  of  Christ's  hearers  is  possibly  shown  by  John,  that  he  mastered  perfectl  v  the  methods  followed  by 

xii,  34:  "Who  is  this  Son  >f  man?'*^  The  Jews,  while  the  disciples  of  Van  Eyck  in  oil-painting,  methodc 

undoubtedty  seeing  in  Daniel,  .ii,  a  portrait  of  the  that  had  eclipsed  al!  the  efforts  made  by  the  Italian 

Messias,  probably  failed  to  recognize  in  these  words  a  school.    On  his  return  to  Messina,  Antonello  evinced 

definite  title  at  all.    This  is  the  more  probable  from  remarkable  skill  in  handling  oils  in  a  triptych,  un- 

the  fact  that,  while  this  passage  exercised  great  influ-  fortunately  destroyed  in  the  recent  earthqu^e,  repre- 

ence  upon  the  apocal>rptists,  the  title  "Son  of  Man''  senting  the  Blessed  Virgin  with  St.  Gregory  and  St. 

does  not  appear  in  their  writings  except  in  passages  of  Benedict  on  either  side  and  two  angels  holding  a  crown 

doubtful  authenticity.    Now,  Christ  not  merely  uses  over  Our  Lady's  head.    Later,  Messina  went  to  Ven- 

the  name^  but  claims  for  Himself  the  right  to  judge  the  ice,  where  in  1473  he  executed  an.  altar  scz^en,  no 


III88IMA  216  MISSmA 

longer  extant,  for  the  ohuroh  of  Saa  Cassiano.    By  pa^x^ii^  (Pujb,  lUT);  Blano,  Hutoin  <Im  peburu  At  iottm 

nu&ng  known  the  secret  of  the  Van  Eycl«.  Antonello  'S  fe^*^  'S^'liSr^  fi"  ^SSS^JIt  ^^ 

quickly  won  success;  for  the  introduction  of  the  new  LObkk,  Qt9eh.  der  iUdieniaehen  MaUrei,  I  (Stutteart.   1878). 

technic,  singularly  adapted  to  bring  out  brilliant  ^,^^n  J^^^F'F^^h,^^  l^'^**^  ^**'^^  i^fo^A  ^,fi^.*i^ 

luilnnr   nf^M^    and    af    thp   aatop  fimft   ensure   thpir  ^^    «*^  (Pans.   1885),  283-^;    MCtnti.    kutotrv    d«    /'arf 

colour  enects  ana  at  tne  same  time  ensure  ineir  p«uion/ fa  fi«natManc«,  II  (Paria,  1891).  777-79;  Bo rckharot 

permanency,  smted  admirably  the  tastes  of  the  Vene-  and  Bode.  Le  Cicerone,  II,  VArt  modeme,  French  tr.  GiRARo 

tians  "  already  so  richly  endowed  with  a  feeling  for  the  (Pa™.  1892).  610;  d'Awoo,  AnianeUo  d* Antonio,  u  9ue  open 

t*\uLrm  nf  nnlmii*"    and  <'  wm  dAaf  inpd  *n  mAlrn  VpninA  •  "tniwwujjw  della  ptUvra  al  oho  (Messina,  1906):  Vbitpdhi,  An- 

cnarra  ot  colour  ,  ana    was  a^inea  to  maice  Venice  ^^„,^^  ^  Meatina  in  Thibmb  and  Bbckkr.  Abgemeinem  Lexi- 

the  most  renowned  school  m  Italy  for  the  study  of  kon  der  hOdenden  KanaOer  von  der  Antike  bU  £ur  QtoenwaH 

colouring"  (Le  Cicerone,  II,  610).     The  new  style  (Leipsig,  1907),  567 sq. 

was  eageily  followed  by  Bartholomew  and  Louis  Gabton  Sobtaib. 

Vivarini,  John  and  Gentile  Bellini,  Garpaocioand        BSessixia,  Archdiocese  of  (Mbbsinensis),  in  Sicily. 

Cima.    Assailed  by  homesickness,  Antonello  returned  The  city  is  situated,  in  the  shape  of  an  amphitheatre, 

to  Messina  to  leave  it  no  more  until  his  death  (cf .  along  the  slope  of  the  Hills  of  Neptune^  on  an  inlet 

Lionello  Venturi,  loc.  cit.  infra).  of  the  sea  at  the  Strait  of  Messina,  which  separates 

Messina  rivals  the  Flemings  in  transparency  of  Sicily  from  the  pjeninsula.  Its  harbour,  with  its 
colouring,  though  occasionally  he  may  justly  be  cen-  size  and  fine  situation,  is  one  of  tlie  most  important  in 
Bured  for  the  use  of  ''  a  dark  brown  in  his  flesh-tints ' '  Italv  after  those  of  Genoa  and  of  Naples.  Nevertheless, 
(MOntz,  II,  778).  If  he  imitates  their  careful  execu-  the  hopes  entertained  for  its  commerce,  in  view  of  the 
tion  of  details,  he  surpasses  them  by  the  distinction  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  were  disappointed,  for,  be- 
and  nobility  of  his  figures,  a  trait  in  which  one  recog-  tween  1887  and  1894,  the  commerce  of  Messina  de- 
nizes the  Italian.  He  excels  only  as  a  portrait  gainter,  creased  from  940,0(X)  tons  to  350,0(X)  tons:  still,  in 
and  especially  la  his  portraiture  of  men.  Of  his  work  1908,  it  grew  again  to  55 1  ,(XX)  tons.  The  neighbouring 
in  this  department  he  has  left  us  some  masterpieces  seas  are  rich  in  coral,  molluscs,  and  fi^;  anofrom  the 
that  evince  in  a  striking  d^ree  truth  to  nature  and  mountains  are  obtained  calcic  8ul]^iate,  alabaster, 
strength  of  conception  and  execution:  in  the  Academy  sulphates  of  aigentiferous  lead,  antimony,  iron,  and 
of  Venice,  a  half-length  portrait  of  a  man;  intheMu-  copper.  Messina  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
seum  of  Beriin,  a  heiKi  of  a  young  man ;  in  the  house  of  some  pirates  from  Cumse,  a  very  ancient  Greek  colony, 
the  Marquis  Trivulci  at  Milan,  tne  head  of  a  man  in  and  to  have  received  from  its  founders  the  name  of 
the  prime  of  life;  in  the  Civic  Museum  of  Milan,  an  Zancle  (sickle)  on  account  of  the  semicircular  shape  of 
excellent  bust-painting  of  a  poet  with  flowing  nair  the  port.  In  735  a  colony  of  Messenians  was  taken 
crowned  by  a  wreath;  above  all  the  painting  entitled  there  by  Gorgos,  a  son  of  King  Aristomenes,  the  brave 
"Condottiere"  preserved  in  the  Louvre.  Not  so  but  unfortunate  defender  of  the  Messenians  against 
successful  ia  religious  paintings,  at  Venice,  he  repro-  the  Spartans.  Thereafter,  the  population  of  the  city 
duoed  without  conviction  and  almost  slavishly  Madon-  was  increased  by  fugitives  from  Chalcis,  Samos,  and 
nas  of  the  type  of  G.  Bellini.  In  the  National  Gallery  Euboea,  who  had  escaped  from  the  Persian  invasion; 
there  is  a  lialf-length  portrait  of  the  ^rear  1465  repre-  they  became  preponderant  in  the  town  and  made 
senting  Christ  witn  His  hand  raised  in  blessing.  In  it  join  the  Ionian  League.  In  493  b.  c.  Anaxilas, 
conclusion  let  us  call  special  attention  to  the  laxge  tyrant  of  Hheeium,  also  a  Messenian  colony,  drove  tiie 
studies,  entitled  "  St.  Sebastian  ",  "  St.  Jerome  in  hjs  Samiana  from^anclc,  took  the  town,  and  called  it  Mes- 
Study^i  "The  Crucifixion".  "St.  Sebastian",  in  the  sana  (the  a  of  the  Doric  dialect,  wnich  becomes  if  in 
Museum  of  Dresden,  represents  a  beautiful  young  the  Ionic,  coming  later  to  be  pronounced  as  Eng- 
man,  almost  life-size,  naJced,  of  striking  figure,  and  lish  e).  In  426  the  city  was  retaken  by  the  lonians 
standing  out  against  a  backgroimd  of  a  landscape  under  the  Athenian  Laches,  who,  however,  lost  it  in 
brilliantly  illuminated.  In  accordance  with  the  Ve-  415;  an  attempt  of  another  Athenian,  Nicias,  to  re- 
netian  or  Paduan  taste  the  painter  has  added  a  cei^  cover  it  failed.  In  consequence  of  the  rivalry  of  tiie 
tain  number  of  secondary  motives,  the  better  to  set  Athenians  and  the  Carthaginians  for  the  possession  of 
off  the  leading  theme.  This  study  in  the  nude  is  Sicily,  Messina  was  pillaged  and  destroyed  by  the  Car- 
doubly  blocking,  since  it  is  out  of  place  in  a  devotional  thaginians  in  396,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Dionysius.  In 
picture,  and  is  nothing  but  a  pretext  for  displaying  312  the  town  was  taken  by  A^athocles,  and  at  his 
nis  knowledge  of  anatomy.  "St.  Jerome",  also  pre-  death  the  Campanian  mercenaries  of  his  army,  called 
served  in  the  National  Gallery,  is  a  carefully  executed  Mamertines,  took  possession  of  the  citv,  and  estab- 
picture,  pleasing  to  the  eye;  the  studio  is  vaulted,  the  lished  there  a  militarv  republic;  having  Deen  defeated 
window,  set  hien  up  in  the  wall  and  lighting  up  the  hy  Hiero  II  near  MyLe  (Milazzo)  in  269,  and  then  be- 
studio,  nas  all  the  charm  of  a  chapel  window.  On  the  sieged  in  the  town  itself,  a  part  of  them  sought  the  a^ 
side  may  be  seen  the  outlines  or  a  pleasant  cloister;  sistonce  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  a  part  tiiat  of  the 
another  opening  discloses  a  vista  of  a  distant  land-  Romans.  Ilie  Carthaginians  under  Hanno  were  the 
scape.  Tne  learned  Doctor,  seated  in  a  wooden  arm-  first  to  arrive,  but  in  264  the  consul,  Appius  Claudius 
chair  on  a  platform  slightly  elevated,  is  absorbed  in  (}audex,  took  the  city,  repelling  Carthaginians  and 
bhe  reading  of  a  book  Iving  open  on  a  desk  before  him;  Syracusans.  This  brought  about  the  Punic  Wars, 
in  the  foreground,  a  oeautiful  peacock  and  a  little  Other  events  of  the  pre-Christian  history  of  Messina 
bird.  In  '^The  Crucifixion"  of  the  Museum  of  Ant-  are  the  victory  of  Piso  over  the  slaves  in  133;  and  the 
werp,  we  are  struck  by  certain  realistic  touches  which  naval  victory  of  Agrippa  over  Pompev  in  36.  In  the 
Antonello  learned  from  the  Flemish  school.  Skulls  Gothic  wars  Messina  had  a  considerable  part;  while,  in 
are  scattered  along  the  ground;  the  two  thieves,  a.  d.  831,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs.  In  the 
fastened  not  to  crosses  but  to  trees,  are  writhing  in  Norman  conquest  of  Sicily,  Messina  was  naturally  the 
pain.  The  Italian  is  discernible  in  the  nobility  with  basis  of  operations.  In  1038  ihQ  Byzantine  general, 
which  Messina  invests  the  figures  of  Christ,  the  Blessed  George  Maniakes^  assisted  by  the  Normans,  capturea 
Virgin,  and  St.  John.  Antonello  has  been  praised  for  ^e  town,  but  it  was  lost  again,  on  the  recall  of  that 
"a  feeling,  oometimes  quite  correct,  for  large  .strongly  general.  In  1060  Count  Roger  made  his  first  expedi- 
lighted  landscapes '',  and  the  "  Crucifixion  witnesses  tion,  and  in  the  following  year  was  master  of  Messina, 
to  the  truth  of  this  criticism,  for  the  landscape  which  which  from  that  time  followed  ih'^  fortunes  of  the 
forms  the  setting  of  this  pathetic  scene  on  Calvary,  Kingdom  of  Naples.  There  was  a  serious  revolt 
in  spite  of  the  multiplicity  of  details,  preserves  a  against  Frederick  II  in  1232;  and  in  1282  Messina  also 
harmonious  unity.  had  its  "Vespers",  and  on  that  account  was  besie|;ed 

Vasari.  UViud^M  eccettenU  niuori,  ed.  Milani«.  H  \  ^ing  Charles  II,  who  TOS,  however,  cpmpeUe<rto 

(Floxwice.  1878),  663-89;  Eastlakk,  MaUrtaUfor  a  History  of  retreat,  and  left  Sicily  to  the  King  of  Aragon.     In 


MESSINA  (1907) 
lNd  cathedral  (xi  c 

ONT  AND   Pl'LPIT,   THE   CATHBDHAIi 


TTTT^     »if*Tt»     «fi^f-^«j» 


aOBSSDrOHAM  217  mSSINQHAM 

1676,  the  Measenians  rebelled  against  Spanish  domina-  chapter  elected  the  Basilian  archimandrite,  Leontios, 

tion,  and  were  assisted  by  a  French  fleet,  sent  by  Louis  and  he  not  being  acceptable  to  the  pope  or  to  the  kin^ 

XIV;  Viscount  Duquesne  obtained  a  naval  victory  the  friar,  Jacob  da  Santa  Lucia,  was  appointed  in  his 

over  the  Spaniards,  but  soon  a  royal  order  obliged  the  stead,  but  was  not  received ;  Cardinal  Pietro  Sv^lie 

French  to  leave  the  city.    Messina  had  a  part  in  the  (1510),  who  had  served  on  several  occasions  as  pon- 

wars  for  the  union  of  Italy:  it  was  bombarded  in  1848;  tifical  legate;  Cardinal  Innocenzo  Cibo  (1538) ;  Car- 

and  in  1860,  after  a  long  resistance  was  taken  by  Gari-  dinal  Gianandrea  de  Mercurio  (1550).  who  haa  a  con- 

baldi.  troversy  with  the  Greek  bishop,  Pamphilius,  the  latter 

The  city  has  often  been  a  prey  to  earthquakes,  the  claiming  jurisdiction  over  the  Greek  priests  of  the 

most  disastrous  of  which  were  those  of  1783  and  of  archdiocese;  Andrea  Mastrilli  (1618),  convoked  many 

1908;  the  latter,  on  28  December  of  that  year,  de-  synods,  and  rebuilt  the  episcopal  palace  and  the  sem- 

stroved  Messina  almost  entirely.    The  most  beautiful  inaiy ;  the  Dominican,  Tommaso  Moncada  (1743),  who 

of  the  palaces  and  of  the  churches  were  overthrown,  at  tne  same  time  was  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.    The 

amon^  them  the  cathedral,  a  structure  of  three  naves.  Archbishop  of  Messina  is  also  Archimandrite  of  San  Sal- 

contaming  six  great  colimms  of  Egyptian  marble  that  vatore;  this  convent  of  Greek  Monks  of  St.  Basil  was 

came  from  the  ruins  of  Cape  Faro  (the  ancient  Pelo-  founded  by  Count  Roger  in  1094,  and  its  archiman- 

rum  Promontorium) ;  the  chief  entrance  of  this  temple  drite  had  j  urisdiction  over  all  the  BasUian  monasteries 

was  a  jewel  of  Roman  art,  rich  in  little  columns,  fret-  of  the  kingdom,  of  which  there  were  forty-four,  as 

work,  spirals,  bas-reliefs,  and  statuettes;  the  marble  well  as  over  many  parishes.    In  1421,  the  archiman- 

Sulpit,  a  work  of  Gagini,  was  in  the  shape  of  a  chalice;  dritate  was  secularized  and  was  given  in  commendam 
le  tribune  was  adorned  with  mosaicsof  the  time  of  to  secular  prelates,  of  whom  Be^rion  was  one.  In 
Frederick  II;  and  the  walls  were  decorated  with  fres-  time  the  monastery  fell  into  decadence*  a  fortifica- 
coes  and  oil  paintings  of  great  masters.  The  residence  tion  was  erected  on  its  site  (1538),  and  the  monks 
of  the  canons,  and  the  sacristy  also,  had  paintings  b^  moved  to  the  church  of  La  Misericoidia.  Urban  VIII 
such  masters  as  Salvo  d'Antonio,  Quagliata,  Rodn-  made  the  archimandritate  and  its  territory  immedi- 
guez,  Catalano,  Alibrandi,  Fiammingo,  etc.  On  the  ately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  and  Leo  Xlll  in  1883 
cathedral  square,  before  the  facade  of  the  Franciscan  united  it  with  the  Archdiocese  of  Messina.  The  col- 
convent,  was  a  monumental  fountain,  the  work  of  legiate  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Graff eo.  called  the 
Gian  Angelo  da  Montorsoli  (1551).  The  most  beauti-  "Cattolica",  is  noteworthy  in  Messina :  the  so-called 
ful  church  of  Messina  is  that  of  the  Madonna  of  Mon-  Grseco-Latin  Rite  is  used  there,  its  characteristics  beins 
tevergine;  other  interesting  churches  are  those  of  San  a  combination  of  Latin  vestments,  unleavened  bread, 
Francesco  dei  Mercadanti;  the  church  and  monastery  etc.,  with  the  Greek  language:  on  solemn  occasions, 
of  San  Giorgio  with  pictures  by  Guercino  and  by  other  -  thlT EpIsffiT and'the  Gospel  are  read,  first  in  Latin  ana 
masters;  Santa  Maria  dell*  Alto  where  is  preserved  the  '^d'&iQr^k:;  In  pertain  functions,  the  canons  of  the 
only  known  picture  by  Cardillo  (about  1200i;  the  cathe4iilancLtih98e4)f  the"  Graff  eo"  officiate  together, 
church  of  San  Francesco  d'Assisi,  built  in  the  Qothio;. either! at  tb^latter; church  or  at  the  cathedral.  The 
style,  but  disfigured  in  1721 ;  lastly,  the  churches  of  cleigy  of  the  "  Graff^  "  have  at  their  head  a  protopope 
San  Nicold  and  of  San  Domenico,  the  latter  containing  whois  under  the  juHsdiction  of  the  archbishop.  For- 
the  mausoleum  of  the  family  of  Cicala  by  MontjprspR:  -.Toaejiritii^'Gaxi^k  R|te  was  in  use  in  other  churches  of 
and  a  fine  Ketil  in  marble.  The  episcopal  palac|^..M^i|U^^iQtEOfiuce<|^there probably 
spared  by  the  last  earthquake,  and  the  adidimiiK'  tineddmihaliori! '  jThe  archdiocese  and  the  Abbey  of 
seminary,  are  interesting  buildings:  likewise,  the  cit^  San  Salvatore'togefher  had  179  parishes,  with  250,000 
haU,  with  its  Fountain  of  Neptune  by  Montorsoli,  1BIa''TnTiaBita^  houses  of  men,  and  26  dt 
the  university  dating  from  1549,  which  had  a  most  women.  The  seminary  was  uninjured  by  the  earth- 
valuable  library  of  3000  editiones  jHndpea,  241  manu-  quake,  and  since  then  the  Jesuits  reopened  a  college, 
scripts,  and  10  parchments  with  miniature  paintings,  a  There  is  a  Catholic  journal  that  appears  three  times 
gallery  of  pictures,  and  a  collection  of  coins,  all  of  each  week.  Within  the  territory  of  the  archdiocese  is 
which  is  yet  buried  under  the  ruins.  The  hospital  of  the  proelatura  nullius  of  Santa  Lucia  del  Melo,  which 
Ia  Pieti  and  the  fortifications,  constructed  mostly  has  7  parishes,  with  nearly  15,000  inhabitants.  The 
under  Charles  V,  were  ornaments  of  the  city.  suffragan  sees  of  Messina  are  those  of  Lipari,  Nicosia, 

According  to  the  legend,  Christianity  was  brought  and  Patti. 
hither  by  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  and  there  is  still  pre-       CAPPELLEm.  Le  ChUwdC Italia,  XXI  (Venioe  1870),  55S-71: 

served  at  Messina  a  letter  attributed  to  the  Blessed  Morabito.  ,5me«  epi«»iion«m  m««^^  (Naples,  1669); 

Virgin,  which,  it  is  claimed,  was  written  by  her  to  the  S2?J;;5SSSJ^  ^  ^^^  ^"^  '  * 

Messemans  when  Our  Lady  beard  of  their  conversion  XJ.  BEsnoNi. 

by  St.  Paul.    St.  Bachirius  or  Baechilus  is  venerated 

as  the  first  Bishop  of  Messina.    There  is  record  of        Momdngham,  Thomas,  Irish  hagiologist.  b.  in  the 

several  bishops  of  Messene  in  the*fourth  and  fifth  cen*  Diocese  of  Meath,  and  studied  in  the  Irish  College, 

turies,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  it  be  Messina,  or  Paris,  proceeding  to  the  degree  of  S.T.D.   Among  the 

Messene  in  Greece,  to  which  reference  is  made;  Eucar-  Franciscan  MSS.  in  Dublin  is  an  interesting  tract  sent 

pus,  a  contemporary  of  Pope  Symmachus  (498^,  is  the  by  David  Rothe,  Vice -Primate  of  All  Ireland,  ad- 

nrst  Bishop  ot  Messina  of  known  date;  the   oishops  dressed  to  my ''  loving  friend  Mr.  Thomas  Messin^ham 

who  are  known  to  have  followed  him  were  Felix  at  his  chambers  in  Paris",  dated  1615.    It  is  evident 

(about  600),  Peregrinus  (649),  Benedict  (682),  Gau-  that  at  this  date  Messingham  was  one  of  the  staff  of 

diosus  (787),  and  Gregory  ^868) ;  the  latter  was  for  the  Irish  College  in  that  city,  and  was  commencing  his 

some  time  a  follower  of  Photius.    Nothing  is  known  of  studies  on  Irish  saints.    In  1620  he  published  Offices 

the  episcopal  see  during  the  time  of  the  Saracen  occu-  of  SS.  Patrick,  Brigid,  Columba,  and  other  Irish 

pation.    In  1090,  Roger  established  there,  as  bishop,  saints;  ^nd  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  rec- 

Robert,  .who   built  the  cathedral.    Under   Bishop  tor  of  the  Irish  College,  Paris,  in  succession  to  his 

Nicholas  (1166)  Messina  was  made  an  arohbishopric.  friend  and  diocesan,  Thomas  Dease,  who  was  pro 

Among  other  bishops  of  this  see  may  be  mentioned  moted  to  the  Bishopric  of  Meath,  on  5  May,  1621. 

the  Englishman,  Richard  Palmer  (1182);  Archbishop  Messingham  was  honoured  by  the  Holy  See,  and  was 

Lflndo,  often  an  intermediary  between  Gr^ory  IX  raised  to  the  dignity  of  prothonotar^  Apostolic,  and 

and  Frederick  II;  Francesco  r  on  tana  (1288),  expelled  acted  as  agent  for  many  of  the  Irish  bishops.   Though 

by  theMessenians;  Guidotto  dei  Tabiati  (1292),  whose  diligent  in  the  quest  for  materials  with  a  view  to  an 

mausoleum  was  one  of  the  works  of  art  of  the  cathe-  ecclesiastical  history  of  Ireland,  Messingham  proved  a 

drel;  Cardinal  AutQWC^rdwi  (1447);  ip  J473  the  most  ^W^  and  judicioys  rwU>r  gf  tb^  Iri^b  Ck>llege.  wkJ 


218 


aOBTAL-WOBX 


he  thoroughly  organized  the  oourae  of  studies  with  a 
view  of  sending  forth  capable  missionaries  to  work  in 
their  native  country.  Ue  got  the  coUe^  affiliated 
formally  to  the  University  of  Paris,  and,  m  1626,  got 
the  approbation  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  for  the 
rules  ne  had  drawn  up  for  the  government  of  the  Irish 
seminary.  ^  In  1624  hepublished,  at  Paris,  his  famous 
work  onlrish  saints,  ''Fiorilegium  Insulse&mctonun", 
containing  also  an  interesting  treatise  on  St.  Patrick's 
Purgatorv,  in  Lough  Derg.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Holy  See  to  the  Deanery  of  St. 
Patrick's  Cathedral^  Dublin,  in  succession  to  Henry 
Byrne,  but  this  position  was  merely  honorary,  inas- 
much as  all  the  temporalities  were  enjoyed  by  the 
Protestant  dean,  by  patent  from  the  Crown.  Mes- 
Bingham  had  a  lengtmr  correspondence  with  Father 
Luke  Wadding,  O.F.M.,  and  was  frequently  consulted 
by  the  Roman  authorities  in  the  matter  of  select- 
ing suitable  ecclesiastics  to  fill  the  vacant  Irish  sees. 
On  15  July,  1630,  he  wrote  to  Wadding  that  he  feared 
it  was  in  vain  to  hope  for  any  indulgences  in  religious 
disabilities  from  King  Charles  I.  Between  the  years 
1632  and  1638  he  laboured  for  the  IrieJi  Church  in  vari- 
ous capacities,  but  his  name  disappears  after  the  latter 
year^  whence  we  may  conclude  that  he  either  resigned 
or  died  in  1638. 

JouRDAZN,  Hitioirt  <2«  rUnivenUi  de  Parit  (Paiifl,  1860); 
BoTLB,  The  Iriah  College  in  Paris  (London.  1901);  Report 
Prancieoan  ManuacripU,  Hist,  MSS.  Com.  (Dublin,  1905). 

W.  H.  Gbattan-Flood. 


Ofl 


BSessmer,  Sebastian  Gbbard.  See  Milwaukee, 
Abchdiocesb  of. 

Metal-Work  in  tha  Service  of  the  Church. — 

From  the  earliest  days  the  Church  has  employed 
utensils  and  vessels  of  metal  in  its  liturRical  cere- 
monies. This  practice  increased  durine  uie  Middle 
Ages.  The  history  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Church 
in  the  Middle  Ages  is  in  fact  the  history  of  the  art  of 
metal-working  in  general,  and  this  not  only  because 
the  Church  was  the  foremost  patron  of  such  works  and 
because  ahnost  all  the  works  that  have  been  preserved 
from  the  Middle  Ages  are  ecclesiastical  in  character, 
but  also  because  until  the  twelfth  centurjr  the  works 
of  the  eoldsmith  were  also  almost  exclusively  manu- 
factured by  monks  and  clerics.  But  in  the  period  of 
Renaissance  also  the  manufacture  of  churcn  metal- 
work  formed  a  very  important  branch  of  the  gold- 
smith's art,  and  even  in  our  own  day  these  worl^  are 
ooimted  among  those  in  the  production  of  which  that 
art  can  be  most  profitably  developed ;  but  not  only  the 
goldsmith's  art,  that  is  the  artistic  treatment  of  the 
precious  metals,  had  its  growth  and  development  in 
the  service  of  the  Church,  the  base  metals  also,  es- 
peciallv  iron,  bronze,  and  brass,  have  been  largely 
utilizea.  As  we  are  dealing,  however,  with  the  histor- 
ical development  of  the  metal-work  in  the  service 
of  the  Church,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  more  partic- 
ulariy  to  works  in  the  precious  metals,  without  how- 
ever entirely  excluding  those  in  the  inferior  metals 
from  pur  consideration. 

Antiquity.  —  Beginning  with  antiquity,  we  must 
first  prove  that  the  Churcn  did  in  fact  make  use  of 
valuable  works  of  metal  in  the  most  ancient  times. 
Honorius  of  Autun  (d.  1145)  makes  the  remark  that 
the  Apostles  and  their  followers  had  employed  wooden 
chalices  in  the  celebration  of  the  holy  Mass,  but  that 
Pope  Zephyrinus  had  ordered  the  use  of  glass  and 
Pepe  Urban  I  of  silver  and  gold  vessels  (Gemma 
animae,  P.  L.,  CLXXII,  573).  This  opinion  seems  to 
have  been  widely  disseminated  during  the  Middle 
Ages;  it  is  nevertheless  untenable.  Recourse  to  chal- 
ices made  of  wood  or  some  other  cheap  material 
was  undoubtedly  often  made  necessary  in  antiquity 
as  the  result  of  a  lack  of  the  more  valuable  materials 
or  during  the  stormy  times  of  the  persecutions,  but 
this  pustom  cannot  have  been  (^era^*    V  ^^  earliest 


Christians  believed  in  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Eucharist,  and  of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  they 
assuredly  also  made  offering  of  their  most  precious 
vessels  in  order  that  the  Sacred  Mjrsteries  xnight  be 
worthily  celebrated. 

The  earliest  positive  notices  of  the  use  of  metal-work 
in  the  service  of  the  Church  date  from  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  It  is  especially  the  "Liber  pontifi- 
calis**,  which  is  now  accessible  in  the  critical  ^itions 
of  Duchesne  and  Mommsen  (see  Liber  Pontificaus), 
from  which  we  derive  the  most  interesting  information 
concerning  the  subject  under  discussion.  Here  we  first 
meet  with  the  statement  that  Pope  Urban  had  the 
sacred  vessels  made  of  silver,  whicn  does  not  by  any 
means  imply  that  before  that  time  they  were  all  made 
of  glass.  Of  greater  importance  are  the  accounts  of 
the  magnificent  donations  of  valuable  works  in  metal 
made  by  Emperor  Constantino  to  the  Roman  basili- 
cas. It  would  take  up  too  much  space  to  enimaerate 
them  all,  and  we  shall  content  ourselves  with  mention- 
ing a  few  examples.  To  the  Vatican  basilica  he  pre- 
sented seven  large  chalices  (scyphi)  of  the  purest  gold, 
each  of  which  weighed  ten  (Roman)  pounds;  further- 
more forty  smaller  chalices  of  pure  gold,  each  weigh- 
ing one  pound.  The  church  of  St.  Agnes  received  a 
chalice  of  solid  gold  weighing  ten  pounds,  five  silver 
chalices  of  ten  pounds  each,  and  two  silver  patens 
of  thirty  pounds  each.  The  metal  plates  for  the 
Eucharistic  bread  (patens)  are  often  mentioned  in 
connexion  with  the  chalices;  thus  the  Lateran  basil- 
ica received  seven  gold  and  sixteen  silver  patens 
of  thirty  pounds  each.  Though  not  to  the  same  ex- 
tent, the  other  churches  also  were  in  possession  of 
valuable  metal-work  for  the  lituigical  service.  The 
Church  of  Carthage,  according  to  the  testimcmy  of 
Optatus,  possessed  so  many  valuables  of  gold  and 
silver,  that  it  was  no  easy  matter  to  remove  or  hide 
them  at  the  time  of  the  persecutions  (Contra  Parmen., 
I,  xviii).  Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa,  was  accused  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  of  having  purioined  a 
valuable  chalice  set  with  precious  stones,  which  a 
pious  man  had  presented  to  the  church. 

As  to  the  various  kinds  of  metal-work  used  in  the 
Church,  the  **  Liber  pontificalis ''  mentions  the  follow- 
ing in  addition  to  cnalice  and  paten  as  in  use  in  the 
lifetime  of  Pope  Sylvester:  a  silver  bowl  of  ten  poimds, 
which  was  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  chrism  at 
baptisms  and  confirmations,  a  silver  baptismal  vessel 
of  twenty  pounds,  a  golden  lamb  weighing  thirty 
pounds,  which  was  set  up  in  the  baptistery  beside  the 
Lateran,  seven  silver  stags  that  spouted  water,  each 
of  which  weighed  eighty  pounds,  and  especially  nu- 
merous vessels  for  wine,  e.  g.,  in  the  Vatican  basilica 
two  specimens  of  the  purest  gold,  each  of  a  weight  of 
fifty  pounds.  Of  importance  to  us  also  is  the  state- 
ment that  beside* the  golden  lamb  just  mentioned 
there  stood  silver  statues,  five  feet  in  height,  of  the 
Redeemer  and  St.  John,  weighing  180  and  125  poimds 
respectively.  Furthennore  mention  must  be  ooiade 
of  the  metal  caskets,  crosses,  reliquaries,  and  book- 
covers,  which  were  likewise  made  either  entirely  or  in 
part  of  precious  metal.  With  this  enumeration  the 
number  of  metallic  utensils  employed  in  Christian 
antiquity  is  by  no  means  complete.  The  centre  of 
Christian  worship  is  the  sacrifice  and  the  altar;  for 
this  reason  it  was  early  made  of  valuable  material 
or  at  least  covered  with  it.  Metal  plates  were  furtiier^ 
more  iised  to  adorn  the  confession  (q.  v.)  and  the  im- 
mediate surroundings  of  the  altar.  Great  wealth  of  the 
precious  metals  was  spent  upon  the  superstructure  of 
the  altar,  or  ciborium,  which  was  decorated  wiUi metal 
statues,  with  chalices  and  votive  crowns.  When  Leo 
III  had  the  ciborium,  presented  by  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  restored,  he  employed  for  that  purpose 
2704^  pounds  of  silver.  A  large  amount  of  metal  was 
also  used  for  the  iconostasis,  a  screen  connecting  from 
t^9  tp  six  columns ;  thi|s  L^o  11^  |iad  the  jrgnost^js  O) 


MtTAL-WOU 


21S 


tbe  cburch  of  St.  Paul  re-covered  at  ao  expenditure  of 
H52  pounds  of  silver. 

A  large  amount  of  metal-work  is  also  required  for 
tbe  illumination  of  the  basilica.     Coaatantine  alon« 
presented  to  the   Lateran   church    174   separate  ar- 
ticles of  the  greatest  variety  intended  for  this  pur- 
pose.    It  is  suiScient  here  to  make  mention  niererv  of 
tbe  ehandelieis,  or  lustres  {corona),  the  candelabra, 
and  lamps;  tbey  were  made  of  bronze,  silver,  or  gold. 
Tbe  l^teraa  diurch  received  among  the  rest  a  chan- 
delier with  fifty  tamps  of  the  purest  gold,  weighing 
120  pounds,  and  a  candelabrum  of  the  same  mat«riai, 
with  eighty  lamps.     Even  the  vessels  for  storing  the 
oil   were  sometimes  made  of  precious  metal.     The 
Lateran  basilica  was  the  owner  of  three  such  vessek 
of  silver,  weighing  900  pounds.     Practically  nothing 
however  of  aH  these  treasures  has  come  down  to  us; 
only  a  few  smalt  chandeliers  of  bronie,  dating  from 
the  fifth  to  tbe  eighth  centuries,  have  be^  found,  most 
of  them  in  Egypt.     There  remains 
one  more  article  of  metal  that  was 
much   used  in  the   service  of  the 
Church  from  the  earliest  centuries, 
the  censer.    According  to  the  "  Liber 
pontificalis"  the  baptistery  of  St. 
John  at  the  Lateran  had  a  censer 
of   gold   weighing   fifteen  pounds, 
which  was  ornamented  with  green 
precious  stones.    If  we  take  account 
then  of  all  these  articles,  the  con- 
clusion naturally  follows  that  the 
use  of  articles  of  metal  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Church  had  attained  ex- 
traordinary proportions  in   Chris- 
tian antiquity. 

More  difficult  than  the  enumer- 
atioD  of  the  works  in  metal  is  the 
description  of  their  decoration  and 
the   technical   processes   employed 
in  their  manufacture,  because   on 
this  point  our  literary  sources  are 
almost  wholly  silent,  while  of  the 
old  Christian  works,  which  might 
enlighten  us,  but  very  few  are  ex- 
tant.    We  must  therefore,  in  this 
case  also,  confine  ourselves  partic- 
ularly  to   the  statements  of  the 
"  Liber  pontificalis  ",    Here  we  find 
nuroerouB     references     to    images 
(imaginee)  of  Christ,    the   Blessed   Prejmied 
Viigin,   the  An^ls,  and  Ai>08tles 
in   most  cases  it   is  impossible  to 
determine  whether  the  works  were  carved  or  cast,  cer- 
tain  it  is  that  both  methods  were  employed.     The 
statues  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  on  the  ciboriura 
presented  by  Constantine  to  the  Lateran  church  were 
undoubtedly  carved.    In  some  cases  the  core  of  the 
statue  was  of  wood  which  was  overlaid  or  covered 
with  silver  or  gold.     Painted  images  also  were  some- 
times decorated  with  reliefs  of  silver  or  gold.     Gregory 
HI.  tor  example,  employed  five  pounds  of  pure  gold 
ana  precious  stones  in  the  decoration  of  a  statue  ofthe 
Madonna  in  S.  Maria  Maggiore.      Precious  stones  in 
particular  were  a  favourite  form  of  decoration  for 
articles  made  of  metal;  golden  statues  were  at  times 
completely  covered  with  them.     When  Sixtus  I  pro- 
vided  the   confession   of  the  Vatican  basilica  with 
costlier  furnishings,  Valentinian  presented  a  tablet  in 
relief  with  the  images  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles, 
which  wBH  studded  with  precious  stones.     The  bap- 
tistery too  beside  the   Lateran  church   possessed  a 
censer  which  was  adorned  with  precious  atones.     The 
works  in  bronze  were  often  inlaid  with  silver  decora- 
-    tions.     Thus  the  chapels  of  St.  John  received  doors 
with  silver  ornamentation.     This  was  probably  a  kind 
of  nitUo  (of.  Ikaenberg,  "Niello",  Frankfort,  1908). 
To  obtain  colour  ^ecta  enamel  and  varoterit  doiton- 


ni«  were  likewise  employed;  of  these  a  more  detailed 
account  will  be  given  later.  We  shall  call  attention 
here  only  to  the  besl^known  specimen  that  has  been 


by  this  process  with  the  paschal  lamb  and  the  cross. 

Finally,  as  to  the  workshops  from  which  the  Church 
derived  its  metal-work,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
they  existed  in  all  the  lai^r  cities  of  the  civilised 
countries  of  ancient  Christendom ;  but  the  cities  of  the 
Eastern  Roman  Empire,  and  especially  Bysantium, 
seem  to  have  been  pre-eminent.  There  is  a  tendency 
even  at  the  present  day  to  consider  almost  all  of  the 
larger  works  that  have  oeen  preserved  as  products  of 
Eastern  art.  In  fact  a  large  number  of  works  in 
metal  were  brought  from  the  Orient  to  the  Western 
countries.  We  mention  here  only  a  reliquary  cross 
in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  a  present  of  the  Byzantine 
emperor  Justin  II  [cf.  Beissel,  "Verwendung  edler 
Hetalle  zum  Schmucke  riimischer 
Kirchen  vom  5-9.  Jahrh."  in 
Zeitschrift   fflr   christl.    Kunst", 


The  Tf 

Tudlo 
the  Ml 


begin  the  Middle  Ages  with  the 
Byzantine  metal-work,  in  order  to 
remove  at  tbe  outset  the  impression 
that  the  term  Byzantine  is  used  to 
express  a  definite  period  of  time;  it 
is  used  rather  to  denote  a  def- 
inite geographical  circle  of  art  and 
culture,  tnat  is  to  say,  Bysanlium 
with  its  immediate  and  more  dis- 
tant surroundings.  There  were 
two  factors  that  exerted  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  Byzantine 
work :  first,  the  almost  boundless 
extravagance  wbii^  prevailed  at 
the  imperial  Court,  and  which,  aa  a 
result  of  the  intimate  relations  ex- 
isting between  State  and  Church, 
made  itself  felt  also  in  the  tatter; 
second,  the  close  contact  with  the 
art  of  the  inland  provinces,  partio- 
ulariy  with  Persian  art.  The  Per- 
.  Bian,  or,  to  use  a  more  general 
term,  the  Oriental,  infiuence  gave 
rise  to  aa  extravagant  seeking  after 
Ciuuca  colour  effects  in  the  art  of  metal- 

snd  hi*  wlfs  lAiitinras  woriung  accompan  ied  by  a  sup- 
S'c^vS'lin^)  pressioB  of  the  mam  object,  namefy 
the  production  of  plastic  works. 
To  understand  the  latter  change,  we  must  briefly  ex- 
plain a  few  technical  terms. 

To  give  artistic  form  to  the  shapeless  mass  of  metal 
the  processes  employed  are  casting  and  hammering, 
or  cbiselling.  In  the  former  process  the  metal  ts 
brought  to  a  liquid  state  and  poured  into  a  hollow 
form,  which  has  previously  been  prepared  by  pressing 
a  solid  model  into  a  yielding  mass.  Although  easting 
must  be  regarded  as  the  original  mode  ol  treating 
metala,  nevertheless,  so  far  as  giving  artistic  form  to 
^Id  and  silver  is  concerned ,  hammering  was  of  greater 
importance.  By  means  of  hammeis  the  sheet  of 
metal  is  hollowed  out  and  in  this  way  given  plastic 
form.  Very  closely  connected  with  hammering  is  the 
art  of  engraving;  this  consists  in  directing  the  blow 
of  the  hammer  not  directly  upon  the  metalbut  trans- 
mitting it  by  means  of  amatl  steel  chisels.  It  is  these 
two  latter  processes  that  we  have  chiefly  in  mind  when 
we  speak  of  the  goldsmith's  art.  By  means  o[  these 
the  ancient  art  of  the  Occident  produced  its  most 
beautiful  works  in  metal.  A  different  state  of  affairs 
existed  in  the  Orient,  and  particularly  in  the  home  of 
the  Meaopotamio- Persian  and  Syrian  art,  where,  so 
to  say,  the  hand  bad  less  plastic  training  than  the  eye 
a  gift  for  colour.    The  glittering  gold  here  reoeived 


HBTAL-WOftK 


220 


ltfeTAL-W6ftK 


additional  decor&tion  by  meauB  of  coloui«d  eDamela.  of  the  yetx  1204  (cf.  KondakofT,  "G«sch.  und  Drak- 

This  preference  for  coloured  representation  instead  m&ler  dea  bytant.  Emails",  Frankfort  on  the  Main, 

of  the  plaatic  was  transniill^d  M  Byiantiura  alao.  Itj92). 

But  it  will  always  remain  to  the  credit  of  the  Byian-         B.— Though   the   manufacture   of   artistic   tnetal- 

tine  goldsmith's   art   that   it  produced   magnificent  work  for  the  Cliurch  was  accompanied  by  no  diffi- 

works  in  metal  for  the  service  of  the  Church.     The  culties   in   the   countries   of   the    older   civilitalion, 

Excess  employed  in  the  Orient  and  Byiuttium  is  conditions    were  much   more   unfavourable   among 

own  as  cloisonne  enamel  (imailcloitonni);  it  con-  the  barbarian  nations  which  embraced  Christianity, 

siata  in  soldering  very  thin  strips  of  gold  on  the  gold  Nevertheless  we  know  that  among  them  articles  of 

base-plate  so  as  to  form  cells  into  which  the  coloured  metal  were  much  used  in  the  service  of  the  Church 

enamel-paste  is  pressed  and  fused  in  place,  the  enamel  Gregory  of  Tours  in  one  place  speaks  of  sixly  chalices, 

combining  with  the  metal  during  fusion.  fifteen  patens,  twenty  encolpia  of  pure  gold,  which 

In  Byiantium  cloisonne  enamel  forced  the  art  of  King  Chiidebert  took  aa  booty  in  ihe  year  531   in  a 

hanuneringand chisellingintOB very aubordinatepou-  campaign   asainst  the  Visigoths   (Hist.   Francorum, 

tion;  enamel  was  used  to  decorate  secular  articles,  III,  x).     When  St,  Patrick  came  to  Ireland,  he  had 

Buch  as  bowls  and  swords,  but  especially  the  metal-  in  his  retinue,  among  othere,  three  workers  in  metal, 

work  of  the  Church.     The  ornamentation  consisted  namely  Mac  Cecht,  Laebhan,  and  Fortchem.    There 
partly  of  decorative  designs,  a 

partly  of   figurative    repre- 
sentations.     Among    the 


works  that  have  come  down    i 
to  us  there  are  many  of  a    I 
miniature-like  purity,  which    | 
in  spit«  of  their  small  siie 
are    truly  monumental    in    . 
conception.      Of   the   larger    | 
works    only    a   very   small    i 
number  have  been  preserved, 
the    most    famous   is   the    , 
Kolden   altar-front  (Pala 
d'oro)of  St.  Mark'sat  Venice. 


Then 


e  for    I 


the  most  part  relic-oasea 
which  were  suspended  from 
the  neck  or  placed  upon  the 
altar  (examples  at  Velletri 
and  Coaensa),  crosses  and 
book-covers  (a  munificent 
specimen  in  the  royal  jewel- 
room  at  Munich).  From  the 
period  in  which  this  art 
reached  its  highest  perfec- 
tion, the  tenth  and  elevenlJi 
centuries,  we  have  the  so- 
called  atauTolheca  (a  reli- 
auary  tablet)  in  the  cathe- 
rai  at  Limburg  on  the  Lohn, 
the  reliquary  of  Nicephorua 
Phocas  (963-960)  in  the  con- 
vent of  I^vra  (Athos),  and 
the  lower  band  of  the  so- 
called  crown  of  St.  Stephen 
in  the  crown-treasures  at 
Budapest  (1078-77).  The 
terrible  pillaging  of  the  capi- 


Spanibh-Ootric  KiNoa  (VII  Cut.] 
iisr— Now  preMrved  in  the  Miu«a 
da  Chjoy.  Pitui 


existence  fifty- 
three  small  bells,  tubular  and 
box-shaped,  which  belong  to 
this  Irish  art  of  metal-work- 
ing; among  the  Franks, 
Samt  Eligius  of  Noyon  (588- 
fl59),  a  goldsmith,  was  even 
consecrated  bishop. 

Here  the  interesting  ques- 
tion arises,  how  theae  "bar- 
barians "  succeeded  in  pro- 
ducing artistic  work  in  metal. 
The  works  themselves  that 
have  been  preserved  alone 
can  answer  t^is  question. 
There  are,  it  is  true,  but 
few  of  these;  the  most  im- 
portant to  be  considered  here 
are  a  chalice  and  a  paten, 
which  were  found  near  Gour- 
dfm  (Bureundy)  and  are  now 

Ceserved  in  the  National 
brary  of  Paris,  a  relic-rase, 
also  Burgundian,  in  St. 
Maurice  (Switzerland),  the 
famous  votive-crowns  of  the 
Viaigothic  kings  fttMn  Guar- 
ratar,  especially  those  of  Kec- 
cevinth  and  Svintila  (631), 
a  Gospel-cover  of  Queen 
Theodolinda  in  Monia,  a  rel- 
jquaiy  in  purse  form  fron;. 
Hereford  (now  in  Berlin),  a 
Gospel-cover  from  Lindau 
(now  in  the  collection  of  J. 
Pierpont  Morgan)  and  the 
Tassilo  chalice  in  Krems- 
manster(  Austria);  there  may 


tal  by  the  western  crusaders,  1204,  dealt  the  death-  turtherbeassignedtothisperiod,  becauaeof  theirstyle, 
blow  to  this  flourishing  art.  the  St.  Cuthbert  cross  in  the  cathedral  at  Durham, 
Although  the  examples  of  Bysantine  metal-work  the  chalice  of  Ardagh,  the  shrines  of  several  old  Iri.sh 
decoratedwith  enamel  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  bells,  and  a  number  of  crosiers  and  crosses  in  the 
specimensof  hammered  work  are  not  entirely  lacking,  collection  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin,  and 
In  the  first  place  we  may  mention  two  architectural  in  the  British  Museum,  London.  When  we  consider 
relic-cases  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  central  structure  that  these  works  extend  over  a  period  of  more  than 
surmounted  by  a  dome  (at  Aachen  and  Venice).  The  four  centuries  and  are  the  products  of  several  races  it 
reliquary  tablets  with  carved  reliefs  are  either  in  the  is  at  once  apparent  that  we  can  give  but  a.faint  inti- 
fonn  of  a  small  folding-altar  or  of  a  cross,  which  often  mation  of  the  character  and  decoration  of  the  metal- 
bears  the  portraits  of  tbe  emperor,  Constantine,  and  work  of  the  Chureh  among  barbarian  nations. 
his  mother  on  the  obverse,  and  on  the  reveise,  the  The  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  these 
crucifixion.  A  distinct  type  of  the  Greek  goldsmith's  works  is  almost  exclusively  gold,  while  their  artistic 
art  are  the  icons;  one  of  the  most  valuable  is  in  the  decoration  consists  for  the  moat  part  of  the  so-called 
Swenigorodskoi  collection  (St.  Petersbure).  A  rare  verroterie  doimnru'e.  a  glass  mosaic.  The  process 
specimen  with  excellent  chasing,  a  gildea  silver  pyx  employed  in  this  decoratitm  is  akin  to  that  of  cloi- 
with  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  is  in  the  cathedral  at  sonn^  enamel;  the  setting  of  the  semi-precious  stones 
Halberstadt  (eleventh  century).  At  only  one  place  in  or  paste  gems  is  done  in  one  of  two  ways:  they  are 
tbe  West  isitpossibleatthepreaentdaytoeetan  idea  either  ti^ded  between  thin  bands  of  metal  Ulce 
of  the  magnificence  and  costliness  of  the  Hysantine  eloisonn*  enamel,  or  act  in  openings  which  are  cut  into 
meial-work,  in  the  treasures  and  library  of  St.  Mark's  the  i;old  plate  itsvU.  At  times  the  gohl  plate  is 
at  Venice,  which  still  po«e«sei  a  portion  of  the  booty  completely  covered  with  the  stones.    Chaaed  oratr 


METAL-WORK.    XII-XVI  CENTURIES 


MITAL-WOftK                       221  MSTAt-WOftK 

mentation  on  the  other  hand  is  of  rarer  occurrence ;  it  of  Hildesheim,  which  through  the  activity  of  Bishop 

is  found  in  a  crude  fashion  on  the  Hereford  reliquary.  Bemward  became  the  centre  of  the  metal-worker  8 

That  nieUo  was  not  unknown  to  the '' barbarian ''  art  in  Northern  Germany;  the  folding-doors  of  the 

nations  is  proved  by  the  chalice  in  KremsmUnsteri  a  cathedral   with   crude   reliefs,   a  column,   which   is 

ftresent  of  Tassilo,  Duke  of  Bavaria  (about  780).  patterned  after  Trajan's  Column  in  Rome,  and  two 

n  Irish  art  filigree  also  found  a  very  delicate  develop-  candle-sticks    belons    to    this    period.     In    France 

ment;  one  of  the  most  valuable  examples,  one  that  scarcely  a  single  wo»:  of  any  jiize  has  been  preserved; 

displays  a  concentration  of  all  the  processes  with  in  Italy  several  bronze  doors,  for  instance,  those  of 

which  the  native  masters  were  conversant,  is  the  the  basilica  of  St.  Paul  at  Rome  (1070)  and  Monte 

dialice  of  Ardagh.  Gai^ano  (1070),  are  noteworthy,  because  they  were 

C. — llie  second  period  embraces  the  age  of  the  procured  from  Byzantium  and  show  the  influence  of 

Carlovingian  and  Othonian  emperors,  i.  e.,  in  round  the  Byzantine  art. 

numbers  a  period  of  200  years.  While  it  can  hardly  D. — ^The  golden  age  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Church 
be  said  that  this  period  added  anything  essentially  is  the  Romanesque  period  (1050-1250).  We  have  al- 
new  to  the  metal-work  of  the  previous  centuries,  it  is  read^,  it  is  true,  mentioned  above  several  works  be- 
nevertheless  true  that  it  gave  new  forms  and  a  further  longmg  to  this  age.  because  the  various  stvles  of  art 
development  to  many  of  the  articles  already  in  use.  often  overlap,  and  snarp  distinctions  can  be  arawn  only 
We  now  also  more  frequently  meet  with  works  cast  by  force.  Tne  characteristic  which  at  once  distin- 
in  bronxe,  whereas  in  the  so-called  ''style  of  the  euishes  the  metal-works  of  the  Romanesque  period 
period  of  migrations"  of  the  preceding  age  it  was  not  from  the  older  works,  is  their  large  size;  this  distinc- 
necessary  even  to  mention  them.  With  the  increase  tion  is  most  noticeable  in  the  reliquaries.  For,  while 
in  the  wealth  of  the  Church,  there  arose  also  the  the  receptacles  for  relics  had  up  to  that  time  been  uni- 
necessitv  for  an  increased  amount  of  valuable  metal-  formly  of  small  dimensions,  they  grew  in  the  Roman- 
work;  this  was  especially  the  case  in  the  large  mon-  esque  period  into  large  shrines,  K>r  the  transport  of 
asteries  which  counted  among  their  own  members  which  three  or  four  men  were  necessaiv.  several 
metal-workers  of  great  artistic  skill.  The  manufac-  new  varieties  of  metal-work  also  were  added  to  the 
ture  of  the  metal-work  for  the  Church  during  the  old,  especially  the  aquamanile,  i.  e.,  a  vessel  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  was  in  fact  so  largely  form  of  an  animal,  used  for  washmg  the  hands,  and 
in  liie  hands  of  the  monks  that  this  entire  period  lias  the  metal  structures  placed  upon  the  altar;  other 
been  designated  as  the  period  of  monastic  art.  While  articles  assumed  new  forms.  These  changes  are  in 
France  had  led  in  the  development  during  the  ninth  part  due  to  the  evolution  of  the  liturgy.  Almost  to 
century,  from  the  tenth  century  it  gradually  fell  be-  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  for  instance,  neither 
hind  Germanv.  One  of  the  causes  that  helped  to  cross  nor  candle-stick  was  permitted  upon  the  altar, 
bring  about  this  result  was  the  lively  interest  which  only  small  reliquary  caskets  being  tolerated ;  the  altar 
several  of  the  prominent  ecclesiastical  princes  took  itself  up  to  this  time  had  preserved  the  shape  of  a  table 
in  the  art  of  metal-working  as  developed  within  the  or  sarcophagus.  As  soon  as  these  regulations  were 
Church;  the  most  deserving  of  mention  in  this  con-  broken  and  candle-stick,  cross,  and  superfrontal  found 
nexion  is  Archbishop  Egbert  of  Trier  and  after  him  a  place  upon  the  altar,  this  change  necessarily  exerted 
Bishops  Meinwerk  of  JPaderbom  and  Bemward  of  a  strong  influence  upon  the  manufacture  and  decora- 
Hildesheim.    In  France  the  art  of  metal-working  tion  of  the  articles  mentioned. 

flourished  especially  in  Reims,  but  also  in  Corbie,  The  material  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
Tours,  and  Metz.  In  Germany  the  centres  of  the  metal-work  of  the  Church  also  experienced  a  change,  as 
goldsmith's  art  of  the  Church  were,  besides  Trier,  copper  took  the  place  of  gold.  Furthermore  the  cZoisonn^ 
eapecially  the  monasteries  at  Ratisbon,  Reichenau,  enamel  was  suppWted  by  the  c/tamp/ev^.  Th&champlevi 
E^n,  Hildedheim,  and  Helmershausen.  ^  enamel  differs  from  the  cloisonne  by  the  sniall  cells 
The  characteristic  feature  of  the  art  of  the  period  intended  to  receive  the  enamel  not  tieing  made  in  the 
of  migrations,  the  verroterie  cloieonn^ey  gradually  dis-  Byzantine  fashion  by  means  of  strips  of  flat  gold  wire 
appears  and  yields  precedence  to  the  Byzantine  soldered  to  the  gold  plate,  but  by  being  dug  out  of  the 
cloisonni  enamel  whicn  flourished  especially  at  Trier  plate  with  a  burin.  A  peculiarity  of  the  workshops 
and  Reidienau^  The  revival  of  the  plastic  tendency  of  Limoges  (France)  was  the  affixing  of  the  heads  of 
in  metal-working  was  of  greater  importance.  We  persons  or  even  of  the  entire  figure  in  high  relief. 
have  from  the  period  under  discussion  even  at  this  day  The  desim  in  the  figures  themselves  was  for  the  most 
several  altar-decorations  and  book-covers  with  figural  part  fiU^  out  with  coloured  enamel.  A  second  dif- 
repreeentations,  which  reveal  a  truly  amazing  skill  in  lerence  consists  in  the  more  frequent  occurrence  of 
metal-hammering;  such  is  the  valuable  antlpendium  plastic  ornamentations  in  silver.  Of  course  plastic 
of  Henry  II  from  Basle.  The  primitive  method  of  decorations,  as  we  have  alreadv  seen,  were  not  lackins 
covering  a  wooden  core  with  thin  sheets  of  metal  was  in  the  earlier  periods,  but  the  Romanesque  perioa 
also  stul  practiced.  A  madonna  in  the  collegiate  gave  a  mighty  impulse  to  this  branch  of  the  metal- 
church  at  Essen  (Rheinland)  and  an  image  of  St.  worker's  art  and  can  ^ow  many  extraordinary  pro- 
Fides  (Foy)  at  Conaues,  France,  are  the  two  best  ductions,  for  instance  on  the  shrine  of  the  Three  Kin^ 
known  examples  of  this  art.     In  Italy  the  most  im-  at  Cologne.     Lastly,  a  third  difference  is  apparent  m 

S>rtant  work  of  this  period  is  the  decoration  of  the  the  ornamentation,  in  that  secular  types  of  decoration 

gh  altar  in  the  church  of  St.  Ambrose  in  Milan,  are  now  more  and  more  used  on  articles  intended  for 

the  work  of  Wolvinus,  executed  under  Archbishop  the  Church.     On  a  reliquary  at  Siegburg  (near  Co- 

Angelbert  II  (824-66).     Prominent  examples  of  the  logne),  for  example,  apes,  deer,  dogs,  and  naked  men 

French  metal  work  are  the  portable  altar,  shaped  like  are  represented ;  the  well-known  fabulous  creatures 

a  ciborium,  and  the  binding  of  a  cop^  of  the  Gospels  in  of  the  Romanesque  art  also  win  a  place  for  themselves 

the  royal  jewel-room  at  Munich,  wnich  were  probably  in  the  art  of  metal-working. 

made  at  Reims  and  were  brought  to  Germany  as  early  The  evolution  in  style  may  be  briefly  characterized 
as  the  reign  of  King  Amulf  (a.  S99).  Germany  pos-  as  follows:  the  monastic  art  of  the  previous  period 
sesses,  as  evidence  of  a  more  advanced  art  of  metal-  with  its  Byzantine  tendencies' is  subdued  but  not  en- 
workings  four  crosses  in  the  collegiate  church  at  Essen,  tirely  supplanted  by  the  popular  tendency;  the  two 
which  reveal  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Byzantine  rather  enter  into  a  close  imion  which  we  designate  as 
ait.  Closely  connected  with  E^ssen  are  the  school  of  Romanesque  art.  Monuments  of  the  Romanesque 
the  monastery  at  Helmershausen,  where  the  monk  art  in  metals  still  exist  in  large  numbers;  but  these 
Rogerus  wrote  the  first  hand-book  of  the  industrial  are  almost  exclusively  works  of  ecclesiastical  orl- 
Mtfl.  ''Scheduladiversarumartium"^  and  the  school  gin.    This  is  due  not  merely  to  the  fact  that  the 


HXTAL-WOBK 


222 


MITAL-WOHX 


diUTchcs,  which  have  been  correctly  called  the  oldest  s&ints  and  relics  required  an  increase  of_  leliquariea. 

muBeums,  have  guarded  their  treasures  more  carefully  One  of  the  reaulta  of  this  was  that  these  were  no 

than  the  worldly  owners ;  it  is  rather  to  be  ascribed  to  longer  made  as  laive  and  costly  as  in  the  Romanesque 

the  fact  that  at  that  time  the  metal-work  for  secular  epoch.     Combinea  with  this  was  the  striving  for  con- 

purpOBeswaaapracticallynegligiblefactor.     Wemust  stanlly  new  forms  ot  reliquaries,  among  which  busts 

not  infer  from  this,  however,  that  in  the  RonmneBque  in  particular  now  became  verv  popul^.     The  early 

period,  as  in  the  preceding,  it  wa^i  monks  and  clerics  Gothic  altars  with  double  folds  or  wings  became  in 

who  were  the  principal  manufacturers  of  the  metal-  fact  small  galleries  of  busts  of  the  saints.     The  nuro- 

work  for  the  Church.     During  this  period  the  art  of  ber  of  cast  statues  of  the  saints  and  of  the  Blessed 

tnetAl-working,  as  well  as  the  plastic  arta  in  general.  Virgin  also  increases  very  considerably  from  the  four- 

gradually  paatied  into  the  hands  of  the  laity.    Anum-  teenth  century.    The  material  as  wellas  the  technique 

ber  of  Benedictine  monasteries,  it  is  true,  still  clung  and  decoration  of  the  works  of  the  goldsmith  again 

Uitheoldtraditions  of  the  order,  and  remained  centres  experience  a  chai^.     Copper,  which  has  beenabnoet 

of  artistic  pursuits.  a  necessity  for  the  bulky  Romanesque  reliquaries, 

By  far  Uie  largest  amount  of  ecclesiastical  metal-  now  gives  wa^  to  silver;  this  is  employed  especially 

orkof  the  Romanesque  period  is  to  be  found  inGei^  for  the  figures  m  reliefwhich  were  then  much  used,  and 


which  served  more  frequently 
thou  in  the  Romanesque  period 
as  statuettes  for  the  decoration 

Very   intimately   connected 
with  this  chan^  of   material 


many,  wheie  the  art  of  metal- 
working  created  magnificent 
works  in  the  districts  bordering 
on  the  Rhine  and  the  Mcuse. 
On  the  Rhine  the  Benedictine 
monks  Eilbert  (1130)  and 
Friedericus  (1180)  of  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  St.  Pan- 
taleon  produced  several  reli- 
quaries and  portable  altars, 
which  they  decorated  for  the 
most  part  with  enamel.  They 
were  far  surpassed  by  the  lay- 
men  Godefroi  de  Chire  and 
Nicholas  of  Verdun,  who  com- 
bined plastic  ornamentation 
and  enamelling  with  amasing 
perfection.  They  are  the  cre- 
ators of  the  two  moat  beautiful 
reliquaries  of  this  whole  period; 
Godefroi  wrought  the  shrine  of 
St.  Heribert  at  Deutt  (1185), 
and  Nicholas  the  shrine  of  the 
lliree  Kings  at  Cologne.  In 
France  likewise  the  art  of 
enamelling  was  lealousl^  culti- 
vated, especially  in  Lunches, 
where  small  articles  of  metal 
for  church  use  were  manufac- 
tured in  lai^  quantities  and 
exported  in  all  directions, 

lie  art  of  casting  also  can 
show  several  famous  names 
such  as  Reiner  of  Huy,  who  cost 
the  well-known  baptismal  font 
at  Li^ge,  and  Riquinus  of 
Hagdehurg  in  whose  work- 
shop the  gate  of  the  cathedral  „„„„  u.  ™.  nui  muw 

at  Novgorod  was  probably  h.™.™ u. ™.  muu™™,  mu™  structure     and    construction; 

manufactured  (IIM).  All  these  works  are  surpassed  the  same  difference  prevails  as  between  a  Roman- 
by  the  beautiful  baptismal  font  at  Hildesheim,  the  esque  and  a  Gothic  chureh.  The  ponderous  Ro- 
workofanunknownmoater.  Italy  has  almost  noth-  monesque  style  is  replaced  by  a  pleasing  lightness 
ing  to  show  from  this  period,  except  a  few  broDse  and  mobility  of  form.  However  in  the  art  of  metal- 
doors,  which  enlighten  us  as  to  the  position  of  cast-  working  as  in  the  other  arts  we  must  carefully  dis- 
ing  in  bronie;  such  are  the  doors  of  Barifano  of  tingui^  within  this  period  betwcen'the  early  Gothic 
Troni  in  Ravello  (1179)  and  Monreole  (11»9)  and  of  work  and  the  late  Gothic.  Only  the  eariy  Gothic 
Bonono  at  Pisa  (1180).  (Cf.  Falke  and  Frauberger,  work  may  be  described  as  possessing,  so  to  say,  on 
"Deutsche  Schmeliarbeiten",  Frankfort,  1904;  aristocratic  character,  a  certain  ideal  striving  aiter 
Neumann,  "Der  ReliquienschatE  des  Hauses  Braun-  the  sublime;  like  the  fairest  period  of  chivalry,  bow- 
BChweiR-Ltlneburg",  Vienna,  1891.)  ever,  this  striving  lasts  but  a  short  time;  it  soon  gives 

E.— ^e  Golhie  epoch  (1250-1500)  brought  numer-  way  to  the  homely  and  real  actuality.  The  late 
OUs  changes  and  new  requirements,  also  in  chureh  Gothic  metal-work  throughout  lacks  the  ideoJism  of 
metal  vessels.  In  this  period  the  feast  of  Corpus  the  early  Gothic.  This  likewise  is  connected  wiUi  the 
Christi  was  first  introduced  (1312).  and  thereby  a  new  cultural  development.  The  common  people,  who  had 
metid  vessel,  the  monstrance  or  ostensory,  made  grown  in  power,  took  pride,  as  the  nobility  had  done 
necessary.  For  this  purpose  a  vessel  was  employed  before,  in  securing  for  themselves  a  lasting  rnemorisJ 
like  those  which  up  to  that  time  bod  been  in  general  by  means  of  religious  foundations  and  presents  to 
use  tor  exhibiting  reUcs.  Another  vessel,  which  came  churches.  To  dedicate  magnificent,  artisticajly  ex- 
into  use  at  this  time  and  upon  whose  manufacture  ecutcd  works,  however,  their  means  were  in  many 
great  stress  was  laid,  is  the  "pax",  or  " osculatorium "  cases  insufhcient,  thus  giving  rise  to  many  works  in 
Xiiutrwnentam  pads).    The  growing  veneration  of    metal  of  poor  workmanship,  especially  chuioea,  mon- 


BMili«  of  St.  AmbroK.  Uilu 


was  an  alternation  in  the  mode 
of  ornamentation.  The  dumt- 
pUvf  enamel  had  lost  its  power 
of  attraction,  and  indeed  it 
could  not  very  well  be  used 
upon  the  thin  sheets  of  diver; 
translucent  enamel  therefore 
took  its  place ;  this  was  applied 
by  cutting  the  relief-like  repre- 
sentation in  the  silver  ground 
and  pouring  a  transparent 
enamel  over  the  relief,  ao  that 
the  different  parts  according 
as  they  are  higher  or  lower 
produce  the  effect  of  li^t  and 
shade  in  their  various  grada- 
tions. Siena  has  long  been 
regarded  as  the  starting-point 
of  this  new  mode  of  oroamen- 
tation,  because  a  chalice  in 
Assisi  made  by  the  Sienese 
Guoeio  Monaja  about  1290  is 
the  oldest  example  of  this 
proce«.  From  Italy  it  early 
spread  to  Getmany,  where  it 
flourished  especially  on  the 
Upper  Rhine,  and  to  France. 

The  features  of  the  religious 
metal-work  of  this  age  that 
more  than  any  other  distin- 
guish   it    from    the    earlier 


mTAL-WOBK  223  IBTAL-WOBK 

es,  and  reliquaries.    So  f ar  aa  lightness  of  the  tions  in  relief  and  Architectural  ornaments,  next  the 

lire  in  particular  is  concerned,  this  peouliarity  is  seven-armed   mndelabra,   door-knobs,   water-vessels 

uain  best  leeognized  in  the  reliquary  and  also  in  (aquamaiale),  lecterns,  especially  the  beautiful  eagle- 

tne monstrance.     VeryfrequentlysincetheFaurt«enth  lectems.     In  Germany  tbe  names  of  many  of  the 

century  the  foim  chosen  is  that  of  two  angels  kneeling  masters  have  been  handed  down;  in  Wittenberg,  Wil- 

upmi  a  base-plate  and  supporting  the  reliquary,  some-  kin  (1342),  in  Elbing,  Bemhuser,  and  in  Lubeck  and 

tunes  holding  it  in  a  horisontal  position  as  a  casket,  Kiel,   Hans  Apengeter.     Lastly  mention  should  be 

sometimes  vertically  as  a  tower.     In  Germany  there  made  of  the  bells  which  were  also  cost  in  bronie. 

are  two  excellent  examples  of  this  inverted  position.  While  Germany  distinguished  itself  by  its  religious 

two  reliquaries  in  the  cathedral  treasures  of  Aachen,  works  cast  in  bronze,  it  was  surpassed  by  France  in 

which  are  constructed  in  the  form  of  chapels  with  another  branch  of  the  metal-worker's  art.     Here  in 

towera  abounding  in  open~work,  and  are  Dome  by  the  beginnins  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  art  of  the 

saints.     Reliquanes  in  genera!  assumed  the  form  of  smith  passed  through  its  first  period  of  full  vigour. 

churcheeinnuniature;  gabled  hood-mouldings,  pinna-  Atthat  time,  thanks  to  the  highly  developed  technical 

cles,  finials,  crockets,  rampant  arches  and  buttresses,  processes,  France  produced  metal-work  for  the  doors 

mshortthewhole  architecturalscaffoldingof  theeoriv  of  churches  such  as  has  never  been  produced  since. 

Gothic  cathedral  are  found  in  the  shrines,  oF  whicn  Gennany,  England,  and  the  Netherlands  felt  the  fa- 

the  inoet  important  ia  the  rcliquoryof  St.  Gertrude  in  vourable  influence  of  the  French  art,  which  produced 

Nivellea,  the  work  of  Nicholas  in  Douai  and  Jacque-  its    magnificent   works 

moD  de  Nivelles  (1295).     The  same  is  true  of  the  on  the  cathedrals  at 

remaining  works  in  metal.  Rouen,    Sens,    Noyon, 

The  orotitectural  ornaments  forced  themselves  also  and  especially  on  the 
upon  articles  on  which  we  would  not  expect  them;  cathedral  at  Paris.  Here 
thus  the  knob  (nodus)  of  the  chalice  often  became  a  every  wing  of  the  fold- 
small  chapel  with  monv  sharp  comers  and  edges,  ing  doors  has  three  iron 
making  the  handling  of  the  chalice  more  difficult,  bands,  that  serve  also 
Likewise,  the  popular  plastic  figures  were  placed  upon  as  hinges,  divided  into 
articles  of  use  that  require  a  heavy  formation,  such  a  thousand  branches 
as  book-covers.  A  beautiful  silver  book-cover  from  and  decorated  witii  birds 
the  Benedictine  convent  of  St.  Blasien  in  the  Black  of  every  kind  and  fan- 
Foi«at  is  studded  in  this  way  with  numerous  figures  tsstic  creatures.  In 
of saints;theyarefoundeveQuponthesmalIerartic]e3  addition  to  the  metal- 
of  use,  OB  upon  a  cloak-clasp  in  the  cathedral  of  work  of  the  doors  the 
Ancben.  The  manufacture  of  the  religious  works  is  blacksmith  furnished 
taken  more  and  more  out  of  the  hands  of  the  monks  the  Chureh  with  artis- 
and  clerics,  who  now  fumish  only  the  ideas,  and  tic  chandeliers,  railings, 
gradi^ly  passes  altogether  into  the  hands  of  the  lay  pedestals  for  the  E^aster 
goldsmiths.  By  this  statement  of  course  we  do  not  candle,  lamps,  and  leo- 
wisb  to  imply  that  there  were  not  individual  artists  tems.  The  first  place 
still  active  m  the  convents,  for  that  remains  true  even  in  the  manufacture  of 
to  the  present  day,  but  tor  the  development  of  on  en-  artistic  railings  un- 
tire  period  they  are  of  no  moment.  doubtcdly    belongs    to 

Among  the  few  works  of  France,  that  have  been  Italy,  where  the    high 

preserved,  the  so-called  "golden  hoise  of  Altotting"  perfection  attained   by 

attained  great  fame;  it  is  a  naif-worldly,  half-religious  the   art   of  the  Italian 

ornament  representing  the  veneration  of  the  Madimna  blacksmiths    may  beat 

by  King  Chaiies  VI,  whose  horse  in  the  lower  part  be  seen  in  Florence  (Sa 

of  thepietureisheld  by  asquire  (1404).     InGermany-  Croce),  Verona,  and 

we  can  find  no  evidence  of  such  exactly  defined  schoou  Siena. 
c^art  a.1  in  the  Romanesque  age;  the  works  still  in  ex-         III.  Renaissance. — 

islence  are  exceedingly  numerous,  especially  bustfl  of  While  the  religious  ReuauiaT  or  9t.  Euuans  oi 

saints  and  chalices.     In  contrast  with  the  preceding  metal-work  m   the  Hoko*bi 

epochs  Italy  now  took  a  pronounced  lead  m  the  execu-  Gothic    stylo    had    in-  (xiii^t) 

tioo  of  artistic  metal-work  for  the  Church;  the  Italian  creased    inquantity 

works  are  compact,  they  favour  a  strong  substructure,  often  at  the  expen  e  of  quahty,  a  decided  retrogression 

which  permits  the  amplication  of  the  favourite  translu-  in  respect  to  C|uantity  is  noticeable  during  the  Renais- 

cent  enamel ;  there  is  evident  also  a  tendency  to  ex-  sance.     This  is  especially  true  of  Germany.     The  dis- 

cessive  ornamentation,  whereby  the  fixed  forms  are  tressing  religious  agitations,  the  defection  of  many 

almost  sufFocat«d.     Anaong  the  schools  of  Itatv  Sieiu  of  the  ^ithfm  from  the  old  religion  and  the  increasing 

was  at  first  pre-eminent:  from  this  city  the  goldsmith  indifference  to  religious  faith  bad  the  effect  of  le- 

Boninsegna  was  called  to  Venice  in  1345  to  nukke  re-  due  ing  the  production  of  articles  for  chureh  use  to  very 

pairs  there  to  the  Pala  d'Oro  of  St.  Mark's.     Sienese  -.nail  proportions.     In  Italy,  it  is  true,  we  know  tile 

masters  also  b^on  in   1287  the  silver  altar  in  the  names  of  numerous  artist  goldsmiths — there  are  about 

cathedral  at  Fistoia,  which  was  finally  comiileted  in  1000  of  them — but  there  also  tbe  number  of  religious 

1399  by  Florentine  goldsmiths  and  is  tne  largest  piece  works  of  the  Renoissanoe  is  very  small.     At  the  head 

(rf  work  of  this  kind.     The  masterpiece  of  the  Floren-  of  the  new  movement  in  metal-work  for  the  Chureh 

tine  school,  the  silver  altar  of  the  Daptistery,  was  be-  we  find  the  most  distinguished  sculptors,  in  fact  the 

Kun  in  1366  by  Leonardo  di  Ser  Giovanna  and  Berto  leading;  masters  of  the  Renaissance  preferred  to  exe- 

di  Geri;  this  too  was  not  completed  until  one  hundred  cute  their  work  in  metal  (bronie);  we  need  mention 

years  later,  when  the  Renaissance  had  already  fully  here  onlv  the  names  of  Ghiberti  and  Donatello,  the 

entered  into  Italian  art.  Former  the  creator  of  the  famous  bronie  doors  of  the 

Bronie  casting  also  continued  to  produce  numerous  baptistery  at  Florence,  the  latter  the  maker  of  the  hieh 

works  for  the  service  of  the  Church.     North  Gennany  altar  in  bronse  in  II  Santo  at  Padua;  as  these  worls 

and  the  Netherlands  (Dinant)  were  most  prominently  however  belong  to  the  domain  of  sciilpture  we  must 

active  in  this  field.     Here  we  must  mention  first  of  all  leave  them  out  of  consideration  here, 
the  numerous  baptismal  fonts  of  bronse,  which  are         The  changes  in  style  follow  the  course  of  the  general 

decorated  on  their  outer  sheathing  with  represento-  evolution  in  tut-    The  verti^l  forms  of  the  Gothic 


METAL-WOBX  224  MBTAL-WOBX 

style  give  way  to  the  horizontal  tendency,  the  forms  Renaiasanoe  works  in  Germany,  a  silver  altar  in  the 
become  more  vigorous  and  compact,  the  vessels  ao-  Reichen  Kapelle  at  Munich ;  here  we  find  nude  putti, 
quire  a  more  flexible  silhouette.  However,  the  early  flowers  growing  out  of  acanthus  calyces,  frieaes,  and 
Kenaissanoe  left  the  forms  of  the  commonest  vessels,  ^mels  which  breathe  wholly  the  spirit  of  the  Italian 
the  chalices  and  crosses,  almost  untouched,  inasmuch  Kenaissance.  A  goldsmith  of  Nurembuis,  Melcfaior 
as  the  tradition  of  a  thousand  years  made  them  appear  Bayo,  in  1 538,  by  order  of  King  Sujsmund  lof  Poland, 
sacred ;  we  have  numerous  chalices  of  the  Renaissance,  made  an  altar  of  chased  silver  wmch  is  in  the  chapel 
the  base  of  which  shows  the  Moorish  and  Gothic  foils  of  the  Jagellons  in  the  cathedral  at  Krakow.  Besides 
and  the  knob,  the  Gothic  rotull.  Not  until  the  late  these  there  are  no  religious  works  of  any  importance 
Renaiasance  were  the  circular  forms  and  volutes  gen-  from  this  period.  As  is  proved  by  the  **  Book,  of  Holy 
erally  employed.  In  other  respects  the  customary  Objects  "  of  Cardinal  Albrecht  of  Mayence,  a  few  prel- 
Renaissance  ornaments,  which  are  by  no  means  the  ates  indeed  were  intent  on  increasing  tibe  treasures  of 
least  charm  of  this  style,  are  employed  in  ecclesias-  their  churches  in  the  new  style,  but  as  a  rule  the  exi- 
tical  and  worldly  articles  indifferently.  Putti,  herm»,  gencies  of  the  times  did  not  permit  the  manufacture 
caryatides,  garlands,  grotesques,  acanthus  leaves,  of  Larger  works  in  metal.  So  far  as  the  smaller 
furthermore  the  elements  taken  from  architecture,  utensils  are  concerned,  these,  even  as  late  as  the  mid- 
such  as  columns,  pillars,  capitals,  entablatures,  balus-  die  of  the  sixteenth  century,  still  show  Gothic  forms, 
^ers  form  an  inexnaustible  source  of  constant  chan^.  as,  for  instance,  a  chalice  of  the  well-known  Gebhard 

Silver  during  the  Renaissance  no  longer  maintams  von  Mansfeld,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  in  the  "grunen 
the  position  it  won  for  itself  during  the  Gothic  period.  Gewolbe  "  at  Dresden  (about  1560) .  All  the  works  of 
Several  distinguished  religious  works  in  silver  have  this  period  are  surpassed  by  the  productions  which 
been  preserved,  but  thev  are  far  surpassed  both  the  goldsmith  Anton  Eisenhoit  made  about,  the  year 
numerically  and  artisticallv  b^  the  worxs  in  bronze;  1590  for  Theodor  am  FQrstenberg,  Prince-I^ishop  of 
the  latter  are  often  covered  with  silver  or  sold.  The  Paderbom;  these  are  a  chidice,  crucifix,  book-cover, 
artistic  ornamentation  of  both  ecclesiastical  and  secu-  and  a  vessel  for  holy  water.  The  articles  are  most 
lar  metal-work  consists  especially  of  delicately  exe-  exquisitely  ornamented  with  noble  Renaissance  forms 
cuted  representations  in  relief,  which  at  first  appear  in  done  in  flat  chasing.  Tlie  most  beautiful  works  of  the 
moderation  at  the  more  important  points,  but  later  pre-  Renaissance  in  Southern  Germany,  reliquaries,  chal- 
sumptuously  cover  the  entire  surface.  At  the  same  ices,  monstrances,  etc.,  are  in  the  Keichen  Kapelle  at 
time  enamel  is  very  frequently  employed,  sometimes  Munich.  France,  like  Italy,  has  a  large  amount  of 
the  previously  mentioned  translucent  enamel,  which  documentary  eviaence  of  tne  manufacture  of  metal- 
completely  covers  the  portions  in  relief  with  a  coloured  work  for  the  Church,  but  the  endless  wars  of  Louis 
surface,  sometimes  also  the  Venetian  enamel,  which  XIV  and  the  Revolution  consigned  them  almost 
flourished  from  about  1500-1550.  It  was  used  to  without  exception  to  the  meltine-pot.  A  chalice  in 
coat  jugs  and  bowls,  candle-sticks,  candelabra,  and  the  church  of  St-Jean  du  Doigt  (about  1540),  which 
ciboria.  Another  favourite  form  of  decoration  con-  has  a  stout  knob  transformed  into  a  chapel,  and  the 
sisted  in  the  combination  of  metals  and  crystals;  cup  and  base  beine  covered  with  clumsy  tendrils,  is 
this  type  of  decoration  occurs  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  only  work  whicn  we  are  able  to  name  here, 
but  was  more  systematically  and  artistically  carried  Besiaes  the  works  of  the  goldsmith's  art,  the  pro- 
out  in  the  Renaissance.  Tne  art  of  gem-engraving  ductions  in  base  metal  must  not  remain  entirely  im- 
likewise  was  again  practiced  after  ancient  models  upon  noticed.  These  came  not  rarely  from  the  workshops 
cameos  and  gems.  The  ecclesiastical  works  of  the  of  the  goldsmiths.  The  most  important  founderies 
Renaissance  therefore  often  represent  an  enormous  were  in  Florence  and  Padua.  It  is  not  always  easy 
value.  We  need  mention  here  only  the  value  of  a  few  to  distinguish  between  the  works  of  sculpture  and 
papal  tiaras.  A  tiara,  which  Sixtus  IV  had  made  by  those  of  the  industrial  arts.  Certainly  a  large  nimiber 
the  Venetian  goldsmith  Bartolomeo  di  Tomaso,  was  of  magnificent  bronze  railings  belong  to  the  latter — 
valued  at  110,000  ducats.  Julius  II  confided  to  the  the  most  beautiful  is  in  the  cathedral  at  Prato,  the 
Milanese  jeweller  Caradossa  the  making  of  a  tiara  work  of  Bruno  di  Ser  Lapo  Mazzei  (1444) — as  do  also 
valued  at  200,000  ducats  (nearly  200,000  dollars),  the  candelabra,  which,  because  of  their  el^ance  of 
Hardly  any  works  of  really  marked  importance,  if  we  form  and  delicate  ornamentation,  are  very  effective, 
exceptthepreviouslymentionedaltarsin  Florence  and  The  best  known  specimen  is  the  excessively  oma- 
Pistoia,  the  completion  of  which  falls  in  this  period,  mented  candelabrum  in  II  Santo  at  Padua,  the  master- 
have  been  preserved  from  the  Renaissance.  We  may  piece  of  Riccio  (1516).  From  bronze  there  were  also 
again  mention  a  few  reliquaries  at  Siena,  which  re-  manufactured  for  the  service  of  the  Church  Sanctus 
veal  a  pronounced  change  compared  with  the  monu-  bells,  candlesticks,  vessels  for  holy  water,  hanging 
mental  shrines  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods,  lamps,  about  the  details  of  which  we  need  not  here 
They  are  silver  caskets  with  sides  in  openwork,  per-  concern  ourselves.  We  merely  add  that  the  works 
mitting  a  view  of  the  relics.  The  use  of  crystals  is  ex-  in  iron  are  confined  more  particularly  to  the  railings 
emplified  in  a  beautiful  pax  from  Monte  Cassino  (now  in  the  side-diapels  of  the  lai^ger  churdies;  they  are  of 
n  Berlin).  no  interest,  however,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 

Elsewhere  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance  upon  history  of  art. 
church  metal -work  was  early  apparent.  In  the  The  last  periods  of  church  metal-work  can  be  con- 
beginning  only  the  non-essentials  were  borrowed  cisely  described.  Like  the  whole  of  the  baroque  art, 
from  the  Italian  Renaissance;  it  was  the  ornament  the  metal-work  of  the  Church  of  this  epoch,  when 
that  was  copied;  the  fundamental  forms  long  re-  compared  with  the  delicately  balanced  regularity 
mained  Gothic.  To  the  above-mentioned  types  the  of  the  Renaissance,  also  shows  a  certaio  clumsiness 
Germans  added  especially  the  scroll-work,  which  and  unrest,  which  in  the  rococo  develops  onesidedly 
was  by  preference  combined  with  the  Moresque  and  into  absolute  irregularity,  to  be  changed  in  the  Clas- 
then  served  as  a  pattern  for  the  surface;  it  is  not  un-  sicism  which  followed,  into  the  exact  opposite,  a 
known  in  Italy,  but  In  Germany  it  held  almost  pedantic,  inflexible  rigidity.  These  peculiarities  of  the 
undisputed  sway  for  about  thirty  or  forty  years.  In  new  styles  do  not,  of  course,  find  expression  in  the 
Germany  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen-  goldsmith's  art  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  plastic 
turies  the  cities  of  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg  gained  arts.  Nevertheless  this  evolution  is  not  wholly  lack- 
extraordinary  fame  by  the  manufacture  of  artistic  ing  even  in  the  smaller  church  utensils:  it  may,  for 
metal-work ;  their  products  were  eagerly  sought  after  instance,  be  clearly  observed  in  the  chalice,  which 
throughout  the  entire  world.    The  Augsburg  gold-  in  the  baroque  style  is  overloaded  with  broad,  clumsy 

eisitbi  GeoiKe  Seld,  m  149?  fumi^b^  i^m  <4  w^  ^rst  orn^ment^ ;  in  \h^  iwwi^  the  forms  became  more  i^^ 


MBTAFHBA8T18 


225 


MBTAPHRA8T18 


cate,  all  the  parts  assumed  wavy  lines,  false  and  gen- 
uine gems  and  porcelain  paintings  formed  the  decora- 
tion; Classicism  discardea  these  baubles  and  produced 
chalices  of  the  severest  forms  and  with  straight  lines. 

In  France,  which  during  this  epoch  set  the  fashion 
in  Europe,  the  Court  and  a  number  of  prominent  in- 
dividuaiB  devoted  enormous  sums  to  provide  valuable 
church  furniture,  at  times  in  such  a  way  that  true 
art  was  lost  in  splendid  display.  In  a  completely 
equipped  "chapel",  which  Carainal  Richelieu  pre- 
sented to  the  crown  in  1636,  there  was  a  cross,  or- 
namented with  2516  diamonds  of  various '  kinds,  a 
chalice  and  a  paten  with  2113  diamonds,  a  madonna 
with  1253  diamonds;  altogether  9000  diamonds  and 
224  rubies  were  employea  in  furnishing  the  chapeL 
The  Sainte-Chapelle  at  Paris  was  presented  by  the 
"Chambres  de  comptes"  with  a  reliquary  one  metre 
in  length,  for  which  they  paid  13,060  livrea.  New 
metal-work  was  at  that  time  produced  in  larger  quan- 
tities in  Germany,  which  in  this  art  especially  main- 
tained its  pre-eminence.  Indeed  it  is  the  time  of 
the  so-called  Counter-Reformation,  which  in  Southern 
Germany  and  Austria  beheld  the  erection  of  so  many 
magnificent  churches.  The  new  houses  of  God,  how- 
ever, required  new  metal  furniture.  To  the  present 
day  the  treasure-rooms  of  many  a  cathedral — ^and 
convent— church  are  filled  with  the  crosses,  candle- 
sticks, and  antipendia  that  were  made  at  that  time; 
they  are  remarkable,  however,  for  their  sise  rather 
than  their  artistic  qualities;  the  material  is  mostly 
silver.  But  works  of  art  of  great  excellence  are  not 
entirely  lacking.  The  Abbey  of  St.  Blasien  formerly 
owned  an  antipendium  portraving  the  passage  of  the 
imperial  armv  throu^  the  Black  Forest  in  the  year 
1678,  a  most  beautiful  piece  of  work  (now  in  Vienna). 
Other  examples  of  the  s€^  emploved  in  the  manu- 
facture of  precious  metal-work  are  tne  reliquary  shrine 
of  St.  £kigelbert  in  Cologne,  dating  from  1633,  which 
shows  the  saint  lying  prostrate  on  the  cover,  and 
statues  of  bishops  on  tne  sides,  but  otherwise  only 
architectural  forms;  also  the  shrine  of  St.  Fridolin  at 
8fi4;kingen  (Baden),  characterised  by  the  complete 
mobility  of  its  lines;  and  furthermore  the  valuable 
monstrance  in  Klostemeuburg  near  Vienna,  which  is 
in  the  form  of  an  elder-tree  (1720). 

Probably  at  no  time  was  so  little  money  expended 
upon  religious  furniture  as  during  the  period  of  Classi- 
cism :  it  is  the  age  of  barren  Rationafism,  which  was 
practically  devastating  in  its  effect  upon  the  liturgy 
and  religious  life.  To  devote  large  sums  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  precious  furniture  was  not  in  consonance 
with  the  spirit  of  this  age.  For  this  reason  candle- 
sticks and  even  monstrances  were  not  infrequently 
made  of  tin  or  wood,  but  to  preserve  appearances, 
often  coated  with  silver  or  gola.  We  do  not  desire, 
however,  to  leave  this  period  with  this  doomv  picture. 
In  the  baroque  period  the  art'  of  tne  blacksmith 
reached  its  secona  climax  in  Germany  and  France. 
Under  the  hammer  of  the  smith  the  inert  mass  began 
to  sprout  and  blossom.  The  superb  choir-railines, 
lanterns,  candle-stands,  and  chandeliers  show  to  the 
present  day  that  the  art  of  the  blacksmith  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Church  was  at  that  time  spurred  on  to  the 
highest  endeavours.  The  revival  of  the  styles  of  the 
Middle  Ages  during  the  nineteenth  century  proved 
beneficial  to  the  religious  metal-work  also.  At  the 
present  day  candlesticks,  chalices,  monstrances  are 
manufactured,  which  in  costliness  and  purity  of  style 
are  not  inferior  to  the  best  works  of  ancient  art. 
Moreover  the  tendency  toward  the  creation  of  a  new 
style  is  noticeable  also  in  the  art  of  metal-working 
Whether  this  is  to  be  crowned  with  lasting  success,  is 
a  question  for  the  future  to  decide. 

Mouiasa,  L*orffnrene  rdiaieute  d  eivtia  (Paris);  hOwsR  and 
Cmmm,  <h»ehid»te  der  MeUOkuntl  (Stuttgart.  1904  and  1009); 
LEMWrmr.  lUtutrurte  OudtiehU  de$  Kunttgewerhen  (Berlin,  1909). 

Beda  Kleinschmidt. 
X.— 15 


Metaphraates,  Symson  (Zv/iec^y  6  ixera^pdUrnrt)  the 

1>rincipal  compiler  of  the  legends  of  saints  in  the  Meno- 
ogia  of  the  Byzantine  Church.  Through  the  impor- 
tance of  this  collection  his  name  has  become  one  of  the 
most  famous  among  those  of  medieval  Greek  writers. 
The  epithet  Metaphrastes  may  be  rendered  Compiler; 
it  is  given  to  him  from  the  usual  name  for  sucn  ar- 
rangements of  saints'  lives  {tuTd^paait,  compilation). 
Little  is  known  for  certain  about  his  life.  His  period  is 
the  latter  half  of  the  tenth  century.  In  one  ot  his  leg- 
ends (the  Life  of  St.  Samson)  he  tells  of  the  saint's 
miracles  continued  down  to  his  own  time;  that  time  is 
the  reign  of  Romanos  II  (959-63)  and  of  John  I 
Tsimiskes  (969-76).  Michael  Psellos  (101&-78),  who 
wrote  the  life  of  Symeon,  afterwards  added  to  those  of 
the  other  saints  in  the  collection,  says  he  was  a  Logo- 
thete.  In  this  case  it  means  one  of  the  Secretaries  of 
State  with  the  title  Magister.  Psellus  also  tells  us  that 
S3rmeon  was  a  favourite  of  the  emperor,  at  whose  com- 
mand he  made  his  collection  of  legends.  Ehrhard  says 
that  this  emperor  was  Constantine  VII  (Porphyrogen- 
netos,  912-59)  who  organised  a  compilation  of  all 
kinds  of  learning  to  form  a  kind  of  universal  ency- 
clopaedia by  the  scholars  of  his  Court  (Krumbacher, 
''Byz.  Lit.'"^,  2(X)).  Ehrhard  (loc.  cit.)  and  most  au- 
thorities now  identify  the  Metaphrast  with  Symeon 
Magister  the  Logothete,  who  wrote  a  chronicle  under 
Nioephorus  Phocas  (963-9).  Besides  the  identity  of 
name  and  period  there  is  internal  evidence  from  the 
two  works  (Chronicle  and  Legends)  for  this.  A  certain 
Arab  chronicler,  Yahya  ibn  Said  of  Antioch,  in  the 
eleventh  century  refers  to  "Simon,  Secretary  and 
Logothete,  who  composed  the  stories  of  the  saints  and 
their  feasts  "  (Delehaye  in  "  Revue  des  (questions  hist.", 
X,  84) .  Another  point  that  fixes  his  time  as  the  latter 
half  of  the  tenth  century  is  that,  as  Ehrhard  has 
proved,  the  speech  made  by  Constantine  VII  at  the 
translation  ot  the  'portrait  of  Christ  from  Edessa  on 
16  August,  944^  is  contained  in  Symeon's  part  of  the 
Menology  ("Die  Legendensammlung",  etc.,  pp.  48, 
73) .  Formerly  his  period  was  ^nerally  thought  to  be 
earlier.  In  his  life  of  St.  Theoctistus  of  Lesbos  he  gives 
what  seems  to  be  a  passage  about  himself,  in  which 
he  says  that  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  Admi- 
ral Himerios  to  Crete  in  902.  It  is  now  proved  that 
Symeon  simply  copied  all  this  life,  includmg  the  auto- 
biographical note,  from  an  earlier  writer,  Niketas 
(Ehrhard,  "Byz.  Lit.",  p.  200). 

Symeon's  cnief  work,  the  one  to  which  he  owes  his 
great  reputation  in  the  Byzantine  Church,  is  the  col- 
lection of  Legends.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  say  how 
much  of  the  Menology  was  really  composed  by  him. 
On  the  one  hand,  in  many  cases  he  simply  copied 
existing  lives  of  saints;  on  the  other,  the  collection 
has  grown  considerably  since  his  time  and  all  of  it 
without  discrimination  goes  by  his  name.  Leo  AJla- 
tius  (op.  cit.)  ascribes  122  legends  only  to  Symeon, 
Delehaye  ("Les  m^nologes  grecs "  in  the  "Analecta 
BoHandiana",  XVI,  311-29),  thinks  that  148  or  150 
are  authentic  and  ori^nal.  It  may  be  noticed  that  the 
authentic  ones  are  cmefly  those  in  the  early  months  of 
the  year,  from  September  (the  Byzantine  Calendar  be- 
gins in  September;  the  saints  in  the  Menology  are  ar- 
ranged as  their  feasts  occur).  It  is  certain,  that  a 
number  of  these  legends  were  written  by  Symeon 
from  such  sources  as  he  found  (partly  oral  tradition). 
The  sifting  of  these  from  the  rest  still  needs  to  be  done 
(Ehrhard,  1.  c,  201-2).  His  reputation  as  an  author 
has  been  restored  by  the  latest  students.  At  one  time 
his  name  was  a  byword  for  absurd  fabrications.  Ehr- 
hard, DobschUtz,  and  others  have  now  shown  him  to 
be  a  conscientious  compiler  who  made  the  best  use  of 
his  material  that  he  could .  The  often  absurd  stories  in 
his  lives  were  already  contained  in  the  sources  from 
which  he  wrote  them;  he  is  not  responsible  for  these^ 
since  his  obiect  was  simply  to  collect  and  arrange  the 
legends  of  tae  saints  as  they  existed  in  his  time.    He 


MBTAPHYSIC8  226  MBTAPHTBICS 

bftB  often  been  compared  to  the  great  Western  com-  Descartea's  false  as8umi>tion  that  the  method  in  meta- 
ls of  legends,  Jacobus  deVoragine(d.  1298).  Some  physics  is  subjective,  in  other  words,  that  ail  the 
nCondakoff,  "  Histoire  de  Tart  byzantin/'  Paris,  1886,  conclusions  of  metaphysics  are  based  on  the  study  of 
I,  46)  prefer  Symeon  of  the  two.  His  legends  were  subjective,  or  mental,  phenemona. 
translated  into  lAtin  by  Lippomanus,  "  Aata  ss.  pri-  Taking  a  wider  view  of  the  scope  and  method  of 
scorum  patnim"  (Vemoe.  vols.  V-VII,  1556-1558).  metaphysics,  the  followers  of  Aristotle  and  many  who 
Supposing  the  identity  of  tne  Metaphrast  and  Sjrmeon  do  not  acknowled^  Aristotle  as  a  leader  in  philosophy 
Blagister,  we  have  other  works  by  mm,  a  Clironicle  not  define  the  science  m  terms  of  all  reality,  both  objective 
extant  in  its  original  form,  but  altered  and  supple-  and  subjective.  Here  five  forms  of  definition  are  of- 
mented  in  the  Chronicle  that  goes  by  his  name,  in  the  fered,  which  ultimately  mean  one  and  the  same  thin^: 
Corpus  of  Bonn  (Theophanes  oontinuatus,  Bonn,  1828,  (1)  Metaphysics  is  the  science  of  being  as  being. — ^This 
603-760),  reprinted  in  P.  G.,  CIX,  663-822;  also  an  is  Aristotle^s  definition  {vtpl  toO  «rroi  {  ir,— Met.,  VI. 
Epitome  of  Canons  (P.  G.,  CXTV,  236-292),  col-  1026  a,  31).  In  this  definition  metaphysics  is  placed 
lections  of  maxims  from  St.  Basil  (P.  G.,  XXXIL  in  the  ^enus  "science".  As  a  science,  it  has,  in  com- 
1116-1381)  and  Macarius  of  Egsrpt  (P.  G.,  XXXIV,  mon  with  other  sciences,  this  characteristic  that  it 
841-965),  some  prayers  and  poems  (P.  G.,  CXIV,  seeks  a  knowledge  of  things  in  their  causes.  What  is 
209-225)  and  nine  letters  (P.  G.,  CaTV,  282-236).  peculiar  to  metaphysics  is  the  difference  "of  being  as 
Symeon  Metaphrastes  is  a  saint  in  the  OHhodox  oeing".  In  this  phrase  are  combined  at  once  the 
Church.  His  feast  is  28  November.  material  object  and  the  formal  object  of  metaphysics. 
^^The  ooUectioQ  of  leg«9nda  in  P.  O.,  CXIV-CXVI.  Vol.  CXTV,  The  material  object  is  being— the  whole  worid  of  real- 

185-205,  OOntaiOB  Michaxl  Pbxllub's  eQCOnuum  and  omoe  for  -x      Q.UAtKAr  mihinntivp  nr  nhiAnf  iv«>   nrvmhln  nr  Anf  11&1 

eymeon's  feast,  the  first  aouroe  for  his  life.  itv,  wnctner  subjective  or  oDjective,  poswDie  or  actual, 

Allatxitb,  De  Symeonum  acnptU  diairiba  (Paris,  1064);  abstract  or  concrete,  immaterial  or  material,  mfinite 

Hanu,  De  bvMOfU.  rerum  acnptoribuM  (i$77),  418-60;  Oudin,  or  finite.     Everything  that  exists  comes  within  the 

Comment,  de  aenpt.  ecclee.,  II  (1722).  1300-83 ;^Krumbachkr.  ai*nr^  of  TTttf>fAnhv«ii<*Al  innnirv       Of  hpr  arionAM  at*»  w>- 

Oeach.  der  butarUiniachen  LiUemtur  (2nd  ed.,  Munich,  1897),  BCOpe  01  metapnysicai  inauuy.     Utner  sciences  are  TC- 

200-3;  Ehrard,  Die  Legendenummluno  dee  Sumetm  Meta-  stncted  to  one  or  several  departments  ofbemg:  physics 

phnuUeu,  ihr  wreprHnaliche  fie<tond  (Rome,  1897);  Inmu.Sv  has  its  limited  field  of  inquiry,  mathematics  IS  con- 

aS:;iiSar,?»'7Li7iS^^  cemed  on}y  with  those  things  whfch  have  quantity, 

the  AnaL  BoUand^JCVl  (1897),  312-29;  Idkm,  Le  Minoioge  de  Metaphysics  knows  no  such  restrictions.     Its  domain 

MHaphrafe,  ib.,  XYII  (1898),  448-52;  Hirscb,  BytantinMu  ]s  all  reality.    For  instartce,  the  human  soul  and  God, 

f  .t£L^(^SS'i8V'J)?^-  '"^"^  "^i^^  F^'iSi^Er..""  because  they  have  neither  colour  nor  weight,  thennfc 

.cw<MA<i  *  yjaM.ma^s,a,»  ^^^  clcctnc  propcrtics,  do  not  fall  withm  the  scope  of 

MetaphjrflicSy  that  portion  of  philosophy  which  the  ph3r8icist's  mvestigation ;  because  they  are  devoid 
treats  of  the  most  general  and  fundamental  principles  of  quantity,  they  do  not  come  within  the  field  of  in- 
underlying  all  reality  and  all  knowledge,  quiry  of  the  mathematician.     But.  since  they  are 

I.  The  Name. — ^The  word  metaphvsics  is  formed  bein^,  they  do  come  within  the  aomain  of  meta- 
from  the  Greek  /tcrd  rd  ^i^urd,  a  title  wnich,  about  the  physical  investigation.  The  material  object  of  meta- 
year  70  B.  c,  was  prefixed  by  Andronicus  of  Rhodes  to  plmics  is,  therefore,  all  being.  As  Aristotle  sa>[s 
that  collection  of  Aristotelian  treatises  which  since  (iK^t.,  IV,  1004  a,  34):  "It  is  the  ftmction  of  the  phi- 
then  goes  bv  the  name  of  the  "  Metaphysics  ".  Aris-  losopher  to  be  able  to  investigate  all  things. "  Its  for- 
totle  nimseu  had  referred  to  that  portion  of  philoeo-  mal  object  is  also  **  being '',  or  "  beingness. "  The  for- 
phy  as  "the  theological  science"  (Beokoyticli)^  because  mal  object  of  any  science  is  that  particular  phase, 
it  culminated  in  the  consideration  of  the  nature  of  ciuality,oraspectof  things  which  interests  that  science 
God,  and  as  "first  philosophy"  («>/m^i;  ^iXo^-o^/a),  both  in  a  specific  way.  Man,  for  instance,  is  the  material 
because  it  considered  the  first  causes  of  things,  and  be-  object  of  psychology,  ethics,  sociology,  anthropology, 
cause,  in  his  estimation,  it  is  first  in  importance.  The  philolo^,  and  vanOus  other  sciences.  The  formal 
tditor,  however,  overlooked  both  these  titles,  and,  be-  object,  nowever,  of  each  of  these  is  different.  The 
cause  he  believed  that  that  part  of  the  Aristotelian  formal  object  of  psychology  is  mental  phenomena  and 
corjims  came  naturally  after  tne  phy^sical  treatises,  he  the  subject  of  them;  the  formal  object  of  ethics  is 
entitled  it  "after  the  physics".  This  is  the  historical  man's  relation  to  his  ultimate  destiny;  that  of  sociol- 
origin  of  the  term.  However,  once  the  name  was  ogy  is  man's  relation  to  his  fellow-men  in  institutions, 
given,  the  commentators  sought  to  find  intrinsic  rea-  laws,  customs,  etc. ;  that  of  anthropology  is  the  origin 
sons  for  its  appropriateness.  For  instance,  it  was  of  man,  distinction  of  races,  etc. ;  that  of  philology  is 
understood  to  mean  "  the  science  of  the  world  beyond  man's  use  of  articulate  speech.  The  fonnal  object  of 
nature",  that  is,  the  science  of  the  immaterial.  Again,  the  ph>rsical  eroup  generally  is  the  so-called  physical 
it  was  understood  to  refer  to  the  chronological  or  properties  of  oodles,  such  as  light,  soimd,  heat,  molec- 
pedagogical  order  among  our  philosophical  studies,  so  ular  constitution,  atomic  structure,  vital  phenomena 
that  the  "metaphysical"  sciences  would  mean,  those  in  general,  etc.  The  formal  object  of  the  mathemati- 
which  we  study  after  having  mastered  the  sciences  cal  group  is  quantity;  v/hat  interests  the  mathemati- 
which  deal  with  the  physical  world  (St.  Thomas,  "In  clan  is  not  the  colour,  heat,  etc.,  of  an  object,  butite 
Lib.  BoetiideTrin.",  V,  1).  In  the  widespread,  though  size  or  bulk.  Similarly  the  metaphysician  is  inter- 
erroneous  use  of  the  term  in  current  popular  literature,  ested  in  a  specific  way  neither  in  the  physical  nor  \h» 
there  is  a  remnantofthe  notion  that  metaphysical  means  mathematical  qualities  of  things,  but  in  their  entity 
ultraphysical:  thus,  "metaphysical  healing"  means  or  beingness.  If,  then,  ph3rsics  is  the  science  of  beizijg 
healii^  Dy  means  of  remedies  which  are  not  physical,  as  affected  by  physical  properties,  and  mathematics  is 

II.  Definition. — ^The  term  metaphysics,  as  used  by  the  science  of  being  as  possessing  quantity,  metaphys- 
one  school  of  philosophers,  is  narrowed  down  to  mean  ics  is  the  science  of  being  as  being.  Since  the  material 
the  science  of  mental  phenomena  and  of  the  laws  of  object  of  metaphysics  is  all  being,  tiie  metaphysician 
mind.  In  this  sense,  it  is  employed,  for  instance,  by  is  mterested  in  everything  that  is  or  can  be.  Since 
Hamilton  ("Lectures  on  Metaph.",  Lect.  VII)  as  the  formal  object  of  his  study  is  again,  being,  the  point 
synonymous  with  psychology.    Hamilton  holds  that  of  view  of  metaphysics  is  ailTerent  from  that  of  the 

'  empirical  psychology,  or  the  phenomenology  of  mind,  other  sciences.    The  metaphysician  studies  all  reality; 

treats  of  tne  facts  of  consciousness,  rational  psychol-  still,  the  resulting  science  is  not  a  summing  ui>  of  the 

ogy,  or  the  nomology  of  mind,  treats  of  the  laws  of  departmental  sciences  which  deal  with  portions  of 

mental  phenomena,  and  metaphysics,  or  inferential  reality,  because  his  point  of  view  is  different  from  that 

psychology,  treats  of  the  results  derived  from  the  of  the  student  of  the  departmental  sciences, 
study  of  tne  facts  and  laws  of  mind.    This  use  of  the        (2)  Metaphysics  is  0ie  science  of  immaterial  being, — 

tenn  metaphysics  is  unfortunate  because  it  revts  00  "The  first  science",  says  Ari9totl0  (Met.^  VI,  lOZQ  9^ 


METAPHT8IC8                         227  METAPHTSICS 

16),  ''deals  with  things  which  are  both  separate  (from  tion  offered  in  the  preceding  paragraph  because,  bjr  a 

matter)  and  immovable".     In  this  connexion  the  well  known  law  oflo^c,  the  less  the  compiehensioa 

scholastics  (cf.  St.  Thorn.,  ibid,)^  distinguished  two  the  greater  the  extension  of  a  term  or  concept.    The 

kinds  of  immaterial:  (a)  immaterial  quoad  e9se  or  im-  science  which  deals  with  the  most  abstract  conce{>- 

material  beings,  such  as  God  and  the  human  soul,  tions  must,  therefore,  be  the  science  of  the  most  uni- 

which  exist  without  matter  ;(b)  immaterial  guoeid  con-  versal  conceptions.    Among  our  ideas  the  most  uni- 

ceptunt,  or  concepts,  such  as  substance,  cause,  quality,  versal  are  Being,  and  the  determinations  of  it  which 

into  the  compreh^ion  of  which  matter  does  not  are  called  transcendental,  namely  unity,  truth,  good- 

enter.   Metaphysics,  in  so  far  as  it  treats  of  immaterial  ness^  and  beauty ^  each  <^  which  is  coextensive  wim  be- 

betngs,  is  caUeci  special  metaphysics  and  is  divided  ing  itself,  aocordmg  to  the  formulas.  "  Every  being  is 

into  rational  psychology,  which  treats  of  the  human  one",  "Every  being  is  true",  etc.    Next  in  univer^- 

soul,  rational  theology,  which  treats  of  the  existence  ity  come  the  highest  determinations  of  Being  in  the 

and  attributes  of  God,  and  cosmology,  which  treats  of  suprema  genera,  substance  and  accident,  or,  if  Being  be 

the  ultimate  principles  of  the  universe.    Metaphysics,  aiudysed  in  the  order  of  metaphysi(»d  constitution,  es- 

in  so  far  as  it  treats  of  immaterial  concepts,  of  those  sence  and  existence,  potency  and  actuality.    Very 

general  notions  in  which  matter  is  not  included,  is  high  up  in  the  scale  <n  extension  will  be  cause  and 

called  general  metaphyBics,  or  ontology,  that  is,  the  effect.    All  these  are  included  within  the  range  ci 

science  of  Bein^.    Taking  the  term  now  in  its  widest  metaphysical  inauiry,  and  are  dealt  with  in  every 

sense,  so  as  to  mclude  both  general  and  special  meta-  scholastic  manual  of  metaphysics.    "  Being  in  its  hi^ 

physics,  when  we  say  that  metaphysics  is  the  science  est  determinations"  is,  tl^n,  another  way  of  describ- 

of  the  immaterial,  we  mean  that  whatever  exists,  ing  the  object  of  metaphysics.    Where,  however, 

whether  it  is  an  immaterial  being  or  a  material  being,  shall  we  draw  the  line?    What  determinations  are  not 

so  long  as  it  offers  to  our  consideration  immaterial  con-  highest?    For  instance,  are  space  uid  time  determina- 

oepts,  such  as  substance  or  cause,  is  the  object  of  tions  of  Being,  which  are  general  enough  to  be  consid- 

metaphysical  investigation.    In  this  way,  it  becomes  ered  in  metaphvsics?    The  answer  to  these  questions 

evident  that  this  demiition  coincides  with  that  given  is  to  be  deciaea  accordmg  to  the  dictates  of  practiced 

in  the  preceding  paragraph.  convenience,    liuiy  of  the  problems  sometimes  in- 

(3)  Metapkystcs  U  die  science  of  the  most  abatract  con-  duded  in  general  metaphysics  may  conveniently  be 

eepiione, — ^All  science,  according  to  the  scholastics,  treated  in  special  parts,  such  as  cosmology  and  p^y- 

deals  with  the  abstract.    The  knowledge  of  the  con-  chologv. 

Crete  individual  objects  of  our  experience,  with  their  (5)Afeta]ahysic8  is  the  science  of  the  first  principles, — 
ever  changing  qualities  and  the  particular  individu-  This  definition  also  is  given  by  Aristotle  (Met.  IV,  1003 
ating  characteristics  which  make  tnem  to  be  individual  a,  26).  Every  science  is  an  inquiry  into  the  causes 
(for  instance^  the  knowledge  of  this  tree,  of  that  and  principles  of  thin^;  this  science  inquires  into  the 
flower,  of  this  particular  animal  or  person;  may  be  first  principles  and  highest  causes,  not  only  in  the 
very  useful  knowledge,  but  it  is  not  scientific.  Sden-  order  of  existence,  but  also  in  the  order  of  thou^t.  It 
tifie  knowfed^  beans,  when  we  abstract  from  what  belongs,  then,  to  metaphysics  (1)  to  inquire  into  the 
makes  the  thing  to  oe  individual,  when  we  know  it  in  nature  of  cause  and  pnnciple  in  general  and  to  deteri 
the  general  principles  that  constitute  it.  The  first  de«  mine  the  meaiiing  of  the  different  kinds  of  causality, 
gree  of  abstraction  is  found  in  the  physical  sdences,  formal,  material,  efficient,  and  final:  (2)  to  investigate 
which  abstract  merely  from  the  particularising,  indi-  the  fi»t  principles  in  the  order  of  knowledge,  and 
viduating  characteristics,  and  consider  the  general  establish  the  validity,  for  instance,  of  the  prindplea 
laws,  or  principles,  of  motion,  light,  heat,  substantial  of  identity  and  contradiction, 
change^  etc.  The  mathematical  sdences  ascend  All  these  definitions  are  expressions  of  the  Aiistote* 
higher  m  the  scale  of  abstraction.  They  leave  out  of  lian  doctrine  that  metaph3rBics,  Uke  ph^rsics  and  mathe* 
consideration  not  only  the  individuating  qualities  but  matics,  is  a  sdence  of  reality,  it  being  beyond  the 
also  tiie  physical  quauties  of  things,  and  consider  only  scope  of  metaphysics  to  inquire  whether  reality  is^  or 
quantitv  and  its  laws.  The  metaphysical  sciences  is  not,  given  in  experience.  This  question,  which  is  a 
reach  the  highest  point  of  abstraction.  They  pre-  fundamentallv  important  one  in  modem  philosophy, 
sdnd^  or  abstract,  not  only  from  those  qualities  which  was  discussed  by  the  scholastics  in  that  portion  ot 
physics  and  mathematics  abstract  from,  but  also  logic  which  thev  called  critica,  major  logic,  or  applied 
leave  out  of  consideration  the  determination  of  quan-  logic,  but  which  is  now  generally  called  epistemology 
ti^.  They  consider  only  Being  and  its  highest  deter-  (see  Looic).  Nowadays,  however,  the  epistemo- 
minations,  such  as  substance,  cause^  quality,  action,  logical  problem,  by  a  fatal  mistake  of  method,  is  as- 
etc.  "There  is  a  science",  says  Anstotle  (Met.  IV,  signed  to  metapnysics,  and  the  result  is  a  confusion  be- 
1003  a,  21)  "  which  investigates  being  as  being,  and  the  tween  the  two  branches  of  philosophy,  viz.  metaphysica 
attributes  which  belong  to  this  in  virtue  of  its  own  na-  and  epistemology.  In  works  hke  Fullerton's  "  Sys- 
ture"  (rd  To&r<f  iwdpx^t^fi^ ^Koff*  aW).  The  objection  tem  of  Metaphysics"  (New  York,  1906)  and  Hodg- 
therefore,  that  metaphysics  is  an  abstract  sdence,  son's  "Metaphysics  of  Experience"  (London,  1898) 
would,  in  the  estimation  of  the  scholastics,  militate  no  attempt  is  inade  to  separate  the  two. 
not  only  against  metaphysics  but  against  all  the  other  III.  The  Rejection  of  Metaphtsics,  by  many 
sdences  as^  well.  The  peculiarity  of  metaphysics  is  schools  of  philosophy  in  modem  times,  is  one  of  tlie 
not  that  it  is  abstract,  but  that  it  carries  the  process  of  most  remarkable  developments  of  post-Cartesian  phi- 
abstraction  farther  than  do  the  other  sdences.  This,  losophy.  A  difference  in  the  point  of  view  leads  to  a 
however,  does  not  make  it  to  be  unreal.  On  the  con-  very  great  divergence  in  the  estimate  placed  on  meta- 
trary,  what  is  left  out  of  coxisideration  in  metaphysics,  physical  studies.    On  the  one  side  we  have  the  verdict 


the  most  real  of  all  the  sdences  precisely  because,  objects  to  the  claim  of  metaphysics  to  be  a  sdence  oi 
by  abstracting  from  everything  else,  it  hais  centred,  the  immaterial.  If  nothing  exists  except  matter,  a 
so  to  flpeak,  its  thought  on  Being,  which  is  the  sdence  of  the  immaterial  has  no  justification.  Mate- 
source  and  root  of  reality  eveiywhere  else  in  the  rialists,  however,  forget  that  the  assertion,  ''Nothing 
other  sdences.  exists  except  matter ",  is  either  a  summing  up  of  the 
(4)  Metaphysics  is  the  science  of  the  mod  universal  individual  experience  of  the  materialist  himself,  moaa- 
tvnespfums.— This  would  follow  from  the  coosidera-  ing  that  he  has  never  experienced  anythmg  eze^ 


MBTAPSTSICS  228  1BTAPH78XC8 

matter  and  manifestations  of  matter,  and  then  the  a»*  the  claims  of  metaphysics  as  in  the  vagaries  of  tlic 

sertion  is  merely  of  biographical  interest;  or  it  is  an  metaphysicians. 

affirmation  regaxding  possible  human  experience,  a  IV.  Relation  of  Mstaphtsics  to  Otbkr  Sgi- 
declaration  of  the  impossibility  of  immaterial  exist-  enceb. — ^The  consideration  of  the  relation  in  which 
ence,  and  in  that  sense  it  is  a  statement  which  in  itself  metaphysics  stands,  or  ought  to  stand,  to  the  othei 
has  a  metaphysical  import.  Materialism  is,  in  fact,  a  sciences  should  result  in  a  refutation  of  the  positivist 
metaphysi^  theory  <h  reality  and  is  a  contribution  to  contention  that  metaphysics  is  useless.  In  the  first 
the  science  which  it  professes  to  reject.  Philosophi-  place,  metaphsrsics  is  the  natural  co-ordinating  science 
cal  agnosticism,  which  is  derived  ultimately  from  which  crowns  the  unifying  efforts  of  the  other  sciences. 
Kant's  doctrine  of  the  unknowableness  of  nouminal  It  accomplishes  in  the  highest  plane  of  knowledge  that 
reality  (J>ing  an  sick),  rejects  metaphysics  on  the  process  of  unification  towards  which  the  human  mind 
yround  that  while  the  immaterial  does,  mdeed,  exist,  tends  irresistibly.  Without  it,  the  explanations  and 
it  is  unknown  and  must  remain  unknowable  to  the  co-ordinations  attained  in  the  lower  sciences  would  be, 
speculative  reason.  Kant  (see  Kant)  maintained  perhaps,  satisfactorv  within  the  limits  of  those  sci- 
tnat  all  metaphysi(»d  reasoning,  since  it  attempts  by  ences,  but  would  fail  to  meet  the  requirements  of  that 
means  of  the  speculative  reason  to  go  beyond  expen-  unifying  instinct  which  the  mind  tends  to  apply  to 
ence,  is  doomed  to  failure,  because  the  a  priori  forms  knowledge  in  ^neral.  So  long  as  the  mind  of  the 
which  the  understanding  imposes  on  the  empirical  knower  is  one,  it  is  impossible  not  to  attempt  to  bring 
data  of  knowled^  modify  the  quality  of  tiiat  knowl-  tmder  the  most  general  conceptions  and  principles  the 
edge  by  making  it  to  be  transcendental,  but  do  not  ex*  conclusions  of  the  various  sciences.  That  is  the  tssk 
tend  it  beyond  the  realm  of  actual  sense  experience,  of  metaphysics.  Whenever  we  look  around  amons 
The  followers  of  Kant  stigmatise  as  intellectual  for-  the  contents  of  the  mind  and  try  to  discover  order  and 
malism  the  view  that  the  speculative  reason  does  ac-  hierarchical  arrangement  among  them,  we  are  at- 
tually  attain  ultra-empiii(^  knowledge.  This  is  the  tempting  a  system  of  metaphysics.  In  the  next  place, 
contention  of  the  modernists  and  other  Catholic  wri-  the  process  of  explanation  which  belong  to  each  of 
ters  who  are  more  or  less  influenced  by  Kant.  These  the  lower  sciences,  if  puraued  far  enou^.  brinn  us 
decry  rational  metaphysics  and  offer  as  a  substitute  face  to  face  with  the  demand  for  a  metaphysical  ex- 
a  metaphysics  based  on  sentiment,  vital  activity,  or  planation.  Thus,  the  chemical  problem  of  atomic  or 
some  other  non-rational  foundation.  proto-atomic  constitution  of  bodies  leads  inevitably  to 
The  answer  to  this  line  of  thought  is  a  denial  of  its  the  question,  What  is  matter?  The  biological  prob- 
fundamental  tenet,  the  doctrine,  namely,  that  the  ra-  lem  of  the  nature  and  origin  of  life  brings  us  to  the 
tional  faculty  cannot  attain  a  knowledge  of  the  essen-  point  where  it  is  imperative  to  answer  the  Query,  What 
tial  or  noumenal  natures  of  things.  Gratuitous  as-  is  life?  The  questions:  What  is  substance?  What  is  a 
sertion  is  often  best  refuted  by  categorical  denial,  cause?  What  is  ouantit^ 7  are  additional  examples  of 
The  rejection  of  metaphysics  by  the  materialist  and  problems  to  which  physics,  mathematics,  etc.,  finally 
the  Kantian  agnostic  does  not  meet  the  full  approval  lead.  Indeed,  the  world  of  science  is  completely  sur- 
of  the  idealist.  Instead  of  banishing  metapnysics  roimded  by  the  metaphysical  world,  and  every  path 
from  the  republic  of  the  sciences,  the  idealist,  naving  of  investigation  brings  us  to  a  highroad  of  inouiry 
deprived  it  of  its  scientific  character,  elevates  it  to  the  which  sooner  or  later  crosses  the  border  and  leads  us 
rank  of  aesthetic  pre-eminence  side  by  side  with  poe^  into  metaphysics.  When  therefore,  the  scientist  re- 
try. He  considers  that  it  furnishes  a  point  of  view  jects  metaphysics,  he  suporesses  a  natural  and  ineradi- 
from  which  to  contemplate  the  beauty,  harmony,  and  cable  tendency  of  the  inoiyidual  mind  towards  unifi- 
value  of  those  things  which  science  merely  explains,  cation  and,  at  the  same  time,^  he  tries  to  put  up  in 
He  holds  that  it  is  not  the  province  of  metaphysics  to  every  highway  and  bywa^  of  lus  own  science  a  barrier 
assign  reasons  or  causes,  but  to  furnish  motives  for  against  further  progress  in  the  direction  of  rational 
action  and  enhance  the  value  of  reality.  For  him,  its  explanation.  Besioes,  the  cultivation  of  the  oieta- 
uplifting  and  regenerating  function  is  entirely  inde-  physical  habit  of  mind  is  productive  of  excellent  re- 
pendent  of  its  aUeged  abihty  to  explain:  he  considers  suits  in  the  sphere  of  genezul  culture.  The  faculty  of 
metaphysics  to  be,  not  an  ontology,  or  science  of  real-  appreciating  principles  as  well  as  facts  is  a  quality 
ily,  but  a  teleolo^,  or  application  of  the  principle  of  wmch  cannot  oe  absent  from  the  mind  without  detn- 
purpose.  That  iBa  is  a  function  of  metaphysics  no  ment  to  that  symmetry  of  development  wherein  true 
one  will  deny.  It  is  only  one  function,  however,  and  culture  consists.  The  scientist  who  objects  to  meta- 
unless  the  doctrine  of  final  causes  has  its  foundation  in  physics,  right!  v  condemns  the  metaphvsician  who  dis- 
a  doctrine  of  formal  and  efficient  causes,  teleological  dams  to  consider  facts.  He  himself,  unless  he  cultivate 
metaphysics  is  a  castle  in  the  air.  Finally^  the  posi-  the  metaphysical  powers  of  his  mind,  is  in  danger  of 
tivist,  and  the  scientist  whom  the  positivist  has  in-  reaching  the  point  where  he  is  incapable  of  appreciat- 
fluenced,  reject  metaphysics  because  all  our  knowl-  ing  principles.  Both  the  empirical  talent  for  asoertain- 
edge  is  confined  to  facts  and  the  relations  among  facts,  ing  facts  and  the  metaphysical  grasp  of  principles  and 
To  attempt  to  go  beyond  facts  and  the  succession  or  laws  are  necessary  for  the  rounoing  out  of  man's  men- 
ooncomitance  of  facts  is  to  essay  the  impossible,  tal  powers,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  nof 
G&uses,  essences,  and  so  forth,  are  terms  whicn  clothe  both  be  cultivated. 

in  fictitious  garb  our  ignorance  of  the  real  scientific  ex-        V.  Relation  of  Metaphtbicb  to  TyEoix>GT.~ 

planation.    The  whole  gist  of  positivism  is  contained  The  nature  of  metaphysics  determines  its  eseential 

m  Hume's  verdict  that  "  it  is  impossible  to  go  beyond  and  intimate  relation  to  theolocT* .  Theology,  it  need 

experience".    This  psychological  dictum  is  accepted  hardly  be  said,  derives  its  condusions  from  premises 

bv  the  philosophical  positivist,  as  the  death  sentence  which  are  revealed,  and  in  so  far  as  it  does  this  it  rises 

of  metaphysics.    With  the  scientist,  however,  other  above  all  schools  of  philosophy  or  metaphysics.     At 

considerations  weigh  more  than  the  psychological  ar-  the  same  time,  it  is  a  human  science,  and,  as  such,  it 

gjument.    The  scientist  points  to  the  present  condi-  must  formulate  its  premises  in  exact  terminology  and 

uon  of  metaphjrsics;  he  caUs  attention  to  the  fact  that,  must  employ  processes  of  human  reasoning  in  attain- 

while  the  physical  sciences  have  advanced  by  leaps  ing  its  conclusions.    For  this,  it  depends  on  meta- 

and  bounds,  metaphysics  is  still  grappling  with  the  physics.    Sometimes,  indeed,  as  when  it  deals  with 

most  fundamental  problems  and  has  not  even  settled  the  supernatural  mysteries  of  faith,  theologjr  acknowl- 

the  questions  on  whidi  its  ver^^  existence  depends,  edges  that  metaphysical  conceptions  are  inadequate 

The  condition  of  metaphysics  is,  indeed,  such  as  to  in-  and  metaphysical  formula  incompetent  to  expreas 

^te  the  contempt  and  provoke  the  disdain  of  the  the  truths  discussed.    Nevertheless,  if  theology  had 

scientist;  the  fault,  however,  may  lie  not  so  much  in  no  metaphysical  formularies  to  rely  upor  .  it  could 


1BTAPS78I08 


229 


MBTAPST8IC8 


neither  exprees  its  premises  nor  deduce  its  conclusions 
in  a  scientific  manner.  Afiain,  theology  relies  on 
metaphysics  to  prove  certain  truths,  called  the  pre- 
aminuaf  which  are  not  revealed  but  are  nevertheless 
presupposed  before  revelation  can  be  considered  rea- 
sonable or  possible.  These  truths  are  not  the  founda^ 
tion  on  which  we  rest  our  supernatural  faith.  If  they 
should  fail,  fsith  would  not  suffer,  though  theology 
should  then  be  rebuilt  on  another  foundation.  Fur- 
thermore, metaphysics,  as  Aristotle  pointed  out,  cul- 
minates in  the  discussion  of  the  existence  and  nature 
of  God.  God  is  the  object  of  theology.  It  is  onlv  nat- 
ural, therefore,  that  metaphysics  and  theology  should 
have  many  points  of  contact,  and  that  the  latter 
should  rely  on  the  former.  Finalljr,  since  all  truth  is 
one,  both  m  the  source  from  which  it  is  derived,  and  in 
the  subject,  the  human  mind,  which  it  adorns,  there 
must  be  a  kinship  between  two  sciences  which,  like 
theology  and  metaphysics,  treat  of  the  most  impor- 
tant conceptions  of  the  human  mind.  The  difference 
in  the  manner  of  treatment,  theology  rel3ring  on  reve- 
lation, and  metaphysics  on  reason  alone,  does  not 
affect  the  unity  of  purpose  and  the  final  harmony  of 
the  conclusions  of  the  two  sciences. 

But,  while  theology  thus  derives  assistance  from 
metaphysics,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  metaphysics 
has  derived  advantages  from  its  close  association  with 
theology.  Pre-Christian  philosophy  failed  to  arrive 
at  precise  metapliysical  determinations  of  the  notions 
of  substance  and  person.  This  defect  was  corrected 
in  part  by  Origen,  Clement,  and  Athanasius,  and  in 
part  by  their  successors,  the  scholastics,  the  impulse 
m  both  cases  being  given  to  philosophical  definition  by 
the  requirements  of  theological  speculation  conceniinff 
the  Blessed  Trinity.  Pre-Christian  philosophy  failed 
to  eive  a  coherent,  satisfactory  account  of  the  ori^n 
of  Qie  world:  Plato's  myths  and  Aristotle's  doctrine 
of  the  eternity  of  matter  could  not  long  continue  to 
satisfy  the  Christian  mind.  It  was,  once  more,  the 
Alexandrian  School  of  Christian  metaphvsics  that,  by 
elaborating  the  Biblical  conception  of  creation  ex 
nikilo,  save  an  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  vmi- 
verse  ^roich  is  satisfactory  to  the  metaphysician  as 
well  as  to  the  theolo^an.  Finally,  the  Catholic  doc- 
trine of  Transubstantiation,  as  discussed  by  the  scho- 
lastics, gave  occasion  for  a  more  definite  and  detailed 
determination  of  the  metaphysical  conception  of  acci- 
dent in  general  and  of  quantity  in  particular. 

VI.  The  Method  of  Metaphysics. — Among  the 
objections  most  frequently  ur^ed  against  metaphys- 
ics, especially  against  scholastic  metaphysics,  is  the 
unscientific  character  of  its  method.  Tne  metaphysi- 
cian, we  are  told,  pursues  the  a  priori  path  of  knowl- 
edge; he  neglects  or  even  condemns  the  use  of  the  a 
posteriori  empirical  method  which  is  employed  with 
so  much  profit  in  the  investigation  of  nature;  he  spins, 
as  Bacon  says,  the  threads  of  his  metaphysical  fabric 
from  the  contents  of  his  own  mind,  as  the  spider  spins 
her  web  from  the  substance  of  her  body,  instead  of 
gathering  from  every  source  in  the  world  aroimd  him 
the  materials  for  his  study,  and  then  working  them  up 
into  metaphysical  principles,  as  the  bee  gathers  nectar 
from  the  flowers  and  elaborates  it  into  honey.  In 
order  to  clear  up  the  misimderstanding  which  under- 
lies this  objection,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that  l^ere 
are  three  kinds  oi  method:  (1)  the  a  priori,  which,  as- 
suminje^  certain  self-evident  postulates,  maxims,  and 
definitions  to  be  true,  proceeds  deductively  to  draw 
conclusions  implicatea  m  those  assumptions;  (2)  The 
subjective  a  posteriori  method,  which,  from  an  exam- 
ination of  the  phenomena  of  consciousness  builds  up 
empirically,  that  is,  inductively,  conclusions  based 
on  those  phenomena;  (3)  the  objective  a  posteriori 
method,  which  builds  on  &e  facts  of  experience  in  gen- 
eral in  the  same  way  as  the  subjective  method  builds 
on  the  fiacts  of  introspection,  llie  second  method  is 
pre-eminently  the  method  of  the  Cartesians,  who,  like 


their  leader,  Descartes,  strive  to  build  the  whole  edi- 
fice of  philosophy  on  the  foundation  furnished  by  re- 
flection on  our  thought-processes:  Cogito,  ergo  sum. 
It  is  also  the  methoa  of  the  ICantians,  who,  rejecting 
the  psychological  basis  of  metaphysics  as  unsafe,  build 
on  the  moral  basis,  the  categorical  imperative:  their 
line  of  reasoning  is  "  I  ought,  therefore  1  am  free  *\  etc. 
The  third  is  the  method  of  those  who,  rejecting  the 
Aristotelean  conceptions,  essence,  substance,  cause, 
etc.,  substitute  so-called  empirical  conceptions  of 
force,  mass,  and  so  forth,  under  which  they  attempt  to 
subsume  in  a  system  of  empirico-critical  metaphysics 
the  conceptions  peculiar  to  the  various  sciences. 

The  first  method  is  admittedly  unscientific  (in  the 
popular  sense  of  the  word)  and  is  adopted  only  by 
those  philosophers  who,  like  Plato,  consider  that  the 
true  source  of  philosophical  knowledge  is  above  us, 
not  in  the  world  around  and  beneath  us.  If  the  for- 
mula universaUa  ante  rem  (see  Univebsals)  is  taken 
in  the  exclusive  sense,  then  we  may  not  look  to  experi- 
ence, but  to  intuition  of  a  higher  order  of  truth,  for 
our  metaphysical  principles.  It  is  a  calumny  which 
originated  in  ignorance  perhaps,  more  than  in  preju- 
dice, that  the  scholastics  followed  this  a  priori  method 
in  metaphysics.  True,  the  scholastic  philosopher, 
often  invokes  such  principles  as  "  A^re  sequitur  esse 
**  Quidquid  recipiturper  modum  recipientis  recipitur", 
etc.,  and  therefrom  cieduces  metaphysical  conclusions. 
If,  however,  we  examine  more  closelv,  if  we  go  back 
from  the  *'Summa'^  or  text-book,  where  the  adaee  is 
quoted  without  proof,  to  the  *' Commentary  on  Aris- 
totle" where  the  axiom  is  first  introduced,  we  shall 
find  that  it  is  proved  by  inductive  or  empirical  argU' 
ment,  and  is  therefore,  a  legitimate  premise  from 
which  to  deduce  other  truths.  In  point  of  fact^  the ' 
scholastics  use  a  method  which  is  at  once  a  priori  and 
a  posteriori,  and  the  latter  both  in  the  objective  and 
the  subjective  sense.  In  their  exposition  of  truth 
they  naturally  use  the  a  priori,  or  deductive,  method. 
In  their  investigation  of  truth  they  explore  empiri- 
cally both  the  world  of  mental  phenomena  within  us, 
and  the  world  of  physical  phenomena  without  us,  for 
the  purpose  of  building  up  inductively  those  meta- 

Ehysical  principles  from  which  they  proceed.  It  may 
e  conceded  that  many  of  the  later  scholastics  are  too 
ready  to  invoke  authority  instead  of  investigating;  it 
may  be  conceded,  even,  uiat  the  greatest  of  the  scho- 
lastics were  too  dependent  on  books,  especially  on 
Aristotle's  works,  for  their  knowledge  of  nature.  But, 
in  principle,  at  least,  the  best  representatives  of  scho- 
lasticism recognized  that  in  philosophy  the  argument 
from  authority  is  the  weakest  argument,  and  if  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  lived  and  wrote  made  it  im- 
perative on  them  to  master  the  contents  of  Aristotle's 
writings  on  natural  science,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be 
panted  by  every  fair  minded  critic  that  in  metaphys- 
ics at  least  they  improved  on  the  doctrines  of  the 
Stagyrite. 

VII.  HiSTORT  OF  Metaphysics. — The  history  of 
metaphysics  naturally  falls  into  the  same  divisions  as 
the  history  of  philosophy  in  general.  In  a  brief  out- 
line of  the  course  which  metaphysical  speculation  has 
followed,  it  will  be  possible  to  consider  only  the  prin- 
cipal stages,  namely  (1)  Hindu  philosophy,  (2)  Greek 
philosophy,  (3)  Early  Christian  philosophy,  (4)  Medie- 
val philosophy,  (5)  Modem  philosophy. 

(1)  Hinau  Philosophy. — Of  all  the  peoples  of  antiq- 
uityi  the  Hindus  were  the  most  successful  in  rising 
immediately  from  the  mythological  explanation  of  the 
universe  to  an  explanation  in  terms  of  metaphysics. 
Apparently  without  passing  through  the  intermediary 
stage  of  scientific  explanation,  they  reached  at  once 
the  heights  of  the  metaphysical  point  of  view.  From 
polytheism  or  henotheism  they  proceeded  very  early 
to  pantheism,  and  from  that  to  a  monistic  metaphysi- 
calconception  of  reality.  Their  starting-point  was  the 
realization  that  man  is  bom  into  a  state  of  bondage 


aOTAPHTSICS  230  1BTAPHY8IC8 

ftnd  that  his  chief  business  in  life  is  to  deliver  himself  *'thfng"  itself,  the  phenomenon  presented  by  tibe 

from  that  condition  by  means  of  knowledge.    The  senses,  there  is  a  participation  of  the  Idea,  limited,  di»- 

knowledge,  they  taught,  which  avails  most  in  the  strug-  figured  and  debased  by  union  with  a  negative  principle 

^le  for  freedom  is  this:  the  world  of  sense  phenomena  of  limitation  called  matter.    The  metaphysioU  oon- 

is  an  illusion  {mdyd),  all  real  things  are  identical  in  the  stituents  of  reality  are,  therefore,  the  Ideas  as  positive 

one  supreme  substance^  the  soiu  is  part  of  this  real  factors  and  this  ne^tive  principle.    From  tl^  Ideas 

substance,  and  will  ultunately  return  to  the  Whole,  comes  all  that  is  positive,  permanent,  intelligible,  eter- 

The  real  substance  is,  as  Max  Mdller  remarks,  spoken  nal  in  the  world.    From  the  negative  principle  come 

of  as  a  neuter,  and  in  this  doctrine  "is  contained  in  imperfection,  negation,  change,  and  liaoiUty  to  disso- 

nuce  a  whole  system  of  philosophy"  (*' Six  Systems  of  lution.    Thus,  profiting  by  the  epistemolpgical  doo- 

Indian  Philosophy",  London,  1899,  p.  60).    The  first,  trines  of  Socrates,  without  losing  sight  of  the  antago- 

and  most  important  of  all  truths,  then,  is  that  realilAr  nistic  teachings  of  the  Eleaticsand  of  HeracUtus,  Plato 

18  one,  and  that  each  of  us  is  identical  with  the  All:  evolved  his  theory  of  Ideas  as  a  metaphv^ical  solution 

**  That  art  thou "  is  the  highest  expression  of  self-knowl-  of  the  problem  of  change,  which  had  baffled  his  prede* 

edge,  and  the  gate  to  all  salutary  truth.    Thus,  the  cessors. 

Hindus,  actuated  by  an  ethical,  or  ascetic,  motive,        Aristotle  also  was  a  follower  of  Socrates.    He  was 

attained  a  metaphysical  formula  to  which  they  re-  influenced,  too,  by  the  theory  of  Ideas  advocated  by 

duced  all  reality.  his  master,  Plato.    For,  altnoti^  he  rejected  that 

(2)  Greek  Philosophy, — The  first  Greek  philosophers  theory,  he  did  so  after  a  study  of  it  which  enabled  him 
were  studente  of  nature.  They  were  actuated  not  by  to  view  the  problem  of  change  in  the  ligjit  of  metaph3rs- 
an  ethical  motive,  but  b^  a  kind  of  scientific  curiosity  ical  principles.  like  Plato,  he  accepted  ^  Socratic 
to  know  the  origins  of  tmngs.  There  was  no  metaphy-  doctrine  that  the  only  true  knowledge  is  Imowledge  of 
sician  among  the  lonians  (see  Ionian  School  of  Phi-  concepts.  Like  Plato,  too,  he  inferred  from  this  that 
lobopht)  .  Out  of  the  problem  of  origins,  however,  the  the  concept  must  represent  the  reality  if  a  thing.  But 
metaphysical  problem  was  developed  by  the  Eleatics  unlike  Plato,  he  made  at  this  point  an  important  dis- 
and  Dv  HeracHtus.  These  philosophers  considered  tinction.  Tne  reality,  he  taueht,  whidi  thr  concept 
that  the  explanations  of  the  lonians — that  the  worid  represente  is  in  the  tmng  which  it  constitutes,  not  as 
originated  from  water  or  air — were  too  naive,  relied  too  an  Idea,  but  as  an  essence.  He  considers  tnat  the 
much  on  the  verdict  of  the  senses.  Consequently.  Platonic  world  of  Ideas  is  a  meanin^km  duplication  of 
they  began  to  contrast  the  real  truth  which  the  mind  things:  the  world  of  essences  is  m,  not  above,  nor 
(mOs)  sees,  and  the  illusoi^  truth  (fihfyi)  which  appears  beyond,  the  world  of  phenomena:  ^ere  is,  oonse- 
to  the  senses.  The  Eleatics,  on  the  one  hand,  asserted  quently,  no  contradiction  between  sensenexperienoe 
that  the  permanent  ehment,  which  they  called  Being,  and  intellectual  knowledge:  the  metephysical  prinei- 
alone  existe,  and  that  c'^Ange,  motion,  and  multiplicity  pies  of  things  are  known  by  abstraction  from  those 
are  illusions.  Ileraclitus,  on  the  other  hand,  reached  individuating  qualities,  whidi  are  presented  in  sense- 
the  conclusion  that  what  mind  reveals  is  change,  which  knowledge;  the  knowledge  of  them  is  ultimately 
alone  is  real,  whUe  permanency  is  only  apparent,  is,  in  empirical,  and  not  to  be  explained  by  an  intuition 
fact,  an  illusion  of  the  senses.  Thus,  these  thinkers  which  we  are  alleged  to  have  enjoyed  in  u  previous 
thrust  into  the  foregroimd  the  problem  of  change  and  existence.  In  the  essence  of  material  things  Aristotle 
permanency.  Thev  themselves,  were  not,  however,  further  distinguished  a  twofold  principle,  namely  the 
wholly  free  from  the  limitations  which  confined  the  Form,  which  is  the  source  of  pcnection,  determinate- 
earlier  lonians  to  a  physical  view  of  the  problems  of  ness,  activity  and  of  all  positive  qualities,  and  the 
philosophy.  They  formulated  metaphysical  principles  Matter,  which  is  the  source  of  imperfection,  indetermi- 
of  realitv,  but  both  in  the  language  which  they  used  nation,  passivity  and  of  all  Ihe  limitations  and  priva- 
and  in  tne  mode  of  thought  which  they  adopted,  they  tions  of  a  thing.  Coming  now  U>  the  *x)rderl^d  of 
seemed  to  be  unable  to  nae  above  the  consideration  of  metaphysics  and  physics,  Aristotle  defined  the  nature 
matter  and  material  principles.  Nevertheless,  they  of  causality,  and  distinguished  four  supreme  kinds  of 
did  immense  service  to  metaphysics  by  bringing  out  cause.  Material,  Fomud,  Efficient  and  Final  (see 
clearly  the  problem  of  change.  Causb).    In  addition  to  these  contributions  to  the 

Socrates  was  primarily  an  ethical  teacher.    Still,  in  solution  of  the  problem  of  change,  r/hich  had.  by  hi»* 

linring  the  foimdation  of  ethics  he  formulated  a  theory  torical  evolution,   become  the  central  problem  of 

of  knowledge  which  had  immediate  application  to  the  metaphysics,  Aristotle  contributed  to  metaphysics  a 

problem  of  metaphysics.    He  taught  that  the  contrast  discussion  of  the  nature  of  Beins  in  general,  and  drew 

and  apparently  irreconcilable  contradiction  between  up  a  scheme  of  classification  of  filings  which  is  known 

the  veraict  of  the  mind  and  the  deliverance  of  the  as  his  system  of  Categories.   He  is  lea^  satisfactory  in 

senses  disappear  if  we  determine  the  scientific  condi-  his  treatment  of  the  problem  of  the  existence  and 

tions  of  true  knowledge.    He  held  that  these  condi-  nature  of  God,  a  question  in  which,  as  he  himself 

tbns  are  summed  up  in  the  processes  of  induction  and  admits,  all  metaphysical  speculation  culminates, 
definition.    His  conclusion,  therefore,  ib,  that  out  of        After  the  time  of  Aristotle,  philosophy  among  the 

the  data  of  the  senses,  which  are  contingent  and  par-  Greeks  became  centred  in  problems  of  human  destiny 

ticular,  we  may  form  concepts,  which  are  the  elemente  and  human  conduct.    The  Stoics  and  the  Epicureans, 

of  true  scientific  knowledge.    He  himself  applied  the  who  were  the  chief  representatives  of  this  tendency^ 

doctrine  to  ethics.  devoted  attention  to  questions  of  metaphysics,  only  m 

Plato,  the  pupil  of  Socrates,  carried  the  Socratic  so  far  as  Ihey  considered  that  such  ouestions  may  in- 
teaching  into  tiie  region  of  metaphysics.  If  knowledge  fluence  human  happiness.  As  a  result  of  this  subordi- 
through  concepts  is  the  only  true  Imowledge,  it  follows,  nation  of  metaphysics  to  ethics,  the  pantheistic  mate- 
says  Plato,  that  the  concept  represente  the  only  reality,  rialism  of  the  Stoics  and  the  materialistic  monism  of 
and  all  the  reality^  in  the  object  of  our  knowledge,  the  Epicureans  fall  far  short  of  the  perfection  which 
The  sum  of  the  reality  of  a  thing,  is  therefore  the  Idea,  the  doctrines  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  attained.  Con- 
Corresponding  to  the  internal,  or  psychological,  world  temporaneously  with  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  schools, 
of  our  concepts  is  not  only  the  world  of  our  sense  expe-  a  new  school  of  Platonism,  generall:^  called  Neo- 
rience  (the  snadow-world  of  phenomena),  but  also  the  Platonism,  interested  itself  very  much  in  problems  of 
world  of  Ideas,  of  which  our  world  of  concepte  is  only  asceticism  and  mysticism,  and,  in  connexion  with 
a  reflection,  and  the  world  of  sense  phenomena,  a  these  problems,  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  drift  of  meta- 
shadow  merely.  That  which  makes  anything  to  be  physical  speculation.  The  Neo-Platoniste,  influenced 
what  it  is,  the  essence,  as  we  should  call  it,  is  the  Idea  by  the  monotheism  of  the  Orientals,  and,  later  by  that 
of  that  thing  existing  in  the  world  above  us.    In  the  of  the  Christians,  took  up  the  task  of  explaining  how 


METAPHYSICS  231  MITAPHTSIGS 


pbysical,  originateB  trom  a  material  source.    At  the  psychology  became  accessible  m  Latin,  that  scholastic 

same  time,  wey  ascribed  to  the  spiritualised  Ideas  metaphysics  rose  to  the  dignity  and  proportions  of  a 

which  they  called  Sal/Mva  (spirits)  all  actuality,  Intel-  system.    By  way  of  exception,  John  tne  Scot  (see 

ligenoe,  and  force  in  the  wholauni  verse.   These  intelli-  fjRiuGENA),  as  early  as  tne  first  half  of  the  ninth 

genoes  were  derived,  they  said,  from  the  One  b^  a  century,  developed  a  highly  wrought  system  of  meta- 

prooess  of  emanation,  which  is  akin  to  the  "streaming  ph^rsical  speculation  characterized  by  idealism,  pan* 

lorth''  of  light  from  the  illuminating  body.   This  sjrs-  theism,  and  Neo-Platonic  mysticism.   In  the  eleventh 

tern  of  metaphsrmcs  teaches,  therefore,  that  the  One,  century  the  school  of  Chartres,  under  the  influence  of 

and  intelli^ncee  derived  from  the  One,  are  the  only  Platonism,  discussed  in  a  metaphysical  spirit  the  prob* 

positive  pnnciples,  while  matter  is  the  only  negative  lems  of  the  nature  of  reality  and  the  origin  of  the 

principle  of  things.  This  is  the  system  which  was  most  universe. 

widely  accepted  in  pagan  circles  during  the  first  cen-  The  philosophy  of  the  thirteenth  century,  repre- 

turies  of  the  Christian  era.  sented  by  Alexander  of  Hales,   St.   Bonaventure, 

(3)  Early  Chri^ian  PhUoaophy. — ^The  first  heretics  Roger  Bacon,  Albert  the  Great,  St.  Thomas,  and  Duns 
among  the  Christian  thinkers  were  influence !  in  their  Scotus,  accorded  to  metaphysics  its  place  as  the 
philosophy  by  Neo-Platonism.  For  the  most  part,  science  which  completes  and  crowns  the  efforts  of  the 
they  aaopted  the  Gnostic  view  (see  Gnosticism)  that  mind  to  attain  a  knowledge  of  things  human  and  di« 
in  tne  last  appeal,  the  test  of  Christian  truth  is  not  the  vine.  It  acknowledged  the  importance  of  the  relation 
official  teaching  of  the  Church  or  the  exoteric  doctrine  which  metaphysics  Dears,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the 
pi  ibe  gospels,  but  a  secret  gnosis,  a  body  of  doctrine  other  portions  of  philosophy,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
imparted  oy  Christ  to  the  diosen  few.  This  body  of  to  the  science  of  theoloey.  Fundamentally  Aristoto- 
doctrine  was  in  reality  a  modified  Neo-Platonism.  Its  lean  in  its  conception  of  method  and  scope,  the  meta* 
most  salient  point  was  the  theory  that  evil  is  not  a  physics  of  the  golden  age  of  scholasticism  departed 
creation  of  God  but  the  work  of  tne  devil.  The  prob-  from  Aristotle's  teaching  onl^  to  suppl]^  the  defects 
lem  of  evil  thus  came  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  and  correct  the  faults  which  it  detected  in  Aristotle's 
the  philosophical  systems  of  orthodox  Christian  think-  philosophy.  Thus,  it  worked  out  on  Aristotelean  lines 
ers  down  to  the  time  of  St.  Augustine.  Other  prob*  the  proDlems  of  person  and  nature,  substance  and  ao- 
lems,   too,   claimed  special  attention,  notably  the  cident,  cause  and  effect;  it  took  up  and  carried  to 

auestion  of  the  origin  of  the  universe.    From  the  higher  systematic  development  St.  Augustine's  recon- 

geological  controversies  concerning  the  mysteries  of  ciliation  of  evil  with  the  goodness  of  God ;  it  elabo- 

the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  arose  the  discussion  rated  in  detail  the  question  of  the  nature  of  matter  and 

of  the  meaning  of  nature,  substance,  and  person.  From  the  origin  of  the  universe  by  God's  creative  act.    At 

all  these  sources  sprang  the  Christian  Keo-Platonism  the  same  time,  the  metaphysics  of  the  schools  was 

of    the   great  Alexandrian  School,  which  included  obliged  to  face  new  problems  which  were  thrust  on  the 

Clement  and  Origen,  and  the  later  phase  of  Christian  attention  of  the  schoolmen  b^  the  exegetical  and  edu- 

Platonism  exemplified  by  St.  Augustine.   In  the  phi-  cational  activity  of  the  Arabians.    Thus,  it  drew  the 

losophy  of  St.  Augustine  we  have  the  greatest  con-  line  of  distinction  between  Theism  and  Pantheism,  dis* 

structive  effort  <xL  the  Christian  mind  during  the  cussed  the  question  of  fatalism  and  free  will,  and  re- 

Patiistic  Era-,  It  is  a  philosophy  which  centres  in  the  jected  the  Arabian  interpretation  of  Aristotle  which 

problems  arising  from  the  nature  of  God,  and  the  jeopardized  the   doctrine  of  personal  immortality. 

nature  and  destinv  of  the  human  soid.    The  most  Towards  the  end  of  the  scholastic  period  the  appear- 

crucial  of  these  problems  is  that  of  the  existence  of  evil,  ance  of  the  anti-metaphysical  nominalism  of  Ocknam, 

How  can  evil  exist  in  a  world  created  and  governed  by  Durandus,  and  others  had  the  effect  of  driving  some  oi 

a  God,  Who  is  at  once  supremelv  good  and  all-power-  the  later  schoolmen  to  adopt  an  extreme  a  pnorism  in 

ful?    Rejecting  the  Bianichean  tneoi^  that  evil  nas  an  philosophy,  which  more  than  any  other  single  cause 

origin  distinct  from  God,  St.  Augustme  devotes  all  his  contributed  to  bring  about  the  antagonism  between 

efforts  to  showing,  from  the  nature  of  evil,  that  it  does  metaphysics  and  natural  science,  which  marks  the  era 

not  demand  a  duect  efficient  act  on  the  part  of  God.  of  scientific  discovery.    This  condition,  though  wide- 

but  ovljf  a  permissive  act,  and  that  thijs  toleration  ol  spread,  was  not,  however,  universal.    Men  like  Snares 

evil  is  justified  b^  the  gradation  of  beings  whidi  re-  and  other  ereat  commentators  continued  down  to  the 

suits  from  the  existence  of  imperfection,  and  which  is  seventeenth  century  to  present  in  their  metaphysical 

essential  to  the  harmcmy  and  variety  of  the  universe  in  treatises  the  best  traditions  of  the  scholasticism  of  the 

general.^  Another  question  which  attains  a  good  deal  thirteenth  century. 

of  prominence  in  St.  Augustine's  metaphysics  is  that  (5)  Modem  Philosophy, — ^At  the  beginning  of  the 

of  the  origin  of  the  world.   All  things,  he  teaches,  were  modem  era  we  find  a  divergence  of  opinion  concerning 

created  at  the  beginning,  material  creatures  as  well  as  the  scope  and  value  of  meUiphysical  speculation.    On 

angels,  and  the  subsequent  appearance  of  plants,  ani-  the  one  hand.  Bacon,  while  himself  retaining  the  name 

mals,  and  men  in  a  chronological  series  is  merely  the  metaphysics  to  designate  the  science  of  the  essential 

development  in  time  of  those  "seeds  of  things"  which  properties  of  bodies,  is  opposed  to  the  metaphysical 

were  implanted  in  the  material  world  at  the  beginning,  philosophy  of  the  scholastics,  and  chiefly  because  that 

However.  St.  Augustine  is  careful  to  make  an  excep-  philosophy  eave  too  much  prominence  to  final  causes 

tion  in  tne  case  of  the  individual  human  soul.    He  and  the  study  of  the  mind.    On  the  other  hand,  Des- 

avoida  the  doctrine  of  pre-existence  which  Origen  Bad  cartes,  while  declaring  that  ''philosophy  is  a  tree, 

taught,  and  maintains  that  the  individual  soul  origi-  which  has  metaphysics  for  its  root",  understands  that 

nates  at  the  same  time  as  the  body,  although  he  is  not  the  science  of  metaphysics  is  based  exclusively  on  the 

grepared  to  decide  definitively  whether  it  originates  data  of  the  subjective  consciousness.    Spinoza  ao- 

Y  a  distinct  creative  act  or  is  derived  from  the  souls  cepts  this  restriction,  implicitly  at  least,  although  his 

of  the  child's  parents  (see  Traducianism).  explicit  aim  in  philosophy  is  ethical,  namely  to  pre- 

(4)  Medieval  Philosophy, — ^The  first  scholastic  phil-  sent  that  view  ot  reality  which  will  lead  to  the  deliver- 
osophers  devoted  their  attention  to  the  discussion  of  ance  of  the  soul  from  Ixmdage.  Leibniz  takes  a  more 
logical  problems  arising  out  of  the  interpretation  of  objective  view.  He  tries  to  adopt  a  definition  of  real- 
the  texts  which  were  studied  in  the  schools,  such  as  ity  which  will  reconcile  the  idealism  of  Plato  with  the 
Forphyiy's  "JaajSQ$d''f  w4  Boethius'9  translatioii  of  ^ults  pf  scientific  r^s^arohi  and  he  aims  at  hannoiU* 


METAPHYSICS                           232  IBTAPHTSICS 

log  the  materialism  of  the  atomists  with  the  spiritual-  the  question,  What  is  reality?  is  manifestly  a  step 

ism  of  the  scholastics.    Locke,  by  limiting  aU  our  towards  a  rehabilitation  of  metaphysics.    An  analysis 

knowledge  to  the  two  soiu*ces,  sensation  and  refleetiony  of  reality  is  followed  inevitably  oy  an  attempt  to  syn- 

precludes  the  possibility  of  metaphysical  speculation  thesize.    The  pragmatic  synthesis,   natumlv,  wiU 

oevond  the  facts  of  experience  and  of  consciousness:  have  for  its  founcbtion  neither  the  law  of  identity, 

in  fact,  he  maintains  (Essay,  IV,  8)  that  all  metaphysi-  that  being  is  being,  nor  the  law  of  contradiction,  t^t 

cal  formuhe,  when  tney  are  not  merely  tautological  being  is  not  not-being,  but  some  principle  o(  "value", 

and,  therefore  ''trifling",  have  only  a  hypothetical  akin  to  that  oi  the  WerthrTheorie  of  Lotie.    Of  quite 

value.    This  line  of  thought  is  taken  up  by  Hume,  special  interest  is  the  attempt  on  the  part  of  Professor 

who  emphatically  declares  that  "  it  is  impossible  to  go  Koyoe  to  interpret  reidity  in  terms  of  'Moyaltv  ".  With 

beyond  experience",  and  by  Mill,  who  maintains  the  the  exception,  then,  of  Trendelenbuie  s   '  (Studies", 

hsrpothetical  nature  of  all  so-called  necessaiy  truth,  and  critical  expositions  of  the  text  of  Aristotle,  the 

mathematical  as  well  as  metaphysical.    The  same  only  philosophical  literature  in  recent  times  which 

'  position  is  taken  by  the  French  sensists  and  material-  adopts  the  Aristotelean  view  of  the  nature  and  scope 

ists  of  the  eighteenth  centurv.     Berkelev,  although  of  metaphysics,  is  that  which  has  come  from  the  pens 

his  professed  aim  was  merely  'to  remove  the  mist  and  of  the  Neo-Scholastics.    The  Neo-Scholastic  doctrine 

veil  of  words"  which  hindered  the  clear  vision  of  the  on  at  least  one  point  in  metaphysics  is  given  in  the  fol- 

truth,  passed  from  empirical  immaterialism  to  a  sys-  lowing  paragraph. 

tern  of  Platonic  mysticism  based  on  the  metaphysical  Vin.  Doctrinb  of  Being. — ^The  three  ideas  which 

principle  of  causality.  are  most  important  in  any  system  of  metaphysics  are 

Beginning  With  Kant,  the  question  of  the  existence  Being,  Substance,  and  Cause.  These  have  a  decisive 
and  scope  of  metaphysical  science  assumes  a  new  influence,  and  may  be  said  to  determine  the  character 
phase.  Metaphprsics  is  now  the  science  which  claims  of  a  metaphysical  system.  Substance  and  Cause  are 
to  know  things  m  themselves,  and  as  Kant  sees  it,  all  treated  elsewhere  under  separate  titles  (see  Cause  and 
post-Cartesian  metaphysics  is  wrong  in  its  starting-  Substance).  It  will,  therefore,  be  sufficient  here  to 
point.  Kant  holds  that  both  the  empiricist's  rejection  give  the  outlines  of  the  scholastic  doctrine  of  Being, 
of  metaphysics  and  the  dogmatist's  defence  of  it  are  which,  indeed,  is  the  most  fundamental  of  the  three, 
wrong,  'fne  empiricist  is  wrong  in  asserting  that  we  and  decides,  so  to  speak,  beforehand,  what  the  scho- 
cannot  go  bevona  experience:  the  dogmatist  is  wrong  lastics  teach  r^rdii^  Substance  and  Cause, 
in  affirming  that  we  can  go  beyond  experience  by  means  (1 )  Description  of  Being, — Being  cannot  be  defined : 
of  the  theoretical  reason.  The  practical  reason,  the  (a)  because  a  definition,  according  to  the  scholastic  for- 
faculty  of  moral  consciousness,  can  alone  take  us  be-  mula,  must  be  "  by  proximate  genus  and  ultimate  dif- 
yond  experience,  and  lead  us  to  a  knowledge  of  things  in  ference  " ,  and  Being,  having  the  widest  extension ,  can- 
themselves.  Practical  reason,  therefore,  or  the  moral  not  be  included  in  any  genus ;  (b)  because  a  definition  is 
law,  of  which  we  are  immediately  conscious,  is  the  only  the  analysis  of  the  comprehension  of  a  concept,  and 
foundation  of  metaphysical  science.  The  successors  Bein£[,  having  the  least  comprehension,  is,  as  it  were, 
of  Kant,  namely,  fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Schopen-  indivisible  in  its  comprehension,  resisting  all  efforts  to 
hauer.  and  Von  Hartmann,  no  matter  how  much  they  resolve  it  into  simpler  thought  elements.  Neverthe- 
may  aiffer  in  other  respects,  hold  that  the  aim  of  meta-  less,  Being  may  be  described.  The  word  "Being'', 
physics  is  to  attain  tne  ultrarempirical,  or  absolute,  taken  either  as  a  participle  or  as  a  noim,  has  reference 
reality,  whether  this  be  called  self  (Fichte),  the  abso-  to  the  "act"  of  existence.  Whatever  exists,  theie- 
lute  01  indifference  (Schelling),  the  dynamic  abso-  fore,  is  a  Being,  whether  it  exists  in  the  mind  or  out- 
lute,  spirit  or  Idea  (Hegel),  the  Will  (Schopenhauer),  side  the  mind,  whether  it  is  actual  or  only  potential, 
or  the  Unconscious  (Von  Hartmann).  Another  whether  it  requires  a  subiect  in  which  to  innere  or  is 
croup,  the  empiro-critics,  who  also  acknowledge  their  capable  of  subsistine  witnout  a  subject  of  inherence, 
dependence  on  Kant,  assign  to  metaphysics  we  task  Thus,  the  broadest  division  of  Being  is  into,  notional, 
of  discussing  the  fimoamental  principles  of  knowledge  which  exists  onlv  in  the  mind  {ens  raiionis),  and,  real, 
by  means  of  a  critical  examination  of  experience.  Fi-  which  exists  inaependentlv  of  the  created  mind  (ent 
nally,  there  is  among  German  philosophers  of  our  own  reale).  Real  Beine  is  further  divided  into  the  poten- 
day,  an  inclination  to  use  the  word  metaphysics  to  tial  and  the  actual.  This  is  an  importuit  point  of 
designate  any  view  of  reality  which,  transcending  the  scholastic  teaching,  which  is  sometimes  overlooked  in 
limi&  of  the  particular  sciences,  strives  to  coinoine  the  exposition  and  still  more  in  the  criticism  of  scho- 
and  relate  the  results  of  those  sciences  in  a  synthetic  lasticiam.  For  the  scholastics,  the  real  worid  extends 
formula  (Weltanschauungl,  far  beyond  the  actual  world  of  our  experience  or  even 

Ekiglisn  philosophers  either  define  metaphysics  in  of  possible  experience.    Beyond  the  realm  of  actually 

terms  of  mental  pnenomena,  as  Hamilton  does,  or  re-  existing  thing^  they  see  a  world  of  tendencies,  poten- 

strict  its  field  of  mquiiy  to  tne  problem  of  the  value  of  cies.  and  possibilities  which  are  truly  real.    The  oak  is 

knowledge,  thus  confounding  it  with  epistemology,  or  really  present,  though  only  potentially,  in  the  acorn; 

so  over  to  the  Hegelian  point  of  view  that  metaphys-  the  pamtins  is  really,  though  only  potentially,  present, 

ics  is  the  science  of  the  ^nesis  and  development  of  in  the  mind  of  the  artist;  and  so,  in  every  case,  before 

dynamic  categories  of  reality.  The  evolutionist  school,  the  effect  becomes  actual  it  is  really  present  in  the 

represented  bv  Herbert  Spencer,  while  they  deny  the  cause  in  the  measure  in  which  its  actual  existence  de- 

cogencv  of  'metaphysical  reasonings",  attempt  a  pends  on  the  cause. 

cenenu  synthesis  of  all  truth  under  the  evolutionist  (2^  Relation  of  Being  to  other  Concepts, — Scholastic 

formula,  which  is  in  reality  metaphysics  in  disguise,  psychology,  adopting  Aristotle's  doctrine  that  all  our 

Their  enort  in  this  direction  is,  at  least,  an  acknowl-  ideas  are  acouired  through  the  senses,  teaches  that  the 

edgement  of  the  justice  of  the  scholastic  claim  that  first  knowleage  which  we  acquire  is  sense-knowledge, 

there  must  be  a  hegemonic  science  which  imifies  and  Out  of  the  material  furnished  hv  the  senses  the  mind 

co-ordinates  in  an  articulate  system  the  conclusions  elaborates  ideas  or  concepts.    'Tne  first  of  these  ideas 

of  the  various  sciences,  and  which  corrects  the  ten-  is  the  most  general,  the  poorest  in  representative  con- 

dencies  of  those  sciences  towards  a  specialisation  tent,  namely,  the  idea  of  "Being".    In  this  sense, 

which  ends  in  fragmentation.  therefore,  the  idea  of  bein{^,  or,  more  correctly,  per- 

In  so  far  as  pragmatism,  represented  by  James,  haiw,  the  idea  of  ''somethmg",  is  the  fint  of  all  oar 

Dewey,  and  Schiller,  rejects  absolute  truth,  it  may  be  ideas. 

said  to  cut  the  ground  from  under  metaphysics.  Turning,  now,  to  the  logical  relation,  how.  ask  the 

Nevertheless,  the  latest  phase  of  pragmatism,  m  which  scholastics,  is  the  idea  of  Being  predicated  of  the 

Interest  is  shifted  from  uie  epistemoTogical  problem  to  lower,  or  less  general  concepts,  sucn  as  substance,  acci- 


1IITAPHT8IC8 


233 


1IITAPH78IC8 


dent,  b«dy,  plant,  tree,  etc.?  In  the  first  place,  the 
predicate  oeing  is  never  imivocally  affirmed  of  lower 
concepts,  because  it  is  not  a  ^nus.  Neither  is  it  pred- 
ieateci  equivocally,  because  its  meaning  when  predi- 
cated of  substance,  for  example,  is  not  entirely  distinct 
from  its  meaning  when  predicated  of  accident.  The 
predication  is,  therefore,  analo«;ical.  What,  then,  is 
the  relation,  in  comprehension,  between  Being  and  the 
lower  concepts?  It  is  obvious  that  the  lower  concept 
has  greater  comprehension  than  Being.  But  can  it  oe 
said  that  the  lower  concept  adds  to  the  comprehension 
of  Being?  Manifestly,  that  is  impossible,  oecause  if 
an3rthing  distinct  from  being  is  added  to  beizijg,  what  is 
added  is  "nothing",  and  there  is  no  addition.  The 
schoolmen,  therefore,  teach  that  the  lower  concept 
simply  brinps  out  in  an  explicit  manner  a  mode  or 
modes  of  beins  which  are  contained  implicitly  but  not 
expressed  in  the  higher  concept,  Being.  The  compre- 
hension, for  exampte,  of  substance  is  greater  than  that 
of  being.  Nevertheless  it  is  not  correct  to  say  that. 
Substance  s=  Bein^  +  a;  for  if  a  is  distinct  from  the 
term  Being,  to  which  it  is  added,  it  must  be  Nothing. 
The  truth,  then,  is  that  Substance  brings  out  explic* 
itlv  a  mode  (namely  the  power  of  existing  without  a 
subject  in  wnich  to  inhere)  which  is  neither  explicitly 
affirmed  nor  explicitly  denied  but  only  implicitly  con- 
tained in  the  concept  of  Beinp. 

(3)  Being  and  Nothing. — BemgN  therefore,  has  a  com- 
prehension, which,  though  it  is  tne  least  of  all  compre- 
hensions, is  definite.  It  is  not  a  bare,  empty  concept, 
and,  therefore,  equal  to  "nothing",  as  the  Hegelians 
teach.  This  doctrine  of  the  scholastics  is  the  line  of 
demarcation  between  Aristoteleanism  on  the  one  hand 
and  Hegelianism  on  the  other.  Aristotle  teaches  that 
being  hka  a  definite  comprehension,  that,  therefore, 
the  fundamental  law  of  thought  as  well  as  the  basic 
principle  of  reality  is  the  identity  of  Being  with  itself: 
Being = Being,  A  is  A,  or  Everything  is  what  it  is. 
Hegel  does  not  deny  that  this  Aristotelean  principle  is 
true.  He  holds,  however,  that  Being  has  an  mde- 
te^^linate^pomprehension,  a  comprehension  which  is 
dynamic  or,  as  it  were,  fiuent.  Therefore,  he  says, 
the  principle  Being = Being,  A  is  A,  or  Everything  is 
what  it  is,  is  only  part  of  the  truth,  for  Being  is  also 
equal  to  Nothing,  A  =  not- A,  Everything  is  its  oppo- 
site. The  full  truth  is:  Being  is  Becoming;  no  static 
or  fixed  formula  is  true -everything  is  constantly  pass- 
ing into  its  opposite.  The  consequences  which  follow 
from  this  fundamental  divergence  of  doctrine  regard- 
ing Being  are  enormous.  Not  the  least  serious  of 
these  IS  me  Hegelian  conclusion  that  all  reality  is 
dynamic  and  that  God  Himself  is  a  process. 

(4)  Being y  Existence,  and  Essence, — As  wisdom  {sapir 
entia)  is  that  by  which  a  person  is  wise  {sapere),  so  es- 
sence {essentia)  is  that  by  which  a  thing  is  (esse).  If 
one  inquires  what  is  the  intrinsic  cause  of  a  person 
being  wise,  the  answer  is,  wisdom;  if  one  asks  what  is 
the  intrinsic  cause  of  existence,  the  answer  is,  essence. 
Essence,  therefore,  is  that  by  which  a  thine  is  what  it 
is.  It  IS  the  source  of  all  the  necessary  and  imiversal 
properties  of  a  thing,  and  is  itself  necessary,  univer- 
sal, eternal,  and  imchanseable.  The  act  to  which  it 
refers  is  existence,  in  the  same  way  as  the  act  to 
which  wisdom  refers,  is  the  exercise  of  wisdom  {sc^ 
pere).  Both  existence  and  essence  are  realities,  the 
one  in  the  entitative  order,  the  other  in  the  quiddative 
order.  Of  course,  the  existence  of  a  notional  being 
(ens  raiionis)  is  only  notional;  its  essence,  too,  is  no- 
tional. But  in  the  case  of  a  real,  created  Being,  the 
existence  is  one  kind  of  reality,  a  real  actualit^r,  and 
the  essence  is  another  kind  of  reality,  a  reality  in  the 
potential  order.  This  doctrine  of  the  real  distinction 
between  essence  and  existence  in  real  created  beings 
is  not  admitted  by  all  scholastic  philosophers.  Snares, 
for  instance,  and  his  school,  hold  that  the  distinction 
is  only  loeical  or  notional;  the  Scotiats,  too,  maintain 
that  the  owtinction  in  question  is  less  than  real.   The 


Thomists.  on  the  contrarv,  hold  that  in  God  alone  e^ 
sence  and  existence  are  identical,  that  in  all  creatures 
there  is  a  real  distinction,  because  in  creatures  exist- 
ence is  participated,  diversified,  and  multiplied,  not  by 
reason  of  itself  but  by  reason  of  the  essence  which  it 
actualizes.  There  is  much  controversy  not  only  over 
the  question  itself,  but  also  concerning  the  interpreta^ 
tion  of  the  words  of  St.  Thomas,  although  there  seems 
very  little  ground  for  denying  that  in  the  work  "  De 
Ente  et  Essentia"  the  Angelic  Doctor  holds  a  real  dis- 
tinction between  essence  and  existence. 

(6)  Transcendental  Properties  of  Being. — Equally  ex- 
tensive with  the  concept  of  Being  are  the  concepts 
good,  true,  one,  and  beautiful.  Everv  being  is  good, 
true,  one,  and  beautiful,  in  the  metaphysical  sense,  or 
as  tne  scholastics  expressed  it.  Being  and  Good  are 
convertible,  Being  and  True  are  convertible,  etc. 
(Bonum  et  ens  convertuntur,  etc.).  Goodness,  in  this 
sense,  means  the  fullness  of  entity  or  perfection  which 
belongs  to  each  being  in  its  own  order  of  existence; 
truth  means  the  correspondence  of  a  thing  to  the  idea 
of  it,  which  exists  in  the  Divine  Mind ;  oneness  means 
the  lack  of  actual  division,  and  beautv  means  that 
completeness,  harmony  or  symmetry  of  essential  na- 
ture which  is  only  an  aspect  of  truth  and  goodness. 
These  properties,  goodness,  truth,  oneness,  and  beauty, 
are  caUed  transcendental,  because  they  transcend,  or 
exceed  in  extension,  all  the  lower  classes  into  which 
reality  is  divided. 

(6)  The  Categories. — Real  Being  is  divided  (not  by 
strict  lo«cal  division,  but  by  a  process  analogous  to 
it)  into  Finite  and  Infinite.  Finite  Being  is  divided 
into  the  supreme  genera.  Substance  and  Accident. 
Accident  is  further  divided  into  Qiiantity,  Quality, 
Relation,  Action,  "Passion",  Place,  Tune,  Posture, 
and  Habit  (or  possession).  These  nine  Accidents, 
together  with  the  supreme  genus,  substance,  are  the 
ten  Aristotelean  Categories  into  which,  as  supreme 
classes,  all  Being  is  divided. 

I.  Arzstotblban  Mbtaprtsios: — ^Abistotlb,  Metaj^Mies  in 
the  Berlin  edition,  AriatoteHa  Opera  Orace  M  LoHne  CBeiiin, 
1823-7).  tr.  McMahon  (London,  1878»  New  York,  1887),  tr. 
Ross  (Oxford,  1008);  oommentaries  by  9t.  Thomas,  8.  Thoma 
Opera  Omnia.  XXIV  (Paris,  1875):  Stlvester  Maurus,  Arts- 
Mdi*  Opera  (Rome,  1068),  etc.;  Wallace,  Ovtlinea  ofPhiL  of 
Ariat.  ((^mibridge.  1894);  Fiat,  Ariatote  (Paris.  1003). 

II.  Scholastic  Mbtaphtsics: — St.  Thomas,  op.  ct(.,  and  De 
Ente  et  Eeaentia,  with  Cajxtan'b  oommentary,  in  Qtuuiionea 
IHepp.,  TV  (Rome,  1883)^  Scarhz,  Diapp.,  Metaphyaiea  in 
Opera  Omniat  XxV  (Pans,  1866);  schoLastic  manuals,  Zx- 

GUARA,    LXBERATORB,    LoRKNZBLU;    VaLLST,    RbINSTADTLBR, 

Qredt,  Hickkt,  etc.,  in  Latin:  Harpbr,  Metaphueice  of  the 
SehooU  (3  vols.,  London,  1879-84) ;  Rickabt,  Qeneral  Metaphye- 
ice  (London,  1890);  Hill,  EUmenia  of  Phuoaophu  (Baltimore, 
1873):  MsRciSR,  Ontologie  (Lou vain,  4th  ed.,  1905);  Outbbr- 
UBT,  AUgemeine  Mdaphyaik  (Manster,  1906). 

III.  Hbobuan:— H«rer«  Werke  (18  vols.,  Berlin,  1832-40); 
Haldanb,  Pathway  to  Reality  (2  vols.,  London,  1903);  Brax>- 
LBT,  Appearance  and  Reality  (London,  1902);  Siirukg,  The 
Secret  of  Hegel  (London,  1865);  McTaooart,  Ahaolute  Rdati^ 
iam  (London.  1887). 

IV.  The  following  include  psychology  and  epistemology  in 
Metaphsrsics:  Hamilton,  Lecturea  on  Metaphyaica  (4  vols., 
EdinDurgh,  1859,  London,  1861);  Hodgson,  The  Metaphyaica  of 
Experience  (4  vols..  New  York,  1898);  Fullbrton,  Syatem  of 
Metaphyaica  (New  York,  1904);  Lado,  Theory  of  Reality  (New 
York,  1899). 

V.  Various  Teni>encibs: — Bownb,  Metaphyaica  (New  York, 
1808);  Taylor,  Elementa  of  Metaphyaica  (London.  1903): 
Dat,  Ontological  Science  (New  York.  1878) ;  Ribhl,  Seienee  and 
Metaphyaica.  tr.  Fairbanks  (London,  1894):  Lons,  Melar- 
phyaxk,  tr.  Bosanqxtbt  (2  vols.,  London,  1887);  James,  A 
Pluraliatie  Univerae  (New  York,  1909);  Schiller,  Studiea  in 
Humaniatn  (London,  1903);  Rotce,  PhUoaopku  of  Loyalty  (New 
York,  1908).  Ck>nsult  also,  the  various  "Intxx>duotions'%  for 
example,  KClpb,  Introduction  to  PhUoaophy,  tr.  Pillsburt  and 
TrrcHNER  (London,  1901);  Watson,  Oidline  of  Philoaophu*  2nd 
ed.  (Olasgow,  1898);  Paulsen,  hUrodudion  to  PhUoaophy,  tr. 
Thillt  (New  York,  1898);  Marvin,  Introduction  to  Suatematie 
PhUoaophy  (New  York,  1903);  Lado,  Introduction  to  Philoaop^ 
(New  York.  1901). 

VI.  HurroRT  or  METAPHrnos: — Von  Hartmann,  Oeaeh.  der 
Meiaphyaik  (3  vols..  Berlin,  1899-1900):  Willmann,  Oeach.  dea 
Idealtamu*  (3  vols.,  Brunswick,  1894-97);  and  general  htstories 
of  Philosophy,  such  as,  St5ckl,  Hiatory  of  Phuoaophy*  tr.  Fnr- 
LAT  (Dublin,  1888-1903);  Turnbr,  Hietory  of  PhUoaophy  (Bos- 
ton, 1903). 

William  Tubnkr. 


BCKtASTASIO                          234  BOTlMPflTCHOSlS 

Hotutulo,   PiBTRo,   Italian  poet,   b.  at  Rome,  of  the  community  left  Ampleforth  to  cstabM  i 

1698;    d.  at  Vienna,  1782.    Of  humble  origin,  hia  monastery  at  Prior  Park,  near  Bath.     On  13  March, 

father,  once  a  Papal  soldier,  was  later  a  pork-butcher;  1830,  the  Holy  See  authorized  them  to  transfer  their 

Metastaaio  was  p^ced  in  tne  shop  of  a  goldsmith  to  obedience  to  the  vicar  Apostolic;  a  httle  later,  owing 

learn  his  craft.     B^  some  chance  he  attracted  the  to  some  misunderstanding,  they  were  seculatized.    la 

attention  of  the  jurtaeonsult  and  litterateur,  Vincenio  IS-II  Father  Metcalfe  was  made  chaplain  to  Sir  E. 

Gravina,  who  took  him  in  charge,  and  Grscizing  his  Mostyn,  of  Talacre,  Flint,  and  soon  acquired  a  kno\d- 

name  of  Trapassi,  into  the  synonymous  Uelastasio,  edge  of  the  Welsh  language,  so  as  to  minister  1o  the 

Eve  him  a  solid  education.    At  his  death  in  1718  lie  Welsh  population.     After  nve  years  he  was  transfemd 

t  to  his  prolig^a  considerable  sum  of  money,  which  toNewport,andin  1844  to  Bristol.  Arrangements  were 

the  latter  soon  dissipated.     Then  he  was  compelled  to  almoet  completed  for  his  re-admission  into  the  Bene, 

apprenticehinuelf  at  Naples  toa  lawyer,  who,  however,  dictines  in  1847,  when  an  outbreak  of  fever  in  Leeds, 

found  the  apprentice  roure  prone  to  write  verses  than  inspired  him  to  offer  his  services  to  the  bishop  ot  thai 

to  study  le^l  codes.     The  beginning  of  Metastasio's  city;  he  hastened  to  the  pla^e-stricken  populace,aDd 

real  career  is  marked  by  the  composition,  at  the  re-  in  a  short  time  fell  a  victim  to  the  epidemic.    His 

quest  ot  the  Viceroy  of  Naples,  of  his  musical  drama,  principal  works  ate:  a  Welsh  translation  of  Challoner's 

the    "Orti    Espe-  two  works,  "Think  well  on  "t"  and  "The  Garden  of  the 

ridl",  which    had  Soul"  (Llyfr  Gweddi  y  Catholig);   also  " Crynoed  o'r 

signal   success.  AthrawiEethCristionogol"  (Rhyl,  1866). 

The    leading    part  Git-low,  Bioe.  Dirt,  of  Eiie.CiUM.;  DBlman'tMiimme,\.K; 

thereinwasplayed  rft^TofiW.  IV,  700;  Sh.™«.,  ii™».««««  a/P™- f.* 

by  the  famous  ao-  A.  A.  MacEiu.ean. 
tress,  la  Romanina 

(Marianna   Benti-  HoteUopoUi,  a  titular  see  of  Phirgia  Pacatiana,  io 
Bulgarelli).      She  Asia  Minor.   The  inscriptions  make  Icnown  a  Phrygian 
at    onoe     became  town  named  Motella,  which  name  is  connected  with 
attached     to    the  the  Phrygian  feminine  proper  name  Hotalis  and  the 
young  poet,  com-  Cilician  masculine  Molales,  as  also  with  Hutalli,  or 
missioned  him  to  Mutallu,  the  name  of  an  ancient  Hittite  king  of  North- 
write  a  new  plav,  em  Commagene.    One  of  these  inscriptions  was  found 
the    "Didone  au-  in  the  village  of  Medele,  in  the  vilayet  of  Broussa, 
bandona ",       had  which  evidently  preserves  the  ancient  name.    Motella 
him  taught  music  seems  to  be  the  town  which  Hieroclcs  (Synecdemus, 
byanoted  teacher,  663,  6]  calls  Pulcherianopolis;  it  mav  be  supposed  lo 
and  took  him   to  have  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  Dishopric  by  the 
Rome  and  to  Ven-  Empress  Pulcheria  (414-53).    Shortly  before  553,  per- 
ice  with  her  on  her  haps  in  535,  Justinian  raisnl  Hierapolis  to  metropoli- 
PiBTBo  Mbtakabio                  professional  tours,  tan  rank,  and  attached  to  it  a  certain  number  of 
At   Vienna    the    Italian     melodramatist,    Apostolo  suffragan   sees   previously   dependent   on   I«odicea. 
Zeno,  was  about  to  relinquish  his  post  as  imperial  Among  these  the  "Notitife  Episcopatuum "  mention, 
poet,    and    in   1730  he   recommended   that  Metas-  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century, 
tasio    be    appointed    his  successor.     With  this  rec-  this  same  Motella,  which  they  call  Metellopolis,  and 
ommendation  and  with  the  aid   ot  the  Countess  of  even  once  Metallopolis.    An  inscription  informs  us  of 
Althann,  who  remained  bis  patroness  during  her  life-  Bishop   Michael,   m   556;     and   another,   of   Bishop 
time,  he  obtained  the  appointment.     Thereafter,  and  Cyriacus,  perhaps  in  567.    At  the  Council  of  Nicsa, 
especially  during  the  decade  between  1730  and  1740,  787,  the  see  was  represented  by  Eudoxius,  a  priest  and 
Metastaaio   was  engaged  in  the  composition  of  his  monk.    Bishop  Michael  attended  the  two  councils  of 
many   melodramas   (over   seventy  in   number),   his  Constantinople  in  869  and  879. 

oratorios,  cantate,  canzonette,  etc.     Among  the  most  I-i;  Qoibn,   Orirnt  ChrutiaHu»,l,  825  (veiy  ineompWtl: 

noted  of  his  meiodramas-which  announce  the  com-  »Y^^'  '^"^  "^  B"*"*™*  "/'''"««.  !«.  "1.  1*1,  168, 

ing    opera— are:     "Endimione",    "Orti    Esperidi",  g,  PtTHinfca 
"Galatea",  "Angelica",  "Didone",  "Siroe  ,  "Ca- 

tone",      "Artaserse",      "Adriano",      "Demetrio",  HetempjiychoBll  (Gr.  n«r4  l/ufnixat.     Lat.  mttemp- 

"Issipile",    " Demofoonte",    "ClemcMa    di    Tito",  tydtosia:   Fr.  jtietempsydioxe:   Ger.  tedetiwanderung), 

,"Semitaraide",  "01impinde","Temistocle",  and  the  in    other   words    the    doctrine   of    the   transmigra- 

"Attilio  Regolo".     The  last-named  is  regarded  as  his  tion  of  souls,  teaches  that  the  same  soul  inhabits  in 

masterpiece.     All  the  pieces  of  Metastaaio  took  the  succession  the  bodies  of  difTerent  beings,  both  men 

popular  fancy,  chiefly  because  he  sedulously  avoided  and  animals.     It  was  a  tenet  common  to  many  sys- 

aU  unhappy  denouements,  and,  enlivening  his  elfica-  tema   of    philoeophic    thought   and    religious   beuef 

cious  dialogue   with   common   sense  aphorisms,    he  widely  separated  from  each  other  both  gecgraphicall; 

combined  them  with  arias  and  ariettas  that  appealed  and  historically.     Although  in  modem  timee  it  is  as- 

to  the  many.     His  Letters  are  important  in  connexion  sociated  among  civilized  races  almoet  exclusively  with 

with  any  study  of  his  artistic  development.  the  covintriea  of  Asia  and  particularly  with  India,  there 

The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Paris,  1780-  is  evidence  that  at  one  period  or  another  it  has  Qoui^ 

82.    Additions  are  found  in  the  Opere  Poaiurne, Vienna,  ished  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world ;  and  it  still  pre- 

1705.    (See  also  the  editions  of  Florence,  1820  ana  vails  in  various  forms  among  savage  nations  scattered 

1826).  His  letters  were  edited  by  Carducci  (Bologna,  over  the  globe.     This  univeiBality  seems  to  naark  it 

1883),  and  by  AntonaTraversi  (Rome  1886.)  as  one  of  those  spontaneous  or  instinctive  beliefs  by 

J.  M.  D,  Ford  which  man's  nature  responds  to  the  deep  and  urcent 
problems  of  existence ;  whilst  the  numerous  and  richly- 

HatCftUa,  Edward,    b.  in  Yorkshire,  1792;   d.   a  varied  forms  which  it  assumes  m  different  systems, 

martyr  of  charity  at  Leeds,  7  May,  1847,     Heentered  and  the  many-coloured  mythology  in  which  it  hu 

the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Ampleforth  in  1811,  and  clothed  itself,  show  it  to  be  capable  ot  powerfully  ap- 

was  ordained  five  years  later.     He  distinguished  him-  pealing  to  the  imagination,  and  of  adapting  iteelf  with 

Kit  eariy  as  a  linguist.     From  1822  to  1824^  he  served  great  versatility  to  widely  different  types  of  mind, 

on  the  mission  at  Kilvington.     About  this  time,  at  the  The  explanation  ot  this  success  seems  to  lie  partly  in 

request  of  Bishop  Baines,  be  and  some  other  members  its  being  an  expression  of  the  fundamental  behet  in  im- 


llITDiPSTGHOSn 


235 


1IITEBSP87CH0SX8 


mortality,  partly  in  its  oomprehensiveQeeSi  binding 
together,  as  for  the  most  part  it  seems  to  do,  ail  indi- 
vidual existenoes  in  one  single,  unbroken  scheme; 
partly  also  in  the  uniestrainecTliDerty  which  it  leaves 
to  the  mjrthologising  fancy. 

HisTOBT. — Egypt. — Herodotus  tells  us  in  a  well- 
known  passage  that  "the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to 
assert  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  that  it  passes 
on  the  death  of  the  body  into  another  animal ;  and  that 
when  it  has  eone  the  round  of  all  forms  of  life  on  land, 
in  water,  ana  in  air,  then  it  once  more  enters  a  human 
body  bom  for  it;  and  this  cycle  of  the  soul  takes  place 
in  three  thousand  vears"  (ii.  123).  That  the  doctrine 
first  originated  with  the  Egyptians  is  unlikely.  It  al- 
most oertainly  passed  f rom£^ypt  into  Greece,  but  the 
same  belief  haa  sprung  up  independently  in  manv  na- 
tions from  a  veiv  early  date.  The  accounts  of  Egyp- 
tiaa  metempsvchosis  vary  considerably:  indeed  sucn  a 
doctrine  was  bound  to  imdeigo  modifications  accord- 
ing to  changes  in  the  national  religion.  In  the  **  Book 
of  the  Dead^',  it  is  connected  with  the  notion  of  a  judg- 
ment after  death,  transmimition  into  inf r^-human 
forms  being  a  punishment  Tor  sin.  Certain  animals 
were  recognized  by  the  Esprptians  as  the  abode  of 
specially  wicked  persons  anowere  on  this  account,  ac- 
cording to  Plutarch,  preferred  for  sacrificial  purposes. 
In  Herodotus'  account  given  above,  this  ethical  note 
18  absent,  and  transmigration  is  a  purely  natural  and 
necessary  cosmic  process.  Plato's  version  mediates 
between  these  two  views.  He  represents  the  Egyp- 
tians as  teaching  that  ordinary  mortals  will,  after  a 
cycle  of  ten  thousand  years,  return  to  the  human  form, 
but  that  an  adept  in  philosophy  may  hope  to  accom- 
plish the  process  in  three  thousand  years.  There  was 
also  a  pantheistic  form  of  Egyptian  metempsychosis, 
the  inaividual  beiujg  regardeoas  an  emanation  from  a 
single  univeisal  prmciple  to  which  it  was  destined  to 
return  after  having  completed  its  "  cycle  of  necessity  ". 
There  are  traces  of  this  doctrine  of  a  cosmic  cycle  in 
the  Foiurth  Eclogue  of  Veigil.  It  has  been  thought 
that  the  custom  of  embalnung  the  dead  was  connected 
with  this  form  of  the  doctrine,  the  object  beins  to  pre- 
serve the  bodv  intact  for  the  return  of  the  som.  It  is 
grobable,  indeed,  that  the  belief  in  such  a  return 
elped  to  confirm  the  practice,  but  it  can  hardly  have 
provided  tiie  sole  motive,  since  we  find  that  other  ani- 
mals were  also  freouently  embalmed. 

Greece,  as  alreaay  stated,  probably  borrowed  the 
theory  of  transmigration  from  Egypt.  According  to 
tradition,  it  had  oeen  taught  by  Musseus  and  Or- 
pheus, and  it  was  an  element  of  the  Oiphic  and  other 
mystic  doctrines.  Pindar  represents  it  in  this  rela- 
tion (cf.  2nd  01.  Ode).  The  mtroduction  of  metemp- 
BjTchosis  as  a  philosophical  doctrine  is  due  to  Pvthago- 
ras,  who,  we  are  told,  gave  himself  out  as  iaentical 
with  the  Trojan  hero  Euphorbos,  and  added  copious 
detaHs  of  his  subsequent  soul-wanderings.  V^ta- 
rianism  and  a  general  regard  for  animals  was  the 
practusal  Pythagorean  deduction  from  the  doctrine. 
Plato's  metempsychosis  was  learnt  from  the  Pytha- 
goreans. He  ^ve  the  doctrine  a  philosophic  stand- 
ins  such  as  it  never  before  possessed;  for  Plato 
ttcnibits  the  most  elaborate  attempt  in  the  history  of 
philosophy  to  find  in  the  facts  of  actual  experience 
justification  for  the  theoiv  of  the  pre-existence  of  the 
souL  In  particular,  sundry  arguments  adopted  later 
on  to  prove  immortality  were  employed  by  nim  to  es- 
tablisn  pre-existence.  Such  were  the  proofs  from  uni- 
versal cognitions  and  the  natural  attraction  of  the  soul 
towards  the  One,  the  Permanent,  and  the  Beautiful. 
Plato  ascribes  to  these  arguments  a  retrospective  as 
well  as  a  prospective  force.  He  seeks  to  show  that 
learning  is  but  a  form  of  reminiscence,  and  love  but 
the  desire  for  reunion  with  a  once-possessed  good. 
Man  is  a  fallen  spirit,  "full  of  foigetfulness".  His 
sole  hope  is,  by  means  of  education  and  philosophy,  to 
nocnrer  his  memory  of  himself  and  of  truth,  and  tnus 


free  himself  from  the  chains  of  irrationality  that  bind 
him.  Thus  onl v  can  he  hasten  his  return  to  his  "  true 
fatherland  "  ana  his  perfect  assimilation  to  the  Divine. 
N^lect  of  this  will  lead  to  further  and  perhaps  per- 
manent degradation  in  the  world  beyond.  The  wise 
man  will  luive  an  advantageous  transmigration  be* 
cause  he  has  practised  prudence,  and  the  choice  of  his 
next  life  will  oe  put  into  his  own  hands.  The  vicious, 
ignorant,  and  passion-blinded  man  will,  for  the  con- 
trary reason,  find  himself  bound  to  a  wretched  ex- 
istence in  some  lower  form.  Plato's  scheme  of  me- 
tempsychosis is  conspicuous  for  the  scope  it  allows  to 
human  freedom.  The  transmigration  of  the  individual 
soul  is  no  mere  episode  of  a  universal  world-move- 
ment, predestined  and  unchangeable.  Its  course  is 
really  influenced  by  character,  and  character  in  turn  is 
determined  by  conduct.  A  main  object  of  his  theory 
was  to  guarantee  personal  continuity  of  the  soul's  life, 
the  point  in  whicn  most  other  systems  of  transmigra- 
tion fail.  Besides  Plato  and  Pythagoras,  the  chief 
Srofessors  of  this  doctrine  among  the  Greeks  were 
Impedocles,  Timseus  of  Locri,  ancfthe  Neoplatonists, 
none  of  whom  call  for  detailed  notice.  Apollonius  of 
Tyana  also  taught  it. 

India. — ^The  doctrine  of  transmigration  is  not  found 
in  the  oldest  of  the  sacred  books  of  India,  vis.,  the  Rig- 
Veda*  but  in  the  later  works  it  appears  as  an  unoonr 
tested  dogma,  and  as  such  it  has  been  received  by  the 
two  great  religions  of  India.  (1)  Brahmanism. — In 
Brahmanism,  we  find  the  doctrine  of  world-cycles,  of 
annihilations  and  restorations  destined  to  recur  at 
enormous  intervals  of  time;  and  of  this  ^neral  move- 
ment the  fortunes  of  the  soul  are  but  an  mcident.  At 
the  same  time,  transmigrations  are  determined  by 
moral  worth.  £}very  act  nas  its  award  in  some  future 
life.  By  irreversible  law,  evil  deeds  b^et  unhappi- 
ness,  sooner  or  later;  these,  indeed,  are  nothing  else 
but  the  slowly-ripened  fruit  of  conduct,  which  every 
man  must  eat.  Thus  they  explain  the  anomalies  of 
experience  presented  in  the  misfortunes  of  the  good 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked:  each  is  "eating  the 
fruit  of  his  past  actions  ",  actions  done  perhaps  in  some 
far-remote  existence.  Such  a  belief  may  tend  to  pa- 
tience and  resignation  in  present  suffering,  but  it  has  a 
distinctly  unpleasant  effect  upon  the  Brahmanical  out- 
look on  the  future.  A  pious  Brahman  cannot  assuro 
himself  of  happiness  in  his  next  incarnation ;  there  mav 
be  the  penalty  of  great  unknown  sin  still  to  be  faced.. 
Beatitude  is  imion  with  Brahma  and  emancipation 
from  the  series  of  births,  but  no  degree  of  actual  holi- 
ness can  guarantee  this,  since  one  is  always  exposed  to 
the  danger  of  being  thrown  back  either  by  sin  past  or 
sin  to  come,  the  fruit  of  which  will  have  to  be  eaten, 
and  so  on,  we  might  be  tempted  to  imagine,  ad  tn/i- 
nitum.    Hence  a  great  fear  of  re-incarnation  prevails. 

(2)  Buddhism. — ^Brahminism  is  bound  up  with 
caste,  and  is  therefore  strongly  aristocratic,  insisting 
much  on  innate  superiorities.  Buddhism,  on  the  con- 
trary, cuts  through  caste-divisions  and  asserts  the 
paramount  importance  of  "works",  of  individual 
effort,  though  always  with  a  backgroimd  of  fatalism 
wluch  the  denial  of  a  personal  Providence  entails. 
According  to  the  Buddhist  doctrine,  the  ambition  to 
rise  to  the  summit  of  existence  must  infallibly  be  ful- 
filled; and  the  mission  of  Guatama  was  to  teach  the 
way  to  its  attainment,  i.  e.,  to  Buddhaship  and  Nir- 
vana. It  is  only  through  a  long  series  of  existences 
that  this  consummation  can  be  reached.  Guatama 
himself  had  as  many  as  five  hundred  and  fifty  trans- 
mijntttions  in  various  forms  of  life. 

The  characteristic  feature  in  Buddhistic  metemp- 
sychosis is  the  doctrine  of  Karma,  which  is  a  subtle  sub- 
stitute for  the  conception  of  personal  continuity. 
According  to  this  view  it  is  not  the  concrete  individu- 
ality of  the  sold  that  survives,  and  migrates  into  a  new 
life,  butonlv  the  karma,  or  action,  i.  e.,  the  sum  of  the 
man's  deeds,  hie  merits,  the  ethical  resultant  of  his 


MITElfPSTCHOSIS 


236 


MITElfPSTCHOSIS 


previous  life,  its  total  value,  stripped  of  its  former 
individuation,  which  is  regarded  as  accidental.  As 
the  karma  is  greater  or  less,  so  will  the  next  transmi- 
gration be  a  promotion  or  a  degradation.  At  times 
the  degradation  may  be  so  extreme  that  karma  is 
embodied  in  an  inanimate  form,  as  in  the  case  of  Gua- 
tama's  disciple  who.  for  negligence  in  his  master's 
service,  was  reduced  after  death  to  the  form  of  a 
broomstick. 

Laier  Jewish  Teaching, — ^The  notion  of  soul-wander- 
ing is  familiar  to  the  Jewish  Rabbins.  They  distin- 
guish two  kinds  of  transmigrations,  (1)  QUgvl  Neahor 
meth,  in  which  the  soul  was  tied  down  to  a  life-tenancy 
of  a  single  body:  (2)  Ibbur,  in  which  souls  may  inhabit 
bodies  h^/r  temporary  possession  without  passing 
through  birth  and  death.  Josephus  tells  us  that  trans- 
migration was  a  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees,  who  taught 
that  the  righteous  should  be  allowed  to  return  to  hfe, 
while  the  wicked  were  to  be  doomed  to  eternal  impris- 
onment. It  was  their  gloomy  conception  of  ShMl,  Ulro 
the  gloomy  Greek  conception  of  Hades,  that  forced 
them  to  this  shift  for  a  compensation  to  virtue.  On 
the  other  hand  some  of  the  Talmudists  invoke  endless 
transmigration  as  a  penalty  for  crime.  The  descrip- 
tions of  the  soul's  journeys  over  land  and  sea  are 
elaborated  with  a  wealth  of  imagination,  frequently 
verging  on  the  grotesque.  The  retributive  purpose 
was  rigorously  maintained.  "If  a  man  hath  com- 
mitted one  sin  more  than  his  good  works,  he  is  con- 
demned to  transformation  into  some  shape  of  lower 
life."^  Not  only  so,  but  if  his  guilt  had  been  extreme, 
he  mi^ht  be  doomed  to  an  inanimate  existence.  The 
foUowmg  is  a  sample  of  what  awaits  the  "guiltiest  of 
the  guilty''.  "The  dark  tormentors  rush  after  them 
with  goads  and  whips  of  fire;  their  chase  is  ceaseless; 
they  hunt  them  from  the  plain  to  the  mountain,  from 
the  mountain  to  the  river,  from  the  river  to  the  ocean, 
from  the  ocean  round  the  circle  of  the  earth.  Thus  the 
tormented  fly  in  terror,  and  the  tormentors  follow  in 
vengeance  until  the  time  decreed  is  done.  Then  the 
doomed  sink  into  dust  and  ashes.  Another  beeinninf 
of  existence,  the  commencement  of  a  second  trial, 
awaits  them.  They  become  clav,  they  take  the  nature 
of  the  stone  and  the  mineral;  tney  are  water,  fire,  air; 
thev  roll  in  the  thunder;  they  float  in  the  cloud;  they 
rush  in  the  whirlwind.  They  change  again ;  they  enter 
into  the  i^pes  of  the  vegetable  tribes;  they  live  in  tiie 
shrub,  the  nower,  the  tree.  Ages  on  ages  pass.  An- 
other change  comes.  Thev  enter  into  the  shape  of  the 
beast,  the  bird,  the  fish,  the  insect.  .  .  .  Then  at  last 
they  are  suffered  to  enter  into  the  rank  of  human  be- 
ings once  more."  After  still  further  probations  in 
various  grades  of  human  life,  the  soul  will  at  length 
oome  to  inhabit  a  child  of  Israel.  If  in  this  state  it 
should  fall  again,  it  is  lost  eternally. 

How  far  these  and  such  like  descriptions  were  reaUv 
believed,  how  far  they  were  conscious  fable,  is  difficult 
to  determine.  That  there  was  a  fairly  widespread  be- 
lief in  the  doctrine  of  pre-existence  in  some  form, 
seems  likely  enough. 

Christian  Ages. — St.  Jerome  tells  us  that  metemp- 
sychosis was  a  secret  doctrine  of  certain  sectaries  in  lus 
day,  but  it  was  too  evidently  opposed  to  the  Catholic 
doctrine  of  Redemption  ever  to  obtain  a  settled  foot- 
ing. It  was  held,  however,  in  a  Platonic  form  by  the 
Gnostics,  and  was  so  taught  b^  Origen  in  his  great 
work,  lUpl  dpxi^K  Bodily  existence,  according  to 
Origen,  is  a  penal  and  unnatural  condition,  a  punish- 
ment for  sin  committed  in  a  previous  state  of  bliss,  the 
grossness  of  the  sin  bein^  the  measure  of  the  fall. 
Another  effect  of  that  sin  is  inequality;  all  were 
created  equal.  He  speaks  only  oi  rational  creatures, 
vis.,  men  and  demons,  the  two  classes  of  the  fallen. 
He  does  not  seem  to  have  considered  it  necessa^  to 
extend  his  theory  to  include  lower  forms  of  life.  Pun- 
ishment for  sin  done  in  the  body  is  not  vindictive  or 
eternal,  but  temporal  and  remedial.   Indeed,  Origen's 


theory  excludes  both  eternal  punishment  and  eternal 
bliss;  for  the  soul  which  has  oeen  restored  at  last  to 
union  with  God  will  apin  infallibly  decline  from  its 
high  state  through  satiety  of  the  good,  and  be  again 
refeeated  to  material  existence;  and  so  on  through 
endfess  cycles  of  apostasy,  banishment,  and  return  (see 
Obigen).    The  Manichaeans  (q.  v.)  combine  metemp- 

SjTchosis  with  belief  in  eternal  punishment.  After 
eath,  the  sinner  is  thrust  into  the  place  of  punish- 
ment till  partially  cleansed.  He  is  then  reclaimed  to 
the  light  and  given  another  trial  in  this  world.  If 
after  ten  such  experiments  he  is  still  unfit  for  bliss 
he  is  condemned  forever.  The  Uanichsean  system 
of  metempsychosis  was  extremely  consistent  and 
thorough-going;  St.  Augustine  in  his  "De  Moribus 
ManichflBorum"'  ridicules  the  absurd  observances  to 
which  it  gave  rise.  For  traces  of  the  doctrine  in  the 
liiddle  Ages  see  articles  on  the  Albigensians  and  the 
Cathari.  These  secte  inherited  many  of  the  cardinal 
doctrines  of  Manichffianiam,  and  may  be  considered,  in 
fact,  as  Neo-Manichseans. 

Advocates  of  metempsychosis  have  not  been  want- 
ing in  modem  times,  but  there  is  none  who  speaks  with 
much  conviction.  The  greatest  name  is  Lessing,  and 
his  critical  mind  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  attracted 
to  the  doctrine  bv  its  illustrious  history,  the  neglect 
into  which  it  haa  fallen,  and  the  inconclusiveness  of 
the  argumente  used  against  it.  It  was  also  maintained 
by  Fourier  in  France  and  Soame  Jenyns  in  England. 
Leibnitz  and  others  have  maintained  that  all  souls 
were  created  from  the  bejy^inning  of  the  world;  but  this 
does  not  involve  migrations. 

Savage  Races. — ^It  remains  to  touch  very  briefly  on 
tlw  abundant  data  furnished  by  modern  anthropo- 
logical research.  Belief  in  transmigration  has  been 
found,  as  stated  above,  in  every  part  of  the  globe  and 
at  every  stage  of  culture.  It  must  have  been  almost 
uniyersal  at  one  time  among  the  tribes  of  North  Amer- 
ica, and  it  has  been  found  also  in  Mexico,  Brazil,  and 
other  parte  of  the  American  continent;  likewise  among 
the  aborigines  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands  and  manv  parte  of  Africa.  It  often 
tekes  the  form  of  a  belief  in  tne  return  of  lonf -departed 
ancestors,  and  thus  provides  a  simple  explanation  of 
the  strange  facto  of  heredity.  On  tne  birth  of  a  dbild 
the  parente  eagerly  examine  it  for  traces  of  ite  iden- 
tity, which,  when  oiscovered,  will  determine  the  name 
of  the  child  and  ite  place  in  their  affections.  Some- 
times the  mother  is  informed  beforehand  in  a  dream 
which  ancestor  of  the  house  is  about  to  be  bom  of  her. 
The  belief  in  the  soul  as  an  independent  reality  is 
common  among  savage  races.  The  departed  soul  was 
thought  to  hover  round  the  place  of  burial  at  least  for 
a  time  after  death.  Hence,  e.  g.,  amon^  the  Algon- 
quins,  if  a  speedy  return  was  desired,  as  m  the  case  of 
httle  children,  tne  body  was  buriea  by  the  wayside 
that  it  mlffht  find  a  mother  in  some  of  the  passers-by. 
A  curious  freak  of  superstition  is  the  belief  of  manv  of 
the  dark  races,  e.  g.,  in  Australia,  that  their  &ir- 
skinned  brethren  from  Europe  are  re-incarnations  of 
people  of  their  own  race.  Among  the  uneducated 
classes  of  India,  as  Sir  A.  Lyall  tells  us,  the  notion  that 
witehes  and  sorcerers,  living  or  dead,  have  the  power 
of  possessing  the  bodies  of  animals  still  prevails.  A 
similar  idea  prompted  the  Sandwich  Islanders  to  throw 
the  bodies  of  their  dead  to  the  sharks  in  the  hope  of 
thus  rendering  them  less  hostile  to  mankind. 

In  the  face  of  a  belief  at  first  sight  so  far-fetehed  and 
yet  at  the  same  time  so  widely  diffused,  we  are  led  to 
anticipate  some  great  general  causes  which  have 
worked  together  to  produce  it.  A  few  such  causes  may 
be  mentioned:  (1)  The  practically  universal  convic- 
tion that  the  soul  is  a  real  entity  distinct  &om  tJie 
body  and  that  it  survives  death;  (2)  connected  witk 
this,  there  is  the  imperative  moral  demand  for  an 
equiteble  future  retrioution  of  rewards  and  punish*' 
mcnte  in  accordance  with  good  or  ill  condu<^  here 


MBTHAM  237  BCXTH0DX8M 

« 

Tbedoctiiiie  of  tnmBmigration  satisfies  in  some  degree  known  as  the  "United  Societies".    They  bear  an 

tx>th  these  virtuaUv  instinctive  faiths.    (3)  As  men-  almost  exclusively  practical  character,  and  reauire 

tioned  above,  it  offers  a  plausible  explanation  of  the  no  doctrinal  test  of  the  candidates.    Methodfism, 

phenomena  of  heredity.    (4)  It  also  provides  an  ex-  however,  developed  its  own  theological  system  as 

planation  of  some  features  of  the  infra-rational  creation  expressed  in  two  principal  standards  of  orthodoxy. 

which  seems  to  ape  in  so  many  points  the  good  and  The  first  is  the  "Twenty-five  Articles"  of  reli^on. 

evil  qualities  of  human  nature.    It  appears  a  natural  They  are  an  abridgment  and  adaptation  of  the  Thirt^- 

acooimt  of  sudi  phenomena  to  say  that  these  creatures  nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  En^and,  and  form  tne 

are,  in  fact,  nothing  else  than  embodiments  of  the  only  doctrinal  standard  strictly  bmding  on  American 

human  characters  which  they  typify.   The  world  thus  Methodists.    Twenty-four    of    these    articles    were 

seems  to  become,  through  and  through,  moral  and  prepared  by  John  Weslev  for  the  Church  in  America 

human.   Indeed,  where  the  belief  in  a  personal  Provi-  and  adopted  at  the  Conference  of  Baltimore  in  1784. 

dence  is  unfamiliar  or  but  feebly  grasped,  some  form  The  article  which  recognizes  the  political  independence 

of  metempoychosis,  understood  as  a  idna  of  ethical  of  the  United  States  ^Art.  XXIII)  was  addea  in  1804. 

evolutionary  process,  is  almost  a  necessary  makeshift.  Hie  second  standard  is  the  first  fifty-three  of  Wesley's 

Haiu>t)  ManuoZo/BudcMim  (Lond^  published   sermons  and   his    "Notes   on   the   New 

18S3):   TradifkWM  of  the  BMinB  (QuarUtriy  Review.  April,  on  the  Bntish  Methodists  m  his  "  Deed  of  Declaration  " 

1833) ;  Max  MGuxb.  CAijw  fnm  a  Oerman  Workahop  (ixMwon,  and  accepted  by  the  "  Legal  Hundred ' '.    The  Amer- 

'^k^Si.^T^'H^L^'X  ^^'JTo^gfe  lii?ii  i<^«  Ch"«h  ^Me  not  st^tly  bound  to  them,  highly 

Ttix>r«  PrMntftM  Cii2fifr«  (London,  1871) :  Wilkinson,  A ncieni  esteems  and  extensively  uses  them.    More  funda- 


mental for  all  Methodists  than  these  standards  are 

^^Ji^'',r^iSS^!i^^:S:ri{SS^  '"""^  "^  ~  ~"  ^l^^,  Scnptures,  wWch  are  declared  by  them 

MTr;tTAiKT.  Mattikh.  ^  ^  ^^  ^^®  ^^^  sufficient  nile  of  belief  and  practice. 

The  dogmas  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Divinity  of  Jesus 
Matham,  8ib  Thomas,  knight;  confessor  of  the  Christ  are  upheld.  The  universality  of  origmal  sin 
Faith,  d.  in  Yoiic  Castle,  1573.  He  was  eldest  son  of  and  the  consequent  partial  deterioration  of  human 
Thomas  Metham,  of  Metham,  Yorkshire,  and  Grace,  nature  find  their  efficacious  remedy  in  the  universal 
dau^terof  Thomas  Pudsey,  en  Barf ord,  and  was  twice  distribution  of  grace.  Man's  free  co-operation  with 
married;  first,  to  Dorothy,  daughter  of  George,  Lord  this  Divine  gift  is  necessary  for  eternal  salvation, 
Darcy  and  Meinill,  and  tnen  to  Edith,  daughter  of  which  is  offered  to  all,  but  may  be  freely  rejected. 
Nicholas  Palmes  of  Nabum.  He  was  dubbed  a  There  is  no  room  in  Methodism  for  the  rigorous  doe- 
knight  of  the  carpet,  2  Oct.,  1553,  the  day  after  Queen  trine  of  predestination  as  understood  by  Calvinism. 
Mar3r's  coronation.  Through  his  second  son  by  his  While  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  is 
first  wife.  George,  he  was  grandfather  of  Father  tau^t,  the  performance  of  good  works  enjoined  by 
Thomas  Metham,  S.J.|  one  of  the  DUati,  By  16  God  is  commended,  but  the  doctrine  of  works  of 
August,  1565f  he  and  his  second  wife  had  been  sent  to  supererogation  is  condemned. 

gaol  *'for  contempt  of  Her  Majesty's  ordinances  con-  Only  two  sacraments  are  admitted:  Baptism  and 

oeming  the  admmistration  of  divme  service  and  the  the  Lord's  Supper.    Baptism  does  not  produce  sancti- 

sacraments".    On  6  Feb.  1569-70  an  unknown  cor-  fying  grace  in  the  soul,  out  strengthens  its  faith,  and 

respondent  writes  to  Sir  William  Cecil  from  York —  is  the  sign  of  a  regeneration  which  has  already  taken 

"  We  have  here  Sir  Thomas  Metham,  a  most  wilful  place  in  the  recipient.    Its  administration  to  infants  is 

papist,  who  utterly  refuses  to  come  to  service,  receive  commanded  because  they  are  already  members  of  the 

the  Communion  or  read  any  books  except  approved  bv  Kincdom  of  God.    The  Eucharist  is  a  memorial  of 

the  Church  of  Rome,  or  to  be  conferred  with  at  all.  the  Passion  and  Death  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  not 

He  refuses  to  be  tried  before  the  Commissioners  for  really  present  under  the  species  of  bread  and  wine, 

causes  ecclesiastical;  he  uses  the  corrupt  Louvaine  but  is  received  in  a  spiritual  manner  by  believers, 

boolu,  and  maintains  at  Louvaine  two  of  his  sons,  The  sacrament  is  admmistered  \mder  both  kinds  to 

with  whom  he  corresponds.    It  is  four  years  since  he  the  laity.    H^e  "witness  of  the  Spirit"  to  the  soul 

and  Dame  Edith,  his  wife,  were  first  committed  to  of  the  individual  believer  and  the  consequent  assurance 

ward,  since  which  he  has  oaily  grown  more  wealthy  of  salvation  are  distinctive  doctrines  of  Methodism, 

and  wilful,  and  now  seems  utterly  incorrigible.    He  Tliis  assurance  isacertaintyof  present  pardon,  not  of 

does  much  hurt  here^  and  is  reverenced  by  the  papists  final  perseverance.    It  is  experienced  independently  of 

as  a  pillar  of  their  faith.    I  caused  him  to  be  commit-  the  sacraments  through  the  immediate  testimony  of 

ted  to  the  Castle,  where  he  remains  and  does  harm,  yet  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  does  not  preclude  the  possibility 

would  have  don^  more  if  he  had  lived  at  large.    Iiyou  of  future  transgressions.  Transgressions  of  an  in  volun- 

would  be  a  means  of  his  removal,  you  would  take  tary  character  are  also  compatible  with  another  charac- 

away  a  great  occasion  of  evil  in  these  parts. "    In  1587  tenstic  doctrine  of  Methodism,  that  of  perfection  or 

Lady  Metham  was  still  a  recusant.  complete  sanctification.    The  Christian,  it  is  main- 

,oSJP^?;  ^#1%***  Pgven  Dom,  AM.  iSf-es  (London  etc..  tained,  may  in  this  life  reach  a  state  of  holiness  which 

'^\]\^Ul?fJ^'^Sl^^  excludes  all  voluntary  offen«5  against  God,  but  still 

privAtaly  pnnted,  1875),  253;  Sntrps,  MemoriaU  (Oxford,  admits  of  growth  m  grace.    It  IS  therefore  a  state  of 

1822).  in,  U.  181:  IMM.  ^»««^  (Oxford.  1824).  Ill,  ii,  697;  perfectibilSy  rather  than  of  stationary  perfection.  The 

^riSSfof  l^i?^).  fwt"'^     ^           •        '  ''"''"^  mvocation  of  saints  and  the  venemtibn  of  relics  and 

John  B.  Wainbwkight.  images  are  rejected.    While  the  existence  of  purgatory 

is  denied  in  the  Twenty-five  Articles  (Art.  XIV),  an  in- 

M0thodipn»  a   religious  movement   which   was  termediate  state  of  purification,  for  persons  who  never 

originated  in  1730  by  John  Wesley  in  the  Anglican  heard  of  Christ,  is  aamitted  to-day  by  some  Methodists. 

Church,  and  subsequently  gave  rise  to  numerous  In  its  work  ot  conversion  Methodism  is  aggressive 

separate  denominations.  and  largely  appeals  to  religious  sentiment ;  camp-meet- 

I.  Doctrinal  PosrriON  and  Peculiarities. — ^The  ings  and  revivals  are  important  forms  of  evangeliza- 

fact  that  John  Wesley  and  Methodism  considered  re-  tion,  at  least  in  America.    Among  the  practices  which 

ligion  piimarily  as  practical,  not  doematic,  probably  Wesley  imposed  upon  his  followers  were  the  strict  ob- 

aeoounts  for  we  absence  of  any  formal  Methodist  servance  of  the  Loid's  Day,  the  use  of  few  words  in 

creed.    The  "General  Rules'',  issued  by  John  and  bu^^g  and  selling,  and  abstinence  from  all  intoxi- 

Charles  Wesley  on  1  May,  1743,  stated  the  conditions  eating  drinks,  from  all  purely  worldly  amusements, 

of  admission  into  the  societies  oiganised  by  them  and  and  uom  costly  appareL    The  churcn  service  which 


•, 


METHODISM  238  BBTHODISM 

he  prepared  for  them  was  an  abridgment  and  modifica-  succeeded  John  Wesley  in  the  direction  of  the  Metho- 
tioB  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  but  it  never  came  dist  movement  and  was  originallv  composed  of  one 
into  universal  use,  sentiment  among  Methodists  being  himdred  itinerant  preachers  (the  '^ Legal  Hundred")* 
rather  unfavourable  to  any  set  form  of  liturgy.  In  At  present  it  includes  lay  dele^tes  and  meets  in  two 
America  the  ministry  is  divided  into  two  orders;  the  sections:  (a)  the  ''pastoral  session'',  which  settles  pas- 
deacons  and  the  eiders  or  presbyters ;  in  Great  Britain  torai  and  disciplinary  questions,  and  from  which  lay- 
and  her  colonies  only  one  order  exists,  the  elders,  men  are  excluded;  (b)  the  "representative  session  , 
The  name  of  bishop  used  in  the  episcopal  bodies  is  a  in  which  cler^  and  laity  discuss  financial  affairs  and 
title  of  office,  not  of  order;  it  expresses  superiority  to  external  admmistrative  (questions.  In  the  American 
elder?  not  in  ordination,  but  in  the  exercise  of  admmis-  Methodist  Episcopal  bodies  the  administrative  system 
trative  functions.  No  Methodist  denomination  rec-  is  organized  as  follows:  (1)  the  ''Quartedy  C^nfer- 
ognizes  a  difference  of  degree  between  episcopal  and  ence^  similar  in  composition  to  the  circuit-meeting, 
presbyterial  ordination.  A  characteristic  institution  It  controls  the  affairs  of  every  individual  church,  and 
of  Methodism  are  the  love-feasts  which  recall  the  agape  holds  its  deliberations  under  the  direction  of  the  "  dis- 
of  Christian  antiquity.  In  these  gatherings  of  be-  trict  superintendent"  or  his  representative;  (2)  the 
iievers  bread  and  water  are  handed  round  in  token  of  "  Annual  Conference ' ',  at  which  several ''  districts '  'are 
bro^erly  union,  and  the  time  is  devoted  to  singing  represented  by  their  itinerant  preachers  under  the 
and  the  relating  of  religious  experiences.  presidency  of  the  bishop.    It  elects  preachers,  pro- 

II.  Oroanization. — Admission  to  full  member-  nounces  upon  candidates  for  ordination,  and  enio3rs 
ship  in  the  Methodist  bodies  was  until  recently  usually  disciplinary  power ;  (3)  the  ''Quadrennial  General  Con- 
granted  only  after  the  successful  termination  of  a  six  ference",  endowed  with  the  highest  legislative  and 
months'  probationary  period.  The  Methodist  Epis-  judicial  authority  and  theri^t  of  episcopal  elections, 
copal  Church,  South,  has  completely  done  away  with  In  recent  years  the  holding  of  (Ecumenical  Methodist 
this  system.  Both  probationers  and  full  members  conferences  has  been  inaugurated.  They  are  repre- 
are  divided  into  small  bands  known  as  "classes",  sentative  assemblies  of  the  various  Methodist  denomi- 
These  hold  weekly  meetings  imder  the  direction  of  the  nations,  but  have  no  legislative  authority.  The  first 
"class-leader".  They  secure  for  each  member  individ-  conference  of  this  type  convened  in  London  in  1881. 
ual  spiritual  care  and  facilitate  the  collection  of  the  second  met  in  Washington  in  1891,  and  the  thira 
chunm  funds.  The  financial  contributions  taken  up  again  in  London  in  1901.  Toronto,  Canada,  will  be 
by  the  class-leader  are  remitted  to  the  "stewards"  of  the  meeting-place  of  the  fourth  conference  in  1911. 
the  "society",  which  is  the  next  administrative  unit.  III.  History. — (1)  In  the  British  Isles. — ^The  names 
The  "society  corresponds  to  the  parish  or  local  of  three  ordained  clergymen  of  the  An^ican  Church 
church  in  other  denominations.  The  appropriate-  stand  out  prominently  in  the  early  history  of  the 
ness  of  the  term  will  readily  appear,  if  it  be  re-  Methodist  movement:  John  Wesley,  its  author  and 
membered  that  Methodism  was  originally  a  re-  or^nizer,  Charies  Wesley,  his  brother,  the  hymn- 
vival  movement,  and  not  a  distinct  denomination,  wnter,  and  George  Whiteneld,  the  eloquent  preacher 
Several  societies  (or  at  times  only  one)  form  a  "  cir-  and  revivalist.  John  and  Charles  Wesley  were  bom 
cuit ' '.  Among  the  officially  recognized  officers  of  this  at  Epworth,  Lincolnshire,  the  former  on  17  June,  1703, 
twofold  division  are:  (1)  the  "exhorters",  who  are  and  the  latter  on  18  December,  1707  (O.S.).  In  1714 
commissioned  to  hold  meetings  for  exhortation  and  John  entered  the  Charterhouse  School  in  London,  and 
prayer;  (2)  the  "local  preachers",  laymen  who,  with-  in  1720  went  to  Oxford  to  continue  his  studies.  He 
out  renouncing  their  secular  avocation,  are  licensed  was  ordained  to  the  diaconate  in  1725,  and  chosen 
to  preach;  (3)  the  "itinerant  preachera",  who  devote  fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  the  following 
themselves  exclusively  to  the  ministry.  At  the  head  year.  His  ordination  on  22  September,  1728,  was 
of  the  circuit  is  the  superintendent.  In  some  Ameri-  both  preceded  and  followed  by  a  period  of  min- 
canMe1iiodistbranchesthe"circuit'',  in  the  sense  de-  isteriai  activity  in  his  father's  parish  at  Epworth. 
scribed,  does  not  exist.  But  they  maintain  the  division  On  his  return  to  Oxford  (22  November,  1729)  he 
into  "districts",  and  the  authority  over  each  of  these  joined  the  little  band  of  students  organised  by  his 
is  vested  in  a  "presiding  elder''  or  "district  superin-  brother  Charles  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  Scrip- 
tendent".  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  his  tures,  and  practising  their  religious  duties  with  greater 
appointment  is  limited  to  a  period  not  exceeding  six  fidelity.  John  became  the  leader  of  this  group  called 
years,  and  ia  in  the  hands  of  the  bishop.  The  latter  is  in  derision  by  fellow-students  "the  holy  club  ,  "the 
the  only  church  official  who  is  named  for  life.  The  Methodists".  It  is  to  this  that  Methodism  owes  its 
permanent  character  of  his  position  is  the  more  name,  but  not  its  existence.  When  in  1735  the  assod- 
remarkable  from  the  fact  that  "itinerancy"  has  ation  disbanded,  John  and  Charles  Wesley  proceeded 
from  the  very  beginning  been  a  distinctive  feature  to  London  where  they  received  a  call  to  repair  as 
of  Methodism.  Tniis  peculiarity  denotes  the  mis-  missionaries  to  the  Colony  of  Georgih.  They  sailed 
sionaiy  character  of  the  Wesleyan  movement,  and  from  Gravesend  on  21  October.  1735,  and  on  5  Feb- 
calls  for  the  frequent  transfer  of  the  ministers  from  ruary,  1736,  landed  at  Savannan.  The  deep  relimous 
one  charge  to  another  by  the  bishop  or  the  stationing  impression  made  upon  John  by  some  Moravian  f^ow- 
committee.  In  the  English  Wesleyan  Church  minis-  voyagers  and  a  meeting  with  their  bishop  (Spangen- 
ters  cannot  be  continued  for  more  than  three  years  in  berg)  in  Georgia  were  not  without  influence  on  Meth- 
^e  same  charge.  In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  odism.  Returning  to  England  in  1738,  whither  his 
the  pastoral  term,  originally  for  one  year  in  the  same  brother  had  preceded  him,  he  openly  declared  Uiat  he 
place,  was  successively  extended  to  two  years  (1804),  who  had  tried  to  convert  othere  was  himself  not  yet 
three  years  (1864),  and  five  yeara  (1888).  In  1900  converted.  In  London  he  met  another  Moravian, 
all  limit  was  removed.  Peter  Bdhler,  attended  the  meetings  of  the  Moravian 

The  administrative  authority  is  mainly  exercised  Fetter  Lane  Society,  and  was  converted  (i.  e.,  obtained 

by  a  system  of  assemblies,  called  meetings  or  confer-  and  experienced    saving  faith)  on  24  May,    1738. 

ences.    Among  English  Methodists  they  are:  (1)  "the  He  then  proceeded  to  Hermhut  in  Saxony  to  make  a 

Suarterly  meeting  of  the  circuit",  composed  of  all  study  of  the  chief  settlement  of  the  Moravians, 
le  ministers,  local  preachers,  class-leaders,  stewards,        In   1739  Wesley    organized    the    first    Methodist 

Sunday-school  superintendents  of  the  circuit ;  (2)  "  the  Society,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  separate  place 

district  meeting'^,  consisting  of  all  the  ministers  of  of  worship  at  Bristol,  and  also  opened  a  chapel  (The 

the  subordinate  cin  uits,  some  lay  deleeat^  and,  for  Foundry)  in  London.    As  the  pulpits  of  the  Estab- 

financial  mattera,  tl.e  stewards  and  such  oflicials;  (3)  lished  Church  were  closed  agamst  the  Wealeys  and 

the  "Annual  Conference "«  which  in   1784  legally  Whitefiekl,  the  latter  took  the  decisive  step  of  preach- 


METHODISM 


239 


MBTH0DI8M 


mg  in  the  open  air  in  the  colliery  district  of  Kingswood 
near  Bristol.  His  success  was  enormous,  and  the 
Weeleys  almost  immediately  followed  his  example. 
At  the  very  inception  of  the  Methodist  movement  an 
important  doctruial  difference  arose  between  White- 
field  and  John  Wesley  regarding  predestination.  The 
former  held  Calvinistic  views,  oelieving  in  limited 
election  and  salvation,  while  the  latter  emphasized  the 
doctrine  of  universal  redemption.  This  difference  in 
opinion  placed  a  permanent  characteristic  doctrinal 
difference  between  Arminian  Methodism  and  the  Cal- 
vinistic Lady  Huntingdon  Connexion.  Whitefield 
|Save  his  support  to  the  latter  movement  which  owed 
its  name  to  the  protection  and  liberal  financial  as- 
sistance of  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  (1707-91). 
Although  Weslev  always  intended  to  remain  within 
the  Church  of  l^gjland,  circumstances  gradually  led 
him  to  give  his  evangelistic  movement  a  separate 
orgEuoization.  The  exclusion  of  his  followers  from 
the  sacraments  by  the  Anglican  clergy  in  1740  over- 
came his  hesitation  to  administer  them  in  his  own 
meetins-rooms.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  So- 
cieties Ted  the  following  year  to  the  institution  of  the 
lay  preachers,  who  became  an  important  factor  in  the 
success  of  the  Methodist  propaganda.  Ihe  year 
1742  saw  the  creation  of  the  "  class"  system,  and  two 
years  later  the  first  annual  conference  was  held. 
Desirous  of  ensuring  the  perpetuation  of  his  work,  he 
legally  constituted  it  his  successor  in  1784.  By  a 
deed  of  declaration  filed  in  the  High  Court  of  Chian- 
oeiy,  he  vested  the  right  of  appointing  ministers 
ana  preachers  in  the  conference  composed  of  one 
hundred  itinerant  preachers.  This  "Legal  Hun- 
dred" enjoyed,  in  respect  to  the  conference,  the 
power  of  filling  vacancies  and  of  expelling  unworthy 
members.  On  the  refusal  of  the  Bishop  of  London 
to  oniain  two  ministers  and  a  superintendent  for 
America,  Wesley^  convinced  that  bishop  and  presbyter 
enjoyed  equal  rights  in  the  matter,  performed  the 
ordination  himseu  (1784). 

Important  problems  calling  for  solution  arose  im- 
mediately after  Wesley's  death.  In  the  first  place  the 
want  of  his  personal  direction  had  to  be  supplied. 
This  was  effected  in  1791  by  the  division  of  the  coim- 
tiy  into  districts  and  the  institution  of  the  district 
committees  with  full  disciplinary  and  administrative 
power  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  conference.  As  the 
administration  of  the  sacraments  by  Methodist  cler^ 
gvmen  had  not  yet  become  the  universal  rule,  the 
hurdles  that  did  not  enjoy  this  privilege  insisted  upon 
its  concession.  The  question  was  permanently  settled 
by  the  "  Plan  of  Pacification ' '  in  1795.  It  grafted  the 
right  of  administering  the  sacraments  to  all  churches 
in  whidi  the  majority  of  the  trustees,  stewards,  and 
leaders  pronounced  in  favour  of  such  practice.  The 
insistent  demand  of  Alexander  Kilham  (1762-98) 
and  his  followers  for  more  extensive  rights  for  the 
laity  received  a  temporary  and  partly  favourable  an- 
swer at  the  imi)ortant  conference  of  Leeds  in  1797. 
Lay  representation  in  the  conference  was,  however, 
emphatically  refused  and  Kilham  seceded.  Since  1878 
they  have  been  admitted  as  delegates. 

The  spread  of  liberal  opinions  was  also  at  the  bot- 
tom of  several  controversies,  which  were  intensified 
by  the  dissatisfaction  of  some  members  with  the  pre- 
ponderating influence  of  Dr.  Jabes  Bunting  (1779- 
1858)  in  the  denomination.  The  introduction  of  an 
organ  in  Brunswick  Chapel  at  Leeds  (1828)  and  the 
foundation  of  a  theological  school  for  the  formation 
of  young  preachers  (1834)  were  merely  occasions 
whidi  brought  to  a  head  the  growing  discontent  with 
Bunting  and  the  central  authority.  The  controver- 
sies which  resulted  in  these  two  cases  were  of  but  minor 
importance,  when  compared  with  the  agitation  of  the 
years  1849-56.  This  period  of  strife  witnessed  the 
circulation  of  the  so-called  "Fly-Sheets",  directed 
against  Bimting's  personal  rule,  the  expulsion  of  the 


persons  responsible  for  their  publication,  and  the  loss 
of  at  least  1(X),(X)0  members  to  the  Wesleyan  Method- 
ist Connexion.  Some  of  these  afliliated  with  mbor 
branches,  but  the  majority  was  lost  to  Methodism. 
These  controversies  were  followed  by  a  period  of  more 
peaceful  evolution  extending  to  our  own  day.  The 
mcrease  in  the  number  of  theological  seminaries  among 
British  Methodists  has  emphasized  the  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity  ana  points  to  more  complete 
internal  organization.  A  fact  which  reveals  a  similar 
tendency  is  the  institution  of  deaconesses.  They  were 
introduced  in  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  in  1890. 
(2)  Methodism  in  the  United  Statea. — The  history 
of  Methodism  in  the  United  States  does  not  date 
back  to  the  visit  of  John  and  diaries  Wesley  to  Geor- 
gia, but  begins  only  in  1766.  In  that  year  Philip 
Embury,  a  local  preacher^  at  the  request  of  Mrs. 
Barbara  Heck,  delivered  his  first  sermon  in  his  own 
house  at  New  York.  They  had  both  come  to  America 
in  1760  from  Ireland,  whither  their  Palatine  ancestors 
had  fled  from  the  aevastating  wars  of  Louis  XIV. 
Only  four  persons  were  present  at  the  first  sermon, 
but  the  number  soon  increased,  especially  after  the 
arrival   of  Captain   Thomas   Webb,   another  local 

?reacher.  The  latter  displayed  a  stirring  zeal,  and  in 
768  the  first  Methodist  chapel  in  Amenca  was  dedi- 
cated. Almost  simultaneous  with  this  introduction 
of  Methodism  into  New  York  was  its  planting  in 
Maryland.  Webb  introduced  it  in  Philadelphia,  and 
it  spread  to  New  Jersey  and  Virginia .  In  1769  Wesley, 
in  response  to  repeated  appeals  for  helpers,  sent  over 
two  preachers,  Joseph  Pumoor  and  luchard  Board- 
man  ;  others  followed,  among  them  Francis  Asbuiy 
(1771)  and  Thomas  Rankin  (1772).  The  first  con- 
ference convened  at  Philadelphia  in  1773,  recognized 
the  authority  of  John  Wesley,  and  prohibited  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments  by  Methodist  preach- 
ers. The  total  membership  reported  was  lloO.  An 
increase  was  recorded  in  the  two  succeeding  con- 
ferences, also  held  at  Philadelphia,  in  1774  and  1775 
respectivelv.  But  the  Revolution  impeded  the  pro- 
gress of  Methodism.  Owing  to  the  nationalitv  of 
most  of  its  preachers  and  to  the  publication  of  Wesley's 
pamphlet  against  the  indepenaence  of  the  colonies,  it 
was  looked  upon  as  an  English  product  and  treated 
accordingly.  When  peace  was  restored,  the  need  of  a 
separate  churdi  organization  made  itself  felt.  Wesley 
now  heeded  Asbury's  appeal  for  an  independent 
ecclesiastical  government  and  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  by  Methodist  ministers.  In  1784  he 
ordained  the  preachers  Whatcoat  and  Vasey  as  elders, 
and  Dr.  Thomas  Coke  as  superintendent  for  America. 
Coke  arrived  in  New  York  on  3  November,  1784,  and 
that  same  year  what  has  become  known  as  the  Christ- 
mas conference  was  convened  at  Baltimore.  From 
it  dates  the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Wesley's  plans  and  instructions  were  laid 
before  this  assembly,  and  his  articles  of  faith  and  his 
liturgy  adopted.  As  Asbury  refused  to  be  ordained 
without  previous  election  he  was  unanimously  chosen 
superintendent,  a  title  for  which,  against  Wesl^'s 
will,  that  of  bishop  was  substituted  in  1788.  The 
rapid  increase  of  tne  denomination  about  this  time 
is  mdicated  by  the  membership  of  66,(X)0  reported  to 
the  conference  of  1792.  The  growth  of  the  Church 
continued  with  the  increase  in  population;  but  ques- 
tions of  expediency,  race,  ana  government  caused 
secessions.  The  slavery  agitation  especially  resulted 
in  momentous  consequences  for  the  denomination. 
It  began  at  a  verv  early  date,  but  reached  a  crisis  only 
towards  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  At 
the  general  conference  held  in  New  York  in  1844, 
Bishop  J.  O.  Andrew  was  suspended  from  the  exer- 
cise of  his  office  owing  to  his  ownership  of  slaves. 
This  decision  met  with  the  uncompromising  opposi- 
tion of  the  Southern  delegates^ut  was  just  as  stcmdily 
upheld  by  its  supporters.    Tlie  withdrawal  of  "Qm 


,  T 


IfRHODXSM 


240 


mTHODIgM 


slave-holding  states  from  the  general  body  now  ap- 
peared unavoidable,  and  a  ''Plan  of  Separation"  was 
elaborated  and  accepted.  The  Southern  ddegates 
held  a  convention  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  in  1845. 
at  which  the  "Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South'' 
was  formed.  The  new  organization,  after  a  period 
of  progress,  suffered  heavuy  during  the  Civil  War. 
Since  then  the  relations  between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  branches  of  Episcopal  Methodism  ha\'e 
assumed  a  very  friendly  cnaracter.  There  is  a  lai^r 
measure  of  co-operation  particularly  in  the  forei^ 
mission  field.  A  joint  commission  on  federation  is  in 
existence  and  in  May,  1910,  it  recommended  the 
creation  of  a  federal  council  (i.  e.,  a  joint  court  of 
last  resort)  to  the  general  conference  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  Sou^. 

(3)  Methodism  in  Other  Countries, — (a)  American. — 
The  first  smostle  of  Methodism  in  Newfoundland  was 
Lawrence  Cou^ilan,  who  began  his  work  there  in  1765. 
It  was  only  in  1785,  however,  that  the  country  received  a 
regular  preacher.  The  evangelization  of  Nova  Scotia, 
where  the  first  Methodists  settled  in  1771,  was  begun 
later  (1781),  but  was  carried  on  more  systematicallv. 
In  the  year  1786  a  provincial  conference  was  held 
at  Halifax.  In  spite  of  their  early  relations  with 
American  Methodism,  Newfoundland  and  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Canada  were  after  1799  supplied  with 
preachers  from  England,  and  came  under  English 
jurisdiction.  In  1855  they  were  constituted  a  sepa- 
rate conference,  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Conference 
of  Eastern  British  America.  The  Provinces  of  On- 
tario and  Quebec  received  Methodism  at  an  early 
date  from  the  United  States.  Philip  Emburv  and 
Barbara  Heck  moved  to  Montreal  in  1774,  and  Wil- 
liam Losee  was  in  1790  appointed  preacher  to  these 
provinces  by  the  New  York  Conference.  The  War 
of  1812-4  interrupted  the  work  undertaken  by  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  this  section.  The 
settlement  of  numerous  English  Methodists  in  these 
provinces  after  the  restoration  of  peace  brou^t 
about  difficulties  respecting  allegiance  and  jurisdic- 
tion between  the  English  and  American  branches. 
The  result  was  that  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
organized  its  congregations  into  a  separate  conference 
in  1824,  and  two  years  later  grantoi  them  complete 
independence.  Immi^tion  also  brought  members 
of  ue  minor  Methodist  bodies  to  Canada:  the  Wes- 
leyan New  Connexion,  the  Bible  Christians,  and  the 
Primitive  Methodists.  But  in  1874  the  Weslejran 
Meliiodist  Church  and  the  Wesleyan  New  Connexion 
combined.  The  other  separate  bodies  joined  the 
union  a  little  later  (1883-4),  thus  forming  the ''  Meth- 
odist Church  of  Canada",  which  includes  all  the  white 
oongre^tions  of  the  Dominion.  The  "British  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  dliurch'^  which  still  maintains  a 
separate  existence,  has  only  coloured  membership. 
It  was  formerly  a  part  of  the  African  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  ana  eained  complete  independence  in 
1864.  Bermu4&i  where  Geoi^  Whitefield  preached 
in  1748  and  J.  Stephenson  appeared  as  first  regular 

£reacher  in  1799,  forms  at  present  a  district  of  the 
iethodist  Church  of  Canada.  South  America  was 
entered  in  1835,  when  the  Rev.  F.  E.  Pitts  visited  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  other  places,  and  or^n- 
ized  several  societies.  The  special  South  American 
Conference  was  established  in  1893,  and  supplemented 
in  1897  by  the  Western  South  American  Mission  Con- 
ference. Missionaiy  work  was  inaugurated  in  Mexico 
in  1873  by  WiUiam  Butler. 

(b)  European. — Methodism  was  introduced  into 
France  in  1790,  but  it  has  never  succeeded  in  getting 
a  strong  foothold  there.  In  1852  France  was  con- 
stituted a  separate  conference  afi^Iiated  to  British 
Methodism.  In  1907  the  American  C!hurch  organized 
a  mission  there.  From  France  Methodism  spread  to 
Italy  in  1852.  Some  years  later  (1861)  two  mission- 
168,  Green  and  Piggot,  were  sent  from  England  to 


Florence  and  founded  several  stations  in  Northern 
Italy.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  started  a 
missionary  enterprise  in  Italy  m  1871,  but  has  never 
attained  great  success.  The  nrst  Methodist  missionary 
to  Germanv  was  G.  Mailer.  He  started  his  preaching 
in  1830  and.  gained  some  adherents  mainly  in  WQrtem- 
bei^.  Methodist  missions  are  maintamed  also  in 
Switzerland,  Scandinavia,  Russia,  Bulgaria,  Spain, 
and  Portugal, 
(c)  Australasian,  Asiatic  and  African. — ^Methodism 
has  had  considerable  success  in  Australasia.  It  ap- 
peared at  an  early  date,  not  only  on  the  Australian  con- 
tinent but  also  in  some  of  the  ^uth  Sea  Islands.  The 
first  class  was  formed  in  Sydney  in  1812,  and  the  first 
missionary  in  the  country  was  S.  Leigh.  Methodism 
spread  to  Tasmania  in  1820,  to  Tonga  in  1822,  to  New 
Zealand  in  1823^  and  in  1835  CarigiU  and  Cross  began 
their  evanselistic  work  in  the  Fiji  Islands.  In  1854 
Australian  Methodism  was  formed  mto  an  affiliated  con- 
ference of  England,  and  in  1876  became  independent. 

The  foundation  of  the  first  Methodist  missions  in 
Asia  (1814)  was  due  to  the  initiative  of  Thomas  Coke. 
Embarkinp  on  30  December,  1813,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  six  missionaries,  he  died  on  the  voyage,  but 
the  undertaking  succeeded.  The  representatives  of 
English  Methodism  were  joined  in  1856  by  William 
Butler  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  In  1817 
this  same  CVfirch  sent  J.  D.  Collins,  M.  C.  White,  and 
R.  S.  Mac^ay  to  Cb'jia.  Stations  have  also  been 
founded  in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  in  Japan,  where 
the  Methodist  Church  of  Japan  was  organized  in  1907. 

George  Warren  left  England  for  Sierra  Leone  in  1811. 
The  American  diurch  entered  the  field  in  1833.  South 
Africa,  where  Methodism  is  particularly  well  repre- 
sented, was  erected  in  1882  into  an  affiliated  confer- 
ence of  the  Enfldish  Wesleyan  Church. 

IV.  Other  Methodist  BooiES.-^Secessions  from 
the  main  bodies  of  Methodism  followed  almost  im- 
mediately upon  Wesley's  death.  The  following  orig- 
inated in  England: 

(1)  The  Methodist  New  Connexion  was  founded  at 
Lee>  :^  in  1797  by  Alexander  Kilham  (1762-98) ;  hence 
ilH  ui(;aiber8  are  also  known  as  "Kilhamites".  It 
was  the  first  organized  secession  from  the  main  body 
of  English  Methodism,  and  started  its  separate  exist- 
ence with  5000  members.  Its  foimdation  was  oc- 
casioned by  the  conference's  refusal  to  grant  laymen 
the  extensive  rights  in  church  government  claimed 
for  them  by  Kilham.  The  sect  never  acquired  any 
considerable  importance. 

(2)  The  Primitive  Methodists,  who  met  with  greater 
success  than  the  New  Connexion,  were  organised  in 
1810.  Camp-meeting  had  been  introduced  into 
En^and  from  America,  but  in  1807  the  conference 

S renounced  -against  them.  Two  local  preadiers, 
[u^  Bourne  and  William  Clowes,  disregaiding  this 
decision,  publicly  advocated  the  holding  of  such 
meetings  and  were  expelled.  Thev  then  established 
this  new  body,  characterized  by  the  preponderating 
influence  it  grants  laymen  in  church  government,  the 
admission  of  women  to  the  pulpit,  and  great  simplicity 
in  ecclesiastical  and  private  life.  According  to  the 
"  Methodist  Year-book '' (1910)  it  has  219,343  members. 
The  Irish  Primitive  Wealeifan  Methodists  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  ''Primitive  Methodists"  just 
spoken  of.  The  former  were  founded  in  1816  by 
Adam  Averell,  and  in  1878  again  united  with  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists. 

(3)  The  Bible  Christians,  also  called  Brwmites  from 
the  name  of  their  founder  William  O'Bnran,  were 
organized  as  a  separate  sect  in  Cornwall  in  1816. 
Like  the  Primitive  Methodists,  they  grant  extensive 
influence  in  church  affairs  to  lavmen  and  liber^  of 

g reaching  to  women.    Although  they  spread  m>m 
England  to  the  colonies,  their  aggregate  memberd^p 
was  never  very  large. 

(4)  The  Wesleyan  Reform  Union  grew  out  of  the 


METHODISM 


241 


METHODISM 


eeat  Methodist  disruption  of  1850-2,  and  numbers 
out  8480  members. 

(5)  The  United  Methodist  Free  Churches  represent 
the  combination  of  the  Wesleyan  Association,  the 
Protestant  Methodists,  and  a  large  quota  of  the  seces- 
sion from  the  main  Methodist  body  caused  bv  the 
unpopularity  of  Dr.  Bunting's  rule.  The  Wesle^n 
Methodist  Association  was  or^nized  in  1836  by  Dr. 
Samuel  Warren,  whose  opposition  to  the  founclation 
of  a  theological  seminary  resulted  in  his  secession 
from  the  parent  bodv.  At  an  earlier  date  opposition 
to  the  installation  of  an  organ  in  a  church  at  Leeds 
ended  in  the  formation  of  the  "Protestant  Metho- 
dists" (1828).  These  were  the  first  to  join  the  Wea- 
leyan  Methodist  Association,  the  opponents  of  Bunt- 
ing following  in  1857. 

(6)  The  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  is  Meth- 
odist almost  solely  in  name.  As  an  evangelistic 
movement  it  chronologically  preceded  Methodism 
dating  back  to  the  preaching  of  Howell  Harris  and 
Duii^  Rowlands  in  1735-6 ;  as  an  organization  it  was 
partly  established  in  1811  b3r  Thomas  Charles,  and 
completed  in  1864  by  the  union  of  the  Churches  of 
Norw  and  South  Wales  and  the  holding  of  the  first 
General  Assembly.  Whitefield's  influence  on  Welsh 
Methodism  was  not  ofprimary  importance.  In  doc- 
trine the  church  is  Cklyinistic  and  in  constitution 
largely  Presbyterian.  It  is  to-day  frequently  called 
the  "Presbyterian  Church  of  Wales". 

In  the  United  States,  beside  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South, 
and  the  rrimitive  Methodists,  which  have  been 
spoken  of  above,  the  following  denominations  exist: — 

(1)  The  Methodist  Protestant  Church  was  founded 
on  2  November,  1830,  at  Baltimore  by  members  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  who  had  been  expelled 
or  bad  freely  withdrawn  from  that  body.  The  separa- 
tion was  due  to  the  refusal  to  extend  the  governmental 
rights  of  lavmen.  The  Methodist  Prot^tant  Church 
has  no  bishops.  It  divided  in  1858  on  the  slavery 
question,  but  the  two  branches  reimited  in  187/ 
(nimiber  of  communicants,  188,122).  This  figure  is 
given  by  Dr.  Carroll  (Christian  Advocate,  27  January, 
Kew  York,  1010),  whose  statistics  we  shall  quote  for 
all  the  Methodist  bodies  of  the  United  Stat^. 

(2)  The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Connexion  of  America 
was  organized  in  1843  at  Utica,  New  York,  by  advo- 
cates oi  a  more  radical  attitude  against  slavery  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  has  neither  episco- 
pate nor  itinerancy,  and  debars  members  of  secret 
societies  (communicants,  19,485). 

(3)  The  Congregatumai  Methodist  Church  dates  back 
to  1852;  it  sprang  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  and  is  Methodist  in  doctrine  and  con- 
gregational in  polity  (n?embership,  15,529). 

(4)  The  Free  Methodist  Church  was  organized  in 
1860  at  Pekin,  New  York,  as  a  protest  against  the 
alleged  abandonment  of  the  ideals  of  ancient  Metho- 
dism by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  There  are  no 
bishops ;  membera  of  secret  societies  are  excluded ;  the 
use  of  tobacco  and  the  wearing  of  rich  apparel  are 
prohibited  (membership,  32,166). 

(5)  The  New  Congregational  Methodists  originated 
in  Georgia  in  1881  and  in  doctrine  and  organiza- 
tion closely  resemble  the  Congregational  Methodist 
Church- (membership,  1782). 

(6)  The  Independent  Methodists  maintain  no  central 
^vemment.  Each  congregation  among  them,  en- 
joys supreme  control  over  its  affairs  (communicants, 
1161). 

(7)  The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church, 
with  which  we  begin  the  treatment  of  the  following 
exclusively  coloured  denomii)ations,  mav  be  trac^ 
back  tb  the  year  1796.  Some  coloured  Methodists  in 
New  York  organized  themsdves  at  that  date  into  a 
separate  congregation  and  built  a  church  which  they 
diiled  'fZjon'^'-    They  remained  for  a  time  imder  the 

"         X.-16 


pastoral  supervision  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  but  in  1820  formed  an  intlcpendent  Chureh 
differing  but  little  from  the  parent  body  (communis 
cants,  545,681). 

(8)  The  Union  American  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  organized  in  1813  at  Wilmington,  Delaware, 
had  for  its  founder  the  coloured  preacher,  Peter 
Spencer  (membership,  18,500). 

(9)  The  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has 
existed  as  an  independent  organization  since  1816. 
Its  foundation  was  due  to  a  desire  for  more  extensive 
privileges  and  greater  freedom  of  action  among  a 
number  of  coloured  Methodists  of  Philadelphia.  It 
does  not  differ  in  important  points  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  (memberSiip,  452,126). 

(10)  The  African  Union  Methodist  Protestant  Church 
also  dates  back  to  1816*  it  rejects  the  episcopacy, 
itinerancy,  and  a  naid  mmistry  (membership.  4000). 

(11)  The  Zion  union  Apostolic  Church  was  founded 
in  Virginia  in  1869.  In  its  organization  it  closely  re- 
sembles the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chureh  (commimi- 
cants,  3059). 

(12)  The  Coloured  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is 
merely  a  branch  of  the  Methodist  jSpiscopal  Church, 
South,  organized  independently  in  1870  for  negroes 
(membership,  233,911). 

(13)  The  Congregational  Methodists,  Coloured,  differ 
only  in  race  from  the  Congregational  Methodists 
(communicants,  319). 

(14)  The  Evangelist  Missionary  Church  was  or^n- 
ized  in  1886  in  Ohio  by  members  of  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Chureh.  It  has  no  creed 
but  the  Bible,  ana  inclines  to  the  admission  of  only 
one  person  in  God,  that  of  Jesus  Christ. 

V.  Educational  and  Social  Activities. — ^The 
founders  of  Methodism  had  enjoyed  the  advantages 
of  a  university  training,  and  must  have  realized  uie 
priceless  value  of  education.  The  fact,  however,  that 
John  Wesley  laid  almost  exclusive  stress  on  the  practi- 
cal element  in  religion  tended  to  make  a  deep  and  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  doctrinal  principles  seem  super- 
fluous. The  extraordinary  success  of  his  preaching 
which  urgently  demanded  ministers  for  the  ever- 
increasing  number  of  his  followers,  led  to  the  appoint- 
ment, in  the  early  history  of  Methodism,  of  preachers 
more  commendable  for  their  religious  zeal  than  re- 
markable for  their  theological  learning.  Indeed,  for 
a  comparatively  long  period,  the  opposition  of  Metho- 
odists  to  schools  of  tneolo^  was  pronounced.  The 
establishment  of  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in 
1834  at  Haxton,  England,  caused  a  split  in  the  denom- 
ination. At  the  present  day,  however,  the  need  of 
theological  training  is  imiversally  recognized  and 
supplira  by  numerous  schools.  In  England  the  chief 
institutions  are  located  at  Richmond,  Didsbury, 
Headingley,  and  Handsworth.  American  Methodists 
founded  their  ^rst  theological  school  in  1841  at  New- 
bury, Vermont.  It  was  removed  to  Concord,  New 
Hampshire,  in  1847,  and  has  formed  cince  1867  part 
of  Boston  University.  Numerous  other  foundations 
were  subsequently  added,  among  them  Garrett  Bibli- 
cal Irstitute  (1854)  at  Evanston,  Illinois,  and  Drew 
Theological  Seminary  (1867)  at  Madison,  New  Jersey. 
While  Methodism  has  no  parochial  school  system^ its, 
first  denominational  institution  of  learning  dates  back' 
to  1740,  when  John  Wesley  took  over  a  school  at 
Kingswood.  It  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  that  a  vigorous  educa- 
tional movement  set  in  to  continue  up  to  the  present 
day.  An  idea  of  the  efforts  made  in  this  direction  by 
Methodists  may  be  gain^  by  a  reference  to  the  statis- 
tics published  m  the  "Methodist  Yeai^Book"  (1910), 
pp.  108-13.  According  to  the  reports  there  given, 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  alone  (the  other 
branches  also  support  their  schools)  maintains  197 
educational  institutions,  including  50  coUe^  and 
universities,  47  classical  seminaries,  8  institutions  ex- 


BCETH0DZU8  242  BOTHODIUS 

olusively  for  women,  23  theolo^cal  institutions  (some  policy  of  the  Government  and  restore  the  Patriarrb 

of  them  forming  part  of  the  wuversities  already  men-  Nicephorus.    But  Michael  only  increased  the  f^rce- 

tioned),  63  foreign  mission  schools,  and  4  missionaiy  ness  of  the  persecution.    As  soon  as  Methodius  had 

institutes  and  Bible  training  schools.    An  educational  delivered  his  letter  and  exhorted  the  emperor  to  act 


ninety-two  acres  was  purchased  in  1890  in  the  suburbs  must  be  conceived  as  a  building  of  a  certain  size; 
of  Washington,  D.  C,  and  the  university  was  organ-  Methodius  lived  seven  years  in  it.  In  828  Michael  II, 
ised  the  following  year.  It  is  not  to  be  opened  in  any  not  long  before  his  death,  mitigated  the  persecution 
of  its  departments  until  its  endowment  ^'be  not  less  and  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty,  ^rofiune  by  Uiis, 
than  $5,000,000  over  and  above  its  present  real  Methodius  came  out  of  his  prison  and  returned  to  Con- 
estate".  Tlie  dissemination  of  relimous  literature  is  stantinople  almost  worn  out  by  his  privations.  His 
obtained  bv  the  foimdation  of  "Book  Concerns"  spirit  was  unbroken  and  he  took  up  the  defence  of  the 
Qocated  at  New  York  and  Cincinnati  for  the  Metho-  holy  images  as  zealously  as  before, 
dist  Episcopal  Church;  at  NashviUe,  Tennessee,  for  Michael  II  was  succeeded  by  his  son  TheophOus 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churdi  South)  and  a  periodi-  (829-^842),  who  caused  the  last  and  fiercest  persecu- 
cal  press,  for  the  publications  of  which  the  title  of  tion  of  image-worshippers.  Methodius  agam  with- 
"Aovocates"  is  particularly  popular.  The  young  stood  the  emperor  to  his  face,  was  again  scourged  and 
people  are  banded  toother  for  the  promotion  of  imprisoned  under  the  palace.   But  me  same  ni^ht  he 

g)rsonal  piety  and  charitable  work  in  tne  prosperous  escaped,  helped  by  his  friends  in  the  city,  who  hid  him 

pworth  League  founded  in  1889  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  their  house  ana  bound  up  his  wounds.    For  this  the 

for  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churdi,  and  orgEinizea  Government  confiscated  their  property.    But  seemg 

in  the  Methodist  Episco|Md  Church,  South,  in  1891.  that  Methodius  was  not  to  be  overcome  by  puni&h- 

In  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  de-  ment,  the  emperor  tried  to  convince  him  bv  argument, 

nomination  extended  its  social  work  considerably  bv  The  result  of  their  discussion  was  that  Methodius  to 

the  foundation  of  orphanages  and  homes  for  the  aged,,  some  extent  persuaded  the  emperor.    At  any  rate 

Hospit^  were  introduced  in  1881  with  the  incoxpora-  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  the  persecution  was  miti- 

tion  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Hospital  at  Brooldvn.  gated.    Theophilus  died  in  842  and  at  once  the  whole 

VI.  General  Statistics. — ^According  to  the  "Metno-  situation  was  chaneed.    His  wife.  Theodora,  became 

dist  Year-book"  (New  York,  1910)  the  Wesleyan  regent  for  her  son  Michael  III  (the  Drunkard,  842- 

Methodists  have  520,868  church  members  (incluaing  867).    She  had  always  been  an  image-worshipper  in 

?robationers)  in  Great  Britain,  29,531  in  Ireland,  secret;  now  that  she  had  the  power  she  at  once  began  to 
43^467  in  their  foreign  missions,  and  117,146  in  South  restore  images,  set  free  the  confessors  in  prison  and 
Africa.  The  Australasian  Metnodist  Church  has  a  bring  back  everything  to  the  conditions  of  the  Second 
membership  of  150,751,  and  the  Church  of  Canada  Nicene  Council  (787).  The  Patriarch  of  Constant!- 
one  of  333,692.  In  the  United  States  Methodism  (all  nople,  John  VII  (832-842),  was  an  Iconoclast  set  up 
branches)  numbers,  according  to  Dr.  Carroll,  6,477,224  by  the  late  Government.  As  he  persisted  in  his  heresy 
commimicants.  Of  these  3,159,913  belong  to  the  he  was  deposed  and  Methodius  was  made  patriarch  in 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  1,780,778  to  the  his  place  (S42;-846).  Methodius  then  helped  the  em- 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  press-regent  in  her  restoration.  He  summoned  a 
Soi Ayr.  Creeda  ofChritUndom  (New  York.  1877).  I.  M2-904 ;  synod  at  Constantinople  (842)  that  approved  of  John 
iaM%a:^r-Af^-#^^^  Virs  deposition  and  ^  own  succession.  It  had  no 
Sboth.  Hiat.  of  WeaUyan  MeihodUm  (London.  i857-«2);  Car-  new  laws  to  make  about  images.  The  decrees  of 
ROLL.  Tju  Reliaious  Forres  of  the  U.  5.  in  Amer.  Church  Hiai.  Nicaca  II  that  had  received  the  assent  of  the  pope  and 

frX<J<it?V  Jt°hV.  nS;  fe-iavf^f iS{SM:?JI?,5S:  ^^  «hole  Chu«h  »  those  of  «!  CEcumenicJl?«mca 

odiato  in  the  Story  of  the  Churches  Seriee  (New  York.  1903);  were  put  m  force  agam.     On  19  Feb.,  842,  the  miages 

AuBXANDBR.  Hiet.  oY the  Methodist  Epiecopai  Church  South  tn  were   brought   in   solemn   procession   back   to   the 

nZTofM^ri  iA^'f^^^i^u's^'S^l:  churches.  >!«  was  the  first  "  Feast  of  Orthodo^", 

Melhodiam  in  Canada  (London.  1903).  kept  Sj^am  m  memory  of  that  event  on  the  first  Sun- 

N.  A.  Weber.  day  of  Lent  every  year  throughout  the  Byzantine 

«ir*«>ii<^in«    Qat,^     q^  rsr^T    A^T^  ifiM^^T^TTTo  Church.    Methodius  then  proceeded  to  depose  Icono- 

&A?S?f          '                       ^^           Methodius,  ^^^  ^^j^^ops  throughout  Cs  patriarchateVreplacing 

0AINT8.  them  by  image-worshippers.    In  doing  so  he  seems  to 

Methodius  X.  Patriarch  of  Ccmstantinople  (842-  have  acted  severely.    An  opposition  formed  itself 

846),  defender  of  images  during  the  second  Iconoclast  against  him  that  nearly  became  an  organized  schism, 

persecution,  b.  at  Syracuse,  towards  the  end  of  the  Tne  patriarch  was  accused  of  rape;  but  the  woman  in 

eighth  century;  d.  at  Constantinople,  14  June,  846.  question  admitted  on  examination  that  she  had  been 

The  son  of  a  nch  family,  he  came,  as  a  young  man,  to  bought  by  his  enemies. 

Constantinople  intendm^  to  obtain  a  place  at  Ck>urt.  0^  13  March,  842,  Methodius  broueht  the  relics  of 
But  a  monk  persuaded  him  to  change  his  mind  and  he  his  predecessor  Nicephorus  (who  had  died  in  exile) 
entered  a  monastery.  Under  the  Emperor  Leo  V  (the  with  ereat  honour  to  Constantinople.  They  were  ex- 
Armenian,  813-820)  the  Iconoclast  persecution  broke  posecTfor  a  time  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Wisdom, 
out  for  the  second  time.  The  monks  were  nearly  all  then  buried  in  that  of  the  Apostles.  Methodius  was 
staunch  defenders  of  the  images ;  Methodius  stood  by  succeeded  by  Ignatius,  under  whom  the  ^reat  schism 
his  order  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  of  Photius  broke  out.  Methodius  is  a  samt  to  Catho- 
the  Government.  In  815  the  Patriarch  Nicephorus  I  lies  and  Orthodox.  He  is  named  in  the  Roman  Mar- 
(806-815)  was  deposed  and  banished  for  his  resistance  tyrology  (14  June),  on  which  day  the  Byzantine 
to  the  Iconoclast  laws;  in  his  place  Theodotus  I  (815-  Churcn  keeps  his  least  together  with  that  of  the 
821)  was  intruded.  In  the  same  year  Methodius  went  Prophet  Eliseus.  He  is  acclaimed  with  the  other  pa- 
to  Rome,  apparently  sent  by  the  deposed  patriarch,  to  triarchs,  defenders  of  images,  in  the  service  of  the 
report  the  matter  to  the  pope  (Paschal  I,  817-824).  feast  of  Orthodoxy:  "To  Germanus,  Tarasius,  Nice- 
He  stayed  In  Rome  till  Leo  V  was  murdered  in  820  and  phorus  and  Methodius,  true  high  priests  of  God  and 
succeeded  by  Michael  II  (820-829).  Hopins  for  bet-  defenders  and  teachers  of  Orthodoxy,  R.  Eternal 
ter  things  from  the  new  emperor,  Metnodius  then  memory  (thrice)."  The  Uniate  Syrians  have  his 
went  back  to  Constantinople  bearing  a  letter  in  which  feast  on  the  same  day.  The  Orthodox  have  a  curious 
the  pope  tried  to  persuade  Michi^l  to  change  the  legend,  that  his  prayers  and  those  of  Theodora  saved 


mtHODins 


243 


mTHYMNA 


llieoplulus  out  of  hell.    It  is  told  in  the  SynazarioD 
for  the  feast  of  Orthodoxy. 

St.  Methodius  is  reputed  to  have  written  many 
works.  Of  these  only  a  few  sermons  and  letters  are 
extant  (in  Migne,  P.  G.,  C,  1272-1325).  An  account  of 
the  martyrdom  of  Denis  the  Areopagite  by  him  is  in 
Migne,  P.  G.,  IV,  669>682,  two  sermons  onSt.  Nicho- 
las in  N.  C.  Falconius,  ''S.  Nicolai  acta  primigenia" 
(Naples,  1751),  39-74.  For  other  fraranents  and 
scholia,  see  Krumbacher,  ''Bysantinische Xitteratur" 
(Munich,  2nd  ed.,  1897),  167. 

Anonymout  Lif«ofM«lhodius'mP.  0.,C,  1244-1261 :  Loootbta* 
Commentaritu  erUico-4heoloifietu  de  Methodio  Syraeusaiw  (Ca- 
tania, 1786);  Leo  Allatxus,  De  Methodiorutn  acnptis  diatriba  in 
is.  Hippolvtt  opera  (Hamburg*  1718),  pp.  89-05;  Cavbl,  Serip- 
lorum  eccM*.  hittoria  lUerariat  II  (London,  168iB),  30;  Fabri- 
cius-Harum,  BMiot/uea  Qrmca,  VU  (Hamburg.  1790-1806), 
273-274. 

Adrian  Fortbbcue. 

BCothodiiui  of  Olympns,  Saint,  bishop  and  ecclesi- 
astical author,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  a  martjrr, 
probably  in  311.  Concerning  the  life  of  this  first 
scientific  opponent  of  Origen  very  few  reports  have 
been  handed  down;  and  even  these  short  accounts 
present  many  difficulties.  Eusebius  has  not  men- 
tioned him  in  his  '' Church  Historv",  probablv  be- 
cause he  opposed  various  theories  of  Origen.  We  are 
indebted  to  St.  Jerome  for  the  earliest  accoimts  of  him 
(De  viris  illustribus,  Izxxiii) .  According  to  him,  Metho- 
dius was  Bi^op  of  Olympus  in  Lycia  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Tyre.  But  the  latter  statement  is  not  reliable ; 
no  later  Greek  author  knows  anvthing  of  his  being 
Bishop  of  IVre ;  and  according  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl., 
VIII.  xiii),  lyrannio  was  Bishop  of  Tyre  during  the 
Diocletian  persecution  and  died  a  martyr;  after  the 
persecution  Paulinus  was  elected  bishop  of  the  city. 
Jerome  further  states  that  Methodius  sulSfered  martyr- 
dom at  the  end  of  the  last  persecution,  i.  e.,  under 
Maximinus  Daja  (311).  Although  he  then  adds, 
"that  some  assert  ,  that  this  may  have  happened 
under  Dedus  and  Valerian  at  Chalds,  this  statement 
{ui  alii  affirmant)  f  adduced  even  by  him  as  uncer- 
tain, is  not  to  be  accepted.  Various  attempts  have 
been  made  to  clear  up  the  error  concerning  the  men- 
tion of  Tyre  as  a  subsequent  bishopric  of  Methodius; 
it  is  possible  that  he  was  transported  to  Tyre  during 
the  persecuticm  and  died  there. 

Methodius  had  a  very  comprehensive  philosophical 
education,  and  was  an  important  theologian  as  well  as 
a  prolific  and  polished  author.  Chronologically,  his 
works  can  only  oe  assigned  in  a  general  way  to  the  end 
of  the  third  and  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 
He  became  of  spedai  importance  in  the  history  of 
theological  literature,  in  that  he  successfully  combated 
various  erroneous  views  of  the  great  Alexandrian, 
Origen.  He  particularly  attacked  his  doctrine  that 
man's  body  at  the  resurrection  is  not  the  same  body 
as  he  had  m  life;  also  his  idea  of  the  world's  eternity 
and  the  erroneous  notions  it  involved.  Nevertheless 
he  recognised  the  great  services  of  Origen  in  ecclesias- 
tical theology.  Like  him,  he  is  strongly  influenced  by 
Plato's  phiIos(H>hy,  and  uses  to  a  great  extent  the 
allegorical  explanation  of  Scripture.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works  only  one  has  come  down  to  us  complete  in  a 
Greek  text,  viz.,  the  dialogue  on  virginity,  under  the 
title:  "Symposium,  or  on  Virginity"  ('2vfiw6atow  1j  rtpl 
lywtUit)  m  P.  G.,  XVIII,  27-220.  In  the  dialogue, 
composed  with  xeference  to  Plato's  "Banquet",  he 
depicts  a  festive  meal  of  ten  virgins  in  the  garden  of 
Arete  (virtue),  at  which  each  of  the  parti dpators  ex- 
tols Christian  virsinity  and  its  sublime  excellence.  It 
concludes  with  a  hymn  on  Christ  as  the  Bridegroom  of 
the  Church.  Larger  fragments  are  preserved  of  sev- 
eral other  writings  in  Greek;  we  know  of  other  works 
from  oki  versions  in  Slavonian,  though  some  are  ab- 
breviated. 

The  following  works  are  in  the  form  of  dialogue:  (1) 
"On  Flee  WiQ"  (npl  roO  ah-^fyvfftw),  an  important 


treatise  attaddng  the  Gnostic  view  of  the  origin  of 
evil  and  in  proof  of  the  freedom  of  the  human  will ;  (2) 
"  On  the  Resurrection  "  (^yXa/o^QvljwtplT^  dyaffrdo'cwf), 
in  which  the  doctrine  that  the  same  body  that  man 
has  in  life  will  be  awakened  to  incon^iptibility  at  the 
resurrection  is  specially  put  forward  in  opposition  to 
Origen.  While  large  portions  of  the  original  Greek 
text  of  both  these  writings  are  preserved,  we  have  oidy 
Slavonian  versions  of  the  four  following  shorter  trea- 
tises: (3)  "De  vita",  on  life  and  rational  action,  which 
exhorts  in  particular  to  contentedness  in  this  life  and 
to  the  hope  of  the  life  to  come;  (4)  "  De  dbis".  on  the 
discrimination  of  foods  (among  the  Jews),  and  on  the 
yoimg  cow,  which  is  mentioned  in  Leviticus,  with  alle- 
goricfd  explanation  of  the  Old-Testament  food-legisla- 
tion and  the  red  cow  (Num.,  xix) ;  (5)  "  De  lepra  ",  on 
Leprosy,  to  Sistelius,  a  dialogue  between  EubuJius 
^ethodius)  and  Sistelius  on  the  mystic  sense  of  the 
Old-Testament  references  to  lepers  (Lev.,  xiii^;  (6) 
"De  sanguisuga",  on  the  leech  in  Proverbs  (Prov., 
XXX,  16  sq.)  and  on  the  text^  "the  heavens  show  forth 
the  glory  of  God"  (Ps.  xviii,  2).  Of  other  writings, 
no  longer  extant,  Jerome  mentions  (loc.  cit.)  a  volu- 
minous work  a^nst  Porphyrins,  the  Neoplatonist 
who  had  published  a  booK  against  Christuinity;  a 
treatise  on  the  "  Pythonissa  "  directed  against  Ongen, 
commentaries  on  Genesis  and  the  Canticle  of  Canticles. 
By  other  later  authors  a  work  "  On  the  Mutyrs  ",  and 
a  dialogue  "Xenon"  are  attributed  to  Methodius;  in 
the  latter  he  opposes  the  doctrine  of  Origen  on  the 
eternity  of  the  world.  New  editions  of  his  works  are: 
P.  G.,  XVIII;  Jahn,  "S.  Methodii  opera  et  S.  Metho- 
dius platonisans"  (Halle.  1865);  Bonwetsch,  "Metho- 
dius von  Olympus:  I,  Scnriften"  (Leipzig,  1891). 

Panxow,  Mdhodiua,  B%9chof  von  Oljtmmui  in  the  KathoHk 
(1887;  iasued  in  book  form,  Mains,  1888);  Bonwstbch,  Dw 


uiympua 

aehienlederi 

Haxnack,  ( 

■qq.;  Bardcnhcwbr,  Patrolom^  tr.  Shahan  (Freibu^  and  St. 

Louia,  1908),  176-8;  Kxhn,  Pairotoifie,  I  (Paderbom,  1004), 

341-351.  J.  P.  KlRSCH. 

Methnselali.    See  Mathusaia. 

Methymna,  a  titular  see  in  the  island  of  Lesbos.  It 
was  once  the  second  city  of  the  island,  and  enioyed 
great  prosperity.  In  the  Peloponnesian  War  it  played 
an  iinportant  rble  (Thucydides,  III,  ii,  18;  vi,  85;  vii, 
67;  Xenophon,  Hellen.,  I,  vi,  14),  and  m  Christian 
times  it  similarly  distinguished  itself  in  its  resistance 
to  the  Turks.  The  ancientpoets  praise  the  excellent 
wine  of  Methymna  (Virgil,  Georgics,  II,  90;  Ovid,  Are 
Am.,  I,  57;  Horace,  Sat.,  II,  8,  50;  Odes,  I,  17,  21). 
Methymna  was  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Arion  and 
probablv  also  of  the  historian  Myrsilus.  For  a  list  of 
the  bishops  of  Methvmna  see  Le  Quien,  "Oriens 
Christ.",  I,  961-64.  One  of  them,  Gabriel,  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century  united  with  Rome  (Allatius,  "De 
perpetua  consensione  ",  II,  7).  In  640  it  is  mentioned 
Dy  the  "Ecthesis"  of  pseudo-Epiphanius  as  an  auto- 
cephalous  archdiocese,  and  about  1084  was  made  a 
metropolitan  see  under  Alexius  I  Comnenus.  It  has 
retained  this  rank  in  the  Orthodox  Church,  though  for 
Catholics  it  is  now  a  mere  titular  archdiocese.  To-day 
it  bears  the  name  of  Molivo,  and  with  the  places  de- 
pendent upon  it  numbers  37,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
29,000  are  Orthodox  Greeks,  9000  Mussulmans,  and 
40  Catholics.  The  last  named  are  dependent  on  the 
Diocese  of  Smyrna.  Molivo  is  a  kaaa  of  the  sanjak  of 
Metelin  in  the  vilavet  of  Rhodes.  Situated  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Mitylene,  nearly 
thirty  miles  from  Metelin  and  five  naval  miles  from  the 
Asiatic  continent,  Molivo  occupies  a  deliehtful  marine 

site  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  formed  of  basaltic  rocks. 

Lb  Quien,  Orient  Chriat.,  I.  061-04;    Qaiu,  Seriea  emUoo^ 
porwn,  440;  Cvmn,  La  Turquie  d^AeU,  1  (Paris,  1872),  400. 

8.  Salatiluu 


MITROPHANES 


244 


MXTROPOUTAN 


Metrophaoes  of  Smyrna,  leader  of  the  faithful 
lenatian  bishops  at  the  time  of  the  Photian  schisEn 
(867).  Baronius  (Ann.  Eccl.,  ad  an.  843,  I)  savs  that 
his  mother  was  the  woman  who  was  bribed  to  bring  a 
false  accusation  of  rape  against  the  Patriarch  Metho- 
dius I  (842-846)  durm^  the  Iconoclast  troubles.  If 
this  be  true  he  was  a  native  of  Constantinople.  In  857, 
when  Ignatius  was  deposed,  Metrophanes  was  already 
Metropolitan  of  Sm3rrna.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to 
Photius.  For  a  short  time  he  waver^,  as  Photius 
promised  not  to  attack  Ignatius'  rights,  but,  as  soon 
as  he  found  how  little  the  intruder  Kept  his  word,  he 
went  back  to  his  former  attitude,  from  which  nothing 
could  make  him  waver  again.  Metrophanes  was  the 
leader  of  the  bishops  who  excommunicated  Photius  in 
858;  they  declared  themselves  excommunicate  if  ever 
the^  recognized  him.  This  somewhat  rash  pledge  ex- 
plams  his  attitude  later.  He  was  chained  and  impri»- 
oned,  then  sent  into  exile  by  the  Government.  After 
Photius'  first  fall  (867)  Metrophanes  came  back  to 
his  see.  He  was  present  at  the  eighth  general  council 
(Constantinople,  IV,  869),  opened  the  sixth  session 
with  a  speecn  and  was  one  of  the  judges  who  con- 
demned Photius.  When  Ignatius  died  in  877  and 
Photius  succeeded  lawfully  with  the  consent  of  John 
VIII,  Metrophanes  still  refused  to  recognise  him,  for 
which  conduct  he  was  acain  banished.  At  the  Photian 
Synod  of  879  a  certain  Nicetas  appears  as  Metropolitan 
of  Smyrna;  meanwhile  Metropnanes  lay  sick  at  Con- 
stantinople. In  880  as  he  still  refused  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  Photius  he  was  excommunicated  by 
the  papal  legates.  After  that  he  disappears.  It  is 
tmcertain  whether  he  returned  to  bis  see  at  Photius' 
second  fall  or  whether  he  died  in  exile.  A  letter  of  his 
to  a  patrician,  Manuel,  is  extant,  written  in  870,  in 
which  he  gives  his  reasons  for  his  opposition  to  Photius 
(in  Mansi,  XIV,  414).  Other  works  attributed  to  him 
but  strongly  Photian  in  tone  C'  Against  the  new  Man- 
icheans",  i.  e.,  the  Latins,  and  **  On  the  Procession  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father  alone  ")  are  certainly 
spurious.  See  Fabricius-Harles,  Bibliotheca  Grseca 
(Hamburg,  1790-1809),  XI,  700. 

Herobnrotbkr,  Photius  (RegenAbui^,  1867).  vols.  I  and  II, 

v<^»»m.  Adman  Fortbscub. 

Metropolis,  a  titular  episcopal  see  and  suffragan  of 
Ephesus.  Strabo  (XIV,  1 ,  2 ;  XI V,  1 , 1 5) ,  who  speaks 
of  its  celebrated  wines,  places  this  city  between  Ephe- 
sus and  Smyrna,  at  one  hundred  and  twenty  stadia 
(nearly  fourteen  miles)  from  the  former.  It  is  like- 
wise mentioned  in  Pliny,  "  Historia  naturalis  ",  V,  29, 
and  in  Ptolemy  (V,  li,  14)  unless  here  the  refer- 
ence be  to  Metropolis  in  Phrygia.  A  similar  allusion 
is  made  in  ''Corpus  inscript.  Latin."  (Ill,  79,  Addi- 
tarn.,  59).  Le  (^uien  (Onens  chr.,  I,  709)  indicates 
only  two  of  its  bishops:  Marcellinus  at  the  Council  of 
Chaloedon  in  451  and  John  at  the  pseudo-Council  of 
Photius  in  878,  but  from  the  "  NotitisB  episcopatuum  " 
we  know  that  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  diocese 
was  stiU  in  existence.  Metropolis  is  now  completely 
destroyed,  its  ruins  being  visible  in  a  place  called  Tra- 
taa  in  the  nahi4  of  TorbaU  and  the  vilayet  (Turk- 
ish province)  of  Sm3aiia,  quite  close  to  the  river  Cays- 
trus.  The  neighbouring  village  of  Torbali  has  been 
built  up  with  stone  once  used  in  the  structures  of  an- 
cient Metropolis  and,  at  Tratsa,  there  may  still  be  seen 
a  portion  of  its  wall,  also  its  theatre  and  acropolis,  the 
latter  formed  of  huge  blocks,  while  the  olive  groves  are 
dotted  with  architectural  ruins.  This  Metropolis, 
however,  must  not  be  confounded  with  two  cities  of 
the  same  name,  one  of  which  was  in  Phrygia  and  the 
other  in  Thessaly. 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Oreek  and  Ronmn  Qeography  (London, 
1870),  a.  v.;  Texier,  Ane  Mineurt  (Paris.  1862),  358. 

S.  VAILHfe. 

Metropolitan,  in  ecclesiastical  language  whatever 
relates  to  the  metropolis,  the  principal  city,  or  see,  of 


an  ecclesiastical  province ;  thus  we  speak  of  a  metropol- 
itan church,  a  metropolitan  chapter,  a  metropohtui 
official,  etc.  The  word  metropolitan,  used  without 
any  quaUficative,  means  the  bishop  of  the  metropoli- 
tan see,  now  usually  styled  archobhop.  The  term 
metropolite  (Mi^poiroX/nyt,  Metropolita)  is  also  em- 
ployed, especially  in  the  Eastern  Churches  (see 
Archbishop),  llie  entire  body  of  rights  and  duties 
which  canon  law  attributes  to  the  metropolitan,  or 
archbishop  as  such,  i.  e.,  not  for  his  own  diocese,  but 
for  those  suffragan  to  him  and  forming  his  eoclesi- 
astical  province,  is  called  the  metropoliticum.  The 
effective  authoritv  of  metropolitans  over  their  prov- 
inces has  gradually  diminished  in  the  course  ot  cen- 
turies, and  they  do  not  now  exercise  even  so  much  as 
was  accorded  them  by  the  Council  of  Trent;  every 
bishop  being  more  .strongly  and  more  directly  bound 
to  Rome  is  so  much  the  less  bound  to  his  province  and 
its  metropolitan.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  latter  over 
his  suffragan  dioceses  is  in  a  sense  ordinary,  being 
established  by  law;  but  it  is  mediate  and  restricted 
to  the  objects  provided  for  by  the  canons.  Since  the 
Ck)uncil  of  Trent  the  rights  of  the  metropolitan  have 
been  reduced  to  the  following: 

(1)  He  convokes  and  presides  at  the  provincial 
coimcil,  at  which  all  his  suffragans  must  appeiEtr,  saving 
legitimate  excuse,  and  which  must  be  held  every  three 
years  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIV,  c.  ii,  De  ref.).  The 
same  holds  for  other  provincial  meetines  of  bishops. 

(2)  He  retains,  in  theory,  the  right  <n  canonical  visi- 
tation of  his  suffragan  dioceses,  but  on  two  conditions 
which  make  the  ripnt  practically  inoperative :  he  must 
first  finish  the  visitation  of  his  own  diocese,  and  the 
visitation  must  be  authorised  by  the  provincial  counciL 
In  the  course  of  this  visitation,  the  metropolitan,  like 
the  bishop,  has  the  right  of ''  procuration  ",  L  e..  he  and 
his  retinue  must  be  received  and  entertainea  at  the 
expense  of  the  churches  visited.  Moreover,  he  can 
absolve ''  in  foro  oonscientife  "  (ibid.,  iii). 

(3)  He  is  charged  with  special  vigilance  over  his  suf- 
fragans in  the  matter  of  residence ;  he  must  denounce 
to  the  pope  those  who  have  been  twice  absent  for  six 
months  each  time,  without  due  cause  or  permissicm 
(Cone.  Trid.  Sess.,  vi,  c.  i) .  And  similarly  for  the  pre- 
scriptions relating  to  seminaries  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  xviii). 

(4)  The  metropolitan  has  no  judicial  authority  over 
his  suffragans,  major  criminal  causes  of  bishops  being 
reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  and  minor  ones  to  the  pro- 
vincial council  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  v.) ;  but  he  is  still  the 
judge  of  second  instance  for  causes,  civil  or  criminal, 
adjudicated  in  the  first  instance  b^  the  officials  of  his 
suffragans  and  appealed  to  his  tribunal.  Hence  re- 
sufts  a  certain  inequality  for  matters  adjudicated  in 
the  first  instance  in  the  archdiocese,  and  to  remedy 
this  various  concessions  have  now  been  provided. 
But  the  nomination  of  two  officials  by  the  archbishop, 
one  diocesan,  the  other  metropolitan,  with  appeal 
from  the  one  to  the  other,  is  not  admissible.  This 
practice  was  used  in  France  under  the  old  regime,  but 
was  not  general,  and  even  the  Galileans  held  it  to  be 
at  variance  with  canon  law  (H^ricourt,  "Les  Lois 
eccldsiastiques  de  France",  E.  V,  13).  ()n  this  prin- 
ciple the  nullity  of  Napoleon's  marriage  was  decided 
by  the  diocesan  and  the  metropolitan  officials  of  Paris, 
1810  (Schnitzer,  "Kathol.  Eherecht",  Freiburg,  1898, 
660).  The  metropolitan  tribunal  may  also  try  as  at 
first  instance  causes  not  terminated  within  two  yean 
by  a  bi^op's  tribunal  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  xx). 

In  regard  to  devolution  (q.  v.),  the  metropolitan 
may  nominate  the  vicar  capitular  of  a  vacant  diocese, 
if  the  chapter  has  failed  to  nominate  within  eight 
days  (Sess.  xxiv,  c.  xvi).  In  like  manner  he  has  the 
right  to  fill  open  benefices  (i.  e.,  those  of  free  collation) 
which  his  suffragans  have  left  unfilled  after  six  months ; 
also  to  canonically  institute  candidates  presented  by 
patrons  if  the  bishop  allows  two  months  to  pass  with- 
out instituting. 


KETEOPOUnODM  245  KETTEBHICB 

(6)  I^atly,  in  the  mfttMr  of  honorific  righla  and  peror  Fmocea  of  Austria.    Though  at  pceaent  it  aeenis 

privU^es  toe  metropolitan  has  the  pallium  (a.  v.)  ae  to  become  mote  and  more  probable  toat  Napoleon's 

the  anaiga  of  his  jurisdiction ;  he  takes  preoeaence  of  union  with  Joaephine  was  a  valid  marriage,  oeverthe- 

all  bishops;   he  may  have  the  archiepiscopaj  cross  leas  it  is  certain  that  when  Napoleon  weaded  Maria 

(crux  gestatoria)  borne  before  him  anywhere  within  Louise  (11  March,  ISIO)  the  Court  of  Vienna  and  the 

bis    province,    except   in   the    presence  of  a  papal  Papal  Curia  were  absoiulely  convinced  of  the  unlaw* 

legate;    he  may  cel«brate   pontifically   (savlD^  such  fulness  of  Napoleon's  first  atliancc. 

— ._   — .1.....    — : —    (j(    jurisdiction,   e.         Napoleon's  connexion  with  the  imperial  family  of 


g.,    ordination),  may  wear  hia   rocltet  and  moiett&  Austria  bad  no  influence  on  politics.     Fate  led  the 

uncovered  (not  hidden  under  the  mantelletta.  like  a  French  Emperor,  after  ruining  so  many  others,  to 

bishop  of  another  diooeae);   mav  bless  publicly,  and  ruin   himself.     At   Sch5nbrunn   he   pronounced   the 

may  grant  an  indulgence  of  100  aays  (S.  C.  Indulg.,  8  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Roman  See  to  be  at  an 

Aug., 1903).  He  ensigns  his  armswit^  the  double  arcnie-  end,  and  in  reply  to  the  pope's  excommunication  he 


.^iir 


andthehatwith tentasselsoneitherside.  remarked:    "TJiu   will   not  cause  the  arms  to  drop 

Feriubib,  Prompla  Bibhoftura,  ».  v.  AnJiirpita>put;  flio-  from  the  hands  of  my  grenadiers. "     Although  he  im- 

^^ir^.^^.l^^P^^^*^'^"''""'-  "**■  Eri^-ned  the  pope,  in  the  Russian  campaign  on  the 

A.  BouDiNttON.  Beresma  the  arms 

__  ^       ,,^  „      .,  did  drop  from  the 

BSetropoUUcum.    See  Mbtkopoutan.  froiea    hands    of 

M«ttMiiich,  Klbhens  Lothar  Wenkbl,  Prikce  >>»  grenadiers.  I 
VON,  statesman;  b.  at  Coblens,  15  May,  1773;  d.  at  As  the  criaa  ap- 
Vienna,  11  June,  1859;  son  of  Count  Geoig,  Austrian  proached  the  de- 
envoy  of  the  Court  of  Vienna  at  Cobleni,  and  Maria  cision  lay  with 
Beatrix,  ni^  (Countess  von  Kageneck.  He  studied  Austria.  From  a 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Sttasbuig,  and  law  quarter  _  P^^t 
and  diplomacy  at  Mains.  A  journey  to  England  eleven  in  the 
completed  his  education.  Mettemich  began  his  pub-  morning  until  half 
lie  career  in  1801  as  Austrian  ambassador  to  the  paat  eight  in  the 
Court  of  Dresden.  TbouEh  he  had  for  several  years  evening  Metter- 
prepared  himself  for  a  diplomatic  career,  he  was  nicb  was  closeted 
especially  fortunate  in  being  imniediat«ly  appointed  with  Napoleon 
to  so  prominent  a  position.  Only  two  years  later  (Dresden,26June, 
be  was  made  ambassador  Ui  Berlin.  THe  emperor  1813).  "Our  con- 
considered  it  very  important  to  have  a  minister  ference  consisted 
at  Berlin  who  could  gain  the  favour  of  the  Court  of  the  strangest 
and  the  principal  Prussian  statesmen,  and  who  knew  farrago  of  hetero- 

how  to  combine  "great  powers  of  observation  with  a  geneoua  subjects,  Kuwms  Lothar  Wihibi.  tow 
moderate  and  agreeable  manner".  Mettemich  had  al-  characterised  now  MmEiuncB 
ready  proved  that  he  possessed  these  qualities.  Na-  by  extreme  friend-  P«ntlQ«  by  Sir  Tbomu  Uwrsnea 
poleon  was  then  emperor  with  the  new  empire  at  the  lineas,  now  by  the  most  violent  outbursta  of  fuiy". 
senith  of  its  power.  The  Emperor  Francis  needed  his  Napoleon  raged,  threatened,  and  leaped  up  like 
ablest  ambaaaador  at  Napoleon's  Court,  and  in  May,  a  coafed  lion.  Mettemich  remained  calm.  Napo- 
1806,  he  sent  Mettemich  to  Pari&.  Mettemich  found  leon  let  his  hat,  which  he  was  holding  under  nia 
himself  in  the  difficult  position  of  representing  Austria  arm,  drop  to  the  floor.  Mettemich  did  not  stoop 
in  the  face  of  the  overweening  thr^ls  and  ambitious  to  pick  it  up.  The  emperor  also  tried  peraua- 
planaofNapoleonat  the  height  of  his  power.  He  did  sion.  "  Your  BOvereigns",  he  said,  "  who  were  bom  to 
sowithdignityand  firmness, ashiareportofhisimpor-  their  thrones  cannot  comprehend  the  feelings  that 
tantaudiencewitbNapoleononlSAuguat.lSOS, shows,  move  me.  To  them  it  is  nothing  to  return  to  their 
Theyear  1S09ismarkedby  the  great  war  betweenAus-  capitals  defeated.  But  I  am  a  soldier.  I  need 
triaand  France.  "The  German  States  wtrec^led  upon  honour  and  glory.  I  cannot  reappear  amra^  mv 
tojoinher.but  only  the  Tyrol  responded.  On  13  Hay  people  devoid  of  pr«tigB.  I  must  remain  great,  ad- 
Vienna  was  besieged  by  the  French,  but  eight  days  mired,  covered  irith  glory. "  For  that  reason,  hesaid, 
later  Napoleon  was  defeat.ed  by  the  Archduke  Charles  he  could  not  accept  the  proposed  conditions  of  peace, 
at  Aspera.  Mettemich,  treated  as  a  prisoner  of  state  Mettemich  replied,  "  But  when  will  this  condition  of 
by  Napoleon,  was  finally  released  in  Julv  in  exchange  things  oease,  in  which  defeat  and  victory  are  alike 
for  members  of  the  French  emtMssy.  After  the  battle  reasons  for  continuing  these  dismal  wars?  If  victori- 
of  Wagram  Austria's  position  was  nopeless.  Its  army  ous,  you  insist  upon  the  fruits  of  your  victory;  if  de* 
was  cut  oS  from  Hungai?  and  compelled  to  retreat  to  feated,  you  are  determined  to  rise  again. "  Napoleon 
Moravia  and  Bohemia.  A  great  statesman  was  needed  made  various  offers  for  Austria's  neutrality,  but 
to  save  the  situation.  On  4  August  the  Emperor  MettemichdeclinedaUbargaining,andNBpo1eon'Boft- 
Francia  appointed  Mettemich  as  minister  of  state  to  repeated  threat,  "We  shall  meet  in  Vienna",  was  his 
confer withNapo!con,andon80ctober,ministeroEthe  farewell  to  Mettemich.  Mettemich  gave  the  signal 
imperial  house  and  of  foreign  affairs.  By  the  treaty  for  war,  and  Schwanenberg  led  the  decisive  battle  of 
of  Schonbrunn  (H  October),  Austria  was  greatly  re-  Leipiig.  The  Emperor  Francis  raiaed  his  "beloved 
duced  in  siic,  and  reached  the  greatest  depths  of  its  Count  Mettemich''  to  the  rank  of  Austrian  prince, 
humiliation.  But  the  moment  of  its  degradation  saw  "Your  able  efforts  in  conducting  the  department  with 
the  beginning  of  ife  rise.  The  two-head^  eagle  soared  which  I  entrusted  you  in  difficult  times  are  now,  at  a 
to  the  loftiest  heights,  and  it  was  Mettemich  who  gave  moment  highly  decisive  in  the  world's  deetiny,  happily 
it  the  strength  for  its  flight.     For  nearly  forty  years  he  crowned  with  success. " 

directed  Austria's  policy.  His  first  concern  was  to  Mettemich  reached  the  height  of  his  power  and  re- 
establish tolerable  relations  with  the  French  Emperor,  nown  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-1815).  No 
Napoleon  desired  by  mean?  of  a  new  marriaf^  to  ally  idea  can  be  had  of  the  difficulty  of  the  problems  that 
himself  with  one  of  the  old  European  dynasties  in  tlie  were  to  be  solved.  The  very  first  conierence  of  the 
hope  to  raise  himself  and  to  provide  an  heir  for  the  representatives  of  the  powers  previously  allied  against 
imperial  throne.     He  obtained  a  divorce  from  Jose-  France  (Austria,  Prussia,  Ruaaia,  and  England),  held 

S'une  Beaubamais,  and  through  the  mediation  of  on  19  September,  1814,  at  Mettemich's  villa  on  the 

etteraich  married  Maria  Louise,  daughter  of  the  Em-  Rennw^,  ended  in  a  discord  over  the  Polish  questioo. 


MXTTEBNICH  246 

It  coDstantljr  required  all  of  Mettemioh's  most  bril-  paring  a  ooDStitution,  and  was  thought  to  be  indnied 

liant  qualities  to  preserve  hannony.    One  of  his  to  do  so. 

favounte  means  was  to  provide  festivities  of  all  sorts.  As  time  passed  "the  Mettemich  ssrstem"  came  to 

They  have  often  been  criticised  as  if  they  had  been  the  be  held  more  and  more  responsible  for  everything 

object  of  the  congress,  and  not  a  means  to  attain  its  unpleasant,  and   its   author  to  be   hated  and  at- 

ends.    Mettemich  succeeded  finally  in  bridging  over  tacked.    His  own  acts  show  the  injustice  done  the 

every  difficulty.    The  Emperor  Francis  expressed  his  pnnoe  in  this  rmrd.    To  quote  from  his  "  Political 

satisfaction  with  Mettemich's  services  in  securing  peace  Testament'':  "To  me  the  word  freedom  has  not  the 

and  order  in  Europe,  and  especially  in  restoring  to  Aus-  value  of  a  starting-point,  but  of  an  actual  goal  to  be 

tria  its  ancient  pre-eminence.    The  rearrangement  striven  for.    The  word  order  designates  the  startine- 

of  Gennan  and  Italian  affairs  gave  but  little  satisfao-  ^int.    It  is  only  on  order  that  fre^om  can  be  basea. 

tion  to  either  side,  but  henceforth  Mettemich  was  the  Without  order  as  a  foundation  the  cry  for  freedom 

leading  statesman  of  Europe.    For  the  settlement  of  is  nothing  more  than  the  endeavour  of  some  party  or 

Questions  still  pending  and  other  difficulties  that  arose,  other  for  an  end  it  has  in  view.     When  actually  ca> 

the  following  congresses  were  held:  Aix-la-Chapelle,  ried  out  in  practice,  that  cry  for  freedom  will  ine\> 

1818;  Karlsbad  (a  conference  of  ministers),  1819:  tably  express  itself  in  tyranny.    At  all  times  and  in  all 

Vienna,  1820;  Troppau,  1820;  Laibach,  1821;  ana  situations  I  was  a  man  of  order,  yet  my  endeavour  was 

Verona,    1822.    The   Congress    of    Aix-la-Ohapelle,  alwavs  for  true  and  not  for  pretended  libertv."   These 

at  which  the  monarchs  of  Austria,  Prussia,  ana  woros  are  the  key  to  the  understanding  and  appreci^ 

Russia  were  personally  present,  devoted  its  attention  tion  of  Metteraich's  actions. 

to  the  adjustment  of  the  relations  of  the  powers  to  Two  more  passages  characteristic  of  the  great  states- 
France,  though  Mettemich  also  emphasised  the  dan-  man's  temper  of  mind  may  be  cited:  ''Admirers  of 
gers  arising  from  demagogic  agitation,  and  expressed  the  piess  honour  it  with  the  title,  '  representative  of 
is  suspicions  that  its  focus  was  in  Qemmny.  When,  pubuc  opinion',  though  everythmp  written  in  the 
not  long  after,  the  Russian  councillor,  Kotsebue,  was  papers  is  nothing  but  the  expression  of  those  who 
assassinated  by  the  student,  Sand,  Mettemich  in  write.  Will  the  value  of  being  the  expression  of  public 
twenty-four  conferences  of  German  ministers  at  Karls-  opinion  ever  be  attributed  to  the  publications  of  a 
bad  took  measures  to  put  an  end  to  the  political  Govemment,  even  of  a  Republican  Government? 
troubles  in  Germany.  All  publications  of  less  than  Surely  not!  Yet  every  obscure  journalist  claims  this 
twenty  folios  were  to  be  subject  to  censorship;  ^vem-  value  for  his  own  products.  What  a  confusion  of 
ment  officers  were  to  be  placed  at  the  universities  to  ideas  1"  No  less  just  and  important  a  remark  is  the 
supervise  them;  in  the  several  states  the  constitutions  following  on  state  religion:  "The  downfall  of  em* 
providing  for  diets  in  accordance  with  ancient  usage  pires  always  directly  depends  upon  the  spread  of  un- 
were  to  be  retained;  representative  constitutions  were  belief.  For  this  very  reason  religious  belief,  the  first 
to  be  suppressed.  Despite  England's  and  Russia's  of  virtues,  is  the  strongest  power.  It  alone  curbs  at- 
resistance,  Mettemich  at  the  two  succeeding  con-  tack  and  makes  resistance  irresistible.  Religion  can- 
^;resses  successfully  carried  his  proposition  to  intervene  not  decline  in  a  nation  without  causing  that  nation's 
m  behalf  of  the  Italian  states,  which  were  threatened  strength  also  to  decline,  and  the  fall  of  states  does  not 
and  hard  pressed  by  the  revolution.  This  measure  procMd  in  arithmetical  pro^;ression  according  to  the 
brought  upon  Austria  the  hatred  of  the  Italian  law  of  falling  bodies,  but  rapidly  leads  to  destruction." 
people.  Finally  Austria  and  Russia  split  on  the  ques-  When  on  13  March,  1848,  tne  storm  of  the  revolution 
tion  of  freeing  Greece  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  Austria  raged  in  Vienna,  the  state  chancellor,  who  preferred  to 
showing  herself  to  be  a  decided  friend  of  the  Turks,  sacrifice  himself  rather  than  others,  immediately  re- 
The  result  was  a  blow  to  Mettemich's  policy.  He  had  signed  his  position.  He  went  to  England,  Brussels, 
dropped  from  the  high-water  mark  of  his  influence,  and  Schloss  Johannisbeig.  From  thelast  place  he  re- 
Thereafter  Russia's  influence  increased.  turned  to  Vienna  in  1851,  and  eisht  years  later  died  in 
Since  the  death  of  Prince  Kaunitz  (1794)  the  posi-  his  palace  on  the  Rennwes  at  tne  age  of  eighty-six. 
tion  of  house,  court,  'and  state  chancellor  had  ocea  In  Europe  Napoleon,  Mettemich,  and  Bismarck 
vacant,  but  in  1821  Mettemich  was  invested  with  that  set  their  stamp  upon  the  nineteenth  centuiy.  All 
office.  "  Your  deserts  have  been  increased  by  the  un-  three  of  thein  lived  to  see  their  own  fall.  Mette> 
interrupted  zeal,  the  ability  and  fearlessness  with  nich  remained  the  longest  in  the  leading  position  of 
which,  especially  in  the  last  two  years,  you  devoted  **  coachman  of  Europe  '.  Nothing  better  character- 
younelf  to  the  preservation  of  general  order  and  the  izes  the  great  statesman  than  what  ne  repeatedlv  said, 
triumphof  law  over  the  disorderly  doings  of  disturbers  proud  and  aristocratic  as  always,  to  Baron  A.  von 
of  the  peace  in  the  states  at  home  and  abroad."  Un-  HQbner  a  few  weeks  before  his  death :  *'  I  was  a  rock  of 
der the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I  after  1835,  the  direction  order"  (un  rocher  tTordre).  Mettemich  married  three 
of  affairs,  alter  the  emperor  himself,  was  in  the  hands  times:  in  1795  Maria  Eleonora,  granddaughter  of 
of  a  cotmcil  consisting  of  the  Archduke  Ludwig  (uncle  Princess  Kaunitz,  by  whom  he  had  seven  children ;  in 
of  the  emperor),  the  state  chancellor  Mettemich,  and  1827  Maria  Antonia,  Baroness  von  Leykam,  by  whom 
the  court  chancellor  Kolowrat.  Mettemich's  influence  he  had  a  son,  Richard  Klemens:  and  in  1831  Countess 
over  Austria's  internal  affairs  was  less  than  is  generally  Melanie  Zichv,  by  whom  he  haa  three  children.  The 
supposed.  Ck>unt  Hartig,  who  was  well  informed,  de-  only  one  of  his  sons  that  survived  him  was  Richard 
dares  (Geschichte  der  Revolution,  p.  19) :"  In  matters  Klemens,  who  published:  ''Aus  Mettemichs  nach- 
of  internal  administration  the  prince  was  seldom  selassenenPapieren"  (8  vols.,  Vienna,  1880-84^.  The 
heard,  and  was  purposely  kept  away  from  them. "  In  first  two  volumes  contain  Mettemich's  biography.  In 
this  department  after  1826,  it  was  the  minister  Ck>unt  the  third  volume  begins  the  ''Schriften-Sammlung" 
Kolowrat  whose  influence  was  decisive.  Many  envi^  arranged  according  to  years  as  follows :  vol.  Ill,  1816- 
Mettemich  his  pre-eminence.  The  aristocracy  always  22;  vol.  IV,  1823-29;  vol.  V,  1830-35;  vol.  VI,  1S35- 
saw  the  foreigner  in  him,  and  others  looked  with  re-  43;  vol.  VII,  1844-48.  Vol.  VII  contains '*MeinRuck- 
sentment  upon  the  preference  shown  foreigners  in  the  tritt",  pp.  617-32,  "  Mein  politisches  Testament",  pp. 
state  chancery  (Friedrich  Gents,  ^'^ — m^/*ii«-  ip-:^  aoo^o  ^^a  «t?u«-«  \un^^^  «..j  A...^;«k — ««-.«^' 

rich  Schleeel,  Jarke).    Grillparser; 

in  the  Hofluunmer,  expressed  himself       ^  „                                              ,. .                    , 

that  point  in  1839,  though  it  must  be  noted  that  Grill-  temich's  letters  to  his  daughter  Leontine  (1848-5$) 

parser  had  been  highly  incensed .    In  all  these  matters  (pp.  142-282) ,  letters  to  Baron  KoUer  in  London,  Count 

Kolowrat  had  the  advantage  of  Mettemich.    He  was  Buol  in  Vienna,  and  others  (1849-58)  (pp.  283-420). 

even  considered  capable  ci  granting,  or,  at  least,  of  pre-  supplements  to  the  Princess  Melanie's  diaiy,  a  coUec- 


247 

tlon  of  Mettemieh's  writings  (1848-53)  (pp.  421-586),  fourteenth  centuiy  the  right  to  elect  the  Tredeeem 

and  the  year  of  his  death  (1859)  (pp.  58i»-627).  juraH,  and  in  1383  the  rij^t  of  coining.    The  guilds, 

Furti  ClemeriM  von  MdUmich  in  Der  KiUhoWt,  I  (1870),  which  during  the  fourteenth  century  had  attained  great 

726-50;   Ouolia..  Friedrich  von  Oentt  (VieniiA,   1001):  von  indpnendence  were  romnletelv  auDDreaaed  Tl 383)  And 

RatbuIbbeo,  MdUrnieh  tmd  mmm  ZeU,  177S-186$,  II  (Vienna  S  T^T         i '  i-       compieieiy  suppressea  ^looo;,  ana 

•ad  Leip«ig.  1906—):  Wumbacb.  BiignphMut  tictkon  dn  the  last  revolutionary  attempt  of  the  artisans  to  seue 

KaiaertwnB  Outerreieh,  XVIII  (1868),  23-62.  control  of  the  citv  government  (1405)  was  put  down 

C.  WoLFBOBUBBB.  with  much  bloodshed. 

The  city  had  often  to  fight  for  its  freedom*  from 

Moti,  town  and  bishopric  in  Lorraine.  1324-27  against  the  Dukes  of  Luxemburg  and  Lor- 

I.  The  Town  of  Metz. — In  ancient  times  Mets,  raine,  as  well  as  a^inst  the  Archbishop  of  Trier;  in 
then  known  as  Divodurum,  was  the  capital  of  the  Celtic  1363  and  1365  aeamst  the  band  of  English  mercena- 
Mediomatrici,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  ries  under  Arnold  of  Cervola,  in  the  fifteenth  century 
era  was  already  occupied  by  the  Romans.  As  the  against  France  and  the  Dukes  of  Bux^undy,  who 
junction  of  several  military  roads,  and  as  a  well-  sought  to  annex  Mets  to  their  lands  or  at  least  wanted 
fortified  town,  it  soon  became  of  great  importance,  to  exercise  a  protectorate.  Nevertheless  it  main- 
One  of  the  last  strongholds  to  surrender  to  the  (jer-  tained  its  independence,  even  though  at  great  cost,  and 
mans,  it  survived  the  attacks  of  the  Hims,  and  finallv  remain^,  outwardlv  at  least,  part  of  the  German  Em- 
passed,  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  centuiy,  through  pire,  whose  ruler,  nowever,  concerned  himself  very 
peaceful  negotiations  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  little  with  this  important  frontier  stronghold.  Charles 
Theodorick  of  Austrasia  chose  it  in  511  as  his  resi-  IV  in  1354  and  1356  held  brilliant  diets  here,  at  the 
dence;  the  reign  of  Queen  Brunhild  reflected  great  latter  of  which  was  promulgated  the  famous  statute 
splendour  on  the  town.  Though  the  first  Christian  known  as  the  "Golden  Bull".  The  town  therefore 
cnurches  were  to  be  found  outside  the  city,  the  exis-  felt  that  it  occupied  an  almost  independent  position 
tence  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  oratory  of  St.  Stephen  between  France  and  (xermany,  and  wanted  most  of 
within  the  citv  walls  has  been  fullv  proved.  In  the  all  to  evade  the  obligation  of  imperial  taxes  and  at- 
beginning  of  the  seventh  century  tne  oldest  monastic  tendance  at  the  diet.  The  estrangement  between  it 
establishments  were  those  of  St.  Glossinde  and  St.  and  the  German  States  daily  became  wider,  and  fi- 
Feter.  Under  the  C^rlovingians  the  town  preserved  nally  affairs  came  to  such  a  pass  that  in  the  religious 
the  good-will  of  the  rulers,  whose  family  seat  was  and  political  troubles  of  1552  the  Protest-ant  party 
near  by;  Charles  the  Bald  was  crowned  in  the  in  Germanv  betrayed  Metz  to  France.  Byanagree- 
Basilica,  and  here  Louis  the  Pious  and  his  son  ment  of  tne  German  princes,  Morits  of  Saxony. 
Drogo  are  buried.  In  843  Metz  became  the  capital  of  William  of  Hesse,  John  Albrecht  of  Mecklenbuig,  ana 
the  Kingdom  of  Lorraine,  and  several  diets  and  coim-  George  Frederick  of  Brandenbui^,  with  Henry  II  of 
cils  were  held  there.  Numerous  books  of  Holv  Writ,  France,  ratified  by  the  French  kins  at  Chambord 
the  product  of  the  Metz  schools  of  writing  ana  paint-  (1 5  January) ,  Metz  was  formally  trans&rred  to  France, 
ing,  such  as  the  famous  ''Trier  Ada"  manuscript  and  the  gates  of  the  city  were  opened  (10  April),  ana 
the  Sacramentary^  of  Drogo  (now  at  Paris),  are  evi-  Henry  took  possession  as  vicanus  sacri  imperii  et  urbia 
dence  of  the  active  inteltectual  lives  that  were  led.  protector  (18  April).    The  Duke  of  Guise,  commander 

In  870  the  town  became  part  of  the  East  Frank  of  the  garrison,  restored  the  old  fortifications  and 

kingdom,  and  belcmged    (911-25)  as  part  of  Lor-  added  new  ones,  and  successfully  resisted  the  attacks 

raine  to  France.    The  increasing  influence  of  the  of  the  emperor  from  October  to  December,  1552; 

bishops  in  the  citv  became  greater  when  Adalbert  I  Metz  remamed  French.    The  recognition  by  the  em- 

(928-62)  obtained  a  share  of  the  privileges  of  the  pire  of  the  ill^al  surrender  came  at  the  conclusion  of 

counts ;  until  the  twelfth  century,  therefore,  the  history  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.    By  the  construction  of  the 

of  the  town  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  the  citadel  (1555-62)  the  new  government  secured  itself 

bishops  (see  below).    In  1039  a  splendid  edifice  was  against  the  citizens,  who  were  discontented  with  the 

buUt  to  take  the  place  of  the  okl  church  of  St.  Stephen,  turn  of  events.    Important  internal  changes  soon 

In  the  twelfth  century  began  the  efforts  of  the  took  place.    In  place  of  the  Paraiges  stooa  the  au- 

bureessee  to  free  themselves  from  the  domination  thority  of  the  Frendi  king,  whose  representative  was 

of  the  bishops.    In  1180  the  burgesses  for  the  first  the  governor.    The  heao-alderman,  now  appointed 

time  formedthemselves  into  a  close  corporation,  and  in  bv  tne  governor,  was  replaced  (1640)  by  a  Koyalist 

1207  the  Tredecem  juroH  were  appointed  as  municipal  Miayor.    The  aldermen  were  also  appointed  by  the 

representatives,  but  they  were  still  nominated  di-  governor  and  henceforth  drawn  from  the  whole  body 

rectly  by  the  bishop,  who  had  also  a  controlling  influ-  of  burgesses;  in  1633  the  judgeship  passed  to  the 

ence  in  the  selection  of  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Parliament.    The  powers  of  the  Tredecem  jurati  were 

board  of  aldermen,  which  first  appears  in  the  eleventh  also  restricted,  in  1634  totally  abolished,  and  replaced 

century.    The  twenty-five  representatives  sent  by  the  by  the  Bailliage  royal. 

various  parishes  held  an  independent  position ;  in  ju-        Among  the  cities  of  Lorraine,  Metz  held  a  prominent 

dicial  matters  they  helped  the  Tredecem  juraH  and  position  during  the  French  occupation  for  two  rea- 

formed  the  democratic  element  of  the  system  of  sons:  in  the  fii^  place  it  became  one  of  the  most  im- 

govemment.    The  other  municipal  authorities  were  portant  fortresses  through  the  work  of  Vauban  (1674) 

chosen  b^  the  town  aristocracy,  the  so-called  Paraiges.  and  Cormontaigne  (1730);  secondly,  it  became  the 

i.  e.  the  nve  associations  whose  members  were  selected  capital  of  the  temporal  province  of  tne  three  bishop- 

from  distinguished  families  to  protect  the  interests  of  ries  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  which  France  had 

their  relatives.    The  other  body  of  burgesses,  called  a  seized  (1552)  and.  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  re- 

(jonimune,  also  appears  as  a  Paraige  from  the  year  tained.    In  1633  there  was  created  for  this  ''Province 

1297;  in  the  individual  offices  it  was  represented  by  des  trois  ^vteh^''  (also  called  "Gdn^ralit^  des  trois 

double  the  number  of  members  that  eacn  of  the  older  ^vteh^s"   or   "Intendance   de   Metz")   a  supreme 

five  Paraiges  had.    Making  common  cause,  the  older  court  of  justice  and  court  of  administration,  the  Metz 

family  unions  and  the  Commune  found  it  advantage-  Parliament.    In  1681  the  (^ambre  Royale,  the  no- 

ous  to  gradually  increase  the  powers  of  the  city  as  op-  torious  Assembly  chamber,  whose  business  it  was  to 

posed  to  the  bishops,  and  also  to  keep  the  control  of  decide  what  fiefs  belonged  to  the  three  bishoprics 

the  mtmicipal  government  fully  in  their  hands  and  which  Louis  XIV  claimea  for  France,  was  made  a  part 

out  of  that  of  the  powerful  growing  guilds,  so  that  of  this  Parliament,  which  lasted,  after  a  temporary 

until  the  sixteenth  century  Metz  remained  a  purely  dissolution  (1771-75),  imtil  the  final  settlement  oy  the 

aristocratic  organization.    In  1300  the  Paraiges  gained  National  Assembly  in  1789,  whereupon  the  division 

the  right  to  fiJl  the  office  of  head-aldennan,  during  the  of  the  land  into  departments  and  districts  followed. 


248 

Mets  became  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Mo-  Bruno  of  Cologne,  governed  the  see;  then  Dietrich  n 
seiie,  created  in  1790.    The  revolution  brought  great  (964-84),  a  cousin  of  Otto;  Adalbert  II  (984-1005); 
calamities  upon  the  city.    In  the  campai^ms  of  1814  Adalbert  III  (1006);  Dietrich  III  (1006-47),  brother 
and  1815  the  allied  armies  twice  besieged  the  city,  of  the  Empress  Kunisunde;  Adalbert  IV  (1047-72), 
but  were  unable  to  take  it.    During  the  Franco-  all  closely  related  to  the  reigziing  house.     In  spite  of 
Prussian  War  of  1870-71  Mete  was  the  headquarters  this,  however,  the  choice  of  oishops  was  generally  an 
and  rendexvous  of  the  third  French  Army  Corps  under  excellent  one.    The  first  church  reform  movement,  of 
Baaaine.    Through  the  operations  of  the  German  which  the  monasteries  of  St.  Clement,  St.  Amulf .  and 
army,  Bazaine,  aoer  the  battles  of  Colombey,  Mars-la-  St.  Glossinde  were  the  focus,  originated  with  Adal- 
Tour,  and  Gravelotte  (14-18  August)  was  besieged  bert  I  and  Bruno;  under  Dietrich  I  the  monastery  of 
in  Meta.    The  German  army  of  investment  was  com-  St.  Symphorus  was  again  restored,  and  the  new  cathe- 
manded  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia;  as  dral  of  St.  Stephen  built  by  Dietrich  III  in  1039. 
the  few  sorties  of  the  garrison  were  unable  to  break  the        This  friendly  relation  received  a  serious  set-back 
German  lines,  Meta  was  forced  to  surrender  (27  Oc-  through   the  mvestiture  controversy,  which  man? 
tober),  with  the  result  that  6000  French  officers  and  bishops  carried  on  with  the  assistance  of  the  emperors 
170,000  men  were  taken  prisoners.     By  the  Treaty  of  adversaries.    The  Saxon  Herman  (1073-90)  appealed 
Frankfort,  Metz  became  once  more  a  German  city,  to  the  pope  and  was  in  consequence  deposed  by  the 
and  since  then  has  been  made  a  most  important  gar-  emperor,  and  two  other  bishops  appointed  in  his 
rison  and  a  first-Kilass  fortress.    The  city,  after  the  stead.    Until  the  conclusion  of  the  Concordat  of 
levelling  of  the  fortifications  on  the  south  and  east  Worms  a  papal  and  an  imperial  bishop  were  continu- 
(1898),  secured  space  for  growth  and  development,  allv  opposed  to  each  other.    Even  Stephen  of  Bar 
In  1905  the  city  had  60,419  inhabitants,  of  whom  (1120-63),  appointed  by  Calixtus  II,  only  obtained 
43,082  were  Catholics,  15,556  Protestants,  and  1691  possession  ol  his  see  alter  this  Concordat.     In  an 
Jews;  bjr  1910  the  number  of  inhabitants,  through  the  endeavour  to  free   themselves   from  the  episcopal 
absorption  of  several  villages,  has  increased  to  68,100.  power,  the  inhabitants  of  Meta  sought  to  make  use  of 
II.  The  See  of  Metz. — The  first  fully  authenti-  these  quarrels  between  the  emperor  and  the  bishop, 
cated  bidiiop  is  Sperus  or  Hesperus,  who  took  part  but  Stephen  once  more  restored  the  sovereignty  of  the 
in  the  Synod  of  Clermont  (535).    The  most  important  bishops.    Bishop  Bertrand  (1179-1212)  gave  the  city 
of  the  early  bishops  is  the  holy  Amulf  (611-27),  the  system  of  government  described  above.     Under 
foimder  of  the  race  of  the  Carlovingians.    His  re-  his  successor  Conrad  I  of  Scharfenberg  (1212-24)  the 
mains  were  transferred  in  643  by  his  successor  Abbo  first  settlements  of  the  new  orders  of  Mendicant  Friars, 
(627-42)  to  the  church  of  St.  John  outside  the  city  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Augustinians,  and  Car- 
and  henceforth  known  as  St.  Amulf's  church.    The  melites,  were  made  in  the  diocese.    With  John  of  As- 
bishops  were  usually  abbots  of  the  monastery  of  St.  premont  (1224-38),  the  first  bishop  to  be  elected 
Amulf.    The  boundaries  of  the  diocese  stretched  solely  bv  cathedral  chapter,  and  Jacob  of  Lorraine 
originally  to  the  Rhine,  but  after  the  See  of  Strasbuig  (1239-60),  who  once  more  upheld  the  rights  of  the 
was  founded,  only  to  the  Vosges  mountains ;  from  the  bishops  against  the  city,  the  development  of  the  tem- 
top  of  the  northern  Vosges  mountains  the  diocese  poralpossessionsoftbe  bishopric  came  to  a  halt.  These 
embraced  the  upper  Saar  and  adjoining  districts,  and  temporal  possessions  were  obtained  through  the  gifts  of 
extended  to  the  Moselle  and  a  little  faMcyond  Dieden-  the  Carlovingians,  always  friendly  to  Meta.     In  770  it 
hofen;  the  southern  boundary  followed  the  left  tribu-  received  full  rights  over  the  property  of  the  Senones 
tary  of  Uie  Moselle,  Rupt  de  Mad,  then  up  the  Mo-  Abbey  under  Drogo,  over  the  Maursmiinster  Abbey,  in 
selle  to  the  mouth  of  tne  Meurthe,  and  in  a  slight  923  over  Zabem,  in  931  over  Saarbuxg,  and  many 
curve  to  the  upper  Meurthe.    This  district,  which  is  others.    On  the  dissolution  of  the  old  countships  in  the 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  temporal  province,  tenth  century,  the  bishopric,  subject  only  to  the  im- 
comprised  practically  the  diocese  up  to  the  nmeteenth  perial  government,  enlarged  its  possessions  and  ac- 
century.     rrominent  bishops  of  tne  eighth  century  ouired  sovereignty  in  the  old  District  of  Moselle,  in 
included  Chrodegang  (742-46),  who  founded  the  Al>  tne  Saar  District,  and  in  the  Blies  District.    The 
bey  of  Gorze  anagave  to  his  clergy  a  special  rule  for  a  most  important  acquisitions  at  that  time  and  later 
canonical  life,  modelled  after  the  Benedictine  rule,  were  R^milly  (984),  SaarbrOcken  (998),  the  lordship 
the  basis  of  tne  vita  cammunia  of  the  regular  clergy,  of  POttlingen  (1135),  and  Lotzelburg  (1143),  the  fiefs 
Then    followed   Angilram    (768-91),    the   friend    of  of  the  countship  of  Dagsbuig  (1225),  the  lordship 
Charles  Uie  Great,  who,  like  his  predecessor,  received  of    Briey  (1225),    Rixingcn    and   Morsbeig    (1255). 
the  pallium.    Yet  the  archiepiscopal  dignitv  was  not  Throughout  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 
transferred  to  the  see  itself;  Metz  was  always  re-  began  the  decline  of  these  possessions,  principally  on 
carded  as  being  a  suffragan  of  Trier.     Bishop  Drogo  account  of  the   quarrels  of  almost  all  the  bishops; 
(823-55),  son  of  the  Emperor  Charles,  remained  loyal  namely,  Rainald  of  Bar  (1302-16),  Adhemer  of  Mon- 
to  his  brother  Louis  the  Pious,  and  exerted  consider-  teil  (1327-61),  under  whom  the  present  cathedral  was 
able  influence.    In  the  administration  of  the  dioceses,  begim,  Dietrich  IV  Bayer  of  Boppard  (1365-^4)  with 
the  suffragan  bishops  Amalarius  and  Lantfried  sup-  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine  and  the  Counts  of  Bar  and 
ported  him.    In  tne  important  position  Metz  as-  Luxembuig.     During  the  thirteenth  century  sover- 
sumed  after  the  division  of  the  Prankish  dominions  eignty  over  the  city  of  Metz  and  its  environs  (the 
into  West  and  East  Franconia,  the  German  rulers  took  pat/s  Messin)  was  lost;  the  continual  need  of  money 
care  that  only  men  who  would  be  loyal  to  them  were  oy  the  bishops  and  the  cathedral  chapter  forced  them 
appointed  to  the  episcopal  see.    After  the  unworthy  to  pledge  the  title  deeds  of  their  domains,  fiefs,  and 
wigerich  or  Witger  of  Lorraine  (917-27),  Henry  I  ap-  taxes  to  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine,  the  Counts  of  Bar,  the 
pointed  the  Swabian  Bruno,  who,  in  the  second  year  city  of  Metz,  and  even  to  the  buiigesses. 
of  his  administration,  blinded  by  the  inhabitants  of        Another  element  was  the  fact  tnat  during  the  great 
Metz,  returned  to  his  hermitage.     Adalbert  (928-62),  Western  Schism,  for  a  long  time  two  bishops  had  made 
although  at  first  an  opponent  of  Otto  I,  received  on  the  diocese  a  scene  of  strife,  until  Rudolf  of  Coucy  re- 
the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Metz  (945)  a  portion  of  the  oeived   general   recognition    (1387-1415).     His   s\ic- 
privileges  of  count,  a  fact  which  went  far  to  increase  cessors  Conrad  II  Bayer  of  Boppard  (1415-59),  and 
the  secular  power  of  the  bishops;  in  959,  through  the  George  I  of  Bavaria  (1459-84)  were  the  last  German 
division  of  the  Duchy  of  Lorraine  into  Upper  and  bishops  of  the  old  see  to  once  more  work  for  the  main- 
Lower  Lorraine,  the  diocese  was  withdrawn  from  the  tenance  of  a  loyal  sentiment  in  the  city  and  see.   With 
ducal  authority  and  placed  immediately  under  the  Henrv  II  of  Lorraine  (1484-1505)  began  and  cont in- 
imperial.  After  the  death  of  Adalbert,  Otto's  brother,  ued  during  the  next  one  himdred  and  twenty  years, 


MEULBMAN                            249  MSULEBCAK 

the  long  line  of  bishops  of  the  ducal  house  of  Lor-  city.    On  the  death  of  Dupont  des  Loges,  who  on  ao- 
raine  which  had  incessant!  v  aimed  to  increase  its  do-  count  of  his  outspoken  French  opinions,  was  always  at 
mains  at  the  expense  of  the  bishopric  and  was  well  loggerheads  with  the  German  Government,  succeeded 
supported  therein  by  the  kindred  bishops  through  the  in  1886  Ludwig  Fleck,  coadjutor  bishop  from  1881, 
transfer  of  numerous  enfeoffments  and  mortgages,  and  after  him  the  Benedictine  Willibord  Bensler, 
One  benefit,  derived  through  the  bishops,  was  that  the  former  Abbot  of  MariarLaach  (b.  16  October.  1853). 
Catholic  faith  was  preserved  in  their  diocese  and  in  The  present  Diocese  of  Metz  comprising  the  Dis- 
this  they  had  the  powerful  support  of  their  house.    In  trict  of  Lorraine  covers  an  area  of  2400  square  miles 
this  way.  Cardinal  John  IV  of  Lorraine  (1518-43  and  on  1  December,  1905.  numbered  533,389  Catho- 
and  1548-50).  who  exercised  authority  over  no  less  lies,  74,167  Protestants,  1060  Dissenters,  and  7165 
than  twelve  bishoprics  withstood  the  Reformation.  Jews.    The  see  is  divided  into  4  archdiaconates,  and 
Charles  I  of  Guise,  appointed  by  the  Cardinal  of  Lor-  36  archpresb3rterate8;  in  1910  it  contained  641  par- 
raine,  retained  only  the  temporal  administration  of  ishes  besides  73  missions;  893  secular,  and  36  r^[U- 
the  bishopric,  and  appointed  in  succession  as  bishops  lar,  priests.    The  bishop  has  3  vicars-general,    tne 
for  the  spiritual  government,  Cardinal   Robert  of  Cathedral  Chapter  consists  of  9  titular  and  24  faono- 
Lenoncourt  (1551-55)  who  after  the  reversion  of  the  rary  canons.     The  diocesan   institutions    are  the 
city  of  Metz  to  France  tried  to  enforce  the  bishops'  seminary  for  priests  at  Metz  with  10  professors,  the 
claim  to  sovereignty  over  the  city  and  declared  him-  small  seminary  at  Montigny  near  Metz,  the  cathedral 
self  Prince  et  Seigneur  de  la  vUle,  Francis  de  Beau-  school  of  St.  Amulf  at  Metz,  and  St.  Augustine's 
querre  de  P^uillon  (1555-68),  and  Cardinal  Louis  of  Institute  at  Bitsch.    The  following  orders  and  con- 
Lorraine  (1568-78).    Others  who  also  worked  con-  gregations  had  houses  in   1910  in  the  diocese:  the 
Bcientiously,  bv  furthering  the  internal  reforms  in  Conventuals,  1  house  with  7  fathers,  and  7  brothers; 
conformity  with  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  Franciscans,  1  house,  4  fathers,  and  6  brothers ; 
were  Charles  II  of  Lorraine  (1578 — 1607);  Cardinal  the  Redemptorists,  1  house,  11  fathers,  and  4  broth- 
Annas  von  Giviy  (1608-12),  and  Henry  of  Bour-  ers ;  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  1  house,  5  fathers, 
bon,  Marquis  of  Yemeuil  (1612-52).    Under  the  last  and  13  brothers;  the  Christian  Brothers,  2  houses,  ana 
bishop  the  see  was  transferred  to  France  in  accord-  20  brothers;  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  3  houses,  and  13 
ance  with  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.   Through  sales,  brothers.    Orders  of  nuns:  the  Benedictine  Abbey  at 
mortgages,  and  loans,  the  temporal  property  had  be-  Oriocourt,  36  sisters;  21  Barefoot  Carmelites  of  Metz: 
come  very  much  dismemberecf ;  but  France  wanted  as  37  Sisters  of  the  Visitation  of  Metz ;  554  Sisters  ot 
far  as  possible,  to  re-establish  a  complete  district  out  Sainte  Chr^tienne,  the  mother-house  at  Metz,  and 
of  the  transferred  disfricttM  Afeterms.    The  Assembly  25  convents;  715  Sisters  of  Providence,  with  the 
Chamber  decided  what  enfeoffment  and  de]3endan-  mother-house  at  Peltre,  and  140  branches ;  508  Sisters 
cies  had  belonged  to  the  newly  acquired  district,  and  of  Divine  Providence  with  the  mother-house  at  Metz, 
confiscated  a  considerable  number  owing  to  the  frivo-  and  116  convents;  96  Sisters  of  Christian  Doctrine,  4 
lous  Assembly  quarrel.    T)iq  Province  des  Troiaiv^ches  convents;  40  Sisters  of  Compassion  with  1  branch; 
(see  above)  was  formed  out  of  the  temporal  provinces  62  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  2  houses;  25  Sisters 
of  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun,  also  out  of  the  Poor  Child  Jesus  at  Plappeville;  14  Sisters  of 
of  lands  relinquished  by  the  Spaniards.  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  at  V  ic ;  47  Dominicans,  5 
Under  French  rule  the  conflict  over  the  right  of  houses;  124  Sisters  of  the  Maternity,  6  houses;  144 
filling  the  episcopal  see  at  once  broke  out,  which  right  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  17  branches;  77  Sisters 
Louis  XIV  claimed  and  in  1664  obtained  from  Alex-  of  Charity,  the  mother-house  at  Strasburg,  11  houses; 
ander  VII.     As  a  general  rule  the  crown  nominated  81  Borromeans,  9  convents;  20  Little  Sisters  of  the 
worthy  prelates  for  the  bishopric:  George  II  of  Au-  Poor  at  Metz;  23  Sisters  of  Hope  at  Metz;  18  Sisters  of 
busson  ^668-97),  Henri  Charles  du  Cambout  (1697-  the  Divine  Saviour,  3  houses;  80  Servants  of  the  Sa- 
1732)  and  Claude  de  Rouvray  Saint-Simon  (1733-60)  cred  Heart  of  Jesus,  5  branches;  73  Franciscans  of  the 
who  in  1736  assumed  the  title  of  prince  bishop.    The  Holy  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  3  convents;  4  Fran- 
last  prince  bishop,  Cardinal  Louis  de  Montmorency-  ciscans  from  the  mother-house  at  Luxemburg  in  Ret- 
LavM  (1761-1802)  fied  to  Germany  on  the  outbreak  tel;  13  Tertiaries  of  St.  Francis,  3  houses,  2  servants 
of  the  French  revolution  (d.  1808  at  Altona).    The  of  Mary  from  the  mother-house  of  St,  Firmin  at  Nancy, 
Revolution   and  the  Constitution  civile   du  clerg6  1  house.    The  most  important  churches  of  the  dio- 
broke  up  the  old  oipanization  of  the  dioceses  and  ceses  are  the  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen,  a  magnificent 
installed  a  constitutional  bishop,  who,  however,  in  Gothic  structure,  the  main  parts  of  which  were  built 
1793,  was  thrown  into  jail.    The  Concordat  between  in  the  fourteenth  century;  it  was  completed  in  1546, 
the  pope  and  Napoleon  (1801)  restored  the  bishop-  and  in  1875  it  was  completely  restored;  the  Gothic 
ric  with  a  different  diocese,  the  three  Departments  churches  of  Metz,  St.  Vincent  (thirteenth  and  four- 
of  Moselle,  Ardennes,  and  ForSts  were  allotted  to  teenth  centuries),  St.  Martin  (twelfth  and  thirteenth 
it,  and  it  was  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  centuries),  St.  Segolana  (thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
Archbishop  of  Besan^on.    Peter  Francis  Bienaim^  centuries),  the  collesiiate  church  at  Gorze  (twelfth  cen- 
(1802-06),  the  first  bishop  of  the  new  diocese,  divided  tury).  the  late  Gotnic  parish  church  at  Mdrchingin, 
the  territory  into  90  proper  and  1251  auxiliary  par-  the  cnurch  of  St.  Peter  at  Finstingen,  etc. 
ishes.      In  1817  that  portion  of  the  Departments  of  H»/»totr«  Grfn^rofo  d«  ilfc<«  par  de«  rWig»>ux  B^nAiiclin«  (6  vols., 

Ardennes  and  For6ts  which  became  Prussian  territory  Mcti,  1709-90);  d'Hannoncblles,  Meu  anden  (2  vols.,  Mots. 

«r«»  oonafafjiH  ^tViA  hiqVinn  wAfl  TnRPnh    Tiiiiffn»t    ISnfi-  185^):  Wbotphal.  (?«»cA.  der  Sladt  Melt  (3  vols.,  Mets,  1876- 

was  «Parated  ctne  Disnop  was  J  opepn  jaunret,  isoo-  jg^  saubrland,!)^  immunUM  von  Meu  (Met«,  1887) :  Krads. 

23)  and  m  1821  the  remamder  of  Ardennes  and  For^tS,  KunMl  und  AUertwn  in  Lothringen  (Strasburg,  1889) ;  Techniacfur 

BO  that  Metz  had  only  30  parishes  and  418  subordinate  FUhrer  durch  Metz  (Meti,  1894) ;  Kcunb,  Metz^aeine  Geaehiehte 

parishe..    After  Jauff ret,  who  tortitut^  the  y^ly  X^r^^flSlS^ri^i^l'A'^ie^dirSr':^^^^^ 

diocesan  ^nod,  followed  Jacob  Francis  Besson  (1824-  bUcher  der  OeaetUehaft  far  lothrinoieehe  Oeediichte  und  AUeHunu- 

42),  then  Paul  Georce  Maria  Dupont  des  Loges  (1843-  fnmde  (Mets.  1888);  ChUia  Chngtiana,  XIII;  Lepaob,  L' Anden 

id),  founder  of  the  W  timing  whooltoTMontigny  ^Z*^J^1,t'S^t^'^llZTJS'iiTliS^^^^^ 

near  Metz.      In  1871  the  diocese  became  part  of  the  isse);  Revue eecHnaaliquede  Metz  {Metn,  1890— Mpecially  1890 

German  Empire,  and  the  new  boundaries  of  Lorraine  apd  1891);  Fritsch,  s.  v.,  in  Die  kathoUaehe  Kirche  unzerer 

became  aUo  the  boundaries  of  the  bishoprie    In  1874  ^'^H^'^i^^iJ^^t^^'^t^iirS^ti^. 

It  was  separated  from  the  Metropolitanate  of  Be-  T^a«»„  Ttxt- 

Sanson  and  placed  immediately  under  the  Holy  See.  Joseph  i.in8. 

The  Kulturkampf  destroyed  many   institutions   in  Meuleman,  Brice.    See  Calcutta,  Archdiocese 

Metz  founded  by  the  Catholics  and  bishops  of  that  of. 


260 


I  44    H« 


Mean  (or  Meung),  Jean  Clopinel  de,  French  poet, 
b.  c.  1260  in  the  little  city  of  Meung-eur-Loire;  d.  at 
Paris  between  1305  and  1320.  He  took  the  name  of 
his  native  city,  but  received  from  his  contemporaries 
the  nickname  Clopinel  {dopiner,  to  limp)  because  he 
was  lame.  Such  nicknames  were  very  common  in  the 
Middle  A^  and  were  used  in  lieu  of  patronymics,  the 
custom  of  which  was  not  yet  established.  Jean  de 
Meunis  social  condition  has  been  a  much  debated 
question.  It  seems  certain  to-day  that  he  was  bom  of 
well-to-do  parents,  received  a  very  good  education, 
and,  about  1300,  was  a  wealthy  burgess  of  Paris,  a 
steady  and  pious  man  who  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  nis 
fellow  citixens  and  the  friendship  of  many  a  noble  lord. 
He  translated  the  *'De  re  militari"  of  Vegetius,  the 
"De  consolatione  philosophiae"  of  Boethius  and  com- 
posed in  French  verses  a  Testament  in  which  he  re- 
proves women  and  the  friars.  His  fame  rests  on  a 
work  of  his  earlier  years,  the  completion  of  the  "Ro- 
man de  la  Rose",  which  had  been  left  unfinished  bv 
Quillaume  de  Lorris.  As  it  stood,  the  bitter's  work 
was  a  sort  of  didactic  pjoem  in  which  he  used  allegori- 
cal characters  to  describe  the  forms,  the  phases,  and 
the  progress  of  love.  His  aim  seemed  to  have  been  to 
compose  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  loving  for  the  use  of 
the  noble  lords  and  ladies  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
To  the  4669  verses  of  his  predecessor,  Jean  de  Meun 
added  more  than  18,000  and  made  the  poem  a  sort 
of  cyclopedia  of  all  the  knowledge  of  the  time.  He 
quoted,  translated,  and  imitated  all  the  writers  then 
known:  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero.  Viigil,  Ovid,  Augus- 
tine, Juvenal,  Livy,  Abelard,  Koger  Bacon.  Of  the 
18,000  verses  which  he  has  written,  it  has  been  possi- 
ble to  assign  12,000  to  their  authors.  All  the  charac- 
ters became  so  many  pedants  who  discoursed  on  all 
sorts  of  topics,  however  remote  they  might  be  from  the 
subject:  the  origin  of  the  state,  the  origin  of  ^e  royal 
power,  instinct,  justice,  the  nature  of  evil,  marriage, 
property,  the  conflict  between  the  regular  and  the  secu- 
lar cleigv,  between  the  friars  and  uie  university,  etc. 
The  book  is  full  of  attacks  on  all  classes  and  duties  of 
society:  the  magistrates,  the  soldiers,  the  nobles,  the 
monkSj  tithes,  feudal  rights,  property.  De  Meun's 
talent  is  vigorous,  but  his  style  is  often  cynical  and  re- 
minds the  reader  of  the  worst  pages  of  Rabelais. 

Paris,  Jean  de  Meun  in  HUt.  liutraire  de  la  France,  XXVIII 
(PartB,  1888),  391-429;  Quicbbrat,  Jean  de  Meun  et  ea  Maieon 
h  Pant  in  Bibl.  de  Vicole  dee  chariea  (Paria,  1800):  Lanolois, 
Orioinee  et  eowrcee  du  Roman  de  la  Roee  (Paria,  1800). 

Pierre  Marique. 

Bfodco. — Geografht. — ^The  Republic  of  Mexico  is 
situated  at  the  extreme  point  of  the  North  American 
continent,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  United  States, 
on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
British  Honduras,  and  Guatemala,  and  on  the  south 
and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  comprises  an  area 
of  767,005  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  13,- 
604,000,  of  whom  2,062,000  are  whites  or  Creoles, 
7,380,000  half-breeds  or  mestisos,  4,082,000  Indi&ns, 
and  about  80,000  negroes.  Among  the  whites  there 
are  approximatelv  60,000  foreigners,  the  greater  num- 
ber being  North  Americans,  Central  Americans, 
Spaniards,  French,  Italians,  etc.  The  form  of  govern- 
ment is  republican;  its  head  is  a  president,  who  is 
elected  every  six  years;  the  legislature  consists  of  two 
bodies,  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies;  and  there  is  a 
supreme  court.  The  republic  is  composed  of  twenty- 
seVign  states,  three  temtories,  and  a  federal  district. 
The  territory  of  Quintana  Roo,  created  in  1902,  was  a 
part  (tf  the  State  of  Yucatan.  The  names  of  the  states, 
with  population,  area  in  square  miles,  capitals  ana 
number  of  people,  are  given  in  the  accompanying  table. 

The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  which  crosses  the  nar- 
row isthmus  that  unites  the  Americas,  branches  out 
into  two  ranges  when  it  reaches  the  peak  of  Zempoal- 
tepec  over  (10,000  feet),  in  the  State  of  OaxaM»;  the 
^^isten^  branch  terminitt!^  ^X  the  Kip  Pt|tvo  (or  R|o 


Grande),  in  the  State  of  Coahuila,  and  the  western 
branch  extends  through  the  States  of  Chihuahua  and 
Sonora  and  merges  into  the  Rocky  Mountain  system 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  Mexican  territory  the 
two  ranges  are  so  closely  united  as  to  form  almost  a 


Stats 


JaliBoo 
Oiiani^uato 
Puebla 
VeraCrui 
Oazaea 
Mezioo 
Michoacan 
Hidalco 
8.  Ltus  Potosf 
Federal  Diatrict 
Querreio 
Zaoatecaa 
Duranco 
Chiapaa 
NuevoLedn 
Chihuahua 
Yucatan 
CoabuUa 
Bmaloa 
Quer6tan> 
Sonora 
Tamaulipaa 
Tlazeala 
Moreloa 
Tabaaoo 
Ter.  of  Tepio 
Aguaacalientea 
Campeehe 
Colima 

Ter.ofLow.Cal. 
Ter.  Quintana 
Roo 


Popula- 
tion 


1,163.891 
1,068.724 
1,021.133 
083.030 
948.633 
934.643 
930.083 
605.051 
575,432 
541.516 
479.205 
462,150 
370.304 
360.799 
327,937 
327,784 
314.087 
296.938 
296.701 
232.389 
221,682 
218.948 
172.315 
160.115 
159.834 
150.098 
102.416 
86.111 
65.115 
47,624 

40.000 


33.496 
10.948 
12.203 
29.283 
35382 

8.849 
22.656 

8.575 
24.000 
579 
24.995 
24.457 
42.265 
27.222 
23.678 
89.974 
17,204 
63.728 
27.552 

4,492 
76.619 
31.758 

1.594 

2.733 
10.072 
10.951 

2.964 
18.086 

2.172 
58,328 

18.000 


Capitai. 


Quadalaj] 

Guanajuato 

Puebla 

JalatM 

Oazaea 

Toluca 

Monsiia 

Pachuca 

San  Luia  Potoaf 

Mexico 

Chilpancingo 


Durai^go 
TuxtlaGutieires 
Monterey 
Chihuahua 
Merida 
8altilk> 
Culiaean 
Ouer6tan> 
HennoaiUo 
Ciudad  Vietoria 
Tlaxcala 
Cuemavaoa 
San  Juan  Bautiata 
Tepic 

Aguaacalientea 
Campeehe 
CoUma 
LaPaa 
Santa  Cruade 
Bravo 


Popc- 

LATIOH 


101.208 
63.26:) 
93,521 
20.388 
35.049 
25.904 
37.278 
37.487 
61.019 
344.721 

7.497 
32.856 
31.092 
10.982 
62.266 
30.405 
43,630 
23.996 
10.380 
33.152 
10.613 
10.086 

2,715 

9.584 
10.543 
15.488 
35.052 
17.109 
20.692 

5.046 

1.500 


compact  whole,  occupying  nearly  all  the  region  from 
ocean  to  ocean,  forming  the  vast  tablelands  that  ex- 
tend from  Oaxaca  to  Chihuahua  and  Coahuila,  and 
leaving  but  a  narrow  strip  of  land  along  the  coast  line. 
On  the  eastern  coast  the  land  slopes  almost  impercepti- 
bly to  the  Gulf,  whereas  on  the  western  the  descent  is 
sharp  and  abrupt.  This  accounts  for  the  few  good 
ports  on  the  Gulf  side,  and  the  abundance  of  harbours 
and  sheltered  bays  on  the  Pacific  shore.  The  highest 
peaks  of  these  vast  mountain  ranges  are:  Popocatepetl 
(17,800  feet).  Citlaltepetl,  or  Peak  of  Oriiaba  (17,000 
feet),  Ixtadhuatl  (16,100  feet).  To  this  physical  con- 
figuration of  the  land,  the  absence  in  Mexico  of  any 
water  systems  of  importance,  is  to  be  attributed .  The 
principal  rivers,  none  of  which  carries  a  great  volume 
of  water,  are  the  Bravo^  Pi&nuco,  and  Grijalva,  emptying 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Mexcala,  Santiago, 
Mayo,  and  Yaoui,  emptying  into  the  Pacific.  Veiy  few 
islands  are  to  be  foimd  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico. 
Quite  unlike  the  Pacific  shore,  which  along  the  coast  of 
tne  peninsula  of  Lower  California  is  dotted  with  small 
islands.  The  four  seasons  of  the  year,  common  to 
most  countries,  are  unknown  in  Mexico,  owing  to  the 
entirely  different  climatic  conditions.  Common  usage 
has  divided  the  year  into  two  distinct  seasons,  the 
rainy  and  the  dry  season,  the  former  extending  from 
Mav  to  October.  During  this  entire  time  there  are 
daily  showers,  which  not  infrequently  are  heavy 
downpours.  The  other  six  months  are  dry,  not  a 
drop  of  rain  falling,  at  least  on  the  tablelands.  The 
climate  of  the  coast  regions  is  always  very  warm,  while 
that  of  the  tablelands  is  temperate.  The  phenom- 
enon of  frost  in  December  and  January  on  tne  table- 
lands of  Mexico,  Puebla,  and  Toluca,  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  more  than  6000  feet  above  the  sea  level,  is 
due  not  so  much  to  extremes  of  climate  as  to  the  rarity 
of  the  air  causing  a  rapid  condensation  of  the  vapours. 
Blany  of  the  native  races  which  inhabited  Mexico  at 
the  time  of  the  Conquest  are  still  in  existence  ;  the 
principal  ones  are:  the  Mexicana,  Astaca,  or  Nahoa, 
m  the  States  of  Mexico,  Morelos,  Jalisco;  the  Tarasca, 
or  Michoacana,  in  the  State  of  Michoacan;  the  Otoml 
in  San  Luis  Potosf,  in  Guanajuato  and  Quer^taro;  the 
Opata-Pima,  in  Sonora,  Chihauhua,  and  Durango;  th^ 


r  -  T  • 
1    .  . 


T  1  *r 


I 

I 


Y 


!>«(»[• 


251 


•  4  «(»  • 


Mixteco-Tzapoteca  in  Oaxaca;  the  Mijea,  or  Zoque,  in 
parts  of  Oaxaca,  Vera  Cruz,  and  Chiapaa;  the  Cnontal 
and  Huave,  in  Tabasco,  Oaxaca^  and  Chiapas;  the  Mava 
in  Yucatan.  Among  the  less  important  races  are  the 
Huaxteca  in  the  north  of  Vera  Cruz  and  Southern 
Tamauiipas,  the  Totonaca  in  the  centre  of  the  State  of 
Vera  Cruz,  the  Matlalzinca  in  the  State  of  Mexico,  and 
the  Guaycures  and  Laimones  in  Lower  California. 
Remarkable  ruins,  f  oimd  in  many  parts  of  the  republic, 
b^Lr  intness  to  the  degree  of  civilization  to  which 
these  nations  had  attained.  Chief  among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  ruins  of  Uxmal  and  Chichen-Itza  in 
Yucatan  (Maya  nation),  those  of  Palenque  and  Mitla 
in  Oaxaca  (Tzapotec  nation),  the  baths  of  Netzahua- 
coyotl  in  Texcoco  (Chichimeca-Nahoa  nation),  and  the 
pryramids  of  Teotihuacan  TToltec  nation) .  The  separa- 
tion of  Church  and  State  has  been  established  by  law, 
but  the  religion  of  the  country  is  Catholic,  there  being 
actually  very  few  who  profess  any  other.  Railroads, 
14,857  miles;  telegraph  lines,  40,640  miles.    In  1907  the 

?roduct  of  the  mines  amounted  to  S83,078,500,  $42,- 
23,500  of  this  being  gold,  $19,048,000  silver,  and 
$12  400,000  copper.  In  1908  $12,001,000,  $8,300,000 
gold  and  $3,701,800  silver,  was  minted.  The  princi- 
pal products  besides  minerals  are  com,  cotton,  agave 
plant  (henequen),  wheat,  sugar,  coffee,  cabioet  woods, 
tobacco,  petroleum,  etc. 

History. — Pre-Cortia  Period. — ^The  chronology  and 
historical  documents  of  the  Aztecs  give  us  a  more  or 
less  clear  account  of  their  history  for  eight  centuries 
prior  to  the  conquest,  but  these  refer  only  to  their  own 
history  and  that  of  the  tribes  living  in  close  proximity 
to  them,  little  or  nothing  being  said  of  the  prigia-oiEl 
the  Otomies,  Olenques,  Cuitlatecos,  and  Michoaca^^^ 
According  to  Clavijero  the  Toltecs  came  to  MeJdocT 
about  A.  D.  648,  tne  Chichimecs  in  1170,  |u^;tbe 
Aztecs  in  1 196.  That  their  ancestors  came  frem  other 
lands,  is  asserted  by  all  these  tribes  in  their  tr^itions, 
and  the  north  is  generally  the  direction  from  "v^hich 
they  claim  to  have  come.  It  seems  probable  that 
these  first  immigrants  to  Mexico  came  from  Asik ^  ^hie^ ' 
by  way  of  Behnng  Strait,  or  across  the  Pacific^  Ocean. 
The  theory  that  these  people  had  some  close  bonneit-- 
ion  with  the  Egyptians  and  other  j^ples  of  Asia  and 
Africa  has  some  substantiating  evidence  in  the  ruins 
still  extant,  the  p3rramids,  the  exact  and  complicated 
method  of  computing  time,  the  hierogl3rphics,  and  the 
costumes  (almost  identical  with  those  of  the  ancient 
Eg^tians),  seen  in  the  mural  paintings  in  the  ruins  of 
Chicnen-Itza.  It  seems  that  the  Otomies  were  one  of 
the  oldest  nations  of  Anahuac,  and  the  Itzaes  of  Yuca- 
tan. These  were  followed  by  tne  Mayas  in  Yucatan,and 
in  Anahuac  the  Toltecs,  the  Chichimicas,  and  Nahoas, 
with  their  seven  tribes,  the  Xochimilcas,  Chalcas,  Teo- 
panecs,  Acolhuas,  Tlanuicas.  Tlaxcaltecs,  and  Aztecs. 
The  last-named  founded  tne  city  of  Tenochtitlan, 
or  Mexitli,  in  1325,  and  gradually,  overpowering 
the  other  tribes,  extended  their  empire  north  as  far  as 
the  Kingdom  of  Michoacan,  and  the  domain  of  the 
savage  Otomies^  east  to  the  Gulf,  west  to  the  Pacific, 
and  south  to  Nicaragua.  This  was  the  extent  of  the 
Aztec  empire  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion  in 
1519. 

Language  and  religion. — Nahuatl,  or  Aztec,  some- 
what modified  in  the  region  of  the  central  tableland, 
was  the  official  language  of  the  empire,  but  many 
other  dialects  were  in  use  in  other  sections.  The 
principal  ones  were:  Tarascan  in  Michoacan,  Mayan 
m  Yucatan,  Otomian  in  the  northern  limits  of  the 
empire,  Mixteco-Tzapotecan  and  Chontal  in  Oaxaca, 
and  Chiapanecan  and  Tzendal  in  Chiapas  and  Tabasco. 
The  religion  of  all  these  nations  was  a  monstrous  poly- 
theism. Human  sacrifice  was  a  feature  of  the  worship 
of  neariy  all  the  tribes,  but  in  none  did  it  assume  the 
gigantic  proportions  that  it  did  among  the  Aztecs  in 
their  freat  teocalli,  or  temple,  at  the  capital.  Father 
Motohnia  in  his  letter  of  2  January,  1653,  to  the  Em- 


peror Charles  V,  spealdng  of  the  human  sacrifices  with 
which  the  Emperor  Ahuitsotl  (1486-1502)  celebrated 
the  opening  oi  the  great  temple  in  Mexico,  says:  "  In 
a  sacrificial  service  lasting  three  or  four  days  80,400 
men  were  sacrificed.  They  were  brou^t  through 
four  streets  walking  single  file  until  they  reached  the 
idols. "  Father  Dur^,  speaking  of  this  same  sacrifice 
and  of  the  great  number  of  victims,  adds:  '*  Which  to 
me  seemed  so  incredible,  that,  if  history  and  the  fact 
that  I  found  it  recorded  in  many  places  outside  of 
history,  both  in  writing  and  pictonally  represented, 
did  not  compel  me  to  believe  it,  I  should  not  dare  to 
assert  it".  The  Vatican  and  Tellerian  manuscripts 
give  the  number  of  victims  as  20,000;  this  number 
seems  more  probable. 

Upon  this  occasion  victims  were  simultaneously 
sacrificed  in  fourteen  principal  temples  cd  the  city. 
In  the  great  teocalli,  there   were  four  groups  of 
sacrifices,  and  the  same  was  probably  the  case  in 
other  places ;  the  time  for  the  sacrifices  was  from  sun- 
rise to  sunset,  about  thirteen  hours,  each  victim  re- 
quired about  five  minutes,  so  that  computing  by  this 
standard  the  number  of  victims  might  easily  reach 
the  above-mentioned  number.    Father  Menaieta,  ajs 
well  as  Father  Motolinia  and  other  authorities,  agree 
in  affirming  that  the  number  of  victims  anniudly 
sacrificed  to  Huitzilopozotli  and  other  Aztec  deities 
reached  the  number  of  15,000  to  20,000.    To  the  stu- 
dent of  Aztec  history  this  will  not  appear  imlikely,  for 
they  kept  up  a  continuous  warfare  with  their  neigh- 
bours, not  so  much  to  extend  their  empire  as  for  the 
avowed  purpose  of  securing  victims  for  the  sacrifices. 
^  rin  hmM%  theiridisa  was  not  so  much  to  kill  as  to  take 
Y  tj^eirenemips  pifsoners.    To  this,  in  very  neat  meas- 
'  ure;  tne  Kingpopi  of  Michoacan  and  the  Kepublic  of 
^  :T|laxQalai  situited  in  the  veiv  heart  of  the  Aztec  em- 
pire, only  a  few  iniles  from  the  capital,  owed  their  in- 
dependence, and'the  Spaniards  many  of  their  victories. 
..  ,^em&^^Qc^t^  n^y  for  this  reason  have  escaped  death 
'  'at  tne  h^i^ds  qi^t ne  Indians  in  the  numerous  oattles  of 
'  ^e  siege'  df  the'capital.     Notwithstanding  the  bddeous 
form  of  wonfhip  Jmd  the  bloody  sacrifices,  the  peoples 
of  'acncieiit  Mexico  preserved  a  series  of  trsuiitions 
which  may  be  classified  as  Biblical  and  Christian;  the 
Biblical  traditions  are  undoubtedly  the  remnants  of 
the  religious  beliefs  of  the  first  races  who  migrated  to 
these  shores:   the  probable  origin  of  the  Christian 
traditions  wiU  be  explained  later. 

Biblical  Traditions.— (1)  Idea  of  the  Unity  of  God. 
— ^The  Aztecs  gave  the  name  of  TeoU  to  a  supreme,  in- 
visible, eternal  being,  whom  they  never  attempted  to 
Sortray  in  visible  form,  and  whom  they  called  Tolque- 
fahuaque,  Creator  of  all  things,  Ipalneomani,  He  by 
whom  we  Uve.  The  Mayas  cailed  this  same  supreme 
being,  Hunab-ku*  and  neither  does  this  tribe  seem  to 
have  ever  attempted  to  give  form  and  personality 
to  their  deitv.  The  Michoacans  adored  Tucupacha, 
one  god  ana  creator  of  all  things.  (2)  Creation. — 
Among  the  Aztecs  the  idea  of  the  creation  had  been 
preserved.  They  believed  that  Tloaue-Nahuaque 
had  created  a  man  and  a  woman  in  a  delightful  gar- 
den; the  woman  was  called  Cihuacohuatl,  the  snake 
woman.  (3)  Deluge. — Among  the  Michoacans  we  find 
traditions  of  the  Deluge.  Tezpi,  to  escape  from 
drowning  in  a  terrible  deluge  that  occurred,  em- 
barked m  a  boat  shaped  like  a  box,  with  his  wife 
and  children,  many  species  of  animals,  and  pro- 
visions of  grain  and  seecfs.  When  the  rain  had  abated, 
and  the  flood  subsided,  he  liberated  a  bird  called 
an  aura,  a  water  bird,  which  did  not  return.  Then 
others  were  released,  and  all  but  the  humming 
bird  failed  to  return.  The  illustration  on  the  follow- 
ing page  of  an  Aztec  hieroglyphic  taken  from  the  Vati- 
can manuscript  represents  the  Deluge  as  conceived  by 
the  Aztecs.  The  symbol  Calli  is  seen  in  the  water,  a 
house  with  the  head  and  hand  of  a  woman  projecting 
to  s^cnif y  the  submersion  of  all  dwellings  and  their  in- 


UXZIOO 


252 


KXZZCO 


tubttODts.     Ttie  two  fish  Hwimming  in  the  water  sig-  of  tbe  tentb  or  eleventh  century,  who,  oa  one  of  tbeii 

iufy,besideatfaefact  that  they  weresaved, that  all  mea  hold  voyages  of  adventure,  accidentally  discovered 

were  transformed  into  Tlacajnicbin,  hsn-people,  sc-  thisnew]andaT,shipwTeckedintheGulf,drifted  tothe 

cording  to  the  Ait£C  tradition.     In  the  midst  of  the  coast  of  Pflnuco.     Christian  traditions,  above  all  that 

waters  floata  a  hollow  wooden  canoe,  Acalli,  occupied  of  the  veneration  of  the  Croas,  date  in  Ajiahuac  and 

by  a  roan  and  a  woman,  the  only  privileged  pair  to  Yucatan  from  the  coming  of  Quetialcoatl.     In  Yuca- 

escape  the  diaasler.     Tbe  goddess  Chalcbiuhtlique,  as  tan  the  followers  of  Fnuictsco  Hemdndei  de  Cdirdoba 

though  descending  from  the  heavens  in  a  flash  of  found  crosses  which  were  tbe  object  of  adoration, 

lightning,   surrounded  by  her  symbols  of  rain  and  With  regard  to  the  Cross  of  Coiumel,  the  Indians  said 

water,    presides   over  the   scene.     The  date   of  the  that  a  man  more  resplendent  than  the  sun  had  died 

Deluge  13  marked  at  the  right  with  tbe  sign  Matlac-  upon  it.    The  Mayas  preserved  a  rite  suggestive  of 

tliatl  of  the  month  Atemoztli  (3  January) ;  the  dura-  baptism  and  confession,  and  among  the  Totonacos  an 

tion  of  the  flood  is  marked  by  the  sign  to  the  left,  imitation  of   communion  was   practised,   tbe   bread 

Each  major  circle  finished  with  a  feathered  end,  equals  which  was  used  was  called  Toyolliaitlacual,  i.  e.,  food 

400,  and  each  minor  circle  indicates  a  unit,  so  that  to-  of  our  soul.     Crosses  were  also  found  in  Quer^taro, 

gether  they  equal  400S  years.  Tepic,  Tianguistepec,  and  Metititlan. 

(4)  Tower  of  Babel, — In  the  commentary  on  the  No  better  authority  can  be  cited,  in  cormexion  with 

VaticanmanuBCript  mention  is  made  of  the  epoch  after  thefamousCrossofPalenque,  which  is  herewith  repit>- 

Atonatiuh,  that  is  the  Deluge,  when  giants  inhabited  duced  than  the  learned  archaeologist,  Oroaco  y  Berra. 

tbe  earth,  and  of  tbe  giant  Xelhua,  who,  after  the  He  says:  "Tbe  civilization  indicated  by  tbe  ruins  of 

waters  had  subsided,  went  to  ChoiolLan,  where  be  be-  Palenque  and  of  Yucatan,  differs  in  every  respect,  lan- 

gan  to  build  the  great  pyramid  out  of  huge  bricks  of  guage,  writing,  architecture,  dress,  customs,  habit& 

aun-baked  clay  (adobes),  made  in  Tlalmanalco  at  the  and  theogony,  from  that  of  tbe  .4itecs.     If  there  are 


base  of  tbe  Cocotl 
of  the  pyramids  by 
band.  Aline  of  men 
extended  from  place 
to  place,  and  the 
bricks  were  passed 
from  hand  to  band. 
The  gods,  seeing  that 
the  pyramid  threat- 
ened to  touch  the 
sky,  were  dispiea-sed 
and  rained  down  Are 
from      tbe     heavens, 


and  conveyed  to  tbe  si 


■oyin^  1 


any 


and  disperamg 
rest.  (5)  Confusion  of 
Tongues ,  — Teocipac  tli 
'ochiquetzal,  the 


who 


..e  saved  from  the 
flood,  according  to  tbe 
AEtec  tradition, 
landed  on  tbe  moun- 
tain of  ColhuBcan. 
They  had  many  child i 


,  -  --       1,  but  they 

a  dove  from  the  branches  of  a  tr 
spetdc.    Their  tongues,  however, 


when  there  was  si. . 
intercoms  bet-neeo 
the  two  nations. 
There  is  also  histor- 
ical proof  that  the 
Cross  of  Palenque  is 
of  much  more  an- 
cient origin  than  that 
oftheToltecs.  From 
tbis  it  may  be  in- 
ferred thai  the  Crom 
of  Palenque  does  not 
owe  its  origin  to  the 
same  source  as  the 
crosses  of  Mexico  and 
Cojiumel,  that  ia.  to 
tbe  coming  of  Kukul- 
can,  or  Quetxalcoatl, 
and  consequently  has 
no   Christian    signifi- 

had.  It  seems  to  be  of 


re  all  dumb  until  Buddhistic  origin. "    Among  the  Tzapotecs  and  Mijea 

taught  them  to  o(  the  State  of  Oaxaca  there  is  also  a  very  distintt 

.                        _„ , ,  .  -.3  80  diverse  that  tradition  about  Pecocha,  who  came  from  the  West, 

tltey  could  not  underatand  one  another.  landing  in  Huatuico  about  the  sixth  century.  He  is 
CWistian  Traditions, — In  the  history  of  the  na-  said  to  have  planted  a  cross  there,  and  to  have  taught 
tions  of  ancient  Mexico  the  coming  of  Quetzalcoat]  the  Indians  the  veneration  they  shoidd  have  for  this 
marks  a  distinct  era.  He  was  said  to  have  come  from  symbol.  This  crons  is  still  preserved  in  the  cathedral 
the  Province  of  PAnuco,  a  white  man^  of  great  stature,  of  Oaxaca,  the  claims  for  its  authenticity  resting  on 
broad  brow,  large  eyes,  long  black  hair,  rounded  beard,  tbe  moat  thoroughly  respectable  tradition,  and  upon 
and  dressed  in  a  tunic  covered  with  black  and  red  documents  that  cave  legal  as  well  as  canonical  weight, 
crosses.  Chaste,  intelligent,  and  just,  a  lover  of  peace,  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  make  some  men- 
versed  in  the  sciences  and  arts,  he  preached  by  his  tion  of  the  songs  and  prophecies  which  existed  among 
example  and  doctrine  a  new  religion  which  inculcated  the  Indians  Mfore  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards, 
fasting  and  penance,  love  and  reverence  for  the  Divin-  Quetialcoall  had  predicted  the  coming  of  a  strange 
ity,  practise  of  virtue,  and  hatred  of  vice.  He  pre-  race,  and  when  the  Spaniards  landed  the  natives  re- 
dictedthatintbecourse  of  time  whitemen  with  beards,  ceived  them  as  the  long  expected  messengers  whose 
like  himself,  would  come  from  the  East,  would  take  coming  had  been  predicted  to  them.  In  Yucatan, 
possession  of  tbeir  country,  overthrow  their  idols,  and  long  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  the  poet  Pat- 
establish  a  new  religion.     Expelled  from  ToUan,  he  lin-Vaxun-Chan  had  thus  addressed  the  people:  "" 


sought  refuge  in  CholoUan,  but,  being  pursued 
here  by  thcTollans,  he  passed  on  to  Yucatan,  wnei 
under  the  name  of  Kukulcan,  he  repeated  the  prcdi 
tions  he  had  made  in  Anahuac,  introduced  the  vener 

tion  of  the  Cross,  and  preached  Christian  doctriii_,     „.        .  .        .„  . .._    .   

Later  he  set  sail  from  theCtilf  of  Mexico,  going  towards     the  world  shall  be  made  manifest;  thi 


Itialanos  I  hate  your  gods,  forget  them  lor  they  are 
finite,  adore  the  God  oT  truth,  who  is  omnipoteol,  and 
the  creator  of  all  thinra. "  The  high  priest  of  Tixca- 
cayon,  Cauch,  said:  There  shall  come  the  sign  of  a 
god  who  dwells  on  high,  and  the  cross  which  illumined 
.1 u  .L-n  1 1 -r__. .  ,1 irship  of  false 


1  land,  aa  he  himself  said.     The  gods  ahall  cease.     Your  father  comes,  O  Itialanoal 

opinion  of  ancient  writers  that  tbia  person  was  the  vour    brother    comes,   0    Itzalanos  I     receive    youi 

Apostle   Saint   Thomas  is  now  universally  rejected,  bearded  guests  from  the  East,  who  come  to  bring  the 

and  the  moat  proliable  explanation  of  tbe  identity  of  sign  of  God.     God  it  is  who  comes  to  ub,  meek  and 

Quetsalcoatlisthathewas  an  Icelandic  or  Noree  priest  holy." 


MEXICO  253  umco 

ColonialPeriod  — (1)  Cooquerors  and  Conquered,—  Spanish  victories  were  due  more  to  the  mode  of  In- 
With  the  capture  of  Cuabutemotiin,  13  August,  1521,  d\&a  warfare  and  in  some  cases,  as  in  that  of  Otumba, 
the  Altec  empire  came  to  an  end,  and  with  it  Nataoa  to  Cort&'a  indomitable  courage  and  strat^^.  As  has 
civiliiation,  ilauch  may  be  called  the  attainmeoto  of  a  already  been  said,  the  Indians  did  not  fight  to  conquer 
nation  which,  althougti  preserving  in  some  of  the  but  to  take  their  enemiea  priaoneis,  and  the  battles 
branches  of  human  knowledge  remnants  of  an  ancient  after  the  first  assault  became  a  series  of  confused  hand- 
culture,  lacked  nevertheleas  many  of  the  essentials  of  to-hand  fights  without  order  or  harmony  on  the  part  of 
civiliiation,  practised  human  sacrifice,  polygamy,  and  the  Indians,  whereas  the  Spaniards  preserved  their 
slavery,  and  kept  up  an  incessant  warfare  with  their  unity  and  fought  under  the  direction  of  their  leader, 
neighbours  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  providing  vie-  Valourwaanotwantinfioneitherside,  but  the  Indians 
tuna  to  be  sacrificed  in  a  fruitless  endeavour  to  satiate  yielded  to  the  tempt«tion  of  an  easy  Sight,  while  the 
the  thir«t  for  blood  of  their  false  gods.  Most  histo-  Spaniards  foiwht  with  the  courage  of  desperation; 
rians  attribute  the  victories  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  knowing  well  that  the  sacrificial  stone  was  the  fate  that 
to  the  firearms  they  carried,  the  horses  they  rode,  the  awaitea  the  prisoner,  with  them  it  was  to  conquer  or 
horse  being  entirely  unknown  to  the  Indians,  the  steel  to  die.  Historians  have  been  so  carried  away  with  the 
armour  they  wore,  and  the  help  of  the  Indian  allies,  military  exploita  of  Cort&  that  the  men  who  fought 
No  doubt  all  these  contributed  in  a  meaaurc,  but  not  with  hun,  sharing  all  his  dangers,  have  been  over- 
■s  much  as  is  represented.  Of  the  500  or  600  men  looked.  Greed  for  gold  was  not  the  sole  dominant 
tbitt  composed  tne  fiist  expedition,  only  thirteen  motive  of  their  actions,  aa  has  been  so  persistently  as- 
oarried  firearms,  and  these  were  heavy  cumbersome  serted )  it  was  a  strange  mixture  of  inaomitahle  cour- 


pieees,  hard  to  manage  B<  ..  

time.    The  artillery    train  was  primitive,   and   its ,  _  . „..  „j_.j, --o— —  -r 

capacity  limited,  and  always  accompanied  the  main'  thoeew^ohadfought  most  valiantly  and  who  reeeived 

oolumn.     The  detachments  which  were  sent  out  to  their  share  of  the  spoils,  judging  their  gains  ill  gotten, 

subjugate  or  pacify  the  villages,  and  which  had  sharp  laid  aside  their  worldly  possessions  acquired  at  such  a 

encounters,  could  not  hamper  their  movements  in  this  high  price,  and  embraced  the  religious  life.     Later 

way.     Thehoraemen  were  out  sixteen  in  all,  and  after  they    emerged    from    the    cloister   transformed  into 

their  first  astonishment,  not  unmixed  with  awe,  the  missionaries,  full  of  leal  and  bringiiu  to  the  arduous 

natives  soon  learned  that  they  could  be  felled  by  a  task  ol  evangelising  the  Indians,  the  same  valour, 

aingleblow.  Except oSicers,fewoftheSpaniardawoi«  disregard  of  fatigue,  and  untiring  ener^  they  haa 

armour,  the  majority  bad  quilted  cotton  suits,  and  for  previously  displayed  in  the  army  of  discovery  and 

arms  tu  sword  and  buckler;  the  horsemen  were  armed  conquest. 

with  lanoee.  With  the  fall  of  the  great  Tenochtitlan,  the  first 

As  Co  weapons,  the  Indians  were  quite  as  well  pro-  period  may  be  said  to  close.     This  was  followed  by 

vided  as  the  Spaniards ;  thick  woodei)  helmets  covered  many  expeditions  of  discovery  and  conquest,  ending 

with  leather  protected  the  head,  and  all  carried  the  for  the  most  part  in  the  founding  of  coloniee.      A^ 

ehimaBi,  a  strong  shield  lai^  enough  to  almost  cover  varado  penetrated  as  far  as  Guat^nala;  Crist6bal  de 

ii *:_  1 ,      -n ii: .1-..L.  i._.__j   jjyj  jjj  Qijj  reached  Honduras,  Montejo,  father  and  son,  ac- 
complished theconqueat  of  Yucatan ;  Cort^  went  as  far 

... asI.owerCalifomia.     NuilodeGusmin.theconqueror 

in  the  very  heat  of  battle  thinking  more  of  pillage  of  Michoaican  (or  Taraeco  Kin|;doro)  and  the  founder 

than  of  fighting,  durins  the  siege,  when  the  Spanish  of  the  city  of  Guadalajara,  whose  career  might  have 

cause  seemed  doomed,  the  allies  forsook  them.     When  been  so  distinguished  tor  glory,  allowed  his  cruel, 

laterthey  returned  they  were  such  a  hindrance  on  the  avaricious   dispoeition    to   overrule   all   his   actions. 

narmw  causeways,  that  in  order  to  fight  freely,  the  Fleeing  from  Mexico  to  avoid  the  storm  that  his  evil 

S^WDiuda  were  obliged  to  aend  tbem  to  the  rear.   The  deeda  had  brought  upon  him,  he  encountered  Taogo- 


aco 


254 


mzioo 


axaa  It,  aliaa  CaitaoatzJD,  the  Tfing  of  Hiohoacan;  ceeded  the  limite  of  their  authority,  And  she  ussd 
be  HeiBedbtra,  plundered  his  train,  tortured  aiid  finally  every  measuie  within  her  reach,  though  not  olwayi 
put  him  to  death.  Furauing  his  wa^  be  left  a  trail  of  aucceasfuUy,  to  obtain  fair  treatment  for  the  con- 
ashes  and  blood  through  the  whole  Tarasoo  Kin^om.  queied  IndianB.  Innumerable  royal  decrees  and  lawi 
The  saintly  Vascode  Quiroga,  first  Bishop  of  Michoa-  enjoining  just  and  equitable  treatment  for  the  Indians, 
eon,  with  difficulty  effaced  the  traces  of  this  bloody  were  issued  to  the  viceroys  and  governors  of  America, 
march.  Nuiio  penetrated  beyond  Sinaloa,  suppress-  Through  the  aid  of  the  missionariea,  the  Spanisb 
Ing  with  an  iron  hand  the  discontent  in  his  mixed  Government  obtained  from  Paul  III  (17  June,  1537), 
tnxw.  Retracing  his  steps,  be  founded  the  cit^  of  the  Hull  which  gave  to  the  Indians  equal  right«  with 
Guadalajara.  At  enmity  with  Cort^,  unrecc^nued  the  while  man,  and  proclaimed  thero  capable  of  re- 
by  the  Audiencia  and  the  viceroy,  cursed  by  bis  vie-  ceiving  the  Christian  faith  and  its  sacraments,  thug 
tmis,  he  returned  to  Mexico,  to  be  seised,  imprisoned,  destroying  the  pernicious  opinion  that  they  were 
and  transported  to  Spain,  where  he  died  in  poverty  irrational  beings.  Severe  laws  were  promulgated 
and  want.  Nuiio  was  succeeded  by  the  mild,  winning  against  those  who  should  attempt  to  enslave  the 
Cristobal  de  Dilate.  By  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  Indiana,  and  the  Government  oidered  that  davea 
century  the  conquest  from  Guatemala  to  New  Mexico  should  be  broucht  from  Africa  (as  was  the  custom  of 
hod  been  practically  accomplished.  the  period),  ratner  than  that  Spanish  subjecta  should 

In  New  Spab,  no  Sayri  Tupac  nor  Tupac  Amaru  become  alaves. 

ever  arose  to  attempt  to  overthrow  the  Spttniaids,  as  With  regard  to  eDeomiendaa  (a  system  of  patents 

in  Peru.    The  Indians  conquered  by  Conia  and  the  involving  virtual  enslavement  of  the  Indians)  no  one 

oommanders  who  followed  him  remained  submissive,  who  has  read  the  life  of  Fray  BaKdom^  de  las  Cases 


There 

sional  uprisings 
among  the  Northern 
Indians,   but   never 


i  be  ignorant  ol 
tne  earnest  effort 
made  by  the  Gov- 
ermuent  to  do  away 
with  them,  but,  as 
this  was  impossible, 
and  as  the  attempt 
was  creatine  dis- 


likia),  the  Govern- 
ment tried  by  every 
means  to  alleviate 
the  condition  of  tbe 
Indians,  and  to  save 
them  as  much  as 
possible  from  bareh 
treatment  by  their 
masters.  If  tbe  ex- 
cesses of  some  of  tbe 
conquerors 


aSect  the  peace  of 
the  colony  in  gen- 
eral. Neither  nad 
the  Government  to 
contend  with  any 
disloyalty  among  its 
own  subjects;  the 
Spaniards  of  New 
Spain  never  belied 
tbe  proverbial  Span- 
ish loyalty.  The 
kinK  received  from 
the  nands  of  Cort^ 
and  those  who  con- 

tinned    his  work   a  O""'  ■■■;.   □„  ■.  -      ,  

vast  empire  almost  known  as    Et  Sol  ^^^  m  ^mj^  j^^jj  ^^ 

free  of  expense  to  the  royal  exchequer.    All  that  lief,  it  is  because  of  the  unceasing  protests  of  the  many 

was  required   seemed   to  be   to  take  possession   of  Spaniardswbowerenottheirpartisans.  Themostvehe- 

the  new  territories  added  to  the  Crown;  but  the  ment  accusers  of  the  Spanioros  base  their  assertions  an 

situation  was  not  without  its  difficulties.      For  the  thewritingsofSpaniardsthemaelvefl.particuIariythose 

conquest   a   military    commander    had    been   suffi-  of  the  fieiy  Las  Casas,  to  whom  tbe  Government  i^ 

cient;  the  new  empire  would  require  a  Government,  pears  to  have  allowed  free  speech.    The  miBsitmaiies 

In   the  methods   employed    to    organize    this    new  were  equally  vehement,  often  trmWing  unreascmable 

empire,   Spain   has   frequently   been    charged    with  domands,  and  showing  themselves  more  bitter  to- 

crnelty  :     that    there   was    cruelty,    and    at   timee  wards  their  own  countrymen  than  a  stranger  would 

extreme  cruelty,  cannot  be  denied.     The  execution  have  been.     Even  Philip  II  sulTered  in  silence  this 

of  Cuahutemotein  and  the  horrible  death  oif  Tan-  .torrent  of  complaint  and  abuse  of  his  Government,  and 

goaxan  11  will  ever  disgrace  the  memory  of   Cort^  tolerated  choreas  which,  in  similar  circumstances,  in 

and  Nuflo  de  GuzmAn.     The  slavery  to  which   the  the  realm  of  the  haughty  Elizabeth  would  have  been 

Indians  were  reduced  during  the  early  years  of  the  dearly  paid  by  those  complaining.     A  laudable  aenti- 

eonquest,  their  distribution  among  the  plantations,  ment  of  faimeaa  and  compassion  towards  the  van- 

the  contemptuous  disr^ard  of  the  conquerors  for  the  quished  race  inspired  these  writings,  and  their  very 

lives  of  Indians,  looking  upon  them  at  first  as  irra-  nature  and  purpose  piecludedall  mention  of  any  deeds 

tional  beings,  are  blots  which  can  hardly  be  effaced  of  kindness  and  humanity.     The  gruesome  picture 

from  the  history  of  the  Spanish  conquest  in  America,  that  has  resulted  from  this  makes  it  appear  that  in 

But  the  impartial  historian  may  well  call  attention  that  army  of  conquerors  and  colonizers  there  wag  not 

to  certain  facts  and  thus  enable  the  reader,  viewing  a  single  one  who  was  a  Christian  and  a  man.     In  their 

tbe   question   from  every  aspect,  to  form  a  correct  zeairorjusticetheSpaniardshavereallycBstdisbonour 

historical  opinion.  on  their  country,  and  this  must  ever  redound  to  their 

Neither  the  home  Government  nor  the  Spanish  glory, 
nation  was  ever  an  accomplice  in  these  deeds  of  cm-        (2)  Evangelisation  and  Conversion  of  the  Indiana. — 

elty  of  the  Spaniards  in  New  Spain.    Spain,  it  is  In  the  raitks  of  the  Spaniards  there  wei«  several 

true,  rewarded  the   conauerors    of    Mexico   just  as  priests,  but  little  could  be  done  during  the  firat  stormy 

nations  to-dav  honour  tne  victorious  gcneraJs  who  period.     When  the  conquest  had  been  effect«d,  and 

have  left  in  tneir  wake  devastated  lands  and  battle-  order  restored,  the  Franciscans  were  the  first  to  offer 

fields  strewn  with  the  dead.     These  expeditions  of  themselves  for  the  work.     Three  Flemish  Franciscans, 

conquest  were  the  natural  outcome  of  circumstances;  among  them  the  famous  lay  brother  Peter  of  Ghent 

they  were  carried  out  under  royal  command,  and  were  (Pedro  de  Gante),  kinsman  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V, 

no  more  piratical  expeditions  tien  than  they  would  had  preceded  the  first  twelve  Franciscans  who  foi^ 

be  now.    Spain  did  not  fail  to  demand  a  strict  account  molly  took  possession  of  the  missions  in  1 524.     Upon 

bota  all  who,  after  the  submission  of  the  people,  ex-  the  arrival  of  the  latter,  they  joined  their  ranks,  and 


MEXICO  255  mXIOO 

the'  supBrior,  Fn;  Hartfo  de  Vttleneia,  Kppoioted  does  not  justify  the  statement  th»t  the  oonveirion  <A 
them  to  vatiouapUoeB  near  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  the  Indiana  was  not  aiikcere.  The  most  notable 
they  b^ganat  onoe,  as  best  they  could,  to  teach  and  BpoetaaieBoccurredBttheeDdofthesixteenthceDtury, 
preach.  At  first,  eopeoially  among  the  adults,  little  wDen  Coaijopii,  formerly  King  of  Tehuautepec,  was 
could  be  accomplished,  aa  tuy  did  not  know  the  Ian-  Huipriaed,  Burrounded  by  his  ancient  courtiers  and  a 
Kuage,  BO  they  turned  their  attention  to  the  children,  great  number  of  people,  taking  part  in  an  idolatrous 
There  their  leal  was  rewarded  with  more  success,  the  ceremony,  and  in  the  seventeenth  centu^,  when  the 
childi«n  being  more  docile  and  lees  imbued  with  the  priests  u  tlie  Province  of  Ooxaca  heard  that  ereat 
eflecta  of  idolatrous  worship.  By  degrees  they  gained  numbers  of  Indians  congregated  secretly  at  night  to 
ground,  and  before  long  adulta  were  asking  for  bap-  worship  their  idols.  But  this  occurred  when  the  in- 
tjam,  the  number  increasing  daily  until  witliin  a  few  fluence  of  the  missionaries  over  the  Indians  had 
years  the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  greatly  diminished,  whether  owing  to  the  abandon- 
newly  conquered  territory  had  received  baptism.  The  ment  of  some  of  the  parishes,  to  disputes  with  the 
apparition,  in  1531, of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  to  the  secular  clergy,  or  because  to  some  extent  religious 
Indian  Juan  Diego  had  a  powerful  efTect,  the  incteaae  discipline  bad  been  relaxed, 
in  conversions  heme  very  noticeable  after  that  time.  ^"  '^''"  -""■""J'-"  :•■  "— -  - 

The  fact  that  thev  had  found  the  territory  con- 
quered,  and  the  inhabitants  pacified  and  submissive, 
had  greatly  aided  the  missionaries ;  they  could,  more- 
over, count  on  the  support  of  the  Government. and  the 
now  converts  on  its  favour  and  protection.  It  must, 
however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  tnere  was  no  coercion: 
the  Indians  did  not  see  in  baptism  an  fegis  that  would 
protect  them  from  ci^elty  and  peraecution,  other- 
wise they  surely  would  have  hastened  to  be  baptized 
in  those  early  years  when  the  unsettled  state  of 
the  government  exposed  them  to  greater  oppression 
and  outrage.  The  motive  must  be  sought  deeper. 
The  Altec  religion,  with  its  human  sacrifices,  draining 
constantly  the  life  of  the  mass  of  the  people,  must 
surely  have  inclined  them  to  a  religion  which  freed 
them  from  such  a  yoke.  Moreover,  their  religion, 
though  recogniiing  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  as- 
signea  future  happiness,  not  according  to  the  merits, 
but  according  to  the  worldly  condition,  of  the  indi- 
vidual, his  profession,  and  tne  fortuitous  manner  t^ 
death.  This  contrasted  Btrongly  with  the  Christian 
dogma  of  the. immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  power 
of  all,  however  lowly,  to  acquire  by  their  merits  the 
right  to  prwirnn  it.  Some  Have  questioned  whether 
or  not  the  hves  of  the  missionaries  were  a  contributing 
influence  in  the  conversion  of  the  Indians.  It  is  true 
that  the  ancient  Actec  priests  practised  severe  pen- 
ances and  austerities,  but  their  harshness,  haughti- 
ness, and  ^oofness  from  the  poor  formed  a  sharp 
coDtraet  with  the  conduct  of  the  missionaries,  who,  on 
the  contrary,  sought,  sheltered,  taught,  and  defended  assumed  in  some  respects.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
them.  The  fact  that  the  haughty  conquerors,  whom  Christianitv  of  the  Indian  is  essentially  sad  and  som- 
the  Indiana  BO  much  admired,  showed  the  missionaries  bre.  This  nas  been  attributed  to  the  occasion  on  which 
BO  much  outward  deference  and  respect,  even  kneeling  Christianity  was  introduced  among  them,  to  racial 
at  their  feet,  raised  them  at  once  to  a  higher  level.  traits,  to  the  impression  indelibly  imprinted   upon 

One  of  the  most  eminent  Franciscans  of  this  mis-  them  by  their  ancient  rites,  and  to  the  fact  that  the 
sion,  Fr.  Sahagi^,  charges  the  first  missionaries  with  Indian  sees  in  the  crucifix  the  actual  evidences  of  in- 
a  Iwik  of  worlalvBagacity  (prude7ictaseipenfino],aod  suit  and  abuse,  of  suffering  and  dejection.  The 
says  that  they  did  not  see  that  the  Indians  were  de-  crucifixes  in  the  Indian  churche8arerepubive,and  only 
eeiving  them,  to  all  appearances  embracing  the  Faith,  in  tare  instances  have  the  priests  succeeded  in  improv- 
yet  holding  in  secret  to  their  idolatrous  practices,  ing  or  changing  these  images.  Devotion  to  some 
This  accusation  in  a  measure  attacks  the  memory  of  particular  samt,  above  ^1  to  the  Apostle  St.  James. 
iheae  firat  holy  missionaries,  and  it  seems  almost  out-  may  also  be  noted.  Their  ancient  polytheism  had 
side  the  range  of  possibilities  that  such  a  multitude  taughtthem  that  thefavouTofeachgodwhoposscssed 
could  have  Decn  u  accord  to  deceive  them.  The  special  prerogatives  was  to  be  sought,  which  explains 
examples  of  virtuous  lives  led  by  several  of  the  ca-  the  many  and  varied  propitiatoryaacnfices  of  their  re- 
ciques  (Indian  chiefs),  prominent  personages,  and  by  ligion,  and  the  new  converts  probably  did  not  at  first 
many  of  the  poor  plebeians,  the  sincere  and  upright  understand  the  relative  position  of  the  saints,  nor  the 
maimer  in  which  tney  received  and  carried  out  the  distinction  between  the  adomtion  due  to  God  and  the 
severe  condition  of  abandoning  their  polycamous  reverence  due  to  the  saints.  Hearing  the  Spaniards 
practices,  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  not  all  these  speak  constantly  of  the  Apostle  St,  James,  they  be- 
convetsions  were  feigned.  Of  course,  it  does  not  come  convinced  that  he  was  some  sort  of  divine  pro- 
follow  from  this  that  every  Indian  without  exception  tector  of  the  conquerors,  to  be  justly  feared  by  tneir 
who  embraced  Cbristiaoity,  did  so  in  all  sincerity,  enemies,  and  that  it  was  therefore  neceasaiy  to  gain 
Doubtleea  then  wei«  not  many  among  them  who  his  favour.  Hence  the  great  devotion  that  the 
attained  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  new  dogmas,  Indians  had  for  St.  James,  the  numerous  churches 
but  nearly  all  preferred  the  new  religion  because  of  the  dedicated  to  him,  and  the  statues  of  him  in  so  manv 
evident  advantages  it  possessed  over  the  ancient  ehurches,mountedonBwhitehorse,withdrawnBWon^ 
doctrine*  and  worship.    Their  knowledge  may  not    in  the  act  of  ehatfdng. 

have  extended  to  judgii^  the  fixed  limits  between        A  much  debated  question  at  that  time  was  whether 
wbM  was  lUlgwed  and  what  was  forbidden,  but  thif    conquest  should  precede  convenion,  or  whether  tbo 


..  _._.      oBub-  throush  the  efforts  of  Father  SAlvBtiem,  Hid  U  hia 

jugate  and  bringthelndians  to  aChristiao  and  civilised  and  toe  famoue  Father  Kino  is  due  the  discovec;  that 
mode  of  life.  The  Former  theory  bad  been  applied  Lower  California  waaapeninaula,  ai>dnotMiiBUad.M 
to  the  first  nations,  which  the  missionaries  found  had  been  supposed  for  a  eenturv  and  a  half.  Whea 
conquered  and  pacified  when  they  b^;an  their  work  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  all  the  Spaoi^  colonici 
amoDK  them.  The  question  presented  iteelf  when  by  Charles  III,  many  of  their  miaaiona  were  sban- 
expeaitionsaAamst  the  Indians  of  the  northern  part  of  doned,  others  were  taken  in  charge  br  the  minioii- 
Hexico  were  Deing  planned.  The  independent  stat«  aries  of  the  College  of  Our  Lady  of  Quaaalupe  in  Zsca- 
of  these  tribes  was  a  constant  roeoace  to  the  peace  and  tecas.  Towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
progress  of  the  colony  in  the  south,  and  the  rich  mines  the  Franciscans,  handicapped  for  so  many  years  by 
known  to  exist  there  were  also  an  inducement.  The  disadvantages  and  diseeDsions,  retumetf  with  re- 
system  adopted,  which  seems  to  have  been  enjoined  newed  life  and  vigour  to  the  work  of  the  minionB,  utd 
by  royal  mandate,  was  to  send  armed  expeditions,  took  charge  of  many  of  the  deserted  missions  erf  Cali- 


n  of  the  territory  and  to  establish  garrisons    first  Franciscans,  among  . 

and  forts  to  hold  it.  Bythia  arrangement  thecrosaand    Junfpero  Serra,  founder  of  the 
the  aword  went  hand  m  hand,  but  the  missionaries  of    [omia. 

(3)  The  Destruction  of  the  Astec  Hieroglyplucs.— 
The  general  opinion  of  the  ordinary  student  of  Mexi- 
can history,  after  reading  the  works  of  Prescott- 
Bancroft,  Robertson,  and  others,  is  that  the  first 
missionaries  and  the  first  Bishop  of  Mexico,  Juan  de 
ZumArraga,  were  responsible  for  the  destruction  of  the 
hieroglyphic  annals  of  the  Aitecs.  ExpressioDS  such 
as  the  following,  occur  frequenllv;  "Ignorance  and 
fanaticisroof  thefirstmiaaionariea  -  "theOmarofthe 
new  continent".  It  we  look  carefully  into  thesourtea 
from  which  these  opinions  have  been  taken  we  shall 
see  that  these  charges  ai«  entirely  unfounded  or,  at 
least,  greattv  exag^rated.  To  make  this  point  clear, 
we  shall  at  tne  begmning  set  aside  auch  writeia  as  Pres- 
eott,  K.  H.  Bancroft,  Lucas  AJamin,  Humboldt,  Cavo, 
Clavijero,  Robertaon,  Gemelli,  Siguenaa,  Herrera,  and 
othere,  who,  although  learned  men,  from  the  veiy 
circumstances  of  havmg  written  at  a  time  far  removed 
from  the  era  of  the  conquest  and  evangeliiation  ot 
Mexico,  perhaps  never  haviiw  visited  the  country  it- 
self, have  necessarily  confinedthemselves to  repeatjog 
tales  which  others  have  written  before  them.  Settine 
aside  these,  there  still  remain  thirteen  writera,  some  M 
them  contemporary  with  the  conquest  and  otben 
practically  contemporaneous,  who  have  seen  thf.  work 
ot  the  missionaries  and  witnessed  the  evenfc  immui- 
ately  following  the  conquest.  Of  tbi».  thirteei.  ail 
may  still  be  eliminated  as  treatimr  i>urely  of  the  de- 
struction of  idols  and  tMtailis,  or  tipples,  not  having 
concerned  themselves  with  manuaenpta  and  hiero- 
glyphics. These  are  Fray  Martin  de  Valencia,  Su- 
perior of  the  first  Franciscans,  Fray  Pedro  de  Gante, 
Fray  Toribio  de  Benavante,  Fray  Jer6nimo  de  Men- 
dieta,  the  letter  of  the  bishops  to  tne  Emperor  Charles  V 
Aetec  aACBinciAi.  Stonb  (1537),  and  his  reply.    Ot  the  seven  remaining  authon 

National  MuMum.  City  of  MaxUo  g^g  -mtAx  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  the 

the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  especially  beginning  of  the  seventeenth,  such  as  Sahae^i  (15S0- 
the  Jesuits,  were  not  satisfied  with  this  method,  and  80),  Torquemada  (his  works  were  published  in  1615), 
attempted  the  converaion  of  these  tribes  without  the     DurAn  (1519-80),  Ixtlilxochiti  (1600-15),  and  J.  B. 


mpted  the  converaion  oE  these  tnt>ea  without  the  J-iuran  iioiy-ou),  ixuuxocmti  uouo-ia;,  ana  J.  b. 

of  arms.     They  left  the  fortified  headquartira  Pomar  (1582).     Two  authoritiee  of  the  time  of  the 

occupied  by  the  Spaniards  to  visit  and  convert  Other  conquest  are  the  codex  called  "  Libra  de  Oro  "  (Golden 

tribes,  and  often  found  among  them  the  martyr's  Book),  1530-34,  and  the  letter  of  Bishop  Zumdrraga 

crown.     The  Tarahumares,  Tepehuanes,  Pspigoctiic,  to  theGeneralChapterof  Tolosa,  writtcnat  theendof 

and  the  tribes  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  put  many  Jesuit  the  year  1531. 

missionaries   to  death,   but  each  one  who  fell  was         Before  treating  each  of  these  authorities  separately 

quickly  replaced  by  another,  even  the  horrible  spec-  it  may  be  as  well  to  establish  some  important  facts. 

tacle  of  the  bloody  and  mutilated  remains  ot  tneir  Accoiiling  to  Sahagiin,  in  the  time  of  the  native  Mexi- 

companions  lying  unburied  in  the  smoicing  ruins  of  the  can  King  Itzocoatl  (1427-40)  a  number  of  i^intii^ 

mission  chapel  did  not  daunt  their  courage.   At  times  had  been  burnt  to  keep  them  from  falling  into  the 

formidable  rebellions  broke  out,  as  in  New  Mexico  in  hands  of  the  vul^r,  who  might  have  treated  them 

1680,  when,  in   the  general    massacre,  twenty-one  with  disrespect.    This  may  be  called  the  first  destruo- 

Fianciscans  perished,  and  Christianity  was  all   but  tioti.     Ixttilxochitl  (Fernando  de  Alba)  asserts  that 

exterminated.  when  the  Tlaxcaltecs  entered  Texcoco  in  company 

Towards  the  middle  o{  the  eighteenth  century  the  with  Cortfe  (31  RecGmber,  1520)  they  "set   fire  to 

tribes  of  the  Eastern  Coast,  inhabiting  what  is  now  everything  belonging  to  King  Netsahualpilli,  and  thus 

TamflulipsH,  Nuevo  Lofiii,  Coahuila,  and  Texas,  were  burnt  the  royal  archives  of  all  New  Spain  "  (second  de- 

under  the  I'Vanciscans ;  those  of  the  West,  the  present  struction).     Mendieta  saya  that  at  the  time  of  the 

limits  of  Diirango,  Chihuahua,  Sinaloa,  Sonora,  and  coming  of  the  Spaniards  many  paintinp  were  hidden 

Lower   California,   were   under   the   Jesuits.     Lower  and  locked  up,  to  save  them  from  the  lavages  of  war; 

California  was  acquired  for  the  Spanish  Government  the  owners  dying  or  moving  away,  these  papers  were 


HSXIOO                                  257  MKXIOO 

lost  (third  deetnictioQ).  Ham&n  Coitft,  in  oider  to  rit«8,  nnd  not  ftimala  of  hbtorio  value.  As  naiia 
Uke  the  City  of  Mexico,  bad  to  demolish  almoet  the  other  authors  who  were  almost  contemporary  with  the 
whole  of  it,  tnclu dine  the  leocoUis,'  many  writings  must  conquest,  it  must  be  noted  that  within  a  few  years 
have  been  destroyeathea  (fourth  destruction).  they  began  inveeti^tions  conceroio^  Indian  antiqui- 
All  this  was  previous  to  the  coming  of  the  first  tiea  and  naturally  turned  to  the  bieroglyphics  that 
missionaries.  No  evidence  is  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  bad  been  preserved,  seeking  explanations  [ram  the 
writers  of  the  period  that  either  the  miasionariea  or  Indians  who  were  moM  veraed  in  deciphering  theae. 
Bishop  Zumdiraga  burnt  anything  in  Mexico,  Teicoco,  But  they  had  already  lost  in  great  part  the  knowledge 
or  Atacapotzalco,  that  might  even  remotely  be  called  of  the  meaning  of  these  figures,  which  had  been  trana- 
a  literary  monument.  On  the  contrary.  Fray  Jerfinimo  mitted  by  tradition  only.  Ixtiilxochitl  asserts  that 
de  Uendiela,  one  of  the  first  Franciscans,  in  the  out  of  a  gathering  of  the  principal  Indians  of  New 
prologue  of  the  second  volume  of  his  "  Historia  Eclesi'  Spain,  who  had  a  reputation  for  knowing  their  hiatory, 
istica  Indiana"  slates  that  far  from  the  first  friars  he  found  only  two  who  had  full  knowledge  and  undei^ 
destroying  Indian  manuscripts,  their  superior.  Fray  standing  of  the  paintings  and  si^na.  Urged  by  tha 
Martin  de  Valencia,  and  the  president  of  the  Second  interpreters  to  explain  certain  points  which  they  did 
Audiencia,  D.  Sebastian  Ramfres  de  Fuen  Leal,  com-  not  understand,  they  felt  great  repugnance  in  con- 
missiooed  Fray  Andres  del  Olmo,  in  1533,  to  writ«  a  fessing  their  ignorance,  and  in  order  to  dissimulate  it 
book  on  Indian  antiquities.  This  he  did  having  seen  had  recourse  to  the  convenient  alternative  of  laying 
"all  the  pictures  representing  ancient  rites  and  eus-  the  blame  on  the  scarcity  of  pictures.  Their  desire  to 
tome,  owned  by  the  caciques  and  other  persons  of  im-  shield  their  ancestors  for  their  failure  to  record  some 
portance  in  these  facts  of  importance 
provinces", andhav-  induced  themtoex- 
mg  received  ready  aegerate  the  part 
answers  and  expla-  taken  by  Bistiop 
nations  from  all  the  Zumirraga  and  the 
oldest  inhabitants  missionaries, 
whom  he  questioned.  Fray  Durtb,  the 
Moreover,  in  1533  cautious  Fray  8aha- 
or  1534,  the  punt-  gun,  and  Ixtlilxo- 
ing  to  which  the  chitl  do  not  accuse 
name  of  Codex  Zu-  Bishop  Zumirraga, 
mdrrsga  has  been  but  attribute  eveiy- 
given  was  being  thing  to  the  mis- 
studied  and  ex-  sionaries.  Fray  Tor- 
plained,  notwith-  quemada  blames  the 
standing  the  horror  missionaries  and 
it mustnave inspired  Bishop  Zumdiraga, 
from  being  stained  pointing  to  the  ai^ 
with  human  blood.  chives  of  Aticapot- 
Aa  Bishop  Zamii-  lalco  as  destroyed 
rags  did  not  reach  by  him.  This,  how- 
Uexicountil  1528,  he  ever,  appears  utterly 
cannot  be  blamed  or  unlikery  as  no  former 
held  responsible  for  writer  ever  men- 
what  had  happened  tioned  the  archives 
previous  to  this.  In  of  AtEcapotsalco, 
the  years  1529  and  and  it  is  quite  pos- 
1530  he  had  more  Battlu  or  OoRrts  nr  Mbxioo  sible  no  such  archives 
than  enough  to  do  in  Afta-sDAitsodrawJaiin  tlia"IienKideTUieaU'*  ever  existed.  More- 
Oppoeingtneexcessesof  the  First  Audiencia,  and  any-  over,  had  there  been  any  truth  in  this  accusation, 
one  who  is  familiar  with  the  history  of  this  period  will  Ixtlilxochitl,  who  was  m  search  of  these  proofs, 
know  that  he  had  other  matters  tnan  the  ouming  of  would  have  related  it  in  his  works;  as  it  is,  he  does 
manuscripts — to  say  nothing  of  entire  archives,  as  not  even  mention  it.  Finally,  it  must  be  borne  in 
some  vrriters  assert — to  occupy  him.  At  the  close  of  mind  that  Torquemada  only  ^tbered  together  the 
the  year  1531  he  was  recalled  toSpain,  and  did  not  re-  writings  of  the  early  missionaries,  and  interwove  his 
turn  until  late  in  the  year  1534,  At  this  time  nohiero-  works  with  fragment«  of  these  writings.  He  could  not 
glyphic  records  were  destroyed,  but,  as  we  have  find  such  a  chai^  against  Bishop  Zumirrsga  because 
already  stated,  they  were  being  collected  and  inter-  it  was  not  there.  As  regards  the  first  misaionariea,  we 
preted.  This  being  the  case,  let  us  now  examine  the  have  already  mentioned  the  value  they  placed  upon 
texts  which  are  quoted  against  the  missionaries  and  the  pictures  and  the  use  they  made  in  the  hiero- 


Bishop  Zumdrraoa.  glyptics.     Two  documents  of  the  time  of  the  Conqueat 

J.  B.  Pomar,  who,  like  Ixtlilxochitl,  was  a  descend-  may  be  cited  ia  this  connexion:   the  "Libro  de  Oro" 

ant  of  the  kings  of  Texcoco,  may  be  set  aside  at  once.  (Golden  Book)  and  the  letter  of  Bishop  Zumfhraga  to 

He  states  that  in  Texcoco  the  Indians  themselves  the  Chapter  of  Tolosa.    In  the"LibrodeOro",  which 

bumtthepaintin^  that  bad  earlier  eeeaped  the  incen-  is  the  work  of  the  first  Franciscans,  and  which  has 

diariem  of  the  TIaxealteca,  for  fear  Bishop  Zumdrraga  been  very  badly  edited,  some  phrases  being  almost 

might  attribute  to  them  idolatrous  worship,  because  unintelligible,  we  find  the  following  words:    "As  we 

at  that  time  D.  Carlos  Ometoohtsin,  son  of  Netzahual-  have  destroyed  and  burnt  the  books  and  all  that  per* 

pilli,  was  accused  of  idolatry.     It  was  not,  therefore,  a  tains  to  ceremonial  or  is  suspect,  and  threatened  tnem 

queetionof  anact  of  Bbhop  ZumArrage,  but  of  a  fear,  if  they  do  not  reveal  them,  now  when  we  ask  for  books, 

well  or  ill-founded,  on  the  part  of  the  Indians.     The  if  any  have  them  they  tell  us  they  are  burnt,  and  ask 

Texcocanos.  seeing  that  their  lord  was  indicted  for  why  we  want  them.     There  are  books  among  them 

idolatry,  and  fearing  that  the  investigations  might  in-  that  are  not  prohibited,  such  as  give  the  computation 

criminate  others,  not  alt«f^ber  faultles,  hastened  to  of  the^ears,  monthe,and  days,  and  annals,  although 

shield  themselvee  by  bummg  some  paintings,  the  char-  there  is  always  something  tnat  is  suspect.    Besides. 

acterofwhichisnotknown.   They  may  in  reality  have  there  are  others  which  are  prohibited,  treating  of 

been  repreaentationB  <A  idolatrous  and  supecBtitious  idolatry  and  dreams."    The  <ml7  ibiiig  that  caa  be 
X^17 


uzxco  2 

proved  U  certain  from  this  document  fa  that  the 
mueionariee  bunit  booka  of  heathenisb  and  idoUtrouB 
ceremonies;  the  distinction  between  these  and  booka 
of  aiinab  being  clearly  cJrawn ;  the  one  prohibited,  the 
other  not.  As  ihe  accusation  ia  principally  baaed  on  the 
burning  of  hiatorical  hieroglyph ica,  we  aee  from  this 
document  that  there  is  no  foundation  for  it. 

There  remains  the  famous  letter  of  Bishop  ZumA- 
rraga  to  the  Chapter  of  Tolosa,  written  in  1531.  Aa 
there  have  beeo  twenty-one  editions  of  this  celebisted 
)ett«r,  there  are  aome  variations;  the  quotation  is 
given  as  it  is  found  in  the  oldest  edition,  which  aays: 

Baptizata  aunt  pluaquam  ducenta  quinquaginta 
millia  horoiaum,  quingenta  deorum  tempta  sunt  da- 
etruota,  et  plusquam  vicesies  mille  fieuis  dsmoni 


as  a  mark  of  indignity,  and  then  broken  up.  This,  in 
all  probabilitY,  is  the  meaning  of  the  wonu  in  Bishop 
Zuminaga's  letter. 

Briefly,  then,  the  preoedii^  facts  show:  (a)  That 
before  the  cominK  of  the  first  misaionaries  many 
hieroglyphic  iMintingB  bad  been  destroyed,  (b)  That 
*■"'  — -— ■-'  who  came  in  1524,  and  who  wrote 


A  et  corobuBtEe. 


turns  on  the  words  figitra  damonum  comimata, 
L  e.,  burnt.  Critics  say  that  the  word  buT-nt  should  be 
applied  to  books  and  Indian  writings  which  the 
missionaries  took  for  idols  or  objects  of  adoration. 
Sane  criticiam,  however,  induces  us  to  the  contturj" 
belief,  or  at  least  to  attribute  less  importance  to  this 
word  tntnii.  From  the  "Libro  de  Oro",  it  is  evident 
that  the  missionaries  distinguished  from  the  beginning 
between  prohibited  and  non-prohibited  books;  thev 
did  not,  therefore,  take  every  Hieroglyphic  for  an  idol. 
No  writer  of  that  period,  and  there  were  many,  ever 
said  that  the  Indiana  adored  the  writings,  nor  did  the 
missionaries  believe  such  a  thing,  for  they  clearly  dis- 
tinguished between  idols  and  writings.  Fray  Men* 
dieta  mentions  certain  idols  of  paper,  out  he  does  not 
call  them  writings.  Dilvila  Fadilla  (1596)  speaks  of 
another  very  lar^^  idol  of  paper,  filled  with  smaller 
idols,  but  he  does  not  say  that  these  were  writings. 
Besides,  there  were  idols  of  wood  that  could  be  bum&i, 
the  stone  ones  could  be  covered  with  clothing  and  so 
burned,  and  in  the  chronicles  of  the  time  mention  is 
continually  made  of  the  burning  of  idols.  When  these 
were  made  of  itone  they  were  cast  wto  the  flames  first, 


_.  .  ..-„  .  tin^  being  burnt,  and  as  early  as  1530 
they  besan  to  oiBtiiiguiBh  between  prohibited  and 
non-pronibit«d  paintino;  in  1533,  by  order  of  the 
superior,  they  collected  these  writines  to  compile  a 
histx)ry  of  the  Indians,  (c)  That  the  cbar^  of  Idling 
destroyed  the  historical  hieroglyphics  of  the  Indiana, 
practically  null  in  the  banning,  has  grown  in  propar- 
tion  as  the  writers  are  farther  remove  from  the  time 
of  the  conquest,  (d)  That,  even  minting  that  there 
ever  was  such  a  destruction,  it  could  not  have  been  so 
creat,  for  from  1668  to  1580  the  viceroy  D.  Martin 
Enrlquei  ordered  that  the  paintings  of  the  Indians  br 
brought  together  in  order  to  rewrite  their  history,  and 
many  were  brought  from  Tula,  Texcoco,  and  Mexico, 
and  m  the  eishteenth  century  the  celebrated  writer 
and  collector  Boturini  found  many  more. 

(4)  Public  Instruction  During  the  Earlieat  Colonial 
Period. — When  the  first  band  of  twelve  Franciscans 
arrived  at  Tlaxcala  in  1524  they  found  there  Falher 
Tecto,  who  had  come  two  years  before.  Seeing  thai  lie 
and  his  companions  had  not  made  much  progretie  in  ilie 
conversion  of  the  natives,  Fray  Martin  de  Valencia 
asked  the  reason,  and  what  they  had  been  dcing  in  ibe 
time  they  had  been  in  the  colony;  "  Learning  a  theol- 
ogy unknown  to  St.  Augustine  (namely),  the  langiiaee 
ofthese  Indians",  replied  Father  Tecto.  Oncecstah- 
lished.  the  missionaries  devoted  themselves  to  building 
churches  and  convents  to  which  a  school  was  always 
attached.  In  the  large  court  of  the  convent  cule- 
chism  was  taught  early  in  the  morning  to  the  aclulu 
and  to  the  children  of  the  maeehuaie*  (workmen),  in 
order  that  they  might  then  go  to  their  work.  Tlie 
school  was  reserved  for  the  chddren  of  the  nobles  and 
persona  of  prominence.  As  the  Indians  did  not  at 
first  realize  the  importance  of  this  instruction,  the 
schools  were  not  well  attended,  and  the  miaMonarieii 
had  to  ask  the  aid  of  the  civil  authorities  to  compel 

Siren ta  to  send  their  children  to  be  instructed, 
any  of  the  nobles,  not  wishing  to  entrust  their  chil- 
dren to  the  new  apostles,  but  not  daring  to  disobey, 
sent  as  subetitutea  the  children  of  some  former  de- 
pendent, passing  thero  ofl  as  their  own,  but  soon  see- 
ing the  advantages  of  the  education  impart«d  by  the 
fnais  sent  their  own  children,  insisting  on  their  being 
admitted  to  the  schools.  Some  of  these  schools  were 
so  l^ge  that  they  accommodated  from  BOO  to  lOUO 
children.  The  older  and  more  advanced  pupils 
taught  the  labourers,  who  came  in  large  numbers  in 
their  free  hours  to  be  instructed. 

At  first,  when  the  missionaries  were  not  fully  con- 
versant with  the  language,  they  taught  by  means  of 
pictures,  and  the  Indians,  accustomed  to  their  own 
nien^lyphic  figures,  understood  readily.  In  making 
copies  the  Indiana  inaerted  Aiteo  words  written  ia 
European  characters,  originatmg  a  curious  mixed 
writing  of  which  some  examples  are  still  preserved. 
As  soon  as  the  missionaries  mastered  the  langu^ 
they  turned  their  attention  more  especially  to  the 
children  of  the  nobles,  since  the  children  of  the  work- 
ing class  did  not  need  so  thorough  an  education.  Ac- 
cording to  the  custom  of  the  times,  they  would  not  be 
called  to  rule,  and  the  sooner  their  course  of  instruc- 
tion was  completed  the  sooner  they  would  be  free  to 
help  their  parents.  The  same  reasons  did  not  hold 
for  the  girls,  and  no  distinction  was  made  among  them, 
all  beine  taught  together,  at  first  in  the  paliot  and 
later  in  tlie  homes  built  for  them.  Bbhop  Zuminafa 
founded  eight  or  nine  schools  for  girls  in  his  diocese, 
And  4t  his  urgent  solicitation,  iiil530,  theempresssenl 


MEZIOO 


259 


I  4<«(^« 


six  women  teachersi  and  in  1534  he  himself  brought  six 
more.  Later  on,  the  viceroy,  D.  Antonio  de  Mendosa, 
founded  an  asylum  for  half-caste  girls,  which  at  first  was 
hampered  bv  lack  of  funds,  but  the  king  endowed  it 
and  directed  that  all  those  who  wished  to  marry  the 
girls  should  be  provided  with  emi>]oyment. 


had  to  go  to  tue  universities  of  Spain,  as  the  Mexican 
schools  afforded  no  facilities  for  taking  university 
courses.  To  remedv  this  the  colonial  authorities  de- 
tennined  to  establisn  a  local  university. 

University  op  Mexico. — ^The  viceroy,  D.  Antonio 
de  Mendoza  (1535-50),  to  whom  New  Spain  owed  so 


When  the  missionaries  landed,  in  1524,  thev  did  not  much  for  his  interest  in  public  instruction,  petitioned 

find  a  sinele  Indian  who  could  read ;  nothing  had  been  the  Emperor  Charles  V  for  the  establishment  of  a  uni- 

done  in  this  direction  for  them  by  the  army  of  con-  versity  suitably  endowed.    The  petition,  supported 

quest.     Twenty  years  later,  1544,  Bishop  Zumdrraga  by  the  city,  the  prelates,  and  the  religious  orders,  was 

wanted  to  have  the  catechism  of  Fray  redro  de  C6r-  favourably  received,  and  although  the  proiect  was  not 

doba  translated  into  the  Indian  tongue,  which  was  carried  out  until  after  D.  Antomo  de  Mendoza  had  re- 

finally  done,  as  he  believed  so  much  good  would  result  signed  the  governorship  of  New  Spain,  in  1550,  to  as- 

from  it,  "for",  as  he  said,  "there  are  so  many  who  sumethatof  Peru, the  credit  of  having  begun  the  work 

know   how  to  read".    Contemporary  writers  bear  is  due  to  him.    The  university  was  founded  during  the 

witness  to  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Inaians  in  writing,  term  of  his  successor,  D.  Luis  de  Velasco  (1550^). 

music,  and  even  m  Latin.    The  one  who  distinguish^  The  decree  of  foundation  signed  by  the  prince  who 

himself  most  in  teaching  the  Indians  was  the  lay  later  reigned  as  Philip  II,  was  issued  by  the  emperor 

brother  Pedro  de  Gante,  kinsman  of  the  Emperor  at  Toro  on  21  August,  1551,  and  the  university  was 

Charles  V.    He  gathered  together  about  a  thousand  opened  3  June,  1553.      A  yearly  endowment  of  one 

children  in  the  convent  of  San  Francisco  of  Mexico  and  thousand  dollars  in  gold  from  the  mines  was  conferred 


taught  them,  besides 
their  religion,  music, 
singing,  and  Latin. 
He  also  started  a 
school  for  adults  and 
founded  a  school  of 
fine  arts  and  crafts. 
With  no  resources 
but  his  indomitable 
energy,  bom  of  his 
ardent  charity,  he 
raised  from  the 
foundations  and  sus- 
tained for  many 
years,  a  magnificent 
church,  a  nospital, 
and  a  great  estab- 
lishment which  was 
at  one  and  the  same 
time  a  primary 
school,  a  college  for 
higher  studies,  and 
an  academy  of  fine 
arts  and  crafts — ^in 
short,  a  centre  of 
civilization.       The 


upon  it,  and  all  the 
faculties  and  privi- 
leges of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca. 
The  first  chairs 
founded,  with  their 
respectiveprofessors, 
were  as  follows: 
Theology,  Fray  Pe- 
dro de  la  Pena,  Do- 
minican, afterwards 
Bishop  of  Quito, 
whose  successor  in 
the  Faculty  was  the 
learned  Juan  Ne- 
grete,  professor  of 
the  University  of 
Paris;  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture, Fray  Alonso  de 
la  Veracruz;  Canon 
Law,  Dr.  Morones, 
fiscal  of  the  Audien- 
cia;  Civil  Law,  Dr. 
Melmrejo;  Institutes 
and  Law,  Licentiate 
Frias  de  Albomoz; 


Our  Laot  op  Guadalupb,  Aouas  Calibntbb 
Showing  wall-belfry  and  double  dome 

missionaries  spared  nothing  to  imite  secular  learning  Arts,  Canon  Juan  Garcfa;  Rhetoric,  Dr.  Cervantes 

with  religious  instruction,  and,  having  in. mind  the  Salazar;  Grammar,  Bias  de  Bustamante.  Some  years 

fondness  of  the  Indians  for  the  frequent  solemnities  later  the  chairs  of  medicine  and  of  the  Otomic  and 

of  their  bloody  worship,  introduced  religious  dramas.  Mexican  languages  were  added.     At  first  there  was 

Ancient  chronicles  have  preserved  excellent  accounts  of  only  one  chair  of  medicine,  but  towards  the  close  of 

the  skill  displayed  by  the  Indians  acting  these  dramas,  the  sixteenth  century  the  division  known  as  prima 

Bishop  Zum^rraga,  who  aspired  alwavs  to  higher  and  visperas  was  introduced,  the  former  incmdinff 

things  for  the  Indian,  managed  to  open  for  them  the  anatomy  and  physiology,  the  latter,  pathology  and 

famous  college  of  Santa  Crus,  at  Tlaltelolco,  on  6  therapeutics. 

January,  1534.  This  foundation  began  with  sixty  The  title  of  Royal  and  Pontifical  was  conferred  on 
students,  the  number  rapidly  increasing.  Besides  re-  the  new  university  and  all  the  doctors  then  in  Mexico, 
ligioa  and  good  habits,  they  were  taught  reading,  writ-  including  Archbishop  Monttifar,  were  attached  to  it. 
ing,  Latin  grammar,  rhetoric,  philosophy,  music,  and  The  professorships  were  divided  into  temporary  and 
Mexican  medicine.  The  college  of  Tlaltelolco  sent  perpetual;  the  firet  were  for  four  years  and  were  com- 
forth  native  governors  and  mayors  for  the  Indian  petitive,  the  second  were  affected  only  by  the  death  or 
towns,  teachers  for  the  Indians,  and  at  times  for  the  resignation  of  the  incumbent.  When  a  chair  was  won 
young  Spaniards  and  Creoles.  Some  of  them  were  a  by  competiton  the  recipient  paid  the  fees  or  dues, 
great  help  to  the  missionaries  in  their  philological  swore  to  fulfil  his  duties  well,  and  promised  to  take  no 
work.  In  1553  there  were  in  Mexico  three  principal  part  in  fcAlls,  theatres,  or  public  demonstrations.  Ac- 
colleges:  the  one  at  Tlaltelolco  for  the  Indians,  San  cording  to  the  instructions  left  by  the  Duquede  Linares 
Juan  de  Letr^  for  the  mestizos,  both  imder  the  care  to  his  successor  the  Marques  de  Valero,  the  award  of 
of  the  Franciscans,  and  another  for  the  Spaniards  and  professorships  was  voted  on  by  the  senior  auditor  rep- 
creoles  who  did  not  wish  to  mingle  with  the  others,  resenting  the  Audiencia,  the  dean  as  representative  of 
This  last  was  under  teachers  with  bachelor  degrees  the  Church,  an  official  of  the  Inquisition,  the  dean  and 
from  Spain,  until  the  Augustuiians  foimded  their  great  the  rector  of  the  imiversity,  the  maauter  acholarutn 
college  of  San  Pablo,  1575.  They  were  the  first  to  and  the  archbishop,  who  presided  anci  in  whose  house 
cstiikblish  a  school  to  be  frequented  by  both  Creoles  the  voting  took  place.  So  much  stress  was  laid  upon 
and  Spaniards.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Jesuits  founded  the  study  of  the  Indian  language  that  in  the  private 
the  college  of  San  Ildefonso  in  Mexico  with  the  same  instructions  which  the  MarqiiSs  de  las  Amarillas 
idea  in  view.    For  all  higher  studies,  however,  students  brou^t  from  Madrid  he  was  directed  to  consider  the 


UZICO  21 

wlvimbilit7  of  adding  to  the  statutes  of  the  unireraity 
»  clause  to  the  effect  that  the  deeree  of  theology 
ihouid  not  be  conferred  on  those  who  did  not  know 
the  Mexican  language,  and  fixing  a.  special  hour  for  its 
Study  by  the  students  of  philosophy,  either  before  or 
while  tliey  were  studying  classics. 

In  the  famous  instruction  which  the  second  Conde 
de  Revillagigedo  left  to  hu  Buccesaor  th»  Harqute  de 
Brwiciforte,  we  find  that  by  a  royal  decree  of  11  June, 
1792,  all  members  of  the  university  were  obliged  to 
obtam  the  viceroy's  permission  to  marry.  The  vice- 
roy, who  was  the  vice-patron  of  the  university,  was  to 
appoint  the  rector  in  cose  the  election  did  not  give  a 
decisive  plurality  to  any  candidate.  Towards  t&  end 
o(  the  eighteenth  century  a  course  of  botanjf  was  in- 
troduced   The  viceroy,  Conde  de  Revillagigedo,  de- 


clare that  reforms  were  needed  in  the  methods  of 
Btudy  and  in  the  manner  of  conferring  degrees,  that 
little  attention  was  given  to  the  classics,  that  there 
was  no  apparatus  for  the  study  of  modem  experimen- 
tal phvsics,  and  that  there  were  few  modern  works  in 
the  library.  We  know,  however,  that  D.  Manuel 
Ignacio  Beye  de  Cisneroa,  who  was  rector  in  1760, 
built  the  hbrary  and  drew  up  regulations  tor  it,  which 
were  confirmed  by  the  king  in  1761.  It  contained 
more  than  IO,OOOvoluineB,manyof  tfacm  rare  and  val- 
uable, especially  regarding  the  history  of  Merico,  and 
it  was  opea  to  the  pubUc  rooming  and  afternoon,  two 
librarians  with  the  decree  of  doctor  being  in  cbsr^. 
At  first  the  — ■ * '  •"■ ■:«•-• 


modifying  those  of  Salamanca  as  the  circumstances  of 
the  country  required.  The  Auditor  Farfan  amended 
these  in  1680,  and  in  15S3  still  further  revision  was 
made  by  Archbishop  Uoya  do  Contreras.  In  1645, 
D.  Juan  de  Palafox,  who  was  appointed  visitor,  com- 
piled new  statutes  which,  when  approved  by  the  king, 
wete  to  supersede  all  previous  enactments.     Never- 


tbeleM,  in  the  instructions  left  by  the  viceroy  D.  An- 
tonio Sebastian  de  Toledo,  Harqufs  de  Hancen,  to 
hisBUOoessor,  D.Pedro  NufiodeCoI6n,  DuquedeVera- 
gua,  22  Oct.,  1673,  we  find  the  following:  ''TIk  layal 
University  of  Mexico,  though  richly  endovred  widi 
brilliant  and  learned  professors  in  all  the  branches, 
was  greatly  hampered  by  the  multiplicity  of  statutes 
by  iraich  it  was  governed.  I  was  informed  that  the 
viceroy  D.  Juan  de  Palafox  had  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty by  compiling  new  statutes,  and  that  these  w«re 
bein^  withheld  W  some  malicious  peraon  interested  in 
continuins  the  disorder.  I  took  ute  neoeeaary  means 
to  have  these  traced  and  brought  to  light,  together 
with  the  royal  decree  of  1  Hay,  1649,  contuming  tbem. 
Theee  were  laid  before  the  univereity,  28  Sept.,  166S, 
were  accepted  without  any  difficulty,  and  since  then 
have  been  observed  with  signal  benefit  to  the  schools, 
securing  the  approbation  of  his  majesty  (deowe  of  17 
Jan.,  1671),  and  affording  relief  to  the  vicerws  who 
were  frequent^  confronted  by  doubts  and  cusputes 
which  it  was  difficult  to  settle. 

The  university  continued  its  work  until  1S33,  when 
it  was  closed  by  President  G6mes  Farias.  President 
Santa  Anna  re-established  it  in  1S34,  with  some  modi- 
fications of  the  statutes;  but  during  the  following 
yeara  it  beffan  graduallv  to  deteriorate,  owinc  chieSy 
to  the  instaoility  of  its  laws,  and  to  the  fact  taat  pub- 
lic sentiment  was  against  it.  Preaideot  Comonfort 
suppressed  it  in  1857.  Zuloe^  reopened  it  on  5  Uay, 
1868,  but  it  was  once  more  closed  on  23  Jan.^  1861,  by 
Ju&rei.  During  the  regency  of  1863  it  revived  for  a 
time  until  the  Emperor  Maximilian  suppressed  it  de- 
finitively on  30  November.  1866. 

(5)  The  Royal  Patronage  and  the  Cle^. — It  is  not 
ponible  to  proceed  very  far  in  the  history  of  New 
Spain,  whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  without  taking 
into  account  what  has  been  called  the  royal  patron- 
age of  the  Spanish  monatchs.  In  fact  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  conceive  a  more  abeolut«  system  of  control 
than  that  exercised  by  the  kings  of  Spain,  whether  in 
peraon  or  through  the  Council  of  the  Indies  and  the 
viceroys  and  governors  in  all  the  ecclesiastical  aStun 
of  the  Indies.  A  detailed  account  of  these  pnvile^e^ 
which  were  general  throughout  all  Spanish  Amerua, 
will  be  given  withexamples  of  the  practical  appIicatiOD 
ofthe^fronofo  theory  mthecolonyof  NewSpain.  Bj 
the  provisions  of  the  Bull  of  4  July,  1508, "  Univeisalii 
Ecclesiie  regimini",  no  churebee,  monasteries,  or  re- 
ligious foundations  could  be  erected,  in  territory  al- 
ready discovered  or  that  should  be  subsequently  dis- 
covered, without  the  consent  of  the  Spaitiso  monaich. 
It  conferred  also  on  the  Spanish  monarch  the  power  <d 
iiominatmg  suitable  candidates  for  the  metropolitan 
luid  other  sees,  and  any  that  might  be  erected  in  the 
future.  Bishops  were  obliged  to  confer  canonical 
institution  to  ecclesiastical  benefices  ten  days  after 
the  royal  notification  had  been  made,  and  in  case 
opposition  were  ottered  without  legitimate  cause  any 
other  bishop  chosen  by  the  candidate  could  and  should 
confer  sucn  canonical  institution.  The  Bull  also 
conferred  the  right  to  present  candidates  for  all  tb« 
abbacies  and  prelacies  of  the  regulars  and,  indeed  for 
every  ecclesiastical  benefice,  large  or  small. 

Besides  these  privileges  the  king  also  had  the  right 
of  designating  tne  lioundaries  of  all  new  dioceaes,  of 
sending  religious  to  the  Indies,  of  determining  their 
stay  there  and  their  removal  from  one  province  to 
another.  Reli^ous  establishments  were  under  the 
supervl'jion  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies,  and.  in  order 
that  this  might  be  exercisedwith  all  possible  tnoroufh. 


The  provincial  or  custodian  of  the  regulars  was  nanied 
by  their  general,  but  he  had  to  notify  the  commissioiier 
general  of  Spain,  who  communicated  wiUi  the  Council 
of  the  Indies,  and  without  its  permkskni  the  nomios- 
tion  was  suspeitded.    AU  decrees  suppressing  prov- 


ineea  or  orekting  new  oaee,  founding  of  new  oonTente,     and  in  oase  he  noted  disorders,  relaxation,  mon<q>olk& 
aending   visitors  general   or  provincials,  joumeyB  o(     and  partDemhips  indicative  of  simony  and  abuse,  and 


the  religious,  naming  of  presidents  for  chapters,  any  fraternal   oorrection   proved    insufiicient   to   restore 

instructions  mven  b^  the  superiors  not  directly  con-  order,  the  culpable  ones  were  sent  to  Spain.     Any 

nected  with  tne  oidinary  eavemment  of  the  order,  as  viBitor,prcvincial,prior,guardiaD,orprelatewhoinubt 

w^  as  the  patents  wmen  revoked  any  concessions  be  named  or  elected  in  the  Indies,  was  obliged  b^re 

previously  granted,  had  to  be  presented  to  the  Council  exereiaing  his  office  to  notify  the  viceroy,  preeident, 

of  the  IndieB.    All  Bulla  and  Briefs  from  Rome,  in-  Audiencia,  or  governor  then  in  supreme  power  in  the 

Btructions  from  generals  and  other  reli^ous  superiors,  province,  showine  his  letters  of  nomination  and  elee- 

badtogothrou^theCounciloftbelndiee,  and  without  tion,  in  order  to  obtain  the  protection  and  help  neces- 

ita  seal  no  use  could  be  made  of  tbem.    The  recorda  of  sary  for  the  eirercise  of  the  duties  of  his  office  in  the 

provincial  councils  and  synods  in  the  colonies,  their  province  (royal  decree,  1  June,  la54).     In  the  same 

<Hinstittitionsanddecree8,andthoBeof tbechaDtereand  decree  it  was  ordered  that  "the  provincials  of  all 

aseembliee  of  the  rcsulars,  could  not  be  publisned  until  orders  residing  in  the  Indies  shall  each  and  every  one 

revised  and  examined  by  the  Council.     The  Briefs  of  have  always  ready  a  list  of  the  monasteries  and  houses 

the  CkHigregation  of  the  Propaganda  a(>pointing  mis-  under  their  control  and  the  control  of  theu^  aubiecta  in 

sionarieB  for  the  Indies  carried  no  weight  whatever  the  province,  also  all  the  religious,  giving  each  one's 

if  unacoompanied  by  permission  from  the  Icing  or  the  name,  age,  qualifications,  the  office  or  ministry  each 

CounoH  of  toe  Indies.  oneexerciues;  and  this  shall  be  given  each  year  to  our 

In  order  to  form  a  new  mission,  province,  or  semi-  viceroy,  Audtencia,  or  governor,  or  to  the  person  who 

muy  for  missionariee  it  was  necessary  logo  through  all  exercises  the  supreme  government  of  the  province, 


adding  or  subtract- 
ing the  names  of  tjte 
nUgious  who  have 
been  added  to  the 
eommunitiee  or  who 
have  left.  The  pro- 
vincials of  the  oiaen, 
each  and  every  one, 
shall  make  a  list  of 
the  religious  who  are 
engaged  in  the  work 
of  teaching  cate- 
chism to  the  Indians, 
administering  the 
sacraments,  and  actr 
ing  as  parish  priests 
where  the  principal 
monasteries  are  situ- 
ated, and  this  shall 
be  given  each  year 
to  our  viceroy,  Au- 
dieocia,  or  governor, 
who  will  give  it  to 
tbe  biatuK),  so  that 
he  may  tnow  what 

^ged  inadi 


these  proceeding. 
The  province  or 
houae  soliciting  this 
permission  appoint- 
ed »  commissioner 
who  peisonally  or 
througn  his  superi- 
ors made  his  request 
to  the  viceroy  or 
govemorj  to  the  Au- 
diencia  of  the  place, 
and  to  the  bishop,  all 
of  whomwere  obliged 
to  submit  their  re- 
spective reports.  The 
eomniissioner,  sup- 
plied with  the  neces- 
sary permits  of  the 
viceroy  or  governor 
and  of  bis  superiors, 
sailed  for  Spain,  ana 
at  tbe  Court  the  mat- 
ter was  laid  before 
the  commissioner 
general  of  the  Indies. 
When   all   this  was 

done,  and  not  before,  „ _ 

tbe  petition  could  be  presented  to  the  Supreme  Coun-    ing  tbe  sacraments  and  doing  Uie  work  of  parish 

cil  of  the  Indies,  together  with  the  dooumenta  which    priests " 

certified  to  the  necessity  for  the  new  foundation.  The  From  this  and  much  more  that  might  be  added  if 
permiaeion  having  been  obtained,  the  Council  named  space  permitted  it  may  be  seen  that  the  civil  i>ower 
the  provinccB  from  which  the  religious  should  be  bad  almost  absolute  control  in  the  religious  affairs  of 
drawn,  and  if  the  Council  failed  to  do  bo  the  com-  the  coloniee,  including  those  of  New  Spain.  Someof 
miaaioner  general  did  it,  sometimes  leaving  it  to  the  these  privileges  had  been  usurped  by  tbe  kings,  and 
choice  of  .the  aforesaid  religious  commiasiouer.  The  others  bad  been  granted  by  the  Holy  See.  To  have  a 
selection  having  been  made  and  the  itew  missionaries  proper  understanding  of  tbe  reason  of  tbeee  conoee- 
gatbered  together,  he  could  now  embark  with  all  the  sions,  which  now  seem  to  us  excessive,  we  must  bear  in 
necessary  authorication  of  superiors  and  council,  and  mind  all  that  the  Spanish  kings  did  for  the  cause  of  re- 
go  to  his  destination,  whence  he  was  obliged  to  report  to  ligion  in  America.  They  erected  and  endowed  nearly 
the  authorities  who  had  given  him  permission  to  go  to  ^  tbe  ehurehes  in  theNew  World, defrayed  the  travel- 
Spam.  If  a  religious  wished  to  leave  the  Indies  and  ling  expenses  of  the  religious  and  bishops  until  they 
return  to  Spain,  the  permission  of  the  father  general,  reached  their  poets;  they  had  assigned  different 
the  commissioner  general,  or  of  the  pope  nimself  amounts,  by  wav  of  alms,  to  ehurchee  of  teligioua 
(royal  decree  of  29  July,  1564)  did  not  suffice,  it  was  orders,  in  order  tnat  these  might  be  supplied  with  oil, 
necessary  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  kin^  or  the  lights,  wiQe,altar breads, andotherrequisiteeforDlvine 
Council  of  the  Indies,  Sometimes  the  permission  of  worship.  The  building  of  new  churches  and  catbe- 
the  bishops  of  the  province  was  sufficient,  tbe  viceroy,  drals,  the  foundation  m  missions,  depended  lar^lyon 
president,  or  governor  having  been  first  consultea;  the  royal  bounty.  When  some  church,  especially  in 
they  were  obliged  to  report  to  the  council  the  reasons  the  Indian  towns,  needed  repairing,  the  citiiena  could 
foreiving  tbe  permission.  easily,  on  application,  be  freed  from  the  tribute  which 

When  the  chapters  of  the  religious  orders  were  held  was  paid  to  the  Idng,  in  order  to  devote  tbe  money  to 
in  places  where  the  viceroys  or  governors  did  not  re-  the  needs  of  the  church.  Although  tbe  Bull  cf  Alex- 
side,  the  tatter  had  to  write  to  the  assembled  religious  ander  VI  conferred  the  tithes  of  idl  the  Indies  oa  tbe 
adrocHiiahing  them  to  the  strict  observance  of  their  Idns  on  condition  that  he  should  endow  the  churehe* 
ruleand  constitution;  and  if  the  chapter  met  where  the  and  provide  an  adequate  maintenance  for  their  minis- 
viceroy  or  governor  lived,  he  was  obliged  to  be  present,     ters,  the  kmgs  itevertheless  rtuely  avaOed  tbeinselvM 


mzioo  2( 

of  the  grant,  but  donated  to  the  biibops,  diooeaes, 
clergy,  churcbee,  and  hoepitala  in  the  Indies  a  great 
part  of  what  was  due  them  from  this  source. 

In  ao  far  as  tbe  royal  patrona^  in  New  Spain  ia 
concerned,  it  must  be  admitted,  m  defeieace  t«  tbe 
trutii,  that  if  in  some  instAucee  royal  deciaiona  were 
oppressive  and  little  in  accordance  with  tbe  liberty  of 
tne  Church;  tbe  royal  supervision  in  many  other  m- 
^pects  was  beneficial.  In  illustration  of  the  first  may 
be  cit«d  the  case  of  the  bishop  who,  without  refiectine 
that  he  had  not  the  authorization  of  the  Council  of 
the  Indies,  and  that  he  ought  to  advise  the  viceroy, 
solemnly  promulgat«d  the  decree  which  Clement  X 
issued  when  he  ascended  the  pontifical  throne,  Krant- 
ingageacraljubilee  to  all  the  faithful  who  should  pray 
to  the  Divine  Majesty  that  he  might  be  grajit«a  the 


Cbubch  or  Bam  JuA^ 


CO,  Mei 


light  to  govern  wisely  the  univereal  Church.  For  this 
the  bishop  was  reproved  by  the  royal  decree  of  10 
June,  1652.  As  regards  the  second,  it  must  iie  ad- 
mitted that,  in  the  b^pnniug  at  least,  the  Spanish 
monarch  made  wise  selection  of  the  men  appointed  to 
the  episcopal  sees  of  Mexico.  It  suHices  to  mention 
■uch  men  as  Fray  Julian  Garces,  first  Bishop  of  Tlax- 
cala,  Fray  Juan  de  Zumirra^,  firat  Bishop  of  Mexico, 
t>.  Vasco  de  Quiroga,  first  Bishop  of  Michoacan;  in 
general,  with  few  exceptions,  tbe  bishops  of  New  Spain 
were  scholarlv  men,  zealous  for  the  salvation  of  souis, 
Notwithatanaing  the  many  fonnalitiea  attending  the 
eetablishmcnt  ofreligioua  houses  in  Mexico,  there  were 
very  many,  both  men  and  women,  belonging  to  the  con- 
templative and  active  orders  who  succeeded  in  secur- 
ing the  necessary  authorization.  Among  the  religious 
oSereof  menestablislied  inMe:(icoduring  the  Spanish 
occupationmay  be  mcntionedthe  Franciscans,  Domini- 
cans, Augustinians,  Carmelitea,  Brothers  of  St.  Jamea 
{Du^utnoa),  Jesuita,  Mercedariana,  Bethlehemitcs, 
Benedictines,  Oratorians,  and  Brothers  of  St.  John  of 
God;  among  the  women,  the  PoorClarea,  Capuchines, 
Carmelites,  Conception ists,  Ciaterciana,  Augustinians, 
Dominicans.  In  another  arction  of  thia  article  an 
account  will  be  given  of  all  the  dioceses  erected  dur- 
ing the  colonial  period.  If,  also,  account  is  taken  of 
the  almost  innumerable  ho^itaU,  ohurehes,  oaDvent«. 


and  monasteries  that  were  built  in  New  Spain,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  kings,  instead  of  using  their  royal 
prerogatives  to  hinder  these  foundations,  did  oil  in 
their  power  to  spread  and  encourage  them. 

The  much  vexed  question  of  alternate  rule,  which 
caused  much  dissension  m  the  religious  onteis,  moved 
Pope  Innocent  XJ  to  decree  that  in  the  provinces  of 
Bucn  religious  in  America  as  bod  Europeans  and 
creolea  in  the  communitiee,tbepreIacie8  should  be  con- 
ferred alternately,  some  years  on  tbe  one  and  some  on 
tbe  others.  When  the  kin^  heard  that  the  papal  order 
was  not  being  carried  out  m  Mexico,  he  required  the 
viceroy,  D.  Antonio  Sebastian  de  Toledo,  Marques  de 
Mancers,  by  otficial  decree  of  2S  November,  1667,  lo 
investigate  the  matter  thoroughly,  and  to  have  the 
orders  of  the  Holy  Father  earned  out.  Although  at 
first  owine  to  the  scarcity  of  secular  priests,  the  kinga 
permitted  religiouato  hold  oarishee,  later,  learning  that 
It  was  the  cause  of  relaxed  discipline  among  them,  of 
exemption  from  episcopal  visitation,  and  sometimn 
of  unfairness  and  abuse  of  the  Indians,  they  did 
everything  within  thoir  power  to  have  these  reli- 
gious replaced  by  secular  priests.  As  to  the  intrr 
vention  of  the  viceroys  in  the  chapters  of  tbe  reli 
gious  orders,  it  ia  known  that  the  part  taken  by  the 
Conde  de  Revillagigedo,  viceroy  from  1746-&0,  in 
the  chapter  of  the  Carmelites,  to  settle  the  question 
of  admitting  a  visitor,  was  most  beneficial,  as  well  as 
other  r^ulations  among  the  Fisnciacans,  Augustin- 
iana,  and  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God.  In  the  instruc- 
tions given  by  Ferdinand  VI,  in  1755,  to  D.  Agustfn  de 
Ahui^da  y  Villalcjn,  Marqui5s  de  las  Amariflas,  who 
was  leaving  for  hia  post  aa  Viceroy  of  New  Spain,  the 
following  is  found:  "See  that  the  oiahops,  the  secular 
and  religious  clergy,  receive  all  the  support  they  need 
from  the  civil  courts,  to  uproot  idolatry;  that  those 
having  IndLoi^e,  negroes, or  mulattoca  m  their  homes  aa 
servants  send  them  daily  to  the  Christian  doctrine 
classes,  and  that  those  working  in  the  fields  be  given 
the  same  opportunity  on  Sunday  and  other  days  of 
precept,  not  occupying  them  in  otner  thinra  until  they 
nave  learned  the  catechism;  and  if  they  do  not  com- 
ply they  shall  be  fined.  All  priests  who  are  to  work 
among  the  Indians  should  know  their  langusgea,  and 
it  is  necessary  that  they  should  study  these  languages. 
The  condition  of  the  Indiana  in  all  New  Spain  should 
be  investigated  to  see  if  they  are  oppressed  by  those 
whose  duty  it  ia  to  teach  them,  and  m  care  such  con- 
dillons  are  found  to  exist,  they  are  to  be  reported  to 
the  bisht^,  and  with  his  help  measures  must  be  taken 
to  erod  jcate  the  evil. " 


particularly  alarroing  subject,  the  exaggerated  ac- 
counts of  its  atrocities  and  the  number  of  its  vietiraa 
vereing  on  the  ridiculous.  It  has  even  been  said  that 
if  tbe  Spaniards  abolished  the  human  sacrifices  of  the 
ancient  Altec  n^gime,  they  more  than  replaced  them 
with  the  bonfires  of  tbe  Inquisition.  Fray  Martin  dp 
Valencia,  when  he  arrived  in  Mexico  iii  1524,  bore  the 
title  of  Commissioner  General  of  the  Inquisition  in 
New  Spain,  but  j  udgment  of  offences  of  a  crave  nature 
was  reserved  to  the  Inquisitor  of  the  Islas  y  Tierra 
Firme.  who  resided  in  the  Island  of  San  Domingo. 
Fray  Martin  waa  to  hold  thia  office  uut-l  aome  Domini- 
can on  whom  the  official  charge  of  inqtiisitor  had  been 
conferred  should  arrive  in  Mexico.  And  in  fact, 
when  the  firat  Dominicans  reached  Mexico  in  1526, 
their  superior.  Fray  Tomda  Ortiz,  became  commissioner 
of  the  Inquisition.  He  returned  almost  immediately 
to  Spain,  an<l  Fray  Domingo  de  Betanioa  succeeded 
him.  In  152S  the  new  superior  of  the  Dominicans, 
Fray  Vicente  de  Santa  Maria,  succeeded  to  the  title. 
At  the  time  of  the  second  Audiencia,  of  which  the 
eminent  D.  Sebastian  de  Fuen  Leal  was  president,  a 
meeting  was  held,  attended  by  Bishop  Zumdrrago, 
Cort^.  fnd  severnl  of  the  most  influential  men  of  Uw 


UZIGO  263 

capital,  at  whicb  it  was  decided  "that  on  account  of    the7eaTl066'',eto.    TbeDuquedeLinaresaayBinhlB 

the  intercourse  with  foreigners,  and  because  the  many  instruction  to  the  MarqusB  de  Valero,  in  1716,  apeak- 
privat«ers  that  cruised  along  the  coasta  might  iatro-  iogof  the  inquisitors  of  his  time;  "Of  theinquisitonl 
duce  Bvi  customs  and  habits  amcmg  the  natives  and  should  inform  Your  Excellency  that  I  am  indebted  to 
the  Spaniards,  who  by  the  grace  of  God  had  been  them  not  cmly  for  a  juat  respect,  esteem,  and  appr«- 
prescrved  from  the  taint  of  heresy,  it  was  necessary  to  ciatioa  for  my  ofHcial  character,  but  theirmildness 
establish  the  Holy  Office  of  the  Inquisition".  and  pnideDce  have  been  such  that  when  the  apparent 

It  was  DO  doubt  in  consequence  of  this  resolution    zeal  of  some  of  the  ministers  has  attempted  to  enkin- 
that  on  27  June,  1535,  Bishop  Zumdrrsea  was  ap-     die  some  sparks,  I  have  been  able  to  extineuish  them 
pointed  inquisitor,  with  ample  faculties,  including  that     owing  to  the  consultations  and  the  mutual  confidence 
of  turning  over  the  offender  to  the  secular  arm  and  of     which  have  alwa3^  existed  between  us", 
establiahuig  the  Holy  Office.     He  did  not  establish  the         For  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  persons  condemoed 
tribunal,  but  it  is  known  that  he  tried  and  condemned     by  the  Inquisition  may  be  placed  under  three  heads: 
to  be  burnt  a  Texcocan  noble  accused  of  having  sacri-     relajadog  {delivered  to  the  secular  arm  for  execution  of 
ficed  human  beings.     After  this  it  was  forbidden  by    sentence)   in  person  or  ef&gy,  reamciiiadoa    (recon- 
the  royal  decree  ol  Charles  V,  of  15  October,  153R,  to     ctled),  and  ■peniUnle*  (penitents).     The  uiajadas  in 
try  cases  against  the  Indians  before  the  Holy  Otfice, 
and  that  in  matters  of  faith  the  bishop  should  be  their 
judge.     Since  then  there  is  no  record  of  a  single  In- 
dian having  been  tried  before  the  tribunal  of  tne  In- 
quisition. In  1554  Archbishop  Montdfar,  a  Dominican 
and  qualificator  of  the  Inquisition  in  Gianada,  though 
not  bearing  the  title  of  inquisitor,  proceeded  as  though 
thus  empowered,  no  doubt  because  of  the  ordinary 
jurisdiction  possessed  by  the  bishop  in  matters  of 
faith,  and  passed  the  auios  of  15S5  and  I55S.   Cardinal 
Diego  de  &ipinoea.  Bishop  of  SigUensa,  and  Grand  In- 

Juisitor  of  Spain,  appointed  as  inquisitor  for  Mexico 
I.  Pedro  Moya  de  Contreras,  also  two  lawyers,  Juan 
Cervantes  and  Alonso  Fem^des  de  Bonilla.  Their 
jurisdiction  extended  over  all  of  New  Spain,  Guate- 
mala, and  the  Philippines.  The  royal  decree  of  16 
August,  1570,  commanded  that  the  City  of  Mexico 
wastoaidandrespect  the  inquisitors,  and  on  2  Novem- 
ber, 1571,  the  tribunal  was  established  with  all  due 
solemnity.  It  exercwed  its  authority  in  Mexico  until 
8  June,  1813,  when  the  decree  of  the  MpanLsh  Cortes 
suppressing  it  was  published.  On  21  January,  1814, 
it  was  re-established,  and  in  1820  definitively  abol- 

In  New  Spain  the  Tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  was 
composed  of^  three  Apostolic  inquiHitors  and  a  treas- 
urer, each  with  a  salary  of  three  thousand  pesos,  paid 
three  times  a  year  in  aidvance  by  the  canonries  ol  the 
cathedrals   of  their  respective  dLitricts.     There  was 
also  a  head  constable,  a  trustee,  treasurer,  three  secre- 
taries, several  consultors,  qiialificators,  and  lay  officials. 
The  tribunat  had  authority  to  pass  general  and  partic- 
ular autoade/e.     Whatthe  viceroys  of  Mexico  thought  Catbidral  or  Chihoabiia 
ofthis  tribunal  may  begathered  from  themanyinstruc-                              BeBuiil7iliooniplrted  1780 
tions  which  by  order  rf'  the  king  each  viceroy  had  to     personwerebumt.eitheraliveorfirBtgarroted.    Onthe 
leave  for  his  successor  in  the   government  of  the    way  to  the  place  of  execution  they  were  clothed  in  the 
colony.     And  it  may  be  noted  that  these  instructions,     tamarra,  a  sort  of  scapular  of  cloth  or  cotton,  yellow 
coming  from  men  who  were  laying  down  the  reins  of     or  red,  upon  which  dragons,  demons,  and  flames  were 
government,  speak  with  perfect  freedom,  not  hesitat-     painted,  among  which  coulo  be  seen  the  picture  of  the 
mg  to  censure  what  was  considered  worthy  of  censure,     criminal.     The  head  was  covered  with  a  species  of 
From  these  instructions  it  is  evident  that  the  author-     mitre  called  coroia,  covered  with  the  same  devices, 
ity  of  the  tribunal  was  not  as  absolute  as  is  generally     The  relajadoi  in  efiW  were  those  who,  having  escaped 


supposed.     The  Marqui5s  de  Mancera,  in  the  instruc-  or  died,  were  bumedm  elfis%  sometimes  together  ijith 

tions  left  22  Oct.,  1673,  for  his  successor  the  Duque  de  their  bones  and  bodies.     This  was  done  with  those 

Veragua,  after  paying  that  the  Tribunal  of  the  Inquisi-  who  died  or  who  committed  suicide  during  the  process, 

tion    has  be*  i  and  is  feared  and  respected  with  all  due  It  sometimes  happened  that  a  criminal  attempted  to 

reverence  in  tliese  provinces,  knowing  full  well  that,  commit  suicide;  if  before  dying  he  bej^ed  pardon  and 

owing  to  I  3  ujirightnesB  and  vigilance,  they  find  them-  retracted  his  errors,  he  was  reconciled  in  effigy.     Such 

selves  by  the  (fttice  of  God  free  from  the  errors  and  was  the  case  of  the  French  physician,  Eticnne  Morel, 

abominations  which  at  different  times  the  common  whose  auto  de/e  was  carried  out  9  August,  1795.     The 

enemy  has  sought  to  sow  in  their  midst",  adds,  "but,  recoTUTifiados  were  those  who,  recognizmg  their  offences 

as  its  jurisdiction  is  so  absolute,  the  tribunal  does  not  and  errors,  retracted  and  asked  pardon.     They  were 

always  keep  as  It  should  within  its  proper  limits,  nor  not  condemned  to  death,  but  were  obliged  to  submit 

do  this  viceroys,  eovemors,  or  Audiencias  take  it  upon  to  various  punishments.     One  was,  to  wear  the  San 

themselves  to  hmd  it  within  bounds,  except  in  cases  Benito,  called  /lugo  revolto  or  revueUo,  a  garment  simi- 

of  the  most  ur^nt  necessity;  nevertheless,  when  the  lar  to  that  worn  by  the  reln/Eiiios,  with  a  corresponding 

excesses  are  notably  prejudicial  to  the  respect  due  the  coroza,  only  that  in  this  the  flames  pointed  downwards 

royal  representation,  to  its  jurisdiction,  or  its  excheq-  to  show  that  by  their  repentance  they  had  escaped  the 

iier,  or  when  the  delay  causes  irreparable  damage,  capital   punLshment.     Other    forms    of    punishment 

there   is   special   authority   for  applying   a  suitable  were  inflicted  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  offence — 

remedy,  and  I  made  use  of  this  faculty  at  the  close  of  exile,  the  galleys,  whipping,  imprisonment,  certain 


I  -».«(»{• 


264 


prayqra  and  psalms  to  be  recited  oq  oertain  days  of  the 
year,  carryiDg  green  candles,  confiscation  of  property, 
etc. 

The  ordinary  penitents  were  those  whose  faults  did 
not  merit  the  death  sentence.  They  wore  the  plain 
San  Benito,  that  is,  similar  in  form  to  the  other,  but 
decorated  with  the  cross  of  St.  Andrew,  and  they  wore 
no  oaroxa.  Various  punishments  were  imposed  on 
them,  always  leas  than  those  of  the  recancUtadoSt  and 
at  times  almost  grotesque,  e.  g.,  the  case  of  the  criminal 
condemned  on  7  December,  1664,  of  whom  it  is 
recorded,  "The  sentence  having  been  read,  he  was 
taken  out  into  the  court  of  the  convent,  placed  on  a 
scaffold,  and  stripped  to  the  waist.  Indians  then 
smeared  him  with  honey,  feathered  him,  and  left  him 
in  the  sim  for  four  hours. "  From  the  list  made  by  D. 
Jos6  Picluuxio  of  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  who 
copied  every  tablet  in  the  transept  of  Mexico  cathe- 
dral, we  see  that  the  crimes  usually  condemned  by  the 
Inquisition  were  heresy  and  Judaism.  Many  were 
condemned  for  blasphemy,  bi^nmy,  perjury,  forgery, 
and  witchcraft,  as  idolators,  filumlnati,  Freemasons, 
and  apostates;  for  having  heard  confessions  and  said 
Mass  without  Holy  orders,  for  having,  with  intent  to 
deceive,  received  Holy  orders  before  attaining  the 
prescribed  canonical  age,  for  rebaptising,  abetting 
polygamy,  and  feigning  revelations  {aui08  de  fe  21 
June,  1789  and  8  August,  1795). 

A  r69um^  of  the  aiUoa  de  fe  from  the  figures  of  Fr. 
Pichardo,  supplemented  by  others,  gives  the  follow- 
ing result: — 


RXCONCIUCD 

RXLAJADOS 
IN  PBRSON 

RKLAJAJKM 
Df  KFflOT 

Auto  of  Fray  Martin  de 

Valencia  

Fray  Juan  de  Zumirraea 

Fray  Alonao  de  Monttitar 

(1556-62) 

2 
2 

12 

774 

1 
1 

0 

49 

0 
0 

0 

The    Inquisition   (1674- 
ISOS) 

109 

Total 

790 

51 

109 

The  list  published  b^  J.  Garcfa  Icazbalceta,  includ- 
ing onlv  the  aiUoa  providing  for  capital  punishment,  is 
somewhat  different: — 


RXLAJADOa 
Dff   PSR80N 

RELAJADOS 

IN  ErnoT 

Fray  Martfn  de  Valencia 
Fn^  Juan  de  Zumdrraga 
Inquiaition  Auto  of  1674 

"     "1678 

••        w   .» JJ15 

„     „  1795 

1 
1 

5 
8 
8 
0 
13 
7 
1 
0 
1 
1 
0 

0 

0 

0 

10 

16 

6 

65 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

1 

Total  in  277  yean 

41 

99 

This  number  can  be  increased,  as  the  avtoe  from 
1703  to  1728  (except  1715)  are  not  included,  although 
during  this  period  cases  were  rarely  turned  over  to  the 
secular  arm.  And  even  allowing  for  this  it  is  evident 
that  the  number  of  victims  commonlv  attributed  to 
the  Inquisition  of  New  Spain  is  greatly  exag^rated. 

From  this  it  may^  be  seen  how  erroneous  it  is  to  de- 
nounce the  Inquisition  as  one  of  the  greatest  blots  of 
the  Spanish  domination  in  Mexico.  The  Inquisition 
existed  in  Spain,  and  it  was  natural  that  it  should  be 
established  in  the  new  colonies.  As  the  Indians  were 
exempt  from  its  jurisdiction,  the  full  measure  of  its 
seventy  fell  upon  the  Spaniards  and  heretics,  pirates 


or  otherwise,  of  other  nations  who  infested  the  coasts 
of  New  Spain.  In  fact,  in  the  auioe  defe  the  ereater 
number  oc  the  condemned  were  Portuguese,  for  Judaiz- 
ing,  and  then,  in  order,  EngUshmen,  Frencnmen,  Ger- 
mans, Spaniards,  Mexican  Creoles,  and  Swedes.  To 
say  that  the  victims  of  the  Inauisition  in  New  Spain 
exceeded  the  number  sacrificed  by  the  Axtecs  is  a  eross 
perversion  of  the  facts.  The  Astecs  sacrificed  tnou- 
sands  of  victims  in  one  festival  alone ;  the  Inquisition, 
covering  a  period  of  three  hundred  years,  and  extend- 
ing its  jurisdiction  far  beyond  the  confines  of  the 
Afltec  empire,  barely  reached  fifty  victims.  The  In- 
auisition pardoned  readll>[,  and  those  who  reco^ized 
tneir  errors  and  repented  it  easily  reconciled.  When 
it  found  or  thougnt  i'^  foimd  (for  this  tribunal  like 
ever^  other  human  tribunal  made  itc  mistakes)  a 
criminal,  he  was  turned  over  to  the  secular  courts  of 
justice,  which  passed  and  executed  the  sentence.  In 
fact  the  Inquisition  did  no  more  nor  less  than  the  jury 
of  to-day.  It  is  true  that  it  made  use  of  the  torture, 
but  this  was  a  practice  common  to  all  tribunals  of  that 
time.  It  also  made  use  of  the  secret  prxess — a 
method  not  unlikely  to  be  productive  of  err^r — ^but  it 
was  easy  to  set  aside  the  punishment  or  at  least  to 
mitiffate  it  by  repenting  if  one  were  guilty,  or  by 
frankly  professing  the  Catholic  Faith  if  one  were  not. 
Nor  can  the  Inquisition  be  blamed  for  judging  her- 
esv  a  crime  punishable  by  death;  it  was  so  neB  by 
all  the  civil  courts  of  the  times,  and  not  without  reason, 
because  the  heretics  of  those  days  were  the  initiators 
of  rebellion  in  Catholic  coimtnes.  At  that  time  in 
England  to  be  a  Catholic  was  a  crime  punishable  by 
death  (see  Penal  Laws)  .    Judged  impartially,  the  In- 

r'aition  in  New  Spain  appears  as  a  tribunal  which 
res,  it  is  true,  the  defects  of  contemporaiy  methods, 
subject  to  mistakes  like  all  other  human  institutions, 
more  merciful  than  anv  other  court  under  similar 
oireumstances,  above  all  if  the  relatively  small  num- 
ber of  death  sentences  and  the  large  number  of  recon- 
ciled be  taken  into  consideration,  as  well  as  the  glory 
of  having  accomplished  at  the  cost  of  a  small  num- 
ber of  lives,  what  the  nations  of  Europe  could  not 
achieve  even  through  the  medium  of  long,  bloody, 
fratricidal  wars,  the  unity  of  religion  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  faith.  As  regards  the  aiUo  de  fc  of  27 
November,  1815,  which  condemned  D.  Joa6  Maria 
Morelos,  the  principal  leader  of  the  war  of  independ- 
ence, see  MoBELOB. 

(7)  The  Spanish  Govenmient  and  the  Colony. — 
Mexico  having  been  conquered,  Cort^,  in  virtue  of  the 
famous  election  of  Vera  Cru2  and  through  force  of 
circumstances,  became  the  ruler.  When,  however, 
Charles  V  realised  the  importance  of  the  conquest, 
without  deposing.  Cort^,  he  began  sending  over  other 
officials  who,  it  may  be  said,  were  not  vex^  wisely 
chosen.  Cort6s,  though  outwardly  oompljring,  did 
not  receive  them  well,  doubtless  because  he  foresair 
that  they  would  be  &  disturbizig  element  in  the  re- 
cently conquered  territories.  When,  however,  he 
started  on  his  famous  expedition  of  the  Hibueras.  he 
showed  equally  little  tact  in  selecting  the  men  he  left 
to  fill  his  place.  In  the  selection  of  the  first  Audiencia 
(1528-31),  coniposed  of  Nuiio  de  Guamdn,  Juan  Ortiz 
Matienso,  and  Diego  Degadillo,  the  emperor  was  even 
more  tactless.  The  excesses  and  injustices  of  these 
judges  were  innumerable,  and  the  entire  colony  suffered. 
Everything  changed  under  the  government  of  the 
second  Audiencia  (1531-35),  composed  of  Bishop 
Sebastian  Ramfrez  de  Fuen  Leal,  D.  Vasco  de  Quiroea, 
D.  Francisco  Ceinos,  and  D.  Juan  SalmenSn.  Be- 
ginning the  work  of  reconstruction  with  seal  and  per^ 
tect  integrity,  they  met  at  the  very  outset  with  an 
obstacle  that  greatlv  hampered  them.  The  ancient 
legislation  destroyea  by  the  conquest  had  not  been  re- 
placed by  any  otner,  while  the  Spanish  code  was  en- 
tirely inadequate  for  the  new  dominions.  To  meet 
this  situation,  Spanish  Jdngi  began  formulating  and 


HXZICO                               265  XBXICO 

sotding  over  a  multitude  ctf  royai  decreee,  applicable  taxes  were  not  onerous,  and  if  at  times  these  were  ex- 
sometimes  to  only  one  province  or  relating  to  eome  ceaaive  it  did  not  arise  from  influpportable  exactiona, 
particular  question,  frequently  conflicting  and  con-  but  from  the  methods  of  administration.  Many  of 
tradictor^  because  the  aovereigoe  were  working  in  the  the  miatokee  noted  to-day,  and  eo  easily  eensiued, 
dark,  deciding  questions  bb  they  presented  themaelvea,  were  due  to  the  impossibility  of  one  man  alone  attend- 
often  without  having  formed  an  exact  opinion  of  the  in^  to  all  the  detaus  of  so  complicated  a  piece  of  mo' 
matters  involved.  So  numerous  were  the  decrees  chmery,  above  all  to  the  great  distance  o[  the  central 
that  the  collection  formed  a  library  of  documents,  not-  government.  Bcattered  through  all  the  ancient  docu- 
withHtanding  which  many  eaaes  remained  unprovided  ments  may  be  found  complaints  attributing  many  of 
for,  and  could  only  be  settled  by  special  oecisions.  the  troubles  affecting  the  Indies  to  "the  cursed  dis- 
These,  however,  lan  the  risk  of  royal  disappTOval,  and  tance  that  prevents  their  enjoying  the 


the  viceroys  and  govemoiB  rarely  eared  to  assume  the     their  king".     The  truth,  though  sought  in  all  eamest- 

lesponaibility.     To  understand  the  baneful  effects  of     ness,  came  to  the  royal  knowledge  late  and  after  many 

sucn  a  system  it  is  only  necessary  to  picture  a  people     difficulties;  it  was  therefore  natural  that  the  remedies 

ruled   by  the  cbutgeable  mind  of  a  sovereign  2000     for  evils  should  be  almost  always  late. 

leagues  away,  and  requiring  years  to  investigate  and        The  motives  and  intentions  of  the  Spanish  kings 

report  on  questions  submitted.     When  reference  is 

made  to  the  famous  "Recopilaci6n  de  Indias",  many 

imagine  that  it  was  eome  code  of  very  early  date, 

probably  of  the  sixteenth  century,  whereas  it  did  not 

go  into  effect  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 

about  midway  in  the  period  of  Spanish  dominatioa. 

Whatever  honour  redounds  to  Spain  from  this  code  is 

diminished  by  the  tardiness  of  its  execution. 

The  Spanish  Government  is  reproached  for  having 
isolated  Mexico  and  hindered  foreign  commerce. 
The  immense  extent  of  the  colony  of  New  Spain,  the 
extensive  sea  coasts  on  both  sides,  the  scanty  popula- 
tion, the  fatal  and  insupportable  climat«  m  certain 
sections,  the  deserto,  the  impenetrable  forests,  the 
Kigantic  mountain  ranges,  made  conununication  and 
defence  against  foreign  {Agression  extremely  difficult. 
The  envy  and  covetousness  of  other  nations,  chafing 
under  the  sting  of  having  rejected  the  ofier  of  the 
discovery,  were  a  constant  source  of  menace  to  these 
over-sea  possessions.  Strangers  could  select  her 
weakest  point  of  attack ;  Spain  had  to  defend  all  sides. 
Heaus  oi  communication,  established  with  difficulty, 
were  constantly  being  interrupted;  foreign  nations, 
without  distinguishing  between  times  of  war  and  times 
of  peace,  kept  up  a  continuous  piratical  warfare,  sacked 
the  coast8,and  seised  the  canoes  of  the  ships.  While 
this  state  of  continual  aggressioD  and  menace  delayed 
and  impeded  the  development  of  the  colony,  those 
responsible  for  it  were  the  verv  ones  to  bring  forward 
this  charge  against  Spain.  To  allow  such  people  to 
enter  freely,  even  under  the  pretext  of  traide,  was  veiy 
dangerous.  A  foothold  once  established,  it  would  not 
havetakenlong  to  spread  over  the  entire  country,  and 

it  waa  precisely  to  avoid  this  that  it  was  neceaskryto  ^^^^^^^^a^*- 

wage   incessant  war.     This  is  amply  proved  by  the  flhowin,  tr™.pt  door 

results  attendins  the  concession  granted  the  English  could  not  have  been  better;  at  times  they  boideied  on 
to  cut  timber  in  Yucatan,  which  ended  in  the  abeorp-  the  Ut^iao,  but  it  was  humanly  impossible  that 
tion  by  the  English  Government  of  the  entire  strip  of  among  so  many  officials  all  should  have  been  exen^ 
Mexican  territory  now  known  as  British  Honduras,  plary.  As  the  king  was  obliged  to  act  through  them,  it 
It  waa  therefore  imperative  to  isolate  the  colmiy  in  was  unavoidable  that  his  wishes  should  often  be  either 
order  to  keep  it,  without,  however,  for  this  reason  op-  intentionallyor  unintentionally  ignored.  The  wealth 
pressing  it.  of  the  country  excited  envy;  and  its  great  distance 

One  cannot  brand  as  stupid  and  blind  a  state  policy  mitigated  fear.  The  Juicio  de  Residencia,  totally 
that  without  any  great  armed  force  maintained  for  unknown  to-day,  did  not  always  prove  efficacious, 
three  hundred  years,  submissive  and  peaceful,  extensive  yet  its  establishment  shows  the  earnest  desire  of  re- 
distant  territories,  the  object  of  universal  envy.  It  is  stricting  the  prerogatives  of  the  administration,  and 
true  that  during  the  cwonial  period  there  was  no  at  times  it  proved  a  strong  controlling  force  that  made 
liberty  of  the  press,  but  this  was  the  case  also  in  many  itself  felt.  It  is  therefore,  a  vui^  error  to  believe 
European  countries,  and  notwithstanding  this,  in  that  the  Spanish  Government  was  mereiless  towards 
SpiuQ  as  well  as  in  Mexico  and  through  aU  America,  the  Colony  of  Mexico.  Like  all  nations,  Spain  sought 
the  writings  of  Las  Casas,which  almost  (questioned  the  revenue  from  her  colony  (disinterestedness  and  chanty 
I^itimacy  of  the  conijuest  of  the  Indies,  circulated  arenotgovemmental  virtues), butshe  did  notexhaust 
freely.  The  first  printmg  machine  was  brought  to  the  its  resources.  If  at  times  special  restrictions  were  im- 
New  World  not  tWougb  the  personal  interest  or  for  posed,  they  were  the  outcome  of  cireumstances  and 
the  personal  advantage  of  an^  mdividual,  but  through  of  the  not  unnatural  desire  to  retain  possession  of  the 
the  paternal  solicitude  of  Bishop  Zum&iraga  and  the    colony. 

Viceroy  D.  Antonio  de  Mendota.  Public  instruction,  Foremost  among  the  public  works  undertaken  by 
good  or  bad,  according  to  individual  opinion,  was  on  the  vice-reffal  Government  was  the  draining  of  the 
an  equality  with  that  of  Spain,  and  to  the  universities  Valley  of  Mexico.  The  decree  authoriiing  this  work 
founded  in  Mexico,  which  were  of  the. same  rank  as  is  dated  23  October,  1607,  and  the  funds  for  the  work 
thoK  of  Spain,  many  noted  professors  were  sent.    The    were  raised  by  a  tax  of  1  per  cent,  levied  on  all  the 


I 4^(K» 


266 


rasidenoes  of  the  city.  Beeing  that  their  owners  would 

Srofit  most  directly  b]^  the  improvement.  The  In- 
ians  engaged  upon  this  work  were  paid  5  reales  (63 
cents)  and  an  ahnud  (7  quarts)  of  com  per  week,  and  a 
daily  ration  of  1  pound  of  meat,  peppers,  wood,  and 
other  provisions.  A  hospital  was  founded  at  Huehue- 
toca  for  the  benefit  of  disabled  workmen,  ground  being 
broken  on  28  November,  1607,  by  the  Viceroy  D.  Luis 
de  Valasco,  who  dug  the  firet  sod,  after  Mass  nad  been 
said  in  the  villase  of  Nochistoneo.  Father  Juan 
Sdnchez,  S.  J.,  and  the  cosmqgrapher,  Enrique  Mar- 
tfn  (Martfnez).  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  work. 
Later  Father  Sinchez  retired,  leaving  Martin  in  full 
charge.  This  vast  work  employed  the  labour  of 
471,154  men.  The  Nochistongo  tunnel  measured  over 
four  miles  long,  with  a  section  measuring  1 1  feet  6  inches 
by  13  feet  7  inches.  The  work  was  finished  on  7  May, 
1608,  and  in  a  report  made  by  order  of  the  Viceroy 
Velasco  it  is  stated  that  only  50  of  the  workmen  had 
died,  and  of  these  10  were  accidentally  killed.  It  is 
true  that  this  great  work  did  not  give  the  expected 
results,  but  it  nevertheless  remains  to  the  credit  of  the 
Government  that  undertook  it  for  the  welfare  of  the 
people.  Finally,  it  may  be  noted  that  in  examining 
the  list  of  the  viceroys  who  governed  Mexico,  the 
desire  of  the  Spanish  monarchs  that  the  persons  en- 
trusted with  this  charge  should  be  persons  of  impor- 
tance, is  very  evident,  and  if  there  were  some  who 
proved  unworthy  of  the  dutv  entrusted  to  them,  op- 
pressing the  people  and  furthering  their  own  private 
mterests,  there  were  many  others,  like  Mendoza, 
Velasco,  Payo  de  Rivera,  Juan  de  Acufia,  Bucareli,  the 
second  Conde  de  Revillagigedo,  and  others  who  proved 
themselves  uprieht  and  prudent  governors,  and  mer- 
ited the  gratitude  of  the  colony. 

Independent  Mexico. — ^The  revolt  of  the  English 
colonies  in  America,  the  principles  of  the  French  Kev- 
olution,  the  proclamation  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  as 
King  of  Spain,  the  uprising  of  the  Spaniards  against 
Napoleon,  and  old  racial  antipathies,  are  the  causes  to 
which  the  independence  of  Mexico  is  usually  attributed. 
This  was  doubtless  precipitated  by  the  fact  that 
Miguel  Hidalgo yCostula,  parish  priest  of  Dolores,  dis- 
covered that  his  plot  was  on  the  point  of  being  be- 
traved,  and  on  16  September,  1810,  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt  against  Spain.  From  the  little  city  of 
Dolores  he  marched  with  an  ill-assorted,  badly  armed 
company  of  Indians  to  the  very  capital  itself,  but,  not 
daring  to  attack  it,  retraced  his  steps  to  Guadalajara. 
At  the  bridge  of  Calder6n  he  was  defeated,  and  pursued 
as  he  fled  through  Acatita  de  Ba^an;  he  was  captured 
and  executed  at  Chihuahua,  30  July,  1811.  His  work 
was  taken  up  and  continued  by  Jos^  Marfa  Morelos, 
parish  priest  of  Cardcuaro,  and  upon  his  death  by  the 
Spaniard  Mina.  When  Mina  was  captured  and  put  to 
death,  almost  all  hope  of  gaining  independence  seemed 
lost.  D.Vicente  Guerrero,  entrenched  m  the  mountains, 
kept  up  a  desultory  warfare  until  negotiations  were 
opened  with  the  royalist  general,  D.  Aeustfn  de  Itur- 
bide,  who  had  been  sent  to  subdue  the  insurgents. 
Tliese  negotiations  issued  in  the  plan  of  Iguala,  by 
which  Mexico  was  to  be  independent,  its  government 
a  constitutional  monarchy,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  the  only  one  recognized  and  tolerated.  Fer- 
dinand VII  was  chosen  as  sovereign  or,  in  his  default, 
one  of  his  brothers  or  some  meinber  of  the  reigning 
house  who  should  be  chosen  by  the  Congress.  The 
secular  and  regular  clergy  were  to  be  maintained  in 
all  their  former  privileges  and  pre-eminence. 

Giadually  both  royalists  and  insurgents  began  to 
support  this  plan,  and  on  24  August,  1821,  bv  the 
Treaty  of  Cordoba,  even  the  Viceroy  D.  Juan  O'^Don- 
oju,  who  had  just  landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  signified  his  con- 
currence. On  27  September  of  the  same  year  the 
army  of  las  tree  aarantiae  (three  guarantees),  as  it 
was  called,  entezea  the  City  of  Mexico.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  1822  it  became  known  that  the  Spanish 


Government  refused  to  ratify  the  treats,  and  the  par- 
tisans of  Itiu-bide,  takine  advantage  of  tms,  proclaimed 
him  emperor.  Owing,  nowever,  to  the  difficulties  and 
the  opposition  he  encountered,  he  resigned  the  follow- 
ing prear,  and  withdrew  to  Leghorn,  Italy.  In  1824, 
hopmg  once  more  to  be  of  service  to  his  country,  and 
without  knowing  that  he  was  under  sentence  of 
death  by  the  Government,  he  returned  to  Mexico. 
He  was  arrested  on  his  arrival,  condemned,  and 
put  to  death  on  19  July,  1824.  Freemasoniy,  so 
actively  promoted  in  Mexico  by  the  first  minister 
from  the  United  States,  Joel  K.  Poinsset,  began 
gradually  to  lessen  the  loyalty  which,  in  accordance 
with  the  plan  of  Iguala,  both  the  rulers  and  the  gov- 
erned had  manifested  towards  the  Church.  Little 
by  little  laws  were  enacted  against  the  Church,  curtail- 
ing her  rights,  as,  for  exampte,  in  1833,  the  exclusion  of 
the  clergy  from  the  public  schools,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  at  the  time  the  president,  D.  Valentin 
G6mez  Farias,  claimed  for  the  Republican  Govern- 
ment all  the  privileges  of  the  royal  patronage,  with 
the  power  of  nlling  vacant  sees  and  other  ecclesiastical 
benefices. 

General  Antonio  L6pez  de  Santa  Anna  dominated 
the  scene  for  almost  fifty  years,  but  he  was  a  man  with- 
out principle,  and  his  policy  was  weak  and  vacillating. 
Whatever  services  he  rendered  his  country  were  more 
than  outweighed  by  the  many  evils  of  his  administra- 
tion. From  1824  to  1846  the  nation  was  embroiled  in 
an  interminable  series  of  revolutions,  having  to  face  at 
the  same  time  some  serious  national  issues.  Guate- 
mala, which  had  cast  in  her  lot  with  Mexico,  separated 
from  her  forever;  the  French  invaded  the  country; 
Yucatan  separated  from  the  central  government  for 
several  years,  and  the  independence  ofTexas  brought 
on  the  war  with  the  United  States.  The  North 
American  troops  were  in  possession  of  the  capital, 
and  to  establish  peace  it  was  necessary  to  ceae  to 
the  conquerors  all  the  territory  situated  north  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  besides  California,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico.  And  then,  when  peace  was  most  necessary 
for  the  healing  of  the  nation's  wounds,  there  came, 
instead,  civil  wars  and  bloodshed.  In  1851,  Pius  IX 
sent  Monsignor  Luis  Clementi  to  settle  some  religious 
questions.  He  was  officially  received  by  the  presi- 
dent, Seuor  Arista,  but  was  finally  obliged  to  withdraw 
and  return  to  Rome  without  havme  accomplished  any- 
thing. Dissensions  continued,  and  in  1857  the  famous 
Constitution,  which  is  still  in  force  in  the  republic, 
was  promulgated  b^  the  president,  IgnacioComonfort. 
His  successor,  Benito  Juarez,  issued  a  series  of  laws 
against  the  Cathol ic  reli^on .  At  this  time  an  attempt 
was  made  to  carry  a  schismatical  movement  into  effect. 
Plans  were  made  by  the  secret  societies,  as  well  as 
other  anti-Catholic  associations  of  reformers,  to  induce 
President  Judrez  to  declare  that  the  Mexican  nation 
separated  herself  from  communion  with  Rome,  and 
establish  a  national  religion  whose  first  pontiff,  named 
by  the  Government,  should  be  Sr.  Pardio,  formerly 
parish  priest  of  Zotuta  in  Yucatan,  who  had  fraudu- 
lently obtained  a  Bull  from  Gregory  XVI  consecrating 
him  titular  Bishop  of  Germanicopolis  and  auxiliary  to 
D.  Jose  Marfa  Guerra,  Bishop  of  Yucatan.  The  sud- 
den death  of  Sr.  Pardio,  in  May,  1861,  ended  this 
absurd  attempt. 

This  was  followed  by  the  French  intervention,  the  em- 
pire, and  the  tragedy  of  Cerrode  Las  Campanasin  June, 
1S67.  In  1S64,  while  Maximilian  was  emperor,  the 
papal  nuncio,  Monsignor  Meglia,  visited  Mexico,  but  he 
dia  not  obtain  anything  from  the  emperor,  as  Maxi- 
milian declared  that  the  " Reform  Laws",  with  regard 
to  laicization  of  church  property,  woula  be  upheld. 
Juarez  died  in  1872,  and  was  succeeded  by  D.  Sebas- 
tian Lerdo  de  Tejada.  The  latter  was  overthrown  by 
Porfirio  Diaz,  who  became  president.  He  has  filleti 
this  office  until  the  present  time  (1910),  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  term  trom  1880  to  1884.    His  concilia- 


mzioo  2( 

tor;  policT,  the  eDnouragement,  protectioD,  and  sup- 
port of  industries,  the  opening  of  ways  of  commimicft- 
tion,  have  developed  the  rich  resources  of  the  country, 
and  given  Uexico  an  epoch  of  much  needed  peace. 

CoNaTiruTiON  of  1S57  and  Lawb  op-  Rkfohu.^ 
From  i  July,  1822,  when  the  law  was  issued  pemiEt- 
ting  the  Govemmeat  to  take  possession  of  the  Philip- 

fiine  miasion  property,  and  of  revenues  from  pious 
oundations  wtiich  w*ere  not  to  be  spent  within  the 
Ihnite  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  to  the  law  of  23 
November,  1S35,  Article  42  of  which  abolished  all 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  civil  matters,  a  series  of 
laws  were  enacted  by  Congress  and  the  legislatures  of 
the  states  clearly  showing  the  anti-religious  spirit  of 
those  who  framed  them.  This  spirit  was  at  its  height 
from  lSii7  to  1874.  During  the  presidency  of  D.  Igna- 
cioComonfort  thefamousConstilutionof  1857, decree- 
ing the  separation  of  Church  and  Sta1«,  was  promul- 
ealed,  and  in  the  years  following  Elenito  Juarez 
irarncil  innumerable  laws  systematising  the  provisions 
of  the  Constitution  and  enforcing  the  separation,  and 
in  1874  President  D.  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tojada  raised 
many  of  the  Reform 
Laws  framed  by 
Juarez    to  constitu- 

CA)  The  Church 
and  her  PHviiegei.— 
Law  of  11  Auga-it. 
1839,  Art.  3.-A11 
laws,  circulars,  and 
ordinances  of  any 
kind  whatsoever,  es- 
tablished by  public 
authority,     by    last 

or  by  custom,  which 
require  officials  to 
attend  public  reli- 
gious functions,  in  a 
body  are  hereby  re- 

Cfod.        Law    of   4  Mbucam  I.*iiodbb 

ember,  1860:  Art.  '"  'he  Km-o.  adi. 

8. — ^Right  of  asylum  in  churches  is  abolislied,  and 
force  may  and  should  be  employed  in  whatever  meas- 
ure  it  may  be  deemed  necessary  to  arrest  and  re- 
move according  to  law  a  declared  or  suspected 
criminal,  without  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  hav- 
ing a  right  to  intervene.  Art.  17. — Ollicial  recc^- 
nition  formerly  given  to  various  ecclesiastical  persons 
and  corporations  ia  withdrawn.  Art.  18.— The  use  of 
church  Dells  is  to  be  regulated  by  police  ordinance. 
Art.  24. — Public  ofGcials  are  forbidden  in  their  olGcIal 
capacity  to  assist  at  any  religious  ceremony,  or  entei^ 
tamment  in  honour  of  a  clei^yman,  however  high  in 
rank  he  may  be.  Troops  of  soldiere  are  included  in 
the  fore^ing  prohibition. 

Law  of  13  May,  1873,  only  article.— No  religious 
rite  or  demonstration  of  any  kind  whateoever  noay 
take  place  outside  of  the  church  building  in  any  part 
of  the  republk:.  Law  of  14  December,  1874,  Art.  3.— 
No  olHcial,  official  corporation,  or  body  of  troops  may 
attend  in  an  official  capacity  religious  services  of  any 
kind  whatsoever,  nor  snail  the  Government  recognize 
in  any  manner  whateoever  religious  solemnities.  All 
days,  therefore,  that  do  not  commemorate  some  ex- 
clusively civil  event  cease  to  be  holidays.  Sundays 
are  Bst  apart  as  days  of  rest  for  offices  and  public  in- 
stitutions. Art.  5. — No  rel^ous  rite  mav  take  place 
outside  the  church  building,  neither  shall  tne  ministers 
of  religion  or  any  individual  of  either  sex,  of  any  de- 
nomination whatsoever,  wear  in  public  a  special  dress 
or  insignia  which  would  characterize  him  m  any  way, 
under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  ten  to  two  hundred  dollaia 
(B )  ftrf^riou»f>rrfer«.— Constitution  of  1857,  Art.  5,— 
The  State  cannot  allow  any  contract,  pact,  or  agree- 
ment to  go  into  effect  that  boa  for  ita  object  the  im- 


>7  MEZIOO 

pairment,  Ion,  or  irrevocable  sacrifice  of  a  man'a  Bb- 
erty,  whatever  the  cause  may  be,  work,  education,  m 
religious  vow.  Consequently  the  law  does  not  recot 
niie  monastic  orders,  nor  can  it  permit  their  establisE- 
ment,  whatever  be  their  designation  or  object.  Art. 
27.— Religious  institutions  or  corporations,  whatever 
their  character,  name,  period  of  existence,  and  object, 
and  such  civil  institutions  as  ore  under  the  patronage, 
direction,  or  administration  of  these,  or  of  the  minis- 
ters of  any  religious  denomination,  efaall  have  no  legal 
right  to  acquire  title  to  or  administer  any  property, 
but  such  buildings  as  are  destined  for  the  immediate 
and  direct  use  of  said  corporations  and  institutions. 
Neither  shall  they  have  the  right  to  acquire  or  manage 
revenues  derived  from  real  estate. 

Iaw  of  12  July,  1859,  Art.  5.— All  the  male  religious 
orders  which  exist  throughout  the  republic,  whatever 
their  name   or   the   purpose  of  their  existence,  are 
hereby  suppressed  throughout  the  whole  repubUc,  as 
also  all  arcnconfratemities,  confraternities,  congrega- 
tions,  or  sisterhoods  annexed  to  the  religious   com- 
munities, cathedrals,  parishes,  or  any  other  churches. 
Art.   6.— The  foun- 
dation or  erection  of 
new  convents  of  reg- 
ulars,     arcbcon  fra- 
ternities,   confrater- 
nities,    congrega- 
tions, or  sisterhoods, 
under  whatever  form 
or  name  is  ^iven 
them,  is  prohibited, 
likewise  the  wearing 
of  the  garbor  habit  M 
the    suppressed    or- 
ders.    Art.    l.—By 
this  law  the  ecclesi- 
astics   of    the    sup- 
pressed   otders  are 
reduced  to  the  con- 
dition   of    secular 
h'b  BRcrtB-SnicK  clergy,  and  shall,  like 

sniij  of  tha  oomt  these,  be  subject  as 

regards  the  exercise  of  their  ministry  to  the  ordlnariea 
of  their  respective  dioceses.  Art,  12. — AH  books, 
printed  or  manuscript,  paintings,  antiquities,  and 
other  articles  belonging  to  the  suppressed  religious 

libraries,  and  other  public  establishments.  Art.  13. 
— All  membere  of  the  suppressed  orders  who  fifteen 
days  aft^r  the  publication  oF  this  law  in  their  re- 
spective localities  shall  continue  to  wear  the  habit 
or  live  in  community  shall  forfeit  the  right  to  col- 
lect their  auota  as  assigned  by  Article  8,  and  if  after 
the  term  of  15  days  designated  bv  this  Article  they 
should  reunite  in  any  place  and  appear  to  follow 
their  community  life,  they  shall  immediately  be  ex- 
pelled from  the  country.  Art.  21.^AII  novitiatea 
for  women  are  perpetually  closed.  Those  at  present 
in  novitiates  cannot  be  professed. 

Uwof26Feb.,  1863,  Art.  l.—Allreligious  conununi- 
ties  of  women  are  Bupprcased  throughout  the  repubKc. 
Law  of  25  September,  1873,  Art  5.— The  law  does 
not  recognise  monastic  orders,  nor  can  it  permit  their 
establishment,  whatever  their  name  or  the  object 
for  which  they  are  founded.  Law  of  4  Dec.,  1873, 
Art.  19, — The  State  does  not  recof^niae  monastic  or- 
ders nor  can  it  permit  their  establishment,  whatever 
their  name  or  the  object  for  which  they  are  founded. 
Any  orders  that  may  be  secretly  established  shall  be 
considered  unlawful  assemblies  which  the  authorities 
may  dissolve  should  the  members  attempt  to  live  in 
community,  and  in  all  such  cases  the  superiors  or 
heads  shall  be  judged  criminals,  infringing  on  individ- 
ual rights  according  to  Article  973  of  the  Penal  Code 
of  the  District,  whjdi  is  declarod  In  force  in  all  the  r»- 


I  4«(^« 


268 


I  ->«*{• 


(C)  CTbiifcfcPropwfy.— Lawof  12  July,  1859,  Art.  1.— 
All  property  which  under  dififerent  titles  haa  been  ad- 
ministered by  the  secular  and  regular  clergy,  whatever 
kind  of  property  it  ma^  be,  taxes,  shares,  or  stocks,  or 
the  name  or  purpose  it  nmy  have  had,  becomes  the 
property  of  the  State.  Law  of  5  February,  1861 ,  Art. 
100. — ^Tne  Government  hands  over  all  parochial  resi- 
dences, episcopal  palaces,  and  dwellings  of  the  heads  of 
any  denomination,  declaring  them  inalienable  and  free 
from  taxation  as  long  as  Uiey  are  reserved  for  their 
own  specific  purpose.  Law  of  25  September,  1873, 
Art.  3. — No  relieious  institution  may  acquire  property 
nor  the  revenue  aeri  ved  from  property.  Law  of  10  Oct. , 
1874,  Art.  16. — ^The  direct  ownership  of  the  churches 
oationaliaed  according  to  the  law  of  12  July,  1859,  and 
left  for  the  maintenance  of  Catholic  worship,  as  well  as 
those  which  have  since  been  turned  over  to  any  other 
institution,  continues  to  reside  in  the  nation;  but  their 
exclusive  use,  preservation,  and  improvement,  as  long 
as  no  decree  of  consolidation  is  issued,  remains  with 
the  religious  institutions  to  which  they  have  been 
granted.  Art.  17. — The  buildings  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  article  will  be  exempt  from  taxation,  ex- 
cept when  they  have  actually  or  nominally  passed  into 
the  hands  of  one  or  more  private  individuals  who  hold 
the  title  without  transmitting  it  to  a  rehgious  society; 
in  such  cases  the  property  shall  be  subject  to  the 
common  law. 

(D)  Legacies  and  WHU. — ^Law  of  14  .December, 
1874,  Art.  8. — Legacies  made  in  favour  of  mimsters 
of  religion,  of  their  relatives  to  the  fourth  degree, 
or  of  persons  living  with  said  ministers  when  they  have 
rendered  any  spiritual  aid  to  the  testators  in  their  last 
illness,  or  when  they  have  been  their  spiritual  direc- 
tors, are  null  and  void. 

(E)  Cwil  Marriage  and  Divorce, — Law  of  23  July, 
1859,  Art.  1. — Marriage  is  a  civil  contract  that  can 
licitly  and  validly  be  contracted  before  the  civil  author- 
ity. It  suffices  for  its  validity  that  the  contracting 
parties,  having  complied  with  the  formalities  of  the 
law,  present  themselves  before  the  proper  authority, 
and  freely  express  their  desire  of  being  united  in  mar- 
riage. Law  of  4  December,  1860,  Art.  20.— The  civil 
auuiorities  shall  not  interfere  in  the  religious  rites  and 
practices  concerning  marriage,  but  the  contract  from 
which  this  union  proceeds  remains  exclusively  subject 
to  the  laws.  Anv  other  marriage  that  is  contracted  in 
the  republic  witnout  observing  the  formalities  pre- 
scribed by  these  laws  is  null,  and  therefore  ineffectual 
to  produce  any  of  the  civil  ends  which  the  law  grants 
onfy  to  a  lawfully  contracted  marria^.  Law  of  10 
December,  1874,  Art.  23. — All  decisions  regarding 
nullity,  validity,  divorce,  and  other  questions  relative 
to  the  marriage  state,  must  be  tried  before  the  civil 
tribunals  which  will  determine  the  law  without  taking 
into  consideration  any  resolutions  on  this  subject  that 
may  have  been  provided  by  the  ministers  of  religion. 

(F)  Cemeteries  and  Graves.— Law  of  31  July,  1859, 
Art.  l.—The  intervention  of  the  clergy,  secular  or 
regular,  in  the  management  of  cemeteries,  vaults,  and 
crypts,  which  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  in 
force,  ceases  throughout  the  republic.  Law  of  4 
December,  1860,  Art.  21. — ^The  governors  of  states, 
districts,  and  territoriea  shall  exereise  the  strictest 
vigilance  for  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  in  regard  to 
cemeteries  and  burial  srounds,  and  in  no  place  shall 
decent  burial  be  refused  the  dead  no  matter  what  may 
be  the  decision  of  the  priests  or  their  respective 
churches. 

(Q)  Hospitals  and  CKariJtMe  InstOuHons.—lAw  of 
2  February,  1861,  Art.  1.— All  hospitals  and  chari- 
table institutions  which  up  to  the  present  time  have 
been  under  ecclesiastical  authority  and  managed  by 
religious  corporations  are  secularised.  Law  of  5  Feb- 
ruary, 1861,  Art  67.— Charitable  institutions  that  were 
nianaged  by  ecclesiastical  corporations  or  committees 
independent  of  the  Government  are  secularised  and 


placed  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  dvfl 
authorities.  Law  of  28  February,  1861,  Art.  1.— All 
hospitals,  asylums,  houses  of  correction,  and  charitable 
institutions  which  exist  at  the  present  time,  and  whidi 
shall  be  founded  in  the  Federal  District,  shall  be  under 
the  protection  of  the  Government.  Law  of  27  Auj:u8t, 
1904,  Art.  25. — ^The  ministers  of  any  form  of  religion 
cannot  act  as  the  directors,  administrators,  or  patrons 
of  private  charity;  neither  can  officials,  dignitaries,  ar 
reli^ous  corporations,  nor  anyone,  delegated  fay  them, 
act  m  the  same  capacity. 

(H)  OatAs.— Law  of  25  September,  1873,  Art.  21.— 
The  simple  promise  to  speak  the  truth  and  to  fulfil  the 
obligations  it  entails,  shall  take  the  place  of  the  reli- 
gious oath  with  its  consequences  and  penalties. 

(I)  Instruction,— Iaw  of  4  December,  1874,  Art.  4.— 
Reli^ous  instruction  and  the  exercises  of  any  form  of 
religion  are  prohibited  in  all  federal,  state,  and  muni- 
cipal schools.  Morality  will  be  taught  in  any  of  tba 
scnools  when  the  nature  of  their  constitutions  permits 
it,  but  without  reference  to  any  form  of  religion.  The 
infraction  of  this  article  will  be  punished  by  a  fine  of 
from  25  to  200  pesos,  and  dismiRsal  from  office  if  the 
offence  is  repeated. 

(J)  Military  Service.—lAW  of  4  December,  1860, 
Art.  19. — ^The  ministers  of  all  forms  of  religion  are 
exempt  from  military  and  coereive  personal  service, 
but  not  from  the  taxes  which  the  law  imposes  for  this 
privilege  of  exemption. 

(K)  Public  Office.— Constitution  of  1857,  Art.  56.— 
No  member  of  tne  ecclesiastical  body  can  be  elected  a 
congressman.  Law  of  13  November,  1874,  Art.  58. — 
Nominations  for  senator  are  subject  to  the  same  con- 
ditions as  those  for  congressman. 

Ecclesiastical  Organization. — ^There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  See  of  Yucatan,  with  the  title  of  CaroUnsis, 
under  the  patronage  of  Nuestra  Seiiora  de  los  Reme- 
dios,  was  the  first  bishopric  erected  in  Mexico;  the 
Bull  of  Leo  X,  "  Sacri  Apostolatus  ministerio  ",  issued 
January.  1518,  proves  this.  The  erection  of  this 
diocese  followed  the  firet  reports  of  the  discovery  of 
the  peninsula,  and  bv  the  Bull  we  see  that  Yucatan 
was  still  thought  to  be  an  island.  However,  as  soon 
as  more  definite  information  was  received  concerning 
Mexico  after  the  conouest,  establishing  the  fact  that 
Yucatan  was  part  of  tne  mainland,  the  proceedings  for 
the  erection  of  the  diocese  were  suspended,  especially 
as  the  Spaniards,  diverted  by  other  enterprises,  gave 
little  thought  to  Yucatan,  and  when  it  was  abandoned 
by  D.  Francisco  de  Montejo,  in  1527,  they  did  not  re- 
turn imtil  1542.  It  may  also  be  noted  that  when 
Gement  VII  named  Fray  Julian  de  Garces  fiirst  Bishop 
of  New  Spain  in  1526,  the  title  EpiscoptiS  Carolensis 
was  still  used,  and  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  using  the 
faculties  granted  him  by  the  popes  of  ft^wigning  the 
limits  of  new  dioceses,  says  in  the  royal  decree  which 
accompanied  the  Bull:  ''We  declare,  assign,  and 
determine  as  the  limits  of  the  Bishopric  of  Yucatan  and 
Santa  Maria  de  los  Remedios  the  following  lands  and 
provinces;  first,  the  Province  of  Tlaxcala,  inclusive, 
and  S.  Juan  de  Ulda",  etc.  As  Tlaxcala  had  a 
ereater  population  and  was  nearer  the  capital.  Bishop 
Garces  established  the  episcopal  residence  there,  from 
whence  it  was  afterwaras  moved  to  Puebla. 

Up  to  1544  the  dioceses  in  New  Spain  were: — 
Puebla,  erected  in  1526  at  Tlaxcala,  translated  to 
Puebla,  1539;  Mexico,  1530;  Guatemala,  1534; 
Oaxaca,  erected  with  the  title  of  Antequera  in  1535; 
Michoacan,  erected  in  1536  at  Tzintxuntsan,  translated 
later  to  Patzcuaro,  and  from  there  to  the  new  city  of 
Valladolid,  now  Morelia;  Chiapas,  1546.  They  were 
all  suffragans  of  the  Arehdiocese  of  Seville  in  Spain. 
Yucatan,  though  erected  first,  never  had  any  resident 
bishop  until  1561.  On  31  Janua^,  1545,  at  the 
solicitation  of  Charles  V,  the  Holy  Father,  Paul  III, 
separated  these  dioceses  from  the  metropditan  See  of 
Seville  and  erected  the  Arehdiocese  of  Mexico,  with 


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'      "  IN  — 


14 


THE  NEW  YORK 

PUBLIC  LIBRARY 


ASTOR,  LF.NOX  AND 
TILDEN  l-'CUNUAliONS 


I  ^  Mi¥i*'^^^^^^^^^^^m^yv:^^^^^^^^^^^m   I A  m(^9 


260 

the  above-mentioned  dioceses  for  suffraoaos.    Before  iSfiO);  Idbm,  piaertaeimet  •obrt  lahidoria  dslaRepfmiM 

the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  theeoclefliastical  "?««»«« ?«^oo.  if**):  ZAMAoo».HMtomd«^^^ 

buc  «av»  va   v>w  ou.w^ufru  «^butjr    vuc  cui/reaiaBiiw^Ai  j»^mpo«  m<Ur«moto«Afl*tonuert«>«dta«  (Mexico,  1878);  RoMBHO, 

PTOVinceoCMexiCOincludedybesidesthoseftlTeadymen-  i^oitc^  para  fimnar  la  hiatona  y  uUxdmioa  del  Obitpado  <fa 

tioned,  the  Diocese  of  Ck>mayaeua  in  Honduras,  erected  Michoaedn  (Uexioo,  1862) ;  Rbcaaknb,  El  primer  Obispo  de  Tlax- 

IViQ'     ClntkAalttiikTA     1  «i4R*    v^rAnav    in    r:iiAf«mAl&  ««^  (Mexico.  1884);  Mkndxeta,  Hiatona  ecUaidatiea  indiana 

104a,     UUaoaiajara,    Ad4»,    Verapa«    in    Ouatemala,  /Mexico.  1870);  CoUceidn  de  documentoa  para  la  hiaUma  de 

erected  in  1556,  suppressed  1605;  Manila  in  the  Philip-  Mizieo  (Mexico,  1858);  Arbanooxs.  Mexico  deade  1808  haata 

pine  Islands,  erected  1581.  i^tf?  (Madrid,  1872):  Apuntea  para  la  hiatcria  del  Oobiemo  del 

At  the  clo»  of  the  eighteenth  century  idl  the  di*.  gl^SSf  V/r'MT  iJSSSS/SKil^'r'lSbirii.^^SLt 

oeses  situated   outside   Mexican  territory   had   been  Hiatortadelaintervenddnfraneeaa  en  Mixico  (BnisaelB.  1860): 

separated  to  form  new  ecclesiastical  provinces,  and  IxTULxoCTiTL.06rMAM«<Jni^ 

Chiapas,  which  from  1743  had  belong«l  to  the  Arch-  gi^Jte,:iL«;;X'J?SX;»^ 

diocese  of  Guatemala,  was  not  reunited  to  the  ecclesi*  H.  H.  Bancroft.  Life  of  Porfirio  Diaa  (San  Frandaco.  1887); 

astical  Province  of  Mexico   until   the  middle  of  the  ByurBS.  Judrea  u   laa  revoludonea  de  AyuOa  y  de  RefontM 

nineteenth  century     Oth«  new  diocewi  had  been  ^iS^S^i^V^^'i^i^^li^To^Jtc^  t^^ 

founded:   DurangO,  1620;   Monterey,  with  the  title  of  eidn<leM^xw  (Mexico.  1906);  Idbm.  A iifo« da /eclWa/fi^umcu^fi 

Linares,  1777;  Sonora,  1779  (the  episcopal  residence  in  ^  Mexico  eon  axiraeto  de  aua  eauaaa  1646-1648  (Mexico,  1010). 
different  cities  at  various  epochs,  Arispe,  Alamos,  Cu-  Camillus  Csivelli. 

liacan,  and  at  Hermosillowhen  the  Diocese  of  Sizuilos 

was  erected).    In  the  nineteenth  century,  Mexico        Meadco,    Abchdiocbse    of    (Mexican a). — The 

being  still  the  only  archdiocese,  the  Dioceses  of  S.  boundaries  of  the  Diocese  of  Mexico  were  at  first  not 

Francisco  de  California,  erected  1840,  and  S.  Luis  well  defined.    When  Cuba  was  discovered  three  sees 

Potosf,  erected  1854,  were  added.    Pius  IX.  in  the  were  erected,  but  when  the  prelates  arrived,  their 

secret  consistory  of  16  March,  1863,  established  the  episcopal  sees  had  been  destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants 

Dioceses  of  Chilapa,Tulancingo,  Vera  Cruz,  Zacatecas,  had  fled.    In  order  to  avoid  such  mistakes,  the  Holy 

Le6n,  Quer^taro,  Zamora.  and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  See  allowed  the  kings  of  Spain  to  fix  the  boimdaries  of 

of  Tamaulipas  (created  a  oishopric  in  1869),  and  raised  the  new  dioceses  erected  on  the  American  continent. 

to  archiepiscopal  rank  the  episcopal  Sees  of  Guadala-  still  considered  a  part  of  Asia.    From  1500  to  I860 

jara  and  Michoacan.    From  1869  to  1891  the  Vicari-  the  Diocese  of  Mexico  extended  from  the  Atlantic  to 

ate  Apostolic  of  Lower  Cidifomia  (1872),  the  Dioceses  the  Pacific,  namehr  from  Tampico  to  Acapulco.    At 

of  Tabasco  (1880)  and  Colima  (1881),  were  established,  present  it  is  confined  to  the  Federal  District,  the 

In  1891,  Leo  XIII,  by  the  Bull ''lUud  in  primis".  States  of  Morelos,  Mexico,  and   part  of  Hidalgo, 

erected  the  new  Dioceses  of  Cuemavaca,  Tepic.  Tehu-  The  first  bishop,  ^umarraga.  came  to  Mexico  when 

antepec,  Saltillo,  and  Chihuahua,  and  raised  tne  Sees  Clement  VII  had  just  been  released  from  the  prison  in 

of  daxaca,  Monterey,  and    Durango   to   archiepis-  Castel  Sant'  Angelo,  where  he  was  kept  by  Cnarles  V 

copal  rank.    In  1895  the  Diocese  of  Campeche  was  for  several  months  after  the  sack  of  Rome  by  Bour- 

erected,  and  in  1899  that  of  Aguas  Calientes.    In  bon'sarmy.    Strangeasit  may  seem,  he  was  allowed, 

1903  the  new  Diocese  of  Huajudpan  was  created,  and  and  even  obliged  to  come  with  only  the  emperor's 

Puebla  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archdiocese,  and  in  nomination,  governed  the  diocese  without  any  papal 

1907  Yucatan  was  made  an  archdiocese.    At  the  appointment,  and  styled  himself  "Omnimoda  potes- 

present  time  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Mexico  are  tate  Antistes''.    He  returned  to  Spain,  received  his 

constituted  as  follows: —  Bulls,  and  was  consecrated  six  years  after  his  first 

arrival  on  the  American  continent.     He  has  been 


Pbovdvcbs 


GuadAlai 

Michoacan 

Antequeim 

Xinaxw 

Dunaco 

Tucataa 

Poflbla 


g,„  falsely  accused  of  having  destroved  most  valuable 

monuments;  he  ought  not  to  be  blamed  for  having 


w    .     «r     />_    /    ,       .^        ,.      v«v,  burnt  the  idols,  temples,  and  hieroglyphics  which  pre- 

^^clSwci^JSf'^'*'^^^^^  vented  the  conversion  of  the  aborigines.    In  his  time 

GuAdahyara,  ^icateeas.  Tepic.  Oolima,  Aguaaea-  the  Blessed  Virgin,  according  to  Mexican  tradition, 

lientea.  *  „     ..  ^    „  appeared  to  the  neophyte  Juan  Diego,  and  became  the 

LiS?QliertSS,.  "^«'~'  ^**"*^>'  ^^""^  pktr^ess  of  America.    He  introduced  the  first  print- 


uuo,  lamauupaa  ^epis.  re8.Mjiuaaa  viGtonaj.  — --—- ,  -  --- — r^,-, \      tt        1  j xi_ — jV — '   — 

Duranco.  Sonora  (ep&B.  rae..  Hermosillo),  Sinaloa  whose  order  he  belonged.    He  ruled  over  the  diocese, 

(epiB.  rea..  (Tuliaoan).  Ch&uahua.  Vic.  Apoa.  of  raised  before  he  died  to  the  rank  of  an  archdiocese. 

Lower  Califomia  (zee..  La  Pai)  fv^m  1  koq  *^  1  iLlfi 

Yucatan  (epis.  ree..  Merida).  Campeche.  with  the  ^"S?  •     •  1  '  -i    u         t^       u  u  •     ^u      •* 

Territory  of  (^intana  Boo,  Tabasco  (epis.  ras.,        Five  provmcial  councils  have  been  held  m  the  city 

S.  Juan  Baututa).  of  Mexico.    The  first  and  second  under  the  second 

Puebla.  Huajuipan. archbishop,  Alonso  de  Montufar.    The  third  was  pre- 
sided over  by  the  third  archbishop.  Pedro  Moya  de 

^vj  ^u^y^oJi^''^5!!!^^ r^  ^  ^^^im.  ^"^  Contreras.    The  twenty-fourth  archbishop,  Francisco 

eanM  (Waahinston,  1900);  ficauLZ,  Curao  general  de  Oeografia  a..*^^:^  a^  t ^«»...<>^ /•.«»»« ki.^  ««j  ^lIj:a..^  ^,,«« 

(Mexi(i>.  i905);lioniwA,AaaaminiaturadelaRapiiblimnJei'  Antomo  de  Lorenjwna  assembled  and  presided  over 

eana  (Mexico.  1907);  CLAyUBRO,  HiaUma  antioua  de  Mixioo  the    fourth    provincial     COUncil    m    1770.     Prospero 

(London.  1826);  Orobco t  BmoLL^Hiatoria antiouaydeiaCon-  Alarcon,  thirty-second  archbishop.  Was  the  president 

mdala  de  Mixtco  (Mexico.  1880)    Rivera,  Loa  Oobemantea  de  ^c  *u^  aWu  ^Ja  i--*  ».».,:»»:»i  Ji'^^ii  ;«  looa      tu^ 

Mixico  (Mexico.  1872);  fcAXBALCirrA,  oinw  (Mexico.  1898);  Ot  the  fifth  and  last  provmcial  council  m  1896.     The 

Uixieo  d  trav4a  de  loa  atqloa  (Barcelona.  — ) ;  Sahao^.  Hiatoria  most  important  of  all  Was  the  third  council,  Whlch  has 

gn«rai  da  laa  coaaadeNwva  E^Aa  (Mendco.  1829);  DurXw.  been  for  centuries  the  code  of  ecclesiastical  law  for 

m^fl^)!'fr:Zii^  the  Mexican  Church     Archbishops  Mova  de  Contre- 

dejaron  d  aua  aueeaorea  (Mexico.  1873);  (5BRBa6N.  Bpoca  colo-  tas,  Garcia  Guerra,  Palafox,  Osono,  Ortega,  Haro  y 

nval^  Mixiepviejo  (JdexicOi  •'"'^^    ''  .......  ^       .  .   _.  _ 

gexioo. 
odco. 
»);  h 

paiMea  (Madrid.  1881) :  Parras.  Oobierno  de  loaRegulareadeUi  bishop  Labastida  Was  regent  of  the  short  lived  empire 

IS^ j;SS2?'ci'^^6^  ofMa^milian,    HewasthelastjprelatetobeinveSed 

1906) ;  Vera.  Caieeiamo  oeoprdfUso-hiatdrico'^atadiatico  de  la  Igleaia  With  any  political  authority.     The  most  distmguished 

i|imaiMMAmeeame<^.  §81);  BAauRTp.^f  anobiapado  de  of  the  line  Was  Francisco  Antonio  de  Lorenaana,  trans- 

c^  S^^'sT^  l2SSi;;°c;iSS2rJjfoMS3?'S  fen«l  to  Toledo,  and  created  cardinal  by  cUent 

Kiioaite  Olerida,  1806);  AX.AJIXH.  ITwtond  de  MAcieo  (MexioD,  Xlv.    He    published     several    important    book% 


' 


270 


MBZZOFANn 


founded  many  institutions  both  in  New  and  Old 
Spain,  helped  with  his  own  means  Pius  VI  when  he 
was  sent  to  France  as  a  prisoner  by  Napoleon,  and 
largely  contributed  to  the  supoort  of  the  carainals 
assemoled  in  Venice,  in  the  conclave  that  elected  Pius 
VII.  A  few  years  after  the  conquest,  viz.,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  centurv,  the  Archdiocese  of 
Mexico  already  possessed  over  fifty  convents  of  nuns, 
a  university,  equal  to  that  of  Salamanca,  several  col- 
leges, and  numberless  schools.  Their  number  went 
on  increasing,  until  all  religious  progress  was  stopped 
by  the  War  of  Independence  and  the  civil  wars  tnat 
followed.  All  were  destroyed  by  law  and  in  reality 
under  President  Judrez.  President  Diaz  has  treated 
the  Church  better;  but  the  penal  laws  have  not  been 
repealed.  The  present  archbishop,  Mgr  Mora  y  del 
Rio  was  bom  at  Pajuacardn,  24  Feb.,  1854;  studied 
at  Zamora  and  Rome:  was  ordained,  22  Dec,  1877; 
consecrated  Bishop  oi  Tehuantepec,  19  Jan.,  1893; 
and  promoted  to  tne  See  of  Mexico,  2  Dec,  1908  in 
succession  to  Mgr  Alarcon.    The  population  almost 

entirely  Catholic  is  about  780,000. 

Galena  d€  retratoa  en  la  Catedral  de  Mixieo;  Icasbalcbta, 
Primer  Obiapo  y  Azobiapo  de  Mixieo;  Soba,  Epieoopada  Mexi- 
eano:  Cardinal  Loremana,  passim;  Balbuena,  Qrandeta  Mexir 
cana,  J.  MONTES  DE  OcA  T  ObREGON. 

Mezgar,  Francis,  Joseph,  and  Pattl,  three 
brothers,  learned  Benedictines  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Peter  in  Salzburg,  and  professors  at  the  University  of 
Salzburg. 

Francis,  the  oldest  of  the  three,  b.  at  Ingolstadt,  25 
October,  1632;  d.  at  Salzburg,  11  December,  1701. 
He  took  vows  in  1651;  was  ordained  priest  in  1657; 
taught  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Salzburg  in 
1659;  became  regent  of  the  convictus  and  secretary 
of  the  university  in  1661;  taught  philosophy  again 
from  1663  to  1665;  and  then  moral  theology  imtil 
1668.  From  1669  to  1688  he  taught  various  branches 
at  the  Bavarian  monastery  of  Ettal  and  at  his  own 
monastery.  From  1688  until  his  death  he  was  master 
of  novices  and  director  of  clerics  at  his  monaster^r. 
He  wrote  the  following  philosophical  treatises:  "Pm- 
losophia  rationalis  rationibus  explicata''  (Salzburg, 
1660);  "Anima  rationibus  philosophicis  animata  et 
explicata''  (ib.,  1661) ;  "  Philosophia  naturalis  rationi- 
bus naturalibus  elucidata''  (lb.,  1661);  "Manuale 
philosophicum"  (ib.,  1665);  "Homomicrocosmus" 
(ib.,  16i65).  The  following  are  some  of  his  transla- 
tions: "Philosophia  sacra''  (ib.,  1678),  from  the 
French  of  the  Parisian  Capuchin  Ivo;  "  Heiliges  Bene- 
diktiner-Jahr"  (2  volumes,  Munich.  1690),  from  the 
Latin;  *' Dioptra  politices  religiosse'  (Salzbui^,  1694), 
and  "Exercitia  spiritualia"  (id.,  1693),  both  from  the 
French  of  the  Maurist  Le  Contat;  **  Succinctse  medita- 
tiones  christianae"  (4  vols.,  ib.,  1695),  from  the  French 
of  the  Maurist  Claude  Martin;  "Via  regia  studiosae 
juventutis  ad  veram  sapientiam"  (Frankfort,  1699), 
from  the  Italian;  and  a  few  others  of  less  importance. 

Joseph,  b.  5  September,  1635,  at  Eichst&dt;  d.  26 
October,  1683,  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall,  while  on  a 
pilgrimaee  to  Einsiedeln.  He  took  vows  at  the  same 
time  with  his  brother  Francis  in  1651;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1659;  taught  poetry  in  the  gymnasium  of 
Salzburg  in  1660;  was  master  of  novices  and  sub-prior 
in  his  monastery  in  1661;  taught  philosophy  at  the 
University  of  Salzburg,  1662-4;  apologetics  and  pole- 
mics, 1665-7;  canon  law,  1668-73;  he  was  prior  of  his 
monastery  and  taught  hermeneutics  and  polemics, 
1673-8,  when  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  of  the 
imiversity.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Mabillon. 
with  whom  he  kept  up  a  constant  correspondence  ana 
who  in  his  "Iter  Germanicum"  calls  him  "Univer- 
sitatis  Salisburgensis  prsBcipuum  omamentum"  (Ve- 
tera Analecta,  I,  xi).  His  chief  work  is  "Historia 
Salisburgensis''  covering  the  period  from  582  to  1687, 
of  which  work  he,  however,  had  written  only  the  first 
four  booln  (582-1555)  when  he  died,  leaving  the 


remainder  to  be  completed  by  his  two  brothers.  In 
1664  he  publialied  at  Salzburg  his  four  philosophical 
trratises :  (1 ) "  Considerationes  de  scientiis  et  de  modis 
sciendi  in  genere  " ;  (2)  "  Axiomata  physica  qtuestioni- 
bus  problematicis  distincta'';  (3)  "Quatuor  mdus 
natursB:  esse,  yivere,sentire,  intelligere";  (4)"Unitas 
et  distinctio  rerum  qusestionibus  pnilosophicis  expli- 
cata".  ^  His  other  works  are:  "Tabula  bipartita 
successionis  ecclesiastics  tarn  ex  testamento  quam  ab 
intestato"  (Salzbui^,  1670);  "Panacsa  juhIb"  (ib., 
1673) ;  "  Lapis  mysticus  et  comu  parvulum  Danielis" 
(ib.,  1677,  1682);  "  Institutiones  in  sacram  scriptu- 
ram"  (ib.,  1680);  "Assertio  antiquitatis  ecclesis 
xnetropolitanflD  Salisburgensis  et  monasterii  S.  Petri, 
O.  S.  Ben."  (ib.,  1682). 

Paul,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  three  brothers,  b. 
23  November,  1637,  at  Eichsti&dt;  d.  12  April,  1702 
at  Salzburg.  He  took  vows  in  1653;  was  ordained 
priest  in  l^K);  taught  at  the  gymnasium  of  Salzburg^ 
1660-4;  was  master  of  novices  and  director  of  clerics, 
1664-6;  taught  philosophy,  first  at  the  University  of 
Salzbunz,  1668-70;  then  at  the  monasteiy  of  Gott- 
weig,  lo71-2.  Returning  to  the  University  of  Salz- 
burg, he  taught  theology,  1673-^88;  exegesis  and 
Solemics,  1689-1700.  In  1683  he  had  succeeded  his 
eoeased  brother  Joseph  as  vice-chancellor.  His  chief 
production  is:  "Tlieorogia  scholastica  secundum  viam 
et  doctrinam  D.  Thomae"  (4  volimies,  Augsburg, 
1695,  1719),  probably  the  best  work  on  dogmatic 
theology  that  nss  been  produ<^  by  a  German  Bene- 
dictine. It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  the  author's 
treatment  of  the  immaculate  conception  and  of  papal 
infallibility  is  in  exact  accordance  with  the  definitions 
of  1864  and  1870.  His  other  works  are:"Soninia 
philosophorum  de  possibilibus  et  impossibilibus" 
(Salzburg,  1670)-  "Contemplationes  philosophic^ 
magniB  urbis  ccelestis  et  elementaris"  (ib.,  1670): 
"Wfercurius  lomcus"  (ib.,  1671);  "De  ^tia  Dei'^ 
fib.,  1675); "  AUocutiones  de  mediis  pietatis  Marianie'' 
(ib.,  1677);  "  Orationes  parthenis,  miscellanese,  sacro- 
profanffi,  problemata  inauguralia  seu  orationes  acade- 
mic£B"  (ib.,  1699-1700);  "Sacra  historia  de  gentis 
hebraicsBortu"  (DiUingen,  1700;  Augsburg,  1715). 

Gonoeming  all  three  see  Sattlbr,  CoUect.-BlAUer  tur  GeacK. 
der  ehemaligen  Benedictiner^UniveraitiU  SaUburg  (Kempt^n. 
1800),  212>218;  Lxndneb,  Profeaabuch  der  Benedictiner  Abtri  S. 
Peter  in  Salabum  (Salsbuzg,  1906).  53-58,  65-68.  For  Joseph 
and  Paul  see  Straub,  Vtri  acriptia.  amdUione  ac  pieiate  inaionea^ 
quoa  oenuU  vel  aluU  Eichdadium  (EichsUkdt.  1790),  326-331. 

MiCHAEii  Orr. 

Meuofanti,  Giussppe,  cardinal,  the  greatest  of 
polyglots,  b.  19  September,  1774;  d.  15  March,  1849. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  poor  carpenter  of  Bologna.  In 
the  Scuole  Pie,  besides  the  classical  languages,  he 
learned  Spanish,  Grerman,  Mexican,  and  some  South 
American  dialects  from  ex-Jesuits  who  had  been  ex- 
iled from  America.  To  his  great  love  of  study  he 
added  a  prodigious  memory,  so  that  at  the  age  of 
twelve  years  he  was  able  to  besin  the  three  years 
course  of  philosophy,  which  he  closed  with  a  public 
disputation.  His  theological  studies  were  completed 
witn  no  less  distinction,  at  an  age  at  which  he  could 
not  yet  be  ordained;  consequent O''  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages;  and  in  1797  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  the  University  of 
Bologna,  and  ordained  a  priest.  \Mien  the  Cisalpine 
RepuDUc  was  established,  he  refused  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  it,  lost  his  chair  at  the  university,  and 
was  compelled  to  give  private  lessons  in  order  to 
support  himself.  After  the  battles  of  1799  and  of 
1800,  the  hospitals  of  Boloena  were  crowded  with 
woimded  and  sick  of  almost  all  the  nationalities  of  Eu- 
rope, and  Messofantl  in  giving  religious  assistance  to 
the  imfortunate  seized  the  opportunitv  of  perfecting 
his  knowledge  of  the  langua^s  wliich  hp  had  already 
studied,  as  well  as  of  learning  new  ones.  In  1803 
he  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  library  of  the  Insti- 
tute, ana  later,  professor  of  Hebrew  and  of  Grsek  at 


271 


th%;  university ,  which  relieved  him  financially.  In 
1806,  he  refused  an  invitation  of  Napoleon  to  «itab- 
iisn  himself  at  Paris.  In  1808,  the  chair  of  Oriental 
languages  was  suppressed,  and  Mezsofanti  received,  in 
compensation,  a  pension  of  1000  lire;  but,  in  1815,  he 
became  librarian  of  the  university,  and  occupied  his 
chair  once  more.  Besides  the  study  of  languages,  to 
which  he  gave  many  hours  of  the  day  and  ni^t,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ethnology,  archseol- 
ogy,  numismatics,  and  astronomy.  Moreover,  he 
performed  the  offices  of  his  holy  ministry,  and  was 
commonly  called  the  confessor  of  foreigners.  In 
1831  he  was  among  the  deputies  who  went  to  ask 
the  pope's  forgiveness,  in  the  name  of  the  city  of 
Bologna,  for  the  rebellion  of  that  year,  and  the 
pope,  repeating  Pius  VII's  invitation  of  1814,  re- 
quested Mezzounti  to  remain  at  Rome  and  place  his 
learning  directly  at  the  service  of  the  Holy  See,  an  in- 
vitation which  the  modest  priest,  this  time,  accepted, 
after  long  resistance;  soon  he  received  the  title  of  Do- 
mestic I^late,  and  a  canonry  at  Santa  Maria  Maf- 
giore,  which  was  ohansed,  later,  for  one  at  St.  Peter^. 
At  Rome,  also,  he  tooK  advantage  of  opportunities  to 
practice  the  languages  that  he  had  acquired,  and  to 
master  new  ones  and  in  order  to  learn  diinese  he 
went  to  the  Capodimonte  college  for  foreign  missions, 
at  Naples.  In  1833,  he  was  named  Customan-in-Chief 
of  the  Vatican  Library,  and  Consultor  of  the  Congrega- 
tion for  the  correction  of  the  Liturgical  Books  of  Orien- 
tal Rites,  of  which  he  became  Prefect.  On  12  Febru- 
ary, 1838,  he  was  created  cardinal  imder  the  title  of  St. 
Onofrio  al  Gianicolo;  he  was  also  a  member  of  the  con- 
gregations of  the  Propaganda,  of  Rites,  of  the  Index, 
and  of  the  Examination  of  Bishops.  The  events  of 
1848  undermined  his  already  enfeebled  health,  and  a 
combination  of  pneumonia  and  gastric  fever  put  an 
end  to  his  life.  He  was  buried  without  pomp  in  a 
modest  tomb  of  his  titular  church,  over  which  a  monu- 
ment was  raised  in  1885. 

According  to  Russell,  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  spoke 
perfectly  tmrty-eight  languages,  among  which  were: 
Di blical  and  rabbinic  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Chaldean,Coptic, 
Armenian,  ancient  and  modem,  Persian,  Turkish,  Al- 
banian, Maltese,  Greek,  ancient  and  modem,  Latin, 
Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  German,  Eng- 
lish, lUynan,  Russian,  Polish,  Bohemian,  Magyar, 
Chinese,  Syriac,  Geez,  Amharic,  Hindustani,  Guzerati, 
Basque,  Wallachian,  and  Calif omian;  he  spoke  thirty 
other  languages,  less  perfectly,  and  fiftv  dialects 
of  the  languages  mentioned  above.  His  knowledge 
of  these  languages  was  intuitive,  rather  than  anal3rtic, 
and  conse<}uently  he  left  no  scientific  works,  although 
some  studies  in  comparative  lin^^tics  are  to  be 
found  among  his  manuscripts,  which  he  left,  in  part, 
to  the  municipal  library,  and  in  part  to  the  library  of 

the  Universi^  of  Bologna. 

M ANAYiTT,  JsagviMe  hiatorique  mr  U  cardinal  MeuofarUi 
(Paris,  1853);  Rusbbll,  The  lAfaof  Cardinal  Meaofanti  (Lon- 
don, 1858). 

U.  Benigni. 

BCaini  Indiana,  an  ]mi>ortant  tribe  of  Aleonquian 
stock  formeriy  claiming  prior  dominion  over  the  whole 
of  what  is  now  Indiana  and  western  Ohio,  including 
the  territories  drained  by  the  Wabash,  St.  Joseph, 
Maumee.  and  Miami  rivers.  Thev  were  closely  con- 
nected, Doth  linguistically  and  politically,  with  their 
western  neighbours,  the  Illinois,  the  two  tribe-groupNS 
speaking  dialects  of  the  same  language.  The  Miami, 
however,  were  of  more  independent  and  warlike  char- 
acter. The  tribal  name,  properly  pronounced  as  in 
Uitin,  Me-ah-me  (whence  Maumee),  and  in  the  full 
plural  form  Ou-miami-wek,  is  of  uncertain  meaning 
and  derivation.  Ihey  were  called  by  the  early  Eng- 
lish writers  Twightwee,  a  corruption  of  their  Iroquois 
name,  intended  to  imitate  the  ciy  of  a  crane.  About 
1685  the  French  recognized  six  bands,  or  subtribes, 
in  the  tribe,  consolidated  at  a  later  penod  into  three, 


namely:  Atchatchakangouen,  "crane  people",  or 
Mianu  proper;  Ouiatanon,  "whirlpool  people' ,  or 
Wea;  and  Pianguichia,  "separators''  (?),  or  Pianki- 
shaw.  By  the  United  States  Government  these  were 
recognizea  as  three  distinct  tribes.  Altogether  the^ 
may  have  numbered  oripjnally  over  4000  souls.  It  is 
possible  that  Nioolet  m  1634,  and  Radisson  and 
Groseilliers  in  1658-60  may  have  met  in  their  Wiscon- 
sin joum^rings  the  Miami,  but  this  is  not  known. 
They  are  first  mentioned  b^  the  Jesuit  Dreuillettes  in 
1658  as  a  tribe  recently  discovered,  under  the  name 
of  Oumamik,  living  south-west  from  Green  Bay,  Wis. 
The  estimate  of  24,000  souls  is  an  evident  exagger- 
ation. About  1668  and  again  in  1670  they  were 
visited  by  Perrot.  In  the  latter  year  the  Jesuit  Father 
Claude  Allouez  found  them,  or  a  part  of  the  tribe, 
living  with  the  Mascoutens  in  a  palisaded  town,  in 
which  he  established  the  mission  of  Saint-Jacques, 
about  the  head  of  Fox  river  in  south-east  Wisconsin 
(see  Mascoutens).  He  describes  them  as  genUe, 
affable,  and  sedate,  while  Dablon,  his  companion,  calls 
them  more  civilized  than  the  lake  tribes.  Apparently 
these  were  only  a  part  of  the  tribe,  the  main  body  be- 
ing farther  south,  although  all  the  bands  were  repre- 
sented. They  listened  eagerly  to  the  missionary's 
instruction  and  to  satisfy  them  Allouez  was  obliged 
to  set  up  a  laige  cross  in  their  section  of  tne  village 
as  well  as  in  that  occupied  by  the  Mascoutens. 
In  1673  Allouez,  wno  had  learned  the  language, 

Xrts  good  progress,  and  that  they  now  hung  their 
ings  upon  the  cross  instead  of  sacrificing  to  their 
heathen  gods,  chief  among  which  was  the  Sun.  Tliere 
was  however  a  strong  opposition  party.  In  June  of 
this  same  year  the  noted  Fr.  Jaoaues  Marauette 
stopped  at  the  village  and  procured  Miami  guioes  for 
his  voyage  down  the  Mississippi.  He  describes  the 
Miami  as  the  most  civilized,  liberal,  and  shapely  of 
the  three  tribes  then  assembled  in  the  town,  lliey 
wore  their  hair  in  two  long  braids  down  their  breasts, 
were  accounted  brave  and  generally  successful  war- 
riors, lived  in  cabins  covexed  with  rush  mats,  and 
were  so  eager  to  listen  to  Fr.  Allouez  that  they  left  him 
little  rest  even  at  night.  The  cross  was  decorated  with 
Indian  offerinm,  and  one  chief  who  had  recently  died 
at  a  distance  nad  asked  to  have  his  bones  brou^t 
for  interment  beside  it,  which  was  done.  But  despite 
their  willingness  the  mission  languished  and  was  soon 
afterwards  abandoned,  partly  on  account  of  lack  of 
missionaries  and  partly  on  account  of  the  disturbed 
conditions  growing  out  of  the  inroads  of  the  Iroquois, 
who,  having  destroyed  the  Hurons  and  others  in  the 
east,  had  now  turned  upon  the  Illinois  and  others 
of  the  west,  and  latterly  (1682)  upon  the  Miami.  The 
missionary  Lamberville,  then  stationed  at  Onondaga, 
mves  a  graphic  account  of  the  wholesale  butcheries  and 
horrible  tortures  of  prisoners  of  which  he  was  witness. 
The  Iroquois,  it  must  be  remembered,  were  well  armed 
with  guns  from  Dutch  and  English  traders,  while  the 
remote  western  tribes  had  only  the  bow.  Shortly 
after  the  building  of  La  Salle's  temporary  fort  on  the 
St.  Joseph  river,  near  the  present  south  Bend,  Ind., 
a  band  of  Miami  moved  down  and  formed  a  village 
near  to  the  same  spot,  while  some  Potawatomi  also 
settled  near  them.  Allouez  followed  them  and,  prob- 
ably about  1685,  established  the  mission  of  baint 
Joseph,  where  he  continued  until  his  death  in  1689. 
In  lo92-^  Fr.  Gravier  wintered  with  the  Miami,  prob- 
ably in  Illinois.  In  1694  we  find  the  Wea  in  a  village 
where  (Chicago  now  is.  In  1721  Fr.  Charlevoix  visited 
the  St.  Joseph  village,  where  he  found  nearly  all  of 
both  tribes  nominally  Christian,  but,  from  long  ab- 
sence of  a  missionary,  "fallen  into  great  disorders". 
Soon  afterwards  this  matter  was  remedied  and  in 
1750  the  mission  was  in  flourishing  condition.  At  the 
same  time  Fr.  Pierre  du  Jaunay  was  among  the  Wea, 
then  residing  at  Wea  creek  on  the  Waba£,  near  the 
present  Lafayette,  Ind.    A  third  Jesuit  mission  ex- 


MICAH  272 

isted  among  the  Piankishaw,  who  had  their  principal  adidta  who  die  perish  by  the  hands  of  their  feUow 

village  lower  down  the  Wabash,  adjoining  the  present  Indians."    A   notable   exception   was   Uieir   chief, 

town  of  Vinoennes,  founded  in  1702.    After  the  sup-  Ricltardville,  of  mixed  blooc^  who  died  in  the  same 

pression  of  the  Jesuits  in  New  France  in  1762,  the  year,  a  consistent  Catholic,  whose  ''stem  honesty 

missionaries  continued  their  work,  as  seculars,  as  well  and  strict  punctuality,  as  well  as  dignified  bearing, 

as  was  possible,  until  their  deaths.  Father  Pierre  commanded  universal  respect".    In  the  meantime 

Potier,  ''the  last  Jesuit  in  the  west'',  aying  at  Detroit  the  restored  Jesuits  had  again  taken  up  the  western 

in  1781.  mission  work  in  1824.     In  1836  Fn.  CLuies  F.  van 

Throu^  the  influence  of  Fingliwh  traders  a  laigp  Quickenbome  and  Hoecken  began  a  series  of  mission- 
part  of  the  tribe  had  become  hostile  to  the  French  and  ary  visits  amons  the  Kickapoo,  Wea,  Piankishaw, 
under  the  head  chief  "La  Demoiselle"  had  removed  Potawatomi,  and  other  removed  and  native  tribes  in 
about  1748  from  the  neidibourhood  of  the  French  Kansas  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  suo- 
post  at  the  head  of  the  Maumee  (now  Fort  Wayne,  oessful  missbn  among  the  Potawatomi  (St.  Maiy's) 
ind.)  to  a  point  on  the  Miami  near  the  present  Piqua,  to  which  the  other  tribes  were  contributors.  In  1847 
Ohio,  and  established  there  a  town  called  Pickawillmy,  a  mission  was  started  among  the  removed  Miami,  who 
whicn  grew  rapidlv  in  size  and  importance  and  became  had  made  official  request  for  Catholic  teachers,  but  it 
a  centre  of  E^^isn  trading  influence.  After  repeated  was  discontinued  two  years  later,  probably  because  of 
refusals  to  return,  a  party  of  northern  Indians,  led  the  utter  imworthiness  of  the  Indians,  who  are  offi- 
by  a  French  trader,  Lan^ade,  in  June,  1752,  attacked  cially  described  in  the  same  ^ear  as  ''a  miserable  race 
and  burned  ^e  town,  killing  and  eatine  La  Demoi-  of  beings,  considering  nothmg  but  what  contributes 
selle,  and  carrying  the  traders  to  Canada.  By  this  to  the  pernicious  inaulaence  of  their  depraved  ap- 
time  the  whole  tnbe  was  settled  alone  the  Wabash  petites  tor  whiskey".  Ine  picture  in  1849  is  in  even 
and  the  upper  Maumee.  Thev  generally  sided  with  darker  colors — "destroying  themselves  by  liquor 
the  Frencn  in  the  French  anci  Indian  and  Pontiac's  and  extensively  murdenng  one  another''  the  lowest 
wars,  and  with  the  English  against  the  Americans  in  in  condition  of  all  the  removed  tribes,  ana  reduced  in 
the  later  wars.  Their  great  diief,  Mishikinakwa,  or  three  years  by  more  than  one  hidf .  In  1855  we  hear 
Little  Turtle  (1752-1812),  led  the  allied  Indian  forces  of  the  first  improvement,  throu^  the  temperance 
which  defeated  Harmar  in  1790  and  St.  Clair  in  1791,  efforts  of  the  ^:ench  half-breeds  in  the  tribe.  The 
but  was  himself  defeated  by  Wayne  in  1794,  resulting  Quapaw  mission  of  St.  Mary's,  Okla.,  in  diaree  of  a 
in  the  famous  Treaty  of  Greenvule  in  the  next  year,  secular  priest  assisted  by  five  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi* 
bv  which  the  Indians  surrendered  the  greater  part  ot  dence  now  cares  for  276  Indians  of  the  associated  rem- 
Onio.  After  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812,  in  which  nant  tribes,  including  about  40  of  Miami  kinship.  Of 
again  they  f ou^t  on  the  English  side,  the  Miami  be^an  an  original  4000  or  more  there  are  left  now  only  about 
a  series  of  treaty  sales  culminating  in  1840,  by  which  400,  namely — Indiana,  243;  Miami  in  Okla.,  1&;  Wea 
they  sold  all  their  territory  excepting  a  small  tract  ana  Piankishaw,  with  Peoria,  in  Okla..  about  40. 
of  about  ten  square  miles,  agreemg  to  remove  west  Very  little  has  been  recorded  of  tne  customs  or 
of  the  Mississippi.  The  final  removal  to  Kansas  was  general  ethnology  of  the  Miami.  They  were  organized 
made  by  the  main  Miami  band  under  military  pres-  upon  the  clan  system,  with,  according  to  Moigan,  ten 
sure  in  1846,  the  Wea  and  Piankishaw  having  preceded  qentes.  One  of  their  dances  has  been  described,  the 
them  by  a  number  of  years.  The  main  emigration  in  feather  dance,  in  which  the  performers,  carrying  feath- 
1846  numbered  about  650.  The  small  reserved  tract  ered  wands,  imitated  the  movements  of  birds.  Hiey 
in  Indiana  was  allotted  in  severalty  to  its  owners  in  had  a  cannibal  society — or  possibljr  a  clan — ^upon 
1872  and  their  tribal  relations  were  dissolved.  In  which  devolved  the  oblation  of  eating  the  body  of 
1854  the  united  Wea  and  Piankishaw  were  officially  a  prisoner  upon  occasion  of  certain  great  victories, 
consolidated  with  the  Peoria  and  Kaskaskia,  the  rem-  Such  ceremonial  cannibalism  was  almost  universal 
nant  of  the  ancient  IHinois,  and  in  1867  they  removed  among  the  northern  and  eastern  tribes.  Tlieir  chief 
altogeUier  to  their  present  lands  under  the  Quapaw  deities  seem  to  have  been  the  Sim  and  Thunder.  They 
agency  in  north-east  Oklahoma  (Indian  Ter.).  In  buried  in  the  eround,  under  small  log  structures  upon 
1§73  the  remnant  of  the  emigrant  Miami,  having  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  in  largp  logs  split  and 
sold  their  lands  in  Kansas,  foUowed  their  kindred  hollowed  out  for  the  purpose.  Of  the  language  noth- 
to  the  same  ag^ency.  in^  of  importance  has  been  published  b^rond  a  Wea 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Jesuits  various  secular  Pnmer,  by  the  Baptist  mission  in  1837,  althou^ 

priests  ministered  as  best  they  could  to  the  Indians  considerable  manuscript  exists  with  the  Bureau  of 

within  reach  of  the  frontier  settlements,  notably  American  Ethnology.    It  is  stiU  spoken  by  a  large 

Fr.  Gibault  about  Detroit  and  Fort  Wayne,  and  proportion  of  the^  survivors. 


and  gaskaskia.    In  1804  the  Friaads  eetablMed  an  ?^i£^»li£luiil!Siv^ii^..^^S^^^^^^ 

industrial  farm  on  the  upper  Wabash,  where  for  Ancien/ Socieiv  (New  York.  1877);  CoMSKaR.  of lKo.An>AjR& 

several  years  they  instructed  Miami,  Shawnee,  and  Annual  ReptsA'W^^ 

others  litU  foro^  to  withdraw  to  Ohk>  by  the  op-  gSTvoWSfiS^ 

position  of  the  Shawnee  prophet,  brother  of  Tecum-  8oe.  PvU.,  n  (Indianapolis,  1803). 

tha.    In  1818  the  Baptist  minister.  Rev.  Isaac  MoOoy,  Jambs  Moonst. 

began  a  work  among  the  Wea  and  Miami  which  con-  Micali.    See  Michbas. 

tinned  for  four  years  and  was  then  discontinued.    In 

1833  another  Baptist  minister.  Rev.  Jotham  Meeker,  Michael,    Miutabt  Ordehs  of  Sazmt.---(1)   A 

assisted  by  Rev.  David  Lykins,  began  work  among  Bavarian  order,  foimded  in  1721  by  Elector  JoBBph 

the  Wea  ajid  Piankishaw,  already  in  Kansas  for  come  Clemens  of  Cologne,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  oonfinned 


throughout  this  period  and  decorated  with  tliia  order  all  the  privileges 

for  some  years  after  their  removal  in  ISw  were  en-  prelates.   Under  Louis  I  it  was  niade  an  order  of  merit 

tirely  neglected;  without  either  religious  or  educa-  U^7),  and  under  Otto  I  was  reorraiised  (1887). 
tional  work,  they  sank  to  the  lowest  da>ths  throu^        (2)  An  order  foimded  in  1469  by  Louis  XI,  the  chief 

dissipation,  and  were  rapidlv  and  constantly  dimm-  military  order  of  France  until  the  institution  of  the 

ishing  by  intemperance  ana  drunken  murders.    In  Kni^ts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  after  which  the  two  to- 

1841  their  agent  reports  that  "more  than  half  the  gether  formed  the  ardrea  du  roi,  the  reception  of  the 


MXCHAIL  273  MXCHAIL 

cross  of  the  former  being  made  a  condition  to  member-  agent  was  Leo,  Metropolitan  of  Achrida  in  Bulgaria, 

ship  in  the  latter.    After  the  Revolution  the  order  was  In  1053  this  latter  sent  a  letter  to  Bishop  John  of 

revived,  in  1816,  as  a  distinction  to  be  conferred  on  Tranum  in  Apulia,  complaining  of  certain  Latin  cus- 

those  who  had  accomplished  notable  work  in  art  or  toms,  especially  fasting  on  Saturday  and  the  use  of 

sdenoe,  or  who  had  performed  extraordinary  services  azyme  (unleavened)  bread  for  the  Holy  Eucharist- 

for  t^  state.    In  1825  there  was  a  solemn  reception  He  says  that  the  letter  is  meant  for  "au  the  bishops 

into  ibe  ordrea  du  roi,  which  did  not,  however,  survive  of  the  Franks  and  for  the  most  venerable  pope" 

the  Revolution  of  1830.  (pubUshed  by  Will,  ''Acta  et  scripta",  56-60).    There 

(3)  Knights  of  St.  Michael's  Wing,  founded  in  the  Is  no  doubt  that  it  was  dictated  oy  Gsrularius.    John 

Cistercian  monastery  of  Alcobaza,  about  1171,  by  of  Tranum  sent  the  letter  on  to  Cardinal  Humbert  of 

Alfonso  I,  King  of  Portugal,  in  commemoration  of  a  Silva  Candida,  who  translated  it  and  showed  it  to  the 

victoiy  over  the  Moors,  in  which,  according  to  tradi-  pope.    CaBnilarius  then  sent  to  the  other  patriarchs  a 

tion,  he  was  assisted  by  St.  Michael  in  person.    The  treatise  written  by  Nioetas  Pectoratus  (Niketas  Steth- 

knifhts  were  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  atosin Greek), amonk of Studion, against asyme bread. 

Abbot  of  Alcobaza  and  were  pledged  to  recite  the  same  fasting  on  Saturday,  and  celiba^.    Because  of  these 

prayers  as  Cistercian  lay  brothers.   The  order  was  in  "homble  infirmities",  Nicetas  describes  Latins  as 

existence  but  a  short  time.  "dogs,  bfeul  workmen,  schismatics,  hypocrites,  and 

HiitTOT,  Ordn»  wivKeux  (PariB.  1859).  liars"  (WiD,  op.  dt.,  127-36).    derularius's  third 

Flobbnce  Rudgb  McGaban.  move  made  it  plain  that  he  meant  war  to  the  knife. 

Still  entirely  unprovoked,  he  closed  all  the  Latin 

Micliael  Oasmlaiiiu  (KijpovXdpwt),  Patriarch  of  churches  at  Constantinople,  including  that  of  the 
Constantinople  (1043-58),  author  of  uie  second  and  papal  legate.  His  chancellor  Nicephorus  burst  open 
final  schism  of  the  Byzantine  Church,  date  of  birth  the  Latin  tabernacles,  and  trampled  on  the  Holy 
unknown ;  d.  1058.  After  the  reconciliation  following  Eucharist  because  it  was  consecrated  in  asyme  bread, 
the  schism  of  Photius  (d.  891),  there  remained  at  Thepopethenansweredtheletterof  Leo  of  Achrida. 
Constantinople  an  anti-Latin  party  that  gloried  in  the  Knowing  well  whence  it  came,  he  addressed  his  an- 
work  of  that  patriarch,  honoured  him  as  the  great  swer  in  the  first  place  to  Cserularius.  It  is  a  dignified 
defender  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  and  waited  for  a  defence  of  the  customs  attacked  and  of  the  ri^ts  of 
chance  of  renewing  his  quarrel.  The  only  explanation  the  Holy  See.  He  points  out  that  no  one  thought 
of  Michael  Caerularius's  conduct  is  that  he  oelonged  of  attacking  the  many  Byzantine  monasteries  and 
from  the  beginning  to  the  extreme  wing  of  that  party,  churches  in  the  West  (WiU,  op.  dt.,  65-85).  For  a 
and  had  always  meant  to  break  with  the  pope  as  soon  moment  Cerularius  seems  to  have  wavered  in  his 
as  he  could.  Belonging  to  one  of  the  great  families  plan  because  of  the  importance  of  the  pope's  help 
of  Constantinople,  he  held  in  his  youth  some  place  at  against  the  Normans.  He  writes  to  Peter  III  of 
the  Court.  He  began  his  public  career  by  plotting  Antiodi,  that  he  had  for  this  reason  proposed  an  al- 
with  Constantine  Monomacnus.  the  future  emperor,  liahce  with  Leo  (Will,  174).  Leo  answered  this  pro- 
to  depose  Emperor  Michael  Iv  (1034-1041).  Both  posal  resenting  the  stupendous  arrogance  of  Michael's 
conspirators  were  banished,  and^  in  their  exile,  formed  tone,  but  still  hoping  for  peace.  At  the  same  time 
the  friendship  to  which  Cserulanus  owed  his  later  ad-  he  wrote  a  very  friendly  letter  to  the  emperor,  and  sent 
vanoement.  Cserularius  was  known  as  a  dangerous  both  documents  to  Constantinople  by^  three  legates 
person,  so  the  Government  tried  to  stop  his  political  Cardinal  Humbert,  Cardinal  Frederick  (his  own 
career  Dv  making  him  a  monk.  At  first  he  refused;  cousin  and  Chancellor  of  the  Roman  Church,  after- 
then  suddenly  the  suicide  of  his  brother  caused  his  wards  Stephen  DC,  1057-58),  and  Archbishop  Peter 
conversion,  and  he  voluntarily  entered  a  monastery,  of  Amalfi.  The  emperor,  who  was  exceedingly 
In  1042  Monomachus  became  emperor  peaceably  by  annoyed  about  the  whole  quarrel,  received  the  legat^ 
manying  Zoe,  a  descendant  of  Basil  the  Macedonian  with  honour  and  lodged  them  in  his  palace.    Cnrular- 

E Basil  I,  867-86)  and  widow  of  both  Komanus  HI  ius,  who  had  now  quite  given  up  the  idea  of  his  al- 

1028-34)  and  Michael  IV.    He  remembered  his  old  liance,  was  very  indignant  that  the  legates  did  not 

friend  and  fellow-conspirator  and  gave  him  an  ambig-  give  him  precedence  and  prostrate  before  him,  and 


tical  career.  He  was  therefore  next  made  syncellus  dentally  converted  Nicetas  Pectoratus  (Will,  93-126, 
(that  is,  SBcretaiy)  of  the  patriarch,  Alexius  (1025-34).  136-50).  Casrularius  refused  to  see  the  legates  or  to 
The  syncellus  was  always  a  bishop,  and  held  a  place  hold  any  communication  with  them:  he  struck  the 
in  the  church  second  only  to  that  of  the  patnarch  pope's  name  from  his  diptycbs,  and  so  declared  open 
himself.  In  1034  Alexius  died,  and  Constantine  ap-  schism.  The  legates  then  prepared  the  Bull  of  ex- 
pointed  Csdrularius  as  his  successor.  There  was  no  communication  against  him.  Leo  of  Achrida,  and  their 
election;  the  em|>eror  "went  like  an  arrow  to  the  adherents,  which  they  laid  on  the  altar  of  Sancta 
target"  (Psellus,  ibid.,  p.  326).  From  this  moment  Sophia  on  16  July,  1054.  Two  days  later  they  set 
the^  story  of  Csrularius  becomes  that  of  the  great  out  for  Rome.  The  emperor  was  still  on  good  terms 
schism.  with  them  and  gave  them  presents  for  Monte  Cassino. 
The  time  was  angularly  unpropitious  for  a  quarrel  Hardly  were  they  gone  when  Cserularius  sent  for  them 
with  the  pope.  The  Normans  were  invading  Sicily,  to  come  back,  meaning  to  have  them  murdered  (the 
enemies  of  both  the  papacy  and  the  Eastern  Empire,  evidence  for  this  is  given  in  Fortescue,  "Orthodox 
from  whom  they  were  conquering  that  island.  Tnere  Eastern  Church",  186-7).  Cserularius,  when  this  at- 
was  eveiy  reason  why  the  pope  (pt.  Leo  IX,  1048-54)  tempt  failed,  sent  an  account  of  the  whole  story  to  the 
and  the  emperor  should  keep  fnends  and  unite  their  other  patriarchs  so  full  of  lies  that  John  of  Antioch 
forces  against  the  common  enemy.  Both  knew  it,  answered  him:  ''I  am  covered  with  shame  that  your 
and  tried  throughout  to  prevent  a  quarrel.  But  venerable  letter  should  contain  such  things.  Believe 
it  was  forced  on  them  by  the  outrageous  conduct  of  the  me,  I  do  not  know  how  to  explain  it  for  your  own  sake,  * 


^  Gneda  orthod. ",  I,  37),  CSserularius  sent  a  dedara-    strongest  man  at  Constantinople.    He  quarrelled  with 
tion  of  war  against  the  p<^  and  the  Latins.    His    his  former  patron,  Constantine  IX,  who  appeased  him 
X.— 18 


MXOHAIL  274 

by  abject  apdlogjes.    He  became  a  kind  of  king-  oame  to  Baroelona,  and  asked  to  be  reoeived  into  the 

maker.    When   Theodora   succeeded    Q055-6),    he  monastery  of  the  Trinitarians,  in  which  order,  after  a 

"tried  to  rule  over  the  empress"  (Psellus,  "Eoko-  three  years' novitiate,  he  took  vows  in  the  monastery 

mion",  357).    Michael  VI  (1056-7)  was  not  suffi-  of  St.  Lambert  at  Sanif;o88a,  5  Sept.,  1607.    When 

dently  submissive,  so  Ceerularius  worked  up  a  revolu-  one  day  a  Discalced  Trimtarian  came  to  St.  Lambert's 

tion,  deposed  him,  went  himself  to  cut  on  his  hair,  to  receive  Holy  orders,  Michael  felt  himself  drawn  to 

and  shut  him  up  in  a  monastery.    In  his  place  he  set  this  more  austere  congregation.    After  mature  de- 

up  Isaac  Comnenus  (Isaac  I,  1057-9).    Isaac  knew  liberation,  and  with  the  permission  of  his  superior,  be 

well  to  whom  he  owed  his  place  and  was  at  first  very  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Discalced  Trinitarians  at 

docile.    At  this  time  Caerularius  reached  the  height  Madrid,  and  took  vows  at  Alcali:  he  became  priest 

of  his  power.    He  appointed  all  the  officers  of  state,  and  was  twice  elected  superior  of  the  monastery  at 

and  was  the  real  sovereign  of  the  empire.    So  little  Valladolid.    He  lived  a  life  of  prayer  and  great  morti- 

did  he  disguise  this  fact  that  he  began  to  wear  the  fication^  was  especially  devout  towards  the  Hol> 

purple  shoes  that  were  always  the  prerogative  of  the  Euchanst,  and  is  said  to  have  been  rapt  in  ecstasy 

emperor.    ''Losing  all  shame",  says  Psellus,   "he  several  times  during  Ck>nsecration.    He  was  beatified 

t'oined  rovalty  and  priesthood  in  himself;  in  his  hand  by  Pius  VI,  24  May,  1779  and  canonized  by  Pius  IX, 

le  held  tne  cross  wnile  imperial  laws  came  from  his  8  June,  1862.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  5  July.    He 

mouth"  (in  Br^hler,  op.  cit.,  275).    Then  Isaac  got  is  generally  represented  kneeling  before  an  altar 

tired  of  being  the  patriarch's  puppet  and  wanted  to  where  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  expoeed, 

reign  himself.     So  once  again  (Jserulanus  worked  up  a         Vita  •  miracoH  d%  S.  MicheU  dei  SatUi,  published  anonymously 

revolution.    TWs  time  he  meimt  to  have  him^^^  ^e^l|^2)^  (g^nux^^u  T^^ 

crowned  emperor.    But  Isaac  was  too  quick  for  him;  41.  gu*mn.  Viea  de%  Sainu,  b  July;  Stadlbr,  Aeaigm-r 


he  had  him  arrested  at  once  and  tried  for  high  treason,  kon  (Augibuzg,  1858-82),  439-440. 
Michael  Psellus  was  employed  to  bring  the  .charge  Michael  Ott. 

against  him.    He  was  accused  of  treason,  paganism, 

and  magic;  he  was  "impious,  tyrannical,  murderous,  llichaal  of  Oeseiia  (Michslb  Fubchi),  Friar 
sacrilegious,  unworthy".  He  was  condemned  to  ban-  Minor,  Minister  (general  of  the  Franciscan  Order,  and 
ishment  at  Madytus  on  the  Hellespont.  On  the  way  theol^an,  b.  at  Oesena,  a  small  town  in  Ontral  Italy, 
there  was  a  shipwreck  from  the  .effects  of  which  he  near  Forll.  about  1270;  d.  at  Munich,  29  Nov.,  1342. 
died  (1059).  '  Of  his  early  life  little  is  known.  Having  entered  the 
As  soon  as  he  was  dead  his  apotheosis  began.  The  Franciscan  Order,  he  studied  at  Paris  and  took  the 
emperor  professed  much  regret  for  what  had  hap*  doctor's  degree  in  theology.  He  taught  theology  at 
pened;  his  bodv  was  brought  back  to  Constantinople  Bologna  and  wrote  several  commentaries  on  Holy 
and  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Scripture  and  the ''  Sentences"  of  Peter  Lombard.  At 
Angels.  Psellus,  who  nad  brought  the  charges  against  the  general  chapter  of  Naples  (31  May,  1316)  he  was 
him,  now  preached  a  panegyric  in  his  honour,  describ-  elected  minister  general  and  went  at  once  to  Assisi, 
ing  him  as  the  best,  wisest,  holiest,  most  misunder-  where  he  convoked  a  ch^tor  to  consider  the  revision 
stood  of  men  ( this  "Enkomion'' is  published  by  Sathas;  of  the  Oonstitutions  of  the  order.  Returning  to 
see  bibliography)!  It  seems  that,  as  soon  as  he  was  Bologna,  he  issued  the  document,  "  Gravi  qua  pre- 
dead  and  therefore  no  longer  dangerous,  the  Govern-  mor  (21  Aug.,  1316),  which,  together  with  several 
ment  found  it  more  prudent  to  pretend  to  share  the  other  ordinances  regarding  the  matter  of  jpoverty,  in- 
popular  enthusiasm  for  him.  From  Psellus's  two  duced  John  XXII  to  pubush  the  Bull,  "  Quorumdam 
accounts  (the  indictment  at  the  trial  and  the  funeral  exigit"  (7  Oct.,  1317).  whose  puxpoee  was  to  escplain 
oration)  it  is  not  difficult  to  form  an  opinion  about  the  decretals  of  Nicnolas  III,  Exiit  qui  seminat" 
Ceerularius's  character.  He  was  by  far  the  strongest  fl3  Aug.,  1279),  and  of  Clement  V,  "Ehcivi  de  para- 
man  in  the  Eastern  Empire  during  a  time  of  its  general  diso"  (6  Mav,  1312).  As  it  concerned  the  principal 
degradation,  far  more  capable  than  the  contemptible  chapter  of  tne  Franciscan  Rule,  this  action  caused 
emperors  he  set  up  and  deposed.  His  life  was  auistere.  no  little  disturbance  within  the  order.  The  Bull  was 
He  had  unbounded  ambition,  pride,  and  savage  vin-  warmly  opposed  bv  Michael  and  his  party,  who  claimed 


Photius.  It  seems  that  his  breach  with  Rome  was  the  controversy  finally  shifted  to  a  speculative  theo- 
a  part  of  a  general  scheme.  He  wanted  to  make  logical  question:  whether  or  not  it  was  consonant  with 
himself  autocrat  of  at  least  Eastern  Europe.  He  could  Catholic  Faith  to  hold  that  Christ  and  the  Apostles  had 
easily  cow  the  feeble  emperors;  he  could  and  did  die-  no  property  individually  or  in  common;  and  while  in 
tate  orders  overweeningly  to  the  other  Eastern  the  famous  dispute  at  Narbonne  in  1321  the  inquisi- 
patriarchs,  but  he  knew  that  he  could  not  frighten  nor  tor,  John  of  Belna,  claimed  that  it  was  heretical,  Ber- 
persuade  the  pope  to  tolerate  such  a  position.  A  engarius  of  Perpignan  declared  it  a  Catholic  dogma  in 
breach  with  the  West  was  thus  the  first  necessary  step  penect  accordance  with  the  decretals  of  NichoHas  III 
in  a  career  that  was  meant  to  end  in  a  combination  of  and  Clement  V.  The  matter  having  been  brought  be- 
patriarchate  and  empire  in  his  own  person.  He  did  fore  John  XXII,  a  further  attempt  to  settle  the  coo- 
not  succeed  in  that  plan,  but  he  did  something  much  troversy  was  made  by  distinguishmg  between  domin- 
more  momentous;  he  founded  the  schismatical  Byaan-  ion  ana  simple  use,  so  that  both  propositions.  Christ 
tine  Church.  and  the  Apostles  had  no  property,  i.  e.,  dominion  of 

Will,  Acta  et  Seripta  ifum  eb  eontrovernit  eecUnmoraem  ti  property,  and  Christ  and  the  Apostles  possessed  nrop- 

Hxstoru,  ed.  Sathas  in  Byzantine  T^rtB  (L^don.  1898) ;  Pbbl^  ^7&K^'  ®-'  **^®  ^^  ^^  ^J^S^^l'  ^^.  *"*?"   ,  -^  the  Bull 

Lca.  Enkomion  in  Sathas,  Bibl.  medii  cgvi,  IV  (1875),  326  sqq.:  Quia  nonnimquam'  (26  March,  1322)  the  pope  de- 

also  ia./-  ^.- CXXII,  477-1186:  BRi:HiER,L«  acAwma  orient^  clared  that  he  intended  merely  to  explain  the  decrees 

du  XI*    ntcle   (Fans,  1899);    HKROENRtVrHER,   Phottua,  III     «*  u:„ -...«j«^^„„rv—  »«^  »«.^^jf»«....:^«««^  ..» -«.k« 

(Ratisbon.  1869) ;  Pichler.  Geach.  der  kirchl  Trennung  tinifchen  ^f  his  predecessors,  and  excommumcated  anyone  who 

dem  Orient  ti.  Occident  (yi\mich,iSM--5);iionDKs,  Dot Papatttan  attempted  to  misconstrue  the  meaning  of  the  papal 

und  Byianx  if  Berlin.  1903) ;  Fortescue,  The  Orthodox^  Eastern  Constitution  "  Quorumdam  exigit ".    &  June  of  the 

Church  (Ix>nAoa,  1907).  chap.  v.  ^^^^^^^^/^'J^^  Same  year  a  general  chapter  oft&  order  was  convoked 

at  Perugia  and  decided  that  to  assert  that  Christ  and 

Michael  de  Sanctis  (db  i«ob  Santos),  Saint,  b.  His  Apostles  possessed  no  earthly  goods  was  not  only 

at  Vich  in  Catalonia,  29  September,  1591 ;  d.  at  Valla-  not  heretical,  but  sound  and  CathoUo  doctrine.    At 

dolid,  10  April,  1625.    At  the  age  of  twelve  years  he  the  same  time  Bonagratia  of  Bergamo  was  commit 


275 


aoned  to  represent  the  chapter  before  the  papal  Curia 
at  Avignon.  The  controversy  oontinuea  unabated 
until,  in  1327,  Michael  was  summoned  to  appear  be- 
fore the  poDe.  He  feigned  illness  and  delated;  but 
obeyed  a  suosequent  summons  and  was  forbidden  b^ 
the  pope  under  pain  of  grave  censure  to  leave  Avi- 
gnon. He  was  thus  unable  to  attend  the  chapter  held 
at  Bologna  in  May  of  the  following  year  (1328) ;  yet 
despite  his  absence  and  the  protest  of  the  papal  legate, 
he  was  re-elected  minister  g^eral,  the  chapter  deem- 
ing the  charges  against  him  insufficient  to  deprive  him 
of  office.  Several  orelates  and  princes  wrote  to  the 
pope  in  Michael's  behalf;  but  before  these  letters  or  the 
result  of  the  chapter  could  reach  Avignon,  Michael, 
with  William  of  Occam  and  Bonagratia  of  Bersamo, 
who  were  also  retained  by  the  pope  at  Avienoxi,  fled  by 
night  (25  May)  to  a  gEuley  sent  them  oy  Louis  A 
Bavaria. 

At  Pisa,  where  thev  were  triumphantly  received  by 
the  part^of  Louisand  were  joined  by  anumber  of  other 
schismatics,  the  deposed  minister  general  published 
a  solemn  appeal  from  the  pope  to  a  coimcil  (12  Dec., 
1328),  posted  it  on  the  door  of  the  cathedral,  and  the 
next  day  read  to  the  assembled  multitude  a  decree  of 
the  Emperor  Louis  deposing  John  XXII.  The  pope 
issued  the  Enc^rclical  ''Quia  vir  reprobus",  warning 
the  faithful  against  Michael;  and  the  latter  answered 
in  hia  "Ad  perpetuam  rei  memoriam  innotescat 
quod  ego,  Fr.  Michael"  (25  Nov.,  1330)  and  in 
'^ChristiansB  fidei  fundamentum",  in  which  he  ac- 
cused the  pope  of  heresy  in  the  three  Bulls,  "Ad  Con- 
ditorem  Canonum".  'Cum  inter  nonnullos",  and 
''Quia  quorumdam'.  These  and  "Litteras  plurium 
magistrorum",  and  "Teste  Solomone"^  which  Michael 
wrote  in  his  own  defence,  are  contained  m  Occam's  Dia- 
logue. The  general  chapter  of  Paris  (11  June,  1329), 
at  which  Cardinal  Bertrand^presided,  condenmed  the 
conduct  and  writings  of  Michael  and  all  who  took  part 
with  him  against  John  XXII;  and  elected  Gerard 
Odon  minister  general  of  the  order.  The  next  year 
(1330)  Michael  and  other  schismatics  followed  iJouis 
to  Bavaria.  The  chapter  of  Perpignan  (25  April.  1331) 
expelled  Michael  from  the  order  and  sentenced  nim  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  During  the  latter  years  of 
nia  life  he  was  abandoned  by  neany  all  his  sympathiz- 
ers, but  it  is  probable  that  he  died  repentant.  Mis  re- 
mains, with  those  of  his  accomplices,  William  Occam 
and  Bonagratia  of  Bergamo,  lie  buried  in  the  Bu^Qs- 
serkirche  at  Munich. 

Wadding,  Annalet  Aftnorum,  ad  an.  1316,  nos.  8,  5.  10;  ad 
an.  1338.  no8.  6,  13.  and  paaaizn;  ScriptfOreB  Ordinia  Minorum, 
259:  M  ABOOUR,  AntneU  der  Minoriten  am  Kanmfe  xwiaehen  KOnig 
Luawig  IV,  von  Bayem  und  Papal  Johann  XXll.  (Emmerich, 
1874):  GuDBNAn,  liiduul  von  Ciuena  (Breslau,  1876):  Ana- 
Ueta  Frondteana  (Quazaechi,  1897),  IV,  470, 487. 488, 609, 617. 
704.  705. 

Stephen  M.  Donovan. 

Michael  Scotofl  (Scott  or  Scot),  a  thirteenth- 
oentuxy  mathematician,  philosopher,  and  scholar.  He 
waa  bom  in  Scotland,  about  the  year  1175.  The  con- 
tention that  he  was  an  Irishman  seems  to  be  disposed 
of  by  the  fact  that  when,  in  1223,  he  was  offered  the 
Archbishopric  of  Cashel,  he  declined  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  Irish  language.  It  is  not 
clear  whether  ''Scotus"  indicates  merely  a  native  of 
Scotland,  or  one  of  the  clan  Scott,  or  Scot,  which  was 
▼enr  numerous  in  the  Scottish  lowlands.  There  is  a 
tradition  to  the  effect  that  he  studied  first  at  the 
cathedral  school  of  Durham,  and  afterwards  ***  the 
Universities  ol  Oxford  and  Paris.  At  the  last  men- 
tioned place  he  was  known  as  'Hhe  mathematician", 
which  unplies  that  he  studied  in  the  Faculty  of  Arts. 
It  is  probable  that  he  studied  theology  also.  At  any 
rate,  ne  waa  beyond  doubt  a  cleric.  It  seems  likely 
that,  on  leaving  Paris,  he  visited  the  University  of 
Bologna,  before  repairing  to  Sicily,  to  the  Court  of 
Frederick  n.  This  occurrad  about  1200.  At  Palermo, 
h*  joined  ibb  oirde  of  learned  men  who  surrounded 


the  emperor;  by  some,  indeed,  he  is  said  to  have  been 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  imperial  tutor,  although  the 
MSS.,  as  a  rule,  entitled  him  **  astrologer  to  the  Lord 
Emperor  Frederick".  In  1209  he  went  to  Toledo, 
made  the  acquaintance  of  several  distinguished  Ara- 
bian scholars  and  wrote  his  "  Abbreviatio  Avicennae  ", 
the  MS.,  of  which  bears  the  date  1210.  He  also  took 
up  the  studv  of  astronomy  and  alchemv,  and  trans- 
lated from  the  Arabic  several  works  on  those  subjects. 
That  he  was  interested  in  the  philosophy  of  the 
Arabians  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  he  translated 
several  philosophical  commentaries  of  Averroes. 

After  his  return  to  Palermo,  about  1220.  Michael 
devoted  special  attention  to  the  science  ana  practice 
of  medicine.  He  received  several  signs  of  pontifical 
as  well  as  imperial  favour.  By  Pope  Hononus  III  he 
was  offered  several  ecclesiastical  benefices,  among 
them  being  the  Archbishopric  of  Cashel.  in  Ireland. 
He  was  also  offered  the  Anshbi^opric  ot  Canterbury 
both  by  Honorius  in  1223,  and  by  Gregory  IX  in  1227. 
In  this  case,  however,  it  was  the  imwillineness  of  the 
local  dergv  and  not  that  of  the  candidate  himself  that 
stood  in  the  way  of  Michael's  preferment.  His  dis* 
appointment  is,  according  to  his  latest  biographer,  re* 
fleeted  in  the  gloomy  ''prophecies"  which  ne  com* 
posed  about  this  time,  and  which  were  so  well  known 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  According  to  Roger  Bacon, 
Michael  visited  Oxford  "about  the  y]ear  1230".  bear- 
ing with  him  "certain  books  of  Aristotle  ana  com- 
mentaries of  learned  men  concerning  physics,  and 
mathematics".  The  date  of  his  death  is  imcertain; 
it  is  generallv  given  as  1234.  The  l^end  which  grew 
up  around  tne  name  of  Michael  Scot  was  due  to  his 
extraordinary  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  an  adept  in 
the  secret  arts.  He  figures  as  a  magician  in  Dante's 
"Inferno",  in  Boccaccio's  " Decamerone",  in  local 
Italian  ana  Scottish  folk-lore,  and  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
"La^  of  the  Last  Minstrel".  The  most  important 
of  hjs  original  works  are  (1)  "  Ldber  PhjsiognomisB ", 
first  printed  in  1477,  and  since  then  reprmted  eighteen 
times  in  various  languages;  (2)  "Astronomia",  still 
in  MS.,  in  the  Bodleian  Library;  (3)  "Liber  Intro- 
ductorius".  also  in  MS.,  ibid.;  (4)  "Liber  Luminis 
Luminum",  in  a  MS.,  of  the  Riciardi  coll.,  Florence; 
^5)  "De  Alchimia",  in  MS.  in  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford.  Besides  the  translations  mentioned  above,  a 
Latin  version  of  Aristotle's  "Ethics"  made  from  tne 
Greek  text  is  sometimes  attributed  to  Michael  Scot. 

Brown,  Life  and  Legend  of  Michael  Scot  (Edinburgh,  1897); 
JouRDAXN,  Recherehee  eur  VAge  et  Vorigine  dee  traductiona  laiinea 
d^Arialote  (Paris.  1843);  Mxlman.  Michael  Scot  almoat  an  Iriah 
Archldahop,  pub.  by  Philobiblon  Society,  1854;  Hiat.  litUr,  de 
la  France,  XX,  43-51;  KxxrRtAV,  Noticea  et  extraiU,  XXI,  pt. 
II,  204:  Idem,  Hiat,  da  lapha.  aeol.  (Paris,  1880)  II,  pt.  I,  124 
Bqq.;  Dsniflb.  ChaHuL  Univ„Paria.,  I  (Paxia,  1880),  103. 

William  Tubner. 

Michael  ths  Archangel  (Hebr.  ^^,  '*  Who  is  like 
God?  "),  Saint,  one  of  tne  principal  angels;  his  name 
was  the  war-cry  of  the  good  angels  in  the  battle 
fought  in  heaven  a^inst  Satan  and  his  followers. 
Four  times  his  name  is  recorded  in  Scripture:  (a)  Dan., 
z,  13  sqa .,  Gabriel  says  to  Daniel,  when  he  asks  God  to 
permit  tne  Jews  to  return  to  Jerusalem:  ''The  Angel 
[D.  y.  prince]  of  the  Idngdom  of  the  Persians 
resisted  me  .  •  .  and,  behold  Michael,  one  of  the 
chief  princes,  came  to  help  me  •  •  •  and  none 
is  my  nelper  in  all  these  things,  but  Michael  your 
prince";  (b),  Dan.,  zii,  the  Angel  speakine  of  the 
end  of  the  world  and  the  Antichrist  says:  *\At  that 
time  shall  Michael  rise  up,  the  great  prince,  who 
standeth  for  the  children  of  thy  people."  (c)  Li  the 
Catholic  Epistle  of  St.  Jude:  ^'Wlien  Michael  the 
archangel,  disouting  with  the  devil,  contended  about 
the  bodv  of  Moses",  etc.  St.  Jude  alludes  to  an 
ancient  Jewish  tradition  of  a  dispute  between  Michael 
and  Satan  over  the  body  of  Moses,  an  account  of  which 
IB  also  found  in  the  apocryphal  book  on  the  assump- 


MXCHAIL 


276 


tion  of  Moses  (Origen, "  De  principiis",  HI,  2. 1).  St. 

Idichael  concealed  the  tomb  of  Moses;  Satan,  nowever, 
by  disclosing  it,  tried  to  seduce  the  Jewish  people  to 
the  sin  of  hero-worship.  St.  Michael  also  guards  the 
body  of  Eve,  according  to  the  "  Revelation  of  Moees" 
("Apocryphal  Gospels  ,  etc.,  ed.  A. Walker,  Edinbur^, 
p.  647).  (d^  Apocalypse,  xii,  7,  "And  there  was  a 
great  battle  in  heaven,  Michael  and  his  angels  fought 
with  the  dragon."  St.  John  speaks  of  the  great 
conflict  at  the  end  of  time,  which  reflects  also  the 
battle  in  heaven  at  the  beginning  of  time.  According 
to  the  Fathers  there  is  often  question  of  St.  Michael  in 
Scripture  where  his  name  is  not  mentioned.  They 
say  ne  was  the  cherub  who  stood  at  the  gate  of  parar 
disc,  "to  keep  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life"  (Gen.,  iii, 
24),  the  an^f  through  whom  God  published  the  Deca- 
k)gue  to  his  chosen  people,  the  angel  who  stood  in 
the  way  against  Balaam  (Numbers,  xzii,  22  sgq.),  the 
angel  who  routed  the  army  of  Sennacherib  (I  V IC' 


Jn 


35),  etc.  Cf.  P.  Bona  Ventura  da  Sorrento  ("Mi- 
chapel's  Naples,  1892). 

Following  these  Scriptural  passages.  Christian  tradi- 
tion gives  to  St.  Michael  four  offices:  (1)  Tofightagainst 
Satan.  (2)  To  rescue  the  souls  of  the  faithful  from  the 
power  of  the  de  vil^  especially  at  the  hour  of  death.  ^3) 
To  be  the  champion  of  God's  people,  the  Jews  in  tne 
Old  Law,  the  Christians  in  the  New  Testament;  there- 
fore he  was  the  patron  of  the  Church,  and  of  the  order 
of  knights  during  the  Middle  Ages.  (4)  To  call  awa^ 
from  earth  and  bring  men's  souls  to  judgment  ("  sigm- 
fer  S.  Michael  repnesentet  eas  in  lucem  sanctam", 
Ofifert.  Miss.  Defunct. "  Constituit  eum  principem  super 
animas  suscipiendas ",  Antiph.  off .  Cf.  "Hennas", 
Pastor,  I,  3.  Simil.  VIlI,  3).  Regarding  his  rank  in 
the  celestial  hierarchy  opinions  vary;  St.  Basil  (Hom. 
de  angelis)  and  other  Ureek  Fathers,  also  Salmeron, 
Bellarmine,  etc.,  place  St.  Michael  over  all  the  angels; 
they  say  be  is  called  "archangel"  because  he  is  the 
prince  of  the  other  ansels ;  others  (cf .  P.  Bona  ventura, 
op.  cit.)  believe  that  ne  is  the  prince  of  the  seraphim, 
the  first  of  the  nine  angelic  choirs.  But  accordm^  to 
St.  Thomas  (Summa,  l,  Q.  cxiii,  a.  3)  he  is  the  pnnce 
of  tibe  last  and  lowest  choir,  the  angels.  The  Roman 
Liturgy  seems  to  follow  the  Greek  Fathers;  it  calls  him 
"Princeps  milil^  ccslestis  quem  honorificant  ange- 
lorum  cives".  The  hymn  of  the  Mozarabic  Breviary 
places  St.  Michael  even  above  the  Twenty-four  Elders. 
The  Greek  Liturgy  styles  him  'A/)xwT/>driryof , "  highest 
general "  (cf.  Memea,  8  Nov.  and  6  Sept.). 

Veneration. — ^It  would  have  been  natural  to  St. 
Michael,  the  champion  of  the  Jewish  i^eople,  to  be  tibe 
champion  also  of  Christians,  ^ving  victory  in  war  to 
his  chents.  The  early  Christians,  nowever,  regarded 
some  of  the  martyrs  as  their  military  patrons:  St. 
Cieorgej  St.  Theodore^  St.  Demetrius,  St.  Sergius,  St. 
Procopius,  St.  Mercunus,  etc. ;  but  to  St.  Michael  they 
gave  the  care  of  their  sick.  At  the  place  where  he 
was  first  venerated,  in  Phrygia^  his  prestige  as  angelic 
healer  obscured  his  interposition  in  mihtary  affairs. 
It  was  from  early  times  the  centre  of  the  true 
cult  of  the  holy  angels,  particularly  of  St.  Mi- 
chael. Tradition  relates  that  St.  Michael  in  the 
earliest  ages  caused  a  medicinal  spring  to  spout  at 
Oiairotopa  near  Colosss,  where  all  tne  sick  who 
bathed  tnere,  invokii^  the  Blessed  Trinity  and  St. 
Michael,  were  cured.  Still  more  famous  are  the  springs 
which  St.  Michael  is  said  to  have  drawn  from  the  rock 
at  C0I0888B  (Chonffi,  the  present  Khonas,  on  the 
Lycus).  The  psgans  directed  a  stream  against  the 
sanctuary  of  St.  Michael  to  destroy  it,  but  the  arch- 
angel split  the  rock  by  lightning  to  give  a  new  bed  to 
the  stream,  and  sanctified  forever  the  waters  which 
came  from  the  gorge.  The  Greeks  claim  that  this 
apparition  took  place  about  the  middle  of  the  first 
century  and  celebrate  a  feast  in  commemoration  of  it 
on  6  September  (Analecta  Bolland.,  VIII,  285-328). 
Abo  at  ^rthia  in  Bithynia  and  elsewhere  in  Asia  the 


hot  springs  were  dedicated  to  St.  BGchael  At  Con- 
stantinople likewise,  St.Michael  was  the  great  heavenly 
physician.  His  principal  sanctuarv,  the  Michaelion, 
was  at  Sosthenion,  some  fifty  mit^  south  of  Con- 
stantinople; there  the  archangel  is  said  to  have 
appesjred  to  the  Emperor  Constantine.  The  sick 
slept  in  this  church  at  ni^ht  to  wait  for  a  manifesta- 
tion of  St.  Michael;  his  ^ast  was  kept  there  9  June. 
Another  famous  church  was  within  tiie  walk  of  the 
city,  at  the  thermal  baths  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius; 
there  the  erpoaxiB  of  the  archangel  was  celebrated 
8  Nov.  This  feast  spread  over  the  entire  Greek 
Church,  and  the  Syrian,  Armenian,  and  Coptic  Churches 
adopted  it  also;  it  is  now  the  principal  feast  of  St. 
Michael  in  the  Orient.  It  may  have  originated  in 
Phrygia,  but  its  station  at  Constantinopfe  was  the 
Thermae  of  Arcadius  (Martinow,  "  Annus  Grseco-slavi- 
cus",  8  Nov.).  Other  feasts  of  St.  Michael  at  Con- 
stantinople were:  27  Oct.,  in  the  "Promotu"  church; 
18  June,  in  the  Church  of  St.  Julian  at  the  Forum;  10 
Dec.,  at  Athiea  (Maximilian,  Lituigiia  Orientalis, 
FreibuiK,  1908). 

The  Christians  of  Egypt  placed  their  life-giving 
river,  the  Nile  under  the  protection  of  St.  Michael; 
they  adopted  the  Greek  feast  and  keep  it  12  Nov.; 
on  the  twelfth  of  every  month  they  celebrate  a 
special  commemoration  of  the  archangel,  but  12  June, 
when  the  river  commences  to  rise,  they  keep  as  a  holi- 
day of  obli«ttion  the  feast  of  St.  Michael "  for  the  ris- 
ing of  the  Nile",  e^^  e/f  ri^r  u^ftfurpow  dvipoff-ur  rw 
r<yra/iLfp  iMrtip  (N.  Nillcs,  "KaL  man.",  n,  702, 
Innsbruck). 

At  Rome  the  Leonine  Sacramentaiy  (sixth  cent) 
has  the  "  Natale  Basilic®  Angeli  via  Salaria",  30  Sept.; 
of  the  five  Masses  for  the  feast  three  mention  St. 
Michael.    The  Gelasian  Sacramentaiy  (seventh  cent.) 

S'ves  the  feast  "S.  Michaelis  Ardiangeli",  and  the 
regorian  Sacram^ntary  (eighth  cent.),  "Dedicatio 
Basilioms  S.  Angeli  Michaelis  ,  29  Sept.  A  manuscript 
also  here  adds  "  via  Salaria"  (Ebner, "  Miss.  Rom.  It«r 
Italicum",  127).  This  church  of  the  Via  Salaria  was  six 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  city:  in  the  ninth  oentuiy  it 
was  called  BasUica  ArchanatU  in  SepUmo  (ArmelUni, 
"Chiese  di  Roma",  p.  855).  It  di^ppeared  a  thou- 
sand years  ago.  At  Kome  also  the  part  of  heavenly 
physician  was  nven  to  St.  Michael.  According  to 
an  (apocryphal?)  legend  of  the  tenth  century  he  ap- 
peared over  the  Mofes  Hadriani  (Castel  di  S.  Angelc^, 
m  950,  during  the  procession  which  St.  Gregoiy  held 
against  the  pestilence,  putting  an  end  to  the  plague. 
Boniface  IV  (608-15)  built  on  the  Moles  Hadmni 
in  honour  of  him,  a  church,  which  was  s^led  SL 
Michadia  inter  niwes  (in  summUaie  cird). 

Well  known  is  the  apparition  of  St.  Michael  (a.  494 
or  530-40),  as  related  m  the  Roman  Breviary,  8  May, 
at  his  renowned  sanctuary  on  Monte  Gaigano,  where 
his  ori^nal  gloi^  as  patron  in  war  was  restored  to  him. 
To  his  mtercession  tne  Lombards  of  Sipontum  (Manfre- 
donia)  attributed  their  victory  over  Uie  Greek  Nea- 
politans, 8  May,  663.  In  commemoration  of  this 
victoiy  the  church  of  Sipontum  instituted  a  special 
feast  in  honour  of  the  arcnaxiffel,  on  8  May,  whicn  has 
spread  over  the  entire  Latin  Church  and  is  now  called 
(since  the  time  of  Pius  Y)  "Apparitio  S.  Miclaaelis", 
althou^  it  orinnally  aid  not  commemorate  the 
apparition,  but  tne  victory. 

in  Normandy  St.  Michael  is  the  natron  of  mariners 
in  his  famous  sanctuaiy  at  MontrSaint-Michel  in  the 
Diocese  of  Coutances.  He  is  said  to  have  appeared 
there,  in  70S,  to  St.  Aubert,  Bishop  of  Avranches.  In 
Normandy  his  feast "  S.  Michaelis  in  periculo  maris  "  or 
"in  Monte  Tumba"  was  universally  celebrated  on  18 
Oct.,  the  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the  first 
church,  16  Oct.,  710;  the  feast  is  now  confined  to  the 
Diocese  of  Coutances.  In  Germany,  after  its  evangel- 
ization, St.  Michael  replaced  for  the  Christians  the 
pagan  god  Wotan,  to  whom  many  mountains  were 


MIGHA8 


nered,  hence  the  numerous  mountun  chapela  of  St. 
Hictuel  all  over  GerroAny. 

The  hymoH  of  the  Roman  Office  are  said  to  have 
been  composed  by  St.  Rab&nuB  HauiiiB  of  Fulda  (d. 
856).  In  art  St.  Michael  is  represented  as  an  angelic 
warrior,  fully  armed  with  helmet,  sword,  and  shield 
(often  the  shield  bear?  the  Latin  inscription:  Quia 
ut  Deua),  etandinff  over  the  dr^on,  whom  he  Bome^ 
times  pierces  witn  a  lance.  He  also  bolda  a  pair 
of  scales  in  which  he  weighs  the  souls  of  the  departed 
(of.  Rock,  "The  Church  of  Our  Fathers",  111,  160), 
or  the  book  of  life,  to  show  that  he  takes  part  in  the 
judement.  His  feast  (29  Sept.)  in  the  Middle  Ages  waa 
celebrated  as  a  holy  dky  of  obligation,  but  along  with 
several  other  feasts  it  was  gradually  abolishea  since 
theeighteenth  century  (see  Feasts)  ■  Michaelmas  Day, 
in  England  and  other  countries,  is  one  of  the  regular 
quarter-days  for  settling  rente  and  accounta;  but  it  is 
no  logger  remarkable  for  the  hospitaUty  with  which 
it  was  formerly  celebrated.  Stubble-geese  being  es- 
teemed in  perfection  about  this  time,  most  families 
n  Michaelmas  Day,     In  some  par- 


(HampeoQ, " Hedii  iEviCalendarium",  London,  1341, 
1, 348  sqq.) 

BOVATEHTCIIU     DA     SORBKHTO,     iii-cha-el     (NsplM.     1802): 

KBLuna,  HtorMom  (St.  Louis.  IMS),  328  iqq.;  LnciijB- 
Ahuch,  An/Hnga  ie*  Haliaenkiiiiv*  (Tabioseo,  1904),  2M 
Kii.;  Orobbt,  Uickad  und  Oabnel  In  Kuml.  StaatianM.  J, 
Wuriemberg  (1904);  Qeruch,  Dtr  dtmtxht  Hicliel  (Hunm, 
IBOel;  PiioB«r,  Dit  aUrOm.  Sacrammlaritn  (Hflnner.  18S2), 
n»:  Ada SS..8Mtv;  ^9«pt,;  PudoniWaa  (St.  Louis,  July, 
1810);  HamilMe  Rmne  (.l«Soy,  Dccbbni.  Origina  du  Cub 
i*r«isi  (ISSS).  2fM. 

Frbdbbick  G.  Holwick. 
Hichfti.    See  Micbbas. 

Uclundi  JosBPR-FsANCois,  historian,  b.  at  Al~ 
bens.  Savoy,  1767;  d.  at  Passy,  30  Sept.,  1839.  He 
belonged  to  an  ancient  family  of  Savov.     Educated  at 


apublish  ing  house 
at  Lyons  but  left 
it  after  a  few  years 
to  take  up  jour- 
nalistic work  at 
Paris,  where,  dur- 
ing the  Revolu- 
tion, be  defended 
warrnly  and  not 
without  risk  the 
royal  cause.  Ar- 
rested on  13  Ven- 
d^miaire,  1795,  he 
succeeded    in 


Jonra-FaAxcos  UiouuD  Under    the   Con- 

sulate be  wrote  several  pamphlets  in  which  appeared 
criticisms  of  Napoleon  that  led  to  his  imprisonment  in 
the  Temple  for  a  time.  After  his  release  mim  prison  he 
decided  to  abandon  politics  for  literature.  In  1808 
he  published  the  firat  volume  of  the  "  History  of  the 
Crusades".  In  the  same  year  he  founded  with  his 
brother  the  "Biographic  tlnivetselle".  Elected  to 
the  French  Academy  in  1814,  he  was,  under  the  Rea- 
lotation,  deputy  editor  of  "La  Quotidicnne",  and 
then  lecturer  to  Charlea  X.  In  May,  1830,  he  under- 
took a  voyage  to  the  East  and  the  Holy  Land  in 
order  to  study  phases  of  Eastern  tife  ancf  thus  im- 
|>srt  more  realistic  colour  to  the  accounts  of  his 
"  History  of  the  Crusades".  He  was  unable  to  com- 
plete the  final  edition. 

Uichaud's  most  important  work  is  his  "History  of 
the  Crusades"  (Ist  od.,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1812-17;  6th 


7  HZOHUS  /    ~ 

ed.,  Poujoulat,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1841).  In  his  choice  of 
the  subject  and  the  manner  in  which  he  treat«d  it 
Michaua  was  an  innovator;  his  work  was  ooe  of  the 
first  productions  of  the  historical  school  which,  in- 

Sired  by  the  works  of  Chateaubriand,  restored  the 
iddle  Ages  to  a  place  of  honour.  To-day  the  value 
of  this  work  seems  open  to  question ;  the  information 
appears  insufficient  and  the  romantic  colour  is  often 
false.  It  was  none  the  less  the  starting  point  of 
studies  relating  to  the  Crusades,  and  it  was  under  the 
influence  of  this  publication  that  the  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions in  1841  decided  to  publish  the  collection  of 
Historians  of  the  Crusades.  Michaud  had  accom- 
panied his  work  with  a  "  Biblioth&^ue  des  Croisades  " 
(Paris,  1829,  4  vols^  12°),  which  contained  French 
translations  of  the  European  and  Arabic  chronicles 
relating  to  the  Crusades.  Besides,  he  directed  the 
publication  of  the  "  Biographie  Uoiverselle  "  (2nd  ed., 
45  vols.,  Paris,  1843),  and  in  collaboration  with  Pou- 
joulat that  of  the  "Collection  des  M^moiree  pour 
eervir  a  I'histoire  de  France  depuis  le  13*  si^cle  jua- 
qu'au  18""  (32  vols.,  Paris,  1836-44). 
Suht>-Bbttte,  Cautritt  du  lundi,  VII,  20-41. 

Lou  IB  BaiHiEB. 

BUeheu  (Michab). — In  Hebrew  the  complete  fonn 
of  the  name  is  Mtkh&y&hQ  or  Mlkh&yehtt  (contracted 
into  MlkhehtlT  II  Paial.,  xviii,  8,  kelhOih)  or  MtkhB- 
vah  (who  is  like  Yfthfi,  YehQ,  YahT):  the  shortened 
torm  is  Mlkhah.  Among  the  O.-T.  bearers  of  this 
name  three  especially  deserve  notice. 

I.  The  Book  of  Jud^  (ivii-sviii)  contains  the 
history  of  a  certain  Michas  (Hebr.,  xvii,  1  and  4: 
MlkhAyehfl-  elsewhere  Mtkhah),  a  resident  of  the  hill- 
couDtiy  of  Ephisim  who  founded  an  idolatrous  sanc- 
tuary. As  he  restored  to  his  mother  the  1100  pieces 
of  silver  which  he  had  stolen  from  her,  she  devoted  200 
wherewith  to  make  an  idol  which  was  set  up  in  the 
house  of  Michas.  In  addition,  Michas  made  an  ephod 
and  leraphiTTi.  He  first  appointed  as  priest  his  son, 
but  afterwards  engaged  a  Levite  of  Bethlehem,  Jona- 
than, a  descendant  of  Moses  by  Gersam.  The  Dan- 
itea,  paving  by  whilst  on  a  migration,  took  with  theiQ 
the  Levite  Jonathan  and  the  objects  of  the  idolatrous 
worship  belonging  to  Michas,  in  spite  of  tlie  latler's 
protests,  and  set  them  up  in  the  sanctuai?  which 
they  established  in  the  town  of  Dan,  so  called  after 
their  name.  See  the  commentaries  on  Book  of  Judges, 
by  O.  F.  Moore  (Edinburgh,  1903);  Budde  (TQ- 
bjngen,  1897);  Hummelauer  (Paris,  1888);  Lagrange 
(Paris,  1903) ;  ete. ;  cf.  A.  Van  Hoonacker,  "  Le  Sacer- 
doce  Wvitique"  (London  and  Louvain,  1S99),  225, 
227,  230,  239,  244,  and  372. 

II.  Micheas,  son  of  Jemla  (Hebr.  Mtkhayeha;  II 
Paral.,  xviii,  14:  Mtkhah;  ibid.,  verse  S:  Mtkheha7 
keih.),  a  prophet  of  the  Kingdom  of  Samaria,  contem- 
porary with  Elias  and  Eliseus.  It  is  related  in  III 
Kings,  xxii  (cf.  II  Paral.,  xviii),  that  Achab,  King  of 
Israel  (c.  873-852  b.  c),  allied  to  Joeaphat,  King  of 
Juda,  having  obtained  from  400  prophets  an  assur- 
ance that  his  intended  expedition  against  Ramoth- 
Galaad,  a  town  which  he  wished  to  recover  from  the 
Syrians,  would  succeed,  summoned  at  the  earnest  re- 

Sieet  of  Josaphat  the  Prophet  Micheas,  son  of  Jemla, 
though  the  latter,  he  asserted,  had  always  proved  to 
him  a  prophet  of  evil.  Micheas,  in  his  first  answer, 
foretold  the  success  of  the  enterprise,  but  his  words 
were  probably  spoken  in  an  iroDical  tene,  for  Achab 
adjured  him  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  to  speak  the 
truth.  Micheas  then  announced  the  defeat  of  the 
two  kings.  He  added  that  he  had  seen  in  a  vision  a 
spirit  promise  Yahweh  to  deceive  Achab  by  his 
prophets.  Whereupon  one  of  these  prophets,  Sedecias, 
son  of  Chanaana,  struck  him  on  the  face.  Achab 
oidered  the  imprisonment  of  Micheas  till  the  day 
when  he  should  return  m  pwif  "If  tJimi  return  in 
peace",  said  Micheas,  "th^aiMii^HMi^^en  by 


^i 


278 


ifMIl  ^ 


me."  In  the  enfiuing  battle  Achab  was  severely 
wounded  by  a  chance  arrow  and  died  the  same  day. 
See  the  commentaries  on  the  Books  of  KizigB  by  Skinner 
in  '*  Edinburgh  Century  Bible";  W.  E.  Barnes  (Cam- 
bridge, 1908);  Kittel  (Gdttingen,  1900);  Kloster- 
mann  (Mimich,  1887);  cf.  W.  R.  Harper,  "Comm.  on 
Amos  and  Hosea"  ^Edinburgh,  1905),  Iv  sq. 

III.  Micheas  (Heor.Mlkhah;  Jer.,  xxvi,  18:  Mtkh&- 
yah  keih.),  the  author  of  the  book  which  holds  the 
sixth  place  in  the  collection  of  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  was  bom  at  M6r4sh^th  (Mich.,  i,  1;  Jer., 
xxvi.  18),  a  locality  not  far  from  the  town  of  Geth 
(Mich.,  i,  14).  Jerusalem  was  the  scene  of  his  minis- 
try, and  it  occurred,  as  we  learn  from  the  title  of  his 
book,  under  the  Kings  Joathan  (c.  740-735  b.  c), 
Achaa  (735-727?),  and  Eeechias  (727-698?).  We  do 
not,  however,  appear  to  possess  any  of  his  addresses 
prior  to  the  reign  of  Elzechias.  He  was  thus  a  con- 
temporary of  the  Prophet  Isaias.  His  book  falls  into 
three  parts:  (I)  The  first  part  consists  of  chapters 
i-iii.  Micheas  begins  by  announcing  the  impending 
destruction  of  Samaria  as  a  punishment  for  its  sins, 
and  Jerusalem  also  is  threatened.  In  chapter  11  the 
Drophet  develops  his  threats  against  the  Kingdom  of 
JuasL  and  gives  his  reasons  for  them.  In  chapter  lii  he 
utters  his  reproaches  with  greater  distinctness  against 
the  chief  culprits :  the  prophets,  the  priests,  the  princes, 
and  the  judges.  Because  of  their  transgressions,  Sion 
shall  be  ploughed  as  a  field,  etc.  (ill,  12).  This  pas- 
sage was  quoted  by  the  defenders  of  Jeremias  against 
those  who  wished  to  punish  with  death  the  boldness 
with  which  the  latter  had  announced  God's  chastise- 
ments: Micheas  of  Morasthi  was  not  punished  with 
death,  but,  on  the  contrary,  Esechias  and  the  people  did 
penance  and  the  Lord  withdrew  his  threat  i^ainst 
Jerusalem  (Jer.,  xxvi,  18  sq.).  There  is  a  general  con- 
sensus of  opinion  to  attribute  to  the  Prophet  Micheas 
the  authorship  of  this  part  of  the  book;  serious  doubts 
have  been  expressed  only  concerning  ii,  11  and  12. 
Chapters  i-iii  must  have  been  composed  shortly  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  the  Kingdom  of  Samana  by 
the  Assyrians  (722  b.  c). 

(2)  In  the  second  part  (iv-v),  we  have  a  discourse 
announcing  the  future  conversion  of  the  nations  to  the 
law  of  Yahweh  and  describing  the  Messianic  peace,  an 
era  to  be  inaugurated  by  the  triumph  of  Israel  over  all 
its  enemies,  symbolized  by  the  Assyrians.  In  v,  1  sq. 
(Hebr.,  2  sq.),  the  prophet  introduces  the  Messianic 
king  whose  place  of  origin  is  to  be  Bethlehem-Eph- 
rata ;  Yahweh  will  only  give  up  his  people  "  till  the 
time  wherein  she  that  travaileth  shall  bring  forth", 
an  allusion  to  the  well-known  passage  of  Is.,  vli,  14. 
Several  recent  critics  have  maintained  that  chapters 
iv-v,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  are  of  post-exilic  origin. 
But  their  arguments,  principally  based  on  considera- 
tions inspirea  by  certain  theories  on  the  hlstorv  of  the 
Messianic  doctrme,  are  not  convincing.  Neither  is  it 
necessary  to  suppose  that  in  iv,  8,  the  comparison 
of  the  citadel  of  Sion  with  the  "  tower  of  the  flock " 
alludes  to  the  ruinous  condition  of  Judea  and  Jerusa- 
lem at  the  time  of  the  composition  of  the  address ;  this 
comparison  merely  refers  to  the  moral  situation  held 
towards  the  rest  of  the  country  by  the  capital,  whence 
Yahweh  is  presumed  to  keep  watch.  Tne  coimexion 
of  ideas,  it  is  true,  is  interrupted  in  iv,  10,  and  in  v,  4-5 
(Vulg.  5-6),  both  of  which  may  be  later  additions.  A 
characteristic  trait  of  Micheas's  style  in  chapter  i  is 
found  in  the  puns  on  the  names  of  localities,  and  it  is 
noticeable  that  an  entirely  similar  pun  can  be  seen  in 
y,  i  (Hebr.,  iv,  14),  particularly  when  the  LXX  version 
is  taken  into  account.  The  reading  supposed  by  the 
LXX  suggests  a  very  satisfactory  Interpretation  of 
this  difficult  passage:  "And  now,  surround  thyself 
with  a  wall  (gSdhSr),  Beth-Gader. "  The  difference  of 
tone  and  contents  clearly  show  that  iv-v  must  have 
been  composed  in  other  circumstances  than  i-iii.  They 
probably  date  from  shortly  after  the  fall  of  Samaria 


in  722  B.  c.  In  i'-iii  Micheas  had  expressed  the  feai 
that  after  the  conquest  of  Samaria  the  Assvrian  army 
would  invade  Judea;  but  Yahweh  withdrew  His 
threat  (Jer.,  xxvi,  19),  and  the  enemy  left  Palestine 
without  attacking  Jerusalem.    Chapters  iv-v  have 

E reserved  us  an  echo  of  the  joy  caused  in  Jerusalem 
y  the  removal  of  the  danger. 
(3)  Chapters  vi-vii,  whicn  form  the  third  part,  are 
cast  in  a  dramatic  snape.  Yahweh  interpellates  the 
people  and  reproaches  tnem  with  ingratitude  (vi,  3-5). 
The  people  ask  by  what  offerings  they  can  expiate  their 
sin  (vi,  6-7).  The  prophet  answers  that  Yahweh 
claims  the  observance  of  the  moral  law  rather  than 
sacrifices  (vi,  8).  But  this  law  has  been  shamefully 
violated  by  the  nation,  which  has  thus  brought  on  it- 
self God's  punishment  (vi,  9  soq.).  The  present 
writer  has  suggested  ("  Les  Douxe  Petits  Propn^tes  ", 
Paris,  1908,  405)  that  the  passage  vli,  llb~13,  be  so 
transposed  as  to  follow  vli,  6;  in  this  way  the  justifi- 
cation of  the  punishments  assumes  a  connected  form 
in  vi,  9-vii,  6  +  1  lb-13.  The  rest  of  chapter  vli  (7-1 1* 
+ 14  ^qq.)  contains  a  prayer  in  which  the  fallen  city 
expresses  hope  in  a  coming  restoration  and  confidence 
in  God. 

The  opinions  of  critics  are  much  divided  on  the 
composition  of  these  chapters.  Several  consider  them 
a  mere  collection  of  detached  fragments  of  more  or  less 
recent  origin ;  but  the  analysis  just  given  shows  that 
there  is  a  satisfactory  connexion  between  them.  The 
chief  reason  why  critics  find  it  difficult  to  attribute 
to  Micheas  the  authorship  of  chapters  vi-vii,  or  at 
least  of  a  large  portion,  is  because  they  identify  the 
fidlen  city  of  vii,  7  sqq.,  with  Jerusalem.  But  the 
prophet  never  mentions  Jerusalem,  and  there  is  no 
proof  that  Jerusalem  is  the  city  intended.  On  the 
contrary,  certain  traits  are  better  explained  on  the 
supposition  that  the  city  in  the  prophet's  mind  is 
Samaria;  see  especially  vi,  16,  and  vii,  14.  According 
to  this  hypothesis,  the  prophet  in  vi-vii,  6  +  llh-13, 
casts  a  retrospective  look  at  the  causes  which  brought 
about  the  fall  of  Samaria,  and  in  vii,  7-11^+ 14  sqq., 
he  expresses  his  desires  for  its  return  to  the  Lord's 
favour.  As  in  the  historical  situation  thus  supposed 
there  is  nothing  which  does  not  exactly  tally  witn  the 
circumstances  of  Micheas's  time,  as  there  is  no  dis- 
agreement in  ideas  between  Micheas  i,  sqq.,  and 
vi-vii,  as  on  the  contrary  real  affinities  in  stvle  and 
vocabulary  exist  between  Micheas  1,  sqq.,  and  vi-vii, 
it  seems  unnecessary  to  deny  to  the  Prophet  Micheas 
the  authorship  of  these  two  chapters. 

Chetnk,  Micah  wUk  notea  and  %ntrodvetum  (Cambridge. 
1902);  Rexnxb,  Der  Prophet  Mtcha  (Qieiaen.  1874);  Rtssel. 
Unierauchungen  Hber  die  TexUfeataU  und  die  EchthrU  dee  Buches 
Micha  (Leipiig,  1887);  Stade,  Bemerictmgen  x.bcr  d.  Bvrk 
Mieha  in  Zeitechrift  far  aUteaiafnentL  WiaaeneehafU  I  (1881). 
161  aq.;  Ill  (1883),  1  sqq.;  Horton  in  Century  Bible  Cam- 
mentariea  on  the  Minor  Prophete^  ••  ▼•  Hoaea-Micah,  See 
Aoobub;  Majjlchxas. 

A,  Van  Hoonacker. 


I,  Jean,  a  French  dramatic  poet  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  who  revised  and  enlariged  the  mystery 
of  the  Passion  composed  by  Amoul  Ur6ban.  There 
are  three  Michels  mentioned  in  connexion  with  this 
work.  Some  consider  Bishop  Jean  Michel  of  Angers 
as  it  author,  but  this  opinion  can  hardly  be  maintained. 
None  of  his  biographers  speak  of  his  contributions  to 
the  mystery  of  the  Passion;  moreover,  he  died  in 
1447  and  tnerefore  could  not  have  revised  the  work 
of  Gr^ban,  which  first  appeared  about  1450.  A 
catalogue  containing  the  names  of  the  counsellors  of 
the  Paris  Parliament  mentions  a  "Maistre  Jehsn 
Michel ",  first  physician  of  King  Charles  VITI,  who  waa 
made  a  counsellor  in  1491.  We  also  read  in  "  Le  X^t- 
ger  d'Honneur"  by  Andr6  de  La  Vigne,  a  contem- 
porary poet,  "On  23  August,  1496,  there  died  at 
Chien  (Piedmont)  Maistre  Jehan  Michel,  first  physi- 
cian of  the  king,  most  excellent  doctor  in  medicine". 
The  thiid  Jban  Michd,  also  a  doctor,  was  the  physician 


OILO 


27d 


MIOHBLOSZO 


of  the  young  dauphin,  son  of  Charles  VIII.  His 
name  appears  several  times  in  the  cartulary  of  the 
University  of  An^rs,  and  in  the  books  of  the  medical 
faculty  in  that  city.  He  died  in  1501.  Since  the 
Passion  was  produced  for  the  first  time  in  its  new 
shape  at  Ai^geis  in  1486,  it  is  probable  that  its  author 
was  the  thira  Jean  Michel,  but  the  fact  has  not  been 
proved. 

Besides  his  contributions  to  Gr6ban's  Passion,  Jean 
Michel  composed  another  mystery,  a  Resurrection, 
which  was  played  at  Angers  on  the  occasion  of  King 
Rent's  visit  to  that  city.  Jean  Michel  has  not  tlw 
dryness  of  his  predecessor;  on  the  other  hand  he  lacks 
his  accuracy.  He  incorporates  into  his  mysteries  the 
most  extravagant  legends  and  the  fantastic  informa- 
tion found  in  the  apocryphal  writers.  He  delights  in 
pictures  of  low  city  life  m  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
nis  language  is  often  realistic  in  the  extreme. 

Pbtxt  db  Jux^lbyillb,  Le9myaUr0M  (Paris.  1880);  CRSUSif- 
A<^R,  Oeachiefde  det  ne%uren  Drama$  (Halle,  1803);  Jubinal, 
My^Tf  inidiU  (PBria,  1837). 

P.  J.  Mabiqub. 

BfficlieUiigelo  Buonairoti.    See  Bugnabroti. 

MicheliuiB,  a  German  Protestant  sect  which  de- 
rives its  name  from  "  Michel ",  the  popular  designation 
of  its  foimder  Johann  Michael  Halm,  b.  of  peasant 
parentage,  2  February,  1758,  at  Altorf  near  Stutt- 
eart;  d.  at  Sindlingen  near  Herrenbera  ia  WOrtem- 
berg,  20  January,  1819.  Naturally  m  a  deeply  re- 
ligious disposition,  he  claimed  to  have  been  favoured  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  with  a  vision  lasting  for  the  space 
of  three  hours.  From  that  time  on  he  led  a  strictly 
retir^  life  and  was  a  regular  attendant  at  the  mtetr- 
ings  of  the  Pietists.  His  peculiarities  drew  forth  the 
energetic  disapproval  of  his  father,  who  even  resorted 
to  physical  violence  a^inst  him.  But  as  parental  op- 
position resulted  in  dnvine  the  son  from  home  without 
changing  his  manner  of  li^,  it  was  soon  abandoned  as 
useless.  After  a  seven  weeks'  vision,  alleged  to  have 
occurred  in  1780,  Hahn  began  to  proclaim  his  beliefs 
through  speech  and  writing.  Large  audiences  flocked 
to  his  preaching  and  both  the  ecclesiastical  and  the 
civil  authorities  instituted  proceedings  against  him. 
He  sought  quiet  in  foreign  lands,  notably  in  Switser- 
land,  where  he  met  Lavater.  From  1794  until  his 
death,  he  devoted  his  time,  imdisturbed.  to  religious 
prop^anda,  living  on  the  estate  of  Ducness  Frances 
at  Sindlingen.  While  he  entertained  for  some  time 
the  idea  of  establishing  a  distinct  community,  a  plan 
which  was  realized  at  iComthal  near  Stuttgart,  after 
his  death,  neither  he  nor  his  followers  ever  separated 
completely  and  permanently  from  the  state  Church. 
The  Bible,  interpreted  not  in  a  literal  but  a  mystical, 
allegorical  sense,  occupies,  in  his  religious  system,  the 
position  of  supreme  guide  in  matters  of  faith.  The 
Trinity  of  Persons  in  God  is  replaced  by  a  threefold 
manifestation  of  one  and  the  sam6  deity.  A  double 
fail  of  man  is  admitted,  for  Adam  fell  first  in  seeking  «• 
consort  for  the  multiplication  of  the  human  species, 
and  again  in  yielding  to  her  suggestion  of  disobedience. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  redemption  by  Jesus  Christ,  a 
redemption  which  is  imderstood  mainly  in  a  ph^ical 
sense,  in  as  much  as  the  Redeemer  exudes,  m  his 
bloooy  sweat,  the  coarse,  sensual  elements  in  man  to 
whom  he  restores  a  spiritualised  body.  A  second  and 
proximate  advent  of  Christ  ia  taught ;  also  the  ultimate 
universal  salvation  of  all  beings,  the  fallen  angels  in- 
cluded. Amon^  the  sources  of  nis  belief  Halm  men- 
tions only  the  Bible  and  special  personal  illumination; 
his  ideas,  however,  are  imdouotedly  related  to  the 
views  of  the  theosophists  B6hme  and  Otinger.  His 
followers,  found  chiefly  among  the  rund  population, 
are  scattered  over  Wttrtemberg,  Baden,  and  the  Pal- 
atinate. Their  approximate  number  is  15,000  souk 
divided  into  26  districts,  each  of  which  holds  semi-an- 
nual conferenoes.    The  works  of  Hahn,  comprising  15 


volumes,  were  published  posthumously  at  TQbingen, 

1819  sqq. 

dTAUDKNHBTBR,  Michod  Hohn  (Wilfexdingen,  1803); 
Palmbr.  Oemeinaehaften  und  Sekten  WOrUemberga  (TCkbingea, 
1877):  Funk  in  KinkenUx.,  VIII.  1501-03;  KouBmNewSehaff- 
Henoo  BneyeL,  V  (New  York,  1900),  117. 

N.  A.  WSBEB. 

Mlchelis,  Edward,  theologian,  b.  in  St.  Blaurits, 
6  Feb.,  1813;  d.  in  Luxembuig,  8  Jime,  1855.  After 
his  ordination,  in  1836.  he  was  appointed  private 
secretary  to  the  Archbisnop  of  Cologne,  Clemens  Au- 
gust von  Droste-Vischering,  whose  imprisonment  he 
shared,  first  in  the  fortress  of  liinden  (1837),  and 
later  at  Maedeburg  and  Erfurt.  On  his  release  in  1841 
he  returned  to  St.  Maurits,  where,  the  following  year,  he 
established  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  whom  he 
placed  in  chaige  of  an  orphanage  he  had  also  founded. 
In  1844  he  was  made  professor  of  dogmatic  theology 
m  the  seminary  at  Luxemburg,  where  ne  remained  tm- 
til  his  death.  Among  his  published  writings  are: 
"  Vdlker  der  SOdsee  u.  die  Geschichte  der  protestant- 
ischen  \md  katholischen  Missionen  unter  denselben" 
(Munster,  1847):  ''Lieder  aus  Westfalen",  edited  by 
his  brother  Friearich  in  1857;  ''Das  heilige  Messopfer 
und  das  Frohnleichnamsfest  in  ihrer  welthistoriscnen 
Bedeutuiig  "  (Erfurt,  1841) .  He  was  also  the  founder 
of  the  '' Mflnstersche  Sonntagsblatt"  and  co-fo\mder 
and  editor-in-chief  of  ''Das  Luxembuxger  Worf 
(1848). 

Lauchbbt  in  BuMtergtr,  KirMiehM  HandUx.;  Konmnof 

Flobencb  Rudox  McGahan. 

Miclieloiio  di  BartolozniiiaOi  architect  and  sculp- 
tor, b.  at  Florence  c.  1391 ;  d.  1472.  He  exercised  a 
quiet,  but  far-reaching,  influence  during  the  earlv 
Renaissance,  and  for  more  than  a  decade  worked  with 
Donatello,  to  whom  several  of  Michelosso's  works  have 
been  erroneously  attributed.  The  Aragassi  monu- 
ment in  the  cathedral  at  Montepulciano  and  the  Bran- 
cacci  tomb  at  Naples  are  the  work  of  Michelozso  alone, 
whilst  he  assisted  Donatello  in  the  execution  of  the 
tomb  of  John  XXIII.  He  also '  modelled  several 
pieces  in  brass  for  Donatello,  with  whom  he  collabor- 
ated on  a  pulpit  for  the  cathedral  of  Prato.  Ghiberti 
received  important  assistance  from  him  on  his  "  Mat- 
thew" and  on  the  bronse  sacristy  door  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Florence.  Later  on.  he  inade  bronse  casts  of 
some  of  Luca  della  Robbia  s  designs.  Among  other 
works  at  Florence,  a  silver  figure  of  St.  John,  a  laxger 
replica  of  which  was  afterwards  made  in  clay,  is  cer- 
tamly  the  work  of  Michelozso  alone,  while  others  again 
are  ascribed  to  him  with  more  or  less  probability.  In 
San  Giorgio  Maggiore,  at  Venice,  there  is  stiU  pre- 
served a  wooden  crucifix  by  him.  That  Michelosso 
was  influenced  by  Donatello  in  his  plastic  work,  can- 
not be  denied;  but  his  own  style  was  not  devoid  of 
originality. 

nB  an  architect,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  of  him  that  he 
was  certainly  worthy  to  be  compared  with  Brunelies- 
chi.  Being  court  architect  at  Florence  after  1435,  he 
built  the  Medici  chapel  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce 
and  imdertook  the  rebuilding  of  the  convent  of  San 
Marco,  in  which  the  cloister  and  the  haXL  of  the  librarv 
are  his  work.  He  also  built  the  fagade  of  the  churcn 
of  Sant'  Agostino  in  Montepulciano.  In  these  bufld- 
ings  he  manifested  a  certain  preference  for  antique 
forms,  though  there  are  also  traces  of  the  Gothic  influ- 
ence which  was  then  passing  awav.  Probably  his 
greatest  work  was  the  palace  of  the  Medici  (after- 
wards in  the  possession  of  the  Riccardi),  which  lost 
much  of  its  fine  balance  of  mass  when  it  was  enlareed. 
Between  this  edifice  and  Brunelleschi's  Pitti  Palace 
there  is  a  great  resemblance,  thoueh  the  Pitti  mav  be  a 
work  of  later  date.  Still  Brunelteschi  retains  tne  su- 
periority by  virtue  of  his  Palasoo  di  Parte  Guelfa.  A 
peouliarity  of  the  Rsceardi  (Medici)  Palace  is  the  gra- 


/ 


datiOQ  of  bosaace  [rom  the  base  upwaida  thraugb  two  kmi  has  th«  iMsest  fresh  wmter  fiaheriM  tn  the  United 
atoiiea,  after  which  come  smooth  atone  blocks.  Tho  States,  the  eaten  for  the  year  amounting  to  9686,375 
plan,  moreover,  waa  aflerwarda  Keneraily  imitated,  in  tbe  Great  Lakea  in  the  laat  atatistical  jrear  1903. 
Not  very  large,  but  imposing  in  effect,  it  presenta,  be-  Commerce. ^la  carried  on  by  water  M  well  u  by  rail- 
low,  a  colonize,  above,  between  bold  cornioes,  a  wall  road,  and  its  volume  ia  very  extensive.  Atetau  o^ 
decorated  with  antique  reliefs,  and  then  an  upper  Communiea/um.— ^teamveaselaandveeaelaoiFalliduda 
story  with  semicireular,  double-light,  windows  similar  navigate  the  Groat  I-BJces,  except  during  two  or  three 
to  ttioae  o!  the  facade.  The  composite  capital  used  of  the  winter  months.  There  are  8723  miles  of  ateon 
here  was  afterwams  generally  adopted  as  a  necorative  railroads  and  930  miles  of  electric  roads  exclusive  of 
element.     To  Micheloiso  are  also  due  a  court  in  the  city  street  lailrtjada. 

PalaiBO  Vecchio  and  another  in  the  Corsi  Palace,  as  Educationai.  Stbtem. — Univtrtity  of  Michiifttn. — 
well  as  a  palace  built  for  the  Medici  in  Milan,  of  which  Founded  at  Detroit  (1817)  with  Hev.  John  Honteith 
only  a  small  part  has  been  preserved.     In  this,  as  also  and  Father  Richard  aa  ita  entiie  faculty.     Its  present 
in  a  palace  at  Ragusa  by  tne  some  master,  the  upper  organiiation  and  location  at  Ann  Arbor,  dal«  from 
Qoor  nad  windows  with  the  pointed  arches  of  an  ear-  1S37.     It   has  a  collegiate  staS  of  409  professors, 
!ier  style.    At  Milan  bis  Portmari  chapel  is  still  to  be  instructors,  assistants,   and    administrative  officen 
seen  in  Sant'  Euatorpo.     As  compared  with  Dona-  and  (1908}  had  5,188  enrolled  students.     Besides  tbe 
tello  and  Brunelleacbi,  Micheloiio  is  given  the  higher  classical  course  it  has  schools  of  medicine  and  law. 
place  by  some  critics,  though  others  nuUc  him  lower.  Students  of  both  sexes  are  admitted  and  lesidenti  of 
Wolff,    MididBMBi    di    Bartalamtnvi    (atnabuii,    1900);  Michisan  have  tuiticm  free.     It  is  supported  by  tbree- 
Ii1i5pSi.'floa  '^''"■'  '*""  W"™*™-  K--W-*-.  eight&of  a  mill  tax  on  all  property  In  the  stlte  and 
G.  GiETMANN.  interest  aa  original  endowment  fund  and  students' 
fees  and  appropriations  by  l^pslatuie,  and  is  governed 
Mchtgan  .^The  State  of  Michigan  is  bounded  on  the  by  a  board  of  eight  regents,  two  being  elected  every 
north  by  l^ke  Superior,  on  the  east  by  Canada,  I«ke  second  year  who  hold  office  eight  years.    Slate  Afn- 
Hunm  and  Lake  St.  Clair,  on  the  south  by  Ohio  and  euUural  ColUge,  founded  in  1355,  located  at  ij-nraing, 
Indiana,  and  on  the  west  by  Lake  Michigan  and  the  besides  scientific  and  practical  agriculture  has  tecbno- 
State  of  Wisconsin.     It  has  an  area  of  58,915  square  logical  classes.     It  has  90  instructors,  had  1191  stu- 
miles.  dents  in  1908,  and  is  supported  by  interest  on  endow- 
GEOORAPHr. — Mioh^an   consists   of  two   distinct  ment  fund,  one-tenth  of  a  mill  tax  and  appropriations 
parts  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Mackinac  and  known  from  U.S.  Treasury  and  by  state  Lc^lature,  students' 
respectively  as  the  fees,andreceiptsforproduce.    College  of  Mines,  opened 
Lower  ana   Vpper  in  1SS6,  located  at  Houghton  in  the  Upper  Peninsula 
Peninsula.    The  in  tbe  midst  of  copper  mines,  has  32  instructors,  had 
Lower     Peninsula,  266  students  in  190S,  and  is  supported  by  legiidative 
the  most  important  appropriations  and  students'  fees. 
part,     consists    of  Normal   Schools. — -There    are    four   in    the    state, 
agricultural     lands  located  at  Ypsilanti,  Mount  Pleasant,  Marquette,  and 
including  the  "Fruit  Kakmawx).     They  employ  in  all  170  instructors,  nave 
Belt"  about  thirty  an  average  attendance  of  6,281  pupils,  and  are  sup- 
miles  wide,  extend-  portedbylcgislative  appropriations  and  students' fees, 
ing  along  the  shore  Special  Schools, — A  school  for  the  deaf,  established 
of  Lake  Michigan,  in  1354,  located  at  Flint,  has  48  instructors,  an  average 
in  which  all  frulta  attendance  of  320  pupils,  and  is  supported  by  legis- 
of     the     northern  lative  appropriations.     A  school  for  tne  blind  was  e»- 
states  Sourish  and  tablished  (1881)  at  Lansing,  and  has  15  instructors,  an 
all  the  general  farm'  average  of  131  pupils,  and  is  supported  by  l^islative 
SiAL  DF  HicHioAH                 ing    cTOps    of    the  appropriations.     'The  Employment  Institute  for  the 
northern  stat«s  are  grown.    Somelaivetracts,formerly  Blmd,  established  1903,  located   at  Saginaw,  has  T 
covered  with  pine,  are  sandy  and  of  small  value,  but  instructors  and  102  pupils,  and  is  also  supported  by 

.1. *„p  p^jt  gf  ^^  j^qJ  ig  fertile.     There  are  salt  legislative  appropriation.     The  State  Public   School 

'.  gjmsum  mines  and  some  coal  fields  in  this  for  Destitute  and  Ill-treated  Children  was  opened  in 

I  well  as  brick-clay.     Tbe  Upper  Peninsula  1874  at  Coldwater.     Instruction  is  given  in  manual 

ismountainousaud  rocky,  interspersed  withlevel tracts  labour  and  primary  school  grades.     It  has  6  teachers, 

of  good  soil.     It  is  rich  in  iron  and  copper,  furnishing  8  cottage  managers,  aveiage  of  inmates  526,  average 

seventy  per  cent  of  all  the  iron  produced  in  the  United  age  of  children  6  I't  years.     Supported  by  l^islative 

States  and  fourteen  per  cent  of  tne  copper  of  the  world,  appropriation. 

Therearestilllargetractsofviigin  forest,  and  the  land  Puhlic  School  System, — Each  township  and  city  is 

suitable  for  agriculture  has  not  yet  been  fully  settled,  divided  into  school  districts  of  convenient  siie,eacn(rf 

Statistics. — The  population  as  shown  by  the  last  which  has  its  school  houseandteacheror  teachers.     In 

State  census  taken  m  1904  was  2.530,016,  of  which  cities,  villages,  and  such  townships  as  so  determine  by 

2,253, 938wereintheLower Peninsula.     Itisestimated  vote,  graded  and  high  schools  are  maintained  as  well 

that  tbe  population  has  increased  at  least  20  per  cent  aa  the  primary  schools,  and  all  are  supported  by  taxa- 

since  that  tune.     Agriculture.— The  f«ricultural  prod-  tion  of  the  property  in  each  school  district.     There  are 

uce  for  tbe  year  1908   is   estimated   at    60,420,000  17,286  teachers  in  the  public  schools  and   743,630 

bushels  of  com,  15,732,000  bushels  of  wheat,  41,347,-  pupils,  the  total  appropriation  from  all  sources  was 

000  bushels  of  oats,  besides  laige  quantities  of  bieans,  119,202,449.61  in  tne  last  fiscal  year.     This  does  not 

sugar-beets,  potatoes,  and  other  crape.    The  value  of  include  the  private  or  denominational  schools.     All 

its  wool  was  12,732,000.     It   had   2,130,000  sheep,  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fifteen  years 

704,000  horses,  2,451,000  neat  cattle,  and  1,388,000  are  compelled  by  law  to  attend  some  school,  either 

swine.     Mining. — The  value  of  the  output  of  the  pubUe,  parochial,  or  private  at  least  four  months  in 

mines  is  estimated  at  1106,514,000  for  the  year  1907.  each  year,  unless  shown  to  be  properly  taught  at  home. 

Manu/aduTei. — The  value  of  the  manufactures  for  HiSTOnr. — The  first  settlers  in   Michigan   (about 

the  last  statistical  year,  1905,  is  estimated  at  $429,-  1041)    were    the    hard^    and    adventuroua    French 

039,778,  consisting  of  iron  works,  furniture  and  other  Canadians   who  established   trading   posts  at  Sault 

woodworks,  salt  works,   automobiles,  and  manufocv  Ste.  Marie  and  Michillimackinac  (now  "Mackinac"), 

tures  of  many  other  descriptions.    Fuheriet, — »*■'•>''-  which  they  reached  by  way  of  the  Ottawa  River,  thenoe 


OT^ 


MZCmOAN                            281  MXCmOAN 

by  portage  to  Lake  Nipissmg  and  so  by  Geoxgiaii  Bay  be  appropriated  far  any  such  purpose.  The  civil  aod 
to  their  destination.  This  route  was  evidently  so-  political  nights,  privil^es  ana  capacities  of  no  perion 
lected  through  fear  of  the  Iroouois,  usually  hostile  to  shall  be  diminisned  or  enlarged  on  account  of  nis  re- 
Canada,  on  the  shores  of  Lakes  £He  and  Ontario,  ligious  belief."  The  statutes  prohibit  under  .penalty  of 
These  pioneers  were  soon  followed  and  aided  by  the  a  fine  of  $10  the  keeping  open  of  an3r  workshop  or  place 
Jesuit  Fathers  Alloues,  Marquette,  and  others.  Do-  of  business;  transaction  of  any  business;  all  work  and 
troit  was  first  settled  by  Antoine  De  La  Motte  Cadillac  labour;  attendance  at  dance,  public  diversion ;  show  or 
Q701).and  the  French  Canadians  who  followed  him  entertainment;  taking  part  in  any  sport,  game,  or  play, 
formed  the  earliest  farming  population,  settling  on  the  on  Sunday:  works  of  necessity  and  charity  are  ex- 
shores  of  Detroit  River.  Until  the  countiy  ieU  into  oepted.  All  persons  are  also  prohibited  from  attend- 
the  hands  of  the  British  (1760)  there  were  no  settlers  ing  any  public  assembly,  except  for  religious  services  or 
of  any  other  nationality,  and  during  the  British  occu-  concerts  of  sacred  music.  The  sale  of  intoxicating 
patlon  and  afterward,  \mtil  after  the  close  of  the  war  of  liquors  on  Sunday  is  made  a  misdemeanour,  punishable 
1812,  there  were  but  few.  Indian  troubles  and  the  un-  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Disturbing  religious  meet- 
settled  state  caused  by  war  were  so  pre j  udicial  to  im-  ings  on  Simday  is  made  a  misdemeanour,  punishable  by 
migration  that  when  Michigan  was  organized  as  a  terri-  fine  and  imprisonment.  Oaths  are  aoministered  by 
toiy  (1805)  its  population  did  not  exceed  4,000  persons,  the  person  who  swears  holding  up  his  right  hand,  ex- 
But  when  the  public  lands  were  offered  for  sale  (1818)  oept  in  cases  where  the  afiSant  has  any  particular  mode 
a  tide  of  settlers  at  once  set  in  from  New  Ehigland,  New  which  he  considers  more  binding.  The  form  in  general 
York,  Ohio,  and  other  states,  besides  emigrants  from  use  is  "You  do  solemnly  swear  that  ...  So  help  you 
Ireland,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany.  Later  there  God."  Blasphemy  and  profanity  are  punished  by  fine 
was  also  laise  emigration  from  Holland,  and  later  still  and  imprisonment.  There  are  no  laws  concerning  the 
from  Pol^ia,  Sweaen,  Italy,  and  in  short  from  every  use  of  prayer  in  the  Legislature.  The  custom  is  that 
European  nation,  as  well  as  some  from  Turkey,  Syria,  at  the  nrst  session  of  each  hoiise  some  minister  of  the 
Armenia,  and  China.  Michigan  was  admitted  as  the  Gospel  is  invited  to  offer  prayer.  Christmas  Day 
twenty-«ixth  state  of  the  Union,  26  Jan..  1837.  It  and  New  Year's  Day  are  recognized  as  holidays, 
adopted  a  constitution  on  being  admitted  as  a  state,  but  business  and  work  are  not  prohibited  on  those 
In  1850  a  second  constitution  materially  changing  the  days,  which  are  on  a  par  with  Independence  Day,  etc. 
former  one  was  framed  and  adopted,  and  (1909)  a  tnird  Seal  of  Car^ession. — "  No  minister  of  the  Gospel  or 
constitution,  better  suited  to  tne  needs  of  the  state,  priest  of  any  denomination  whatsoever  shall  be  al- 
was  prepared,  adopted  by  popular  vote,  and  went  lowed  to  disclose  any  confessions  made  to  him  in  his 
into  effect  Jan.,  1910.  Fonxial  possession  of  the  en-  professional  character,  in  the  course  of  discipline  en- 
tire region  was  taken  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  joined  by  the  rules  or  practice  of  such  denomination." 
France  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  (1672).  In  1701  Antoine  And  all  ministers  of  tne  Gospel  are  exempt  fromserv- 
De  La  Motte  Cadillac  founded  Detroit,  naming  it  Fort  ing  on  juries,  and  from  military  duty. 
Pontchartrain.  In  1760  Michigan  came  under  British  Church  Property, — ^Any  five  adult  persons  may 
rule.  In  1796  the  United  States  took  possession,  and  become  incorporated  as  a  religious  society  by  execut- 
Michigan  became  a  part  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  ing  and  acknowledging  Articles  of  Association  in  trip- 
Michigan  (without  the  Upper  Peninsula)  became  an  licate,  stating  the  name  and  purpose  of  the  corporation, 
or«uused  territory  in  1805.  Father  Gabriel  Richard  the  names  and  residences  of  the  original  incoiporators, 
of  Detroit  was  elected  territorial  delegate  to  C<nigress  and  the  period  for  which  it  is  incorporated .  One  of  the 
(1823),  being  the  only  Catholic  priest  who  ever  had  a  triplicates  must  be  filed  with  the  Secretary  of  State, 
seat  in  that  assembly.  and  one  with  the  County  Registrar  of  Deeds.    Such 

There  arose  a  dispute  with  Ohio  as  to  the  boundaiy  corporation  may  make  its  own  by-laws,  which  must  be 
line  near  Toledo.  Michigan  adopted  a  constitution  and  recorded  by  the  Registrar  of  Deeds,  and  is  entitled  to 
took  all  necessary  steps  for  admission  into  the  Union,  receive  ana  hold  real  and  personal  property  by  pur- 
but  was  prevented  from  doing  so  by  reason  of  the  chase,  gift,  or  bequest  and  may  sue  or  be  sued.  Tnere 
Ohio  dispute,  which  was  settled  by  the  boundary  is  no  restriction  as  to  number  or  nomenclature  of  of- 
line  being  determined  in  favour  of  Ohio,  and  by  ficers.  Religious  bodies  such  as  dioceses,  synods,  con- 
Michigan  obtaining  instead  the  Upper  Peninsula,  ferences,  and  the  like  may  obtain  corporate  powers  to 
It  was  then  aUowea  to  enter  the  Union  (1837).  The  hold  property,  sue  and  be  sued,  etc.,  by  electing  not 
ci^ital  was  removed  from  Detroit  to  Iiansing  (1847).  less  tnan  three  or  more  than  nine  trustees  and  filing 
then  a  small  village  in  a  dense  forest,  now  a  city  of  certificates  of  such  election  and  the  corporate  name 
24,000  inhabitants.  A  colony  of  Mormons  took  pos-  by  which  they  are  to  be  known  with  tne  Secretaiy 
session  of  Beaver  Island  in  Lake  Michigan,  from  wnich  of  State  and  County  Clerk.  Religious  coiporations 
they  were  forcibly  expelled  by  armed  fishermen  from  organized  without  capital  stock  are  not  limited  as  to 
the  mainland  in  1856.  duration  of  time.    All  houses  of  public  worship  with 

The  Republican  party  was  oreanized  "under  the  their  furniture  and  pews  and  parsonages  owned  by 

oaks"  at  Jackson.  Michigan.    I^  to  that  time  the  religious  societies  are  exempt.    Also  all  property  oc- 

Democratic  party  nad  been  in  power  in  the  state,  but  cupied  by  charitable,  educational,  and  scientific  in- 

ever  since  the  Republicans  have  had  a  large  majority  stitutions  incorporated  under  laws  of  the  state. 

of  the  voters.    Tnis  state  sent  93,700  men  to  the  Civil  Salee  of  Liquor, — ^A  tax  of  $500  per  year  is  imposed. 

War,  of  whom  14,855  died  in  the  service.  Dealers  must  furnish  bonds  in  not  less  than  93000. 

Michigan  furnished  five  resiments,  of  1026  officers  Selling  to  minors,  intoxicated  persons,  or  habitual 

and  men  each,  for  the  Spanisn  War  (1898),  of  which  drunkards  is  prohibited,  also  selling  on  Sundays,  holi- 

three  regiments  went  to  Uuba.  days,  and  election  days.     Dealers  and  their  bonds- 

Laws  and  Reugion. — ^The  constitution  provides  men  are  liable  to  wives  and  families  for  injuries  caused 
that "  Every  person  shall  be  at  liberty  to  worsmp  God  by  intoxication  by  liquors  furnished  by  them.  Sa- 
according  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience.  No  loons  must  be  closed  at  certain  hours.  Heavy  pen- 
person  shall  be  compelled  to  attend,  or  against  his  con-  alties  are  provided  for  infraction  of  the  law.  Any 
sent,  to  contribute  to  the  erection  or  support  of  any  county  may  by  a  majority  vote  absolutely  prohibit  tbie 
place  of  religious  worship,  or  to  pay  tithes,  taxes,  or  manufacture  and  sale  of  liquor  within  its  limits, 
other  rates  for  the  support  of  any  minister  of  the  gospel  WUU  and  TeaiamerUe  may  be  made  by  any  one  of 
or  teachers  of  religion.  No  money  shall  be  appro-  full  age  and  sound  mind,  must  be  in  writing  and  exe- 
priated  or  drawn  from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit  of  cuted  in  presence  of  two  witnesses  who  must  sign  at 
any  religious  sect  or  society,  theological  or  religious  request  and  in  presence  of  the  testator.  Bequests  to 
•eminaiy;  nor  shall  property  belonging  to  the  state  a  witness  are  void.    A  widow  may  elect  to  take  her 


MICHOACAN                          282  MIGHOAGAN 

statutory  allowance  and  dower  instead  of  a  bequest.  CathoHcs  dUtinguished  in  PiMic  Life. — Reverend 

There  is  no  liniitation  as  to  charitable  bequests.  Qabriel  Richard  and  Timothy  £.  Tarsney  were  repie- 

PuBUC  Institutions. — Aside  from  the  state  in-  sentatives  in  Congress.   The  following  were  memben  of 

stitutions  already  mentioned,  there  are  four  insane  the  Territorial  L^islativoGoimcil:  ^urent  Durodier, 

asylums,  a  home  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptic,  Henry  Connor,  John  McDonell,  Charles  Moran. 

and  a  sanatorium  for  tuberculosis.    Every  county  has  State  Senatora :  Edward  Bradley,  Laurent  Durocher, 

its  poor  farm  for  the  indl^nt,  and  all  charities  are  John  McDonell,  Bernard  O'Reilly.    Circuit  Judees: 

under  the  supervision  of  the  State  Board  of  Correo-  O'Brien  J.  Atkinson,  James  B.  McMahon,  and  Robert 

tions  and  Charities.  J.  Kelley. 

Prisons  and  Reformatories, — ^There  are  two  state  Promment  Members  of  the  State  House  of  Repre- 

prisons,  at  Jackson  and  at  Marquette,  a  reformatory  sentatives  were:  John  Atkinson,  Theodore  J.  Campau. 

for  male  offenders  at  Ionia,  and  a  house  of  correction  Catholics  at  present  living  who  have  distinguished 

for  males  and  females  at  Detroit.    The  Industrial  themselves  pubuoly  are:  Thomas  Weadock  and  John 

School  for  Boys  at  Lansing  and  the  Industrial  School  Corliss,  botn  of  whom  were  members  of  Conpicss; 

for  Girls  at  Adrian  are  reformatories.  James  Caplis,  Peter  Doran,  Joseph  Nagel,  and  Michaei 

Cemeteries  may  be  established  by  municipalities  or  Moriarty,  state  senators;  Circuit  Judge  Alfred  J. 

by  private  corporations  or  private  citisens.    The  only  Murphy;  members  of  the  state  House  oTRepresenta- 

limitation  as  to  locality  is  in  cases  where  it  woula  tives  John  C.   Donnelly,   John  Donovan,  Nicholas 

create  a  nuisance.                         ^  Whelan;  and  William  T.  McGurrin,  Brigadier  General 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^Marriage  is  a  civil  con-  of  the  Michigan  National  Guards ;  also  Judee  of  Re- 
tract in  law;  males  of  the  age  of  eighteen  and  females  corder's  Court  in  Detroit,  James  Phelan,  anaProbate 
of  the  age  of  sixteen  are  competent  to  contract.    First  Judge  of  Ottawa  County,  Edward  P.  Kurby. 
cousins  as  well  as  nearer  relatives  are  forbidden  to  Campbbll,  HiaUny  of  Mtckigon;  Hittorieal  RmrtU  in  State 
marry.    Fences  under  eighteen  murt.have  the  writ-  l^:^S^'^^/l!Z.tnH'&  ^^Z'm^^ 

ten  consent  of  one  parent  or  of  a  guardian.     A  licence  of  the  DioceseofSauUSU.  Marie  and  MarqtuUe;  Official  Catholic 

is   required   which   is    issued    by    the   county   clerk,  directory  (10 10);  Aeeord*  o/ (A«  DiocMet  of  DttmU  and  Qrand 

Marriages    may  be  solemnized  by  justices  of  the  *«P*^'                                         Fhancib  A.  Stage. 
peace,  judges  of  probate  and  of  municipal  courts,  and 

by  resident  ministers  of  the  Gospel.  All  marriages  Micfaoacan,  Akchdiocebe  op  (Michoacanensis), 
must  be  recorded  by  the  county  clerk.  No  particular  in  Mexico. — ^The  Diocese  of  Michoacan  was  estab- 
form  is  prescribed,  but  the  parties  must  take  each  other  lished  in  1536  by  Pope  Paul  III  at  the  instance  of 
as  husband  and  wife.  Two  witnesses  are  required  be-  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  its  boundaries  to  coincide 
sides  the  magistrate  or  minister.  Divorce  from  the  with  those  of  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Michoacan.  In 
bonds  of  matrimonv  is  granted  for  adultery,  impotency,  1863  it  became  an  archdiocese,  with  Lten,  Quer^taro, 
imprisonment  for  tnree  years  or  over,  desertion  for  two  and  Zamora  for  suffragans,  its  limits  being  at  the 
vears.  habitual  drunkenness.  Divorce  "  from  bed  and  same  time  greatlv  reduced.  Its  population  is  about 
board ''  is  granted  for  extreme  crueltv,  and  where  the  one  million,  and  toe  principal  cities  are  Morelia,  Zit^- 
husband  being  of  sufficient  ability  &ils  to  provide  a  cuaro,  Maravatfo,  Pdtzcuaro,  Puruindiro,  and  Piedad 
suitable  maintenance  for  his  wife;  but  the  court  may  in  the  State  of  Michoacan,  and  Aclimbaro,  Salva^ 
grant  an  absolute  divorce  for  either  of  these  causes,  tierra,  Celaya,  Salamanca,  and  Ptojamo  in  the  State 
A  sentence  to  the  state  prison  for  life  dissolves  the  of  Guanajuato.  The  first  bishop  was  the  eminent 
marriage  without  any  judicial  divorce.  Spaniard  D.  Vasco  de  Quiroga  (1538-^5),  one  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — ^This  state  comprises  greatest  missionaries  to  the  Mexican  aborigines, 
the  Dioceses  of  Detroit,  Grand  Rapids,  Sault  Sainte  Among  other  bishops  of  the  Spanish  period,  the  fol- 
Marie,  and  Marquette.  It  has  3  bishops,  466  priests,  lowing  were  distinguished  for  their  learning  and  vir- 
412  ecclesiastical  students,  306  churches,  193  missions,  tue:  Ramfrez  del  Prado,  who  has  been  compared  to 
208  stations  and  chapels,  2  seminaries,  8  orphan  St.  Charles  Borromeo;SdnchezdeTa^le,  who  fotmded 
asylums,  1  infant  asylum,  48,059  young  people  under  the  conciliar  seminary  (seminario  trtdetitino)  for  the 
Catholic  care  as  pupils,  orphans  and  dependents,  2  diocese  in  1770;  Frav  Antonio  de  San  M^el,  builder 
industrial  schools  for  girls,  13  hospitals,  1  home  for  of  the  great  aqueduct  of  ^  Morelia  and  commonly 
feeble-minded,  1  home  for  a^ed  poor,  and  a  Catholic  spoken  m  as  the  father  of  his  people.  Of  the  bishops 
population  of  489,451.  Michigan  was  under  the  con-  who  have  governed  the  Diocese  of  Michoacan  only 
trol  of  the  See  of  Quebec  until  the  formation  of  the  two  have  been  natives  of  Mexico,  Portugal  and  Mun- 
Diocese  of  Baltimore  (1789),  under  which  it  remained  gula.  The  latter  was  named  archbishop  in  1863. 
until  it  was  included  in  the  Diocese  of  Bardstown  Portugal  was  the  first  American  ecclesiastic  to  be 
(1808),  and  later,  when  the  new  Diocese  of  Cincinnati  namea  a  cardinal  by  the  pope,  although  he  died  be- 
was  created,  Michigan  was  made  a  part  of  its  territory,  fore  receiving  the  cardinal's  hat.  Mimgufa  was  the 
The  descendants  ofthe  original  French  Canadians  are  author  of  some  very  excellent  books  on  law  and  phi- 
numerically  inferior  to  the  descendants  of  the  later  losophy,  and  lived  up  to  his  motto:  "Lose  wealth,  out 
Irish  immigrants,  who  form  the  largest  part  of  the  save  principles ".  D.  Ignacio  Arci^  and  D.  Ateno- 
Catholic  population.  There  are  also  many  Germans,  genes  SUva  succeeded  Archbishop  Mungula  and,  in 
Poles,  some  Lithuanians,  Bohemians,  Flemings,  the  epoch  of  peace  which  the  republic  has  since  en- 
Italians,  Syrians,  and  a  few  Indians.  When  Bishop  joyed,  have  acnieved  some  notable  results. 
Fenwick  of  Cincinnati  visited  Michigan  in  1832  he  The  library  of  the  Seminary  of  Morelia  numbers 
confirmed  142  Indians  at  L'Arbre  Croche.  These  76,000  volumes;  there  is  also  a  pnysical  laboratory  and 
now  belong  to  the  Diocese  of  Grand  Rapids,  which  valuable  astronomical  apparatus.  In  every  one  of  the 
contains  in  all  eighteen  Indian  missions  with  a  popu-  64  parishes  and  the  18  succursal  parishes  of  the  arch* 
Lation  of  378  families,  and  three  schools,  two  of  which  diocese  there  is  at  least  one  school  for  boys  and  anothei 
are  taught  by  religious,  the  third  by  a  lay  teacher,  for  girls.  At  Morelia  the  schools  are  very  numerous,  the 
The  Diocese  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie  and  Marquette  attendance  being  over  three  thousand,  bo3rs  and  girls, 
contains  about  2000  Catholic  Indians  in  12  Indian  Celaya,  Salvatierra,  and  Piedad  have  four  parochial 
missions,  attended  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  at  Sault  schools  each,  and  several  other  parishes  have  two. 
Sainte  Marie,  L'Anse,  and  elsewhere.  There  are  few  Several  charitable  institutions  are  admirably  main- 
Catholic  Indians  left  in  the  Diocese  of  Detroit,  tained  by  the  clergy.  In  times  of  scarcity,  when  the 
About  thirty  families  of  the  once  powerful  Pottawat-  price  of  com  goes  up,  the  diocesan  authorities  follow  the 
omies  at  Rush  Lake  in  Berrien  County  are  all  that  example  of  tne  great  Bishop  San  Miguel,  who,  in  1785. 
remain  of  the  old  mission  of  St.  Joseph.  with  the  consent  of  the  cathedral  chapter,  expeoded 


mcxiiwioz 


283 


lacicAcs 


280,000  pesos  for  the  relief  of  the  people— -an  enor- 
mous sum  for  those  d&ys.p  During  the  two  last  epis- 
copates the  improvement  has  been  notable,  the  num- 
ber of  priests  mcreasing  to  348.  Hidalgo.  Morelas, 
Iturbide.  heroes  of  the  war  of  Indepenaence.  the 
learned  Mungufa,  the  poet  Navarrete,  and  the  pnilos- 
opher  Abarca  were  all  bom  within  the  limits  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Michoacan.  Morelia,  the  capital,  has 
some  notable  buildings,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  beautiful  cathedral,  the  eovemment  build- 
ings, the  seminary,  the  art  school  (formerly  a  Jesuit 
college),  and  the  college  of  the  Teresianas.  In  the 
same  city  the  Christian  Brothers,  the  Salesians,  and 
the  Servants  of  Mary  conduct  institutions.  Tlie 
classes  in  the  various  schools  are  taught  principally  by 
French  and  Italian  professors  and  Spanish  nims. 

RoMBRO,  Hutoria  dd  Ohigpado  de  Michoaedn;  Lb6n,  Fmy 
A  ntonio  de  San  Miguel;  Diccionario  de  Oeografla  y  EttadiMtiea; 
MoRJSKo,  Vaaco  de  Quiroaa;  Mixico  d  traviB  de  loa  aigloa;  Archi- 
voe  de  la  Seeretaria  ArtooiapaL 

Francisco  Elouero. 

MicUswiei,  Adam,  b.  near  Novogrodek,  Lithu- 
ania^ 1798;  d.  at  Constantinople,  1855.  He  studied 
at  Novogrodek  until  1815,  wnen  he  entered  Vilna 

University.  Here 
he  studied  Ger- 
man and  English 
romantic  poetry 
with  the  greatest 
seal.  A  thwarted 
passion  for  Marya 
Weres  zc  s  a  k 
roused  rather 
than  quenched  his 
genius;  and,  soon 
after  becoming  a 
professor  in 
Kovno  (1819).  he 
published  his  first 
poetical  creations 
m  two  volumes 
(Vilna,  1822-3). 
These  included: 
(a)  "Dziady" 
(The  Ancestors), 
which,  besides  its 
artistic  lyricism,  marks  the  first  appearance  of 
romanticism  in  Poland.  His  hero  Gtistav  is  rather 
of  the  morbid  Werther  type;  (b)  many  ballads  and 
romances,  setting  forth  Lithuanian  folk-lore  with  great 
power  and  skill;  most,  though  not  all,  of  these  are 
visibly  influenced  by  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Burger; 
(c)  "Grazjma".  in  form  like  the  lyric  epics  of  that 
period,  but,  unlike  these,  full  of  real  epic  simplicity, 
majesty,  and  obiectivity.  To  the  same  period  belongs 
his  celebrated  *'^Ode  to  Youth",  though  it  appeared 
somewhat  later.  The  current  o(  his  genius  was  then 
changed  by  persecution.  While  at  the  university  he 
belonged  to  a  society  of  students,  with  which  he  af tei^ 
wards  continued  to  correspond;  he  was  now  most  un- 
justly thrown  into  prison  with  the  other  members, 
since  none  of  them  had  ever  dreamed  of  insurrection. 
The  keynote  of  his  poems  was  no  longer  disappointed 
love,  but  sufTerin^  patriotism.  Sentenced  to  exile  in 
Russia,  he  left  Litnuania  forever  (1824),  and  went 
first  to  Odessa  and  thence  to  the  Crimea,  where  he 
wrote  his  "Sonnets"  (Moscow,  1826).  These  are 
gloomy  but  extremely  pictiu'esque,  and  most  effective 
by  the  infinite  sadness  which  repeatedly  appears  in 
them  with  striking  unexpectedness.  Sent  afterwards 
to  Moscow,  Mickiewicz  wrote  there  his  famous  "  Kon- 
rad  Wallenrod",  published  later  in  St.  Petersburg 
(1828).  This  poem  is  unequal;  its  hero  is  too  Byron- 
esque,  and  it  seems  to  preach  revenge  by  treachery. 
But  its  wonderful  patriotism,  inspiration,  and  artistic 
finish  raised  it  as  a  whole  above  anything  he  had  yet 
wntten* 


Adam  Mickibwics 


In  1829,  after  a  stay  at  St.  Petersburg,  Mickiewics 
obtained  his  great  desure — leave  to  go  abroad .  Gn  his 
way  to  Rome  he  passed  through  Weimar,  and  visited 
Goethe,  who^  we  are  told,  was  greatly  impressed  by 
him.  When  m  Italy  he  wrote  veiy  little,  but  returned 
to  the  fervent  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion,  which 
he  had  before  neglected.  In  1831  the  Polish  insurrec- 
tion broke  out;  Mickiewics  attempted  to  return  to 
Poland,  but  was  stopped  at  the  Prussian  frontier. 
He  then  went  to  Dr^en,  where  he  wrote  the  third 
part  of  the  ''Dziady".  It  deserves  special  notice  as 
containing,  besides  the  exnression  of  that  revolt 
against  God  which  some  Poles  felt  after  the  loss  of 
their  independence,  a  mistaken  attempt  to  explain 
their  country's  fate  as  that  of  a  Christ-like  victim 
slain  for  the  sins  of  other  nations;  it  offers  also  a  key 
to  Mickiewicz's  own  spiritual  life.  In  1832  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  there  wrote  (in  Biblical  prose)  his  ''  Book 
of  the  Pilgrimage",  in  which  he  treats  the  Polish  refu- 
gees as  apostles  and  sowers  of  the  Word  among  the 
nations.  Later,  in  1834,  he  published  his  long  poem 
''Pan  Tadeusz",  a  marvellously  lively  and  faithful 
portrait  of  Lithuanian  life  in  the  first  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Plot,  development,  characters, 
episodes,  every  passage,  and  almost  every  line  are  ex- 
cellent: it  is  a  high-water  mark  in  Polish  poetry,  one 
of  the  world's  masterpieces.  After  this  achievement 
Mickiewicz  gave  up  poetry:  his  sole  aim  was  hence- 
forth to  work  out  Poland's  regeneration  by  serving 
God.  ''An  order  of  Poles",  he  said,  "was  needed  to 
bring  the  nation  back  to  God."  From  this  idea,  which 
he  sdvocated  widely,  the  Order  of  the  Resurrection 
may  be  said  to  have  sprung. 

In  1835  he  married,  and  was  afterwards  in  constant 
pecuniary  straits.  For  some  time  he  gave  lessons  in 
Latin  literature  at  the  Academy  of  Lausaime  (1838-9); 
he  was  then  named  professor  in  the  College  de  France, 
and  his  French  work,  "  A  Course  of  Slav  Literature  ", 
is  very  good.  But  in  the  third  year  of  his  teaching  he 
began  to  abandon  literature  for  certain  philosophical 
and  religious  ideas.  Towianski  had  won  him  over  to 
his  wild  theory  of  Messianism,  already  foreshadowed 
in  several  of  Mickiewicz's  poems.  He  eagerly  em- 
braced the  idea  of  a  faith  that  should  be  to  Christian- 
ity what  the  latter  was  to  Judaism.  Such  a  change, 
thou|;h  readily  accounted  for,  had  melancholy  results. 
Messianism  was  condemned ;  Mickiewicz  became  the 
apostle  of  a  false  doctrine,  and  lost  his  chair  of  litera- 
ture. He  subsequently  submitted  (1848),  but  still 
continued  to  dream  of  a  great  regeneration  of  peoples, 
brought  about  by  revolution .  When  the  Crimean  War 
came,  he  hoped  for  an  invasion  of  Poland,  and  even 
went  to  Constantinople  to  form  a  Polish  legion,  but 
died  there  of  cholera.  His  body  was  taken  to 
Paris,  and  thence  (1890)  to  the  cathedral  of  Krakow, 
where  it  now  reposes.  Mickiewicz  has  much  in  com- 
mon with  Schiller;  he  is  also  like  B3rron,  but  above 
him  both  in  moral  tone  and  in  objectivity,  in  which  he 
recalls  Goethe.  But  he  rose  superior  to  all  of  them  as 
a  fervent  believer  in  Christ.  Since  Mickiewicz,  Poland 
can  boast  of  having  one  of  the  world's  great  literatures, 
while  of  all  Polish  poets  he  is  the  most  talented,  the 
most  intensely  patriotic,  and  the  most  potent  factor  in 

the  national  me  of  Poland. 

His  Matter  Thaddeua,  tr.  Biocn,  was  published  in  2  vols. 
(Londoii,  1886).  See  the  Lives  by  Trktiak  (3  vols..  Lemberg, 
1884):  Chmielowsxi  (2  vols.,  Cracow,  1898);  Mickiewicz,  Ft. 
tr.  (Paris,  1888). 

S.  Tabnowbki. 

Micznacs  {Souriqaoia  of  the  early  French),  the 
easternmost  of  the  Algonquin  tribes  and  probably  the 
first  visited  by  a  white  man,  formerlv  occupied  what 
is  now  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  Cape 
Breton,  as  well  as  part  of  New  Brunswick,  Quebec, 
and  south-western  Newfoundland.  According  to 
their  traditions  they  held  third  rank  in  the  onginal 
distribution  of  land  among  the  confederation  of  the 


XICIUC8  21 

eastern  Algonquins.  The  fint  pUoe  belooged  to  the 
"father"  of  that  nation,  namelv,  the  Ottawa  tribe, 
whichreceived  as  it«  share  the  "Uind  of  origins";  the 
Beeond,  called  Wapanakiag,  the  "  country  of  the 
dawn  ",  fell  to  the  lot  of  tlie  Abenakia,  while  the  third 
province,  known  aa  MigmaKig,  waa  allotted  to  the  Mio- 
naca.    Uatil  the  arrival  of  the  white  men,  an  annual 

8  >=>  LA  =-*-<5  >a3  c  i^ 
=iV   ^3H    isGi    ^    ^ 

c  w  B-  *  «-{»*?  "W 
c    »-at,    »^    >->H    i   ^ 

«-t=a;       C^-       >^      X      C 

H<3K     'T     H     <    His 

3^       w^S       X       h       "<3H 

Wbo  made  you  the  Great  God  indoed  mada  me 
What       for       the  Graal  God       made  you       He  wuted 

indeed       that  I  koov  Him 
I  prfty  to  Him       I  love  TTiin       I  lerve  Him       »  that 

I  will  BO  were  they  created   meaflndiaiu)   they  were  crested 

indeed  all       perhapa       to  Hanvea       will  oo       auch  aa 

indeed  are  bapCiied      are  wise      thoH      only      to  Heavee 

wilt  00  wbo  tliea       is  wiie       he  tbat       indeec* 


Halifax,  exaaperated  them,  but  on  the  faH  of  Canada, 
Abbd  llaillard  (173fi-62),  succeeded  in  recoDciliog 
them  to  the  new  order.  SeveisI  chiefs  made  tbeii  Iw- 
tnal  Bubmiamon  (1761),  and  ever  nnoe,  though  more  in 
sympathy  with  the  French,  the  Hicmacs  have  re- 
mained loyal  to  the  Britiab  Crown.  In  177S  the 
United  Stabea  endeavoured  to  incite  them  to  revolt, 
but  Father  Bourg,  at  the  lequeat  of  the  coltoiial  author- 
ities, restrained  them  from  the  war-path. 

The  Micmaca  ori^nally  dwelt  in  the  oidinary  coo- 
ical  wigwams  common  to  most  Algonquin  tribes  ;tbeii 
puinenta  were  of  dressed  leather  and  ornamented  with 
an  abundance  of  frinRc;  their  government  resembled 
that  of  the  New  England  abongines;  and  their  main 
oecupaticHi  was  fistung.  Except  in  the  case  of  th« 
chielH,  polymmy  was  not  general.  There  is  an  dd 
tj-adition,  related  by  an  Abenaki  of  Oldtown  (Nicolar, 
"  Life  and  Traditions  of  the  Red  Hen  ",  IS93)  that  the 
Indiana  came  from  the  West  while  the  white  nwn 
originated  in  the  East.  The  Micmacs  are  remarkable 
for  the  fact  that  they  are  the  only  Canadian  tribe 
which  ever  uaed  hieroglyphs,  or  ideograms,  as  a  means 
of  acc|uiring  religious  aud  secular  knowledge.  These 
were  invented  in  1677  by  Father  Leclercq,  wbo  took 
the  idea  from  the  rude  signs  he  one  day  saw  some  chil- 
dren draw  on  birch  bark  with  coal,  in  their  attempt  lo 
memoiiie  the  prayers  he  had  just  taught  them.  They 
eonmsted  of  more  or  less  fanciful  characters,  a  few  of 
which,  such  as  a  star  for  heaven  and  an  orb  for  tbe 
earth,  bore  some  resemblance  to  tbe  object  repr^ 
sented .  A  number  oF  manuals  weie  compoeed  which 
remained  in  manuscript  until  1866,  when  Father  Kau- 
der,  a  Redemptorist  who  for  some  time  ministered  lo 
them,  had  type  bearing  the  ideo^ma  cast  in  Austria, 
with  which  he  printed  a  catechism  and  pisycr  book. 
Though  the  hieroglyphics  are  still  known  by  the  Mir- 
maca,  for  all  general  puipoaes  Roman  type  has  been 
substituted,  in  which  a  httle  newspaper  is  published 
monthly  in  their  own  language  at  Restigouche,  Que- 
bec. In  the  autumn  of  1849  the  Protestants  formed 
a  Micmac  Missionary  Society,  which  commenced  work 
the  following  year  and  made  a  few  proselytes  in  tbe 
vicinity  of  Charlotte  town.  Rev,  Silas  Rand,  a  gr^at 
linguist  and  prolific  writer,  was  the  principal  agent 
The  Indians,  almost  without  exception,  have  icmained 
steadfast  in  their  fidelity  to  the  Church  of  their  first 


Hiciuc  Idsooiuiu  raoH  FATaaa  Kaudib'* 

oeramony  long  recalled  thia  compact.  There  is  a 
probabiLty  that  the  Micmaca  were  visited  by  Sebaa- 
tian  Cabot  (1497)  and  by  Cortereal  (1501).  They 
welcomed  the  French  and  theii'  religion,  preached  to 
them  by  secular  priests  and  Jesuits,  as  well  as  by 
Recollects  and  Capuchins.  Father  Biard  (1811)  has 
left  us  an  interesting  account  of  thia  tribe,  which  he 
characterized  as  mild  and  peaceful  in  temperament. 
He  estimated  its  numbers  at  three  thousand  or  three 
thousand  five  hundrod.  The  Capuchins  even  opened 
for  it  and  the  while  settlers  the  firat  high  school  within 
the  limits  of  New  France,  aad  a  report  of  the  Micmac 
missiona  sent  to  Rome  (1633)  located  one  of  them 
in  Portu  Regio.  Father  Leclercq,  a  French  Recollect 
who  did  much  for  their  instruction,  called  them  Gas- 
pesians,  probably  because  he  had  first  landed  (1675) 
on  theGaspi  peninsula,  where  he  successfully  lal>oured 
for  about  twelve  years.  It  waa  not  until  1693  that 
these  aboriginea  became  officially  known  under  their 
true  name.  Quick  to  appreciate  the  leligiou  of  the 
French,  tbe  Micmaca  were  no  leas  faithful  to  the  flag 
which  to  them  symbolized  it.  Though  not  given  to 
the  cruel  praeticea  of  the  Iroquois  and  other  eastern 
tribea,  they  proved  their  bravery  by  their  active  share 
in  the  French  and  EiiKlish  wars,  and  their  lasting 
hostility  to  the  colonization  achemea  of  England.  The 
erection  of  forta  on  the  coast,  especially  the  one  at 


Fort  of  Pout  Rotal 
Wheie  the  fint  Micmaca  or  Souriquoi*  ware  baptised 

missionaries.  Another  pwit  for  which  the  Micmaci 
maf  be  said  to  be  remarkable  is  the  manner  in  which 
their  population  holds  its  own  in  spite  of  many  diffi- 
culties, such  as  the  bad  example  given  by  the  whiter 
and  the  faciUty  with  which  they  can  procure  intoxi- 
cants. In  1891  they  had  increased  to  4I0S;  and 
later,  a  careful  census  taken  by  one  of  the  Capucbini. 
living  among  them  since  1394,  showed  that  ibey 
numbered  3S50  in  Canada  and  200  in  Newfoundland 
The  Blue  Book  of  the  Canadian  Government  for  190? 
sets  down  their  numbers  at  3961  within  the  Dominitfi 
atone,  practically  all  of  whom  are  Catholics.     AU  the 


MXCBOLOOmi  285  MmDUB 

Indians  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island    under  the  title  '' Academiarum  celebrinm  universl 
(respectively  2073  and  274}  are  Micmacs.  tenarum   orbis   libri   VIII  locui>letati".     He  also 

LKcxjBROQ,JVb«i>eIb/{ii2aliond«to(7(up^na  (Paris.  1691);  Idem,     published:      ''Offioionim    scholasticoium    libri    duo, 


mimntM  ntiemajuet  (Qu«b«Cr   ^^ii.  Paoiiqub.  Q^'^j^    praecipua  auditorum  populique  officia  complectitur" 


»..M»».  ^.•w»(^..««   v^v»«u^.   *y*^it.  *».»--*'•"-.,   ^"^rz  piwoipua  auuiwjrum  popmique  oxncia  compieci»ur 

2r:^rSf5SS^S±:  Sjh^ISS^  W  *^  fcplo^t,  ip) ;  «  hO^  A^^e  yer«V  LXX 

A.  G.  MoBiCE.  mterpiretes  SonptuTEB  sacns  ex  MS.  codicibus  Gnecis  et 

Latinis  lestituit  et  commentarlo  illustravit"  (Ck>lo^ey 

Microloffas  either  a  "synopsis"  or  a  "shortj  ex-  1^78);  " Imperatorum,  regum  et  principum  danssi- 

planation  ",  and  in  the  Middle  jGes  used  as  an  equiva-  morumque  virorum  quastiones  theolo«c»,  iundica  et 

lent  for  "Manual".    The  best  known  of  several  is  P?Jj^,.cum  Pidchernmis  lesponsionibus''^  (Cologne, 

^  Micrologus  de  ecclesiasticis  observationibus  ",  an  ex-  ^^)  J  .  Histona  monastica,  qua  religios®  et  solitaruB 

planation  of  the  liturgy  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  vita  onginem,  progressiones,  incrementa  et  naturam 

Mass,  and  of  the  eccl^iastical  year;  firat  edited  at  ex  Scnptuia  Sacra,  ex  pontificio  et  Casareo  mxe,  ex 

Paris,  in  1510,  and  handed  down  in  a  number  of  manu-  antwuissmus  historm,  ex  veterum  Patrum  et  Hbrorum 

scripts  (P.  L.,  CLI  sqq.).    This  comprehensive  work,  wnptis  demonstrat    (Ck)l^e,  1603). 

of  importance  for  bolfi  the  history  a^d  the  adeouate  ^S^'i^iSlU'^u^^iSS fej;  'IfSj^f^''^^^'. 

Understandmg  of  the  lltUKy  of  the  Mass  and  of  the  MimoireB  vour  aervir  d  VhisUnre  lUUmire  dea  dix-aept  Proviruiea 

ecclesiastical  year,  is  divicled  into  three  parts.    The  ff* ^^••oaa.lll  {lx>yivahi,i7m.^-^\^i^<x>,D%at^. 

author  treats  first  of  the  Mass  (chap,  i-cbii)  in  rela-  gSJsJ./2z£^!SrBi5!.  X&  hu^  ^  ^^"**™^  ^^^* 

tion  to  its  historical  development;  second,  of  the  lit-  *                         *        tkiEDBiCH  Lauchbbt. 

urgy  of  the  ember  days  (chap,  xxiv-xxix) ;  and  third,  --,•--.             .  ^                       ,          ^  .     ^    . 

of  the  whole  of  the  ecclesiastical  year,  with  observa-  ?**J^  ^f^'T^  *®™  ooiMaonly  used  to  da^- 

tions  of  the  offices  of  the  feasts  and  holidays  (chap,  natet^tperiod^f  EuroTOan  history  betwe^ 


*^-bcii) .    In  chapters  xxiv-xxv  the  writer  empha-  o^  the  Roman  Empire  and  about  the  iniddle  of  the  fif- 

sixes  the  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See  in  liturgical  ^^^  century.    The  precise  dates  of  the  beginning, 

questions,  and  mentions  Gregory  VII  in  such  a  man-  cuhnination,  and  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  more  or 

ner  as  to  show  that  he  was  an  adherent  of  that  pope,  1^  arbitrardy  assumed  wsoordmg  to  the  pomt  of 

although  Gregory  was  dead  at  the  time  the  author  view  adopted.    The  period  is  usiiaUy  considered  to 

wroteThe  also  refers  to  Anselm  of  Lucca  in  such  a  way  ^^^Vt.  t^jse  migrations  of  the  German  Tnbes 

as  to  mfer  Anselm's  being  still  alive  at  that  tune  whi^  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  E^ 

(chap,  xvii) ,  hence  we  may  conclude  the  work  to  have  the  West  m  375,  when  the  Huns  fell  upon  the  (3othio 

been  composed  between  23  May,  1085,  date  of  the  tnbes  north  of  tiie  Black  Sea  and  forced  the  Visigoths 

death  of  Gregory  VII,  and  Maroh,  1086,  the  death  of  over  the  boundan^  of  the  Roman  Empu«  on  the 

Anselm  of  Lucca.    Ivo  of  Chartres  was  generally  held  lower  Danube.    A  later  date,  however,  is  sometunea 

to  be  the  author  of  the  "  Micrologus  ",  but  investiga-  assumed,  viz., whoi  Odoacer deposed RomulusAugus- 

tions  of  Dom  Morin  and  Dom  Baumer  point  to  Remold  tulus,  ^e  last  of  the  Roman  Emperors  of  the  W^t,  in 

of  Constance,  a  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Blasien  476.     Others,  again,  b^m  the  Middle  A^s  with  the 

(d    1100)  as  the  author  openmg  years  of  the  seventh  century  and  the  death 

Another  well-known  treatise,  edited  under  the  title  (?09)  of  Venantius  Fortunatus,  the  last  represrata- 

-Micrologus  de  disciplina  artis  music©",  is  by  the  tive  of  classic  Latm  literature.    The  close  of  the  Mid- 

famous  (fuido  of  Areazo,  and  is  one  of  the  most  im-  die  Ages  is  also  variously  fixed;  sorne  make  it  comcide 


in  Rer/w  Binidictine  (1891),  385-05;  BAuicbr,  Dtr  MicrojpmuL  Ck>lumbus  in  1492;  or,  again,  with  the  great  religious 

fi^«]f  *^o*i57^'  "^  JCofgtow  in  Neuea  Anhiv,  XVIU  gchism  of  the  sixteenth  century.    Any  hard  and  fast 

(1803),  42^-46:  Thalhopbk,  Handbuch  der  katholxachen  Litur'  "^«J"  v*  «»*«  s»-.w«*^»*t**  ^f^''^^.*  ,  ^y  ******  €»»«*  A<«av 

^,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg.  1894) ,  80-81.  line  drawn  to  designate  either  the  b^dnnin^  or  dose  of 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  the  period  in  question  is  arbitraiy.    The  widest  limits 

g'ven,  viz.,  the  irruption  of  the  Visigoths  over  the 
. ^, , ^ ,  >imaaries  of  the  Roman  Empire,  for  the  beginning, 

about  1537  at  Oldenzaal,  or.  Wording  to  others',  at  and  the  middle  of  the  sixteentn  century,  for  the  close, 

Ootmarsum,  Overyssel,  Holland;   d.  at  Colo«;ne,  13  may  be  taken  as  inclusively  sufficient,  and  embrace,  be- 

Jan  .,1611.    He  calls  hunself  Otmersensis  on  the  title-  yond  dispute,  every  movement  or  phase  of  history  that 

page  of  his  work,  "  De  celebrioribus  Academiis ''.    He  can  be  claimed  as  properly  belonging  to  the  Middle  Ages, 

studied  the  humanities  at  the  Fraterherren  gymna-  A  flpreat  part  of  The  Cathouc  Enctclopedia  is  de- 

ahun  of  ZwoUe.   philosophy  and  jurisprudence  at  votea  to  the  movements,  ecclesiastical,  intellectual, 

Cologne  University,  where  he  became  doctor  of  philo-  social,  political,  and  artistic,  which  made  up  European 

flophy  and  both  branches  of  law,  and  also  licentiate  of  histoiy  during  this  period  so  fertile  in  human  activities, 

theology;  he  also  taught  peripatetic  philosophy  at  the  whether  sacred  or  profane.    Under  the  titles  covering 

Montanum  gymnasium  there.    He  remained  in  West-  the  political  divisions  of  Europe,  past  and  present 

phalia  durmg  the  troubles  in  the  Archdiocese  of  (e.  g.,  Alsace-Lorraine;  AimALT;   Aubtro-Hun- 

Coloene  in  the  time  of  Arohbishop  Gebhard  Truchsess  garian  Monarchy;   Baden;  Bavaria;  Bblgium; 

von  Waldbuxv,  and  was  professor  at  various  foreign  Bohemia;  Bremen;  Bulgaria;  Castile  and  Ara- 

academies;  auerwards  he  returned  to  Cologne,  whore  gon;  Croatia;  Denmark;  England;  France;  Gbr- 

he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life.    Li  1580  he  be-  many;     Greece;    Hamburg;    Hebse;    Hungary; 

came  dean  of  St.  Mana  ad  gradus,  Cologne,  in  1596  Ireland;  Italy ;Karinthia;  Krain;  Le6n:Lippb; 

dean  of  St.  Andreas,  and  in  1601  canon  of  the  cathe-  LCbeck;    Luxemburg;    Mecklenburg;    Monaco; 

dral  chapter.    Rector  of  Cologne  University  1580^1  Montenegro;  Navarre;  Netherlands;  Norway; 

and  1602'()4,  he  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  by  Oldenburg;    Papal    States;  Portugal;  Reubs; 

Uie  coadjutor,  Ferdinand  of  Bavaria,  in  1602.    He  Rome;  Rumania;  Russia*  Sake- Altenburo;Saxe- 

lies  buried  in  the  chureh  of  St.  Andreas.    As  an  author  Coburg    and    Gotha;    Saxe-Meiningbn:    Sake- 

he  was  best  known  by  his '' De  celebrioribus  imiversi  Weimar;   Saxony;  Schaumburo-Lippb;  Schwarz- 

orb^  Academiis,  libri  II"  (Cologne,  1567, 1572,  1594,  burg-Rudolbtadt;  Schwarzburg-Sondbrshausen; 

and  lastly  16CK2) ,  considerably  enlarged,  in  two  volumes,  Scotland  ;  Servia  ;  Sicily  ;  Spain  ;  Sweden  ;  Swrrz. 


BBLAND ;  Venice  ;  Waldeck  ;  Wales  ;  WObtembbbo),  cathedral  of  the  new  Diocese  erf  Middleabrough.  Th* 

ftre   given    io   detail   their   respective  political   uta  Diocese  of   Beverley,  ccmterminoui  with   Ywkihire, 

religious  developments  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  was,  by  Apostolic  tetters  of  Leo  XIII,  dated  20  De- 

Under  articles  of  a  wider  scope  (e.  g.,  Eukope  ;  Chris-  cember,  1878,  divided  into  the  Dioceses  of  Leeds  and 

u;  Pope)  is  found  a  more  genera!  and  synthetic  Middlesbrough,  Bishop  Corathwaite  (formerly  of  Bev- 


treatment.  Farticularaspectaaadniovenientspeculiar  erley,  henceforth  of  Leeds)  being  ad  inlcritn  named 
to  different  portions  of  it  are  found  in  such  articles  as  administrator  of  the  new  Diocese  of  Middlesbrough. 
CHivAiATlCKnaAOEa;  Ecclesiastical  Art;  FenoAL-  It  was  not  until  II  December,  1879,  that  the  papal 
ism;  Gothic  Architecture;  Inquisition;  Invest:-  Brief  was  received  notifying  the  appointment  of  Ibe 
TUHce,  Conflict  or;  Lano-Tenobe  in  the  Chbibtiam  new  bishop  in  the  person  of  the  Rev.  Richard  Lacy, 
£ra;  Monasticism;  Music,  Ecclesiastical;  Paint'-  whose  consecration  took  place  in  his  own  cathedral  on 
INOjPiLGRiMAOES:  Sculpture;  in  the  articles  upon  the  IS  December,  1S79,  at  the  hands  of  CardiDalHaDoing, 
great  religious  orders,  congregations,  and  institutions  assisted  by  Bishop  Comthwaite  of  Leeds  and  Bishop 
which  then  came  intoexiatenoe:  in  the  biographies  of  O'Reilly  id  Liverpool,  The  chapter  of  the  new  dioMse, 
the  popes,  rulers,  historical  personages,  scholara,  phi-  ccmsisUng  of  a  provost  and  ten  canons,  was  erected  by 
losophers,  poets,  and  scientists  whose  lives  fall  within  a  decree  of  Leo  AIII  on  13  February,  1881.  Our  Lady 
this  period;  in  the  accounts  of  the  universities,  of  Perpetual  Succour  is  the  chief  patronesB  of  the  dio- 
cities,  and  dioceses  which  were  founded  and  developed  cese  and  titular  of  the  cathedral;  Sts.  Wilfrid  and 
throughout  Europe  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Em-     John  of  Beverley  are  its  secondary  patrons.   Besides 

_:_^  ..^  .1.^  .- f  .u.  i._t ,■__    -_  J  ■_  ; these  there  are  many  othere  who  have  shed  the  lustre 

of  their  sanctity  on  northern  Yorkshire;    St.  Hilda. 
Abbess  of  Whitby  (scene  of   tiie   famous   Synod  d 
Middlesbrongh, Diocese  of  (Meoioburgensib).—     Whitby  in  664);  St.  John  of  BridUngton;  St.  William 
Id  medieval  bistoiy  it  was  known  as  Myddilburga  or     of  York;  St.  Everilda;   Blessed  John  Fisher;  Blessed 
Middilburga,  with  many  other  variaticos  of  form.     Thomas  Percy,  Earl  of  Northumberland;  the  Venera- 
ble Nicholas  Pcetgate,  and  many  others. 

Notwithstanding  the   fact  that   the  eccleoiastieal 
division  of  Yorkshire  met  with  adveree  criticism  at  the 
hands  of  several  leading  members  of  both  clergy  and 
laity,  moved  by  sentiment  rather  than  a  proloucd 
knowledge  of  the  needs  of  reli^on,  the  following  sta- 
tistics demonstrate  both  h6w  groundless  were  the  fears 
then  entertained,  and   how  accurately  the  situation 
had  been  gauged  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.    In 
1839  the  CathoUc  population  of  Yorkshire  was  13,000; 
in  1909  it  was  167,027.    In  1839  there  could  hardly  be 
3000  Catholics  in  what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Middles- 
brough;  in  1909  they  numbered  60,344.    In  1879  the 
total  number  of  pnests  in  the  Diocese  of  Middles- 
brough was  54;  in  1909  they  numbered  113  (76  secu- 
brs  and  37  regulars).   In  1879  ihechurches  and  chapels 
were  38;  in  1909  they  were  67.    In  1879  the  school- 
children  numbered   3135;    in   1909   they  numbered 
10,060.     In  1879  there  were  17  elementary  schools;  b 
1909  there  were  43.    There  are  23  elementary  schodi 
and  14  middle-classschoolsconducted  by  religious;  two 
There  is  an  old  tradition  that  a  chureh  in  honour  of  St.     orphanages,  one  for  boys  under  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
Hilda  was  dedicated  by  St.  Cuthbert  at  Middlesbrough     of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  at  Hull,  and  the  other  for  girls 
about  686,  but  the  earliest  positive  reference  to  Mid-     under  the  Poor  Sisters  of  Naiarcth  at  Middlesbrough; 
dlesbrough  in  ecclesiastical  history  goes  to  show  that     one  reformatory  for  boys  under  the  Fathers  of  Charily 
in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  it  was  the  site     at  Market  Weighton;  two  pupil  teachers'  centres,  one 
of  a  church  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  St.  Hilda  at     undertheSistersof  Mercy  at  Hull,  and  the  other  under 
Whithv.   Althnt.t.ime  t.hpRhiirph  nf  ''St.  HilHnni.  MtH-     the  Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus  at  Middlesbrough: 
one  training  college  for  teachers,  under  Sisters  of  Merry , 

_, ,  ._ at  Hull;   two  colleges  for  boys,  one  under  the  Marist 

lu  Ob.  LKiivuit;!.   au  ■•  iiituy.  uii  Condition  that  there     Fathers,  at  Middlesbrough,  the  other  under  B^edic- 

should  alwavs  be  some  monks  at  Middlesbrough  serv-     tine  monks,  in  connexion  with  the  well-known  Abbey 

ing  God  and  St.  Hilda;  and  there  seems  to  have  been     (rf  Ampleforth. 

a  clause  binding  the  monks  to  distribute  twelve  pence         Bishop  Lacy  was  bom  at  Navan,  Heath,  Ireland,  16 

perweekinalms  to  the  poor  of  Middlesbrough  for  the     January,  1841,  studied  at  Ushaw  College  (Durham) 

soul  of  the  said  Robert  dc  Brus.    In  the  plunder  of  the     and  at  the  English  College  in  Rome,  where  he  was 

reUgious  houses  the  "Cell   of   Middlesorough "   was     ordained  21  December,  1867, 

granted  by  t^ueen  Elizabeth  to  one  Thomas  Reeve  on        Knar.  Andtni  MuUUtbmtiek   Yodmo.  Whitby;  Itiditm- 

4Februarv,1563.     Fromthatdatethereisnoevidenoe     1™^^  Dwct»,t  Archive,.  Richam  Lact 

to  show  tKat  Mass  was  ever  cclcbruted  there,  until  in 

1848  a  private  room  in  North  Street  was  used  for  this         Middlaton,   Anthony,  Venerable.     See  JoNn, 

purpose.    A  Uttle  later  a  modest  chapel  was  erected    Edward,  Venerable. 

and  a  resident  priest  placed  in  char)^.    Two  causes        Middlflton,    Robert,   Venerable.    See    Hunt, 

concun^  m  the  formation  of  a  large  Catholic  congre-     Thurston    Venerable 

""ition,  namely,  the  Irish  immigration  and  the  rapid        -»■  ji     ■!        a     ».  '       

^velopmento^  the  ironworks  in  the  Cleveland  region.  MidiuutM.  See  MADiANiras. 
In  1872  Rev.  Richard  Lacy  was  entrusted  with  the  Midruhim. — The  term  commonly  designates  sn- 
charge  of  the  Middlesbrough  Mission.  In  August,  cient  rabbinical  commentaries  on  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
1878,  St.  Mary's  church  (replacing  the  original  modest  tures.  It  is  tbepluralformof  theword  tPTTD^Miifras* 
chapel)  was  opened  with  great  solemnitv  by  Cardinal  which  is  found  only  twice  in  the  Old  Testament 
Manning  aad  Bishop  Comthwaite  of  Beverley.  In  (II  Par.  [ChroniclesI,  xiii,  22;  xxiv,  27),  where  it  is 
December  of  the  same  year,  St.  Mary's  became  the     rendered   by  liber   (book)   in  the  Vul^te,  and  by 


r,  YOBEHHIHE.  EMOLAND 


BUDWiVM 


287 


MlDWiVKS 


"oommentaiy'*  in  the  Revised  Veisicm.  In  mbbini- 
eal  parlance,  Midrash  has  the  abstract  and  general 
sense  of  stiidyf  exposition  of  Scripture,  while  Mid- 
rashim  are  primarily  the  free  and  artificial  explanations 
of  the  Sacred  Text  given  by  its  ancient  expositors, 
and  secondarily  the  collections  of  such  explanations  in 
the  shape  of  commentaries  on  Holy  Writ. 

Origin  and  Kinds  of  Midrahhui. — After  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon,  the  Law  was  the  centre  of  the  life 
of  the  Jews  at  home  and  abroad.  Henceforth,  the 
one  concern  of  the  Jewish  authorities  was  to  make  sure 
that  the  Mosaic  precepts  be  accurately  complied  with 
by  all,  and  under  all  circumstances,  and  it  is  from  this 
practical  standpoint  that  the  Scribes  and  after  them 
the  Rabbis  studied  and  expounded  the  contents  of 
their  sacred  writings.  A  part  of  these  contents,  viz., 
the  enactments  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  made  of  course 
directly  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  legal  righteous- 
ness in  Israel ;  yet,  as  these  laws  had  been  framed  in 
view  of  concrete  circumstances  of  the  past,  they  had  to 
be  explained  in  a  more  or  less  artificial  way  to  make 
them  fit  the  altered  circumstances  of  Jewish  life,  or 
serve  as  a  Scriptural  basis  or  support  of  the  various 
traditional  observances  which  made  up  the  oral  law. 
All  such  artificial  explanations  of  the  terms  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation  are  legal,  or  Halachic,  Midrashim. 
Distinct  from  this  general  kind  of  Midrashim  are  those 
called  homiletical,  or  Hagadic,  which  embiaoe  the  in- 
terpretation, illustration,  or  expansion,  in  a  moralizing 
or  edifying  manner,  of  the  non-legal  portions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  As  the  object  of  this  latter  kind  of 
Midrashim  was  not  to  determine  the  precise  require- 
ments of  the  Law,  but  rather  to  confirm  in  a  general 
manner  Jewish  hearers  in  their  faith  and  its  practice, 
Hagadic  explanations  of  the  non-legal  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture are  characterized  by  a  much  greater  freedom  of 
exposition  than  the  Halachic  Midrashim ;  and  it  may  be 
truly  said  that  Hagadic  expositors  have  availed  them- 
selves of  whatever  material— sayings  of  prominent  Rab- 
bis (e.  g.,  philosophical  or  mystical  disquisitions  con- 
cerning angels,  demons,  paradise,  hell,  Messias,  Satan, 
feasts  and  fasts,  parables,  legends,  satirical  assaults 
on  the  heathen  and  their  rites,  etc.) — could  render 
their  treatment  of  those  portions  of  the  Sacred  Text 
more  instructive  or  edifying.  Both  kinds  of  Mid- 
rashim were  at  first  preserved  only  orally;  but  their 
writing  down  commenced  with  the  second  century  of 
our  era,  and  the^r  now  exist  in  the  shape  chiefly  of 
exegetical  or  homiletical  works  on  the  whole  or  parts 
of  tne  Hebrew  Bible. 

Principal  Midrashim. — The  three  earliest  and  in 
several  respects  most  important  Midrashic  collections 
are:  (1)  the  Mechilta,  on  a  portion  of  Exodus,  and 
embodying  the  tradition  mainly  of  the  School  of 
Rabbi  Ishmael  (first  century)  j  (2)  the  Sivhra,  on 
Leviticus,  embodying  the  tradition  of  Rabbi  Aqiba 
with  additions  from  the  School  of  Rabbi  Ishmael;  (3) 
the  Siphre^  on  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy,  going 
back  mainly  to  the  schools  of  the  same  two  Raobis. 
These  three  works  are  used  in  the  Gemaras.  (4)  The 
RcAboth  (great  commentaries),  a  large  collection  of 
ten  Midrashim  on  the  Pentateuch  and  Megilloth, 
which  bear  the  respective  names  of:  (a)  Bereshith 
Rabba,  on  Genesis  (mainly  from  the  sixth  century) ; 
(b)  Shemoth  Rabba,  on  Exodus  (eleventh  or  twelfth 
century) ;  (c)  Wayyiqra  Rabba,  on  Leviticus  (middle 
of  seventh  century);  (d)  Bamidbar  Rabba,  on  Num- 
bers (twelfth  century);  (e)  Debharim  Rabba,  on 
Deuteronomy  (tenth  century);  (f)  Shir  Ashshirim 
Rabba,  on  Canticle  of  Canticles  (probably  before 
middle  of  ninth  century) ;  (g)  Ruth  Rabba,  on  Ruth 
(same  date  as  foregoing) ;  (h)  Echa  Rabba,  on  Lam- 
entations (seventh  century);  (i)  Midrash  Qoheleth, 
on  Ecclesiastes  (probably  before  middle  of  ninth  cent- 
tuiy);  (j)  Midrash  Esther,  on  Esther  (a.  d.  940).  Of 
th^  Rabboth,  the  Midrashim  on  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
!(umbef9,  and  Deuteronomy  are  chiefly  made  up  of 


homilieB  on  the  Scripture  sections  for  the  Sabbath  or 
festival,  while  the  others  are  rather  of  an  exegetical 
nature.  (5)  The  Peeiqta^  a  compilation  of  homilies  on 
special  Pentateuchal  and  Prophetic  lessons  (early 
eighth  century) ;  (6)  Pirqe  Rabbi  Eliezer  ^not  before 
eighth  century),  a  Midrashic  narrative  of  the  more 
important  events  of  the  Pentateuch;  (7)  Tanchuma 
or  xelammedenu  (ninth  century)  on  the  whole  Penta- 
teuch ;  its  homilies  consist  of  a  Halachic  introduction, 
followed  by  several  proems,  exposition  of  the  opening 
verses,  and  the  Messianic  conclusion;  (8)  Midraah 
Shemuelf  on  the  first  two  Books  of  Kings  (I,  II  Sam- 
uel) ;  (9)  Midrash  TekiUim,  on  the  Psalms ;  (10)  Mid* 
rash  Mishle,  on  Proverbs;  (11)  Yalqut  Shimeoni,  a 
kind  of  catena  extending  over  all  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. 

Importancb  of  Midrashim. — At  first  si^ht,  one 
might  think  that  such  farrago  as  the  Midrashic  litera- 
ture could  be  of  interest  and  value  only  to  a  Jew  as 
Jew,  inasmuch  as  the  Midrashim  are  thoroughly 
steeped  in  the  spirit  of  Judaism,  bear  distinct  witness 
to  the  laws,  customs,  doctrines,  aspirations  of  the  Jew- 
ish race,  and  record  the  noblest  ideas,  sayings,  and 
teachings  of  the  Jewish  sages  in  early  times.  The 
more,  however,  he  examines  the  contents  of  these 
ancient  expositorv  works,  the  more  he  discovers  that 
the^  are  an  invaluable  source  of  information  to  the 
Christian  apologist,  the  Biblical  student,  and  the 
general  scholar  as  well.  In  this  body  of  ancient 
literature,  there  is  much  in  the  line  of  ideas,  expres- 
sions, reasonings,  and  descrii>tions,  which  can  be  used 
to  illustrate  and  confirm  the  inspired  records  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  traditional  teachings  of  the  Church, 
notably  concerning  the  passages  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  be  re^rded  as  Messianic.  The  Biblical  stu- 
dent will  at  times  notice  in  the  oldest  parts  of  the 
Midrashim,  Scriptural  readings  anterior  to  those  em- 
bodied in  the  Massoretic  text.  Again,  ''when  it  is 
borne  in  mind  that  the  annotatons  and  punctuators  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  the  translators  of  the  [most] 
ancient  versions,  were  Jews  impregnated  witn  the 
theological  opinions  of  the  nation,  and  prosecuted 
their  Biblical  labours  in  harmony  with  these  opinions 
.  .  .  the  importance  of  the  Halachic  and  Hagadic 
exegesis  to  tne  criticism  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and  to  a 
right  imderstanding  of  the  Greek,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and 
other  versions,  can  nardly  be  overrated  "  (Ginsburg,  in 
Kitto's  " Cyclop,  of  Biblical  Liter. ",  III,  173).  Lastly 
the  philologist,  the  historian,  the  philosopher,  the 
jurist,  and  the  statesman,  will  easily  find  in  the  Mid- 
rashim remarks  and  discussions  which  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  their  respective  branches  of  study. 

UooUNl,  Themums  ArUiquitatum  Sacrarum,  vols.  XXV-XVI 
(Venice.  1752-1754);  Jeluneck,  Bet  Ha-Midraach  (LeipiiK, 
and  Vienna,  1853-1877);  ScBliiiKn.The  Jetnah  People  in  the 
Time  of  Chrial  (New  York.  1891);  Zuns.  die  gotteedveneliiehm 
VortrAge  d.Jllden  (Frankfort,  1892);  WOnsche,  Bibliotheca 
RaiMniea  (JjeipxxK,  1880-1886;  Trier,  1892,  1893);  Gbunhut, 
Safer  Ha-Likktdtm  (Jenwalem,  1898-1901);  Strack,  Einl. 
i.  d.  7a/miMi  (Leipiig,  1900);  Oestbrlrt  and  Box.  The 
Retigion  and  Worehip  of  the  Synaoooue  (New  York.  1907). 

Francis  E.  Gigot. 

Midwifes  come  imder  the  canon  law  of  the  Church 
in  their  relation  towards  two  of  the  sacraments, 
baptism  and  matrimonv.  As  regards  marriage,  their 
testimony  is  frequently  required  in  cases  de  non 
consummato  matrimanio,  whether  owing  to  the  im- 
pediment of  impotenc^  or  because  a  dispensation  is 
asked  super  matrimonio  rato  tarUum,  In  such  cases, 
the  testimony  of  three  midwives  is  held  sufficient  in 
practice,  since  the  number  seven  mentioned  in  the  "  Cor- 
pus Juris  Canonic! "  (c.  4,  de  Probat.)  is  not  considered 
to  bo  obligatory  in  law,  though  some  older  canonists 
insisted  on  the  necessity  of  having  the  testimony  of 
seven  midwives.  As  regards  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism the  office  of  midwives  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance. ^  On  them  frequently  devolves  the  duty  of 
conferring  this  sacrament,  under  circiunstances  where 


288 

no  other  peraon's  ministratioa  is  poesible.    Henoe,  quarter  in  that  town;  it  was  therefore,  to  say  the  least, 

the  Churcn  has  always   been  most  solicitous  con-  Iiard  and  mortifving  when,  after  twenty-five  yeais  of 

ceming  the  character  of  midwives  and  their  instruct  administration  the  ''Conduum  locum  tenens  regium" 

tion  in  this  religious  duty.    Canonists   teach  that  asked  him  if  there  was  any  priest  in  his  diocese  in  pos- 

women  who  undertake  the  oflBce  of  midwife  are  session  of  two  benefices  or  c^oes,  as  in  that  case  it  was 

botmd  under  mortal  sin  to  learn  the  methods  and  the  emperor's  pleasure  ^Joseph  II)  that  one  of  them 

requirements  of  valid  baptism,  as  in  case  of  necessity  should  oe  given  up.    Migazsi  was  forced  to  resigD 

this  duty  frequently  devolves  upon  them.    There  has  from  Waitien. 

been  much  l^islation  on  this  subject  in  various  dioo-  As  Archbishop  of  Vienna  time  brought  him  many 
esan  s^ods,  whose  canons  place  special  obligations  sorrows.  Pious  and  devoted  to  the  Church  as  Maria 
on  parish  priests  and  midwives.  Tne  former  are  re-  Theresa  undoubtedly  was.  yet  during  her  reign  in 
minded  that,  as  midwives  in  conferring  bi^tism  act  in  Austria  the  so-called  Enligntenment  era  (At^pdOrung) 
place  of  the  parish  priest,  he  is  strictly  bound  to  in-  developed  inevitably.  Its  followers  imagmed  that 
torm  himself  whether  they  have  sufBcient  Imowledge  they  could  remedy  all  the  evils  of  the  time  and  pro- 
to  administer  the  sacrament  validly.  Some  diocesan  mote  in  every  way  the  prosperity  of  mankind.  The 
synods  require  that  midwives,  before  being  approved  representative  and  the  hterature  of  the  new  movement 
for  dutV{  take  an  oath  that  they  will  labour  to  procure  were  evervwhere  in  evidence.  Its  opoiHients  were 
the  spiritual  safety  of  infant  and  mother.  When  denounced  as  stupid  obscurantists  and  simpletons, 
a  new-bom  child  has  been  baptised  by  a  midwife,  the  "The  Masonic  lodge  of  the  Three  Canons''  was 
parish  priest  must  inquire  carefully  whether  she  had  printed  at  Vienna  in  1742,  and  at  Prague  in  1749  that 
the  proper  intention  and  administered  the  rite  accord-  of  the  "Three  Crowned  Stars  and  Honestv".  In 
ing  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Church.  If  there  is  a  memorial  to  the  empress  written  in  1769  the  arch- 
any  reason  for  doubt,  the  baptism  is  to  be  repeated  bishop  desi^ated  as  the  primar^r  causes  of  current 
conditionally  (Catech.  Rom.,  II,  ii,  §  43) ;  but  if  it  evils  the  spirit  of  the  times,  atheistic  Hterature,  the 
be  certain  that  the  sacrament  was  properly  conferred  pernicious  mfluence  of  many  professors,  the  condition 
it  may  not  be  repeated  (c.  Maiores,  3  de  bapt;  Cone,  of  the  censorship,  contemporary  literature,  the  con- 
Trid.  S^s.  VI,  can.  ix),  and  only  the  other  ceremonies  tempt  of  the  dergy^  the  bad  example  of  the  nobility, 
are  to  be  supplied  by  the  parish  priest.  Finally,  it  is  the  conduct  of  affaire  of  state  by  irreligious  persons, 
likewise  necessary  that  zmdwives  be  well  informed  on  and  neglect  of  the  observance  of  holv  days.  Upon 
the  Chureh's  teaching  concerning  the  performance  of  each  of  these  disordera  he  spoke  in  noble  terms  of  pro- 
abortion,  found  truth.    The  situation  was  all  the  more  critical 

Fkrraru.  BihL  Can.,  V  (Rome,  1889).  g.  ▼.  Obttoneev  for  the  Church  since  While  her  means  of  resistance  Were 

TAxmTOH,Th$lMof  th€Chwrch(,U>ndon,l^),B.y.Baptum,  diminished,   her   enemies   were   gaimng  adherents. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning.  Meanwhile  Clement  XIV  suppressed  the  Society  of 

Jesus,  but  Migaszi  endeavourra  to  save  it  for  Austria. 

SKigMll,  Chbistdfh  Anton,  Cardinal,  Prince  Areh-  He  wrote  to  the  empress, "  If  the  membere  of  the  order 

bishop  of  Vienna,  b.  1714,  in  the  Tyrol,  d.  14  April,  are  dispersed,  how  can  their  places  be  so  easily  sup- 

1803,  at  Vienna.    At  nine  yeara  of  age  he  entered  the  pUed?    What  expense  will  be  entailed  and  how  many 

school  for  pages  at  the  residence  of  Prince  Bishop  yeare  must  pass  before  the  settled  condition  broken 

Lamberg  at  Passau,  who  later  proposed  him  for  ad-  up  by  the  departure  of  these  priests  can  be  restored?" 

mittance  to  the  Collegium  Germanicum  in  Rome.    At  Just  twenty  yeare  later  the  cardinal  wrote  to  Emperor 

the  age  of  twenty-two  he  returned  to  the  Tyrol  and  Francis,  "  Even  the  French  envoy  who  was  last  here, 

devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  civil  and  canon  law.  did  not  hesitate,  as  I  can  prove  to  your  Majesty, 

Cardinal  Lamberg  took  him  as  conclavist  to  the  Con-  to  say  that  if  the  Jesuits  had  not  been  suppressed, 

clave  of  1740,  whence  Benedict  XIV  came  forth  pope.  France  would  not  have  experienced  that  Revolution 

and  to  him  Cardinal  Lamberg  earnestly  recommenaea  so  terrible  in  its  consequences."     The  archbishop 

his  favourite  Migassi.    The  latter  remained  at  Rome  opposed  as  far  as  they  were  anticlerical,  the  govern- 

"  in  order  to  quench  my  thirst  for  the  best  science  at  its  ment  monopoly  of  educational  mattere,  the  "  enh'g:ht- 

very  source  ".    By  this  he  meant  philosophy  as  proved  ened  "  theology,  the  "  purified  "  law,  the  "  enh^ten- 

by  his  words  spoken  about  this  time;  '^Witnout  a  ment"  literature,  '' tolerance ",  and  encroachment  on 

^owledge  of  pnilosophy  wit  is  merely  a  light  fra-  purely    religious    mattere.    He    also    founded    the 

grance  wnich  is  soon  lost,  and  erudition  a  rude  form-  Priesterseminar",  an  establishment  for  the  better 

less  mass  without  life  or  movement^  which  rolls  on-  preparation  of  young  priests  for  parochial  work.    At 

ward  unable  to  leave  any  mark  of  its  passage,  con-  Rome  he  was  influential  enougn  to  obtain  for  the 

suming  everything  without  itself  deriving  any  benefit  Austrian  monarch  the  privilege  of  being  named  in  the 

therefrom."    In    1745   he   was   appointed   auditor  Canon  of  the  Mass.    Migassi  lived  to  see  the  election 

of  the  Rota  for  the  German  nation.    Owing  to  the  of  three  popes.    Maria  Theresa  and  Kaunits  took  a 

special  friendship  of  Benedict  XIV,  he  was  able  to  lively  interest  in  his  accounts  of  what  transpired  in  the 

condude  several  difficult  transactions  to  the  entire  Conclave  (23  Nov.,  1775-16  Feb.,  1776)  which  elected 

satisfaction  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  who  in  Pius  VI,  who  subsequently  visited  Vienna  during  the 

return  appointed  him  in  1751  coadjutor  to  the  aged  reign  of  Joseph  II.    He  owed  his  election  to  Migassi, 

Arehbi^op    of    Mechlin.    Thereupon     consecrated  leader  of  the  Royalist  party.    How  the  empress  ap- 

bishop,  he  was  soon  removed  to  Madrid  as  ambe^sa-  preciated  Migaszi  is  sufficiently  proved  in  a  letter  she 

dor.    A  treaty  which  he  concluded  pleased  the  em-  wrote  to  him  during  the  Concbve,  "  I  am  as  ilUhu- 

Sress  so  much  that  she  appointed  him  coadjutor  of  moured  as  though  I  had  been  three  months  in  Con- 

bimt  Bishop  Althan  or  Waitzen   (1756);  but  as  clave.    I  pray  for  you;  but  I  am  often  amused  to  see 

Althan  died  before  his  arrival,  and  six  months  later  you  imprisoned." 

Prince  Arehbishop  Trantson  also  died  in  Vienna,  the  When  Frederick  II  heard  of  the  death  of  the  em- 
empress  named  Migaszi  his  successor.  In  1761  press  he  wrote,  "Maria  Theresa  is  no  more.  A  new 
Maria  Theresa  made  him  administrator  for  life  of  the  order  of  things  will  now  begin. "  Joseph  II  during 
See  of  Waitzen,  and  at  the  same  time  obtained  the  his  ten  yeare'  reign  published  6200  laws,  court  ordi- 

Surple  for  him  from  Clement  XIII.    It  is  true  that  nances,   and   decrees  affecting  the   Church.     Even 

[igassi  was  now  in  possession  of  two  sees,  the  reve-  what  is  judicious  in  them  generally  beare  the  stainp  of 

nues  of  which  he  applied  to  their  improvement.    In  haste.    The  firet  measures,  levelled  against  ecclesiasti- 

Waitzen  he  erected  the  cathedral  and  episcopal  palace  cat  jurisdiction,  created  dissatisfaction  as  encroach- 

and  founded  the"  Collegium  pauperumnobiuum"  and  ments  on  the  rights  of  the  Church.    The  number  of 

the  convent.    Indeed  he  built  almost  an  entire  new  memorials  addressed  by  Cardinal  Migaszi  to  Joseph 


n  And  tbe  goremineot  wna  MtooiBhlii^  large.    He  Vitiy,  after  Uignard  had  painted  the  chapel  o(  hb 

cnpoaed  all  the  Josephut  reform  decreei  iajuritiua  to  countrT'  seat  at  Coubert,  took  him  to  Fans  and  ol>- 

theChuroh.     Tbe  "simplified  and  improved  studies",  tained   for  him   admiaaion  to  the   meet   (wlebrait«d 

the  new  methods  of  eoolesiastieal  education  (^enenl  atelier  of  the  time,  that  of  Simon  Vouet.     But  the  one 

Kmioariea),  interference    with  the  constitutions  of  place  which  more  than  all  othen  attn>ct«d  painters 

reli^ouB  orders,  the  suppiwsion  tA  eouventa,  and  was  Rome,  where  a  throng  of  foreign  artists  were  at 

violations  of  her  rights  and  interference  with  the  mat-  that  time  living,  amons  them  PoussId  and  Claude 

rimonial  legislation  of  tbe  Church,  called  for  vigorous  Lonain,  who  had  settled  there  for  life.    Mignaid  was 

protests  oothecardinal's  part;  butthougb  he  protested  a  member  ot  this  colony  for  twenty-two  years.    Here 

unoeasin^y,  it  was  of  no  avail.    To  be  sure,  matters  he  found  Dufresaoy  (1611-65),  who  had  been  his  com- 

'  culminate  in  a  rupture  with  Rome,  and  by  rade  at  Vouet's  and  with  whom  be  formed  a  ctoee 


bis  visit  to  Vienna  I^us  Vl  made  some  impresaioa  friendship,  and  together  they  copied  Caracci'a  famous 
on  the  emperor,  and  the  Holy  See  pronounced  no  frescoes  m  the  Famese  Palace.  But  Dufreenoy  was 
solenm  condemnation  of  Josepnism.    On  12  Msrch,    before  all  things  a  critic,  and  his  best  known  work 


Vienna,  as  suooeasor  of  his  brother  Joseph,  and  as  a  manual  written 

early  as  21  March,  Higassi  presented  him  with  a  in  extremely  el^ 

memorial  concerain|;  the  sad  condition  of  the  Austrian  gant  Latin  verse. 

Church.    He  mentioned  thirteen  "grievances"  and  published afterhis 

pointed  out  for  each  the  means  of  redress:  laxity  in  death   with  notes 

monastic  discioline,  the  general  seminaries,  marriage  by  De  Piles,  and 

licenses,  and  tiie  "Religious  Commission",  which  as-  reprinted  for  a 

sumed  the  position  of  judge  of  the  bishopB  and  their  hundred  years  as  a 

rights.    Finding  his  wishes  only  paitiv  fulfilled,  Bti-  masterpieoe.  This 

gasri  repeatedly  expressed  his  aissatisfactioa.  rare      amateur 

Emperor  Francis  II,  a  Christian  whose  faith  and  wielded  a  great 
eonscience  were  sincere,  ruled  his  people  with  fatherly  educational  influ- 
care.  In  spite  of  this  he  confirmed  the  Josephist  ence  over  Mi- 
system  throughout  his  reizn.  Fornearly a g^eration  gnard,  and  made 
the  French  wars  absorbed  his  attention,  during  which  h  i  m  aei^uainted 
time  tbe  aforesaid  "  Religious  Commiaaioa "  paid  little  with  Venice  and 
heed  to  the  representations  of  the  bishops.  Tbe  car-  its  incomparable 
dinal  insisted  on  its  abolition.  "1  am  in  ell  things  school,  which  our 
your  Majesty's  obedient  subject,  but  in  spiritual  classic  art  had 
matters  the  shepherd  must  say  fearlessly  that  it  is  a  pnrfeased  to  de- 
scandal  to  all  Catholica  to  see  such  fetters  laid  upon  spise.  Mignard 
the  bishops.  The  scandal  is  even  greater  when  such  was  above  all  an 
T  is  vested  in  woridlv,  questionable,  even  openly  adroit,  industrious 

^BTOUB  and  disreputaole  men ".    Age  did  not  di-  workinan,  who  knew  well  how  to flatterpublic  taste 

minish  his  interest  even  In  matteis  apparently  trivial,  and  thus  secure  his  own  advancement.    Hesooumade 

ttor  lessen  the  virile  strength  of  his  speech.    "The  for  himself  a  poeititm  as  portrait-painter  uniaue  in 

dismal  outlook  of  the  Church  in  your  Majesty's  domin-  Roman  society;  his  patrons  were  princes,  cardinals, 

ions  is  all  the  more  ^evous  from  the  fact  that  one  and  three  succesaive  popes — Urban  VIII,  Icmooent 

must  ebuid  by  in  idleness,  while  he  realises  how  X,  and  Alexander  VII. 

easily  the  iitcreasing  evils  could  be  remedied,  how         At  the  same  time  he  produced  many  religious  works, 

easily  your  Majeetv's  conscience  could  be  calmed,  countless  oratory  pictures,  chiefly  those  Madonnas 

tbe  honour  of  Almignty  God ,  respect  for  the  Faith  and  which  came  to  be  known   as   "mignardes".     That 

the  Church  of  God  besecured.  the  rightful  activities  of  name,  intended  at  the  time  to  be  eulogistic,  seems  to 

tbe  priesthood  set  free,  and  religion  and  virtue  restored  us  the  beet  possible  criticism  of  a  type  of  work  marked 

to  tbe  Catholic  people.     All  this  would  follow  at  once,  by  a  certain  conscious  grace  and   preciosity.     One 

if  onlv  your  Majesty,  setting  aside  further  indecision,  feels  a  delicacy  about  saying  positive^  that  these 

wouki  resolve  generously  and  perseveringly  to  close  Hadonnaa  are  not  devotional,  since  they  satisfied  the 

OQce  for  all  the  sources  of  so  gi«at  evils".    The  em-  piousinstinctsofwholegenerationscf  devout  persons; 

percw  in  tact  made  henceforth  greater  and   more  but  it  is  impossible  in  our  time  not  to  perceive  in  them 

numerous  concessions,  each  of  which  was  greeted  by  a  singular  mearmessj   artificialitv,  and  puerility   of 

Migaasi  with  satiafaction.     When  the  pilgriinage  to  feeling.     But  in  the  midst  of  sll  these  labours,  the 

Maria  !<ell,  the  most  famous  shrine  in  Austria,  was  artist  found  time  for  such  large  compositions  ss  the 

ODoe  more  permitted,  the  cardinal  in  person  led  tbe  frescoes  in  tbe  church  of  S.  Carlo  alle   auattro  fon- 

Grst  procesiim.    During  his  long  life  Higassi  strove  tone.    He  thus  attained  an  unquestionable  eminence 

with  unceasiuK  activity  for  tbe  welfare  of  tbe  Church;  in  fresco  painting,  that  pre-eminently  Italian  medium 

and  be  died  full  of  years  and  of  merits.    He  lies  buried  so  little  employed  by  Fiencb  painters. 
in  the  chuieb  of  St.  Stephen.  Under  these  three  forms  his  worka  went  widely 

Wot-namTrmaii,  Crittofon  Antonio  CanlmaJ  Afi^oni.  Bin  exhibited  in  Rome,  where  he  was  compared  to  Guido 

BnfriwnrO>KA.dLM/a*e]duiimiu,nthBportnitof  W^  and  to  Pietro  of  Cortoua.     During  hia  travela  tbrough 

18m),  MB-Ml.  the  greatest  distmction,  and  painted  uardmal  siorsa  b 

C.  WoLFSORUBm.  portrait  and  those  of  the  Princesses  Isabella  and 

Maria  of  Hodena.    On  his  return  to  Rome  (1665)  he 

IGgnird,  FiBRBB,  French  pMnter,  b.  at  Tioyes,  7  married  Anna  Avolara,  an  architect's  daughter,  whose 

November,  1612 ;  d.  at  Paris,  30  May,  16S5.    Thousb  beauty  was  perfect  and  who  pcned  for  his  Madonnas. 

destined  for  the  medical  profession,  Pierre  save  cany  The  reputatitm  of  "Mignard  the  Roman",  as  he  was 

signs  of  bis  true  vocation.     For  one  year  nie  studied  called,  to  distinguish  him  from  his  brother,  "Mignard 

at  Bourges,  under  a  teacher  of  the  name  of  Boucher,  of  Avignon  ".  had  spread  to  France,  where  Louis 

then  for  two  years  at  Fontainebleau,  where,  thanks  XIV  was  beginning  his  personal  reign,  inaugurating 

to  the  works  of  Primatice  and  Rosso,  and  the  coUec-  that  system  which  relied  up<      ''        '  ■    ■ 

tions  formed  there  by  Francis  I,  there  had  been  for  no  lees  than  the  glory  of  arms 

sixty  yean  a  sort  of  national  school.    The  Marshal  gf  monarchy,    (fiKnani  was  sumnioned  back  to  Fraoce, 
X.-19 


290 

and  reached  Paria  (1658),  where  he  met  Molidre,  and  were  good,  aooording  to  the  taste  of  the  period,  imi* 

formed  his  famous  friendship  with  that  poet.  tated  from  Garaocio  and  from  Guido's  mythologies, 

He  foimd  awaiting  him  in  France  the  same  ezoep-  artificial,  pleasing,  facile,  somewhat  heavy  and  weak 

tional  position  that  he  had  enjoyed  in  Italy.    Hardly  in  st^le.    The  best  of  nis  religious  pictures  is  the 

had  he  arrived  when  he  executed  portraits  of  Louis  "Visitation"  in  the  Museum  at  Orleans. 

XIV  and  other  membera  of  the  royal  family.    His  At  last,  Le  Brun  having  died  (1691),  Mijpard,  at 

replv  to  detractors,  who  questioned  his  talent  for  great  the  age  of  ei^ty,  succeeded  to  all  his  offices,  was 

works,  was  the  decoration  of  the  Hdtel  d'Enemon,  solemnly  received  into  the  Academy,  and  in  one 

soon  followed  by  that  of  the  cupola  of  the  Val-de-  session  elected  to  all  its  degrees,  including  that  of 

Grfice.    The  latter,  said  to  be  the  laigest  frescoed  president.    Louvois  having  consulted  him  on  the 

surface  in  the  world,  comprising  two  hundred  colossal  project  of  decorating  the  cupola  of  the  Invalides,  the 

figures,   represents   Paradise.    In   pursuance   of    a  veteran  painter  saw  an  opportunity  of  crowning  his 

formula  dear  to  the  Roman  decorator,  the  throng  of  career  with  an  exceptional  performance,  but  Louvois 

celestial  personages  is  here  displayed  aroimd  the  died,  the  work  was  aelayed,  and  the  artist  lost  all  hope 

Blessed  Trinity — ^theViigin,  the  Apostles,  the  Evange-  of  realizing  his  last  dream.    He  died,  it  may  almost 

lists,  virgins,  and  confessors,  founders  of  orders,  holy  be  said,  with  his  brushes  in  Iiis  hand,  at  the  age  of 

kings  like  Constantino,  Charlemagne,  and  St.  Louis,  e^ty-four.    His  last  work  is  a  picture  in  which  he 

ancL  finally,  Anne  of  Austria,  kneeling,  offering  the  himself  appeara  as  "St.  Luke  painting  the  Blessed 

model  of  the  chureh  dedicated  by  her  to  Je8u  NascenH  Virgin  ". 

Virginique  Matri,    This  style  of  apotheosis,  already  ,  I>«  Moktillb.  YvU^.  ^:  Mf^^*'^,  (Amst^dan^  1731;) 

trite  in  Italy,  rtUl  p«»es8ed  the  merit  of.  novelty  in  JLT ^^^ISIiS.^ S-^ll^T  SuSTS^^S^ 

France.     The  immense  composition,  havmg  cost  its  VAeadSmie  de  PeirUwe  (Paris,  1853);  ConRTALON-DxLAwno. 

author  only  eight  months'  work,  suffera  the  penalty  ^^'  ^  MiQrMrdq;toym,  I78i) ;  Buuyc,  Hitioirt  ^  PeintrtM, 

of. its  hurried  craation.  .The  compyition  lacks  in-  fit,^:^\&^^'^b:T,''^£i''£'i'^i;f^ti 

spiration,  the  colouring  is  feeble  and  neutral  rather  Louvr*  (Paris,  1884). 

tnan  bright,  yet  it  was  a  very  celebrated  work  in  its  Louis  GnxxT. 
time,  because  it  flattered  the  megalomania  and  the 

chauvinism  of  the  public;  France  no  longer  need  envy  BCgne,  jAcquBa-PAUL,  priest,  and  publisher  of 
Italy;  Rome  was  no  longer  at  Rome,  it  was  in  Paris,  theological  works,  b.  at  Saint-Flour,  25  October, 
In  this  way  Milliard's  cupola  took  on  the  character  1800;  d.  at  Paris,  24  October,  1875.  After  completing 
of  a  national  victory,  as  AfoUdre  said  in  his  famous  his  college  courses,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
poem  "La  Gloire  du  Val  de  Grdce";  thus  this  very  of  theology  in  Orleans^  and  while  a  student  there 
mediocre,  though  ambitious,  piece  of  painting  was  filled,  for  a  time,  the  position  of  professor  in  the  fourth 
honourea  at  its  birth  by  the  most  popular  and  class  of  the  college  oi  Ch&teaudim.  He  was  ordained 
"national"  of  French  writers.  Whether  from  policy  priest  in  1824,  and  in  the  following  year  was  made 
or  from  inclination,  Mignard  belonged  to  the  social  pastor  of  Puiseaux,  in  the  Diocese  of  Orleans.  He 
circle  of  Racine,  Boileau,  and  La  Fontaine,  at  a  time  published  a  pamphlet:  " De  la  liberty'',  which  brought 
when  artists  in  France  associated  but  little  with  any  nim  into  conflict  with  his  bishop,  Bninault  de  Beaur&* 
but  their  professional  brethren.  Thanks  to  these  con-  gard,  in  consequence  of  which  he  resigned  his  parish, 
nections,  ne  is  the  artist  of  whom  seventeenth-century  and  went  to  Paris^  where,  in  the  same  year,  he  founded 
literature  has  most  to  say.  Scarron  and  La  Bruy^re  "  L'Univers  Religieux  ",  later  "  L'Univere  ** — a  journal 
acclaimed  his  greatness,  and  as  he  had  the  knack  intended  by  him  to  be  free  from  any  politiod  ten- 
of  turning  his  literary  friendshirra  to  good  account,  dency^  and  concerned  with  Catholic  interests  alone, 
he  was  able  to  maintain  for  thirty  years  his  curious  He  edited  this  paper  until  1836,  and  contributed  to  it  a 
squabble  with  the  Academy.  This  body,  after  a  series  very  great  number  of  articles.  Meanwhile,  he  bad 
of  difficulties,  had  been  definitely  organised  by  Colbert  conceived  the  plan  of  publishing  for  the  use  of  the 
under  the  presidency  of  Le  Brun,  whose  authority  clergy  a  series  of  important,  older  and  newer,  theologi- 
Mignard  would  not  recognize.  Tlie  whole  of  the  court  cal  works,  at  so  moderate  a  price  that  they  mi^t 
faction  which  opposed  Colbert  naturally  took  sides  meet  with  a  wide  circulation,  and  thus  further  an 
with  Mignard,  who,  without  any  official  position,  was  earnest  and  scientific  study  in  ecclesiastical  circles, 
clever  enough  to  keep  up  his  reputation  as  "  premier  For  this  purpose  he  founded  in  the  suburb  Petit- 
painter ",  and  to  add  to  it  that  spicy  opposition  which  Montrouge  a  large  printing  house,  with  aU  tlw  neoes- 
m  France  always  serves  to  carry  an  artist's  reputation  sary  departments,  the  Imprimerie  CathoUque,  where 
farthest.  The  list  of  portraits  executed  by  Mignard  he  employed  more  than  three  hundred  workmen, 
in  the  second  period  of  his  life  includes  all  French  From  1836  he  devoted  his  energies  exclusively  to  this 
society  of  that  time.  The  jroung  queen,  the  Due  great  and  important  undertaking,  which  made  him 
d'Enj|hien.  the  Princess  Palatine,  Chancellor  S^gxiier,  universally  known.  Within  a  relatively  short  time 
the  Due  ae  Beaufort,  Bossuet,  le  Tellier,  Turenne,  he  succeeded  in  publishing  many  volumes  <^  the  older 
\^llacerf,  la  Reynie,  the  Comtesse  de  Grignan,  the  theological  literature,  and  partly  because  of  the  mod- 
Duchesse  de  Chatillon,  Moli^re,  the  famous  Ninon  de  erate  cost,  he  obtained  for  them  a  wide  circulation. 
Lenclos,  all  sat  to  him.  He  piainted  Louis  XIV  ten  We  may  mention  here:  "Scripturse  Sacne  Cursus 
times,  and  on  the  last  occasion  the  king  said  to  him,  Completus"  (28  vols.,  1840-45),  with  excellent  com- 
" Mignard,  you  find  me  changed ''.  "True,  sire",  mentaries  of  older  and  newer  writers  on  each  of  the 
said  the  pamter;  "I  see  a  few  more  campaigns  on  Books  of  Scripture;  "Theologise  Cursus  Completus" 
Your  Blajesty's  brow".  He  iised  for  his  women  (28  vols.,  1840-45) ^  with  treatises  of  many  earlier 
models  a  rather  gaudy  style,  in  which  the  draperies  writers  supplementmg  the  main  articles;  '^D^mon- 
were  somewhat  overdrawn,  and  a  system  of  half-  strations  Evang^liques"  (20  vols.,  1842-53),  in  which 
mythological  emblems  and  allusions  which  faithfully  are  gathered  together  the  apologetic  writings  of  over 
reflect  the  ideals  of  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  Hence  one  hundred  authors  from  every  epoch  of  church 
these  portraits  have  the  same  historical  value  as  those  history;  "Collection  Int^grale  et  Universelle  des 
of  Jjeiy  or  KneUer  at  the  court  of  James  II,  while  Orateurs  Sacr6s"  in  two  series  (102  vols.,  1844-66), 
some  of  them  possess  an  unquestionable  attractive-  containing  the  works  of  the  best  pulpit  orators  of  tl^ 
ness.  But  this  was  only  one  part  of  Mignard 's  work,  preceding  centuries;  "Summa  Aurea  de  Laudibus 
He  decorated  many  residence:ii  public  buildings,  and  Beatse  Marise  Virginis,  .coll.  J.  J.  Bourass^"  (13 
ohurdies.  but  all  that  remains  of  these  works  is  the  vols.^  1866-68) ;  "  Encyclop^e  Th^ologique  ",  an  ez- 
**  Apollo "  ceiling  in  the  castle  of  Balleroy  (Manche).  tensive  collection  of  worics  of  reference,  alphabetically 
Haiwever«  we  know  by  engravings  that  these  works  arranged,  and  not  confined  to  theological  matters 


1 

MIO&ATION  291  MIG&ATION 

alone,  but  including  a  number  of  auxiliary  sciences.  Book  of  Exodus  more  clearly  describes  the  withdrawal 

such  as  philosophy,  geography,  history,  natural  hi^-  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  from  the  land  and  rule  of  an- 

tory,  bibllograpny,  three  series,  containmg  altogether  cient  Egypt.    A  typical  illustration  of  tribal  migra- 

171  vols.,  1844-66.    Several  of  the  dictionaries  of  the  tion  was  the  separation  of  Abraham  and  Lot,  when  the 

collection  are  of  unequal  value,  and  may  be  oonsider&d  latter  gathered  his  substance  and  set  his  face  towards 

as  out  of  date.  Sodom,  while  Abraham  took  his  way  to  the  plains, 

The  most  important  and  meritorious  of  his  pubUca-  founded  a  nation,  and  went  into  history  as  the  Father 

tions  is  the  "  Patrologia  ",  in  two  collections :  "  Patro-  of  the  Mighty.    Of  the  Greeks,  too,  it  may  be  said  that 

logis  Latins  Cursus  Completus",  in  two  series  (217  the  dominant  fact  of  their  leading  epoch  was  the  wan- 

vols,  in  all,  1844-55),  witn  four  volumes  of  indexes  dering  of  the  race,  imtil  its  narrow  borders  widened 

(vols.  218-221,  1862-64),  and   "Patrologis   Graecse  out  into  Magna  Grseda.     Throughout  early  Latin 

Cursus  Gompletus  ",  of  which  one  series  contains  only  literature  runs  the  same  story  of  the  migrations  and 

Latin  translations  of  the  originals  (81  vols.,  1856-61).  conquests  of  the  Latin  race,  reaching  a  dUmax  in  the 

The  second  series  contains  the  Greek  text  with  a  Latin  colossal  structure  of  the  Roman  Empire.    Modem 

translation    (166   vols.,    1857-66).    To  the   Greek  writers  have  discussed  the   fall  of  that  structure 

Patrolopy  there  was   no  index,   but  a  Greek,   D.  and  the  building  of  that  strange  conglomerate  of 

Scholarios,  added  a  list  of  the  authors  and  subjects,  Asiatic  and  European,  of  Germanic  and  Romance 

(Athens,  1879)  and  began  a  complete  table  of  con-  elements,  till  a  new,  and  greater,  Europe  arose  from 

tents   (Athens,  1883).    The  Patrolo^a  Latina  con-  the  old. 

tains  all  the  attainable  published  writings  of  Latin        General  movements  of  population  are  termed  mi- 

eodesiastical  authors  from  the  earliest  known  to  Pope  graUona,    It  is  a  general  term  indicating  a  permanent 

Innocent  III  (d.  1216).    The  Patrolopa  Grseca  m-  change  of  habitat,  i.  e.  a  more  or  less  serious  intent  to 

dudes  the  printed  works  of  Greek  Christian  writers  take  up  permanent  residence  in  the  new  country, 

down  to  the  Council  of  Florence  (1438-39).    The  The  terms  immigration  and  emigration  denote  re- 

intentioD  was  to  choose  for  the  new  issues  the  best  spectively  the  entry  into  and  the  departure  from 

editions  of  each  author,  with  suitable  introductions  any  given  country.    Generallv  speaking,  immigration 

and  critical  additions,  which  plan,  imf ortunately,  was  presents   more   serious   problems  than  emigration. 

not  always  realised.    The  printing,  too,  was  fre-  though  certain  dangers  do  arise  from  an  excess  ox 

quently  unsatisfactory,  and  in  most  of  the  Migne  re-  emigration.    Many  problems  grow  out  of  immigra- 

prints  we  find  a  number  of  misprints  and  errata.    The  tion,  and  to  these,  legislators  and  rulers  have  turned 

great  value  of  the  collection  hes  in  the  fact  that  at  a  their  attention. 

moderate  cost  and  in  a  handy  form  a  great  work  of  Migrations  have  taken  place  under  a  variety  of  oon- 
referenoe  was  produced,  and  a  whole  series  of  rare  and  ditions.  In  general  they  have  been  voluntary:  peo- 
scattered  writmgs  were  gathered  together,  and  made  pies  have  come  and  gone  of  their  own  free  wiU.  ^ut 
easily  accessible  to  the  learned  world.  The  collections  forced  migrations  have  not  been  unknown  in  history, 
had  a  large  circulation,  and  are  widely  used  as  works  aj9  when  a  conquering  people  has  expelled,  killed,  or 
of  reference.  Besides  these  great  collections,  Migne  sold  the  conquered  into  slavery.  The  rule,  however, 
print»l  a  lu'ge  number  of  the  writings  of  single  im-  has  been  to  leave  the  population  on  the  soil  under  con- 
portant  theological  authors,  in  complete  editions,  ditions  more  or  less  severe.  The  latest  principle, 
e.  g«  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas,  Saint  Teresa,  Cardinal  dominant  among. Western  nations,  is  to  disturb  the 
B^ruUe;  the  great  pulpit  orators  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  population  as  little  as  possible,  either  in  their  person 
BiIaa8illon,Flichier;  the  writers  LefrancdePompignan,  or  property.  The  right  to  exile  a  people  has  been 
de  Pressy,  R^gnier,  Thi^bault,  du  Voisin,  de  Maistre,  abandoned,  and  the  noted  case  when  England  trans- 
and  others.  Up  to  1856,  Migne  was  also  proprietor  ported  the  Acadians  in  1755  marks  the  date  when  sen- 
of  a  journal  "La  V^rit^",  which  gathered  articles  timenttumedagainst  it  and  practice  rapidl^r  followed; 
from  papers  of  every  tendency,  and  republished  them  transferred  to  a  new  authority,  as  the  Filipinos  were, 
as  atos  to  a  comprehensive  induction  on  current  ideas  the  people  do  not  migrate.  Indeed,  in  the  treaties 
and  facts.  In  connexion  with  his  Imprimerie  Catho-  transferring  territory  to  new  hands,  the  inhabitants 
lique  were  established  workshops  for  the  production  are  sometimes  expressly  guaranteed  against  expulsion, 
of  religious  objects,  such  as  pictures,  statues^  and  as  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Treaty  of  180^.  En- 
organs.  In  1868  a  great  confla^tion  broke  out  m  the  forced  migration  has  taken  other  forms.  It  has 
printing  house,  which  extended  to  the  entire  Mont-  shown  itself  in  the  organization  of  criminal  colonies, 
rouge  establishment,  destroying  almost  entirely  the  as  seen  in  Tasmania.  It  has  been  practised  by  Russia 
work  of  years,  and  the  valuable  stereotjrpe  plates  of  in  the  attempt  to  settle  Siberia.  While  compulsory 
the  Patrolo^.  The  loss  was  over  six  million  francs,  migration  has  not  played  a  great  part,  assisted  migra- 
but  Migne  did  not  lose  courage,  and  began  at  once  to  tion  has  been  a  large  factor  in  either  inducing  or  direct- 
rebuild.  But  difficulties  accumulated.  The  Arch-  ing  the  movement  of  population.  Assistance  inay  be 
bishop  of  Paris  was  averse  to  the  commercial  elements  given  either  b^  the  lana  which  gives  or  that  which  re- 
in the  woric,  forbade  the  continuance  of  the  business,  ceives  the  emigrant.  An  illustration  of  the  former  is 
and,  finally,  suspended  the  publisher  from  his  priestly  the  aid  given  to  emigrants  from  Prussia  to  Argentine 
functions.  The  Franco-German  war  of  1870  inflicted  and  to  the  Kamerun  region.  In  times  of  colonial  ex- 
great  losses;  then  from  Rome  came  a  decree  condemn-  pansion  this  method  has  been  especially  effective. 
ing  the  misuse  of  Mass  stipends  for  the  purchase  of  I^ospective  colonists  have  been  given  bonuses  in  the 
books,  and  Biigne  was  especially  named  in  ooimexion  form  of  tax-exemptions  and  liberal  grants  of  land ;  the 
with  tins  abuse.  He  died  wimout  ever  having  re-  last  mode  is  best  illustrated  in  the  grants  iu  the  London 
gained  his  former  prosperity,  and  his  business  passed  charter  of  1609-12.  Liberation  from  civil  and  crim- 
into  the  hands  of  Gamier  Freres.  inal  prosecution  was  also  an  effective  means  to  induce 

y ATKKMAV, Dietiannaire  untMrtel de« Contemnmnyw,  4th ed.  migration:  this  was  used  in  England  when  the  jails 

^P««i.  1880).  1290;  PokfMblion,  partie  litiin%r€,1  (Paris.  1868),  ^^^  emptied,  and  debtors  flocked  to  Georgia,  and 

J.  P.  KiBSCH.  when  the  courts  offered  the  choice  of  self-imposed  exile 
'to  accused  and  condemned  persons.    Cases  are  not 

MlgratiOtt. — ^The  movement  of  populations  from  wanting  where  countries  have  attracted  immigrants 

place  to  place  is  one  of  the  earliest  social  phenomena  to  themselves  in  various  ways.    Conspicuous  as  an 

nistory  records.    The  earliest  migration  recorded  in  example  was  the  United  States,  where  for  decades 

the  Bible  was  when,  after  the  confusion  of  tongues,  "contract  labour"  supplied  the  market  and  made  it 

men  wandered  over  the  face  of  the  earth  (Gen.,  xi,  8)  possible  for  absolutely  impecunious  labourers  to  mi- 

under  conditions  only  vaguely  known  to-day.    The  grate  to  America.    So  extensive  h&d  this  assistance 


MIOR4TIOV  292  XIOftATIOir 


become  that  Congress  has  for  many  vean  legislated  Britain.    With  the  industrial  chaoges  in  &idand, 

with  the  view  of  preventing  further  aid  of  this  kind.  when  the  modem  age  dawned,  lessening  supplies  of 

Migration  to-day  differs  in  many  important  par-  food  pushed  men  beyond  tlie  sea.    In  fnore  modem 

ticulars  from  that  of  eariier  times.    Down  to  a  quite  times  the  huneer-stncken  peoples  of  European  lands 

recent  date  peoples  moved  as  tribes,  nations,  or  races,  liave  come  to  the  new  parts  of  the  world,  to  America, 

moving  ana  settling  en  masse.    Taking  forceful  pos-  North  and  South;  to  Australia  and  South  Africa;  from 


session  of  extended  areas,  they  maintained  their  in-  Russia  they  have  pushed  into  Asia,  while  Japan  lays 
dividuality  either  under  colonial  systems  or  as  sepc^  bold  of  outlying  Islands  where  congested  population 
rate  groups;  they  finally  established  nations.  With  may  find  room  for  expansion.  Moreover,  tnere  are 
these  migrating  groups  went  their  own  institutions,  secondaiy  causes  which  play  back  and  forth  with  vary- 
Eige.  religion,  industrial  methods,  and  political  ing  degrees  of  force  ana  effectiveness.  These  causes 
sgal  flfystems.  Usually  they  moved  into  unin-  operate  temporarily  thoughpowerfully.  They  usually 
habited  or  sparsely  settled  areas,  where  no  question  of  act  reciprocally  in  the  different  countries,  and,  like 
amajgamation  could  arise.  With  certain  exceptions,  the  sim  and  moon  affecting  the  tides,  now  oppose  each 
the  Koman  Empire  being  the  most  noted,  migrations  other,  now  act  in  conjunction, 
have  entailed  the  settling  of  a  highly  culturea  people  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  change  in 
among  those  of  a  lower  culture.  In  all  such  cases  of  the  attitude  of  the  principal  govemmoits  resulted  in 
migration  en  masse  the  native  habitalrwas  forever  mater  freedom  for  those  wno  wished  to  migrate, 
abandonkl,  and  the  migrating  tribes,  thoroughly  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  laws 
equipped,  entered  a  new  environment  and  yielded  en-  limiting  or  prohibiting  emigration  were  gradually 
tirelv  to  new  influences.  In  these  particulais  different  modified  or  repealed.  At  this  time  most  countries,  es- 
conditions  now  obtain:  migration  is  effected  by  fam-  pecially  those  of  the  Western  world,  favoured  immi- 
ilies  and  individuals.  These  go  from  dense  and  highly  gration,  and  few  limitations  existed  checking  the  flow 
cultured  populations  where  free  opportimity  ia  usu-  of  population;  free  action  was  thus  secured  to  social, 
ally  closed,  taking  few  possessions  with  them;  their  political,  and  economic  causes.  The  variations  in  the 
language  survives  during  their  own  generation,  and  flow  of  immigrants  to  the  United  States  illustrate  with 
in  the  succeeding  one  is  exchanged  for  the  language  of  special  clearness  the  operation  of  these  causes.  From 
the  adopted  country,  though  they  usually  retain  their  1820  to  1833  the  number  of  immigrsnts  gradually 
religion.  They  must  fit  into  a  new  industrial  system,  increased,  but  as  hard  times  b^pm  here,  culminating 
however,  unlike  their  own.  As  a  rule,  they  renounce  in  the  panic  of  1837,  immigration  fell  ctff.  More 
their  natural  political  allegiance  and  assume  a  new  marked  still  were  the  effects  of  economic  conditions 
political  status,  abandoning  the  relations  attaching  to  from  1846  till  1857.  ,  During  this  period  unusual  ao- 
their  former  status  and  assuming  new  political  and  tivity  showed  itself  in  the  United  States.  Under  the 
contractual  relations.  Such  migration  meatus  to  the  influence  of  Clay's  tariff  measures,  manufactures  had 
emigrants  the  death  of  a  nation,  so  far  as  concerns  grown,  creating  an  enlaxged  demand  for  labour,  which 
them,  while  to  their  new  countrv  it  brines  a  serious  was  not  forthcoming  mm  the  native  population, 
modification,  the  extent  of  which  depends  upon  the  The  opening  of  Western  lands  absorbed  much  of  the 
relative  virility  of  the  newly  added  national  element,  labour  that  otherwise  would  have  gone  into  industry, 
These  characteristics  of  modem  migrations  have  and  also  drew  on  foreim  sources  for  increased  supply, 
given  rise  to  a  threefold  movement.  In  certain  lands.  The  greatest  impulse,  nowever,  was  given  by  the  du- 
as  Germany,  where  migration  to  America  means  a  loss  covery  of  gold  in  CaUfomia  in  1848.  Not  only  was 
to  German  citisenship,  attempts  have  been  made  to  there  a  great  demand  for  labour  on  the  Pacific  Coast; 
colonise,  and  thus  save  the  migrating  persons  to  Ger-  the  effects  of  the  discovery  of  gold  were  more  far- 
man  citisenship  and  culture.  Those  nations,  more-  reachixig.  Prices  were  high,  money  plentiful,  business, 
over,  which  they  enter  look  with  increasing  caution  so  sensitive  to  these  influences,  was  greatly  stimulated, 
and  suspicion  on  the  numbers  and  character  of  the  and  a  heavy  demand  for  labour  was  created.  By  an 
incoming    population.    When    once    admitted,    the  interesting  coincidence  European  economic  conditions 

Problem  presents  itself  of  granting  them  citizenship,  also  favoured  a  heavy  migration.  With  bad  crops 
b  what  extent  shall  the  immigrant  assume  the  rights  and  sunless  summers  throijghout  Europe,  the  climax 
and  duties  of  an  acquired  nationality?  The  problem  was  reached  in  the  potato  famine  of  1847  n  Ireland, 
of  migration  is  thus  inextricably  Doimd  up  with  a  This  destructive  catEunity  occasioned  a  he  migra- 
politi^  one.  tion  from  Ireland  to  the  United  States,  waere  abun- 
Causeb  of  BIigration. — The  primary  cause  of  the  dant  and  increasing  opportunity  was  to  be  found, 
migration  of  peoples  is  the  need  for  larger  food  sup-  At  the  same  time  certain  political  causes  operated  in 
plies.  From  the  time  when  nomadic  peoples  were  Europe.  Notable  among  these  causes  was  the  over- 
oonstantly  migrating  down  to  the  present  westward  throw  of  the  attemptea  revolutions  in  the  German 
movements,  one  pnnciple  has  been  uniformly  fol-  states,  especially  Prussia;  large  numbers  of  the  Liberal 
lowed — they  have  gone  from  areas  of  low,  to  areas  Party  left  Germany.  The  results  of  the  Crimean  War 
of  h^h  food-eupply.  This  has  been  a  constant  im-  are  less  easily  measured,  thouf^  it  probably  sent  a 
peliing  and  expelling  power.  In  the  last  analysis,  certain  numfaier  to  our  shores.  The  operation  of  these 
migration  results  when  toe  forces  of  increasing  popula-  causes  may  be  read  clearly  in  the  foliowxng  statistics: 
tion  and  decreasing  food  supply  are  not  in  equilibrium,  in  1844,  78,615  persons  came  to  our  shores;  in  1845, 
and  it  tends  to  equilibration  of  forces  among  societies  114,371;  in  1846,  154,416:  in  1847,  231^968;  in  1848. 
of  men:  equilibration  of  food  in  relation  to  population;  226,527;  in  1854  the  hign-water  maik  was  reached 
equilibration  of  rights  as  related  to  authontv;  equili-  when  427,833  immigrants  landed  here, 
bration  of  industrial  energv  as  between  labour  and  Eaually  forceful  were  the  causes  of  immigration 
capital.  These  express  in  tne  most  general  terms  the  whicn  manifested  themselves  at  the  dee  of  the  Civil 
meaning  of  migration.  First  came  the  tribal  migra-  War.  Checked  by  the  war,  industr  advanced  by 
tions,  such  asthe  exodus  of  Lot  and  Abraham  towards  leaps  and  bounds  at  its  conclusion,  anti  men  and  capi- 
Zoar  and  their  subsequent  separation  in  search  of  tal  were  in  abnormal  demand.  Immi^tion  fncreasied 
richer  pastures.  Tbe  nomad  tribes  on  the  steppes  of  from  72,183  in  1862,  when  the  national  disaster  was 
Asia  tiuce  up  the  journey  to  the  waterway  to  find  at  its  worst,  to  459,403  in  1873.  During  the  mis- 
richer  pastures  for  their  herds.  The  migration  of  fortunes  following  the  panic  of  1873  the  number  fell 
Qermans,  Slavs,  and  similar  nations  came  later,  and,  (in  1878)  to  138,469.  In  the  eighties  bad  economic 
pushed  on  by  the  same  inexorable  necessity,  they  conditions  a^in  somewhat  influenced  miration  to 
moved  south  from  the  Caspian  and  Baltic  regions,  the  United  States,  when  it  fell  from  788,992  in  1882 
overrunning  Rcnne,  and  taking  possession  of  Gam  and  to  334,203  in  1886.    The  panic   of   1907  and  the 


MXOftATIOir  293  MtOftATtOH 

subsequezkt  hard  tkneB  are  dearly  recorded  in  the  York  and  New  Jersey^.    A  few  Swedes  had  come  te 

attenuated  immigration  to  this  countrsr  in   1008;  Delaware  and  a  spnnkling  of  Finns.    The  French 

whereas  in  I'OO?  it  nad  received  neariy  a  miUion  and  a  were  represented  by  the  Huguenots  in  Georgia  and  in 

Quarter,  in  1908  and  1909  the  figures  amounted  to  only  the  Garolinas.    It  has  been  estimated  that  the  popula- 

tnree  quarters  of  a  million.  tion  of  one  million  in  1750  had  developed  from  an 

Among  the  motives  other  than  economic  which  original  migration  of  80,000.  Additional  racial  modi- 
prompt  emi^tion  is  the  desire  to  escape  militanr  fication  resulted  from  the  annexation  of  new  terri- 
servioe.  This  has  been  especially  operative  in  sucn  tones  of  alien  population.  In  1803,  by  the  treaty 
military  countries  as  Germany.  This  cause  is  much  with  France,  Loiusiana  was  added,  with  some  acoes- 
more  powerful  during,  or  just  after,  a  war.  In  1872-  sion  of  population  and  a  conflideraole  effect  upon  the 
73  there  were  10,000  processes  for  desertion  on  this  customs  and  ideas  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  This  ad- 
account  alone  and  in  great  part  due  to  emi^tion.  dition  was  chiefly  French,  though  a  few  Spaniards  were 
Again  migration  because  of  religious  persecution  has  included.  The  acquisition  of  Florida  in  1821  brought 
been  historically  of  great  importance.  In  past  cen-  a  few  Spaniards,  although  their  influence  is  negligible, 
turies  thousands  went  from  the  Continent  to  JSngland,  The  enlargement  westward,  from  1845,  when  Texas 
from  Ireland  and  England  to  the  Continent  and  to  liie  was  admitted,  till  1848,  when  the  Mexican  Treaty 
New  World,  that  they  might  enjoy  freedom  of  worship,  added  an  extensive  cession,  brought  a  number  of 
In  recent  3rears  these  influences  nave  been  most  power-  Spaniards,  Mexicans,  and  half-breeds.  Following 
ful  in  Russia  and  Turkey,  whence  persecutions  al^  upon  the  Spanish  War  of  1808,  which  resulted  in  an 
fecting  the  Jews  and  the  Greek  Christians  have  sent  accession  of  nearly  8,000,000  of  alien,  mainly  Far- 
large  numbers  of  refugees,  especially  of  the  former  Eastern,  races,  the  extension  of  American  dominion 
class,  to  the  United  States.  Another  cause^  difficult  into  the  Padfic  has  vastly  complicated  the  problem  of 
to  measure,  but  of  mat  influence,  is  the  solicitation  of  nationalisation,  at  the  same  time  rendering  more  diffi- 
relatives  and  friends.  Once  in  the  new  country,  in  cult  the  control  of  immigration  from  the  Orient, 
many  instances  relatives  plan  to  bring  those  left  be-  The  beginning  of  migration  to  the  English  Colonies 
hind,  secure  places  for  them,  aid  them  in  coming,  and  in  America  was  the  Jamestown  settlement  of  1607.  In 
in  general  form  a  centre  of  attraction  in  the  new  land,  New  England  the  first  real  migration  of  any  extent 
drawing  powerfully  on  those  bevond  the  sea.  Along  was  the  company  that  reached  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
with  this  is  the  fear,  periodicallv  recurring  with  the  under  John  £kidicott  in  1628.  Figures  on  the  subse- 
agitation  for  restriction,  that  further  immigration  may  quent  arrivals^  while  not  certainly  accurate,  are  never- 
be  cut  off,  and  at  such  times  considerable  increase  is  tneless  very  mteresting.  The  diversity  of  reli^on 
seen.  This  was  particularly  noticeable  before  the  was  not  so  marked,  though  there  was  some  variation. 
American  l^islation  of  1003.  The  earlv  German  immigrants  were  mostly  Protes- 

A  phase  oithis  subject  which  cannot  be  overlooked  tants.    Maryland  was  settled  bv  Catholics.    Into  the 

and  which  is  of  increasing  importance  in  the  United  South  drifted  a  large  number  of  Huguenots.    In  New 

States  is  the  commercial.    On  the  one  hand  is  an  em-  England  there  was  a  strong  Separatist  element.    The 

ploying  class,  eager  for  cheai>  foreign  labour;  on  the  formation  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  by  Quakers 

other  hiand  are  various  agencies  whose  business  is  the  gave  them  a  stronghold  in  that  commonwealth, 
transportation  of  goods  and  people.    As  the  main        The  beginning  of  immigration  into  the  United 

profits  of,  say,  the  steamship  companies  come  from  States  (i.  e.  of  post-Revolution  immigration)  dates 

the  immigrants  who  travel  in  the  steerage,  the  reason-  from  1780.    Before  that  time  it  is  more  proper  to 

ing  is  dear  to  the  line  of  action  which  they  follow,  speak  of  colonists  than  of  immigrants.    Statistics  aa 

£ver3rwhere,  in  lands  where  migration  originates,  is  the  to  the  aliens  coining  to,  or  returning  from,  the  United 

ubiquitous  immigration  agent.    His  business  is  to  in-  States  are  inaccurate  and  incomplete  from  1780  till 

duce  people  to  migrate.    Exaggerated  reports,  some-  1820.    Not  only  are  the  absolute  figures  unsatisfao- 

times  amounting  to  actual  misrepresentation,  are  too  torv,  but  no  distinction  was  made  between  newcomers 

often  resorted  to.    On  this  legislation  has  had  its  im-  and  returning  Americans;  nor  was  any  attention  paid 

portant  beftring.    The  greatest  influence  exerted  by  to   the    returning   immigrant.    Roughly   speaking, 

the  employing  class  is  bv  means  of  contract  labour,  about  250,000  immigrants  landed  here  from  1780  to 

At  first  iihderally  desirable,  when  labour  was  scarce,  1820.    From  the  meagre  figures  recorded  any  analysis 

this  h^^vaanoe  become  most  unpopular,  and  through  is  imperfect.    The  dominant  elements  were  Eb^sh, 

law  andcfcdverse  popular  opinion  is  now  of  compara-  Scotcn,  and  Irish.    There  came  to  the  United  States 

tively  little  importance.  as  immigrants,  from  1820  to  1010,  a  grand  total  of  more 

IioaaaATioN  to  the  United  States. — ^The  many  than  28,000,000.    The  numbers  by  decades  were  as 

varied  problems  of  immigration  are  best  illustrated  by  follows: — 
its  history  in  the  United  States.    Perhaps  no  more        1«21~1S.'^0  14'^  4^0 

composite  nation  has  existed  since  the  Roman  Empire        ifiQi_iQAn Joo  iok 

engulfed  the  various  nationalities  of  Western  Europe.        JSi   iqIa i  2?q'oc? 

At   a   very    early    period   m   the   history   of  the        Jsti  i«^ qWoYI 

American  Colonies,  the  Negro  was   introduced— a        JSRiIiftTn o^^Tlol 

race  so  renKte,  anthropologicafly,   from  the  first        t22|  foix o'qio'?oi 

colonists  as^K)  be  impossible  of  assimilation.    The        Tool'iSSi i'oli'ail 

American  IniKans,  isolated  from  the  first,  have  ever        taoi  lonn Q^AQS'Sif 

since  been  teftding  to  extinction,  and  hence  need  not        JSai  loin q  oqq  ?S^ 

be  oonsideredias  a  possibiHty  in  the  [problem  of  na-        IWl-lOlO 8,0J8,47O 

tional  and  social  composition.    As  time  passed,  other        The  figures  given  for  the  last  decade  are,  of  course, 

races  cameat^  still  further  complicate   the  prob-  partly  conjectural.    The  statistics  recently  issued  for 

lem.    Besidf  i^ttiese  distinct  racial  elements  must  be  the  }rear  ending  30  June,  1010,  give  a  total  of  1,041,570 

redconed  an  ihfinite  number  and  variety  of  national!-  immigrants  to  the  United  States  for  that  year:  736,- 

ties  mariced  bv  lesser  differences  and  capable  of  assimi-  038  males,  305,532  females.    These  included  102,673 

lation.  -  -  Italians;    128,348  Poles;    84,260  Jews;    71,380  Ger- 

The  settlers  of  the  original  Thirteen  Colonies,  while  mans;   53,408  English.    These  are  the  largest  num- 

fairly  homogeneous,  yet  presented  some  diversity,  bers  of  immigrants  Imown  for  any  year  so  far.  except 

There  were  English,  at  first  the  dominant  element,  the  vears  1007  (1,285,340)  and  1006  (1,100,735).    It 

Irish,  and  Scotcn,  aiKl  persons  of  mixed  British  origin,  will  be  seen,  too,  that  the  last  decade  shows  a  very  large 

There  were  a  goodly  number  of  Qermans  in  Pennsyl-  number  of  immigrants  as  contrasted  with  any  pre vi- 

vania  and  remnants  of  the  Dutch  settlement  in  New  ous  decade.    These  figures  are  only  absolute.    It  is  in 


XIO&ATION 


294 


XIORAnOV 


felative  statistios  tbat  meaning  lies.  ^  From  the  stand- 
Doint  of  sodal  significance  the  relation  between  the 
influx  of  population  and  the  native  population  is  the 
important  concern.  This  is  true,  considered  from  the 
country  ^ving  or  the  coimtry  receiving  the  inmii- 
grants.  The  following  figures  show  the  percenta^ 
of  the  native  and  of  the  alien  population  for  a  series 
of  decades: — 


1850      -native 

1860 

1870 

1880  " 

1890 

1900 


it 


It 


90-3 
86-8 
85-6 
86-7 
85-2 
86*3 


alien 

u 
It 

It 
tt 


9-7 
13-2 
14-4 
13-3 
14-8 
13-7 


In  1890  there  were  17,314  foreign  bom  to  each 
100,000  native;  in  1900  the  proportion  was  15,886  to 
100,000.  The  largest  proportion  of  foreign-bom  is  in 
North  Dakota,  which  in  1890  had  42.7  per  cent;  in 
1900,  35.4  per  cent  foreign-bom.  In  1900  there  were 
seven  states  with  more  than  25  per  cent  foreign-bom. 
North  Carolina  had  in  1900  the  lowest  percentage  of 
foreigners,  two-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  the  averse  in 
the  Southern  States  being  below  5  per  cent.  From 
these  relative  figures  it  is  clear  that  the  effect  of  im- 
migration is  not  materially  changing. 

So  also  as  regards  emigration.  Not  the  absolute 
numbers  leaving,  but  the  migration  relative  to  the 
total,  and  again  to  the  annuiu  excess  of  births  over 
deatns,  is  significant.  A  very  large  migration  from 
a  country  with  a  very  hish  birth-rate  probably  has  no 
effect,  or  only  a  slight  effect.  When  a  million  a  year 
leave  a  countr^r  like  China,  it  merely  means  that  famine, 
disease,  infanticide,  etc.,  are  less  important  factors  in 
keeping  down  population;  the  greater  the  migration, 
the  less  burden  the  remaining  population  must  bear. 
In  many  Westem  countries  trus  is  not  the  case,  and 
when  heavy  emigration  takes  place  the  nation  may  be 
materially  weakened  either  for  war  or  peace.  The 
following  figures  illustrate  this  condition:  out  of  every 
1000  inhabEants  of  Italy  6-87  migrated  in  1888;  from 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  7-46;  from  Scotland  8-88; 
from  Ireland  15*06;  from  Sweden  9*86;  from  Germany 
onlv  2*  10.  Most  remarkable  has  been  the  effect  upon 
Ireland,  where  so  great  has  been  the  emi^tion  smce 
the  potato  famine  that  the  population  is  now  little 
more  than  half  what  it  then  was,  this  being  about  the 
decrease  which  would  be  produced  by  an  emigration 
of  15  in  1000  during  a  generation. 

Statistics  require  analysis.  Immigration  statistics 
are  no  exception  to  the  rule,  and  much  meaning  may 
be  drawn  from  them  by  proper  analysis.  Immigrants 
are  not  merely  so  many  units,  so  many  homogeneous 
things  to  be  blocked  off  in  columns  of  hundreds, 
thousands,  and  millions,  and  then  abandoned.  Immi- 
grants are  human  beings,  statistics  must  be  dealt  with 
m  the  light  of  that  fact,  and  careful  account  must  be 
taken  of  all  the  conditions  to  which  their  lives  are  sub- 
ject. These  cover  age,  sex,  training,  traditions,  and 
property.  Of  these  tne  most  obvious  and  significant 
are  age  and  sex.  As  to  age,  immigration  to  the  United 
States  has  always  drawn  heavHv  upon  adult  life,  the 
mass  of  immigrants  coming  to  tne  United  States  dur- 
ing their  productive  period.  Of  German  immigrants 
up  to  1894,  upwards  of  60  per  cent  were  between 
the  ages  of  fifteen  and  forty-nve.  Of  all  immigrants 
to  the  United  States  in  1887,  70*51  per  cent  were  be- 
tween fifteen  and  forty.  In  1909,  out  of  751,786  im- 
migrants admitted,  624,876  were  between  14  and  44 
years  of  age;  88,393  were  under  14,  and  18,517  were  45 
or  over.  These  figures  indicate  about  the  normal  age 
conditions  of  immigrants  coming  to  the  United  States, 
serving  to  emphasize  the  lai^  amount  of  ready  labour 
brought  in,  and  the  large  addition  to  the  labour  foroe 
of  the  country  at  a  very  slight  cost.  Caution  is 
needed,  however,  in  calculating  the  viJue  of  this  in- 
flux of  foreign  labour.    Some  have  taken  the  average 


cost  of  raising  a  labourer  to  the  produetive  sta^; 
others  have  estimated  what  value  of  goods  this  foreign 
labour  would  produce.  The  better  wav  is  to  reckon 
the  profits  attributable  to  immigrant  laoour  in  excess 
of  their  expense  to  the  new  country;  this  would  give 
the  actual  value  accruing  from  the  immigration. 

As  regards  sex  among  immigrants,  males  have  al- 
wajrs  far  exceeded  females.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
statistics  of  1909:  out  of  the  total  arrivals  of  751,786 
during  that  year,  519,969  were  males  and  231,817 
(somewhat  less  than  one-third)  were  females;  again, 
in  1910,  out  of  1,041,570  immigrants,  736,038  were 
males.  This  tends  to  destroy  the  equilibrium  between 
the  sexes  in  the  countries  concerned.  It  l^uds  in 
many  instances  to  a  laiige  withdrawal  of  monev  from 
the  United  States  to  the  home  land.  It  retains  the 
interest  of  the  immigrant  in  his  native  land,  and  leads 
many  to  return  to  families  from  which  they  have  only 
temporarily  separated.  It  increases  tbiat  shifting 
population,  especially  in  the  large  cities,  and  greatly 
augments  the  numbers  of  the  '*  birds  of  passage". 
On  the  whole,  the  results  are  unfortunate.  The  con- 
dition is  far  more  marked  with  certain  nationalities. 
The  characteristic  feature  of  Chinese  immigration  to 
the  United  States  has  been  the  absence  of  women.  The 
tendency  among  Italians  to  leave  their  families  at  home 
is  strong.  Of  165,248  immigrants  from  the  South  of 
Italy  in  1909,  there  were  135,080  males  and  30,168 
females.  From  Northern  Italy  the  proportion  was 
less  marked:  18,844  males  to  6,306  females.  From 
Ireland  came  15,785  males  and  15,400  females.  In 
the  case  of  the  Japanese  more  women  than  men  im- 
migrated to  the  United  States. 

Statistics  of  departing  emigrants  have  not  been 
kept  with  accuracy  and  completeness;  hence  it  is  diffi- 
cult, if  not  imposBioIe,  to  know  just  how  many  foreign- 
ers actually  reside  in  the  United  States.  In  1908 
there  entered  the  country  782,870  immigrant  aliens. 
The  same  year  saw  395,072  depart.  These  figures  for 
that  year  show  a  net  gain  of  387,797,  a  rather  small 
number.  Of  course,  tnis  number  of  departures  was 
exceptional — resulting  from  the  panic  of  1907.  Out  of 
a  total  of  751,786  landing  in  1909,  as  many  as  225,802 
departed,  leaving  a  net  increase  of  525,984. 

The  study  of  illiteracy  in  connexion  with  immigza- 
tion  reveals  the  foreigners  to  us,  enlai^ges  our  Imowl- 
edge  of  the  coimtries  from  which  they  come,  and  helps 
to  explain  the  conditions  of  literacy  or  illiteracy  in  the 
United  States.  Moreover,  as  it  is  strongly  urged  that 
illiteracy  should  exclude  immigrants,  existing  condi- 
tions as  to  foreign  education  wul  help  to  set  the  limits 
to  this  form  of  regulation.  The  statistics  on  this 
phase  of  the  subject  are  kept  fairly  constant  by  the 
shifting  of  the  sources  of  migration  from  the  north  to 
the  south  of  Europe.  As  education  of  the  masses  has 
not  advanced  as  rapidly  in  the  countries  now  supply- 
ing the  immigrant  as  in  countries  farther  north,  so  the 
percentage  of  illiteracy  does  not  fall  with  the  general 
advance  of  education.  In  1909,  out  of  a  totalimmi- 
gration  of  751,786,  the  totally  illiterate  numbered 
191,049.  This  number  takes  m  only  those  over  14 
years  of  age ;  but,  as  the  great  majority  of  those  coming 
are  over  14,  and  those  under  that  age  are,  probably, 
more  generally  educated,  thev  may  be  neglected. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  of  all  over  14  years  in  1909 
was  29;  in  1907  it  was  30;  in  1906  it  was  28.  There  is, 
then,  no  general  diminution  in  illiterecy  among  im- 
migrants to  the  United  States.  The  degree  of  iSiter- 
acy  among  those  from  Southern  Europe  is  consider- 
ably above  the  average;  among  those  from  northern 
Europe  a  good  deal  below. 

Migration  as  ArrEcnNa  Other  CouirnuEs. — 
The  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  a  larce 
migration  to  South  America.  The  Argentine  Repub- 
lic has  presented  interesting;  phases  of  the  subject. 
For  half  a  centuiy  immigration  has  been  an  object  of 
public  attrition  and  statistical  record.    There  are 


Bna&ATION  295  Bna&ATION 

about  200,000  immigrants  amiiially,  and  about  80,000  teenth  century,  the  teitching  of  natural  rights  and  an 

emigrants.    In  1907  there  were  209,103  immigrants  insistence  upon  the  indi  viduaFs  privilege  to  go  to,  and 

and  90,190  emigrants.     Of  the  immigrants  there  were  remain  in,  tnat  part  of  the  world  which  best  suited  his 

90,282  Italians,  S6,606  Spaniards,  and  sprii^ingB  of  fancy.    Thus  was  a  condition  reached  when  limita- 

other  nationalities.    In  1909  there  entered  Argentina  tions  could  be  removed.    In  England,  in  1824,  the 

125,497  Spaniaids  and  93,479  Italians,  with  small  law  limiting  emigration  was  repealed.    In  Continental 

numbeis  m  Russians,  Germans,  etc.    Since  1857  the  countries  the  same  liberal  policy  has  obtained.    In 

balance  of  immigrants  against  emigrants  has  been  Russia,  in  European  Turkey,  and  in  certain  Oriental 

2,550,197.    There  have  migrated  to  Brazil  since  the  lands  the  old  policy  is  still  partially  prevalent,  though 

records  were  kept,  2,723,964.    In  1908  Brazil  received  in  these  countries  more  liberal  measures  are  being 

94,695  immigrants.    In  1909  there  migrated  from  the  adopted.    But,  generally,  there  is  no  longer  question 

German  Empire  24,921,  of  whom  19,930  came  to  the  of  prohibiting  emigration,   but  rather  of  encourag* 

United  States.    Italy  in  1908  lost  486,674  emigrants  ing  it,  and  always  of  making  regulations  for  the 

and  received  back  281,000.    Austria^Hungary  sent  arrival  and  departure  of  emigrants.    European  gov- 

out  386,528  in  1907,  of  whom  352,983  went  to  the  emments  have  undertaken  this  control  partly  on 

United  States.    In  1902,  55,368  Russians  emigrated  their  own  account,  partly  in  co-operation  with  the 

to  the  United  States;  in  1903,  68,105;  in  1904,  80,892;  United  States.    The  fortunate  sentiment  constantly 

in  1905,  72,475;  in  1906,  112,764.  grows  stronger  that  joint  action  is  necessary  to  suc- 

Leqal  Control  op  Migration. — ^The  l^al  control  oessful  regu&tion. 
of  migration  b^an  when  it  ceased  to  be  collective  and  France  is  the  countrv  where  emigration  plays  the 
b^an  to  be  inoividual.  Laws  have  been  passed  pre-  smallest  part.  With  a  oirth-rate  insome  yeara  above, 
venting  people  from  leaving  their  native  land,  and  in  others  sliehtly  below,  the  death-rate,  she  has  no 
also,  by  the  country  of  destination,  forbidding  ^  or  surplus  popiuation.  It  nas  been  truly  said  that  Ger« 
regulatmg  entrance  thereto.  Extensive  regulation  many  has  population  to  spare,  but  no  territory;  Eng- 
has  been  found  necessary  applying  to  transportation  land  has  an  excess  of  both  people  and  territory*  but 
companies  and  their  agents,  the  means  of  transporta-  France  has  no  surplus  people  and  little  vacant  land, 
tion,  treatment  en  route  ana  at  terminal  points.  ^  The  The  annual  emigration  from  France  is  6000.  The 
justification  of  public  interference  is  to  be  found  in  the  total  since  1860,  probably  not  more  than  300,000, 
right  of  a  nation  to  control  the  variations  of  its  own  The  regulations  in  France  deal  almost  exclusively 
population.  The  highest  necessity  is  that  arising  with  the  means  of  transportation,  the  condition  ol 
from  war:  on  this  eround  nations  almost  imiversally  ships,  waiting-room  inspection,  the  health  and  moraU 
regulate  very  doeeiy  the  movements  of  population,  of  the  emigrant,  etc.  There  are  no  ^neral  legal  bar- 
forbidding  emigration,  that  they  may  not  lose  their  riers  to  free  miration.  The  same  thmg  may  be  said  of 
soldiers,  and  guarding  immigration  as  a  military  pre-  Belgium  and  Holland.  The  emigration  law  of  Italy  of 
caution.  Restrictive  measures  are  also  justified  on  1901  is  the  most  thorough  enactment  among  the  laws 
grounds  of  health  and  morals,  and  on  the  general  of  the  European  states:  it  places  matters  concerning 
ground  that  a  national  family  has  a  risht  to  say  who  emigration  under  the  Foreign  Office;  all  persons  leav- 
shall  Join  it.  Historically  speaking,  tne  right  of  the  ing  Italy  must  register  with  the  Government;  persons 
individual  to  emigrate  is  of  rather  recent  date.  The  under  14  years  may  not  leave  alone;  parents  and 
old  theory  was  that  a  man  may  not  leave  his  native  guardians  must  leave  their  children  or  wards  in  com- 
land  without  the  consent  of  the  ruler.  This  situation  petent  hands.  Strict  care  is  taken  that  persons  shall 
arose  from  a  variety  of  causes.  After  the  dissolution  not  take  passage  who  will  be  liable  to  return  under 
of  the  feudal  system,  the  population  carried  some  of  foreign  immigration  tests.  A  fund  has  been  created 
the  advanta^  and  some  of  the  incumbrances  of  that  with  which  to  care  for  those  who  are  forced  to  return, 
system  over  mto  the  monarchic  state.  One  of  its  lead-  These  countries,  constantly  losing  population,  have 
ing  principles  was  the  fixedness  of  the  mass  of  the  peo-  so  far  had  few  problems  connected  with  immigration, 
pie  to  the  soil.  Again,  in  England,  after  the  rava^  Immigration  into  them  is  practically  unrestricted. 
of  the  Great  Plague  in  1351,  laws  were  enacted  requir-  In  Germany,  on  the  contrary,  very  minute  and  effec- 
ing  people  to  remain  in  their  own  parish  or  town.  As  tive  control  is  exercised.  Besides  its  conformity  to 
time  passed,  and  the  industrial  revolution  brought  their  general  practice  of  close  public  regulation,  cer- 
its  changes,  this  legislation  still  farther  limited  free-  tain  special  conditions  urge  sucn  a  course.  Germany 
dom  of  movement.  Furthermore,  when  the  patii-  is,  of  all  lands,  most  completely  organised  for  military 
archal  idea  of  the  State  gave  way  to  the  military,  the  purposes;  a  vigorous  attempt  is  constantly  made, 
personal  bond  of  national  unity  yielded  to  the  im-  therefore,  to  prevent  desertion  from  the  military 
personal,  but  the  obligation  of  the  subject  as  a  mem-  forces,  wnether  with  the  coloura  or  in  the  Reserves, 
ber  of  this  new  national  family  did  not  weaken,  the  Hence  their  laws  touching  the  emigration  of  eligibles 
presumption  being  that  no  one  could  abrogate  this  al-  are  very  strict,  and  treaty  rights  for  such  persons  who 
legianoe.  The  opposition  to  emigration  was  based  go  to  forei^  countries  are  veiy  uncertain  and  imper- 
upon  military  necessity,  upon  the  desire  to  maintain  ted.  Agam,  up  to  a  recent  date  Germany  has  been 
a  strong  industrial  population  at  home,  upon  the  of  all  lands  the  point  of  departure,  not  only  of  her 
jeadousy  existing  among  the  nations,  and  upon  the  de-  own,  but  of  the  emigrants  of  other  European  states, 
sire  to  keep  the  nation  intact.  Thb  has  been  true,  not  merely  because,  geographically, 

Gradually  this  attitude  toward  migration  was  aban-  she  lies  in  the  pathway  of  commerce,  but  also  because 
doned.  The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  extended  the  right  for  a  long  time  the  traffic  went  out  from  German  ports 
to  migrate  for  religious  reasons.  The  great  migra-  and  over  German  steamship  lines.  Germany  has  oeen 
tions  westward,  as  discovery  and  the  settlement  of  compelled  to  guard,  not  only  her  own  emigrants,  but, 
new  lands  became  a  dominant  interest,  did  much  to  what  has  permips  been  a  more  pressing  necessity  and 
break  the  crust  of  conservatism  and  allow  life  to  op-  more  difficult  task,  the  inspection  of  the  alien  emi- 
erate  in  all  ways  more  freely.  The  development  of  ^rant.  The  many  trans-German  emigrants  are  sub- 
means  of  transportation  made  trans-oceanic  voya^  jected  to  two,  and  often  to  three,  inspections  before 
possible,  leading  immigrants  into  new  and  unoccupied  they  finally  embark.  Of  such  persons  the  Russians 
areas.  The  growth  of  a  colonial  system  under  wnich  are  the  most  rigorously  dealt  with:  they  must  have 
the  mother  country  reaped  large  profits  broke  down  Russian  passports  and  tickets  through  to  their  desti- 
the  narrow  policies  and  removed  the  old  prejudices,  nation  and  tneir  baggage  must  be  examined  and  dib- 
and  migration  to  the  colonies  was  encoura^d — in  infected. 

some  instances  enforced.     Along  with  these  changed        In  the  United  States  immigration  problems  have 

•onditions  came  the  radical  philosophy  of  the  eigh-  developed,  demanding,  and  finally  receiving,  minute 


xioRATioir  296  uiakkTioa 

and  comprehensive  regulation.  As  the  subject  has  influence  and  other  favouiable  cooditioiis  there  was  a 
such  important  intemationpl  bearing,  the  treaties  vast  increase  in  immigration  by  1866.  From  72,183 
covering  the  subject  demand  attention.  The  most  in  1862,  the  numlwrs  sprang  up  to  332,577  in  1866. 
noted  of  these,  dealing  with  the  immigration  of  In  the  early  seventies  sentiment  began  npidly  to 
Chinese,  was  the  famous  Buriinsseune  Treaty  of  1868,  form  against  certain  types  of  immigrant,  lliis  was 
between  the  United  States  and  Cnina.  In  this  treaty  partly  due  to  the  organisation  of  me  labour  move- 
the  contracting  parties  freely  and  fully  recognise  the  ment.  It  was  more  largely  due  to  a  vast  increase  of 
inalienable  right  of  people  everywhere  to  migrate.  Oriental  migration.  Acts  were  passed  prohibiting 
They  also  recognise  tnat  migration  should  be  volun-  the  equipping  of  sh^  to  carry  on  the  trade  in  coolies, 
tary,  and  they  a^pee  to  allow  such  migration  to  their  A  system  of  coolie  labour  had  developed  amount- 
respective  coimtnes.  In  1880  a  secondtreaty  between  ing  practically  to  slavery.  In  1875  any  person  con- 
the  United  States  and  China  reversed  the  previous  tracting  for  coolie  labour  was  liable  to  mdictment 
policy,  and  allowed  each  country  at  its  option  to  pro-  for  felony.  ^  From  1877  on,  an  opposition,  centred 
Libit  further  immigration,  a  provision  upon  which  the  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  developed  against  the  further 
United  States  act^  in  1882.  The  last  treaty  (upon  inunigration  of  Chixiese  labour,  and  this  first  took 
which  subsequent  legislation  touching  Chinese  immi-  shape  in  the  treatv  ol  1880  mentioned  above.  On 
g^tion  has  been  based)  was  signed  in  1894.  A  treaty  6^  May,  1882,  an  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  for- 
similar  to  the  Burlingame  Treaty  was  concluded  b^  bidding  the  admission  of  Chinese  labour  for  ten  years, 
tween  the  United  States  and  Japan  in  1894.  This  This  Act,  with  certain  changes,  has  been  continued  to 
agreement  ^vea  to  the  subjects  of  either  contracting  the  present  day.  No  Chinese  labourer  may  now  enter 
power  the  right  to  enter,  and  reside  in,  the  country  of  the  United  States.  No  Chinese  may  become  a  dtisen 
the  other  power.  A  treatjr  granting  privileges  of  im-  unless  he  be  bom  here,  in  which  case  citisenship  is 
migration  to  Italians  was  signed  by  the  United  States  secured  to  him  by  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  of  the 
an3  Italy  in  1871.  This  treaty  marks  the  beginning  Constitution,  These  restrictions,  both  as  to  entry 
of  extensive  emiflration  from  that  country  to  the  and  natiiralisation,  have  been  from  time  to  time  ex* 
United  States.  Thus,  through  treaties  a  certain  tended  tiU  they  now  apply  to  nearly  all  Orientals, 
amount  of  control  has  been  exercised  over  immigra-  The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  Chinese  im- 
iMm.  But  the  problem  of  controlling  immigration  migration  to  the  United  States  in  sixteen  typical 
into  the  United  States  has  been  complicated  oy  the  years. — 
dual  system  of  government,  state  and  national.    Un-        -tomj  m  m^    ^qqi  h  qqa 

til  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  1787  the  matter        Jg?g 7»?f3    JgSi Sq'Ito 

rested  entirely  with  the  state  governments.    In  that        jg^g 3*215    1885 '  22 

instrument  no  direct  nant  of  power  is  made  to  the        jg^Q 6*117    1890 1  716 

Federal  Congress  for  the  exclusive  control  of  immi-        jg^g 3*702    1895 *975 

gration.    It  was  onlv  after  considerable  litigation,        jg^Q 15*714    1900 1.247 

and  several  decisions  by  the  Supreme  Court,  that  Con-        jg^g 16*437    1906 1544 

rnsB  was,   in    1876,   given  c^cdusiye    JurWiction.        1880.* !  i.*!:  1 !  i!  5)502    lOlo! '. ". '. ! :!:::: !  1)770 
Among  the  earlier  attempts  to  regulate  the  matter  '  ' 

were  laws  passed  by  some  of  the  states,  particularly        It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  C3iinese  Immigration 

New  York  and  Massachusetts.    In  1824  New  York  Law  has  been  fairly  successful  as  a  measure  orexdu- 

passed  a  law  covering  many  details  of  registration,  sion. 

reports,  head  tax,  etc.  This  act  went  on  appeal  to  the  The  first  statute  covering  the  general  question  of 
Supreme  Court,  which  voided  the  law  as  conflictins  immigration  was  enacted  by  Congress  on  3  August, 
with  the  authority  of  Congress  to  control  international  1882.  The  purpose  of  this  and  subsequent  legislation 
relationships.  Other  acts  touching  certain  phases  of  has  been  threefold.  ^  It  was  necessary  to  provide  for 
immigration  were  all  declared  null  by  the  court,  and  a  more  effective  administration  of  matters  of  immigra- 
the  exclusive  jurisdiction  lies  to-day  in  the  Federal  tion.  This  involved  the  concentration  of  authority  in 
Congress.  federal  hands  and  the  creation  of  a  fund  for  this  pur- 
The  activity  of  the  Federal  Congress  dates  from  pose.  The  Act  of  1891  gave  the  control  of  immi^a- 
1819,  and  was  called  forth,  not  by  any  desire  to  limit  tion  to  the  Federal  Government  exclusively,  doing 
the  quantitv  or  quality  of  the  immigration,  but  by  the  away  with  concurrent  administration.  The  Act  of 
necessity  of  checking  the  brutal  agencies  engaged  in  1882  had  begun  the  formation  of  a  fimd  by  imposing  a 
transportation.  The  first  statute  covering  this  was  head-tax  of  50  cents  on  each  alien  immigrant  entering 
passed  by  Congress  in  1819.  It  limited  the  num-  a  port  of  the  United  States;  this  tax  was  afterwards 
oer  of  persons  any  one  ship  could  bring;  at  first  (1903)  raised  to  92  per  head,  and  it  now  produces 
only  two  persons  per  ton,  and  later  only  one  per-  enou^  to  carrv  on  the  department  and  leave  a  slight 
son  per  two  tons,  of  the  ship's  displacement.  Suose-  surplus.  The  law  of  1891  created  the  office  of  super- 
quent  acts  made  provision  for  more  sanitary  ships,  intendent  of  immigration,  later  changed  to  commit- 
better  food ,  and  more  space  to  each  immigrant.  Dur-  sioner-general  of  immigration.  The  Act  of  1903  added 
ing  the  first  half  of  the  century  no  serious  opposition  much  to  the  needed  control.  It  created  a  number  of 
arose  to  the  immigrant  as  such.  Beginnmg  with  excluded  classes,  which  may  be  grouped  imder  three 
1844,  at  the  rise  of  the  Knownothing  Party,  a  new  general  heads:  those  physically,  those  mentally,  and 
attitude  was  taken  by  many.  This  party  grew  strong,  those  morally  diseased.  Under  the  neneral  head  of 
especially  in  the  South,  and  from  1844  to  1856  it  physically  unsound  are  many  excluded  classes,  the 
carried  many  states.  It  elected  members  to  Congress  most  stringent  rules  covering  those  having  loathsome 
imd  to  local  assemblies,  and  governors  of  states.  C^  and  contagious  diseases,  especially  trachoma  and  tu- 
of  its  tenets  was  opposition  to  immigration,  and  as  a  bercular  affections.  Idiots  and  lunatics  are  excluded, 
party  strong  in  tne  Southern  states  it  did  much  to  Among  those  regarded  by  the  Act  as  moralhr  unfit,  or 
determine  that  antipathy  of  the  South  to  immigration  "the  anti-social  class  ",  are  Anarchists  ana  those  ac- 
which  was  maintained  for  many  years.  The  close  of  cused  of  plotting  against  government,  all  criminals 
the  Civil  War  marks  a  new  attitude  towards  the  im-  and  fugitives  from  justice,  all  women  immigrating  for 
migrant.  It  was  a  period  of  rapidly  expanding  in-  immoral  purposes,  all  prostitutes  and  procurers  of 
dustries  and  there  was  an  increased,  indeed  an  girls  or  women  for  purposes  of  prostitution.  There  is 
abnormal,  demand  for  labour.  An  Act  was  passed  provision  excluding  paupers  and  those  who  are  likely 
by  Congress,  in  1864,  which  great! v  encouraged  the  to  become  a  public  charge.  All  those  are  excluded 
importation  of  labour,  really  authorising  contract  who  have  come  imder  contract  to  labour,  or  who  have 
labour.    This  Apt  was  operative  till  1868.    ynder  it§  ^eir  expenses  paid  by  anpther,  except  tha^  immi- 


MiakkTtOK 


297 


bhq&ation 


grants'  relatives  may  send  mone^  to  aid  them.  Oer- 
taiQ  of  these  cases  are  made  criminal:  importation  of 
women  for  lewd  purposes^  prepaying  passages  under 
ooQtract  to  labour,  promismg  employment  to  aliens 
throu^  advertising,  bringing  diseased  aliens  in  by 
other  than  regular  routes — all  these  are  constituted 
criminal  offences  against  the  United  States. 

The  Act  of  20  February,  1907,  is  the  latest  statute  of 
the  United  States  dealing  comprehensivelv  with  im- 
migration.*^ It  constitutes  the  proceeds  of  the  head- 
tax  a  permanent  immigrant  fund  (changed  by  the  Act 
of  1909),  formed  so  that  these  moneys  go  to  tlie  general 
fund.  This  law  of  1907  still  further  extends  the 
limits  of  the  excluded  classes.  It  makes  the  prohibi- 
tioa  of  contract  labour  stricter,  as  well  as  the  exclusion 
of  lewd  women  and  girls,  and  of  the  procurers  of  such. 
It  forbids  the  advertising  by  anyone  for  purposes  of 
securing  labour  to  come  to  this  country:  limitmg  such 
advertisement  to  furnishing  necessary  aata  of  sailing, 
rates,  etc.  This  Act  also  requires  that  a  list  and  full 
descriptions  of  the  aliens  coming  with  each  ship  shall 
be  furnished.  Provision  is  also  made  for  deporting 
such  persons  as  may  be  illegallv  landed,  the  time  for 
leg^  deportation  bein^  extended  from  one  year  to 
three  years.  The  Circuit  and  District  Courts  are  given 
fidl  jurisdiction  in  all  matters  arising  under  the  im- 
migration laws.  The  Act  furthermore  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  calling  of  an  international  conference  to 
discuss  matters  relating  to  immigration.  Some  details 
are  relegated  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor. 

ElFFBcrs  OF  Legislation  in  ths  Unitbd  Statks. — 
Restrictive  legislation  shows  its  results  in  three  WAys; 
the  number  of  immigrants  debarred  and  returned  im- 
mediately on  attempting  to  land;  the  number  sub- 
sequently apprehended  and  deported ;  the  number  of 
those  stoppea  at  the  port  of  departure.  Figures  are 
obtainable  on  the  first  and  second  of  these  classes; 
they  are  only  conjectured  as  to  the  last.  It  is,  how- 
ever, unfair  to  measure  the  effects  of  legislation  by 
these  tests  alone;  the  deterrent  influences  are  also 
powerful.  During  the  past  seventeen  years  about  one 
per  cent  of  all  those  comine  to  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  have  been  either  aebarrea  from  or  deported 
after,  entering.  The  following  table  shows  approx- 
imately the  percentage  of  immigrants  debarred  or  de- 
ported for  all  reasons  in  certain  typical  yean  during 
that  period: — 


Year 

GrooB 
Immicmtioa 

Debarred 

Deported 

Total 
Ebcduded 

Peroent- 
Ezduded 

1802 

670.663 

2.164 

637 

2.801 

•483 

1896 

268.536 

2.410 

177 

2t506 

1004 

lOOO 

448.672 

4.246 

366 

4.002 

1-025 

1006 

1.026,400 

11,870 

845 

12.724 

1-230 

1006 

1.100.736 

12.432 

676 

13.108 

1-100 

1007 

1.285340 

13.064 

005 

14/)60 

1-003 

1008 

782.870 

10.002 

2060 

12,071 

1-656 

1000 

751.786 

10.411 

2124 

12.535 

1-667 

Of  the  10,411  excluded  in  1909,  4401  were  likely  to 
become  public  charges;  2084  had  trachoma;  1172  were 
contract  labourersi  while  402  were  sent  back  as  im- 
moral. Although  a  larger  number  of  Chinese  have 
been  admitted  m  recent  years,  a  larger  number  has 
alM>  been  deported.  There  are,  of  course,  many  ob- 
vious difficulties  in  the  way  of  enforcement.  Manv  of 
the  reasons  for  debarring  are  difficult  to  establish — 
such  as  many  forms  of  disease,  various  types  of  im- 
morality, and  weak  physical  condition  with  no  real 
organic  ailment.  Again,  the  contract  labour  law  is 
hard  to  enforce  because  of  so  many  effective  means  of 
evasion.  Among  these  the  most  serious  has  been  the 
increased  inunigration  through  Canada,  which  results 
either  in  nnuggling  pure  and  simole — or  by  means  of  a 
year's  residence  in  Canada — in  tne  evasion  of  certain 
regulations — e.  g.  the  head-tax.  However,  the  laws 
as  at  present  administered,  especially  with  the  co- 
operation of  foreign  govemments,  are  at  least  pointing 


in  the  t%ht  direotion  and  supplying  the  country  with 
a  better  selected  body  of  imnugrants. 

*  Distribution  op  Immigrants  in  thb  United 
States. — A.  As  to  Origin. — There  have  been  several 
changes  in  the  origin  of  migration  to  the  New  World. 
From  southern  Europe-^  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal — 
it  began  when  the  Americas  were  new,  and  migration 
^as  a  hardy  venture.  It  then  shifted  northward  till 
the  peoples  of  northern  countries  beg^  to  send  many 
colonists  out  to  America.  After  the  formation  of  the 
Republic,  its  immigrant  population  came  chiefly  from 
northern  Europe  and  so  continued  well  into  the  nine- 
teenth century.  One  of  the  most  striking  features  of 
migration  to  America  has  been  the  latest  change  in  the 
sources  of  the  stream,  which  now  flows  more  strongly 
from  the  South  and  East.  This  change  has  been  very 
marked.  From  1841  to  1850  45-57  per  cent  of  the 
immigration  to  the  United  States  was  from  Ireland; 
from  1871  to  1880  only  151  per  cent.  From  Ger- 
many between  1841  and  1850  there  came  25-37  per 
cent;  from  1861  to  1870,  36-63  per  cent;  from  1871  to 
1880,  25*74  per  cent,  while  in  1909  Germany  furnished 
only  8-5  per  cent,  and  Ireland  4-3  per  cent  of  the  im- 
migration. From  1820  to  1902  Germany  sent  24-98 
per  cent  of  all  the  inmiigrants,  and  Italy  had  sent 
66*6  per  cent;  in  1903  Italy  sent  26*91  per  cent.  In 
1907  Italy  sent  285,731,  while  Germany,  Scandinavia, 
and  the  United  Kingdom  combined  sent  201,337.  In 
1910  Italy  sent  223,431  immigrants;  Germany,  71,380  : 
England,  53,498;  there  were  also  128,348  Poles  and 
52,037  Scandinavians.  In  1880  Italy  and  Austria- 
Hungaiy  sent  11,765  immigrants;  in  1907  these  two 
countries  sent  624,184,  about  one-third  more  thim  the 
total  inmiigration  in  1880.  From  1872  to  1890  there 
came  to  the  United  States  356,062  Italian  inmiigrants ; 
from  1890  to  1900,  655,888.  These  figures  illustrate 
what  might  be  much  further  amplified ;  the  change  in 
source  of  the  inmugration  to  the  United  States  in  the 
last  few  decades.  Further  analvsis  would  show  many 
minor  divergencies.  From  Italy  come  two  different 
types:  northern  Italy  furnishes  one;  southern  Italy 
and  Sicily^  another.  These  varv  widely  in  mental 
characteristics,  in  industrial  haoits,  and  in  wealth. 
They  furnish  needed  elements  to  oiir  population,  lend- 
ing colour  and  vivacity  to  the  Amencan  nationality. 
Equally  clear  are  the  types  of  Jews  now  coming  m 
such  numbers.  In  earner  times  there  were  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews.  Later,  the  migration 
ot  Jews  had  its  origin  in  Germany,  and  the  &nnan 
Jew  was  the  rule.  The  ^reat  majority  of  Jews  who 
now  migrate  to  the  Umted  States  are  of  Russian 
origin.  There  has  also  been  a  change  in  the  Irish  im- 
migrant. At  first  the  Irish  migration  was  largely 
from  the  North,  contained  a  large  admixture  of 
Scotch  blood,  was  Protestant  in  reli^on,  and  agricul- 
tural in  pursuits.  The  centre  of  emigration  has  since 
then  shifted  to  the  South,  the  emigrants  are  more 
larjpely  Catholic  in  religion,  and  they  settle  in  the 
cities. 

A  variety  of  causes  affecting  both  northern  and 
southern  Europe  help  to  explain  these  changes.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  greatest  German  migration  the 
interests  of  that  nation  were  changing  from  agrarian 
to  industrial.  During  this  transition  a  large  number 
of  persons  were  left  without  occupation,  as  the  older 
oroer  broke  up,  and  many  of  these  migrated.  The 
stream  of  migration  from  Ireland  was  necessarily 
checked  as  that  population  became  more  and  more  seri- 
ously depleted,  felling  to  about  one-half  its  number 
in  1846.  During  this  same  time  there  was  a  marked 
increase  of  population  in  the  southern  and  south- 
eastern countries,  and  owing  to  various  causes  a  high 
birth-rate  has  been  accompanied  by  a  low  death-rate. 
A  surplus  of  population  resulted,  and  migration  from 
those  cotmtries  was  the  consequence.  Low  industrial 
organization  there,  high  industrial  demand  here,  and 
labour  naturally  flow^  into  the  area  of  high  deniand. 


MUSS 


298 


ICILAH 


A  feature  less  fundamental  is  the  development  of  the 
means  of  transportation  to  and  from  southern  ports. 
In  interesting  contrast  to  the  earlier  domination  of 
the  sea  by  the  Romance  nations  was  the  transfer  of 
maritime  power  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  mto  Dutch  and  £nglish,  and.  later,  into 
German,  hands.  This  led  to  a  marked  neglect  of 
southern  ports,  and  not  till  a  generation  ago  did  the 
merchantmen  oegin  to  reorganize  the  lines  to  tap' 
southern  countries  and  call  at  southern  ports.  The 
Italian  lines  sailing  from  southern  ports  doubled  in 
tonnage,  and  the  construction  of  ships  in  those  ports, 
for  Italian  and  Austrian  trans- Atlantic  traffic,  became 
a  flourishing  industry.  Gradually  the  southern  har- 
bours became  active  in  a  trade  the  most  important  item 
of  which  was  the  transportation  of  immigrants  to  the 
United  States.  Typical  of  this  change  was  the  growth 
of  the  cities  of  Genoa,  Naples,  and  Trieste.  The 
growth  also  of  the  German  lines  must  also  be  consid- 
ered. These,  together  with  the  extension  of  railway 
lines  leading  to  the  harbours,  have  done  much  to 
develop  the  migration  from  southern  and  south- 
eastern coimtries.  From  1880  to  1890,  Germany 
sent  to  the  linked  States  1,452,977  persons;  during 
the  same  period  Italy  sent  but  307,309.  In  the  year 
1909  Germany  sent  58,534,  while  Italv  sent  190,498. 
Germany  formerly  supplied  one-third  of  the  inmii- 
^ration  to  the  United  States ;  now,  less  than  one-tenth 
IS  from  that  source.  Between  1860  and  1870,  the 
British  Isles,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Canada  to- 
gether supplied  90  per  cent  of  the  total  immigration 
to  the  United  States;  between  1890  and  1900,  only 
41  per  cent.  In  1869  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Po- 
land, and  Russia  together  supplied  only  1  per  cent; 
in  1902,  the  same  group  of  countries  supplied  70  per 
cent. 

B.  As  to  DeMruUion. — The  distribution  of  the  im- 
migrant population  in  the  United  States  may  be  con- 
sidered (1)  Geo^phicallv,  (2)  As  to  Occupation. 

(1)  Geoeraphicaliy. — The  most  obvious  distinction  is 
between  North  and  South.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
Republic  until  1866  there  was  practically  no  immigra- 
tion into  the  southern  States.  While  slavery  existed, 
the  South  had  no  immigrant  problem,  the  only  for- 
eigners entering  that  section  being  those  brought  in  by 
the  illicit  slave  trade.  The  North  beine  considered  as 
the  home  of  the  immigrant,  the  North  Atlantic  States 
stood  first  in  percentage  of  foreign-bom.  In  1903, 
according  to  Dr.  Hall,  22-6  per  cent  of  the  population 
in  the  North  Atlantic  States  were  aliens;  15-8  per 
cent  in  the  North  Central :  20*7  per  cent  in  the  West- 
em;  only  4*6  per  cent  in  tne  South  Central  and  South 
Atlantic.  In  1909,  more  than  50  per  cent  of  all  the 
aliens  in  the  country  resided  in  tne  North  Atlantic 
States;  of  these.  New  York  was  the  choice  of  220,865; 
Pennsylvania  of  112,402;  Massachusetts  of  61,187; 
New  Jersey  of  41,907.  New  York  received  75,988 
Italians — somewhat  less  than  one-half  their  total  num- 
ber; Pennsylvania  took  33,000  Italians.  The  marked 
changes  in  percentages  since  1850  are  in  the  North 
Atlantic  States,  which  received  59  per  cent  of  the  im- 
mimition  then  and  now  receive  about  50 per  cent ;  and 
in  tne  Westem  States,  which  in  1850  had  1*2  per  cent, 
8*2  per  cent  in  1900,  and  in  1909  6-5  per  cent  of  all  the 
new  arrivals.  In  1900,  one-eighth  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation was  foreign-bom;  in  1909,  aliens  formea  one- 
tenth  of  the  rural  and  one-fourth  of  the  urban 
population. 

(2)  As  to  Occupation. — The  rapid  development  of 
inaustrialism  in  the  United  States  nas  a  marked  selec- 
tive effect  on  a  population  that  is  unsettled.  That  it 
should  act  with  increasing  power  on  a  drifting  immi- 
grant population  is  to  be  expected ;  as  the  century  ad- 
vances, the  efifect  is  shown  in  a  great  increase  of  urban 
immigration.  A  corresponding  lessened  interest  in 
agriculture  is  due  partly  to  the  growth  of  manufac- 
turesi  partly  to  the  changed  nature  of  population.    Oa 


the  other  hand,  the  important  mining  industries  atill 
draw  very  heavily  on  tne  immigrant  for  their  labour. 
The  tendency,  therefore,  is  for  an  ever-increasing  pei^ 
oentage  of  the  immigrants  to  settle  in  the  laige  cities. 
According  to  Professor  Smith,  in  1880  the  cities  took 
45  per  cent  of  the  Irish  immigrants ;  38  per  cent  of  the 
German,  30  per  cent  of  the  E^lish  and  Scotch,  and  60 
per  cent  of  the  Italian.  In  fall  River  80  per  cent  of 
the  population  are  foreigners;  New  Britain  shows 
even  a  laner  percentage.  The  figures  for  New  Yoik, 
Boston,  Milwaukee,  and  Chicago  show  still  more  im- 
pressive contrasts.  In  1900  the  total  peculation  of 
the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  was  19,757,- 
618,  leaving  in  the  remainder  of  the  country  56,541,- 
769.  In  70  leading  cities  of  the  North  Atlimtic  section 
there  were  3,070,352  foreign-bom;  outside  these  cities 
were  1,685,544  forei^-bom,  or  30*5  per  cent  of  the 
aliens  were  in  the  cities,  and  15*4  per  cent  of  all  of  the 
foreign-bom  lived  outside  the  cities.  In  the  South 
Atlantic  States  9*2  per  cent  of  the  urban  population 
and  1*  Iper  cent  of  the  rural  were  foreign-bom ;  in  the 
North  Central,  25*4  per  cent  of  the  urb^  and  12*9  per 
cent  of  the  rural ;  in  the  Westem,  the  percentages  were 
27*2  and  18*5  per  cent.  There  are  86  cities  in  which  at 
least  20  per  cent  of  the  population  is  foreign-bom  and 
27  cities  in  which  they  fonn  more  than  one-third  of  the 
total  population. 

The  attitude  of  the  United  States  at  the  present 
time  (1910)  towards  foreign  immigration  is  one  of 
caution.  Actual  and  projected  le^lation  aims,  not 
at  exclusion,  but  at  selection.  It  is  recognised  that 
the  assimilative  power,  even  of  America,  has  its 
limits.  Legislation  must,  by  the  application  of  ra- 
tional principles,  eliminate  those  incapable  of  assimi- 
lation to  the  general  culture  of  the  country.  Great 
care  is,  of  course,  necessary  in  determining  and  apply- 
ing these  principles  of  selection:  an  educational  test, 
for  instance,  while  it  would  exclude  much  ignorance, 
would  also  exclude  much  honesty,  frugality,  industry, 
and  solid  worth.  It  is  probable  that  a  more  vigorous 
system  of  inspection  of  immigrants  at  ports  of  entry 
will  be  put  in  force,  while  a  stricter  control  will  he 
exercisea  over  the  steamship  companies.  At  the 
same  time,  the  co-operation  of  foreign  governments  is 
needed,  if  the  exclusive  measures  designed  for  the 
protection  of  the  United  States  against  undesirable  im- 
migration are  to  be  made  thoroughly  effective. 

Official  Sources. — Decennial  Cenmeofthe  United  StateMt  1790- 
1900;  Annual  Reparla  of  the  Bureau  of  JmrnigToHon;  TreaHee  in 
Force  of  the  United  Statee:  1904;  Revxeed  Statutee  of  the  United 
States;  Special  Coneular  Report,  XXX. 

Unofficial. — ComcoNS,  Racee  and  Immigrania  tr»  Amenea 

iNew  York,  1908) ;  Cooudob,  Chinese  tmmigraiion  (New  York, 
009);  Brandbnburg,  Imported  Ameriatna  (Sew  Ttork,  1904); 
Hall,  hnmignUion  and  ite  EffecU  on  the  United  States  (New 
York.  1906);  Hanna.  The  Scotch  Irish  (2  vob.,  New  York, 
1902);  Kapp,  Immigration  into  the  United  StaUs  (New  York, 
1870);  Seward,  Chinese  Immwration  (New  York,  1881);  Smith, 
Emiffralion  and  Immigration  (New  York.  1892):  Steinbr,  On  the 
Trau  of  the  Immigrant  (New  York,  1906);  Warnk,  The  Slav 
Invasion  (Philadelphia,  1904);  Whxlplbt,  The  ProbUm  of 
the  Immigrant  (London,  1905). 

W.  B.  GUTHBIB. 

Mijes.    See  Mixb. 

BUlan,  Archdiocese  of  (Mediolanensib)i  in 
Lombardy,  northern  Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on 
the  Orona  River,  which,  with  three  canals,  the  Navi- 
glio  Grande  (1257-72),  the  Naviglio  Martesana  (1457), 
and  the  Naviglio  di  Pa  via  (1805-19),  is  the  highway  of 
the  commerce  of  this  great  industrial  centre,  called  the 
moral  capital  of  Italy.  The  soil  is  very  fertile  and  there 
is  extensive  cattle-raising  and  manufacturing  through- 
out the  province.  The  name  of  Milan  is  probably  de- 
rived from  the  Celtic  met  laity  which  means  "in  the  middle 
of  the  plain" .  The  city  was  founded  in  396  b.  c.  by  the 
Insubres,  on  the  site  of  the  ruined  Melpum,  and  be- 
came the  chief  centre  of  the  Cisalpine  Gauls.  After 
the  defeat  of  the  Gauls  near  Clastidiiun,  Mediolanum 
was  token  by  the  consul  Lucius  Scipio  (221)  and  be- 


MILAN  299  MILAN 

esme  a  Roman  munieipium.    In  45  b.  o.  it  obtained  Tlie  eapitano  dd  popolo  was  hated  by  the  nobles,  and 

Roman  citizenship,  and  under  the  emperors  it  had  when  Pa^uio  delta  Torre  was  succeeded  (1247)  by  his 

famous  schoob  and  was  a  flourishing  city,  the  Emperor  nephew  Martino,  under  the  title  of  aruiano  della  Cre- 

Adrian  having  made  it  the  seat  of  the  yrafeciuB  Ligurice  denza,  the  nobility  sought  the  assistance  of  Ezselino  da 

and  Constantme,  of  the  vicariua  lUuicB.    After  a.  d.  Romano;  but  Martino  overcame  the  resistance  of  the 

296  it  was  several  times  the  capital  of  the  emperors  nobles,  and  also  defeated  Ezzelino,  introduced  reforms 

of  the  West  (Maximian  Herculius,  Valentinian  I,  his  into  the  public  administration,  and  distributed  the 

son  Honorius,  and  later,  of  Ricimer  and  of  Odoacer).  public  offices  with  equity.    A  new  civil  war  was  pre- 

The  edict  of  toleration  of  Constantine  and  Licinius  vented  by  the  "peace  of  St.  Ambrose"  (1258),  at 

(313)  was  agreed  on  and  published  at  Milan.    In  452  which  the  eouality  of  nobles  aud  people  was  agreed 

the  town  was  besieged  by  Attila.  and  in  538  destroyed  on.    As  connicts  continued,  Martino  called  to  his  as- 

by  Uraia,  a  nephew  of  Vitiges,  King  of  the  Goths,  with  sistance  Oberto  Pelavicino,  a  well-known  soldier  with 

a  loss',  according  to  Procopius,  of  300,000  men.    Per-  whose  help  Martino  had  finally  vanquished  Eszelinoda 

chance  for  this  reason  the  Lombard  kings  did  hot  there-  Bomano.  In  1263  Filippo,  brother  of  Martino,  was  real 

after  select  Milan  for  their  capital,  though  Bertarius  lord  of  Milan,  though  ne  carefully  avoided  any  such 

did  so  during  the  brief  division  of  the  Kingdom  be-  title,  and  as  other  cities — Como,  Lodi,  Novara,  Ver- 

tween  the  sons  of  Gundobad  (661).    After  Charle-  celli,  also  La  Valtellina,  were  subject  to  Milan,  he  may 

magne,  Milan  was  the  seat  of  counts,  whose  authority  be  called  the  foimder  of  the  duchy.    His  nephew 

however,  was  overshadowed  by  the  prestige  of  the  Napoleone,  imder  the  title  of  amiatto  dd  popolof  exer- 

archbishops,  foremost  amooff  whom  was  Ansperto  da  cised  supreme  power  (1265-77),  and  in  his  later  years 

Biassono  (869-81),  who  fortined  the  town  and  adorned  was  imperial  vicar  for  Italy,  notwithstanding  the  fact 

it  with  beautiful  buildings.     In  896-97  it  endured  a  thathewasaGuelph.  The  archbishop  OttoneVisconti, 

severe  siege  by  the  Hungarians,  and  a  century  later  who  since   1262  had  been  prevented  from  taking 

Otto  II  transferred  the  title  of  count  to  the  arch-  possession  of  his  see,  organized  the  nobles  exiled  from 

bishops.    The  most  distinguished  of  these  was  Ari-  Milan,  and  after  several  battles,  succeeded  in  captur- 

berto  (1018-45),  who  indued  Conrad  II  to  take  the  ing  Napoleone  and  his  relatives,  whom  he  locked  up  in 

crown  of  Italy.    With  the  assistance  of  the  people  he  cages  at  Como. 

made  war  on  Pavia  and  Lodi  (1027),  on  whicn  account  The  archbishop  then  caused  himself  to  be  pro- 
he  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  greater  feudal  lords  claimed  peroetual  lord,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the 
whom  he  exiled,  but  wno,  leagued  together,  defeated  RepubUc  of  Milan  and  founding  the  power  of  the  Vis- 
^e  archbishop  at  Campo  MSo  (1035),  and  return-  conti,  which  aimed  at  the  conquest  ot  the  entire  penin- 
ing  to  the  city,  called  Conrad  to  their  assistance;  the  sula,  though  its  real  domain  was  fimited  by  the  Alps, 
latter,  however,  besieged  Milan  in  vain  (1037).  Though  the  river  Sesia,  and  the  Po,  while  the  east  extended  as 
the  stru^le  continued,  a  noble,  Lanzano,  and  no  far  as  Brescia,  conquered  in  1337.  From  1302  to  1311, 
loneer  Anoerto,  headed  the  popular  party.  Finally,  the  della  Torre  were  again  in  power,  Guido  of  that 
nomes  and  burghers  entered  into  compacts,  and  this  family  having  driven  Matteo  I  Visconti  from  Milan, 
intermingling  of  the  classes  brought  the  commune  into  When  the  latter  returned,  he  was  made  imperial  vicar 
existence.  At  the  same  time  studies,  the  industries  by  Henry  YIL  and  devoted  himself  to  driving  the 
(especially  wool),  and  commerce  flourished.  leaders  of  the  Guelph  party  from  the  Lombard  cities. 
As  the  power  of  the  burghers  grew,  that  of  the  arch-  On  this  account  John  XaII  declared  war,  and  sent 
bishops  waned,  and  with  it  the  imperial  authority  Cardinal  BertrandduPoyet  against  Matteo.  Galeaszo, 
which  the  prelate  represented,  so  that  Milan  in  1110,  Matteo's  son,  continued  the  war  against  the  le^te 
refused  to  pay  tribute  to  Heniy  V,  who  had  come  into  and  the  Guelphs,  and  adhered  to  the  party  of  Louis  of 
Italy.  In  1116  the  public  authority  passed  entirely  Bavaria.  His  son  Azzo  (1329-59)  contributed  to  the 
into  the  hands  of  consuls  elected  by  the  people.  Milan  ruin  of  the  ScaHgers,  obtained  Brescia,  and  was  suo- 
made  war  on  cities  faithful  to  the  empire:  Fa  via,  Cre-  oeeded  by  his  sons  Luchino  (1339-49),  famous  for  the 
mona,  Lodi  (destroyed  1111),  and  Como  (destroyed  refinement  of  his  cruelty,  and  Giovanni  II  (1349-54), 
1 127).  Frederick  Barbarossa  wished  to  remedy  these  Archbishop  of  Milan,  who  obtained  possession  of  Genoa 
evils,  and  in  1158  obliged  Milan  to  swear  allegiance  to  and  Bologna,  thouj^  unable  to  hold  either  of  these 
him  and  to  receive  an  imperial  podestli.  This  officer  towns,  or  the  cities  of  Asti,  Parma,  and  Alexandria, 
was  soon  driven  from  the  city,  but  in  1162  after  a  long  At  the  death  of  Giovanni,  Milan  was  divided  between 
siege,  Milan  was  amn  reduced  to  obedience,  and  in  three  brothers,  his  nephews:  Matteo  11.  who  died  in 
part  destroyed.  The  battle  of  L^gnano  (1176)  se-  1355;  Galeazzo  11(1354-78),  and  Bemab6  (1354-85) 
cured  their  rights  to  the  Lombard  cities,  and  to  Milan  all  patrons  of  literature  and  of  the  arts,  but  odious 
its  consular  government;  but  on  many  occasions  the  through  their  cruelty,  misgovemment,  and  exorbitant 
authority  of  a  foreien  podesUi  was  substituted  for  the  taxes.  Accordingly,  a  strong  league  was  formed 
native  consuls.  The  long  period  of  peace  was  favour-  against  them  in  1367,  by  Pope  Urban  V,  Charles  IV, 
able  to  agriculture  (greatnr  furthered  by  the  Cister-  the  towns  of  Florence,  Ferrara,  Mantua,  and  others, 
cians),  also  to  the  wool  ana  the  silk  industries,  in  the  but  it  was  prevented,  by  fortuitous  circumstances, 
former  of  which,  throughout  Milanese  territory,  60,000  from  destroying  the  power  of  theVisconti.  Galeazzo 
men  were  employed,  while  the  silk  industiy  supported  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Giovanni  Galeazzo,  who  was 
40,000  persons.  The  struggle  a^inst  the  empire  was  forced  into  war,  with  his  unde  Bemab^,  and  having 
renewed  under  Frederick  IlTwho  Ignored  the  rishts  won  taken  him  in  ambush,  cast  him  into  prison,  where  he 
at  the  peace  of  Constance.  _  A  second  Lombard  League  died  in  1385.  The  state  of  the  Visconti  was  tnus  united 
was  formed,  which  Frederick  defeated  at  Cortenuova,  again  and  in  1395,  Giovanni  Galeazzo  received  the  title 
though  he  did  not  succeed  in  his  ulterior  purpose,  of  duke.  In  1387  he  had  conquered  Verona  and  Vi- 
Theieafter  Milan  entered  into  further  wars  with  Ghi-  oenza.    During  his  reign  the  duchy  of  Milan  was  at  the 


members  representative  of  the  three  orders  of  citizens,  the  arts.  He  died  In  IJOSt  leaving  two  sons,  nunors, 
The  legislative  power  was  exercised  by  the  General  Giovanni  MwJ%^||MHBMlUa.  During  their 
Council,  the  number  of  whose  members  was  variable,    minority,  mr— ^^^^^^^^^fc|  ^^re  lost;  but, 


MILAN  300 

Giovanxii  Maria  having  been  aaaaasinated  in  1412,  vaBattheOouneaof  Rome  (313).    During  the  pene> 

FiHppo  Maria  remained  sole  duke,  and  with  the  aaoat-  cutiona  seveial  Ghriatiana  suffered  martyrdom  at 

ance  of  Carmagnola,  retook  a  great  portion  of  the  lost  Milan;  among  them  Saints  GervasiuB  and  Protafiius 

territory.    The  offensive  proceeding  of  Filippo  Maria  (first  persecution  of  Diocletian).  6t.  Victor  (304),  Sis. 

caus^  the  house  of  Este,  the  Gonsagas,  taii  Venice  Nabor  and  ^  Felix,  and  6t8.  Nasarius  and  Celsus. 

to  form  a  league  against    him,  which   led    to   a  Among  its  bishops  should  be  named  St.  Eustorgius,  St. 

long  war;  in  the  course  of  it,  several  famous  battles  Protasius,  and  ct.  Dion^sius,  who  firmly  opposed  the 

were  fought,  among  them  that,  of  Madodio  (1427),  by  Arian  emperor  Clonstantius,  and  was  exiled  to  Cappa- 

which  the  Duke  of  Idilan  lost  fiergamo  and  Brescia,  and  docia  (355) .  while  the  Arian  Auxentius  was  put  on  the 

the  naval  battle  of  Portofino  (1431)  disastrous  to  the  episcopal  tnrone  of  Milan.    But  the  people  remained 

Genoese  allies  of  Bfilan.    The  peace  concluded  in  faithful  to  the  Catholic  religion.    At  the  death  of  St. 

1433  was  favourable  to  Venice;  but  the  warbrdce  out  Dionjrsius,  the  great  St.  Ambrose  was  elected  bishop 

again,  and  continued  until  the  death  of  Filippo  Maria,  (375-97),  vanquished  paganism  and  Arianism.  and 

in  1447,  when  the  Ambrosian  Republic  was  pro-  was  the  guide  of  those  good  princes  Gratian,  Valen- 

claimed  (1447-50).  tinian  II,  and  Theodosius.    He  was  succeeded  by  St. 

For  miUtaiy  reasons,  Francesco  Sfona  was  made  Simplicianus  (397),  and  Venerius  (400);     Lauirus 

eapitano  del  fopolo,  and  succeeded  in  taking  poa-  (438-49)  appears  to  have  amplified  the  Ambrosian  rite 

session  of  the  fortress  and  in  having  himself  rec(^;nised  of  Milan;    Laurentius  (490-512)  presided  over  the 

duke  (1450).    This  event  led  to  a  new  war  with  Roman  councils  in  the  cause  of  Pope  S^nunachus;  St. 

Venice  and  the  King  of  Naples,  closed  by  the  peace  of  Datius  (530-52),  lived  almost  always  m  exile  at  Con- 

Lodi  in  1454.    Francesco  was  succeeded  in  1466  by  stantinople,  on  account  of  the  Gothic  War;   Vi talis 

his  son  Galeaszo  Maria,  who,  hated  by  his  subjects,  was  (552)  adhered  to  the  schism  caused  by  the  "Three 

stabbed  to  death  in  1476.    His  son  Giovanni  Galeasso  Chapters",   but  Auxanus   (556)   re-established   the 

had  as  regent,  first  his  own  mother,  and  then  (1480).  union  of  the  diocese  with  Rome.    Honoratus  (568) 

his  ambitious  uncle  Ludovico  il  Moro,  who  succeeded  sought  refuge  in  Genoa,  with  a  great  number  of  his 

his  nephew,  at  the  latter's  death  in  1494.    Louis  XII,  clergy,  during  the  siege  of  Milan  by  the  Lombard  Al- 

who  pretended  to  rights  over  Milan,  entered  into  a  boin,  and  at  £as  death  the  Milanese  at  Genoa  elected  to 

compact  with  Venice  for  the  division  of  the  duchy,  succeed  him  Laurentius  II,  while  Fronto  (elected  at 

Ludovico  il  Moro  attempted  to  resist  them,  but  was  Bliian)  was  not  recognised.    When  Laurentius  died, 

constrained  to  seek  refuge  in  Germanv,  and  Milan  King  Agilulfus  wished  to  secure  the  election  of  an 

came  under  the  power  of  the  French.    In  1500,  Duke  Arian  bishop,  in  which,  however,  he  was  thwarted  by 

Ludovico  returned  to  his  dominions  for  a  time,  but  the  vigilance  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  and  both  at 

other  French  troops  were  sent  against  him,  and  he  Genoa  and  at  Milan,  Constantius  was  elected  to  the 

died  a  prisoner  in  France.    The  expulsion  of  the  vacant  see;  under  mm,  the  cathedral  of  Monsa  was 

French  from  Italy  ensued  upon  the  death  of  Gaston  erected,  Agilulfus  became  a  Catholic,  and  the  conver- 

de  Foix,  the  victor  of  Ravenna  (1512),  and  Milan  was  sion  of  the  Lombards  to  the  Faith  was  begun,  while 

given  to  Biaximilian  Sf orza,  a  son  of  Ludovico  il  Moro,  the  episcopal  residence  was  again  taken  up  at  Milan, 

although  the  Spaniards  were  its  real  masters.    After  The  nrst  prelate  of  this  diocese  who  bore  the  title  of 

the   battle   of   Marignano,   Maximilian   surrendered  archbishop  was  St.  Petrus  (784),  but  it  is  certain  that 

Milan  at  the  end  of  a  brief  siege,  and  remained  a  St.  Ambrose  had  alreadv  exercised  metropolitazijuris- 

prisoner.    The  French  had  been  definitively  excluded  diction  over  northern  Italy,  from  Bologna  to  Turin, 

trom  the  peninsula  by  the  battle  of  Pavia.  when  and  that  the  Prankish  king  Childebert  gave  to  Bishop 

Francis  II.  a  brother  of  Maximilian,  became  duke,  and  Laurentius  II  the  title  of  Patriarch.    St.  Petrus  estab- 

at  hisdeatn  Charles  V  took  theDucny  of  Milan  for  him-  lished  an  asylum  for  foundlings,  one  of  the  first  insti- 

self ,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his  successors  on  the  Span-  tutions  of  its  kind  in  Europe.    Mention  has  been  made 

ish  throne.    The  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  gave  Milan  above  of  Ansperto  da  Biassono. 
to  Austria,  which  power  had  occupied  the  duchy  since        In  980  Landolfo,  a  son  of  the  imperial  vicar,  Bonizo, 

1706.    During  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  became  archUshop  through^  simony;   he  was  driven 

Austria's  dominion  over  Milan  was  interrupted  for  a  from  the  dtv  on  account  of  his  abuse  of  power,  but  was 

time  (1745),  and  France  even  offered  the  duchy  to  taken  back  Dy  the  emperor  Otto  II,  and  repaired  the 

Savoy.   Under  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II  much  was  evil  that  he  had  done.    He  was  succeeded  by  Amolfo 

done  for  the  prosperity  of  the  Milanese,  and  civil  and  II  (908)  and  Ariberto  d'Intimiano  (1018),  mentioned 

ecclesiastical  reforms  were  also  introduced.    In  1796  above.    The  latterwas  succeeded  by  Guido  (1045).  also 

Milan  became  the  capital  of  the  Cispadan  Republic,  a  simoniao.    At  this  time  the  morals  of  the  clergy 

soon  transformed  into  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and  were  deplorable:    simony    and^  concubinage    were 

(1805)  into  the  Kingdom  of  Italy;  the  Cispadan  Re-  common,  and  out  of  these  conditi(ms  develo|}ed  the 

public  was  supported  entirely  by  French  arms,  which  famous  paUxriat  a  popular  movement  for  social  and 

checked  by  Austria  (1799),  returned  victorious,  after  ecclesiastical  reform,  headed  by  the  priest  Anselmo  da 

Marengo.    In  1814  the  Austrian  domination  was  re-  Biaggio,  later  Bishop  of  Lucca,  and  by  the  cleric 

established,  and  lasted  until  1859.    Encouraged  by  Arialdo,  l>oth  of  whom  used  force  to  compel  the  clergy 

the  revolution  of  Vienna  in  1848,  Milan  revolted,  in  an  to  observe  continence,  and  to  drive  its  members  from 

effort  to  throw  off  the  foreign  yoke;  and  the  five  days  benefices  obtained  by  simonv.    From  this  great  con- 

(18  to  22  March  of  that  3rear)  remain  famous;  a  pro-  fusion  ensued.    In  1059  Nicholas  II  sent  to  Milan  St. 

visional  committee  was  formed  and  the  Austnans  Peter  Damian  and  the  same  Anselmo,  at  which  the 

were  compelled  to  retreat;  but  the  consemient  war,  people  murmured,  demanding  that  the  church  of 

Piedmont  having  taken  up  the  cause  of  Italy,  was  Milan  be  not  subject  to  that  of  Rome.     Archbishop 

disastrous  to  the  insurgents;  and  Milan  (with  Lom-  Guido,  however,  promised  amendment,  and  accepted 

bardy)  again  became  subject  to  Austria.    The  war  of  the  conditions  imposed  upon  him,  but  soon  relapsed. 

1859,  however,  decided  the  final  annexation  of  Lom-  and  Arialdo,  with  whom  the  noble  warrior  Eriembaldc 

bardy  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  was  associated,  began  again  to  agitate  the  ijeople,  ip 

Milan  is  iEm  archiepiscopal  see.    According  to  an  conseauence  of  which  he  was  brutally  assassinated  21 

eleventh-centuxy  legend  the  Gospel  was  brou^t  there  June,  1066.    Erlembaldo  then  gave  a  military  organi- 

by  St.  Barnabas,  and  the  first  Bishop  of  Milan,  St.  sation  to  the  patariaf  and  Guido,  who  was  exeoir.- 

Anathalon,  was  a  disciple  of  that  apostle.    But  a  dio-  municated,  was  compelled  to  leave  the  city.    While 

aese  cannot  have  been  established  there  before  200,  and  the  election  of  his  successor  was  being  discussed, 

possibly  not  till  much  later,  for  the  list  of  the  bishops  Giddo  sold  the  arehiepiscopal  dignity  to  ^s  secretary. 

oC  Milan  names  only  five  predecessors  of  MerocloB,  wno  Until  1085  there  were  several  pretenders  to  the  see; 


THE  NEW  Y^rtfC 

PUBr.ic  Li::^A?vY 


BmjkK                      301  BmjkK 

and  in  one  of  .the  many  tumults  cauaed  by  this  oondi-  St.  Basil;  they  depended,  however,  on  a  similar  monas- 

tion  of  affairs  Erlembaldo  was  killed  (1074).    Under  tery  in  Genoa,  and  had  no  relation  with  Armenia. 

Anselm  III  order  was  re-established.  This  order,  wmch  used  the  so-called  Aquileian  rite. 

Unfortunately,  the  paiaria  had  created  an  anti-  was  suppressed  in  1650. 

clerical  sentiment  in  the  people,  and  had  prepared  REuaiou8EDiFiCE& — The  wonderful  Italian  Gothic 

them  to  accept  the  doctrines  of  Manichseism.    In  fact,  cathedral  is  built  of  white  marble,  has  five  naves,  and 

the  Cathari  of  Italy  were  more  frequently  caUed  Pa-  is  486  feet  in  length;  it  is  surmounted  by  98  slen- 

tari,  and  in  Milan,  one  of  their  chief  centres,  they  main-  der  turrets,  on  the  principal  one  of  which  is  a  bronse- 

tained  a  kind  of  univernty.    Archbishop  Oberto  was  gilt  statue  of  the  Madonna;  there  are,  in  all,  6000 

exiled  by  Barbarossa  in  1162*  and  though  his  sue-  statues,  2000  of  which  are  on  the  exterior.    Thecathe- 

oessor,  St.  Galdino,  was  electea  at  Rome  by  the  eml-  dral  is  situated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  basilica  of 

grated  Milanese,  he  was  able  to  take  possession  of  his  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  (fourth  or  fifth  century),  and 

see  in  1167;  he  reorganised  the  hospital  del  Broglio.  was  begun  in  1386  by  Giovanni  Galeasso  Visconti. 

Archbishop  Uberto  Crivelli  became  Pope  Urban  III  The  tomb  of  St.  Charles  is  under  the  cupola.    The 

in   1185.    At  an  archiepiscopal    election,  in  1263.  treasury  of  the  cathedral  contains,  among  other  valu- 

no  agreement  could  be  reached,  for  the  people  wanted  able  objects,  two  statues,  of  St.  Charles  and  of  St. 

Raimondo  della  Torre,  and  the  nobles  a  member  Ambrose,  made  of  silver  and  set  with  precious  stones, 

of  the  family  of  Settala;  therefore  Urban  IV  ap-  the  gift  of  the  city.    The  high  fdtar  is  a  gift  of  Pius  IV. 

pointed  Ottone  Visconti,  who  was  prevented  by  the  The  church  of  St.  Ambrose,  built  by  its  patron  saint 

Milanese  from  taking  possession  of  his  see  \mtil  1277,  in  386,  and  often  restored,  especially  in  the  twelfth 

when  he  entered  Milan,  both  as  archbishop  and  as  lord,  century,  contains  the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Louis  II ;  in 

Roberto  Visconti^  who  succeeded  John  m  1354,  was  the  chapel  of  St.  Satyrus  is  a  mosaic  that  dates,  prob- 

obliged  to  enter  mto  litigation  with  his  brothers  for  ably,  from  the  fifth  century,  while  the  central  door, 

the  property  of  the  Church,  which  they  regarded  as  the  witn  wood-carvings  representing  scenes  from  the  life 

Eersonal  property  of  their  uncle.    Among  other  arch-  of  David,  is  held,  on  seemincly  good  grounds,  to  be  of 

ishops  of  Milan  were  Pietro  Filargo  (1402),  who  be-  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose;  the  church  possesses  also  a 

came  Alexander  V;   Fra  Gabriele  Sforza  (1454),  an  golden  altar-front  {pallioUo)  of  Anmlbert  (835).   The 

Augustinian,  brother  of  Duke  Francesco  and  foimder  monastery  annexed  to  this  church  nad  a  fine  library, 

of  the  Ospedale  Maggiore;  and  the  cardinals  Stef ano  uid  belonged  at  first  to  the  Benedictines,  later  to_tne 
Nardini  (1461),  Giovanni  Arcimboldi 
lito  d'Este  (1497)   also  the  lattei 

(1520).    During  tne  incumbency               ^           ,     ,.„.,.  . 
ways  absent  from  his  diocese,  great  abuses  grew,  u^  ^  chwch  of,  gt^ ,  3tetano  Maggiore  is  of  the  fifth  cen- 
which  Giovanni  Angelo  Arcimboldo  (1550)  azki  6ti^-tpty';' that ol^ San  VittoiBcuc^ 

Charles  Borromeo  (q.  v.)  sought  to  remedy  (|561).  tiana,  dating  from  before  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose;  it 

Here  it  is  enough  to  mention  the  latter's  zeal  f^  the  contains  the  body  of  the  martyr  St.  Victor,  and  also 
reformation  of  morals,  his  earnestness  in  preservio^ . ,  yabmblft  paixetdbgs. .  San  Nazaro  Maggiore  (382?)  has 


the  Ambrosian  Rite  and  extending  its  use  throughout,  ^av^v^fit^l?^!^  ^£  l^ija^iante,  and  contains  the  tombs  of 
the  archdiocese  (Monza  alone  retaining  the  Rfmlin  the  Trivulziol^mily.  In  the  church  of  St.  Aquilinus 
rite),  and  his  foundation  of  the  Oblates  for  dio^san  there  is  a  beatrtifuT mosaic  and  the  sarcophagus  of  a 
missions.  His  work  was  continued  by  Gaspare'Tiih^'laHy  oFiKe'TsioB  Santa 
conti  (1584)  and  by  a  nephew  of  St.  Charles,  Federi^o  Maria  delle  Grazie  is  a  church  in  the  style  of  the 
(1594-1631),  who  was  a  cardinal,  as  were  all  of  his  Renaissance  (1465),  with  a  cupola  by  Bramante:  it  has 
successors,  to  Filippo  Visconti  (1784-1801),  whose  valuable  frescoes,  beautiful  carvings,  and  inlaid  work 
nomination  by  Josepn  H,  made  without  the  consent  of  .  in  the  choir;  in  the  ancient  monastery,  which  formerly 
the  Holy  See,  nearly  brought  on  a  schism.  He  was  belonged  to  the  Dominicans,  is  the  famous  Last  Sup- 
followed  by  Cardinal  Caprara,  well-known  as  Apos-  per  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  On  the  site  of  the  principal 
tolic  legate  to  the  court  of  Napoleon.  After  the  death  hall  of  the  baths  of  Maximian,  the  peristyles  of  which 
of  this  prelate  in  1811  the  See  of  Milan  remained  va-  remain,  is  built  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo,  containing 
cant  for  six  years;  the  next  archbishop.  Cardinal  Carlo  ancient  mosaics.  The  church  of  San  Marco  (1254)  has 
Gsetano  Gaisruck,  was  appointed  in  1818.  and  governed  a  beautiful  high  altar,  and  valuable  paintings ;  that  of 
the  diocese  until  1848  "more  as  a  soldier  than  as  a  San  Maurizio,  said  to  have  been  built  bv  Queen  Theo- 
prelate ".  He  was  especially  opposed  to  the  re-estab-  delinda,  is  covered  with  frescoes  bv  Luini  between 
Ushment  of  the  religious  orders.  Archbishop  Paolo  1503  and  1509.  San  Satiro,  a  church  that  dates  from 
Angelo  B^rini  (1859-67)  was  never  able  to  take  876,  was  restored  by  Bramante.  There  are  also  the 
possession  of  his  see,  because  the  Italian  Government  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  others, 
denied  him  the  exequatur;  and  his  auxiliary  bishop  Seculab  Edifices. — Among  these  are  the  Palazzo 
Dominioni  was  also  persecuted.  di  Corte  (1228),  restored  several  times ;  whose  eurden 
Councils  were  held  at  l^lan  in  343  and  347,  against  contains  the  Royal  VUla  (1790) ;  the  Broletto  Nuovo, 
Photinus;  355,  in  the  cause  of  St.  Athanasius,  at  which  from  1228  to  1786  the  palace  of  the  commune ;  the 
the  Emperor  Constans  menaced  the  bishops;  390,  Palazzo  della  Ragione  (1233) ;  the  Broletto  (1413-24), 
against  Jo vinian;  451,  against  the  Robber  Cfouncil  of  at  present  containing^  PH^^^  offices;  the  Collegio 
Ephesus;  680,  against  the  Monothelites;  1060,  1098, 
1x17,  1287,  for  ecclesiastical  reforms.    The  diocesan 

synods  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  and  those  of  1636  and  gallery  and  the  Castello  Sforzesco. 

of  1669  were  also  reform  synods.    Diocesan  synods  Schools,  etc. — There  are  two  episcopal  seminaries. 


Elvetico,  founded  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and  now 
the  seat  of  the  Court  of  Assizes ;  the  Vittorio  Emanuele 


were  held  in  1609  and  1850  respectively.    The  suffra-  and  the  Lombard  Seminaxy  for  foreign  missions;  the 

on  bishops  of  Milan  were  wont  to  meet  each  year  at  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Letters;  the  Technical  In- 

R6;  their  sees  are  Bergamo,  Brescia^Como,  Crema,  stitute;  the  Superior  Institute  of  Commerce;  3  royal 

Cremona,  Lodl,  Mantua,  and  Pavia.    The  archdiocese  and  Oprivate  gymnasia;  many  other  schools,  17  of  which 

has  788  parishes,  with  1.828,000  inhabitants,  27  reli-  are  under  religious  direction;  the  Verdi  Conservatory 

S^ous  houses  of  men.  and  of  women  neariy  80  in  the  of  Music;  the  Lombard  Institute  for  Sciences  and  Let- 

dtyand  220  throughout  the  diocese;  it  has  43  educa-  ters;  the  Royal  Pinacoteca  della  Brera,  formeriy  a 

tional  establishments  for  boys  and  176  for  girls,  2  Jesuit  college,  rich  in  paintings  of  the^  old  Lombard 

Catholic  daily  papers,  and  many  important  periodi-  school,  and  possessing  a  valuable  numismatic  coUec- 

eals.    In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  a  monasteiv  at  tion.    In  the  Castello   Sforzesco  is  a  museum   of 

Milan,  St.  Cosmas^  for  Armenian  monks  of  the  Rule  of  ancient  and  medieval  art,  while  many  of  the  private 


302 


pfJaoes,  Bueh  as  those  of  the  Bonomeos  and  of  the 
Trivul2io6,  contain  valuable  collections  of  paintings. 
The  National  Library  in  the  Brera  (1770)  and  tne 
Ambrosian  Library  are  famous.  Tne  latter  was 
founded  by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo  (1609)  and 
contains  200,000  volumes,  brides  8300  manuscripts, 
126  of  which  are  illuminated  with  miniatures.  The 
State  and  the  municipal  archives  are  important;  eo, 
also,  in  their  sphere,  are  the  astronomical  and  the 
meteorological  observatories.  Milan  has  14  theatres, 
of  which  the  Scala  is  world-famous.  There  are  17 
hospitals  and  5  polvdinics,  also  asvlums  for  the  insane, 
the  blind,  the  deaf-mute,  etc.  Tnere  are  nearly  5000 
industrial  establishments,  with  150,000  workmen ;  the 
textile,  tjrpographic,  and  pharmaceutic  industries  are 
especially  well  represented. 

Cappxllxttx,  Le  Chieae  d^Italia^  XI  (Venioe,  1866);  Eubta- 
CHI17B  A.  S.  Ubaldo,  De  metropoh  Mediolanenn  (Milan.  1690); 
histories  of  Milan  by  Rosionx  (4  vols.,  Milan.  1820) :  CAinb, 
(2  vols..  1865);  Bonfadinx  Gianktx  (4  vols..  1883-1004);  Adt, 
nder  the  Sfona  (London,  1007);  Saxius,  iircAMott- 
Mediolaneiuium  series  (Bfilan,  1766);   the  periodical 


mQan  under  the  Sfona  (London,  1007);  Saxius,  Arekit 
eoporum  Mediolaneiuium  ser 
Mitano  Benefiea  (1006  sqq.). 


U.  Bbnigni. 

Milde,  ViNZENZ  Eduabd,  Prince-ArchbiBhop  of 
Vienna,  b.  at  BrOnn,  in  Moravia,  in  1777;  d.  at  Vienna 
in  1853.  The  admirable  monument  erected  to  him 
in  the  left  wing  of  St.  Catharine's  chapel  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Stephen  in  Vienna  portravs  a  catechist 
bending  over  two  children,  inscribed  "Charitv",  to 
the  left,  a  prirat  in  the  act  of  elevating  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  attended  by  a  young  priest  and  a  clerk,  in- 
scribed ''  and  Prayer  " .  Under  these  two  inscriptions, 
and  extending  across  the  whole  length  of  the  monu- 
ment are  the  words  ''link  together  the  inhabitants 
of  this  world  and  those  of  the  next'' .  The  monument 
thus  bears  witness  to  Milde's  distinction  as  a  catechist 
and  as  the  founder  of  a  seminary  for  priests  and 
teachers.  Towards  the  close  of  his  preparatory 
studies,  Milde  felt  called  to  the  ecclesiasticalstate  which 
his  stepfather  was  verv  much  opposed  to  his  entering. 
His  mother  favoured  his  purpose,  however,  and  poor 
and  without  acquaintances,  he  entered  the  "  Alumnat " 
or  little  semina^  at  Vienna  in  1794.  Here  he  formed 
an  intimate  friendship  with  Vinzenz  Damaut,  the 
future  professor  of  church  history,  and  with  Jakob 
Frint,  later  Bishop  of  St.  Pdlten.  The  three  distin- 
guished men  were  a^ain  united  as  court  chaplains, 
and  remained  firm  friends  for  the  remainder  of  their 
lives.  Meanwhile,  Milde  became  catechist  in  the 
Normal  High  School  and  successor  of  the  famous 
Augustin  Gruber,  and  occupied  also  the  chair  of 
pedagogics  at  the  imiversity.  Later,  as  court  chap- 
tain  at  Schdnbninn,  Milde  spoke  so  comf ortinfl;ly  to  the 
Emperor  Francis  I,  inconsolable  after  a  battle  lost  to 
Napoleon,  that  the  emperor  replied:  "I  shall  never 
forget  this  hour,  dear  Milde.  '  Not  content  with 
words,  tibe  emperor  named  Milde  Bishop  of  Leitmeritz 
in  1823,  and  in  1831  Prince-Archbishop  of  Vienna, 
Milde  being  the  first  archbishop  named  from  the  ranks 
of  the  people  to  this  see,  which  had  hitherto  been 
always  occupied  by  a  nobleman.  His  farewell  ad- 
dress is  thoroughly  characteristic:  "The  bond  of  the 
sacred  ministry  is  broken,  but  the  bond  of  the  heart 
will  never  be  severed.  Iliose  whom  I  have  loved,  I 
shall  love  to  the  end,  and,  though  separated  from  you, 
I  shall  remain  miited  with  you  in  charity  and  prayer. 
Pray  our  heavenly  father  not  that  I  may  live  long, 
but  that  I  may  live  for  the  salvation  of  the  faithful 
and  for  mv  own  salvation. "  Milde  thus  greeted  the 
people  of  Vienna:  "  Not  onlv  do  I  wish  to  be  united 
with  you  in  the  bonds  of  the  sacred  ministry,  but  I 
wish  to  be  united  with  you  in  the  bonds  of  charity. 
Not  for  myself,  but  for  you  do  I  wish  to  live."  He 
kept  the  promise  which  he  made  to  his  flock^  and  was 
to  them  a  solicitous  and  loving  father. 

Nevertheless,  the  yesr  of  the  Revolution  (1848) 
brought  him  his  bitterest  enmities  and  his  most  severe 


illnesses.  He  was  between  two  fires. .  On  13  Maidh 
the  storm  broke,  and  four  days  later  he  warned  his 
dersy,  in  a  circular  letter,  not  to  overstep  the  bounds 
of  tneir  calling:  "Priests  are  not  intended  to  advise 
regarding  the  earthly  affairs  of  men,  nor  to  regulate 
them,  but  should  only  concern  themselves  with  in- 
terior matters  pertaining  to  the  salvation  of  souls." 
But  the  revolution  soon  menaced  the  archbishop. 
Mock  serenades  were  held  repeatedly  outside  ms 

Ealace  and  its  windows  were  broken.  On  the  other 
and,  a  portion  of  the  cleigy  clamoured  that  he  should 
be  declared  incapable  of  TinLnoginp  the  affairs  of  the 
diocese  and  expressed  the  hope  of  being  led  to  victory 
by  a  stronger  personality.  A  deputaticm  of  the  deigy 
represented  this  to  Milde,  who  complied  as  far  as 
possible  by  retiring  to  his  castle  ot  Kranichbeig. 
When  the  draft  of  tne  fundamental  laws  of  liie  Aus- 
trian constitution  was  discussed  by  the  assembly  of 
the  States  of  the  Empire  at  Kremsier,  the  archbishop 
drew  up  an  address  to  the  assembly:  "The  under- 
signed bishops  declare  solemnly  that  they,  as  true  citi- 
zens, promote  the  welfare  and  nold  sacred  the  rishts  of 
the  state,  but  it  is  the  duty  of  their  office  and  <m  their 
conscience  to  look  after  the  freedom  and  the  rights 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  to  oppose  encroachment  and 
restriction  on  the  part  of  tne  state,  and  to  b^  for 
that  support  which  would  promote  the  true  interests 
of  the  state  and  the  successful  activity  of  the  Church." 
At  the  great  assembly  of  bishops  in  Vienna  (1849), 
Milde  was  chosen  one  of  a  committee  of  five  to 
continue  the  negotiations  with  the  state.  When 
finallv  in  1850  the  imperial  decisions  were  promul- 

fatea.  which  at  first  dealt  a  blow  to  the  existing 
osephist  system,  Milde  published  a  pastoral  for  the 
purpose  of  stilling  the  tumult:  "The  uneasiness  is  in- 
deed in  great  part  the  result  of  misunderstanding, 
but  often  also  the  result  of  malicious  misrepresenta- 
tion, since,  through  some  newspapers  and  through 
speeches  made  by  certain  men  inimical  to  the  Church, 
the  words  of  the  august  decree  were  distorted,  and 
erroneous  representations  spread  abroad."  The 
words  of  Milde  in  "  My  last  will  '  are  strikingly  beauti- 
ful. "Hope  softens  the  separation.  Toose  who 
did  me  evil  I  do  not  think  wicked,  but  gladly  persuade 
myself  that  I  by  my  sensitiveness  have  in  many  cases 
been  more  deeply  wounded  than  the  occasion  war- 
ranted. During  the  last  years  I  have  had  to  bear 
many  bitter  misunderstandings  and  shameful  calum- 
nies. I  have  kept  silence  through  it  all,  not  through 
apathy,  but  partly  that  the  malice  might  not  Be 
excit^  further,  and  partly  in  imitation  of  my  Re- 
deemer." 

Milde 's  "Lehrbuch  der  allgemeinen  Ersiehung»- 
kunde"  is  famous,  and  even  yet  much  used  (Vd.  I: 
Von  der  Kultur  der  physischen  und  der  intellectuellen 
Anlagen ;  Vol.  II :  Von  der  Kultur  des  GefOhls-  und 
des  Begehrungsvenn6gens,  Vienna,  1811-13,  3rd  ed., 
1843).  A  compendium  of  the  Ersiehungskunde  was 
published  in  1821.  J.  Ginzel  edited  Mflde's  "Reli- 
quien"  (2nd  ed.,  Vienna,  1859),  which  contained 
various  discourses  and  addresses  which  he  delivered 
as  bishop  and  archbishop. 

Brunnxr,  Denk  Pfennigs  eur  BHnnenifui  an  Penonen,  Zu- 
atAnde  und  Erlebniue  vor,  tn  und  nach  dein  Sxjfloeionajakre  1848 
(Vienna  and  WOnburK.  1886);  Gikiku  ReUquien  vtm  Milde 
(2nd  ed.,  Vienna,  1859);  Thubnwald,  Made  ale  PddaqoQe, 
with  portrait  of  Milde  (Vienna.  1877):  Wolpsorubbb.  Diet.  «. 
k.  Hofbunkapelle  und  die  geisaiehe  HofkapeUe  (Vienna.  1904); 
WoTU,  Vineem  Eduard  Milde  ale  Pddaooge  und  aein  VerhAUnia 
ttt  denjaeiatigen  Strdmungen  aeiner  Zeit  (Vienna,  1002):  Wxtri- 
BACH,  Biogr.  Lexikon  dee  Raieertume  Oeeterreieh,  XVIII  (Vienna, 
1868),  301-8. 

C.  WoUnSGBUBER. 

Miles,  George  Henbt,  dramatist  and  man  of  let- 
ters, b.  in  Baltimore,  Maryland,  31  July,  1824 ;  d.  near 
Emmitsbui^g,  23  July,  1871.  He  graduated  from 
Moimt  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsbuig,  in  1842,  and 
then  took  up  the  study  of  law,  commencing  to  prac- 
tise later  in  his  native  city.    But  the  proteesion  of 


BUUBTO  303  mUBTUS 

Ittw  was  ill-euited  to  his  temper  of  thought  and  to  attheoonfluenoe.oftheMaoestusand  theRhyndacua, 

his  literary  talents,  which  had  early  evinced  them-  west  of  Lake  Miletopolitis  Limne.    There  seems  to 

selves  in  a  tendency  to  turn  many  neat  verses.    His  have  been  a  tribe  there,  called  Milat®,  of  which  Mile- 

first  apjpearance  in   print   was  with  an   historical  topolis  was  the  chief  town  and  whose  name  was  hel- 

tale,  "  Tne  Truce  of  God ".  whioh  appeared  serially  in  lenised  in  order  to  suggest  a  colony  from  Miletus. 

the    "  United  States  Catholic  Magazine",   followed  Nothing  is  known  of  the  history  of  Miletopolis  except 

shortly  bjr  ''The  Governess",  and  in  1849,  by  ''Lor^  that  its  inhabitants  served  to  colonise  the  dty  of 

etto",  which  won  a  $50  prize  offered  bv  the ''Catholic  Gar^ra.    It  has  been  identified  with  Ball-Kesser, 

Mirror".    The  following  year,  when  out  twentv-six  Manias,  Mikhalltch;  but  the  first  two  identifications 

years  of  age,  with  his  tragedy  of  "Mahommed  ,  he  are  certainly  erroneous  and  the  third  doubtful.    It 

won  the  $1000  prize  offeij^d  by  Edwin  Forrest.    The  was  more  probably  located  at  Hammamli,  in  the 

lai¥  was  now  definitely  abandoned  for  the  drama.    In  vilayet  of  Brusa,  where  the  remains  of  an  ancient 

1S59  he  scored  his  first  success  with  the  tragedv  of  town  can  be  seen.    Miletopolis  figures  in  the  "Notitise 

''  I>e  Soto",  produced  at  the  Broadway  Theatre,  New  episcopatuum"  among  the  suffragan  sees  of  Cyaicus 

York  City,  and  during  the  same  season  his  comedy,  until  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century;  toward  the 

"  Mary's  Birthday",  was  performed.    In  18i9  "  Sefior  end  of  the  twelfth  it  was  imited  with  the  See  of 

Valiente"  earned  the  distmction  of  being  presented  in  Lopadium,  as  an  archbishopric  and  later  as  metrop- 

New  York,  Boston,  and  Baltimore  on  the  same  night,  oils.    Le  Quien  (Oriens   Cnrist.,   I,  779)   gives  the 

During  the  season  1860-61  the  "Seven  Sisters",  based  names  of  some  twelve  bishops  of  Miletopolis;  the 

on  the  theme  of  Secession,  was  produced  at  Laura  first  is  Philetus,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Parthenlus, 

Keens's  Theatre,  New  York  City.    Other  dramatic  Bishop  of  Lampsacus,  bom  at  Miletopolis,  in  the  be- 

ventures  were  not  so  successful,  and  his  most  preten-  ginning  of  the  fourth  century. 

tious  effort,  "Cromwell,  a  Tragedy",  remains  unfin-  ^  Hamiltow,  RewarehM,  I,  81;  II.  91;  SurrH.  Dtctionary  of 

ished.  InlSSlhewasdespatchedtoSpainbyPresident  OTeekandRonumOeographv,B.y,;KAMB^T,A,uiM^^ 

Fillmore  on  official  business.    He  was  again  in  Europe  x'etiud  s. 

in  1864  and,  on  his  return,  published  in  the  "Catholic        BSiletUfi,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 

World  "  a  series  of  charming  sketches,  "  Glimpses  of  Aphrodisias,  in  Caria.    Situated  on  the  western  coast 

Tuscany",  and,  in  1866,  "Christine:  a  Troubadour's  of  Caria  near  the  Latmic  Gulf  at  the  mouth  of  the 

Song",  and  a  voltime  of  verse,  "Christian  Poems".  Mseander  and  the  terminus  of  seveml  of  the  great 

In  1859  he  had  been  appointed  professor  of  English  roads  of  Asia  Minor,  Miletus  was  for  a  long  period  one 

Literature  at  Mount  St.  Mary's,  in  which  year  he  of  the  most  prosperous  cities  of  the  ancient  world.    At 

married  Adaline  Tiers,  of  New  York,  and  moved  from  first  inhabited  by  the  Leleges  and  called  Lelegeis  or 

Baltimore  to  Thombrook.  a  cottage  near  Emmitsbuig,  Pityussa,  it  was  rebuilt  imoer  the  name  of  Miletus  by 

where  he  lived  until  his  aeath.  the  Cretans  (Strabo,  XIV,  i,  3).     It  is  mentioned  by 

In  addition  to  works  of  creative  fancy,  Miles  de-  Homer  (Iliad,  II,  868).    About  the  tenth  century  b.c. 

iivered  in  1847  a  "  Discourse  in  Commemoration  of  the  the  lonians  occupied  it,  and  made  it  a  maritime  and 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  of  Maryland  "^  and.  shortly  commercial  power  of  the  first  rank.     From  it  numer^ 

before  nis  death,  contemplated  a  series  of  critical  ous  colonies  were  founded  along  the  Hellespont,  the 

estimates  on  Shakespeare  s  characters.     Only  one,  Propontis,  and  the  Black  Sea,  among  others  Cysicus 

that  upon  "Hamlet",  was  published  (in  the  "Southern  and  Sinope.    Miletus  also  had  its  period  of  literary 

Review  "),  which  won  no  mean  measure  of  apprecisr  glory  with  the  philosophers  Thales,  Anaximander,  and 

tion  from  contemporary  scholars  in  England.  Anaximenes,  the  historians  Hecatseus  and  Cadmus,  the 

Articles  on  Mahommed  in  Southern  Quarterly  Review,  XyiH,  rhetorician  iEschines,  and  the  writer  of  tales,  Aristldes. 

?r4^iT  ^aT*  '*^^'  ^'  ^^'  ^^  ^^'ff  Jf^To^K^Sf.  ^S^  After  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  it  passed  successively 

'*-^"™*  "*•  •'^^^  HEiLBY.  ^^g^  ^^^  domination  of  the  Persians,  Alexander,  the 

•mmt\^^  rw^^«—  ^-  r\irr.  ™«,^toto\  ,-.,  n»ioK»-o   :•»  Seleucides,  and  the  Romans,  and  finally  lost  its  splen- 

*K?*"^' J?JS!1J?^  &^Cb     A^l^Ti  S  dour  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  for  the  G^ks 

theprovmceofR«ggio,80uth^  and  Romans  the  symbol  of  vanished  prosperity.    Itis, 

*?i*^^^jl^l^jiL!:!f.^^^^^^^^^  nevertheless,  oftermentioned  by  S^ral^  (ill,  viii 


J^' "iS?' ^SS'^^VK^'J^^SSTf^!^^  Ephesus.    On  another  occasion,  doubtless  after  his 

December,  1908,  which  f^^y^^^^l^^^^  first  captivity,  he  left  here  his  companion  Trophimus, 

S??-.    ¥n7Q^  T*l?."^f^^^^  whowMm(liTim.,iv,20).    In  the  Acts  of  St.  Thyrl 

^ii5  ^?^K  -i?K®  ^^^'i'^f  ^  ^J^  ou^^it!  8US  and  his  compailioM,  martyred  at  Miletus  under 

cathedral,  ^V^*  t>y,Co"nt  R<«er,^T^^^^  I^    .       mention  is  mad4  of  a  Bishop  C«sarius  who 

monastery  of  the  Most  Holy  t^ity^^^  gave  tkem  burial  (Acta  SS.,  Ill,  Jai.,  423).    Euse- 

for  Greek  Basdian  "?<>^- .  ^aU^tus  ^^^^^             thw  ^      ^^y^      ^^  ^^^^       ^^^  ^^  4^  ^^^^  ^^ 

diooese  with  those  of  Taur^  Nicia  (325).    For  the  lirt  of  the  other  known  bishops 

ter  d^troyed  by  the  Saracens^    The  first  bwhop^^^  L^^  ^q^^    ^  ^^^_^^  ^^  q^^  (4^^     ^^^^.^ 

Amolfojafter  hun  ^f,^  G^?^^f«y  .(J^f  4),  und^  whom  ^"^^^  ^^  ^^  g    ^Nicephorus  in  the  tenth  cen- 

^^I'l^^'^^^I^S^^te^     r.^  tury  (Anal.  Bolland.,  XIV,  I2S-66).    At  first  asuffm- 

nal   Con^do  Canicwoo   (14^^^  ^  ^^  Aphrodisias,  Miletus  afterwards  became  an 

Apensi(1411);AntomoSorbmi(H  SutocephaYous  arohdiooese  and  even  a  metropolis, 

the  semmary  m  1440;  Felice  Centmi  (1611),  afteru  ^^^^^^^  ^ho  brought  fame  to  the  city  during 

wards  a  P^^^f^J  G'^ono  Pon«am  a640)^^^  Byzantine  times  must^  mentioned  the  Lchiteot 

with  a  mission  to  England  by  Urban^^^     >I^t£!rt  I«dore,  who,  with  Anthemius  of  Tralles,  built  St. 

cnt  incuj^bent  (smce  1898),  Mgr  Morabit^hw  bee^^^  Sophia  at  CcJnstantinople.    The  ancient  city  is  now 

charitable  father  to  the  «^«7«  ^'^^^.^^^ '^^^^^  buried  under  the  alluviiim  of  the  Meander,  which  has 

quak^     The  diocese  has  124  parishes    cont^ing  ^j^  ^^       ^^  L^^^   q^     ^       .^  '  .^^     bout 

220,(X)0  souls ;  2  convents  of  men,  and  12  houses  o7  ^^^  ^nd  a  lialf  miles  from  the  sea,  is  the  viUag^  which 

'*'?f;.«fi2?Hi?li;??'>iS2x^^^            1870^  smce  the  medieval  times  has  been  called  Palatia  or 

CArF.ixrm.I-cfcie^d'/teJ«».XXI(V«uce.l|W.^^^^  Palatscha.    Recent   excavations    have   brought   to 

li^ht  other  ruins,  the  remains  of  a  temple  of  Apollo 

BSilatopoUs,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  Didjrmffius.    Greek  Christian  inscriptions  have  also 

of  Cysicus-     Miletopolis  was  a  town  north  of  Mysia,  been  found  there,  among  others  one  mentioning  the 


MDJBTUS  304 

martvr  OnesippuB,  and  another,  probably  of  the  of  Milah  (Diehl,  ''L'Afrique  bynntiDe''  Parii,  1896» 

fourth  century,  containing  an  invocation  to  the  seven  603  sq.).    Two  councils  were  held  at  Miievum,  one  in 

archangels,  guardians  of  the  city  (Corp.  inscr.  gr.,  402  ana  the  other  in  416;  the  second  appealed  to  Pope 

2892, 8847).  Innocent  I  for  the  repreesioa  of  the  Pelagian  heresy. 

L«  QyxMf  OfMfw  difif.,  I,  917-30;  Ratw  ak?  T^okas.  Among  the  bishops  of  this  titular  see  were  PoDianus, 

^iif«S3^1fS^.^xr^^  pr^attheC^^^ 

don,  1890),  37, 40,  68-00.  62. 422;  Pxiwcyr  and  Cbzpus,  Hid.  tjrred  two  years  later;  St.  Optatus,  noted  for  his  work 

de  ran  dan$  rantitmU,  Vin  (Paris,  1004).  ^70.  against  the  Donatists,  d.  c.  386.  and  commemorated 

8.  SALA.VILLB.  on4  June;  Honorius;Severus,  fellow-countryman  and 

HUetoa  '-^-^-*«-  *        -  -  «               ..«.v 

logian. 


academy.    He  was  ordained  in  St.  John  lAteran  on       t.^„.,««««  ru i^«  j  n^*-.-       x-^-         mr     .j.  -m    . 

Easter  Saturdav,  1575,  and  returned  to  Germany  in  ^^^^'^^f^'^truph^dBrAjhquschHhm^ 

the  summer  of  that  year;  on  his  way  home  he  was  rnade  '                                                        S.  Yailh^ 
doctor  of  theology  at  Bologna  (11  June,  1575).    He 

was  summoned  to  Mams  by  the  Elector  Daniel  Bren-  MiHe,  Jan,  a  pr^Hussite  reform  preacher  and  re- 
del  von  Homburg,  where  he  was  active  in  the  reform  liglous  enthusiast,  b.  at  Kremsler  in  Moravia,  d.  29 
of  the  clergy.  From  there  he  was  sent  bv  the  elector  June,  1374,  at  Avignon.  From  1358-60  he  wa* 
to  Erfurt,  to  assist  the  suffragan  bishop  Nicolaus  El-  registrar  and  from  1360-2  corrector  at  the  imperial 
gard  in  his  efforts  for  the  restoration  of  Catholicism,  chancery  of  Charles  IV.  In  1363  he  was  priest  and 
His  sermons  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist,  preached  canon,  probably  also  arehdeacon,  at  Prague ;  but  to- 
at  Erfurt  in  Lent,  1579,  involved  him  in  sharp  contro-  wards  the  end  of  the  same  year  he  renounced  all  his 
versy  with  the  Protestant  preachers.  He  was  sent  to  dignities,  began  a  life  of  extreme  austerity  and  fear- 
Rome  in  1582  to  bring  the  pallium  for  the  new  areh-  lessly  denounced  the  vices  of  the  clergy  and  the  laity, 
bishop,  Wolfgang  von  Dalberg.  The  latter  brought  At  least  once  each  day  he  preached  at  St.  Nicholas's, 
him  back  again  to  Mains,  and  employed  him  on  impor-  later  at  St.  %;id's  in  Prague,  in  Latin  for  ecclesiastics 
tant  affairs,  notably  on  the  visitation  of  monasteries,  and  in  the  Csech  language  for  the  laity.  After  the 
Also  in  1601  and  1604  he  brought  from  Rome  the  death  of  Conrad  of  \^^l^ausen  in  1369  he  preached 
confirmation  and  the  pallium  for  the  succeeding  arch-  daily  at  the  cathedral  in  German.  In  the  spring  of 
bishops,  Adam  von  Bicken,  and  Schweikart  von  Cro-  1367  he  went  to  Rome  where  he  was  imprisoned  by  the 
nenberg.  Under  all  these  archbishops,  the  last  of  Inquisition  because  he  had  declared  to  the  people  that 
whom  appointed  him  his  spiritual  counseUor^  he  was  Antichrist  had  arrived.  During  hb  imprisonment  he 
tirelessly  engaged  in  defending  the  Catholic  Faith,  both  wrote  "  Libellus  de  Antichristo^,  which  he  submitted 
by  preaching  and  writing,  until  his  death.  He  was  pro-  to  Pope  Urban  V,  who  upon  his  return  from  Avignon 
vost  of  St.  Morits,  dean  of  the  Liebfrauenstift.  canon  to  Rome  on  16  Oct.,  1367,  released  him.  In  1372  he 
of  St.  Victor's  and  St.  Peter's,  all  in  Mains;  and  canon  founded  at  Prague  a  home  for  fallen  women,  which 
of  St.  Severus'  at  Erfurt.  After  1575  he  also  had  a  he  called  "Jerusalem".  In  1373  the  mendicants  and 
canonry  in  the  cathedral  chapter  at  Breslau.  He  did  the  city  clergy  of  Prague  lodged  twelve  aootisations 
not  visit  Breslau  until  1599.  and  then  only  for  a  short  against  him  mth  PopeGregory  XI  at  Avignon,  where- 
time,  while  taking  part  in  the  election  of  a  bishop;  he  upon  he  went  to  Avignon,  was  completely  justified  by 
then  went  to  Rome  to  brin^  the  confirmation  oi  the  the  pope,  and  was  even  permitted  to  preach  before  the 
elected  bish^.  His  oolemical  and  apologetic  writ-  carclinals.  There  are  extant  in  manuscript  two  coUec- 
ings  are: — "  De  festo  Corporis  Christi  in  honorem  Jesu  tions  of  his  Latin  sermons,  entitled  " Gratia  Dei "  and 
Christi"  (Mains,  1580);  "Augenschein  des  Jesuiter  "Abortivus".  His  "Libellus  de  Antiohristo"  was 
8piegels,soneuwlichzuErffurdtintruckaussgangen"  edited  by  Mencik  in  "  Sitsumgsberichte  der  b6hini- 
(Cologne,  1582);  "De  sacramentis,  mille  sexcenti  er-  schen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften"  (Prague, 
rores,  vaniloquia  et  cavillationes  eorum,  qui  hoc  tem-  1890),  328-336. 


pore  ab   Ecclesia  secesserunt   catholica,   cum   brevi         VHa  venerabaia  prubyUn  MaicU  jmOaH  mxUmm  Pwvawit. 

eorum  refutatione;  plerique  collecti  ex  Kemnitio"  ^A.E^wM^'mPontMrenimBcj^ 

(Main.,  1593);  «B«vj  d^u-jo  et  rrfutaUo.8exo«i.  l^Stpr^.  Sl^.S:  ^^HS^l^^iril;^'  ^°^^ 
torum  errorum,  quoe  duo  Prsedicantes  Saxomci  Tile-  JAjtmi^isi.  Ott 

mazmus  Heshusius  et  Joaxmes  Olearius  Pontificiis  hoc  ^^' 

est  Christianis  Catholicis  vanissime  hactenus  attribu-        m«<N».*»    #Wit«««     T-r-      t«.«i»^:«»    »«^^-    *u'- 

erunt"  (Biains,  1604).  ,  **"***^  J^S^k'    S^tllS^H  wS,*^^®'i  ^^ 

Rora   In    WUHUmberiimJ^    ViertdMr,hefte  far  Lande^e-  ^^  ^""^U  ]™<*  J?  brotherhood  of  Imights,  secular  as 

achiehte,  new  series,  ninth  year  dooo).  S.  304-^06;  ^noiNHu-  well  as  religious,  historians  of  the  military  Orders  have 

BKB,  Ge^tdue  de»  CoUmm  qenMnicum  ^,^!»Hfarievmtin  enumerated  as  many  as  a  hundred,  even  after  eliminat- 

Rom.,  I  (FrnbuiK  im  Br..  1896).  75, 96  eq..  196. 197,  201-3,  303;  r„^  ^u^  anocrvnhAl  and  fltillhnm       This  lyr^af  nnmYv^r 

Jtmoirm.  Dm  Bredauer  German%k0r  (BreeUu.  1906),  8. 24-27;  Pg  ^"?  apocrypnai  ana  Simoom,      1  nis  gr^t  n^Der 

Funk  in  Kinhenlex.,  2,  AufL.  VIII.  1616  f.  IS  exphuned  bv  the  eagerness  with  which  the  Middle 

Fbiedbich  Lauchebt.  Ages  welcomed  an  institution  so  thoroughly  corre- 
sponding to  the  two  occunations  of  that  penod,  war 

Mileviim,  a  titular  see  of  Numidia.    In  Ptolemy's  and  religion.    Royalty  afterwards  utilised  this  new 

"Geography",  IV,  iii,  7,  the  city  is  mentioned  under  idea  to  strengthen  its  own  position  or  to  reward  faith- 

the  name  of  Mileum  or  Mireon.    During  the  Roman  ful  nobles,  creating  secular  ordera  of  knighthood  until 

era  it  was  called  Colonia  Samensis  Milevitana,  after  there  was  no  coimtry  without  its  royiu  or  princely 

the  River  Samus  in  Campania,  whence  the  colonists  order.  Even  private  individuals  entered  into  tne  busi- 

had  emigrated.    This  name  is  often  found  in  the  in-  ness;  adventurers  attempted  to  exploit  the  vanity  of 

scriptions  of  the  city.    Together  with  Cirta,  Collo,  and  the  noblesse  by  sham  insignia  of  knignthood  with  which 

Rusicade,  Milevum  formM  the  confederation  known  they  decked  themselves,  and  which  they  distributed 

as  the  Four  Colonies,  the  territory  of  which  was  very  among  their  dupes  lavishly — though  not  gratuitous! v« 

extensive.    In  the  sixth  century  the  Emperor  Justin-  Hence  came  a  whole  category  of  orders  justly  consid- 

ian  had  Milevum  enclosed  by  a  fortifiecl  wall,  which  ered  ai>ocr3^hal.    In  the  seventeenth  century  Marino 

still  stands  and  forms  a  rampart  for  the  Arabian  city  Garaccioli  (1624),  a  Neapolitan  nobleman,  succeeded  ia 


{^ 


lios  himself  off  as  Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of    Orden  of  St.  lAunis  of  Jerusatem  (q.  v.)  And  of 


who  ^ted  himaetf  u)  Abyrainian,  brou^t  to  Europe  lNvit»tTa  Settora  de  Merced,  also  called  Mercedariaaa), 
an  Older  no  less  ancient,  that  of  St.  Antbony  of  Ethio-  founded  (1218)  in  Aiagoa  by  St.  Peter  Nolasco  tor  the 
pia,  HJt  unpoeture  almoat  inunediately  unmasked  by  i«deinptioD  of  eaptivee.  Including  religious  knights 
another  Oriental,  the  learned  Abraham  Echelensis  as  well  as  relifjousclerice,  it  was  originally  considered 
(IMS).  At  the  court  of  Louis  XIV,  a  negro,  brought  a  military  order,  but  disBCDsions  aroee  and  each  rank 
toFmncefromtheGoldCoaBt,  posed  aa  a  prince,  even  chose  its  own  grand  master.  John  XXII  (1317)  re- 
seauring  the  honour  of  being  baptiied  by  Boesuet  served  the  grand-maatenhip  to  clerics,  with  the  reeult 
(1686),  and  instituted  the  Order  of  the  Star  of  Our  of  a  general  exodus  of  knights  into  the  newly  founded 
Lady  before  returning  to  his  alleged  dominions.  milituy  Order  of  Hontesa. 

A  regular  order  of  knighthood  means  a  brotherhood  II.  Tsm  LissKB  Rkqul&B  ORDKItB. — Then  k  men- 
or  con&atemity  which  combines  with  the  insignia  of  tlon  in  the  twelfth  eaituiy.  In  Caatile,  of  an  Order  o( 
knighthood  the  privil^ee  of  monks.  This  supposes 
iQCOgnition  on  the  part  of  both  Church  and  State;  to 
belong  to  the  r^ular  clergy,  they  needed  the  pope's 
eonfinnation;  they  could  not  wear  the  sword  of  knight- 
hood without  the  authorisation  of  the  prince.  Ordera 
of  knighthood  lacking  this  official  recognition  should 
be  expunged  from  history,  even  though  they  figure  in 
the  pages  of  all  the  ola  historians  of  the  militarjr 
orders.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  more  than  one  rule  M 
this  kind,  scarcely  passing  beyond  the  initial  stages, 
baa  existed,  and  such  are  the  orders  which  may  ba 
deeigoated  stillborn.  No  trace  is  to  be  found  in 
the  "Bullarium  romanum"  of  the  order  called  the 
Wing  of  St.  Michael,  attributed  to  King  Alfonso  I 
of  Portu^  (1176),  nor  of  the  Order  of  the  Ship, 
which  St.  Louis  was  supposed  to  have  founded  on  the 
eve  of  the  crusade  to  Tunis  where  he  died  (1270),  nor 
of  that  of  the  A^onauts  of  St.  Nicholas,  attributed  to 
CbarlesIII,  King  of  Naples,  1382,  Philippe  deMesif  res, 
chancellor  of  the  King  of  C^rus,  drew  up  the  statutes 
of  an  Order  of  the  PassioD  of  Christ  ^360).  the  teit 
of  which  has  recently  been  published,  but  which  were 
never  enforced.  After  the  conquest  of  Lemnos  from 
the  Turks,  Pope  Pius  II  founded  on  order  of  Our 
Lady  of  Bethlehem,  intendin(^  to  transfer  to  it  the 
ponnrnninnn  of  older  oideis  which  no  longer  fulfilled 
their  purpose  (1459),  but  the  loss  of  the  island  pr^ 
vented  its  institution.  The  same  fate  befell  the  Ger- 
man Order  of  the  Christian  Militia,  projected 
(1515)  under  Paul  V;  of  the  French  order  of  The 

EmaBn  or  Livohu.  om  8wobi>-beaii»is 

Alexander  III  (1 „  . 

, , ._      „_ a  the  Order  of  Calatrs  _, 

The  a^  of  the  crusades  had  passed.  The  orders  of  with  which  it  was  soon  amalgamated.  In  1191,  aft«r 
any  historical  existence  may  be  reduced  to  three  cate-  the  si^  of  Acre,  Richard  I  of  England  founded  there 
gories:  I.  The  Greater  Reeular  Orders;  11.  The  in  fuluhnent  of  a  vow,  the  Order  of  St.  Thomas  of 
LMser  Regular  Orders;  III.  The  Secular  Orders.  Canterbury,  an  order  of  hospitallers  for  the  service  of 

I.  Thb  Gsbates  REQiTiiAit  Obderb. — The  great  English  pilgrims.  It  seems  to  have  been  rnade  de- 
military  orders  had  their  origin  in  the  crusades,  from  pendent  on  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  John,  whom  it  fol- 
wbich  tbey  retain  the  common  badge  of  every  order  lowed  to  C^rus  after  the  evacuation  of  Palestine.  Its 
of  knighthood,  the  cross  worn  <»  the  breast.  The  existence  is  attested  by  the  Bullarium  of  Alexander 
oldeet  of  these,  the  Knights  Templars  (q.  v.),  has  IV  and  John  XXII ;  beyond  this  h  has  left  but  little 
served  as  a  model  for  all  the  Others.  Aft^r  barely  a  trace  except  a  church  of  remarkable  arrhitecture,  St. 
century  ofexistence,  they  were  suppressed  by  Clement  Nicholas,  at  Nicosia  in  Cyprus.  Better  known  is  the 
"■-  ■— '  ■ ■-  ~ — ' — i  alter  the  four' — '"-     "■'-■ —  -'  ^'■^  "' .-■— -j—  (th.  ..i.....   __  c j 


V;  but  two  remnants  remained  alter  the  fourteenth  history  of  the  BchwertzbrOder  (Enai/eri,  __   

century,  the  Order  of  Christ  (q.  v.)  in  Portugal,  and  bearers)  of  Livonia,  founded  1^  Albert,  first  Bishop  of 

the   Order  of  Montesa  (q.  v.)  in  Spain.     In  the  Riga(1197),  topropagate  the  Faithin  theBalticProv- 

twelfth  century  Portugal  had  borrowed  their  rule  from  incee  and   to   protect    the    new    Christianitv   there 

the  Templars  and  founded  the   Portugueae  Order  of  against  the  pa^ui  nations  still  numerous  in  that  part 

Avis  ([].  v.).    Almost  at  the  same  time  there  arose  ofEurope.    Against  theee  pagans  a  crusade  had  been 

in  Castile  the  Order  of  Calatrava  (q,  v.)  and  in  Leon  preached ;  but,  the  temporary  crusaders  having  made 

the  Order  of  Alcantara  tq.  v.).      Contemporary  with  haste  to  withdraw,  it  became  necessary,  as  in  Pales- 

these  purely  militArv  orders,  others  were  founaed,  at  tine,  to  supply  their  place  with  a  permanent  order, 

once  military  and  ocspitaller,   the  most  famous  of  This  order  adopted  tne  statutes,  uie  whit«  mantle 

wMch  were  the  Hospitallere  of -St.  John  of  Jerusalem  and  the  red  cross  of  the  Templars,  with  a  red  sword 

and   the  Teutonic  Knighta,  modelled  on  the  former,  as   their  distinctive   badge,   whence   their  name   of 

both  still  in  existence.      In  the  same  category  should  Entiferi.     The  order  was  approved  in  1202  by  a  Bull 


be   included   the   Order  ot   Santiago   (q.    v.)    which  of  Innocent  III.     Thrown  open  to  all  sorts  of  pei 

■pr«ad    throughout    Castile,    Leon,    and    Portugal,     without  distinction  of  birtti,  overrun  by  aimW. 

Lastly,  there  are  the  purely  hospitaller  orders  whose  venturers  whose  excesses  were  calculated  rather  ta 

commanders,  however,  claimed  the  rank  of  knighta  exasperate  the  pagans  than  to  convert  them,  it  en- 

though  they  had  never  been  in  battle,  such  as  the  dured  but  a  shcnl  time,  having  only  two  grand  mas- 


mUTABT  3U0  mUTABT 

ten,  the  fint  of  whom,  Vinnon,  was  murdered  hj  one  knights,  exclusive  of  prinoes  of  the  blood  and  forta^ 
of  hit  fellows  in  1209,  while  the  second,  Volauin,  fell  priucM,  with  St.  Georse  as  its  patron  and  with  it« 
on  the  field  of  battle  in  1236,  with  four  hundred  and  chapel  m  Windsor  Castle  for  the  holding  of  chaptcn. 
eighty  IcnightB  of  the  Older.  The  survivors  petitioned  This,  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  takes  its  name  from 
to  be  allowedtoentertheTeutonic  Order,  of  which  the  the  characteristic  badse,  worn  on  the  left  kne«.  The 
Knights  of  Livonia  thenceforward  formed  one  branch  choice  of  this  badae  has  given  rise  to  various  anec- 
under  a  provincial  master  of  their  own  (1238),  Their  dotes  of  doubtful  authenticitT.  Nothing  is  now 
posaeasions,  acquired  by  conquest,  formed  a  principal-  known  of  the  original  object  of  the  Chder  of  the  Bath, 
ity  under  Charles  V  (1525).  and  the  last  of  their  maa-  the  creation  of  which  datee  from  the  coronatJCNi  of 
tera,  Gottart  Kettler.  apostatized  and  converted  it  Henry  IV  (1309).  A  third  order,  Scottish  by  origin, 
into  the  hereditary  Duchy  of  Courland  under  the  is  that  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle,  dating  from  the 
auierainty  of  the  kii^  of  Poland  (1562).  reign  of  James  V  of  Scotland  (1534).     Theee  orders  still 

The  Gaudenti  of  Our  X^y  at  Boloena,  confirmed  exist,  though  they  have  been  proUstantiied.  In 
bf  Uibaa  IV  in  1262,  and  supptessed  by  Kxtus  V  France,  the  royal  orders  of  the  Star,  dating  from  John 
the  Good  (1362),  of  St.  Michael,  founded  by  Louis 
XI  (1460),  of  the  Hdy  Ghost,  founded  by  Henry  III 
(1570),  of  Our  Lady  of  Cannel,  amalmmated  by 
Henry  IV  with  that  of  St.  Laiarus  (q.  v.),  wet«  abso- 
lutely suppressed  bv  the  Revolution.  Austria  and 
Spain  now  dispute  tne  inheritance  from  the  House  of 
Burgundy  of  the  right  to  confer  the  Order  of  the 
Golden  Heece,  founded  by  Duke  Philip  the  Good, 
approved  by  Eugene  IV  m  1433,  and  extended  by 
LeoXinl5!6. 

In  Piedmont,  the  Order  of  the  Aimunxiata,  under 
its  later  form,  dates  only  from  Charles  III,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  in  1518,  but  its  firat  dedication  to  the  Ble^ed 
Virgin  goes  back  to  Amadeus  VIII,  first  Duke  of 
Savoy,  antipope  under  the  name  of  Felix  V  (1434). 
There  had,  previouslv  to  this  dedication,  existed  in 
Savoy  an  Order  of  tne  Collar,  which  held  its  chap- 
ters in  the  Charterhouse  (founded  in  1302)  of  Pierre- 
Ch&tel  in  Bugey.  Here  also  the  Knights  of  the  An- 
nuniiata  kept  their  feast  of  the  Annunciation,  so 
that  they  have  considered  themselves  as  sueceason 
of   the   Older  of   the  Collar.     After   the  cession   of 


_,  ...  the 
Mountain  of  Turin  (1627).  In  the  Duchy  of  Uantua, 
Duke  Vincent  Gonzaga,  on  the  marriai^  of  his  son 
Francis  11,  instituted,  with  the  approbation  of  Paul 
V,  the  Knizhts  of  the  Frtcious  Blood,  a  telic  of  which 
is  venerated  in  that  capital.  Lastly  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  pontifical  secular  orders,  the  oldest  of  which  is 
the  Older  of  Christ,  contemporary  with  the  institu- 
KHiaim  TmH-iHB  tion  of  the  same  order  in  Portugal  in  1319.     In  ap- 

in  1589,  were  not  so  much  a  military  order  as  an  provine  the  latter  institution,  John  XXII  reserved  the 
association  of  gentlemen  who  undertook  to  maintain  rightolcteatingacertainnumberof  knights bynatent, 
the  public  peace  in  those  turbulent  times.  An  oider  and  it  is  now  used  to  reward  aervices  rendered  by  any 
of  St.  Geoive  of  Alfama,  in  Aragon,  approved  in  1363  pereon  whatsoever  without  distinction  of  birth.  The 
by  Urban  V,  was  mewed  in  the  Order  of  Montesa  in  same  ia  to  be  said  of  the  Orders  of  St.  Peter,  insti- 
1399.  The  Knights  of  St.  George,  in  Austria,  founded  tuted  by  Leo  X  in  1520,  of  St.  Paul,  founded  by 
by  the  EmperorFrederick  III,  and  approved  by  Paul  Paul  III  in  1534,  of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto,  charged  by 
II  in  1468,  failing  to  perpetuate  their  existence,  owing     SixtusVin  '""    '-        -  ■-    -    -  ....  ... 


^^  ^  .  .^,  failing  to  perpetuate  their  existence,  owing  Sixtus  V  in  1558,  to  watch  over  and  preserve  that 

to  the  lack  of  territorial  possfttaions,  gave  place  to  a  sanctuary.     These  distinctions  were  mostly  granted 

purely  secular  con  fraternity.  TheOrderot  St.  Stephen  to  functionaries  of  the  pontifical  chancery.    There  has 

Pope  was  founded  in  Tuscany  by  the  Grand  Duke  been  some  question  as  to  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 

Cosmo  I  and  approved  in  1561   fcy  Pius  IV,   being  chre  (q.  v.),  formerly  dependent  on  the  Patriarch  of 

placed  under  the  Benedictine  Rule.     It  had  its  prin-  Jerusalem,   and   (juite   recently  reorganised   by  the 

cipal  house  at  Pisa,  and  was  oblked  to  equip  a  certain  reigning  poi»  (Pius  X).     The  Knights  of  St.  Cathe- 

number  of  galleys  to  fight  the  Turks  in  the  Mediter-  rine  of  Smai  (q.  v.)  are  not  an  order,  either  secular 

ranean  after  the  manner  of,  and  in  concert  with,  the  or  r^ular.     The  respective  particular  histories  bf  the 

"caravans"  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  gri»t  military  orders  have  been  traced  in  the  various 

III.  The  Secuijve  OnnEBS. —  Dating  from  the  four-  articles  devoted  to  them;  it  is  necessary  here  cmly  to 

teenth  century,  fraternities  of  lay  knights  were  formed  explain  their  general  organixation,  religious,  miUtary, 

modelled  on  tte  great  regular  orders;  as  in  the  latter,  and  economic. 

we  find  m  these  secular  orders  a  patron,  a  vow  to  serve  (I)  Religioae  SlaU.—Tbe  knights  of  the  great  or- 

tbe  Church  and  the  sovereign,  statutes,  a  grand  mas-  ders  were  regarded  in  the  Chureh  as  analcttous  to 

ter  (usually  the  reigning  prmce),  and  the  practice  of  monks,  whose  three  vows  they  professed  and  whose 

certain  devotions.     Most  of  them  also  asked  for  the  immunities  they  shared.     They  were  answerable  to 

approbationof  the  Holy  See,  which,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pope  alone;  they  had  their  chapels,  their  clerics, 

Ctedthemspiritual  favours— indulgences,  theprivi-  and  their  cemeteries,  all  exempted  from  the  jurisdic- 

of  private  oratories,  dispensation  from  certain  tion  of  the  secular  clergy.     Their  landed  property  was 

fasts,  tte.     The  chief  of  three  orders,  classified  by  free  from  tithes.     They  were  not  subject  to  the  in- 

oountries,areasfollowB:— In  England.  Edward  HI,  in  terdicta  which  the  bishops  in  those  days  employed  so 

memory  of  the  legendary  Knightfl  of  the  Round  Table,  freely.    They  did  not  all  follow  the  same  monastic 

CBtablisbed  in  1349  a  biotoerbood  of    wenty-five  rule.    The  Templats  and  ordets  derived  fnna  thoc 


M); 

30); 


HILLENNniM  307  BIILLBNNniH 

fbOoved  the  (Ssterciau  Reform.  The  HoepitAllen  eomituikder  and  aubordina'te,  these  ordera  surpaaced, 
followed  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  Nevenheleea,  in  in  that  cohesivenoss  which  is  the  ideal  of  eve^  inili- 
eonaequeace  of  the  leloxatiou  which  majiifested  itself  tuy  organiution,  the  moet  famous  bodies  of  picked 
amcmg  themafterthe^riodofthe  cruaadea,  the  Holy  soldiery  known  to  history,  from  the  Macedonian 
See  introduoed  mitigations  in  favour  of  the  non-clerical  phalanx  to  the  Ottoman  Janiaaaries. 
brethren.  For  these  it  was  difficult  to  maintain  the  (3)  Eamomic  Organisation. — The  importance  ao- 
rule  of  celibacy  in  all  ite  rigour;  they  were  pennitted,  quired  by  the  military  orders  during  the  oourse 
in  certain  ordeis,  to  marry  onoe,  and  that  only  with  a  of  the  Middle  Ages  may  be  measured  by  the  extent  of 
maiden.  Even  wtiere  second  marriages  were  toler-  their  territorial  possessions,  scattered  throughout 
ated,  they  had  to  vow  conjugal  fidelhy,  BO  that  if  they  Europe.  In  the  thirteenth  century  nine  thousand 
violated  this  obligation  of  the  natural  law  they  sinned  manors  formed  the  portion  of  the  Templars;  thirteen 
doubly,againatthelawandagainsttheirvow.  Besides  thousand  that  of  the  Hospitallers.  These  temporali- 
the  tone  vows,  the  rule  bound  the  brethren  to  the  ex-  ties  were  an  integral  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  domain, 
ercises  of  the  monastic  life  such  as  the  mntation  of  the    and  as  such  had  a  sacred  character  which  placed  them 

I 1     beyond  liability  to  profane  uses  or  to  sectdar  imposts. 

I  ,  I     THe^  differed  from  the  temporalities  of  other  monastic 

institutions  only  in  the  centralized  aystem  of  their  ad- 
ministration. While  within  each  of  the  other  religious 
institutes  ever^  abbey  was  autonomous,  all  the 
bouses  of  a  oulitary  otder  were  bound  to  contribute 
their  revenues,  after  deducting  expenses,  to  a  cen- 
tral treasury.  As  a  result  of  tlus  enormous  circula- 
tion of  capital  controlled  by  the  orders,  their  wealth 
could  be  applied  to  financial  operations  which  niade 
them  veritable  credit  and  deposit  banks.  Tbeir  per- 
fect good  taith  earned  for  them  the  implicit  confi- 
dence of  the  Church  and  of  temporal  rulers.  The 
papacy  employed  them  to  collect  contributions  for  the 
crusades;  princes  did  not  hesitate  ta  entrust  to  them 
their  personal  property.  In  this  respect,  again,  the 
military  orders  were  model  institutions. 

s,  Oriffine  da  chevolivrs  tt  ordra  miliiairet  (Antwcip, 
AVTH,  HiMtoin  d^  irrdrei  dt  chevattrie  {2  vols.,  Pans, 
llnLEHrELD,  OachUJitt  md  Verfa4iung  atlcr  RitUr- 
vruci  vi*«imftr,  1841)^  Cappelleti,  Storia  degti  tjrd\ni  caoaUtrr- 
lAi  (tpKbom.  1904):  Ci^BKE.  Cirncisi:  HiOory  of  Kni^lMood. 
II  (Losdon,  1SS1);  DrsBT,  The  Broad  SUmt  of  ffoiumr  (Loo- 
don.  1875-77);  tiiwMsci-ABCHEH.  Tilt  Ordm  of  CAivairv 
[LoDdoD.  1887):  B»  »b<>  bibllacraphla  attuhed  to  apedAl 
■ttjclea  oo  the  hvctsI  grut  ordeis. 

Ch.  Moellbr. 

Mtiiimninin    ftnd    HUlenarlanism.— The   funda- 
mental idea  of  millenarianism,  as  understood  by  Chris- 
tian writers,  may  be  aet  forth  as  follows:    At  the 
end  of  time  Christ  will  return  in  all  His  splendour 
RHidBn  or  ar.  Jom  o»  J«rdb*lbii  to  gather  together  the    juat,   to  annihilate  hostile 
Hours,  for  which,  in  the  caac  oi  illiterates,  a  fixed  num-  powers,  and  to  foimd  a  slorioua  kiitgdom  on  earth 
ber  of  PateiB  was  substituted.    It  also  prescribed  their  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  highest  spiritual  and  mate- 
dress  and  their  food,  and  their  feast,  abstinence,  and  rial  blessings ;   He  Himself  will  reign  as  its  ^ins,  and 
fast  days.     Lastly,  the  rule  imposed  detailed  oblisa-  all  the  just,  including  the  sainta  recalled  to  lUe,  will 
tions  in  r^ard  to  the  election  of  dienitaries  and  the  participate  ia  it.     At  the  close  of  this  kingdom  the 
admission  of  members  to  the  two  ranKs  of  combatants  saints  will  enter  heaven  with  Christ,  while  the  wicked. 
— knights  and  men-at-arms — and  the  two  of  non-  who  have  also  been  resuscitated,  will  be  condeirmea 
combatants — chaplains,  to  whom  all  sacerdotal  funo-  to  eternal  damnation.    The  duration  of  thia  glorious 
tions  were  reserved,  and  casalien,  or  tenants,  who  reign   of   Christ    and    His   sainta   on  earth,   is  ft«- 
were  charged  with  the  management  of  temporal  af-  quently  given  aa  one  thousand  years.     Hence  it  is 
fairs.  corrunonly  known  as  the  "millermium",  while  the  be- 
(2)  MUitan/  Organizatiom, — The  militanr  orvaniia-  lief  in  the  future  realization  of  the  kingdom  is  called 
tion  of  the  orders  was  uniform,  explained  by  that  law  "millenarianism"    (chiliasm,   from  the  Greek  x^^"^i 
dt  war  which  compels  the  belligerent  to  maintain  his  soil.  (t^). 

military  apparatus  on  a  level  with  those  of  hia  adver-  This  term  of  one  thousand  ycara,  however,  is  by 

•ai^,  on  pam  of  defeat.     The  strength  of  an  army  waa  no  means  an  essential  element  of  the  millennium 

in  it«  cavalry,  and  to  thia  type  the  armament,  mount-  as  conceived  by  its  adherenta.     The  extent,  details  of 

Ing,  and  tactics  of  the  military  oniers  conformed,  the  realization,conditioas,  theplace,of  thomillennium 

The  knighta-biethren  were   the  heavy  cavalry;  the  were  variously  described.     Essential  are  the  following 

men-at-arms-brethren,   the   light  cavalry.     The  for-  points:  The  early  return  of  Christ  in  all  His  power  and 

mer  were  entitled  to  three  horses  apiece ;  tne  latter  hod  glory,  the  establislunent  of  an  earthly  kingdom  with 

to  be  content  with  one.     Among  the  former,  only  the  juat,  the  resuscitation  of  the  deceased  saints  and 

knights  of  tried  prowess  were  admitted,  or,  in  default  their  participation  in  the  glorious  reign,  the  destruo- 

of  tnis  qualification,  sons  of  knights,  because  in  such  tion  of  the  powers  hostile  to  Ood,  and,  at  the  end 

families  the  warlike  spirit  and  military  training  were  of  the  kingdom,  the  universal  resurrection  with  the 

hereditary.     The  consequence  was  that  the  knighta,  final  judgment,  after  which  the  just  will  ent«r  heaven, 

nroperiy  so-called,  were  never  very  numerous;   they  while  the  wicked  will  be  consigned  to  the  eternal  fire  of 

fonned  a  corps  (Tflile  which  carried  the  great  mass  hell. 

of  the  crusaders.     Gathered  in  convents  which  were  The  roots  of  the  belief  in  a  glorious  kingdom,  partly 

alsobarraeka.combiningwiththepassiveobedience  of  natural,  partly  supernatural,  are  found  m  the  hopes 

the  soldier,   the  spontaneous  submission  of  the  r»-  of  the  Jews  for  a  temporal  Messiah  and  in  the  Jewiah 

ligjoua,  living  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  brotherly  union,  ajiocalyptic.   Under  tne  galling  preuure  of  their  polit- 


mLLENMIUM                           808  WrTTiUNIiiUM 

ical  circumstances,  the  expectation  of  a  Messiah  who  saints  too  would  enjor  a  supenbundanoe  of  eaxthly 

would  free  the  people  of  God  had,  in  the  Jewish  mind,  pleasures.    There  will  be  days  in  which  vines  win 

assumed  a  ohaxaoter  that  was  to  a  g^t  extent  earthly;  grow,  each  with  10,000  bnnches,  and  on  each  branch 

the  Jews  longed  above  all  for  a  saviour  who  would  free  10,000  twigs,  and  on  each  twig  10,000  shoots,  and  on 

them  from  their  oppressors  and  restore  the  former  each  shoot  10,000  dusters,  and  on  each  cluster  10,000 

splendour  of  Israel.    These  expectations  generally  in-  grapes,  and  each  grape  will  produce  216  galloas  of 

duded  the  belief  that  Jehovah  would  conquer  all  wine  etc. 

powers  hostile  to  Himself  and  to  His  chosen  people,  Millenarian  ideas  are  found  hj  most  commenta- 
and  that  He  would  set  up  a  final,  glorious  kingdom  of  tors  in  the  Epistle  of  St.  Barnabas,  m  the  passage  treat- 
Israel.  The  apocalyptic  books,  principally  lae  book  ing  of  the  Jewish  sabbath;  for  the  restmg  oiGod  on 
of  Henoch  and  the  fourth  book  of  £sdras,  indicate  the  seventh  day  after  the  creation  is  explained  in  the 
various  details  of  the  arrival  of  the  Messiah,  the  defeat  following  manner.  After  the  Son  of  God  has  come 
of  the  nations  hostile  to  Israel,  and  the  union  of  all  the  and  put  an  end  to  the  era  of  the  wicked  and  judged 
Israelites  in  the  Messianic  kmgdom  followed  by  the  them,  and  after  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars  have 
renovation  of  the  world  and  the  universal  resurrection,  been  changed,  then  He  will  rest  in  glory  on  the  seventh 
The  natural  and  the  supernatural  are  mingled  in  day.  The  author  had  premised,  3  it  is  said  that  God 
this  conception  of  a  Messianic  kingdom  as  tl^  dos-  created  all  thin^  in  six  days,  this  means  that  God  will 
ing  act  of  the  world's  histoiy.  The  Jewish  hopes  of  a  complete  all  things  in  six  millenniums,  for  one  day 
Messiah,  and  the  descriptions  of  apocalyptic  writers  represents  one  thousand  years.  It  is  certain  that  tbs 
were  blended;  it  was  between  the  close  of  the  present  writer  advocates  the  tenet  of  a  re-formation  of  the 
world-order  and  the  commencement  of  the  new  that  world  throush  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  but  it  is  not 
this  sublime  kingdom  of  the  chosen  people  was  to  find  clear  from  tne  indications  whether  the  author  of  the 
its  place.  That  many  details  of  these  conceptions  letter  was  a  millenarian  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
should  remain  indistinct  and  confused  was  but  natu-  St.Irenieusof  Lyons,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  influenced 
ral,  but  the  Messianic  kingdom  is  always  pictured  as  by  the  companions  of  St.  Polycarp,  adopted  millena- 
something  miraculous,  though  the  colours  are  at  times  nan  ideas,  oiscussing  and  defending  them  in  his  work 
earthly  and  sensuous.  iSe  evangelical  accounts  against  the  Gnostics  (Adv.  Hiereses,  V,  32).  He  de- 
dearly  prove  how  fervently  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  veloped  this  doctrine  mainly  in  opposition  to  the 
Christ  expected  an  earthly  Messianic  kingdom,  but  the  Gnostics,  who  rejected  all  hopes  of  tne  Christians  in  a 
Saviour  came  to  proclaJun  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  happy  future  life,  and  discerned  in  the  glorious  king- 
God  for  the  deliverance  of  man  from  his  sins  and  for  his  dom  of  Christ  on  earth  principally  the  prelude  to  the 
sanctification.  a  kingdom  which  actually  began  with  final,  spiritual  kingdom  of  God,  the  retum  of  eternal 
His  birth.  Tnere  is  no  trace  of  chiliasm  to  be  found  in  bliss.  St.  Justin  of  Rome,  the  martjrr,  opposes  to 
the  Gospels  or  in  the  EpisUes  of  St.  Paul;  everything  the  Jews  in  his  Dialogjue  with  Tryphon  (en.  80-81) 
moves  in  the  spiritual  and  religious  sphere;  even  the  the  tenet  of  a  millennium  and  asserts  that  he  and 
descriptions  of  the  end  of  the  world  and  of  the  last  the  Christians  whose  belief  is  correct  in  every 
judgment  bear  this  stamp.  The  victoiy  over  the  point  know  that  there  will  be  a  resurrection  of  the 
syimx)lical  beast  (the  enemy  of  God  and  of  the  saints)  body  and  that  the  newly  built  and  enlaiged  Jem- 
and  over  Antichrist,  as  well  as  the  triumph  of  Christ  salem  will  last  for  the  space  of  a  thousand  years, 
and  His  saints,  are  described  in  the  Apocalypse  of  but  he  adds  that  there  are  many  who,  thougn  ad- 
St.  John  (Apoc.,  20-21),  in  pictures  that  resemble  hering  to  the  pure  and  pious  teachings  of  Chnat,  do 
those  of  the  Jewish  apocalyptic  writers,  especially  not  believe  in  it.  A  witness  for  the  continued  belief 
of  Daniel  and  Henocn.  Satan  is  chained  in  the  in  millenarianism  in  the  province  of  Asia  is  St.  Melito. 
abyss  for  a  thousand  years,  the  martyrs  and  the  just  Bishop  of  Sardes  in  the  second  century.  He  developes 
rise  from  the  dead  and  share  in  the  priesthood  and  the  same  train  of  thought  as  did  St.  Irensus. 
kingship  of  Christ.  Though  it  is  difficult  to  focus  The  Montanistic  movement  had  its  origin  in  Asia 
sharply  the  pictures  used  in  the  Apocalypse  and  the  Minor.  The  expectation  of  an  eariy  advent  of  the 
things  expressed  by  them,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  ^lestial  Jerusalem  upon  earth,  which,  it  was  thought, 
that  the  whole  description  refers  to  the  spiritual  com-  would  appear  in  Phrygia,  was  intimately  joined  in  the 
bat  between  Christ  and  the  Church  on  the  one  hand  minds  of  the  Montanists  with  the  idea  ot  the  millen- 
and  the  malignant  powers  of  hell  and  the  world  on  the  nium.    Tertullian,  the  protagonist  of  Montanism,  ex- 


yielded  so  far  to  Jewish  apocalyptic  as  to  put  a  literal  end  of  time  the  great  kin^( 
meaning  into  these  descriptions  of  St.  John's  Apoca-  Jerusalem,  would  be  established  and  last  for  the  space 
lypsertne  result  was  that  i:^Ienarianism  spread  and  of  one  thousand  years.  All  these  millenarian  authors 
gained  staunch  advocates  not  only  among  the  heretics  appeal  to  various  passaffes  in  the  prophetic  books  of 
but  among  the  Catholic  Christians  as  well.  the  Old  Testament,  to  a  few  passages  in  the  Letters  of 
One  ofthe  heretics,  the  Gnostic  Cerinthus,  who  flour-  St.  Paul  and  to  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  John.  Though 
ished  towards  the  end  of  the  first  century,  proclaimed  millenarianism  had  found  numerous  adherents  amon^ 
a  splendid  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth  which  He  would  the  Christians  and  had  been  upheld  by  several  ecdesi- 
establish  with  the  risen  saints  upon  His  second  advent,  astical  theologians,  neither  in  tne  post-Apostolic  period 
and  pictured  the  pleasures  of  tnis  one  thousand  years  nor  in  the  course  of  the  second  century,  does  it  appear 
in  gross,  sensual  colours  (Caius  in  Eusebius,  "Hist,  asauniversaldoctrineof  theChurchorasapartof  the 
Ecd.",  Ill,  28;  Dionysius  Alex,  in  Eusebius,  ibid..  Apostolic  tradition.  The  primitive  Apostolic  symbol 
VII,  25).  Later  among  Catholics,  Bishop  Papias  of  mentions  indeed  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  the 
Hierapolis,  a  disciple  of  St.  John,  appeared  as  an  ad  vo-  retum  of  Christ  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead,  but  it 
cate  of  millenarianism.  He  claimed  to  have  received  says  not  a  word  of  the  millennium.  It  was  the  second 
his  doctrine  from  contemporaries  of  the  Apostles,  and  century  that  produced  not  only  defenders  of  the 
Irenseus  narrates  that  otner  "Presbyteri",  who  had  mUlennium  but  pronounced  adversaries  of  the  chili- 
seen  and  heard  the  disciple  John,  learned  from  him  the  astic  ideas.  Gnosticism  rejected  millenarianism.  In 
belief  in  millenarianism  as  part  of  the  Lord's  doctrine.  Asia  Minor,  the  principal  seat  of  millenarian  teachings, 
According  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  39)  Papias  in  the  so-called  Aloa  rose  up  against  millenarian wm  ss 
his  book  asserted  that  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  well  as  against  Montanism,  but  they  went  too  far  in 
would  be  followed  by  one  thousand  years  of  a  visible,  their  opposition,  rejecting  not  only  the  Apooal^^ 
dorious  earthly  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  according  to  of  St.  John,  alleging  Cennthus  as  its  author,  hut 
ueniBus  (Adv.  Hsreses,  V,  33),  he  taught  that  the  his  Gospel  also.     The  opposition  to  millenarianism 


BULLKHNIUM  309  MILLEMNIUM 

became  more  general  towards  the  end  of  the  second  describes  it  in  his  work  De  Civitate  Dei.    In  the  same 

century,  going  iiand  in  hand  with  the  stnim^le  against  book  he  gives  us  an  allegmical  explanation  of  Chap.  20 

Montanism.    The  Roman  presbyter  Gaius  (end  of  the  of  the  Apocalypse,    The  first  resurrection,  of  which 

second  and  beginning  of  the  third  centuiy)  attacked  this  chapter  treats,  he  tells  us,  refers  to  the  spiritual 

the  miUenaiians.    On  the  other  hand,  Hippolytus  of  rebirth  in  baptism;  the  sabbath  of  one  thousand  years 

Rome  defended  them  and  attempted  a  proof,  basing  after  the  six  thousand  years  of  history,  is  the  whole  of 

his  arguments  on  the  allegorical  explanation  of  the  six  eternal  life ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  number  one  thou- 

days  of  creation  as  six  thousand  years,  as  he  had  been  sand  is  intended  to  express  perfection,  and  the  last 

taught  by  tradition.    The  most  powerful  adversary  of  space  of  one  thousand  years  must  be  understood  as 

milfenananism  was  Origen  of  Alexandria.    In  view  of  referring  to. the  end  of  the  world;  at  all  events,  the 

the  Neo-Platonism  on  which  his  doctrines  were  founded  kingdom  of  Christ,  of  which  the  Apocalypse  speaks, 

and  of  his  spiritual-allegorical  method  of  explaining  can  only  be  applied  to  the  Church  (De  Civitate  Dei, 

the  Holy  Scriptiires,. he  could  not  side  with  the  millen-  XX,  5-7,  in  Migne,  ''Patr.  Lat.",  XLI,  607  sqq.). 

arians.     He  combatted  them  expressly,  and,  owing  This  explanation  of  the  illustrious  Doctor  was  adopted 

to  the  great  influence  which  his  writings  exerted  on  by  succeeding  Western  theologians,  and  millenarian- 

ecclesiastical  theolosy  especially  in  Oriental  countries,  ism  in  its  eanier  shape  no  longer  received  support, 

millenarianism  gradually  disappeared  from  the  ideas  Cerinthus  and  the  Ebionites  are  mentioned  in  later 


of  Oriental  Christians.    Only  a  few  later  advocates  are  writing  against  the  heretics  as  defenders  of  the  millen- 

dpally  theological  adversaries  of  nium,  it  is  true, 

Origen.    About  the  middle  of  the  third  century  Nepos,  over,  the  attitude  of  the  Church  towards  the  secular 

.     •     11  ■         Tt< j_      1 A_  J   a1_         !•     a        _  •       _A   xl 11  I-       J  J_  _        _     _         1_  _    'aI-         l^ ^—i 


known  to  us,  principally  theological  adversaries  of    nium,  it  is  true,  but  as  cut-off  from  the  Church.   More- 


bishop  in  E^jrpt,  who  entered  the  lists  against  the  alle-  power  had  undeivone  a  change  with  closer  connexion 
gorism  of  Ongen.  also  propounded  millenarian  ideas  and  between  her  and  the  Roman  empire.  There  is  no 
gained  some  adnerents  in  the  vicinity  of  Arsino6.  A  doubt  that  this  turn  of  events  did  much  towards  wean- 
schism  threatened ;  but  the  prudent  and  moderate  pol-  ing  the  Christians  from  the  old  millenarianism,  which 
icy  of  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  preserved  during  the  time  of  persecution  had  been  the  expression 
unity;  the  chiliasts  abandoned  their  views  (Eusebius,  of  their  hopes  that  Christ  would  soon  reappear  and 
"Hist.  Eod.",  VII,  14).  E^jrpt  seems  to  have  har^  overthrow  the  foes  of  His  elect.  Chiliastic  views  dis- 
boured  adherents  of  millenananism  in  still  later  times,  appeared  all  the  more  rapidly,  because,  as  was  re- 
Methodius,  Bishop  of  Olympus,  one  of  the  principal  op-  marked  above,  in  spite  of  their  wide  diffusion  even 
ponents  of  Origen  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen-  among  sincere  Christians,  and  in  spite  of  their  defence 
tury,  upheld  chiliasm  in  his  Symposion  (IX,  1,  5,  in  by  prominent  Fathers  of  the  early  (jhurch,millenarian- 
Biime,  "  Patr.  Grsec. ",  XVIII,  178  sqq.).  In  the  sec-  ism  was  never  held  in  the  universal  Church  as  an  arti- 
onS  half  of  the  fourth  century,  these  doctriaes  found  de  of  faith  based  on  Apostolic  traditions. 
their  last  defender  in  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of  Laodicea  The  Middle  Ages  were  never  tainted  with  millenar- 
and  founder  of  Apollinsunsm  (q.  v.).  His  writings  on  ianism;  it  was  forei^  both  to  the  theology  of  that 
this  subject  have  been  lost;  but  St.  Basil  of  Csesarea  period  and  to  the  religious  ideas  of  the  people.  The 
(Epist.  CCLXIII,  4,  in  Migne,  "  Patr.  Gnec.",  XXXII,  fantastic  views  of  the  apocalyptic  writers  (Joachim 
dSO),  Epiphanius  (Hseres.  LXX,  36,  in  Misne  loc.  cit.,  of  Floris,  the  Franciscan-Spiritufds,  the  Apostolici), 
XLII,  696)  and  Jerome  (In  Isai.  XVIII,  in  Migne,  referred  only  to  a  particular  form  of  spiritual  renova- 
"  Patr.  Lat. "  XXIV,  627)  testify  to  his  having  been  a  tion  of  the  Church,  but  did  not  include  a  second 
chiliast.  Jerome  also  adds  that  many  Christians  of  advent  of  Christ.  The  **  emperor  myths,"  which 
that  time  shared  the  same  beliefs;  but  after  that  mil-  prophesied  the  establishment  of  a  happy,  universal 
lenarianism  found  no  outspoken  champion  among  the  kingdom  by  the  great  emperor  of  the  future,, contain 
theologians  of  the  Greek  (Jhuich.  indeed  descriptions  that  remind  one  of  the 'ancient 
In  the  West,  the  millenarian  expectations  of  a  glori-  Sybilline  and  millenarian  writings,  but  an  essential 
ous  kingdom  of  Christ  and  His  just,  found  adherents  trait  is  again  missing,  the  return  or  Christ  and  the  con- 
for  a  long  time.  The  poet  Ck>mmodian  (InstruotioneS)  nexion  of  the  blissfm  reign  with  the  resurrection  of  the 
41,  42.  44,  in  Migne,  "Patr.  Lat."  V,  231  sqq.)  just.  Hence  the  millennium  proper  is  unknown  to 
as  well  as  I^MStantius  (Institutiones,  VIII,  Migne,  them.  The  Protestantism  of  the  sixteenth  century 
"Patr.  Lat.",  VI,  739  sqa.)  proclaim  the  millennial  ushered  in  a  new  epoch  of  millenarian  doctrines.  Prot- 
lealm  and  describe  its  splendour,  partly  drawing  on  the  estant  fanatics  of  the  earlier  years,  particularly  the 
earlier  chiliasts  and  the  Sybilline  prophecies,  partly  Anabaptists,  believed  in  a  new,  golden  age  under  the 
borrowing  their  colours  from  the  "golaen  age"  of  the  sceptre  of  dlhrist,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  papacy 
pagan  poets ;  but  the  idea  of  the  six  thousand  years  for  and  secular  empires.  In  1 534  the  Anabaptists  set  up 
the  duiration  of  the  world  is  ever  conspicuous.  Vic-  in  MQnster  (Westphalia)  the  new  Kingdom  of  Zion, 
torinus  of  Pettau  also  was  a  millenarian  though  in  the  which  advocated  snaring  property  and  women  in  com- 
extant  copy  of  his  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  no  mon,  as  a  prelude  to  the  new  kin^om  of  Christ.  Their 
allusions  to  it  can  be  detected.  St.  Jerome,  himself  a  excesses  were  opposed  and  their  millenarianism  dis- 
decided  opponent  of  the  millenial  ideas,  brands  Sul-  owned  by  both  the  Augsburg  (art.  17)  and  ^he  Helve- 
pieius  Severus  as  adhering  to  them,  but  in  the  writings  tian  Confession  (ch.  1 1 ) ,  so  tnat  it  f oimd  no  admission 
of  this  author  in  their  present  form  nothing  can  be  found  into  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  theologies.  Ne  ver- 
to  support  this  charge.  St.  Ambrose  indeed  teaches  theless,  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  pro- 
a  twofold  resurrection,  but  millenarian  doctrines  do  not  duced  new  apocalyptic  fanatics  and  mystics  who 
stand  out  clearly.  On  the  other  hand,  St.  Augustine  expected  the  millennium  in  one  form  or  anotner:  inCxer- 
was  for  a  time,  as  he  himself  testifies  (De  Civitate  Dei,  many,  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren  (Come- 
XX,  7),  a  pronounced  champion  of  millenarianism;  nius);  in  France,  Pierre  Jurien  (L'Accomplissement 
but  he  places  the  millennium  after  the  universal  resur-  des  Proph^ties,  1686) ;  in  England  at  the  time  of  Crom- 
rection  and  regards  it  in  a  more  spiritual  l^t  (Sermo,  well,  the  Independents  and  Jane  Leade.  A  new  phase 
CCLIX,  in  Wgae,  "Patr.  Lat.",  XXXVIII,  1197)  in  the  development  of  millenarian  views  among  the 
When,  however,  he  accepted  the  doctrine  of  only  one  uni-  Protestants  commenced  with  Pietism.  One  of  the 
▼ersal  resurrection  and  a  final  judgment  immediately  chief  champions  of  the  millennium  in  Germany  was  I. 
following,  he  could  no  longer  cling  to  the  principfu  A.  Bengel  and  his  disciple  Cnislus,  who  were  after- 
tepet  of  early  chiliasm.  St.  Augustine  finally  hela  to  wards  joined  by  Rothe,  Volch,  Thiersch,  Lange  and 
the  conviction  that  there  will  be  no  mfllennium.  The  others.  Protestants  from  Wurtembeig  emigmted  to 
struggle  between  Christ  and  His  saints  on  the  one  Palestine  HTemple  Commimities)  in  order  to  be 
hanoand  the  wicked  world  and  Satan  on  the  other,  is  closer  to  Christ  at  His  second  advent.  Certaia 
waged  In  the  Church  on  eiurth;  so  the  great  Doctor  fantastical  sects  of  England  and  North  America, 


lOLLBB                               310  MILLET 

as  the  Irvingites,  Mormons,  Adventists,  adopted  both  society,  and  procured  himself  a  home  especsaUy  for  tiie 
apocalyptic  and  mUIenarian  views,  expecting  the  re-  social  intercourse  of  artists  and  art  craftsmen.  The 
turn  of  Christ  and  the  establishment  of  His  Kingdom  result  was  an  unexpected  rise  of  the  art  industries, 
at  an  early  date.  Some  Catholic  theologians  of  the  Ferdinand  Miller  junior  followed  in  his  father's  foot- 
nineteenth  century  championed  a  moderate,  modified  steps,  and  is  known  in  America  by  the  figures  on 
millenarianism,  especially  in  connexion  with  their  the  8inton  fountain  in  Cincinnati  (at  the  unveiling 
explanations  of  the  Apocalypse:  as  Paganl  (The  End  of  which  he  was  much  honoured),  as  well  as  by  tbe 
of  the  World,  1856),  Schneider  (Die  chiUastische  Dok-  statues  of  Shakespeare  and  von  Humboldt  in  St. 
trin,  1859),  Rohling  (Erkl&rung  der  Apokalypse  des  Louis,  and  finally  by  the  war  memorial  at  Charleston. 
U.  lohannes,  1895;  Auf  nach  Sion,  1901),  Rougeyron  ^*cBT,pesch.<UrMiiiu:hefurKunM(Mvaii^^  i8^);MeLLrR. 
Chabauty  (Avenir  de  I'Eglise  catholique  selon  le  Plan  ?^!S&S!'^I^  '"'*  Munchen;  Deyfdus  KunMau  for  1850. 

Divin,  189^.  '        '                                             G.  Gisticann. 

CoRRODX.  KriiUehe  099chiehts  dea  CAtZMMtntM,  IV  (Zurifch,  i 

^^^^^^^'^■"^^■"jJ^.  ^ritilichs  EadyatoUtaiB  in  dm  Stadien  Milter,  WiLUAM  J.     See  TbANBVAAIi,  VicABIATI 

ihrer  Offenlaruna  (Fretbuis  un  Br.,  1890);    Idxm.  Oe9ch%ehU  AorkOfnnTfn  i\w 

der  ehriklichm  Eachatoloifie  in  der  vomieanieehen  ZeU  (ibid.,  APOBTOUC  OF. 

1806);   Chiapblu,  Le  idee  miUenarie  dei  Crutiani  (Naples,  MiUet.    JeaN-FbaNCOIB,    French    painter:    b.    at 

'^^•^^^^''^(^S^^i^ZTS.'i^^S:^^  Gruchy,  ne«  Cherbou^  4   October.  1814;  d.  at 

dans  eeaortoirusadeimdSvd^aemera  (PariB,  1904);  The  Mitten-  Barbuon,   20  January,  1875.     This  great  painter  Of 

mum  in  The  Spectator,  UtxXIV  (London,  1890),  625:  for  peasants  was  a  Bon  of  peasants:  he  himself  becan 

modem  Prot«t«it  views,  rf.  Brioos,  in  the.  Lutheran  Quar-  [jf ©  as  a  tiller  of  the  soil,  and  he  never  lost  touch  with 

terly  Review  (Gettyebunc,  1870);  Pre-mxttenmal  Enaya  of  the  Tr    ^  ^ ^/      v»  ww  ov**,  •>ux^  **«  ul^t«.a^u»w  vy'mv^ 

Prophetic  Conference  (dlucago.  1870) ;  Rigolb,  The  Kinffdom  of  it.     But  thoush  a  family  of  rustlCS,  the  Millets  weiS 

g^andtheOne  ThotAemd  Yeara  Reion  (Moundsville,  1004);  far  removed  from  rusticity  of  manners:  they   were 

Brown   in  HaATINOS,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (s.  v.);    for  the  oAmrkua    frAha     rwtxfmmAltr   r\\rata     a.   efrAnowk    air^lr    nf 

Jewish  view.  cf.  DRiMMOND.  ThaJewiah  AfeMtoA  (London,  ??™^.  IO"Wj  PrOfOUnOly  piOUS,  a  Strange  StOCJc  Ol 

1877);  YON  ScHURXR,  Hidory  o/theJewiah  People  in  the  Time  Catholic  Puntans  whose  stem  sentmients  of  religion, 

ofjeaua  Chriat,  II  (London,  1885-87),  ii,  178  aqq.  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation,  gave 

J.  P.  KiBscH.  ^em  something  like  an  aristocratic  character;  they 

were  incapable  of  mean  ideas.  The  grandmother— 
BUUer,  Febdinand  von,  b.  at  FQrstenfeldbnick,  the  soul  of  that  household — was  an  assiduous  reader 
1813;  d.  at  Munich,  1887.  He  laboured  for  the  de-  of  Pascal,  Bossuet,  Nicole,  and  Chairon.  Young 
velopment  of  the  bronze  founders'  craft  and  the  Jean-Francois  was  reared  by  the  parish  priest  in  tbe 
uplifting  of  the  artistic  profession,  far  beyond  tiie  cult  of  Vergil  and  the  Bible;  the  ^Cieoi^cs"  and  the 
borders  of  Bavaria.  After  a  sojourn  at  the  academy  Psalms,  which  he  read  in  Latin,  were  his  favourite, 
and  a  preliminary  enga^ment  at  the  royal  brass  Later  on  he  became  acquainted  with  Bums  and 
foundry,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1833,  where  he  learnt  Theocritus,  whom  he  preferred  even  to  VeigH.  His 
from  Soyer  and  Blus  the  varied  technique  necessary  imagination  never  lost  these  majestic  impressions, 
to  him  m  the  manipulation  of  bronse.  He  also  vis-  Nature  and  poetry,  the  open  coxmtry  and  Holy  Scrip- 
ited  England  and  the  Netherlands,  and  after  his  retum  ture,  shared  equally  in  the  shaping  of  his  genius, 
worked  under  his  teacher  and  imcle  Stiglmayr,  whom  Of  that  genius  the  young  ploughman  save  the  first 
the  Crown  Prince  Ludwig  had  induced  to  devote  him-  signs  at  the  a^  of  eighteen.  He  studied  at  Cherbouig 
self  to  bronze  f  oimdry  work  and  to  the  establishment  under  Lanelois,  a  pupil  of  Baron  Gros,  and  the  Munici- 
of  the  Mimich  foundry  as  a  state  institution.  Miller  soon  pal  Council  gave  him  a  pension  of  6(X)  francs  to  go  and 
took  his  imcle's  place,  and  upon  the  death  of  the  latter  finish  his  studies  in  raris.  There  he  entered  the 
was  appointed  inspector  of  the  workshop.  He  soon  atelier  of  Delaroche  in  1837;  but  he  spent  most  of  his 
won  for  it  a  world-wide  reputation,  and  for  himself  time  in  the  Louvre,  with  the  masters  of  bygone  a^s* 
a  fortune  and  position  of  influence.  He  was  a  gifted  The  primitives  of  Italy  enraptured  him  by  their 
artist,  a  quiet  worker,  skilful  in  negotiation  and  en-  fervour:  Fra  An^lico  filled  him  witli  visions.  The 
tirely  a  self-made  man.  The  casting  of  the  Bavaria,  oolourists  were  little  to  hiB  taste;  he  remained  un- 
one  of  the  world's  greatest  representations  in  bronze  moved  in  the  presence  of  Velazquez.  But  then  again, 
(1844-55),  especially  brought  nim  great  fame.  Com-  he  liked  Ribera's  vigour  and  Murillo's  homespun 
missions  came  to  mm  from  far  and  near.  Thus  he  grace.  Among  the  Frenchmen,  the  beautv  of  Le 
cast  not  merely  the  statues  of  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Sueur's  sentiment  touched  him,  Le  Brun  and  Jouvenet 
Schiller  for  Weimar,  but  aJso  the  figures  of  Duke  he  thought  "strong  men".  But  his  favourite  mas- 
Eberhard  in  Stuttgart,  of  BerzeUus  in  Stockholm  ters  were  the  masters  of  "stvle" — Mantegna,  Michel- 
and  two  Washington  monuments  by  Mills  and  Craw-  angelo,  and  Poussin:  they  haunted  him  all  his  life, 
ford  in  Boston  and  Richmond.  The  gate  of  the  Poussin's  "Letters"  were  his  everyday  food,  and  *'I 
capital  in  Washington  is  also  by  him.  The  Munich  could  look  at  Poussin's  pictures  forever  and  ever",  be 
exhibition  of  art  and  the  art  crafts  in  the  year  1876,  writes,  "and  always  leam  somethine".  His  con- 
which  resulted  so  sucoes^ully  for  the  art  industries  temporaries,  Delacroix  excepted,  moved  him  but  little 
in  Germany,  was  largely  Miller's  work.  Two  years  and  for  the  most  part  to  indication.  Millet's  early 
before  he  had  been  elected  to  the  directorate  of  the  works — those  of  his  Paris  period  (1837-^0) — are  ex- 
society  of  art  industries.  He  understood  not  only  tremely  different  from  those  which  made  him  famous, 
how  to  interest  the  influential  classes  in  the  pro-  They  are  now  very  rare,  but  ought  not  to  be  forgotten: 
ductions  of  rising  arts  and  crafts,  but  also  to  win  from  the  pNoint  of  view  of  art,  they  are  probably  his 
over  artists  to  a  general  exhibition  of  German  art  most  pleasing  and  felicitous  productions;  in  them  the 
in  alliance  with  the  art  handicrafts.  When  he  painter's  temperament  voices  itself  most  naturally 
had  brought  architects,  sculptors  and  painters  into  before  his  "conversion",  without  method,  without 
harmony  with  the  lesser  arts  he  found  it  possible  to  ulterior  purpose.  They  are  generally  idylls— ec- 
bring  about  an  exhibition  on  an  entirely  new  plan.  Ic^es — thoroughly  rural  in  feeling,  with  a  frank, 
Drawing  rooms,  cabinets,  boudoirs,  sitting  rooms  noble  sensuality,  the  artist's  Veigilian  inspiration 
and  chapels  were  arranged  so  as  to  form  in  their  group-  finding  expression  in  little  pagan  scenes,  antique 
ing  an  harmonious  whole  by  having  art  and  trade  bas-reliefs,  and  neutral  subjects,  such  as  "Women 
appliances  put  into  the  place  for  which  they  were  in-  bathing  ",  "  Nymphs  ",  "  Offerings  to  Pan  ",  and  so  on 
tended.  Where  this  was  not  possible,  a  partition  or  — ^thoughts  but  slightly  defined  in  forma  as  definite 
a  wall  would  be  placed  with  picturesque  effect  in  some  as  sculpture. 

adioining  room.    As  a  result  art  became,  especially  Some  of  these  pieces  are  the  most  Pouasineeque 

in  Munich,  the  mistress  of  industry.    Miller  forthwith  things  in  modem  art.     In  them  the  young  painter 

established  a  center  of  exhibition  and  sale  for  the  already  appears  as  an  accomplished  stylist,  with  ft 


Corr 


irely  1 „ „    „_,„ 

Kwerfully  expressed  the  joy  of  living  as  it  might  be    lai^  familj^  (I 
oira  to  a  soul  like  his — «erioufl  a         '      '        ■    >      <  ,    .  .. 


„  „             ,    ,    !  hod  four  BOnfl  and  five  daughters), 

a  robust,  and  al-  knew  what  it  was  to  want  for  bread,  for  firewood,  for 

ways  veiled  in  melancholy.     His  palette  ia  brig^t«r  the  most  indispensable  necessities  of  life.     The  baker 

and    less   erobamused   than  it   afterwards   became;  cut  off  his  credit,   the  tailor  sent  him  summonses. 

indeed,  the  colour  is  sometimes  even  a  little  florid,  as  The  poor  artist  lived  in  agonies  of  hunger,  tormented 

in  the  graceful  portrait  of  Mile  Feuaident.    On  the  by  bailiffs,  by  distraint  warranta,  and  by  humiliation, 

otberband,  theseverity  of  themodellingatwayssavee  It  is  impossible  to  read  the  Story  of  nis  sufferings 

bia  work  from  anything  like  carelessness  or  lack  of  without  shedding  tears. 

dignity.    Some— hke  the  charming  pastel  of  "Daph-  And  yet  it  was  juat  then  that  Millet,  disgraced  and 

nis  &na  Chloe"  in  the  Bost<Hi  Museum — are  frankly  bafOed,  shut  out  of  the  Salon,  unable  to  sell  his  pic- 

reminwceat  of  Puvis  de  Chavannes.     But  the  beautv  tures,  was  at  the  height  of  his  genius.     From  these 

of  these  pastorals  had  not  been  verv  well  appreciated,  ten  or  twelve  years  date  the  followii^  immortaj  works; 

To  make  a  living.  Millet  was  obliged  to  undertake  base  "The  Sower"  and  "Haymakers"  (1850);  "Harveat- 

and   ill-p^  work,  painting  signs  for  mountebanks  era",   "Sheep-sheareia"    (1853);   "Peasant   grafting 

■•uS  mirlwivM     HU^CKriiniiN  n  tnw"   rifl.S.'i):    " ntpannn," 


andmidwives.  His''(£dipiis 
taken  down  from  the  tree", 
a  study  of  the  nude  which 
excels  as  a  piece  of  virtuosity 
and  an  impression  of  savage 
wildneas,  rather  shocked  and 
astonished  the  public  than 
won  admiration. 

His  difficulties  increased 
moi«  and  more:  having  lost 
his  first  wife,  he  married  again 
in  1845,  and  with  children 
came  want.  Matters  were 
precipitated  by  the  Revolu- 
tion ol  1848.  At  first  the 
Republican  Government  took 
an  interest  in  the  artist,  and 
be  received  some  help  from 
it;  but  the  events  of  the 
month  of  June  and  the  dis- 
orders of  the  following  ^ear 
frigbt«ned  Millet  and  inspired ' 
him  with  an  unconquerable 
cUslike  of  Paris.  He  was  be- 
ginning at  last  to  understand 
hie  own  nature;  he  turned 
his  back  forever  on  the  friv- 
dous,  worldljr  public.  With- 
out disowning  his  earlier 
works,  he  addi^aed  himself 
to  another,  newer  and  more 
human,  method  of  interpiet- 


tree"  (1855);  "Gleaners" 
(1857);  "The  Angelus" 
(1859).  To  be  sure,  these 
admirable  achievements  did 
not  always  meet  with  dispar- 
agement: Victor  Hueo  uad 
written  in  one  ofhis famous 
poems :  "  Le  geste  auguste  du 
semeur"  (The  sowers  noble 
attitude).  The  leading  crit- 
ics, Th^ophite  Gautier  and 
Paul  de  Saint-Victor,  agreed 
in  recogniziog  the  epic  power 
of  these  peasant  paintings. 
But  the  public  atill  resist^: 
repelled  by  the  abrupt  pre- 
sentment, the  rugged  execu- 
tion, the  fierce  poesy,  they 
insisted  on  aeeins  in  these 
works  pleas  for  democracy, 
socialistic  manifestos,  and 
appeals  to  the  mob.  In  vain 
did  the  painter  protest: 
whether  he  liked  rt  or  not, 
many  made  of  him  a  revolu- 
tionary, a  demagOKue,  a  trib- 
une of  the  people.  In  the 
France  of  that  day  no  one 
was  able  to  understand  what 
depth  of  religion  was  here — to 
reco^iie  in  this  sombre  and 
pessunistic  art  the  only  Ch  ris- 


ing the  thii^  of  the  earth  and  the  life  of  the  rustic,  tian  art  of  our  time.  The  only  peasants  then  known 

In  the  Buimner  of  1849  he  went  to  Barbizon,  a  little  painting  were  etmuo-opera  peasants — the  rude  buf- 

village  about  one  league  from  Chailly,  on  the  boidera  loona   of   Ostade   and   Teniers,    or   the   beribboned 

of  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau.    He  only  meant  to  ninnies  of  Watteau  and  Greuie.    They  were  always 

spend  a  few  weeks  there ;  but  remained  for  the  rest  of  travestied  in  the  interests  of  romance  or  of  caricature, 

his  Ufe — twenty-seven  years.    From  that  time  Millet  burlesque  or  preciosity.    No  one  had  ever  ventured 

s  Millet,  the  painter  of  peasants.    It  is  impossible  to  show  them  in  the  true  character  of  their  occupa- 

.  -     1  .   .>    .1 1  ig  [jfe  diipju^- •' — • c" »; "--  1.   1 i_  _*  iL.  1.1 / _v..i. 


o  recount  in  detail  all  his  ufe  during  the  ten  or  fifteen     tions— 


rears  following  his  exodus  into  the  country,  until     they  derive  theu'  dignity. 

bis  final  triumph — to  trace  the  long  course  of  effort        The  whole  oi  Miuet's  work  is  but  a  paraphn 

n  illustratioatrf  the  Divine  Sentence:  'In  the  sweat 


I  beauty  of  the  labour  from  which 
iphrase  o 


is  final  triumph — to  trace  the  long  c 

and  of  heroic  sacrifice,  through  which  the  name  of  a  an  illustratioa  (rf  the  Divine  Sentence:  "  In 

littleobacurehomletolthelleHJe-Francebythelenac-  ot  thy  brow  shalt  thou  eat  thy  bread".     "Every 

Uy  of  a  small  group  of  painters  was  made  one  of  the  man  ,  he  writes,  "is  doomed  to  oodily  pain".    And 

moet  famous  names  in  the  art  of  oU  ages.  Agftiiii  "It  is  not  always  the  joyous  aide  that  shows 

It  waa  at  Barbizon  that  Millet  foundRousseau,  who  itself  to  me.    The  greatest  happiness  I  know  ia  calm 

had  been  settled  there  for  some  fifteen  years,  and  with  and  silence  ".     But  at  the  same  time,  this  baish  law 

whom  he  became  united  in  a  truly  memorable  friend-  of  labour,  because  it  is  God's  law,  is  the  condition 

ship.     Other  painteis — Aligny  and  Diai — also  fre-  of  our  nobility  and  our  dignity.    Millet  is  quite  the 

Sjented  the  village  and  the  now  historic  auberge  of  opposite  of  a  Utopian  or  an  inaursent.     To  him  the 

iiK  Gaune.     The  little  band  of  pariahs  lived  in  this  chuneras  of  Socialism  and  the  wholesale  regulation  of 

wilderness  like  anchorites  of  nature  and  art.    Nothing  the  good  things  of  life  are  impious,  childish,  and  dia- 

could  be  more  original  than  this  modem  Thebalo,  graceful.     "I  have  no  wish  to  suppress  sorrow", 

io  curiously  analf^ous  to  the  Port-Royal  colony  of  he  proudly  exclaims:   "it  is  sorrow  tnat  gives  most 

solitaries  or  the  English  Lake  School.     As  a  niatter  strength  to  an  artist's  utterance".     In  his  subsequent 

of  fact.    Englishmen    and    Americans — a   William  work,  moreover,  as  if  challenging  the  world,  he  accen- 

Hunt  or  a  Richard  Heam,    a  Babcock  or  ft   Wheel-  tuat«(i  still  further  the  ruggednees  of  his  painting  and 

Wright— 4ud  the  honour  of  being  the  firat  to  compre-  the  harshness  of  his  sentiment.    The  year  1383  marks 

brad  this  new  art  and  to  form  an  admiring  circle  of  the  lowest  point  of  this  depressed  and  misanthropic 

Deophyt«e  anA  diaoiplea  about  its  misunderHtood  ex-    mood.    Nothing  i '-"    *■-    ""'~'"-"    *- 


■   exceeded   Us    "Winter" 


312  flmUBT 

desolateness,  or  hk  "Man  with  the  Hoe"  and  "Vine-  being  the  most  religious  painter  of  our  timeB.  His 
dresser  resting"  in  sense  of  utter  exhaustion.  The  "Retumto  the  Farm"  irresistibly  suggests  the  Flight 
impression  of  phjrsical  fatigue  reaches  the  point  of  into  E^pt;  his  ''Repast"  of  harvestere,  or  of  elean- 
stupefaction  and  insensibility.  The  figures  seem  so  ers,  e^^es  the  Biblical  poetnr  of  RulJi  and  Booz. 
thorou^y  emptied  of  their  vital  energy  as  to  be  On  the  river  where  his  'MVasherwomen "  come  and 
petrified.    The  nard  look  is  congealed  into  a  grimace,    beat  their  linen,  one  would  think  the  cradle  of  Moses 

Nowhere  has  his  effort,  the  forcing  of  his  individual  was  floating.    The  greatness  of  his  soul  has  set  in 

style  to  its  utmost  limit,  brought  the  great  artist  to  relief  before  our  eyes  the  dimity  of  our  nature;  be 

results  more  harsh,  more  grandiose,  or  more  bu^  has  shown  us  how  the  triviid  can  be  made  to  serve 

barous.  in  the  expression  of  the  sublime,  and  how  the  Infinite 

But  things  were  getting  quieter  and  easier  for  him.  and  the  Divine  can  be  discerned  in  ihe  humblest 

His  extraordinary  personality,  his  eloquence,   the  existence, 

strong  conviction  of  this  " Danubian  peasant",  were  „  Sknhkr. Lavu etJiewBrt deJ.-r,  MiOH  (Paria,  1881);  Idbic. 

aU  making  tiiero«elve8  felt.    Tlie  worlcf^TteginDine  f;S;;^*jJSX^.SSr:S.<S£SJi.7^i£^OT^ 

to  appreciate  the  loftmess  of  view  and  the  moral  wiaQm^ReeoOectionaofMiUHinAtlanUeMonUi^iSept.^ 

grandeur  of  this  man  of  the  fields  with  the  lion's  mane  Burtt,  Afotfrtt  HPttiu-MaUrM  (Pmiv,  1877} ;  Hutbmans.  Ctr- 

and  the  head  of  a  "Jupiter. in  wooden  shoe.".    A  fe^^^'^fS^TVJ^SISS.-^pfi..'^^)/^!^^^^^^ 

relaxation  came  over  his  spirit  and  his  ideas.     He  J.-F.  MiOet  ax>ndon,  1896);  Hoxxvr.  7Ae  Painter*  o/fiorMwn. 

travelled,  rested,  revisited  his  own  part  of  the  country,  J  /^?<*<S;Jl®?I?)  '*  Charatwp^  Ujulettre  de  M*0^m  ConnopoiiM 

made  short  trips  to  Auveigne,  to  AlMwe,  and  to  Swit-  S  .??V^\t^riifiSS)  (!««*<».  i«>4);  Marceu 

serland.    In  1868  he  was  xnade  a  chevalier  of  the  *  Louis  Gillet. 

Legion  of  Honour — at  fifty  years  of  age.    In  1870  he 

was  elected  a  member  of  the  juiy.  But  the  great  ICillet  (or  Milbt),  Pierre,  a  celebrated  early 
war,  the  death  of  his  sister  and  of  his  dear  friend  Jesuit  missionary  in  New  York  State,  b.  at  Bourges, 
Rousseau,  finally  wrecked  a  constitution  abeady  France,  19  November,  1635  (al.  1631);  d.  at  Quebec, 
injured  by  hard  work  and  privation.  During  the  31  December,  1708.  Having  graduated  Master  of 
German  invasion  he  and  his  family  took  refuge  at  Arts,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Paris  on  3 
Cherbourg  near  his  native  home.  After  that  tune  he  October,  1655,  studied  philosophy  at  La  Fldche 
almost  ceased  to  paint.  His  latest  pictures,  the  (1657-8),  taught  various  classes  there  (1658-61)  and 
tra^o  "November"  (1870),  the  "Church  of  Gr6ville"  at  Compi^gne  (1661-3),  and  then  returned  to  La 
(1872),  and  the  incomparable  "Spring"  (1873),  are  Fldche  for  a  second  year  of  philosophy  (1663-4). 
mere  landscapes,  with  the  human  figure  entirely  ab-  After  a  four  years'  course  in  theology  at  the  College 
sent.  Thenceforward  he  preferred  simpler,  more  di-  of  Louis-le-Grand  in  Paris  (1664-8),  he  was  sent  to 
rect  processes  to  that  of  painting,  using  the  pencil  Canada,  and  had  already  been  chosen  to  hdp  Father 
or  pastel — like  the  great  idealists,  who  always  ended  Alloues  in  the  west,  when,  quite  unexpectedly,  his 
by  simplifying  or  minimizing  the  material  meciium  and  destination  was  changed.  Ine  Onondaga  ambassa- 
contenting  themselves  with  etching,  as  did  Rem-  dors  had  received  the  answer  to  their  stress,  on  27 
brandt,  with  drawing,  as  Michelangelo,  or  with  the  August,  1668,  and  Fathers  Millet  and  de  Caiheil  were 
piano,  as  Beethoven.  These  last  works  of  Millet's  assigned  them  as  missionaries.  In  an  incredibly  short 
are  among  his  finest  and  most  precious.  His  colour-  time  Millet  picked  up  enough  of  the  language  to  en- 
ing,  formerly  heavy  and  sad,  often  rusty  and  un-  able  him  to  preside  at  public  prayers  and  to  his  still 
pleasing,  or  sticky  and  muddy,  is  here  more  delicate  ereater  satisfaction,  to  teach  catechism.  This  joy, 
than  ever  before.  Nowhere  does  one  feel  the  touching  however,  was  soon  turned  to  sadness  and  pity  at  the 
beauty  of  this  artistic  soul,  and  its  masculine  but  ten-  sight,  new  to  him,  of  some  captive  Andastes,  brou^t 
der  eloquence,  more  perfectly  than  in  his  studies  and  in  by  a  war  party  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake.  His  fed- 
sketches.  The  finest  collections  of  them  are  in  the  ings  may  be  gathered  from  what  he  wrote  on  this 
possession  of  M.  A.  Rouart,  in  Paris,  and  of  Mr.  Shaw,  occasion:  "I  am  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  interpret 
m  Boston:  Millet  passed  away  at  the  age  of  sixty  this  presage.  Would  to  God  that  it  mi^t  betc&en 
years  and  four  months.  that  I  was  to  make  of  these  tribes  captives  of  Jesus 
He  was  one  of  the  noblest  figures  in  contemporary  Christ  and  prevent  their  burning  throughout  eternity, 
art,  one  of  those  men  who  in  our  day  have  done  most  What  happiness  for  me  if  it  foreshadowed  that  one 
credit  to  mankind.  As  a  painter  he  was  not  without  day  I  also  might  be  a  captive  to  be  burnt  for  Jesus 
his  faults — somewhat  clumsy  in  technique,  not  pleas-  Christ." 

ing  in  colour,  while  emotion,  with  hun,  does  not  always  His  method  of  evangelizing  the  Onondagas  may  be 
keep  clear  of  declamation.  These  faults  are  most  judged  from  a  letter  written  from  the  mission  of  ^t. 
palpable  in  his  most  famous  works,  such  as  "The  Jean  Baptiste,  15  Jime,  1670  (Rel.  1670,  vii).  In 
Sower"  and  "The  Angelus".  But  on  the  other  hand,  1671  he  made  his  solemn  profession  of  the  four  vows, 
so  many  others  are  perfect  gems — ^marvels  of  execution  and  received  from  tfie  (5nondaga  nation  the  name 
and  poetic  sentiment,  like  "The  Morsel  in  the  Beak"  of  Teahronhiagannra^  that  is  "The  Looker-up  to 
(La  Becqu^) , "  Maternal  solicitude  ",  and  "  The  Sheep-  Heaven".  In  1 672  he  was  appointed  missionary  of  the 
fold  ".  Other  painters  have  had  more  influence  than  Oneidas  (q.  v.), "  the  most  arrogant  and  least  tractable 
Millet.  Courbet,  for  example,  surpassed  him  in  scope  of  all  the  Iroquois"  (Rel.  1672,  iii),  and  laboured 
and  in  prodigious  sense  of  life*  Uorot,  with  just  as  among  them  \mtil  1685  with  marvellous  success, 
much  poetry,  has  in  a  higher  degree  the  grace,  the  He  was  then  recalled  to  act  as  interpreter  at  the 
charm,  the  exquisite  gift  of  harmony.  But  who  shall  Grand  Council  of  Peace  to  be  held  at  Catarakouy 
say  that  MiUet's  rugged  gravity  was  not  the  condition,  (now  Kingston,  Ontario).  Both  he  and  the  otiier 
the  outward  sign,  ^the  deep  import  of  his  message?  missionaries  were  shamefully  duped  by  the  governor 
No  one  has  done  more  than  he  to  make  us  feel  the  and  used  to  lure  the  Iroquois  into  the  pitfall  prepared 
sanctity  of  life  and  the  mystic  grandeur  of  man's  for  them  (see  Missions,  Indian  ;  Chanevoix,  I,  510). 
mission  upon  the  earth.  His  peasants,  rooted  to  the  Late  in  1687  or  early  in  1688  Millet  was  sent  as  chap- 
soil  and  as  if  fixed  there  for  eternity,  seem  to  be  per-  lain  at  Fort  Niagara.  Here,  as  at  Catarakouy, 
forming  the  rites  of  a  sacred  mystery.  One  is  con-  scurvy  was  decimating  the  troops,  affording  ample 
Bcious  of  something  permanent  in  them,  one  feels  scope  for  Millet's  charity  and  zeal.  To  invoke  God's 
how  intimately  they  are  united  with  the  great  whole,  mercy  in  behalf  of  the  stricken  garrison,  a  cross 
their  fraternal  solidarity  with  the  rest  of  mankina  eighteen  feet  high  was  erected  in  the  fort  by  Uie 
and  with  the  cosmic  enos.  Though  he  never  handled  officers  and  blessed  by  Father  Millet  on  Good  Friday, 
professedly  religious  subjects.  Millet  succeeded  in  16  April,  1688.    On  15  Sept.,  1688,  however,  the 


THE  rZ'V  y'7-5j 


ASH     !-{,     Li     .,■      '     ^^    ,'i^ 


iU 


MnJJBT                                313  MILLET 

remnantB  of  the  garriaon  were  informed  the  fort  was  to  as  they  fled  from  their  burning  homes.    Two  hundred 

be  evacuated,  and  all  were  to  embark  for  Catarakouy.  in  all  were  massacred,  and  ninety  carried  off  to  be 

Millet  was  still  en^iged  at  Catarakouy  in  the  or-  burnt  at  the  stake.  Charlevoix's  statement  (Hist., 
dinary  routine  of  a  military  chaplain,  when  about  30  I,  549)  that  this  occurrence  took  place  on  25  August  is 
July,  1689,  a  party  of  Iroquois  presented  themselves  erroneous ;  the  contemporaneous  reports  of  de  Denon- 
at  Fort  Frontenac  and  asked  for  an  interview.  They  ville,  de  Champigny,  and  de  fVontenac  (Archives 
professed  to  be  on  their  way  home  from  Montreal  Colon.  Paris.  Cor.  Gen.  Can.  X)  give  the  correct  date 
whither  thev  had  gone  with  propositions  of  peace,  as  4  and  5  August,  1689.  The  surgeon  St.  Atnand, 
They  needed  a  sureeon,  they  saia,  for  some  of  their  whom  the  Iroquois  nad  brought  with  them  to  Lachine, 
chiefs  who  were  sick  and  Father  Millet's  services  for  there  made  his  escape  (Collec.  MSS.  Quebec,  I,  571). 
one  who  was  dyine,  while  the  elders  wished  also  to  On  the  journey  to  Oneida,  Father  Millet  was  not 
consult  with  him  (Millet's  letter  in  Rels.,  Cleveland  badly  treated ;  he  was  unencumbered  by  any  burden 
ed.,  LXIV,  64).  The  story  looked  suspicious,  but  until  they  were  nearing  their  last  night's  sleeping 
as  there  was  question  of  a  soul  to  save.  Millet  un-  place,  ten  leagues  from  their  destination,  when  one  of 
dertook  the  nsk,  and  St.  Armand,  a  surgeon,  ao-  the  friendly  diefs,  probably  to  keep  up  appearances, 
oompanied  him.  Both  were  immediately  set  upon  gave  him  a  light  sack  to  cany.  On  9  August,  two 
and  boimd^  his  captors  first  took  Millets  breviary,  kagues  from  their  destination,  they  met  Manchot's 
and  were  divesting  him  of  all  he  carried,  when  Man-  wife  and  daughter,  bdoziging  to  the  first  nobility  of 
chot,  an  Oneida  cmief,  interposed  on  his  behalf,  and  Oneida,  both  of  whom  Father  Millet  had  formerly 
recommended  him  to  the  care  of  the  other  chiefs,  baptijced  on  the  same  day  as  Manchot  himself.  Man- 
But,  when  Manchot  left  to  join  the  three  hundred  chot  had  left  the  army  at  Otoniata  for  the  sole  purpose 
Iroquois  who  were  lying  in  wait  to  attack  Fort  Fron-  of  protecting  Millet  on  the  way  to  Oneida,  and  nad 
tenac,  the  maltreatment  recommenced.  Having  gone  ahead  two  da3rs  before  to  notify  his  wife  of  his 
stripped  him  almost  naked,  the  Indians  bitterly  re-  approach.  These  good  Christians  broueht  with  them 
proached  him  for  all  that  their  countrymen  had  suf-  an  abundance  of  provisions  and  refreshments;  they 
fered  from  the  French;  thev  then  threw  him  into  the  took  the  rope  from  Millet's  neck,  unbound  his  arms, 
water  and  trampled  him  under  foot  (ibid.,  69).  When  and  gave  him  clean  clothing.  Greatly  moved  bv  this 
the  other  Indians  returned  after  their  failure  to  sur-  kindness  and  scarcely  realizing  what  he  saw.  Millet 
prise  Fort  Frontenac.  he  was  escorted  to  an  island  asked  if  their  intention  was  to  deck  out  the  victim, 
two  leagues  below  tne  fort,  where  the  main  body  and  if,  on  his  arrival,  he  was  to  die.  The  Christian 
of  1400  Iroquois  warriors  were  encamped.  Derisive  matron  answered  that  nothing  had  vet  been  settled, 
shouts  and  yells  went  up  at  his  approach.  Accor(]iing^^and,^lia|,  jj^j^  pf  Oneida  would  decide.  Clothea 
to  custom,  he  was  made  sing  his  aeath-song,  the  ^(^pras  ""^m^^Qijb  hQ  ,l\ad  j^t  received  and  in  a  close-fitting 
which  came  first  to  his  mind  being  Ongienda  Keho^sak^^^^Saw  ithkdi  tl  Sympathizing  warrior  had  lent  him  at 
choua  (I  have  been  made  a  prisoner  by  my  children),  y  ^QW^iiat  •^Hll^  V^^  his  approach  to  the  town,  wear- 
For  all  thanks  a  Seneca  Indian  struck  him  a  beutaf ''^Mg^ilte  livifty^ot  the  two  most  important  families  of 
blow  in  the  face  with  his  fist  in  such  away  that  the  iails  the  tribe,  that  of  th^  Bear  and  that  of  the  Tortoise, 
cut  him  to  the  bone.  He  was  then  led  to  the  Cf4>ins  Warned  of  his  near  c^rrival  the  aged  sachems  marched 
of  the  Oneidas  where  he  wfw  protected  from  furihei5x.^iit'^l)4ee$^%}  and  kindled  a  fire  in  readiness  for 
insult.  That  same  evening  the  whole  force  mo\^.'tiY))«rt'aai]^tic^6Uf^'f6r  they  did  not  all  entertain  the 
down  the  river  eight  leagues  from  the  fort,  and  t^ere  ,  same  benevolent  feeling  towards  him.  He  was  made 
halted  three  da3rs.                                                   \  .^   ~  ..^tjto9^M)fi9x.tha^elder8,  and  Manchot  presented  him 

On  a  hilltop  on  what  is  now  Grenadier  Island  to  this  preliminar3r  council,  declaring  that  he  had 
a  great  council  was  held,  the  war-kettle  swung,  and  come,  not  as  a  captive,  but  as  a  missionary  returning 
all  Uiat  remained  was  to  choose  a  fitting  vie-  to  visit  his  flock ;  tnat  it  was  the  will  of  the  other  chiefs 
tim  to  cast  into  it.  The  final  decision  was  left  to  and  himself  that  the  father  should  be  placed  at  the 
the  Ononda^,  and  no  doubt  the  lot  would  have  disposal  of  those  who  decided  the  affairs  of  the  nation, 
fallen  on  Millet,  whose  death  at  the  hands  of  the  ana  not  be  given  over  to  the  soldiery  or  populace. 
Iroquois  would  have  set  the  seal  to  an  undying  enmity  A  sachem  of  the  Bear  Clan,  a  great  friend  otthe  Eng- 
and  an  unrelenting  war,  such  as  they  seemed  to  de-  lish,  then  proceeded  to  denounce  Millet  as  a  partisan 
sire  with  the  French,  but  for  an  apparently  insignifi-  of  the  Governor  of  Canada,  who  was  bent  on  over- 
cant  detail  which  had  been  overlooked.  To  make  the  throwing  the  great  Iroquois  lodge  (i.  e.  the  Iroquois 
proceedings  le^  according  to  their  code,  all  the  Confederacy),  and  had  burned  the  Seneca  towns, 
prisoners  should  have  been  present,  whereas  only  the  The  orator  was  so  violent  at  the  beginning  of  his 
sui^geon  and  Father  Millet  stood  before  the  council  speech,  that  it  looked  as  if  Millet  would  be  condemned : 
(ibid.,  73).  The  captors  of  the  other  prisoners  had  but  towards  the  dose  he  grew  milder,  and  admittea 
scattered  in  himting  parties  and  had  taken  them  along,  that  since  such  was  the  wifl  of  the  chiefs,  the  prisoner 
An  elderiy  Ca3ruga  sachem  blocked  all  proceedings  should  be  led  to  the  council  lodge  which  was  a  privi- 
with  the  simple  announcement:  "All  are  not  present  leged  cabin. 

at  this  assemblv".  and  then  bade  Millet  to  pray  to  Crowds  of  drunken  Indian  braves  and  squaws, 

God.    Informed  that  it  was  not  in  preparation  for  shouting  and  yelling,  followed  him  to  the  council  lod^, 

death,  Mfllet  rose  and  praved  aloud  m  Iroquois,  where  he  was  cordially  welcomed  by  Manchot's  wife 

especially  for  all  those  assembled.    He  was  then  tola  (ibid.,  81).    He  had,  however,  to  be  hidden  from  the 

to  resume  his  seat,  one  of  his  hands  was  unbound,  and  mob  of  drunken  Indians,  who  stoned  the  cabin, 

he  was  sent  to  the  camp  of  the  Oneidas.    There  he  was  threatened  to  batter  it  down  or  set  it  on  fire,  heaped 

acclaimed  with  lov  bv  several  of  their  leading  men,  abuse  on  those  who  were  sheltering  him,  and  vowed 

who,  to  forestall  f  urtner  molestation,  determined  to  that,  since  war  had  b^un,  they  would  not  be  cheated 

send  him  to  Oneida.    The  next  day  (about  2  Au^t,  out  of  its  first  fruits.    Two  days  after,  when  the  fuiy 

1689),  thirty  warriors  were  told  off  under  two  chiefs,  of  the  drunken  rabble  had  somewhat  abated,  the 

of  whom  one  was  the  friendly  Manchot,  to  conduct  him  friends  of  the  captive  missionary  thought  it  wiser 

thither;  from  one  of  Mfllet's  letters  (ibid.,  87,  91),  to  have  his  case  adjudicated  without  further  delay,  as 

it  is  certain  that  the  mail)  body  of  Indians  the^  the  popular  feeling  might  be  embittered  should  the 

were  leaving  was  the  identical    band   of   Iroquois  army  returning  from  Montreal  have  to  deplore  the 

who.  about  4  August,  crossed  during  the  night  to  the  loss  of  some  of  its  braves.    But  once  again  he  was 

north  side  of  Lake  St.  Louis,  fired  the  houses  for  placed  in  a  state  of  suspense  as  to  his  &te.  the  as- 

fleveral  leagues  along  the  lake  shore  from  St.  Anne's  sembled  chiefs  deciding  that  they  must  wait  tne  return 

tQ  L^MJiioej  and  butchered  men,  women,  and  childreii  of  th^  w^rrior^  and  learn  whfkt  their  intentions  were. 


MXLLBT                                314  MILLET 

Three  more  weeks  dragged  on  thuB,  but.  apart  from  the  hostility  of  the  dnmkards  among  the  tribe  and  of 

the  importunities  and  threats  of  the  drunkards,  Millet  the  English  who  have  done  their  best  to  have  this 

was  left  in  comparative  ^uiet.    That  he  was  walking  saintly  missionaiy  handed  over  to  their  keeping. 

in  the  shadow  of  death,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  Thev  cannot  brook  the  presence  of  a  Jesuit  there." 

was  mven  the  name  of  Oenherontaiie,  i.  e.  "The  Dead  Damon  had  already-  in  tJie  same  month  and  year, 

(or  Dying)  Man  who  walks'*.    His  eveiyday  work  written  to  Rome  that  the  father,  a  captive  among  the 

as  nastor  served  to  console  him,  the  faithful  nocking  Iroquois,  was  most  assiduous  in  opening  the  wav  to 

to  him  in  their  spiritual  necessities,  even  to  the  remote  heaven  for  many  little  children  by  baptism,  and  for 

lurking  places  where  he  had  frequently  to  be  hidden,  dyine  adults  and  old  men  by  a  careful  preparation 

and  his  bodily  wants  were  amplv  supplied.    When  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  (Letters  to 

the  Iroquois  returned  after  their  bloodv  foray  against  the  Gen.,  MS.  copy  45,  48).    Father  Jean  de  Lamber- 

Lachine  and  other  settlements  near  Montreal,  it  was  ville  writing  from  Paris  on  3  Jan.,  1695,  says:  ''Tbey 

found  that  the  Oneidas  had  left  three  dead  warriors  [his  friends  among  the  Oneidas]  made  a  oiapel  of  their 

behind  in  the  enemy's  country,  including  a  leading  dwelling,  where  the  Father  perfonned  his  fimctions  of 

war-chief.    The  exasperated  braves  considered  the  missionary,  with  the  result  that  in  the  midst  of  these 

death  and  torture  of  the  number  of  prisoners  they  had  hostile  barbarians  he  maintained  the  worship  of  God 

brougiht  back  insufficient  to  atone  for  this  loss,  and  and  there  converted  many  Iroquois.    After  having 

demanded  that  Millet  should  be  added  to  the  number,  been  five  years  amon^  them,  assisting  in  their  death 

Fearing  lest  this  bloodthirsty  faction  should,  by  cut-  throes  the  French  prisoners  who  were  burned,  and 

ting  offa  finger  or  by  some  similar  mutilation,  set  the  interceding  successfully  for  the  life  of  others,  he  was 

mark  of  death  upon  their  missionary,  the  Christian  brou^t  back  to  Queb^  with  fifteen  French  captives  " 

Indians  were  more  careful  than  ever  to  keep  him  out  (Rels.,  LXIV,  245).    Belmont  (Hist,  du  Can.,  p.  3C) 

of  sight  (ibid.,  87).    He  was  made  pass  the  ni^t  is  certainly  astray  in  giving  1697  as  the  date  of  Millet's 

sometimes  in  one  cabin,  sometimes  in  another,  and  delivery.    Most  authors  state  that  the  captive  mi&- 

more  than  once  under  the  starlight,  anywhere  in  fact  sionary  was  brou^t  back  to  Quebec  in  1694.    Colden 

where  a  drunken  Indian  was  not  likelv  to  find  him.  (History  of  the  Five  Nations,  I,  210-30)  states  that 

His  protectress  added  foresight  to  her  zeal,   and  the  return  took  place  towards  the  end  of  August; 

secured  the  support  of  her  relatives,  the  most  influen-  Charlevoix,  however,  states  very  positively  (II,  14.") 

tiai  warriors  of  the  tribe,  towards  saving  MiUet.  that  Father  Millet  was  brought  to  Montreal  towards 

The  day  when  the  final  sentence  was  to  be  pro-  the  end  of  October  (1694). 
nounoed  arrived  at  last.  Millet  had  time  to  hear  the  Millet  passed  the  year  1695  at  Quebec  College 
confessions  of  his  fellow-prisoners,  two  of  whom  and  in  lo96  was  sent  to  Lorette  to  assist  Father 
eventually  died  by  fire.  As  for  himself,  he  could  Michel  Germain  de  Convert  with  the  Hurons,  and,  to 
only  commend  himself  to  the  providence  and  the  the  ordinar;^^  duties  of  missionary  to  the  Hurons, 
mercy  of  God.  His  case  was  a  knotty  one  for  the  thoas  of  parish  priest  of  Lorette  were  added  in  1697. 
assembled  chiefs  to  decide:  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  In  1698  he  is  marked  in  the  catalogues  of  the  Society 
r^rded  by  the  Iroquois  as  a  great  criminal  and  de-  as  missionary  at  SiEiult-St- Louis  (Caugknawaga),  but 
ceiver,  being  held  responsible  for  the  seizure  of  their  ^  in  all  probability  he  went  there  in  tiie  summer  of 
feUow-coimtrymen  at  Catarakouy  (ibid.,  89) ;  but,  *  1697.  For,  on  15  February  of  that  year,  thirty-three 
on  the  other,  he  was  protected  by  the  Christians,  Oneidas  came  to  Montreal.  They  came,  they  said,  to 
among  whom  were  the  most  influential  and  distin-  fulfil  a  promise  they  had  made  tneir  Father  to  ^row 
guished  members  of  the  nation,  and  thus  could  not  be  in  their  lot  with  his  children  and  that  their  fellow- 
put  to  death  without  incurring  their  displeasure.  The  coimtrymen  wished  to  assure  him  that  they  also 
result  was  that  he  was  sent  to  and  fro  from  one  special  would  have  followed  if  the  Mohawks  and  Onondagas, 
tribunal  to  another,  his  face  smeared  with  black  and  between  whose  cantons  they  dwelt,  had  not  held  them 
red  to  brand  him  as  a  victim  of  the  god  of  war  and  of  back  (Charlevoix.  "Hist.",  II,  199).  From  1697  to 
the  wrath  of  the  Iroquois.  At  this  critical  jimcture  1703  inclusively,  ne  remained  as  missionary  at  Sault- 
the  family  which  had  befriended  him  so  often  assem-  St-Louis.  During  this  period  he  wrote  at  least  once 
bled  anew,  and  ingeniously  turned  the  difficulty  in  to  Rome  (10  August.  1700)  a  mild  and  submissive 
Mulct's  favour  by  offering  him  as  a  substitute — ^not  for  complaint  that  he  had  not  yet  obtained  the  favour  of 
one  of  the  braves  killed  by  the  French  at  Lachine,  nor  returning  to  the  Iroquois  cantons :  tiirougjb  feelings 
for  any  made  prisoner  at  Fort  Frontenac,  but — ^for  of  gratitude  he  begs  the  Father  General  to  give  a 
a  captain  named  Otasset^,  who  had  died  long  since  a  share  in  the  prayers  of  the  Society  to  Tarsha  the  chief 
natural  death,  and  whose  name  was  famous  as  that  of  and  Suzanne  his  sister  at  Oneida,  both  of  whom  bad 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Iroquois  Confederation,  acted  as  hosts  to  the  Father  auring  his  captivity. 
By  this  presentation  Chief  Gannassatiron  became  Although  peace  had  been  concluded  with  the  Five 
the  sole  arbiter  of  Millet's  life  or  death .  He  consulted  Nations  on  8  September,  the  missions  were  not  yet  re^ 
only  the  warriors  of  his  family,  and,  these  having  established  when  Father  Bouvart  wrote  to  Rome  5 
without  hesitation  pronoimced  in  favour  of  life,  he  October,  1700.  The  catalogue  of  1704  places  Father 
approached  the  father  and  in  the  set  formula  addressed  Millet  at  the  college  in  Quebec  as  a  valetudinarian, 
him:  "Satonnheton  Szaksi"  (My  elder  brother,  you  though  he  himself  desired  to  return  to  the  Iroquois 
are  resuscitated).  A  few  days  afterwards  the  no-  mission  and  continue  till  the  end  "  to  fight  like  a  good 
tables  of  Oneida  were  invited  to  a  grand  banquet,  and  soldier  the  battles  of  liie  Lord".  In  1705  he  is  de- 
at  the  ceremony  the  name  of  Otasset^  was  given  Mil-  scribed  as  under  treatment  for  broken-down  health. 
let  to  make  it  manifest  to  all  that  the  Oneidas  had  He  lingered  on  for  three  years  more,  ^ways  in  the 
adopted  him  into  their  nation  and  naturalized  him  an  hope  of  going  back  to  the  scenes  of  his  capti^'ity, 
Iroquois.    Everything  that  had  been  taken  from  him  but,  on  the  last  day  of  1708,  he  died. 

was  restored.  Thwaxteb,  Jemit  Relationa  and  AUied  Does.,  XVTI,  242; 

Father  Millet  turned  his  long  captivity  among  the  LXIV.  «6-i07  ii9,  133,  276.  276;  J)^,Ijmibeiyille;8  letter) 

Oneidas  to  good  account.    Father  Bru4s  writes  to  ^»'  269:  LxV.  27.  261:  Lyi  43;  !l^.  134,161:  o;Calla. 

the  General  on  21  October,  1693:    "We  have  received  732,  783;  IV,  24,  41-^,  60-3,  78-07,  120,  169,  170.  349,  659: 

letters  from  Father  Millet,  a  captive  among  the  Iro-  IX.  241. 264, 287. 387-9, 466. 499, 618, 631. 633.,  666. 682  605. 

quoisfor  the  last  «x  yeara. ....  He  performs  Ah  happy  ?^i««?;  ^^Si'^^^X^liX--^  XW(r/SSS;.^cTJ*"i 

results  all  the  offices  of  a  missionary.    He  stands  m  u.  5..  I  (New  York.  1886),  286,  288, 302.  332-6;  Idbm,  Bint. 

need  of  one  thing  only,  an  altar  outfit  (a  chalice,  vest-  ofCath.  Misaions  among  the  Indiana  (I866),  260-1.  27e-8i.  319. 

mente,  etc.^ «  as  to  j«y  Mass) ;  but  he  thinks  that  the  ^^^:^Z]%'&r^^il"^U^^th^:  A'^^;  %t 

time  to  send  him  this  has  not  yet  oome  on  account  of  logy^a  of  Soc.  ofjeau*,  MSa.:  LeUm  to  Uu  Generoi,  oopi« 


K 


mu                       315  MTTfWita 

(Maitin):RilationtiUtJitiiiUi(QaabaB.iet6),KAl»es,  10,2  the  defect  <rf  unceaaiuK  asperity  of  lanKuage,  so  th&t 

«f:M  2Sf:i?riiMSa;;fpird'Hii1ti-MVayVV  be  oontinued  to  embitter  the  strife,    fte  committee 

M.M,  176.239-S6;  II.  11,38,  ios.  iBT;  QiiM>n*«DmProc«A  «  C»tholic  larmen.  elected  first  in  1782,  and  re- 

Rav.  Sac.  Can-.y,  Mrmmrt,  ST-ioi;  Chablivoii.  Hiti.  dtia  elected  nveyeiunIater,weretbecentreo[suchopinionN, 

Ho.f'Srf-r  i  f™v  V,^:  nf  t™:'il;iS?;,^""FJ'''','"i:  ">d  towards  the  end  three  ocelesiastiw  were  added, 

ta1i-f  ™nS,ni!l8!^2oS?'M™?D2S2S2;  tSv^Hl^  two  ot  whom  (Jama,  Talbot  and  Charles  Berington) 

Coaiei.iSgDoet.rtiati!iiiaN.-PTaiu:t.i,2i.239,33S,i88,6S2-3,  were  bishops.    The  object  of  the  committee  was  to 

SSL^V^5^?2>^[iJ'M?V^"i'«^i'aSi««""'-  ^"^  "^IP  t°  biSiB  about  Catholic  emancipation.    With 

pr*«n<  l/8ff?)  dT^oI-.,  rt<.  <X^^^f*^„^^^*  j^„^  this  end  in  vi?w,  in  1789  they  i»ued  a  "  ^testation", 

-_„    _,,,    _  „  or              a  disclaiminK  some  of  the  more  objectionable  doctrines 

Mill    mi    Ooltap.     See    Jobbph,    Socimt    of  with  wbicE  they  were  popuUrly  credited,  including 
Saint,   k>b  Forbiqn   Missions.  the  deposing  poVer  andpapal  kifallibUity.     Despite 
Milner,  John,  b.  in  Lmdon,  14  October.  1752;  d.  the  Cisalpine  tone  of  the  document,  it  was  signed  by 
at  Wolverhampton,  19  April,  1326.    At  the  age  of  nearly  1500  Catholics,  including  all  the  vicars  Apos- 
twelve  he  went  to  Sedgiey  Park  School,  but  the  toTloW'  tolic,  though  the  aignaturee  of  two  were  afterwarda 
ing  year  he  was  sent  by  the  venerable  Bishop  Chal-  withdrawn.    Pittwhowaa  then  Piime  Minister  prom- 
loner  to  the  Ejiglish  College  at  Douai,  France,  to  study  ised  to  introduce  a 
tor  the  priesthood.     He  remained  twelve  years,  but  bill  of  Catholic  re- 
he  doee  not  seem  to  have  distinguished  himself  in  lief;    but  when  it 
any  special  manner  there.    On  his  ordination  in  1777  wasdrafted,itwae 
be   returned   to  England.     Two  years  later  he  was  found   to  contain 
seat  to  Winchester  to  assist  the  French  prisoners  in  an  oath  which  all 
that  city,  among  whom  a  fever  had  broken  out;  and  Catholics  were  to 
when  the  pastor,  Rev.  Mr.  Nolan,  fell  a  victim  to  the  be  called  upon  to 
fever,  Milner  was  permanently  appointed  in  his  place,  take,  baned  on 
Winchester  was  then  one  of  the  few  towns  in  the  south  the    '"proteBta- 
of  England  where  a  Catholic  chapel  was  openly  sup-  tion,   but    in 

Ertea.    Ilaexistence  was  indeed  illegal,  for  the  penal  stronger  language, 

VB  were  still  in  full  foroe^  but  practically  there  was  and      containms 

not  much  prospect  of  its  bemg  interfered  with.    Milner  doctrine  to  which 

remained  there  twenty-three  ^ears,  during  which  time  no  good  Catholic 

he  devoted  himseif  to  missionary  work,  rebuilt  the  couWsethisnaine; 

chapel,  and  eatablishedaschool.    The  Catholic  religion  while    the    Cath- 

in  England  was  at  the  time  going  through  a  double  olics     throughout 

crisis,  partly  by  the  action  of  its  own  members,  and  were  called  by  the 

irtly  oy  ttie  influence  from  without,  due  to  the  F^nch  absurd  title    of 

evolution.     Some  thousands  of  French  priests  took  "  Protesting  Cath- 

refuge  in  England,  and  were  Buti[>orted  by  the  Govern-  olic    Dissenters  ".                        Jobm  Uilhbr 

ment.     Some  700  were  lodged  in  the  old  unfinished  The  four  vicars  Apostolic  met  at  Hammeremith,  in 

king's  house  outside  Winchester,  where  they  formed  October,  1739,  Milner  attending  as  theological  adviser. 

themselves  into  a  large  religious  community.     Milner,  They  unanimously  condemnea  the  oath  and  the  new 

who  was  brought  into  daily  contact  with  them,  spoke  appellation.     During  the  followingyear  the  Bishops  of 

in  high  terms  of  the  extraordinary  edification  6i  their  the  Northern  and  London  Districts  died.     A  great 

daily  lives.    The  same  events  on  the  Continent  led  to  effort  was  made  by  the  committee  to  secure  the  trans- 

the  breaking  up  of  the  English  convents  in  Fiance  and  ference  of  Bishop  Charles  Berington  to  the  Iioodon 

the  Low  Countries,  and  the  nuns  fled  for  refuge  to  District.     This  would  have  been  a  triumph  for  the 

their  own  country,  where  they  arrived  penniless  and  Cisalpines;  but  fortunately  it  did  not  succeed.    Rome, 

belpleas.     A  great  effort  was  made  to  assist  them,  being  warned,  appointed  Dr.  Douglass,  a  Yorkshiift* 

MiToer  took  lus  share  in  the  movement  by  establish-  man,  who  had  been  outside  the  late  disputes. 

ing  in  his  mission  the  Bendictine  nuns,  formerly  of  The  committee  now  suggested  some  modification  of 

Brussels,  with  whom  he  ever  afterwarda  maintamed  the  oath;  but  it  was  not  suflicient  to  free  it  from  ob- 

cordial  relations.    The  Franciscans  from  Bruges  like-  jection,  and  three  out  of  the  four  vicars  Apostolic 

wise  settled  at  Winchester.  joined  in  condemning  it  a  second  time.     When  the 

During  succeeding  yeara,  Milner  began  to  make  his  Relief  Bill  was  brought  forward  in  February,  1791, 

name  aa a  writer  and  controversialist.     His  "History  the  bishops  called  Milner  to  their  assistance.     By 

of  Winchester"  appeared  in  1798,  and  showed  remark-  means  of  his  vigorous  action  an  impression  was  made 

able  power  and  laming.     It  led  to  a  controversy  with  on  the  Govenmient  and  the  oath  was  further  modified; 

Dr.   Sturgee,  a  prebendary  of  the  cathedral,  which  but  the  situation  was  really  saved  after  his  return  to 

brought  forth  two  of    Milner's  best-known  works,  Winchester,  when  the  House  of  Lords,  at  the  instiga- 

"Letteratoa  Prebendary"  and  "The  End  of  Religious  tion  of  the  Protestant  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  substi- 

Controversy".     In   deference  to  the  wishes  of  his  tuted  a  totally  different  oath  for  the  one  objected  to; 

bishop,  however,  the  last-named  work  was  withheld  andin  this  form  the  Bill  was  passed.   .It  abolished  the 

for  the  sake  of  peace,  and  it  did  not  see  the  light  until  penal  laws  properly  eo-callea  and  legalised  the  cele- 

nearly  twenty  years  later.     It  was  during  nis  reel-  bistion  of  Mass;   but  Catholics  continued  liable  to 

dence  at  Winchester  that  Milner  was  firat  brought  into  numerous  disabilitiesfor  many  years  afterwards.  After 

contact  with  the  public  affairs  of  Catholics,  which  this  the  Catholic  Committee  dissolved;   but  the_  chief 

formed  the  other  aspect  of  the  crisis  in  that  body,  members  re-formed  themselves  into  an  association  to 

The  Cisalpine  or  antipapal  movement  among  the  laity  which  they  gave  the  name  of  the  Cisalpine  Club  and 

was  beginning,  the  moving  spirit  being  Charles  Butler,  which  lasted  for  many  years.    Milner  continued  to 

nephew  of  Alban  Butler,  a  lawyer  of  eminence  and  write  and  speak  in  opposition  to  them.     The  clergy 

reputation,  and  the  lifelong  opponent  of  Milner.     The  who  were   supporters   of  the   Cisalpine  spirit   were 

movement  also  affected  some  of  the  clerf^,  the  well-  chiefly  in  the  Midland  District,  one  group  who  had 

known  writer,  Rev.  Joseph  Berington,  bemg  the  most  acted   together   being   known   as   the   Staffordshire 

notable  example.     Milner,  who  &d  a  keen  sense  of  Clergy.     By  a  strange  fate  it  was  this  very  district 

orthodoxy  and  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See,  dbectMl  iJl  over  which  Milner  was  called  to  rule  in  1803,  when  he 

bis  endeavours  to  combating  this  movement.    Hia  was  oonseciated  Bishop  of  Castabala,  and  appointed 

writings  were  numerous  and  powerful ;  but  tl^  bad  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Midland  District.    It  is  credit- 


munut 


316 


able  both  to  them  and  to  Mikier  himself  that  the 
resulting  state  of  tension  was  of  short  duration.  The 
clergy  learned  to  value  the  great  (qualities  of  their  new 
bishop,  and  conceived  an  admiration  of  him,  the  tradi- 
tion of  which  has  lasted  to  the  present  day. 

Milner,  however,  was  not  satisfied  with  his  position 
in  the  Midlands.  He  had  formed  an  alliance  with  the 
Irish  bishops,  and  with  their  co-operation,  a  deter- 
mined attempt  was  made  to  have  him  transferred  to 
London  as  coadjutor  with  rieht  of  succession.  This 
scheme  was  opposed  by  Bishop  Douglass,  and  ulti- 
mately defeatcKl,  though  the  pope  consentea  that  Mil- 
ner  should  become  parliamentary  agent  to  the  Irish 
bishops  in  their  struggle  to  procure  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, and  that  for  this  purpose  he  should  bepermitted 
to  go  to  London  as  often  as  necessary.  This  unfor- 
tunate disagreement  with  his  collea^es  led  to  regret- 
table results.  Milner  found  fault  with  the  manner  in 
which  the  London  District  was  governed,  and  was  not 
afraid  to  say  so  publicly,  in  numerous  pamphlets  and 
other  publications,  ana  even  in  his  pastorals.  The 
subjects  of  contention  were  several;  but  two  espe- 
cially may  be  mentioned.  One  was  the  well-known 
"  Veto"  question,  which  first  came  into  prominence  in 
the  year  1808.  By  this  it  was  intended  to  concede  to 
the  Crown  a  negative  voice  in  the  election  of  Catholic 
bishops,  by  conferring  a  right  to  veto  any  candidate 
whose  loyalty  was  open  to  question.  The  chief  Irish 
bishops  had  agreed  to  the  measure  in  1799;  but  since 
then,  owing  to  the  postponement  of  emancipation, 
the  scheme  had  dropped.  Milner  revived  it,  and  was 
for  a  time  the  warm  advocate  of  the  veto.  He  found 
himself  in  opposition  to  most  of  the  Irish  bishops.  He 
visited  Ireland,  and  i^terwards  wrote  his  *'  Letter  to  a 
Parish  Priest"  (who  was  really  an  Irish  bishop)  in  de- 
fence of  his  position.  The  Irish  bishops,  however, 
condemned  the  Veto  in  1808.  A  vear  later  Milner 
was  converted  to  their  way  of  thinking,  and  became 
as  vigorous  in  opposition  to  it  as  he  had  been  before 
in  its  favour.  About  this  time  the  English  Catholics, 
in  presenting  a  petition  to  Parliament,  embodied 
what  was  known  as  their  "Fifth  Resolution",  offer- 
ing a  "grateful  concurrence"  to  a  Bill  which  would 
give  them  emancipation,  accompanied  by  any  "  ar- 
rangements" for  the  safe-guarding  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  which  should  not  be  inconsistent  with 
their  religion.  Milner  declared — contrary  to  the  as- 
sertions of  the  framers  of  the  Resolution — ^that  the 
"arrangements"  intended,  included  the  Veto,  and  he 
denounced  those  who  signed  the  petition,  including  all 
the  other  vicars  Apostolic  of  England.  In  this  he 
received  the  support  of  the  Irish  bishop>s.  Another 
source  of  criticism  was  the  want  of  vigour  which  he 
alleged  against  the  London  Vicar  in  combating  the 
Blanchardist  schism  among  the  French  emigrant 
cleigjr,  especially  the  restoration  of  one  of  them,  Abb^ 
de  Trevaux,  to  spiritual  faculties  without  a  public 
retractation.  In  this  matter  also  he  was  supported  by 
the  Irish  bishops. 

A  crisis  occurred  in  1813,  Dr.  Poynter  beine  then 
Vicar  Ajxwtolic  of  the  London  District.  A  Bill  for  the 
full  emancipation  of  Catholics  was  introduced  into  the 
House  of  Commons  by  Grattan;  but  Lord  Castlereagh 
and  Mr.  Canning  introduced  amending  clauses  giving 
the  Crown  a  veto  on  the  appointment  of  bishops,  to  be 
exercised  only  on  the  recommendation  of  a  com- 
mittee consisting  chiefly  of  Catholic  Peers.  Milner 
and  the  Irish  bishops  maintained  that  no  Catholic 
could  assent  to  this  without  incurring  schism.  The 
other  vicars  Apostolic  did  notgo  so  far  as  this,  though 
they  opposed  the  clauses.  The  leading  members  of 
the  Catholic  Board,  consisting  chiefly  of  laymen,  were 
in  favour  of  accepting  them  as  the  necessary  price  to 
pay  for  emancipation.  Milner,  however,  used  all  his 
influence  to  procure  the  rejection  of  the  Bill.  He 
printed  a  "  Brief  Memorial"  in  this  sense,  and  distrib- 
uted it  among  members  of  Parliament.    The  Bill 


passed  its  second  reading,  but  in  committee  the  dause 
admitting  Catholics  to  Parliament  was  defeated  by  a 
small  majority  of  four  votes,  and  the  Bill  was  aban- 
doned. Milner  took  to  himself  the  credit  of  having 
been  the  cause  of  its  defeat,  and  the  lasrmen  were  so 
angry  with  him  that,  to  their  permanent  disgrace,  they 
puDlicly  expelled  him  from  the  committee  of  the 
Catholic  Board.  In  the  meantime  Dr.  Poynter  ap- 
pealed to  Rome  for  guidance  in  the  expected  event  of 
the  re-introduction  of  the  Bill.  The  pope  was  at  that 
time  the  prisoner  of  Bonaparte,  and  the  cardinals  were 
dispersed.  In  their  absence  Mgr.  Quarantotti,  Secre- 
tary of  Propaganda,  using  the  powers  with  widch  he 
had  been  provisionally  invested,  issued  a  Rescript, 
dated  February,  1814,  approving  of  the  Bill  as  it  stood. 
Milner  did  not  fail  to  see  the  serious  resuha  which 
would  follow  from  this  and  decided  immediately  to 
appeal  to  the  pope,  who  having  been  liberated  from 
captivity,  was  on  nis  way  back  to  Rome.  His  journey 
was  so  far  succeraful  that  the  Quarantotti  Rescript  was 
recalled,  and  the  pope  ordered  the  whole  matter  to  he 
examined  afresh.  In  the  end  a  decision  was  pr(»nul- 
sated  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  from  Cardinal  Littii,  Pre- 
fect of  Propaganda,  to  Dr.  Pojmter,  who  had  also 
come  to  Rome.  The  provisions  of  the  late  Bill  were 
condenmed;  but  on  the  general  question  of  the  veto, 
apart  from  the  Lay  Committees,  the  decision  was 
against  Milner;  subiect  to  certain  safeguards,  Catho- 
lics were  empowered  to  concede  a  veto  to  the  Crown, 
Erovided  this  negative  power  was  so  limited  as  not  to 
e  allowed  to  grow  into  a  positive  nomination.  This 
led  to  further  agitation  in  Ireland,  and  another  deputa- 
tion was  sent  to  Rome;  but  the  English  Catholics,  in- 
cluding Milner  himself,  accepted  the  decision  without 
question.  The  Engli^  vicars  Apostolic  were,  how- 
ever, naturally  opposed  to  the  veto,  and  in  the  event 
it  never  became  necessaiy  to  utiliae  the  permission 
granted. 

On  his  return  from  Rome  Milner  continued  to  write 
controversially,  the  new  *'  Orthodox  Journal"  being  a 
frequent  medium  for  his  communicatioDa.  His  laji- 
ftuage  was  as  harsh  as  ever,  and  unbecoming  in  a 
bishop,  until  at  length  an  appeal  was  made  to  Rome, 
and  Cardinal  Fontana,  who  was  then  Prefect  of  Propa- 
ganda, forbade  him  to  write  in  it  any  more.  During 
the  last  years  of  his  life  Milner  withdrew  to  a  great  ex- 
tent from  public  politics.  He  ceased  to  act  on  behalf 
of  the  Irisn  bishops,  and  though  he  did  not  hold  any 
intercourse  with  tne  other  vicars  Apostolic,  he  ceased 
to  write  against  them.  He  devoted  himself  to  literary 
work.  In  1818  his  *  *  End  of  Controversy  ",  perhaps  the 
best  known  of  all  his  books,  at  length  app^ired,  and  it 
was  followed  by  a  war  of  pamphlets  and  replies  which 
went  on  for  several  years.  Feeling  his  health  failing, 
he  applied  for  a  coadjutor,  and  Rev.  Thomas  Walsh, 
President  of  Oscott  CoUege,  was  appointed.  He  was 
consecrated  in  1825  when  all  the  bishops  of  England 
met,  and  a  reconciliation  was  effected.  Milner  sur- 
vived less  than  a  year,  his  death  taking  place  at  his 
house  at  Wolverhampton  on  19  April,  1826.  He  left 
behind  him  a  record  of  a  life  marked  by  whole-hearted 
devotion  to  religion,  and  of  eminent  services  rendered 
to  the  cause ,  both  as  a  writer  and  a  man  of  action.  lo 
both  capacities  his  work  was  marred  by  the  asperity 
of  his  language,  and  his  intolerance  of  any  views  differ^ 
ing  from  his  own.  This  made  him  many  enemies 
through  life,  and  cut  him  off  from  his  brother  bishops 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  episcopate.  But  his  lot 
was  cast  at  a  difficult  time,  and  he  succeeded  in  com- 
bating difficulties  which  few  other  men  would  have 
faced.  He  had  the  advantage  of  a  strong  constitution: 
his  vigour  and  activity  were  phenomenal,  and,  added 
to  Ins  devotion  to  the  Holy  See,  earned  for  mm  the 
title  of  the  English  Athanasius. 

There  are  many  portraits  of  Milner:  (1)  sketch,  age 
about  25;  (2)  miniature,  as  a  bishop  about  1803;  (3) 
miniature  by  Keman   (1808 — considered   the   best 


MILNIE 


317 


MIL0P0TAM08 


fikeness);  (4)  painting  b^  Barber,  drawing  master  a  degree  that  he  was  frequently  allowed  oat  on  parole, 
at  Oscott,  181/;  (5)  pi^m^^ipg  by  Herberti  RJL —  and  was  even  trusted  with  the  keys  of  the  prison, 
said  to  be  the  most  liJce,  but  it  is  in  Gothic  vestments  This  leniency  enabled  him  to  render  valuable  service 
and  mitre,  having  been  painted  long  after  Milner's  to  the  other  Catholic  prisoners  and  to  introduce  priests 
death,  (lliese  are  all  at  Oscott.)  (6)  Faintizut  of  to  administer  the  sacraments.  Soon,  extending  the 
Milner  as  a  priest,  age  about  45,  at  the  convent,  East  sphere  ot  his  charitable  activity,  he  acted  as  escort 
Bergholt.  (7)  Painting  at  the  presbytery,  Norwich,  first  to  Father  Thomas  Stanney,  and  later  to  his  suc- 
veiy  similar  to  (5).  (8)  Engraving  in  "Laity's  Direo-  oessor  at  Winchester,  Father  Roger  Dicconson,  con- 
tory ",  1827,  from  a  paintingby  RiMcliffe  (Otth.  Jour.,  ducting  them  to  the  different  villages  to  minister  to 
I,  173).  (0)  Bust,  by  C&'loQ  sen.  of  Birmingham:  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  scatter^  and  persecuted 
many  copies  to  be  met  with.  (1),  (2),  and  (6)  repro-  flock.  IlnaUy  seized  with  Father  Dicconson,  Milner 
duoed  in  the  '*  Dawn  of  the  Cathouc  Revival";  (8)  in  was  with  him  placed  under  close  confinement  in  Win- 
Miss  Harting's  "Catholic  London  Mission";  (4)  in  Chester  jail  pending  the  approaching  sessions.  Prob- 
" Catholic  London  a  Century  ago";  (5)  in  the  pennv  ably  moved  with  compassion  for  the  aged  man,  the 
"  Life  of  Milner, "  bv  Rev.  E.  Burton  (Catholic  Trutn  judge  urged  Milner  to  attend  even  once  the  Protestant 
Society).  His  chief  works  are:  "Funeral  Discourse  church  and  thus  escape  the  gallows.  The  latter  le- 
on  Bishop  Challoner"  (1781);  "The  Clemrman's  fused,  however,  "to  embrace  a  counsel  so  disagreeable 
Answer  to  the  Layman's  Letter  "  (1790) ;  "  Pastoral  to  the  maxims  of  the  Gospel ",  and  began  immediately 
of  the  Bishop  of  Uon"  (translated.  1701);  "D]»-  to  prepare  for  death.  Elvery  effort  was  made  to  per- 
oouise  at  Consecration  of  Bishop  Gibson''  (1701);  suade  him  to  change  his  purpose  and  renounce  the 
"  Divine  Rights  of  Episcopacy"  (1701) :  "Audi  A-  Faith,  and,  when  he  was  approaching  the  gallows  with 
teram  Partem"  (1702);  " Eccbsiastical  Democracy  Father  Dicconson,  his  cnildren  were  conducted  to 
detected"  (1703);  "Repl]r  to  Cisalpine  Club"  (1705):  him  in  the  hope  that  he  might  even  then  relent. 
"Serious  Expostulation  with  Rev.  Joseph  Berington'  Unshaken  in  his  resolution,  Milner  gave  his  children 
(1707) ;  "  Histonr  of  Winchester"  (1708) ;  '^Brief  his  last  blessing,  declared  that "  he  could  wish  them  no 
life  of  Challoner  (1708);  "Letters  to  a  Prebendary"  greater  happiness  than  to  die  for  the  like  cause",  and 
(1800);  "Case  of  Conscience  solved"  (1801);  "Eluci-  then  met  his  death  with  the  utmost  courage  and  calm, 
dation  of  the  Conduct  of  Pius  VII"  (1802);  "  Argu-  ^  Challokbr,  tfmm.  I  (1741),  260. 425;  RiBAMKmiA,  Soii- 
menta  against  Catholic  Petition"  (1805);  "Cure  of  feL£*n*i4o*  ^"^^  ^^^^^^'  appendix,  p.  36;  Dodd,  Cfhmch 
Winefride  White"  (1806);  "Letter  to  a  Parish  ^**^'"'"«- 
Priest"  (1808);  "Lettere  from  Ireland"  (1808);  "Pas- 
toral Letter  on  Blanchardists",  "Sequel",  "Supple- 
ment", and  "Appendix"  (1808-0);  ^'Appeal  to  the 
Catholics  of  Ireland"  (1800):  "DCscourse  at  Funeral 
of  Sir  William  Jemin^iam'^  (1800);  "Treatise  on 
EiOclesiastical  Architecture"  (1810);  "Instructions 
for  Catholics  of  Midland  Counties"  (1811) ;  "  Letter  to  o^  Lanf  ranc  is  printed  in  the  "  Acta  Sanctorum  "  of  the 


Thobcas  Kennedy. 
IClo.    See  SiBAy  J^focsss  of. 

BKilo  Orispin,  monk,  and  cantor  of  the  Benedictine 
Abbey  of  Bee,  wrote  the  lives  of  five  of  its  abbots: 
Lanfranc,  Arehbishop  of  Canterbury,  Gulielmus  de 
Bdlomonte,  Boso,  Theebaldus,  and  Letaidus.    His  life 


Prelate  of  Ireland"  (1811);  "Explanation  with 
Bishop  Poynter"  (1812);  "Pastoral  on  Jurisdiction  of 
Church",  I,  II,  and  III  (1812-3);  "Brief  Memorial  on 
Cathotio  BUI"  (1813):  "Multum  in  Parvo"  (1813); 
"Encyclical  Letter"  (1813);  "Inquisition.    A  letter 


Bollandists  (May  28) .  The  other  four  (those  of  Theo- 
baldus  and  Letardus  being  mere  summaries)  are  in- 
cluded in  P.  L.  (Vol.  CL.).  Milo  must  have  been  an 
old  man  when  he  wrote  tnem,  for  in  the  last  chapter 
of  hiB  life  of  Lanfranc  he  relates  something  which  he 


to  Sir  John  Cox  Hippisley  "  (1816) :  "  Humble  Remon-    himself  heard  St.  Anselm  say.    As  St.  Anselm  died  in 
stranoe  to  House  of  Commons"  (1816);  "Memoir  of    110^»  ^^  letardus  did  not  die  till  1140,  Milo  Crispin 


Notes  to"  in  1821);  "Devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart" 
(1821);  "Vindication  of  the  End  of  Controversy" 
(1822);  "Exposer  exposed"  (1824);  "Parting  Word 
to  Dr.  Ghier''  (1825).  (For  a  complete  list,  see  Hu- 
senbeth,  infra,  572.) 

HuacifBns,  Lif*  of  MUner  (DubUn,  1862);  Wahd,  Dawn 
cf  th€  CaihoUe  Refrivai  ihoadaii,  1909)1   * "' ' 


bert,  who  first  received  the  name  Crispin  because  of  his 
erect  curly  hair.  All  Gislebert's  sons  distinguished 
themselves,  and  the  family  moved  generous  bene- 
factoiB  to  the  Abbey  of  Bee.  Two  of  his  descendants 
subsequently  became  monks  there — Gilbert,  after- 
wards Abbot  of  Westminster,  who  wrote  the  life  of  St. 
>*-.i  ,.  c.  •  .•  ?l^^**°*^^?  AMHuiurr,  Hutoryof  Herluin,  founder  and  first  Abbot  of  Bee,  and  Milo 
^M^^iTs^fSk'^aSiu^Tih'^^  l*i°««l^-    No  details  of  the  latter's  career  have  been 

Memoirs  (1820);  Kxbk,  Biographic  (London,  1909);  Ward, 
CaihoUe  Londom  a  Century  Ago  (London,  1906) ;  Bradt. 
CathoUc  Hierarchy  (Rome.  1877) :  MoCavtrkt.  Hiet.  of  Church 
in  NifuUenth  Century  (Dublin,  l909);  Flanagan,  Hiatoru  of  the 
Church  in  Bnojand  (London,  1867):  LaiH/a  Directory  (1827). 
NtunaitMia  miticlei  in  the  Orthodox  Journal^  OenUemMnre  Maga- 
erne,  CathoUc  Miecelkmy,  CathoUoon,  Oeootian,  ete. 

BSBNABD  WaBD. 


preserved,  nor  is  it  known  when  he  died. 

Fabrxceub,  BUdiotheea  Latina  med,  aOatia,  V    tiuunburg, 
1736);    Sevutrr,    DicL   Patrol   III    (Paris.  1864),  1343-4; 

tuiutratina  British 


MUnflTy  Ralph,  Venesablb,  layman  and  martyr, 
h  at  Flacsted,  Hants  JSngland,  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century;  suffered  at  Winchester,  7  July,  1591.  The 
greater  part  of  his  life  was  probably  passed  in  his  native 
village,  where,  being  practically  illiterate,  he  supported 
his  wife  and  eight  children  by  manual  labour.  He 
was  brought  up  an  Anglican,  but,  struck  by  the 
contrast  between  the  lives  of  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants of  his  acquaintance,  he  determined  to  embrace 
the  old  religion,  and,  after  the  usual  course  of  instruo- 
taoUj  was  received  into  the  Church.  On  the  very  day 
of  his  first  Commimion,  however,  he  was  arrested  for 
changing  his  religion  and  committed  to  Winchester 
jail.  ^  Here  his  good  behaviour  during  the  years  of  his 
miprisonment  won  him  the  jailer's  ccoifidenoe  to  such 


(Hunbui 
.    Sevutrr,    DicL   Patrol  III    (Paris.' 
Hardt,  Deecriptive  eatalogue  of  doeumenta  tu 
ffiebtHV  (London,  1862-71);   Hignb,  P.  L.,  CL  (Paris,  1880); 
714;   BuRTBR,  Nomendator  LiterarMte,  U  (Innabruck,  1809), 
108. 

Edwin  Burton. 

BDlopotamoB,  a  titular  see  of  Crete,  suffragan  of 
Candia.  Certain  historians  and  geographers  identify 
this  locality  with  the  ancient  Pantomatnon  mentioned 
by  Stephanus  of  Byzantium,  by  Ptolemy  (III,  xv, 
5),  who  places  it  between  Rhetnymnos  and  the  promon- 
tory of  Dium,  and  by  Pliny  (IV,  xx,  3),  who  places 
it  elsewhere.  If  Milopotamos  is  identical  with  Avlo- 
potamos,  this  Greek  see  is  alluded  to  for  the  first  time 
towards  1170  (Parthey,  "Hieroclis  Synecdemus", 
118) ;  it  is  spoken  of  again  in  another  undated  "  Notitia 
episcopatuum"  (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte 
der  Notitiffi  episcop. ",  627).  As  to  the  Latin  residen- 
tial see.  its  first  titular,  Matthew,  is  mentioned  about 
1212,  shortly  after  the  conquest  of  th^  island  by  the 
Venetians.    From  1538  to  1549  the  Diocese  of  Cher- 


318 


imeBus  WB8  joined  to  it ;  on  the  other  hand,  in  1641,  the 
Dioceee  of  Milopotamos  was  united  with  RhethjnDonoe 
and  after  the  conquest  of  the  island  by  the  Turks  in 
1670|  became  merely  titular.  We  know  the  names  of 
about  twenty  residential  Latin  bishops.  Among  the 
schismatic  Greeks  the  See  of  Aulopotamos  is  united 
with  that  of  Rhethymnos.  The  rums  of  the  city  may 
be  seen  along  the  searshore  at  Castel  Myiopotamo, 
about  twelve  miles  from  Rhethymnos. 

Lb  QmsN,  OrienM  ehriaUanua,  III,  035-038;  Cornbuub, 
Crda  Mcra.  II  (Yenioe,  1755),  173-180;  Qamb.  SerieM  miaco- 
porum.  403:  Eubxz^  Hterarehia  eaUuUea  medU  mvi,  1, 357;  II, 
Sl2;lil.2dl. 

S.  VAiLHi:. 

BKiltiadeBy  Saint,  Pope. — The  year  of  his  birth  is  not 
known;  he  was  elected  pope  in  either  310  or  311 ;  died 
10  or  1 1  January,  314.  After  the  banishment  of  Pope 
Eusebius  (q.  v.)  the  Roman  See  was  vacant  for  some 
time,  probably  because  of  the  complications  which 
had  arisen  on  account  of  the  apostates  (lapst),  and 
which  were  not  deared  up  by  the  banishment  of 
Eusebius  and  Heraclius.  On  2  July,  310  or  311, 
Miltiades  (the  name  is  also  written  Melchiades),  a 
native  of  Africa,  was  elevated  to  the  papacy.  There 
is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  year,  as  the  ''  Li- 
berian  Catalogue  of  the  Popes "  (Duchesne,  ''  Liber 
Pontificalis",  1,  0)  gives  2  July,  311,  as  the  date  of 
the  consecration  of  the  new  pope  (ex  die  VI  non. 
iul.  a  cons.  Maximiliano  VIII  solo,  <}uod  fuit  mense 
septembri  Volusiano  et  Rufino) ;  but  m  contradiction 
to  this  the  death  of  the  pope  is  said  to  have  occurred 
on  2  January.  314,  and  tne  duration  of  the  pontificate 
is  given  as  tnree  years,  six  months  and  eight  days; 
possiblv  owing  to  the  mistake  of  a  copyist,  we  ought 
to  reaa  "ann.  II"  instead  of  "ann.  Ill";  and  there- 
fore the  year  of  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  was  most 
probably  311.  About  this  time  (311  or  310),  an  edict 
of  toleration  signed  by  the  Emperors  Galerius,  Licinius, 
and  Gonstantlne,  put  an  end  to  the  great  persecution 
of  the  Christians,  and  they  were  permitted  to  live  as 
such,  and  also  to  reconstruct  their  places  of  religious 
worehip  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Ecd.",  VIII,  xvii;  Lactan- 
tius,  **ue  mortibus  persecutorum",  xxxiv).  Only  in 
those  countries  of  tne  Orient  which  were  under  the 
sway  of  Maximinus  Daia  did  the  Christians  continue 
to  be  persecuted.  The  emperor  now  gave  Pope  Mil- 
tiades in  Rome  the  right  to  receive  back,  through  the 
prefect  of  the  city,  all  ecclesiastical  buildings  and  pos- 
sessions which  had  been  confiscated  during  the  per- 
secutions. The  two  Roman  deacons,  Strato  and 
Cassianus,  were  ordered  by  the  pope  to  discuss  this 
matter  with  the  prefect,  and  to  take  over  the  church 

eroperties  (Au^ustinus,  '^Breviculus  collationis  cimi 
^onatistis",  iii,  34);  it  thus  became  possible  to  re- 
organize thoroughly  the  ecclesiastical  administration 
and  the  religious  life  of  the  Christians  in  Rome. 

Miltiades  caused  the  remains  of  his  predecessor, 
Eusebius,  to  be  brought  back  from  Sicily  to  Rome, 
and  had  them  interred  in  a  crypt  in  the  Catacombs 
of  St.  Callistus.  In  the  following  year  the  pope 
witnessed  the  final  triumph  of  the  Cross,  through  tne 
defeat  of  Maxentius,  and  the  entry  into  Rome  of  the 
Emperor  Constantine  (now  converted  to  Christianity), 
after  the  victory  at  the  Milvian  Bridge  (27  October, 
312).  Later  the  emperor  presented  the  Roman 
Church  with  the  Lateran  Palace,  which  then  became 
the  residence  of  the  pope,  and  consequently  also  the 
seat  of  the  central  administration  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  basilica  which  adjoined  the  palace  or 
was  afterwards  built  there  became  the  principal 
church  of  Rome.  In  313  the  Donatists  (q.  v.)  came 
to  Constantine  with  a  request  to  nominate  bishops 
from  Gaul  as  judges  in  the  controversy  of  the  African 
episcopate  regarding  the  consecration  in  Carthage  of 
the  two  bishops,  Ceecilian  and  Majorinus.  Constan- 
tine wrote  about  this  to  Miltiades,  and  also  to  Marcus, 
requesting  the  pope  with  three  bishops  '  ^  ^o 


give  a  hearing  in  Rome,  to  Csdlian  and  his  opponent, 
and  to  decide  the  case.  On  2  October,  313,  there  as- 
sembled in  the  Lateran  Palace,  under  the  presidency 
of  Miltiades,  a  synod  of  eighteen  bishops  from  Gam 
and  Italy,  which,  after  thoroughly  considering  the 
Donatist  controversy  for  three  days,  decided  in  favour 
of  Cseciiian,  whose  election  and  consecration  as  Bishop 
of  Carthage  was  declared  to  be  legitimate.  In  the 
biogmphy  of  Miltiades,  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalia", 
it  is  stated  that  at  that  time  Manichaeans  were  found 
in  Rome;  this  was  quite  possible  as  Manichsism 
began  to  spread  in  the  West  in  the  fourth  century. 
The  same  source  attributes  to  this  pope  a  decree  which 
absolutely  forbade  the  Christians  to  fast  on  Sundays 
or  on  Thursdays,  ''because  these  days  were  observed 
by  the  heathen  as  a  holy  fast".  This  reascm  is  re- 
markable; it  comes  most  likely  from  the  author  of  the 
''Liber  Pontificalis"  who  with  this  alleged  decree 
traces  back  a  Roman  custom  of  his  own  time  to  an  or- 
dinance of  Miltiades.  The  "Liber  Pontificalis"  is 
Srobably  no  less  arbitrary  in  crediting  this  pope  with  a 
ecree  to  the  effect  that  the  Oblation  consecrated  at 
the  Solemn  Mass  of  the  pope  (by  which  is  meant  the 
Eucharistic  Bread)  should  be  taken  to  the  different 
churches  of  Rome.  Such  a  custom  actually  existed  in 
Rome  (Duchesne, "  Christian  Worship,"  London,  1903, 
185) ;  but  there  is  nothing  definite  to  show  that  it  was 
introduced  by  Miltiades,  as  the  "Liber  Pontificalis" 
asserts. 

After  his  death,  on  10  or  11  January  (the  "Liberian 
Catalogue"  gives  it  as  III  id.  Jan.;  the  "Depositio 
Episcoporum"  as  IIII  id.  ian.),  314,  Miltiades  was  laid 
to  rest  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Callistus  and  he  was 
venerated  as  a  saint.  De  Rossi  regards  as  highly 
probable  his  location  of  this  pope's  burial-chamber 
(Roma  Sotterranea,  II,  188  sqj.  His  feast  was  cele- 
brated in  the  fourth  century,  on  1 0  January,  according  to 
the  "  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum  ".  In  the  present 
"Roman  Martyrology"  it  occurs  on  10  Decemoer. 

Liber  Pontificalia,  ed.  DucHsaKB.  I,  168-196:  Urbain.  Ein 
Martyrologium  der  chriall.  Oemeinde  eu  Rom  (LeipBig,  1901). 
118-110;  Lakoen,  OeachiehU  der  rSmiacKen  Kirekt,  I.  328 
sgq.;  Allard,  HiaUnredeaperaSctUiona^V, 200,203:  DucBxaxB. 
HiaUfire  aneienna  da  VEgliac,  II,  96,  07,  110-112. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

BSiltii,  Karl  von,  papal  chamberlain  and  nuncio, 
b.  about  1480,  the  son  of  Sigismund  von  Miltis, "  Land- 
vog;t''  of  Meissen,  drowned  in  the  Main  near  Gross 
Steinheim,  20  November,  1529.  He  received  his 
humanistic  and  theological  education  at  Mainz, 
Trier,  and  Meissen  and  went  to  Rome  in  1514  or  1515, 
where  he  was  made  papal  chamberlain  and  notary, 
and  acted  as  agent  of  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
and  of  Duke  Ueoige  the  Bearded.  He  obtained 
for  the  latter  the  permission  to  transport  some  of 
the  earth  of  the  Campo  Santo  in  Rome,  which  orig- 
inally had  been  brought  from  Jerusalem,  to  Anna- 
beig,  Saxony,  where  it  was  used  in  the  cemetery. 
After  the  endeavours  of  Cardinal  Cajetan  to  sHenoe 
Luther  had  failed,  Miltiz  appeared  to  be  the  person 
most  suited  to  bring  the  negotiations  to  a  successful 
ending.  To  have  some  pretence  for  the  journey  to 
Germany,  he  was  to  deliver  to  his  elector  the  papal 
golden  rose,  which  the  latter  had  coveted  in  vam  for 
three  years.  He  went  first  to  Altenburg  where  he  had 
his  first  conversation  with  Luther.  Leaving  aside  all 
discussion  of  a  promise  of  retraction,  he  and  Luther 
agreed  to  remain  silent  for  the  present,  and  to  let  the 
learned  Archbishop  Richard  of  Trier  conduct  the 
examination.  Luther  even  promised  to  write  an 
humble  letter  to  the  pope.  Miltis  then  journeyed  to 
Leipzig  and  covered  Tetsel  with  mortifying,  wholly 
unnecessary  reproaches.  But  the  movement  started 
and  fanned  by  Luther,  had  progressed  too  far  to  be 
halted  by  mere  conclaves  and  conversations,  and  for 
this  reason  two  further  meetings  between  Luther  and 
Miltiz  at  Liebenwerda  (9  Oct.,  1519)  and  Licbtenbuig 


MZLWAUXEB 


319 


MILWAUXEB 


lOetb,  1 520)  were  without  success.  After  a  short  stay 
ki  Rome  he  returned  to  Germany  in  1522,  where  he 
died.     He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  Mains. 

SuDBMAifN.  Kori  von  MiUiSt  ein§  chr<molo(fi9ehe  UrUenuehunq 
(Drasden,  1844) ;  CREUTSBBBa*  KaH  von  MtUis,  mn  L^ten  una 
•mnsgoachieMtcKB  Bedeutung  (Freiburg,  1907). 

Patricius  Schlageb. 

Milwaiikee,  Archdiocesb  of  (MiLWAUKncNais), 
established  as  a  diocese,  28  Nov.,  1843;  became  an 
archbishopric,  12  Februaiy,  1875,  comprises  seventeen 
counties  of  the  State  of  Wisconsm:  Cfolumbia,  Dane, 
Dodge,  Fond  du  Lac,  Green,  Green  Lake,  Jefferson, 
Kenosha,  Marquette,  Milwaukee,  Ozaukee,  Racine, 
Rock,  Sheboygan,  Walworth,  Washington,  Waukesha, 
an  area  of  9321  square  miles.  The  metropolitan  city 
of  Milwaukee  is  picturesquely  situated  on  Milwaukee 
Bav,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan.  Its  name 
is  derived  from  the  Algonquin  family^  of  Indian  dia- 
lects and  means  Good  Land.  In  the  history  of  Catho- 
licism it  is  first  mentioned  in  the  "CathoUc  Almanac" 
of  1840:  "  Milvakie,  Rev.  Mr.  Kelly  who  visits  alter- 
nately Racine,  Rochester,  Burlmgton,  Southpoet 
(Kenosha),  etc."  The  first  Mass,  however,  was  cele- 
brated in  Milwaukee  as  early  as  1837  by  Rev.  J. 
Bonduel.  a  missionarv  from  Green  Bay,  in  the  home 
of  the  "  founder  of  Milwaukee  ".  Solomon  Juneau.  In 
the  same  ^ear  Rev.  Patrick  Kell^  came  to  the  city  and 
held  services  in  the  court-house  till,  in  1839,  he  erected 
the  first  Catholic  chureh.  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  for 
several  years  the  bishop  s  cathedral.  It  was  after- 
wards removed  to  its  present  site  near  St.  Peter  and 
Paul's  Chureh  bjr  Mgr.  Leonard  Batz,  V.  G.  North- 
west territory,  of  which  the  present  State  of  Wisconsin 
forms  a  part,  belonged  to  tne  Diocese  of  Quebec  and 
afterwards  to  Bardstown,  Ky.,  till  it  was  affiliated  to 
the  newly  created  See  of  Cincinnati  in  1821.  In  1833, 
when  Detroit  was  made  a  see,  it  became  a  dependency 
of  that  see.  It  was  in  1841  that  the  first  bishop  visited 
Milwaukee  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  P.  Lefevre  of 
Detroit,  accompanied  by  one  of  his  zealous  priests. 
Rev.  Martin  Kundig,  later  vicar-general,  whose  name 
is  inseparablv  linked  with  the  early  history  and  subee- 
Guent  growth  of  the  diocese.  In  1843,  the  Fathers  of 
tne  Fifth  Provincial  Coimcil  of  Baltimore  petitioned 
the  Holy  See  to  make  Milwaukee  a  see  and  to  appoint 
the  Rev.  John  Martin  Henni  as  its  first  bishop. 

Episcopal  Succession, — John  Martin  Henni,  first 
Bishop  ot  Milwaukee,  was  bom  at  Obersaxen,  Switzer- 
land, 13  June,  1805.  He  studied  philosopay  and  the- 
ology in  Rome,  where  he  met  the  Very  Kev.  Frederic 
R^s^,  Vicar-General  of  Cincinnati  (later  Bishop  of 
Detroit),  who  had  come  there  in  quest  of  priests  for 
the  American  missions.  Together  with  hii:;  fellow- 
student  M.  Kimdig»  he  landed  in  New  York,  !n  1828. 
Having  been  ordained  priest  at  Cincinnati,  2  Feb., 
1829,  he  laboured  with  the  zeal  and  enthusiasm  of  an 
apostle  for  the  scattered  Catholics  of  Ohio,  traversing 
tne  state  in  all  directions,  baptizing,  preaching,  and 
building  churches.  Later  on  he  was  appointed  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese  and  pastor  of  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity.  He  also  was  the  founder  of  the  Catholic 
weekly,  **  Der  Wahrheitsfreund  ",  for  some  time  the  only 
German  Catholic  paper  in  the  United  States.  On 
19  March,  1844,  Henni  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mil- 
waukee by  Bishop  Purcell  of  Cincinnati,  and  soon  after 
started  for  his  new  field  of  labour.  He  came  accom- 
panied by  the  Rev.  Michael  Heiss,  who  for  some  time 
acted  as  nis  secretary.  The  prospects  of  the  new  dio- 
cese were  far  from  encouraging.  He  found  only  four 
Sriests  in  the  whole  extent  of  his  diocese,  a  few  Catho- 
CB  scattered  over  the  territory,  and  a  small  frame 
ehurch  encumbered  with  a  heavy  debt.  But  un- 
daunted by  these  difficulties  the  youthful  bishop  set 
to  work  with  apostolic  zeal,  and,  thanks  to  his  untiring 
dforts,  the  number  of  Catholics,  mostly  immigrants 
from  Germany  and  Ireland,  increased  from  year  to 
Tear,  so  that  after  three  years  the  number  of  priests 


had  lisea  vrom  four  to  thirty.  But  a  rich  share  of  this 
phenomenal  progress  is  due  to  the  arduous  labours  and 
sacrificing  spirit  of  his  priests,  the  pioneere  of  the 
North-west,  men  like  MazucheUi,  the  foimder  of  Sin- 
sinawa,  Morrissey,  C.  Rehrl,  Wisbauer,  Beitter,  Inama, 
Gaertner,  Gembauer,  Holzhauer,  Conrad,  and  others. 

In  1847  there  arrived  from  Austria  Dr.  Joseph  Salz- 
mann,  founder  of  St.  Francis  Seminary  ^Salesianum). 
In  the  same  year  Henni  laid  the  foundation  of  his  new 
cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  To 
raise  funds  for  the  building,  he  made  extensive  jour- 
neys to  Cuba  and  Mexico.  The  cathedral  was  conse- 
crated by  Archbishop  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Bedini, 
31  July,  1853.  Owing  to  the  large  influx  of  Germana 
at  that  time,  St.  Mary  s  church,  for  the  spiritual  wants 
of  the  German  Catholics,  was  erected  in  1846.  In  the 
same  year  the  first  hospital  was  opened  under  Catholio 
auspices  in  charge  of  tne  Sistera  of  Charity  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul.  In  1856  the  Seminary  of  St.  Francis  of 
Sales,  destined  to  become  the  fertile  nursery  of  priests 
for  the  North-west,  was  erected  and  in  the  course  of 
yeare  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  institutions 
of  the  coimtry.  Its  first  rector  was  the  Rev.  Michael 
Heiss,  while  its  founder,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Sahsmann,  acted 
as  procurator.  ^  On  the  elevation  of  Father  Heiss  to  the 
episcopal  dignity,  Salzmann  was  appomted  his  suc- 
cessor, a  position  which  he  held  to  the  time  of  his 
death  which  occurred  17  January,  1874.  Salzmann 
was  also  the  founder  of  the  firat  Catholic  normal 
school  in  the  United  States  and  of  the  Pio  Nono  Col- 
lege. Both  institutions  were  opened  in  1871,  uid  have 
to  this  day  faithfully  carried  out  the  intentions  of  their 
founder.  In  1866  two  new  dioceses  were  established 
in  Wisconsin  with  episcopal  sees  in  La  Crosse  and 
Green  Bay.  In  1875  Milwaukee  was  made  an  arch- 
episcopal  see,  with  Mgr.  Henni  as  first  archbishop. 
During  the  last  years  of  his  administration  his  burden 
was  considerably  lightened  by  the  appointment  of  Rt. 
Rev.  M.  Heiss  as  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  succes- 
sion, and  titular  Archbishop  of  Adrianople.  Arch- 
bishop Henni  who  is  rightly  CEdled  the  Patriarch  of  the 
North-west,  was  called  to  his  reward  7  Sept.,  1881. 

Michael  Heiss  was  bom  at  Pfahldorf ,  Bavaria,  12 
April,  1818.  Havin|[  finished  his  theological  studies  at 
the  famous  University  of  Munich,  he  spent  the  first 
two  years  of  his  priesthood^  in  his  home  diocese  of 
Eichstatt^  and  then  offered  his  services  to  the  Amer- 
ican mission.  He  first  had  charge  of  St.  Marjr's  church 
in  Covington,  Ky.,  where  he  remained  till  1844,  when 
he  consented  to  accompany  Bishop  Henni  of  ^wau- 
kee  to  his  new  see.  Having  filled  the  office  of  secretaxir 
for  some  years,  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Mary^ 
church,  Milwaukee.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  first 
rector  of  St.  Francis  Seminary,  an  office  which  he  held 
till  his  elevation  to  the  episcopal  dignity  as  first  Bishop 
of  La^  Crosse,  in  1868.  On  the  death  of  Archbishop 
Hennij  in  1881,  he  succeeded  him  as  ardibishop. 
Archbishop  Heiss  was  known  and  esteemed  as  one  of 
the  most  learned  theologians  of  the  country,  a  reputa- 
tion which  secured  to  him  a  place  among  the  members 
of  the  dogmatic  commission  at  the  Vatican  Council. 
His  works  ''De  Matrimonio"  (Munich,  1861)  and 
"The  Four  Gospels  Examined  and  Vindicated"  (Mil- 
waukee,  1863),  nold  a  prominent  place  in  theological 
literature.    In  1883  he  was  invited  to  Rome  to  take 

?art  in  the  deliberaticms  preparatory  to  the  Third 
lenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  which  he  also  attended 
in  1884.  In  1886  he  convoked  the  First  Provincial 
Council  of  Milwaukee,  which  opened  its  sessions  on  23 
May,  in  St.  John's  cathedral.  Bishops  Flasch  of  La 
Crosse,  Ireland  of  St.  Paul,  Seidenbusch  of  St.  Cloud, 
Marty,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Dakota,  and  Katzer,  admin- 
istrator of  Green  Bay,  took  part  in  its  deliberations. 

During  the  last  years  of  Archbishop  Heiss's  wise  and 
peaceful  administration,  the  ecclesiastical  horizon  was 
somewhat  darkened  by  the  plot  of  the  American  Pro- 
tective Association,  a  new  phase  of  defunct  Know* 


320  mLWAUXB 

nothingjam  (q.  v.).  In  their  bigotry  and  hatred  of  loogiztf  to  lelkious  orders  ought  not  to  be  foigotten. 
everything  Cathohc.  they  aimed  their  first  blow  at  the  In  1857  the  nirst  Capuchin  convent  was  erected  &t 
Catholic  schools  by  tne  "fiennett  Law",  which  seriously  Mount  Calvary,  Wisconsin.  It  has  beoi  asserted,  not 
interfered  with  the  rights  of  Catholic  parents.  But  the  without  reason,  that  the  foundation  of  the  Calvary 
timely  and  imited  action  of  the  bishops  of  Wisoonsin|  Province  is  a  fact  unprecedented  in  the  histo^  of  the 
and  their  vigorous  protest,  by  whicn  they  branded  Catholic  Church  in  tms  country,  in  as  far  as  the  order 
the  bill  as  "unnecessary,  offensive,  and  unjust  *\  effeo-  of  Capuchins  was  introduced  mto  Wisconsin,  not  by 
tively  defeated  the  imquitous  scheme.  In  1888  the  religious,  but  by  two  secular  priests,  Rev.  Francis 
Diocese  of  St.  Paul  was  separated  from  Blilwaukee  and  Haas  and  Rev.  Bonaventure  Frey.  The  opposition 
made  an  archbishopric.  Three  suffragan  sees  were  which  they  met  on  all  sides,  the  trials  which  tney  had 
thenceforth  subject  to  Milwaukee:  La  Crosse  and  to  endure,  and  the  undaunted  courage  with  which 
Green  Bay  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin  and  Marquette  they  met  them,  border  on  the  miraculous.  To-day 
in  Upper  Michigan.  The  Diocese  of  Superior  was  added  the  order  possesses  a  flourishing  commimity  with  con- 
in  1905.  Archbishop  Heiss  died  at  St.  Francis  Hospi«  vent  and  college  at  Calvary,  a  convent  and  two  par- 
tal.  La  Crosse.  26  Mareh,  1890.  His  mortal  remains  ishes  in  Milwaukee,  not  to  speak  of  the  numerous  reli- 
rest  beneath  tne  sanctuarv  of  the  seminary  chapel  at  gious  houses  and  communities  in  other  dioceses.  The 
St.  Francis,  at  the  side  of  his  faithful  friend  and  co-  Society  of  Jesus  was  established  in  Milwaukee  in  1856, 
labourer,  Joseph  Salzmann.  and  St.  Gall's  church,  erected  in  1849,  was  placed  m 

Frederic  XavierKatzer  was  bom  at  Ebensee,  Upper  charge  of  the  Society.  In  1880  the  Jesuit  college 
Austria,  7  February,  1844.  His  preparatory  stuoies  known  as  Marouette  College  was  opened,  and  has 
he  completed  at  Lms,  the  capital  of  Upper  Austria,  lately  developea  into  the  flourishing  Marquette  Uni- 
under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers.  He  came  to  versitv.  The  Jesuits  also  have  charge  ox  the  Gesii 
America  in  1864.  Having  finished  his  theological  chureh,  one  of  tiie  finest  religious  edifices  in  the  North- 
studies  at  the  Salesianum,  he  was  ordained  priest  21  west.  The  Fathere  of  the  Holy  Cross  conduct  the 
December,  1866.  After  his  ordination  he  remained  at  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Watertown;  the  Servite 
the  seminary  where  he  taught  mathematics  and,  later  Fathers  a  monastery  and  novitiate  at  Granville  Cen- 
on,  philosophy  and  dogmatic  theology.  In  1875  he  ter;  and  the  Discalced  CarmeHtes,  lately  arrived  from 
followed  Fr.  Arautbauer,  the  newly  appointed  Bishop  Ratisbon,  Bavaria,  attend  to  the  chapel  on  *'  Holy 
of  Green  Bay,  to  his  see,  where  he  acted  as  secretary,  Hill",  a  well  known  place  of  pilgrima^. 
and  afterwards  as  vicar^neraL  Upon  the  death  of  Oraers  of  Women. — ^The  School  Sistere  of  Notre 
Bishop  Krautbauer,  in  1&5,  he  was  appointed  admin-  Dame  came  to  Milwaukee  in  1855,  on  the  invitation 
istrator  of  the  diocese;  and  on  31  May,  1886,  he  was  of  Bishop  Henni,  who  showed  hinuself  their  generous 
chosen  Bishop  of  Green  Bay  and  consecrated  in  St.  friend  and  protector,  especially  during  the  firet  years 
Francis  Xavier's  cathedral,  21  September  of  the  same  when  they  nad  to  struffile  with  poverty  and  violent 
year.  After  the  death  of  Arehbishop  Heiss  he  was  opposition.  To  Mother  Caroline^  who  brought  the  first 
pipmoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  dignity  as  third  Areh-  band  of  sisters  from  Munich  to  B^waukee,  and  who  for 
bi^op  of  Milwaukee  in  December,  1890.  Arehbishop  forty-two  yeare  stood  at  the  helm,  is  principally  due 
Katser  was  a  man  of  profound  leaminff  and  a  thorougn  the  present  flourishing  condition  of  the  community, 
theologian.  His  poetical  talent  is  evidenced  by  an  al&-  The  sisters  have  their  mother-house  and  novitiate  m 
eoricaTdrama,  entitled  "  Der  Kampf  der  Gegenwart "  Milwaukee.  In  1876  the  communitv  was  divided  into 
(The  Combat  of  the  Present  Age) .  His  administration  two  provinces,  with  the  second  mother-house  in  Balti- 
was  marked  by  a  uniform  re^rd  for  justice  and  strict  more;  and  in  1895  a  third  province  was  formed  with  a 
adherence  to  the  laws  of  the  Chureh.  He  died  at  Fond  mother-house  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.  The  Sistere  of  St. 
du  Lac,  4  Auffust,  1903,  on  the  same  day  on  which  the  Francis  have  two  mother-houses  in  the  diocese,  one  at 
great  pontiff  Leo  XIII  breathed  his  last.  His  earthly  St.  Francis,  where  they  built  their  first  convent  in 
remains  found  their  last  resting  place  in  the  little  cem-  1847,  near  tne  present  site  of  St.  Francis  Seminary,  the 
etery  near  the ''  chapel  in  the  woods  "  at  St.  Francis.  other  in  Milwaukee  (St.  Joseph's  Convent  and  the  Sa- 

Sebastian  Gebhard  Messmer  was  bom  at  Goldach,  cred  Heart  Sanatorium).  The  Sistere  of  St.  Agnes  have 
Switserland,  29  August,  1847.  Having  finished  his  their  mother-house  at  Fond  du  Lac,  where  they  also 
theological  studies  at  the  University  of  limsbruck  he  have  charge  of  a  hospital,  a  home  for  the  ased,  and  an 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  same  city,  23  July,  1871.  academy.  The  Sistere  of  St.  Dominic  nave  their 
In  the  same  year  he  came  to  the  United  States,  where  he  mother-nouse  at  Racine,  and  an  academy  at  Corliss, 
joined  the  Diocese  of  Newark.  For  several  yeare  he  The  sistere  of  these  communities  teach  in  the  numer- 
taught  canon  law.  Scripture,  and  dogmatic  theology  in  ous  parochial  schools  of  Wisconsin  and  other  stateL 
Seton  Hall.  For  a  short  time  he  fuso  had  charge  of  The  Sistere  of  Mercy,  too,  have  a  mother-house  in 
St.  Peter's,  Newark,  N.  J.  In  1889  he  was  called  to  the  Milwaukee.  Other  communities  which  have  no 
chair  of  canon  law  in  the  Catholic  University  at  Wash-  mother-house  in  the  diocese,  but  are  in  charge  of  some 
ington,  but  first  went  to  Rome  to  study  Itoman  civil  charitable  or  educational  establishment  are:  the  Sis- 
law.  After  his  return  he  entered  upon  his  duties  as  ten  of  C^harity  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul,  Sistere  of  Char- 
professor  and  kept  this  position  till  his  elevation  to  the  ity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Franciscan  Sisters  of 
episcopal  dignity.  On  27  Mareh,  1892,  he  was  conse-  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Polish  Sistere  of  St.  Joseph,  Hospital 
crated  Bishop  of  Green  Bay  in  St.  Peter's  C!hiireh,  Sistereof  St.  Francis,  Little  Sistere  of  the  Poor,  Society 
Newark,  by  his  former  classmate,  Bishop  Zardetti  of  of  the  Divine  Saviour,  Dominican  Sistere  of  the  Per- 
St.  Cloud.  On  the  death  of  Arehbishop  Katser  he  sue-  petual  Rosary,  Sistere  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dom- 
oeeded  him  as  arehbishop,  28  November,  1903.  Areh-  inio  (Sinsinawa),  Sistere  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Feli- 
bishop  Messmer  is  honourably  known  as  a  very  able  cian  Sistere,  and  Sistere  de  Misericorde. 
and  prolific  contributor  to  Catholic  literature,  and  his  5farfi8<ic«.— The  oflBcial  reports  for  1910  give  the 
name  is  intimately  linked  with  the  principal  religious  following  figures:  There  are  in  the  arohdioceee  377 
movements  in  the  country.  Together  with  Bishop  priests  (303  secular  and  74  regulare).  The  city  of  Mii- 
McFaul  of  Trenton  he  has  been  cniefiy  instrumental  waukee  counts  38  churehes;  outside^  of  Milwaukee 
in  inaugurating  the  American  Federation  of  Catholic  there  are  169.  Besides  there  are  65  mission  churehes 
Societies.  without  a  resident  priest  and  41  chapels.    In  the  semi- 

Rdiffioiu  Orders  in  the  Diocese. — Ordere  of  Men. —  nary  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  there  are  160  students  of 

The  rapid,  almost  miraculous  growth  of  Catholicism  philosophy  and  theology  studying  for  the  different  dio- 

in  the  State  of  Wisconsin  is  chiefly  due  to  the  apostolic  ceses  of  the  province  and  other  oioceses.   There  is  one 

seal  of  the  pioneer  priests  of  the  secular  priesthood;  univeraity,  one  Catholic  normal  school,  and  five  col- 

but  the  laboure  and  trials  of  the  early  missionaries  be-  l^s^  mvx  770  students;    six  academies  for  young 


321 

kdies;  142  parish  sohoolfi  with  33,279  pupils,  four  that  "the  nature  and  attributes  of  the  Human  Mind'', 

orphan  asylums  with  401  oiphans,  one  infant  asylum,  came  to  be  recognised  as  the  proper  designation  of  the 

one  industrial  school  for  girls,  one  deaf-mute  asylum,  subject-matter  of  psjrchology,  even  amongst  those  who 

one  home  for  boys,  one  school  for  feeble-minded,  nine  believed  in  the  realty  of  an  immaterial  principle,  as 

hospitals  and  sanatoriums,  two  homes  for  aged  poor,  the  source  of  man's  conscious  life.     However,  the 

and  one  home  for  girls.    The  Catholic  popmation  of  spread  of  the  positivist  or  phenomenalist  view  of  the 

the  archdiocese  is  estimated  at  about  238,000.  science  of  psychology  has  resulted  in  a  very  widely 

Th0  MehopoHUai  Ceoholic  Almanac  and  Laity' »  Dvndory  adopted  identification  of  mind  merely  with  the  con- 

(BaJtunore):  Wiltkus,  Ca»hol^piredory{my9A^)\^The  scious  states,  ignorine  any  principle  or  subject  to 

CathcUe  Chureh  m  Wtaeofutn  (Milwaukee.  1895);   Memoira  of  iziV^T  A^T!^«^  v^5,.«   ^T'tl^;i;i  :Jr^^^^^ 

MUwaukee  County  (Madison.  1909);    Marty.  Jihtmn  MarHn  which  these  states  belong.    The  mind  m  this  sense  IS 

Henni^  enter  Bieehof  und  Bnlnachof  mm  Milwaukee  (New  York,  only  the  SUm  of  the  COnscious  processes  or  activities  of 

1888);  Raii««,  A  Noble  PrMj/oeeph  Sal^fumn^Fowd^  of  the  individual  with  their  special  modes  of  operating. 

the  Salee%anum,  tr.  from  the  Gennaa  by  Bbro  (Milwaukee,  rpui-  k^«»«,»>.  i«  »  ^^^u^  :..«^«^.,»4.a  ^^^^^-.r^ivZ.  ^tl^ 

1903);  Abbblbm.  Die  Ehrvmerdioe  MvUer  Caroline  Friee  (St.  This,  however,  IS  a  quite  madequate  conception  of  the 

Louis,  1892).  mmd.    It  may,  of  course,  be  convenient  and  quite 

J.  Raineb.  legitimate  for  some  purposes  to  investigate  certain 

activities  or  operations  of  this  mind  or  soul,  without 

BCnd  (Gk.  poOs;  Lat.  mens;  Ger.  QeUt,  Sede;  Fr.  raising  the  ultimate  question  of  the  metaphysical 

dmej  esprit). — The  word  mind  has  been  used  in  a  nature  of  the  principle  or  substance  which  is  the  basis 

variety  of  meanings  in  English,  and  we  find  a  similar  and  source  of  these  phenomena;  and  it  may  also  serve 

want  of  fixity  in  the  connotation  of  the  corresponding  as  a  useful  economy  of  language  to  employ  the  tenn 

terms  in  other  languages.     Aristotle  tells  us  that  mind,  merely  to  designate  mental  life  as  a  stream  of 

Anaxagoras,  as  compared  with  other  early  Greek  consciousness.    But  the  adoption  of  this  phraseology 

philosophers,  appeared  like  one  sober  among  drunken  must  not  cause  us  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  along 

men  in  that  he  introduced  vovt,  mind,  as  efficient  withtheaction  there  is  the  agent,  that  underlying  the 

cause  of  the  general  order  in  the  universe.    In  treating  forms  of  mental  behaviour  there  is  the  being  which 

of  the  soul,  Aristotle  himself  identifies  roOf  with  the  behaves.     The  connexion  of   our  abidine  personal 

intellectual  faculty,  which  he  conceives  as  partly  identity,  nay  the  simplest  exercise  of  self-conscious 

active,  partly  passive  (see  Intellect).     It  js  the  memory,  compels  us  to  acknowledge  the  reality  of  a 

thinking  principle,  the  hiehest  and  most  spiritual  permanent  pnnciple,  the  subject  and  connecting  bond 

energy  of  the  soul,  separabfe  from  the  body,  and  im-  of  the  transitorv  states.    Mind  adequately  conceived 

mortal.   The  Latin  word,  TnenSf  was  employed  in  much  must  thus  be  held  to  include  the  subject  or  agent  along 

the  same  sense.    St.  Thomas,  who  represents  the  gen-  with  states  or  activities,  and  it  should  be  the  business 

end  scholastic  usage,  derives  mens  from  metior  (to  of  a  complete  science  of  mind  to  investigate  both, 
measure).    He  identifies  mens  with  the  human  soul        All  our  rational  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  mind 

viewed  as  intellectual  and  abstractixig  from  lower  or-  must  be  derived  from  the  study  of  its  operations, 

ganic  faculties.    Angels,  or  pure  spirits,  may  thus  be  Conseauently  metaph^ical  or  rational  psychology 

called  minds  (De  Veritate,  X,  a.  1) .   For  Descartes  the  lexically  follows  empuncal  or  phenomenal  psychology, 

human  soul  is  simply  mens,  res  cogitans,  mind.    It  The  careful  observation,  description,  and  analysis  of 

stands  in  complete  opposition  to  the  body  and  to  the  activities  of  the  mind  lead  up  to  our  philosophical 

matter  in  general.    Tne  veeetative  faculties  allcV^ted  conclusions  as  to  the  inner  natiue  of  the  subject  and 

to  the  soul  by  Aristotle  and  uie  Schoolmen  are  rejected  the  source  of  those  activities.    The  chief  propositions 

by  him,  and  those  vital  functions  are  explained  by  him  in  regard  to  the  human  mind  viewed  as  a  suostantial 

mechanically.  The  lower  animals  do  not  possess  minds  principle  which  Catholic  philosophers  claim  to  estab- 

in  any  sense;  they  are  for  him  mere  machines.    An  lish  by  the  light  of  reason  are,  its  abiding  unity,  its 

eariy  usage  in  English  connects  the  word  mind  closelv  individuality,  its  freedom,  its  simplicity,  and  its  spirit- 

with  memorv,  as  in  the  sentence  ''to  bear  in  mind  .  uality  (see  Consciousness;  Individualitt;  Intei^ 

Again  it  has  been  associated  with  the  volitional  side  of  lect;  Sottl). 

our  nature,  as  in  the  phrases ''  to  mind  "  and  "  to  have        Mind  and  Consciousness. — ^In  connexion  with  the 

a  mind  to  effect  something  ".    Still  when  restricted  to  investigation  of  our  mental  operations  there  arises  the 

a  partieular  faculty  the  general  tendency  has  been  to  question,  whether  these  are  to  be  deemed  coextensive 

identifv  mind  with  the  cognitive  and  more  especially  with  consciousness.     Are  there  unconscious  mental 

with  tne  intellectual  powers.    In  this  usa^  it  more  processes?    The  problem  under  different  forms  has 

closely  corresponds  to  the  primary  meaning  of  the  occupied  the  attention  of  philosophers  from  Leibnits 

Latin  mens,  understood  as  the  thinking  or  judging  to  J.  S.  Mill,  whilst  in  recent  years  the  phenomena 

principle.  ^  Mind  is  also  conceived  as  a  substantia  of  hypnotism,  "multiple  personalitv",  and  abnormal 

being,  equivalent  to  the  scholastic  mens,  partly  identi-  forms  of  mental  life  have  oroujght  the  question  of  the 

fied  with,  partly  distinguished  from  the  soul.    If  we  relation  between  the  unconscious  and  the  conscious 

define  the  soul  as  the  principle  within  me,  by  which  I  processes  in  the  human  organism  into  greater  promi« 

feel,  think,  will,  and  by  which  my  body  is  animated,  nence.     That  all  forms  of  mental  li£,  perception, 

we  may  provide  a  definition  of  mind  of  fairly  wide  thought,  feeling,  and  volition  are  profounaly  affected 

acoeptanoe  by  merely  omitting  the  last  clause.    That  in  cbuiracter  by  nervous  processes  and  by  vital  activi- 

is,  in  this  usage  mina  designates  the  soul  as  the  source  ties,  which  do  not  emez^  into  the  strata  of  conscious 

of  conscious  life,  feeling,  thought,  and  volition,  ab-  life,  seems  to  be  indisputably  established.    Whether, 

Btraction  being  made  from  the  v^tative  functions,  however,  unconscious  processes  which  affect  condu- 

On  the  other  hand  the  term  soul  emphasizes  the  sions  of  the  intellect  and  resolutions  of  the  will,  but 

note  of  substantiality  and  the  property  of  animating  are  in  themselves  quite  unconscious,  should  be  called 

principle.  mental  states,  or  conceived  as  acts  of  the  mind,  has 

In  the  English  psycholc^cal  literature  of  the  last  been  keenly  disputed.    In  favour  of  the  doctrine  d[ 

century  there  has  indeed  been  exhibited  a  most  re-  unconscious  mental  processes  have  been  ui^ged  the  fact 

markaole  timidity  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  term  that  many  of  our  oitlinary  sensations  arise  out  of  an 

''soul".    Whilst  in  German  at  all  events  the  word  aggregate  of  impressions  mdividually  too  faint  to  be 

Seele  has  been  in  general  acceptance  among  psycholo-  separately  perceivable,  the  fact  that  attention  may 

guts,  the  great  majority  of  £ngUsh  writers  on  mental  reveal  to  us  experiences  previously  unnoticed,  the  fact 

Gfe  completely  shun  the  use  of  tne  corresponding  Eng-  that  unobserved  trains  of  thought  may  result  in  sud- 

lish  woitl,  as  seemiogly  perilous  to  their  philosophic^  den  reminiscences,  and  that  in  abnormal  mental  con-> 

reputation.    Even  the  most  orthodox  repi'esentatives  ditions  hypnotized,  somnambulistic,  and  hysterical 

sf  the  Scotch  school  rigorously  boycotted  the  word,  so  patients  often  accomplish  difficult  intellectual  feats 
X.— 21 


322 

irhiLst  remaining  utterly  unaware  of  the  rational  inter-  find  unity  in  the  sfleming  multiplicity  of  experience 

mediate  steps  l^idins  up  to  the  final  results.    On  the  has  led  many  thinkers  to  accept  a  monistic  explan*- 

other  side  it  is  ungeof  that  most  of  those  phenomena  tion,  in  whicn  the  apparent  duality  of  mind  and  matter 

can  be  accounted  tor  by  merely  subconscious  processes  is  reduced  to  a  single  underlying  principle  or  sub- 

which  escape  attention  and  are  forgotten;  or,  at  all  stratum,    liaterialism  considers  matter  itself,  body, 

events,  by  unconscious  cerebration, — ^the  working  out  material  substance,  as  this  principle.  For  the  material- 

of  purely  physical  nervous  processes  without  any  con-  ist,  mind,  feelings,  thougnts,  and  volitions  are  but 

oomitant  mental  state  till  the  final  cerebral  situation  "functions"  or  "aspects    of  matter;  mental  Ufe  is  an 

is  reached,  when  the  corresponding  mental  act  is  epi^^henomenonf  a  by-product  in  the  worldng  of  the 

evoked.    The  dispute  is  probabl^^  at  least  in  part,  Umverse,  which  can  in  no  way  interfere  with  the 

grounded  on  di£Ferences  of  defimtion.    If,  however,  course  of  physical  changes  or  modify  the  movement  of 

the  mind  be  identified  with  the  soul,  and  if  the  latter  any  particle  of  matter  m  the  world;  indeed,  in  strict 

be  allowed  to  be  the  principle  of  vegetative  life,  there  consistency  it  should  be  held  that  successive  mental 

can  be  no  valid  reason  for  denying  that  the  principle  acts  do  not  influence  or  condition  each  other,  but  that 

of  our  mental  life  may  be  also  the  subject  ot  uncon-  thoughts  and  volitions  are  mere  incidental  appendages 

scious  activities.    But  if  we  confine  the  term  mind  to  of  certain  nerve  processes  in  the  brain;  and  these  lat- 

the  soul,  viewed  as  conscious,  or  as  the  subject  of  ter  are  determmed  exclusively  and  completely  by 

intellectual  operations,  then  by  definition  we  exclude  antecedent  material  processes.    In  other  words,  the 

unconscious  states  from  the  sphere  of  mind.    Still  materialistic  theory,  when  consistently  thought  out, 

whatever  terminolo^  we  may  find  it  convenient  to  leadH  invariably  to  the  startling  conclusion  wat  the 

adopt,  the  fact  remains,  that  our  most  purely  intelleo-  human  mind  has  had  no  real  influence  on  the  history 

tuaf  operations  are  profoundly  influenced  by  changes  of  the  human  race, 
which  take  place  below  the  surface  of  consciousness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  idealistic  monist  denies  alto- 

Obioin  of  Mental  Life. — ^A  related  question  is  gether  the  existenoe  of  any  extra-mental,  independent 
that  of  the  simple  or  composite  character  of  conscious-  material  world.  So  far  from  mind  being  a  mere  as- 
ness.  Is  mind,  or  conscious  life,  an  amalgam  or  prod-  pect  or  epiphenomefum  attached  to  matter,  the  mate- 
uct  of  units  which  are  not  conscious?  One  response  is  rial  universe  is  a  creation  of  the  mind  and  entirely  de- 
offered  in  the  "mind-stuff"  or  '' mind-dust ''  theory,  pendent  on  it.  Its  esse  is  percipi.  It  exists  only  in 
This  is  a  necessary  deduction  from  the  extreme  mate-  and  for  the  mind.  Our  ideas  are  the  only  thin|OB  of 
rialistic  evolutionist  hypothesis  when  it  seeks  to  ex-  which  we  can  be  truly  certain.  And,  indeed,  u  we 
plain  the  ori^  of  human  minds  in  this  universe,  were  compelled  to  embrace  monism,  it  seems  to  us 
According  to  W.  K.  Clifford,  who  invented  the  term  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  lopcal  sufieriority  of 
"mind-stuff'',  those  who  accept  evolution  must,  for  the  idealistic  position.  But  there  is  no  pniloHophical 
the  sake  of  consistency,  assume  that  there  is  attached  compulsion  to  adopt  either  a  materialistic  or  an  ideal- 
to  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  imiverse  a  bit  of  istic  monism.  The  conviction  of  the  common  sense 
rudimentary  feeling  or  intelligence,  and  "when  the  of  mankind,  and  the  assumption  of  physical  science 
material  molecules  are  so  combined  as  to  form  the  that  there  are  two  orders  of  being  in  the  universe, 
film  on  the  underside  of  a  jelly  fish,  the  elements  of  mind  and  matter,  distinct  from  each  other  yet  inter- 
mind-stuff  which  ffo  alon|{  with  them  are  so  combined  acting  and  influencing  each  other,  and  the  assurance 
as  to  form  the  famt  beginnings  of  sentience.  When  that  the  human  mind  can  obtain  a  limited  yet  true 
the  matter  takes  the  complex  form  of  the  living  human  knowledge  of  the  material  world  which  really  exists 
brain,  the  corresponding  mind-stuff  takes  the  form  of  outside  and  independently  of  it  occupying  a  space  of 
human  consciousness,  having  intelligence  and  voli-  three  dimensions,  this  view,  which  is  the  common 
tion"  (Lectures  and  Essays,  284).  Spencer  and  other  teaching  of  the  Scholastic  philosophy  and  Catholic 
thoroujy^h-going  evolutionists  are  driven  to  a  similar  thinkers,  can  be  abundantly  justified  (see  DuAUaii; 
conclusion.    But  the  true  inference  is  rather,  that  the  Energy,  Conservation  of). 

incredibility  of  the  conclusion  proves  the  untenable-  Mind  and  BIechanism . — ^Mind  is  also  contrasted 
ness  of  the  materialistic  form  of  evolution  which  these  with  mechanical  theories  as  cause  or  explanation  of 
writers  adopt.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  of  this  the  order  of  the  world.  The  affirmation  of  mind  in 
universal  mmd-stuff  which  they  postulate.  It  is  of  an  this  connexion  is  equivalent  to  teleologism,  or  ideal- 
inconceivable  character.  As  Professor  James  says,  to  ism  in  the  sense  of  there  being  intellij^nce  and  pur- 
call  it  "nascent"  consciousness  is  merely  a  verbal  pose  governing  the  working  of  the  universe.  This  is 
quibble  which  explains  nothing.  No  multiplicity  and  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  Bacon's  well-known  state- 
no  grouping  or  fusing  of  imconscious  elements  can  be  ment : "  I  hiMl  rather  believe  all  the  fables  in  the  Legend 
conceived  as  constituting  an  act  of  conscious  intelli-  and  the  Alcoran  than  that  this  universal  frame  is  with- 
gence.  The  unity  and  simplicity  which  characterize  out  a  mind"  (Essays:  Of  Atheism).  It  is,  in  fact,  the 
the  simplest  acts  of  the  mind  are  incompatible  with  doctrine  of  theism.  The  world  as  given  demands  a  ra- 
Buch  a  theory.  tional  account  of  its  present  character.    Ihe  proxi- 

MiND  AND  Matter. — The  opposition  of  mind  and  mate  explanations  of  much,  especially  in  the  inoiganic 
matter  brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  great  contro-  and  non-living  portion  of  it.  can  be  furnished  by  ma- 
versy  of  Dualism  and  Monism.  Are  there  two  forms  terial  enezgies  acting  according  to  known  laws.  But 
of  being  in  the  universe  ultimately  and  radically  dis-  reason  demands  an  accoimt  ofall  the  contents  of  the 
tinct?  or  are  they  merely  diverse  phases  or  aspects  of  universe — ^living  and  conscious  beings  as  well  as  life- 
one  common  underlying  substratum?  Our  experi-  less  matter;  and,  moreover,  it  insists  on  canying  the 
ence  at  all  events  appears  to  reveal  to  us  two  f unda-  inquiry  back  until  it  reaches  an  ultimate  explanation, 
mentally  contrastea  forms  of  reality.  On  the  one  For  tms.  Mind,  an  Intelligent  Cause,  is  necessary, 
side,  there  is  facing  us  matter  occupying  space,  sub-  Even  if  the  present  universe  could  be  traced  back  to  a 
ject  to  motion,  poes^sed  of  inertia  and  resistance,  collection  ofmaterial  atoms,  the  particular  collocation 
permanent,  indestructible,  and  seemingly  independent  of  these  atoms  from  which  the  present  cosmos  re- 
of^  our  observation.  On  the  other,  there  is  our  own  suited,  would  have  to  be  accounted  for;  because  in  the 
mind,  immediately  revealing  itself  to  us  in  simple  un-  mechanical  or  materialistic  theory  of  evolution,  that 
extended  acts  of  consciousness,  which  seem  to  be  bom  original  collocation  contained  tms  universe  and  no 
and  then  annihilated.  Through  these  conscious  acts  other,  and  that  particular  collocation  clamours  for  a 
we  apprehend  the  material  world.  All  our  knowledge  sufficient  reason  just  as  inevitably  as  does  the  present 
of  it  IS  dependent  on  them,  and  in  the  last  resort,  complex  result.  If  we  are  told  that  the  explana- 
limited  by  them.  By  analogy  we  ascribe  to  other  tion  of  a  page  of  a  newspaper  is  to  be  found  in  the 
human  oryanisms  milids  like  our  own.    A  craving  to  contact  of^the  paper  with  a  plate  of  set  types,  we  are 


XIHDEH  3: 

still  oompelled  to  aak  how  the  particul&r  amngement 
of  the  tin*^  Cftme  about,  and  we  ue  oertctm  t£at  the 
nifiSdent  explsnaUoD  ultinwtel]'  reHts  in  the  wtion  of 
mind  or  inteUigent  being. 

JjiUma,  PrneipJu  of  PvckoUm  (Kaw  Yorii  uid  Londoo, 
1800)1  Lado,  PwfAobw,  CucnptiH  anil  Explanatorv  (N.  Y. 
mod  London,  IBM):  loBU.PAilcwpAu  o/lfi'n/(N.  Y,  ud  Lon- 
don, 189S);  Habiii.  Pi/tlioloini.  Bmp— —'  — '  "-'■ — '  ''"'■ 
■d..  N.  y.  «nd  I  ■  -"^  " 
p&l/ehoiom*  aniBn 

MJcuabl  Haher. 

BOadm,  DiocEBB  or,  a  former  see  of  Westphalia. 
Minden    on     the 

Weser  ia  first  heard 

of  in  798,  and  in  803 

in    Ihe  Treaty  of 

Sals,  m&de  with  the 

Saxons,  it  isspoken 

of  as  a  see.     The 

first  biahop  was 

Erkambert      (Her- 

umbert),   probably 

a  Baxon,  who  was 

appointed    in    780 

and    died    in   813. 

The    third    bishop, 

Dietrich  I  (853-80), 

fell  in  battle  against 

the  Northmen;  the 

fifth,  Droao   (887- 

902),  founded  aeon- 
vent    at   MOllen- 

beck.    The  diocese 

gradually  devel- 
oped   until    it  ex- 

t^ded  on  the  east 
acrooa  the  Aller  to 

Celle,  on  the  west  to 

Hunte,    embracing 

(he  districts  of  Lio- 

bekegowe,  Enteri- 
gowe,  Loingo,  Mer- 
stem,  Buki,  and 
Tilithi.  From  the 
beginning  the  bish- 
ops of  Hinden  were 
suffra^ns  of  Co- 
logne. The  later 
cst«tea  of  the  bish- 
ops camp  rised  about 
a  fourt£  of  the  dio- 
cese ;  it  extended 
from  Porta  Westfd- 
ica,  on  both  sides 
of  the  river,  to 
ScblflsaelbuiE,  and 
on  the  north-west 
across  to  Hunte. 
The  moetinuwrtant 


iriAees' 
Lobbei 


bsgen,  Scnldaselbui^g,  Remeberg.  and  Rahdea.  The 
see  ouffoied  intiiet^th  century  Irom  the  Hungarians, 
but  b^an  to  flourish  under  the  Saxon  dynasty. 

Bishop  landward  (956-69)  obtained  from  Otto  I 
immunity  from  all  foreign  jurisdiction,  and  also  ob- 
tained the  revenue*  derived  from  the  administration 
of  justioe;  Milo  (969-06)  on  account  of  his  loyalty  to 
Otto  II  received  important  privileges,  among  otbeie 
the  right  to  elect  the  bailiff  who  represented  the 
>>iahfvn  in  the  imperial  court,  in  977  penal  jurisdiction, 
the  Weser  toll,  uie  ridit  of  coinage  and  of  conductii^ 
a  cattle  maricet.  The  bishop  became  so  important 
that  he  was  almost  an  indqtendent  prince.  The  ca- 
thedral canons  obtained  in  961  the  rieht  to  choose  the 
bistiop,  provided  a  worthy  man  was  chosen.  Biahops 
DietiMdi  U  (1002-22),  Sigebert  (1022-36),  and  Bruno 


Tbe  Caibbiwil.  MiHinH 


3  mNDIM 

(1037-55)  were  in  the  emperor's  favour  and  oonae- 
quently  added  to  their  church  property.  During  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV  the  bishops  were  cau^t  in  the  In- 
vestituree  conflict,  and  more  than  onee  papal  and  im- 

grial  sympatbizers  contended  for  tiie  see.  After  the 
ncordat  of  Worms  Uie  bishopric  under  Sigward 
( 1 120-40)  and  Heinrich  I  (1 140-53)  made  great  strides. 
Werner  (1153-70)  and  Anno  (1170-85)  guided  tbe  see 
safely  through  the  struggle  between  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  and  the  Saxon  Duke  Henry  the  Lion,  'fhe 
overthrow  of  the  duke  removed  the  last  remnant  of 
episcopal  dependence  on  theducalpower.and  the  prel- 
ates of  Minden  were 
henceforth  subject 
to  the  emperor. 

Continuous  con- 
flict with  enctoach- 
n;4iobles  brought 
□ad  of  debt  and 
forced  many  bish- 
ops to  pledge  or  sell 

tates.  The  town  of 
Minden  profited  by 
the  financial  emibar- 
lassment  of  its  epis- 
copal lords,  grsdu- 
ally  acquired  more 
rights,  and  partially 
freed  itself  from  the 
overlordship  of  the 
bishops;  on  the 
other  hand,  tbe  au- 
thority of  Oie  bish- 
op was  restricted 
by  the  cathedral 
chapter  which,  in 
Minden  as  in  other 
dioceses,  acquired 
the  right  of  choos- 
ing the  provost  and 
dean,  and  made  all 
important  matters 
of  administration 
subject  t 


(1304-24),  to  evade 
the  oppression  of  the 
burgesses,  moved 
his  restdence  to  tbe 
castle  of  Peters- 
hagen.     With    the 

e pal  nomination  of 
uisof  Brunswick 
{1324-46)  b^an  the 
lined  if ying  and  det- 
rimental series  of 
conflicts  between 
pope  and  chapte: 


the  nomination 
to  the  see.  Louis  involved  the  see  in  the  feuda  of 
nei^bouring  noblee.  He  town  acquired  the  ad- 
ministiation  of  justice,  the  ri^t  to  levy  customs 
duties,  and  the  right  of  coinage.  Some  energetic 
bishops  followed:  Geitard  I  (1346-53):  Gerhard  II 
von  Schauenburg  (1361-66);  Wedekind  vom  Berge 
(1369-83);  Otto  III  (1384-97). 

In  the  fifteenth  century  more  than  one  double  elec- 
tion took  place.  Wulbiand,  Count  of  Hallermund 
(1406-36),  endeavoured  to  bring  order  out  of  confu- 
sion ;  his  successor,  Albert  II  von  Hoya,  as  coadjutor 
and  as  bishop  (1436-73),  was  involved  in  a  long  dis- 

Kite  with  Osnabrikck  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick. 
ia  successor.  Heinrich  III  von  Schauenbuig  (1473- 
1508) ,  sought  better  relations  with  his  nei^bours,  but 
episcopal  authority  was  so  weakened  that  a  return  to 


Mnra  S 

fiMTner  eonditiona  was  impossible.    The  power  of  the 
bishop  waa  now  so  re«tricted  by  the  chapter  and  the 
town,  that  he  was  unable  to  take  any  important  step 
without  their  consent;  indeed,  a  complete  co-i^eney 
of  the  chapter  waa  aet  up.    Almost  all  the  eastlea 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  aristocratie  canomi,  and  lite 
revenues  of  the  bUhop  were  extremdy  limited.    The 
Uvea  of  the  clergy  did  not  in  many  caaee  conform  to 
the  canonical  rufes;  concubinage  was  quite  general, 
monastio  discipline  hod  relaxed,  and  the  faith  of  the 
laity  had  grown  cold.     For  these  reasons  the  Refoima- 
tion  spread  rapidly  in  the  town  and  the  dioceae  under 
Bishop  Frani  I  of  Bnmswick-Wolfenbuttel  (1508-29), 
who  involved  the  see  in  the  Htldesheim  chapter  feuds, 
and  died  as  the  result  of  bis  excesses.     His  successor 
Fnuu  II  von  Waldeck,also  Bishop  of  HOnateraiia 
OsnabrQck   from 
1532,  led  a  dissolute 
life,  and  was  an  ad- 
herent of  the   new 
teligiouH  teachings, 
which  he  privately 
furthered  with   aU 
his  power.    In  1553 
he  waa  forced  to  re- 
sien   in   favour  of 
Julius  of  Bruns- 
wiclt-WoltenbOttel 
(1553-64),  who  soon 
resigned  m  favour 
of  his  tmele,  Georg 
(1664-66). 

Under  his  hu^ 
ceeeor  Hermann  von 
Sdiauenberg  (1567- 
82),  Protestantism 
spread  rapidly ;  Her- 
mann accepted  the 
CouncQ  o(  Trent,  it 
is  tnie, but  governed 
aa  a  Protestant 

Srince.  Heinricib 
ulius  of  Bruns- 
wick-WolfenbUtld 
(1582-85)  declared 
the  Confesnon  of 
Augsburg  the  only 
autnoriied  creed  in 
his  diocese.  Otto 
von  Ijchauenberv 
(1587-99)  was  a  de- 
voted Catholic, but,  . 


Hindeo,  but  its  temporal  p , . ^ 

than  twenty-two  souare  miles,  were  awarded  to  the 
Electorate  of  Brandenburg.    It  was  only  in  1649  that 


castle  of  Petcrshagen.  Ihe  "principality"  oL 
remained  at  first  a,  special  jurisdiction,  until  in  1729  it 
was  tmlted  to  the  CViuntship  of  Raveosberg.  The 
(^tholice  retained  only  the  cathedni  with  elevfn  cs- 
nonries,  all  ofwhich  were  suppressed  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century:  but  the  cathedral  is  atiu  in  Catholic 
hands.  After  the  suppression  of  the  see,  ita  territory 
waa  administered  for  ecclesiastical  purpoaes  by  llie 
Northern  Mission.  In  1821  most  of  it  fell  to  I^er- 
bora,  and  a  small  remnant  to  Hildeaheim. 

ponm  i-      •       - 

FUTDRII 


chapter  and  the  es- 
tates, accomplished 

little    for   athoH-  sou™  Wiu.  or  ™ 

cism.  The  last  bishop  but  one.  Christian  of  Bnmv 
wick  (1599-1633.  a  Protestant),  troubled  himscdf 
little  about  his  diocese,  and  ruled  it  from  his  paternal 
estates.  By  the  terms  of  bis  election  he  had  to  allow 
the  free  exercise  of  both  creeds.  The  attempt  of 
the  cathedral  chapter  to  tura  over  the  church  of 
St.  John  at  Hinden  to  the  Jesuits  (1604)  was  frus- 
trated by  the  opposition  of  the  citixens.  By  the 
Edict  of  Restitution  (1629)  the  Catholics  of  Minden 
obtained  the  churches  of  St.  Martin  and  St.  Simeon; 
the  Franciscans  in  1630  established  themselves  in 
the  cathedral  until  1651,  and  even  the  Jesuits,  though 
for  only  a  short  time,  were  welcomed  to  the  city. 
Prani  von  Wartenberg  (1633-18),  last  Bishop  of  Min- 
den, endeavoured  to  restore  the  Catholic  faith  in  his 
Sees  of  Minden,  Oanabnlck,  and  Verden ;  but  in  1633 
he  was  obliged  to  flee  before  the  Swedes,  and  sfter 
the  Treaty  of  Prague  (16;!5)  was  unable  to  return. 

By  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  the  diocese  was   sup- 
piMMd,  Frani  Wilhelm  retained  the  title  of  Bishop  of 


ButKiM  Uiiidat  (Hun- 
■ter.  1S77):  Scbr6dek. 
Ckrpnik  Att  fii^uu 
ufid  dtT  Stadi  Umtirn 
<Mmd«.  188e)i  Idem. 
Dit  Eii/a/inmg  dtr 
RtfOnutiait  n  Wat- 
jaiai  (Miadao.  1BS3). 
ProtcMKiit  ctJUidpaiTii ; 
WttlHii'dHt  Ujtvf 
inbaek.  VI:  i>w  Vt- 
ktaidrtt  dm  Bi^vau 
Miiuln  IIOI-ISOO,  «i. 
HwcEWio  (Uonitrr. 
IS98):  Du  Batf  tout 
KtmMilrtitmalir  da 
Kttita  MuuUn  (Uuo- 
Iter,  1902):  Fui.  Die 
Entieifktumfi  drr  LoM^ 
dakalirU  dcr  Uindttur 

1»0S): '   ZritacAr.     dri 
kiM     |-««iu  far  Kit- 
(Ltteeburi, 


Ming,  JoBN,  phi- 
losopher and  writer. 
b.atGyswyl.Unter- 
walden,  Switser- 
land,  20  Sept., 
1838;  d.  at  BrocA- 
lyn,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A.. 
17  June,  1910.  He 
was  educated  at  tlw 
I  C*™»n«i,  MnmMi.  BenedictineCollege, 

Engelburg,  Switieriand,  and  entered  the  Geraoan  Jesuit 
novitiate  m  1S56.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Aachen 
(1X61-64),  and  theology  at  Mariar-LAach  (1865-69). 
After  a  year's  tertiauship  in  West^alia  he  was  sent  to 
Kreuiberg,  near  Bonn,  as  a  preacoer,  and  in  1S71  be- 
came lecturer  in  theologr  at  GOra,  Austria.  In  1872 
he  came  to  the  United  States,  where,  after  two  years 
devoted  to  pastoral  ministry,  be  professed  thecriogy  at 
Milwaukee.  He  was  transferred  two  yeara  later  to 
Spring  Hill.  Alabama,  where  he  tau^t  philosophy,  in 
which  work  he  was  afterwaids  engaged  for  tweaty-ooe 

KTs,  mainly  at  Buffalo,  Prurie  du  Chim,  and  St. 
lis.     When  once  he  had  acquired  E^i^ish,  Father 


lie  Quarteriy  Review",  in  which  his  first  article  ap- 
peared in  1879.  HU  contributjans  deal  mainly  with 
evolutionandsocialism,  the  two  moat  important  ques- 
tions confronting  Catholics  in  the  United  States  in  his 
day.    After  the  publication  of  a  short  but  itutructive 


Ethics  Bxamined ".    The  prommence  of  the  labour  the  stricter  obaervance  of  the  rules  of  the  fiisl  and 

questkn  led  hbn  to  engage  id  k  deep  atud^  of  that  second  orders,  Francis  of  Paula  drew  up  a  "Coneo- 

problem.    To  this  we  tstn  "The  CharaotensticB  and  Wrium",  conaiating  of  ten  chapters  csorrespondin^  to 

the  Religkm  of  Modem  Socialism",  and  "The  Moral-  the  number  of  chaptet«  in  tiie  rule,  which  determines 

ity  of  Modem  Boeialism ".    Theae  two  works  supply  the  penance  to  be  inSicted  on  thoee  who  transnces 

Catholic  students  with  not  only  an  linprejudioed  ex-  its  precepts.   This  "  Correctorium  "  was  apmtved  by 

position  of  the  Soaialtatiemorement  as  propounded  by  Juhus  II  in  1506  and  by  Leo  X  in  1517  (Digestum, 

tts  leading  advocates,  but  a  critical  leiutatioa  c^  the  see  below,  I,  55). 

enoneous  theoriee  on  which  it  is  based.  II.    Propagation  and  Activitibs.— ^The  Order  of 

-              ■     -       '  a,IU  (a  Juljr.  1610).  307-31%  the  Minims,  propagated  at  fiist  in  Italy  was  intro- 

A,  A.  MacEkijak.  duced  byspecialroyalfavourinto  France, whitherthe 
ho^  founder  was  called  in  14fi2.     There  the  earliest 


umitttwl  (or  MiNiiu}  are  the  members  of  the  re- .   . 

ligioUB  order  founded  by  St.  Francis  of  Paula.    The  Fleasta-lefi -Tours. 

name  is  an  allusion  to  Friar  Bfinor,  or  to  Matt.,  zxv,  Amboiae,     and 

40:"'QuamdiufeciBti»uniexhisfratribusmeiiminimii8,  Nigeon,  near  Paris, 

mihi  fecistis",  and  suggests,  as  Leo  X  in  the  Bull  of  On   account  of 

canonisation  of  the  holy  founder  says,  the  ^reat  humil-  their    great   sim- 

Hy  which  should  charaeteriie  tlK  religious  of  this  plicitv  the  MininiB 

€irder,  and  by  reason  of  which,  they  ought  to  consider  in    France     re- 

themeclves  as  the  least  of  all  religious.     With  the  firet  ceived  the  appel- 

Order  of  the  Minims  are  connected  a  second  and  a  lation  of  oont 

tUrd  order.     In  this  article  we  are  concerned  princi-  hommet.     In  1495 

pally  with  the  first.  Charles    VIII    of 

I.  Ohioin  Am)  Roia.— St,  Francis  of  Paula,  having  FranoE  founded 
in  his  youth  lived  one  year  in  a  Franciscan  convent  at  in  Rome  the  con- 
S.  Marco  (Calabria),  dedicated  himself  to  solitarj^  life  vent  of  TrinitA  del 
in  a  hermitage  near  Paula.  In  1435  some  disciples  Monti,  which,  by 
joined  him, andafterafewyearshefounded  convents  Bull  of  Innocent 
at  Patemo,  1444,  and  at  Hilasio  in  Sicily,  14flQ.  The  X  (1S4S),  was  ex- 
new  society  was  called  "Ifermits  of  St.  Francis  of  clualvely  reserved 
Asrisi".  The  Archbishop  of  Coaenza  granted  them  of  to  the  French  fa- 
his  own  accord,  in  1471,  exemption  from  his  iuriadic-  thers.  From 
tion  CI*novius,  "BullBrium",9),  which  privilege  was  France  the  Minims 
confirmed  bySixtusIV,1473(Lenoviua,  "Bull.'',  11).  spread  to  Spain. 
ThesamepontiffgavethemtheprivilegeBofmendicant  where  they  vrere 
friaiw  (q.  v.).  For  S7  years  (1435-93)  the  new  foun-  called  "Fathers 
dation  had  no  written  rule,  but  in  1493  the  first  rule,  of  the  Victory", 
containing  13  cba^ie,  which  was  almost  a  faithful  owing  to  the  vie- 
copy  of  t&t  of  St.  Francis  of  Asaiai,  waa  confirmed  by  tory  of  King  Fcp- 
Alexander  VI,  (See  text  LAnovius,  ad  am.  1493,  and  dinand  over  the 
Bull.  Rom.,  V,  352.)  A  second  version  of  the  rule  Moors  of  Malaga. 
in  10  idiapters,  which  showed  more  independence  of  In  1497  the  Em- 
the  Rule  of  St.  Francis,  was  approved  by  Alexander  peror  Maximihan 
VI  in  1501.  Here  the  fourtb  eolemn  vow  of  vita  mtroduced  the 
quadragt*imal<s  appears,  which  forms  the  distinctive  new  order  into 
character  of  the  JCnima.  In  the  same  Bull  of  con-  Germany  (Bohe- 
firmation  is  inserted  the  rule  of  the  third  order  in  7  mia).  At  the 
chapters,  for  seculars  of  both  aexee.  (Text  Lanovius  death  of  St.  Fran- 
ad  ann.  1601;  Bull.  Rom.,  V,  385.)  Hardh'  differ-  cia  of  Paula,  1S07,  A  Mmiu  Fsiai 
ent  from  this  second  version  is  the  rule  confcmed  in  there  existed  five  provinces  spread  over  Italy,  France, 
1G02.     (lAnoTiuB,adann.  1502.)    Finalb' a  third  defi-  Spain,  and  Germany. 

nite  text  of  the  rule  of  the  firet  OTder,  which  is  atill  ob-  A  little  later  the  order  counted  450  convents.     In 

served  by  the  Minima,  was  confirmed  by  Julius  II,  1623  Dony  d'Attichi  gives  the  number  of  membere 

"Dudumadsacrumoitiinem",  28  July,  1506.     (Bull.  as6430,  convents  359,  and  provinces  30,  distributed  in 

Rom.,  V,  421.)     The  rule  of  the  second  order,  which  the  principal  Catholic  countries  of  Europe.     lanovius 

is  for  sistets  and  which  originated  in  Spain,  appeara  in  1635  adds  to  the  number  of  provinces  three  com- 

for  tlM  first  time  in  the  same  Bull.      It  is  almost  misaariatea,  of  which  one  was  in  the  West  Indiee.    In 

a  literal  adoption  of  the  rule  of  the  first  order,  while  1646  the  Propaganda  approved  the  foundation  of  a 

tiK  rule  of  tlie  third  order  here  inserted  is  the  same  mission  in  Canada,  but  it  is  not  known  if  this  plan 

as  that  confirmed  in  1501.      The  spirit  which  per-  was  ever  carried  out  (Roberti,  II,  688).     In  England 

meatee  these  rules,  eepecially  those  of  the  first  and  the  Minims  seem  not  to  have  had  any  convente,  still 

second orderB,isthatof great penanceandabnegation.  some  illustrious  English  members  are  recorded,  as 

The  fourth  vow  imposes  perpetual  abstinence  from  all  Thomas    Felton,   martyred    in    1588,    Henry   More, 

&Bh  and  white  meats,  and  only  in  case  of  grave  sick'  nephew  of  the  chancellor,  Blessed  Thomas  More,  d.  at 

nees  by  order  of  the  physician  may  it  be  dispensed  Reims,  1587;  Andrew  Folere,  d.at  Soissons,  1594.  The 

with.     Ttie  Order  of  Minims  is  founded  on  the  same  second  order  was  never  very  widely  propagated.     In 

ninciple  of  organisation  as  that  of  all  mendicants.  1623  there  existed  11  eonvente  with  360  eisters.     Hie 

^nie  superiors  are  calted  correctors.     At  the  head  is  third  order,  on  the  contrary,  found  many  adherents 

the  corrector  general,  who  formerly  was  elected  every  among  the  faithful  in  the  countries  where  convents  of 

three  yean,  but  dnce   1606  every  six  years.    The  the  fast  order  existed. 

corrector  provincial  is  elected  for  three  years,  while  To  give  some  indication  of  its  activity  we  mention 

.!._  1 — 1 i™  i-  ^i-^^A  k^  ^a-v,  i.nn,«,ni  fn^  ,j|i|y  Bomc of  Its most distingutsbed mcmbeis.   Thefirsttobe 


Uack  wool,  has  bread  deeves,  and  is  girded  by  a  thin     vicar  ApoetoUc  in  America,  appomted  1493,  irtio,  tm 


326 


«i  r  I  ^ 


the  documents  {mblisfaed  bv  Fita  oertainhr  indioate,  views;  but  it  is  still  the  oxdinAiy  «|>peQaikm  of  cds 

belonged  at  that  time  to  the  Minims,  althou^  the  I4>p(nnted  to  spiritual  office  in  any  non-E^moopal  com- 

papal  Bull  of  appointment  (see  reproduction  m  this  munion,  especiallv  of  one  having  a  pastoral  eoatge". 

Enctclofsdia,  1,  414)  used  the  words  ordmia  Minr  As  regards  Catholic  use,  minister  is  the  title  of  oer- 

cfnim.    See  Robert!,  op.  cit.  below,  I,  89-102.   Dis-  tain  superiora  in  various  religious  orden.    The  head 

tin^;uished  theologians  were:  Lalemandet,  d.  1647;  of  the  Franciscan  Order  is  known  as  the  minister  gen- 

Saher,  d.  1707;  £>ucat,  d.  1718;  Palanoo^  d.   1730;  eial,  and  the  superior  of  the  different  provinces  of  the 

Perrimessi,  d.   1740;   historians  (see  bibhography),  various  branches  is  called  minister  provincial.    The 

Giry,  d.  1688;  Marin,  d.  1767;  mathematicians,  Msjg-  same  is  true  of  the  Order  of  the  Trinitarians  for  the 

nan,  d.  1676;  Mersenne,  d.  1648;  philosophers,  Sa-  Redemption  of  Captives  and  of  some  other  orders.    In 

guens,  d.  about  1718.  and  some  of  the  previously  the  Society  of  Jesus  Uie  second  in  command  in  each 

mentioned    theological   authors.    For  the   bishops  house,  who  is  usually  charged  with  the  internal  dis- 

chosen  from  this  order  see  Roberti  (op.  cit.  below,  I,  oipline,  the  commissariat,  etc.,  is  called  minister. 

377,  II,  681).    The  cause  for  beatification  of  two  The  statement  made  in  Addis  and  Arnold's  "  Catholic 

Minims  has  been  introduced.  Dictionary"  and  thence  incorporated  into  the  great 

III.  Present  State. — Since  the  French  Revolution  Hist.  Eng.  Dictionair  that  each  of  the  five  assist- 

the  Minims  are  greatly  reduced  in  number.    At  present  ants  of  the  General  of  the  Jesuits  is  called  minister  is 

there  are  19  convents  with  about  330  friars.    There  without  foundation. 

are  15  convents  in  Italy,  2  in  Sicily,  1  in  Sardinia,  Hebbxbt  Trubston. 

and  1  in  Spain.    The  corrector  general  resides  at  St.  ^^.  .   ,                 _ 

Andrea  delle  Fratte,  Rome.    There  are  two  other  Minkftlurg,  Jean-Piebrb,  mventor  of  uluminatiDg 

convents  at  Rome,  8.  Francesco  di  Paola  and  S.  Maria  gas;  b.  at  Maastricht,  Holland,  1748;  d.  there  4  July, 

della  Luoe.    The  second  order  is  spread  especially  in  1824.    At  the  age  of  sixteen,  in  1764,  he  went  to  Ix)u- 

Spain^ where  it  has  10  convents.    There  are  single  con-  vain,  where  he  studied  theologv  and  philoeophy  at  the 

vents  at  Marseilles,  Rome,  and  Todi.    The  third  order  Ooll^  du  Faucon,  in  which  he  became  professor  of 

is  spread  in  Latin  countries  and  also  in  South  America,  natural  philosophy  in  1772.    At  this  time  the  question 

where  secular  priests  are  delegated  and  authorised  to  of  aerostats  and  Montgomere  was  occupying  the  mind 

receive  membeis.                           *  of  scientists,  and  the  Due  d'Arenbei^g,  a  Mseoenas  of 

RoBBitn  (p.  Minim.).  DxMtfno  dorio  dOV  Ordme  de*  Mimmi  "cienoe  and  art,  engaged  a  committee  to  examine  into 

daUa  morU  dd  aofiio  intiUtUor^  Jlno  ai  noMri  tempi,  I,  1607-  the  question  of  the  best  gas  for  balloon  purposes, 

itfcw  (Rome.  1902),  Jh  2600-1700  (Rome,  i9Wh.  Frakcm-  Minkelerswas  on  this  committee,  and  published  in  1784, 

rttw  .  .  .  4mdit  ReaUirum  Pontifieivm  seu  BulUtnum  a  Sixto  «*er  many  experiments,  a  work  entitled     M^moire 

IV  ad  VrhanioH  VJJI  (Paria.  1635);   Dont  d'Aiticbi  (O.  sur  lair  mflammable  tM  de  difiterentes  substances, 

Minim.).  HiHoireQiniraUde  VOrdrede»Minvnea  (2  vols..  Pari^  pgdigd  par  M.  Minkelers,  pPOfesseUT  de  philoeophic  au 

1024);  JACOBUS  Ladorb-Franc.  a  LonoobArdu  (O.  Mmim.),  ^-^nfL^^T.  1?^%,^^,%  ^^^^uLL^ua  a^  t^i««»T*i»  rrir..«»:« 

Dioulum  Savientim  Minimitana  tripartUum,  eotnplecUfu  iW  SSS .?®     .  FauCOn,  university  de  Louvam      (Louvain, 

la§  8.  Fmneuei  de  Paula,  Staiuia  Capitulorum  OeneraHwn  .  .  .  1784).     As  an  appendix  to  this  memoir  there  was  a 

8  pis.  (Rome,  1664):  ToscanoJO.  Minim.).  DeUa  vUa  di  S.  "Table  de  Rravit^  sp^cifiques  des  diff^ntes  espdces 

o'^KSXSlf^Ji^teici^^^                   SU^i^ffi  fair;\byT!:F.Thys^ert,ame^^^ 

(Ai]uabuxs.,i7S9).84-i(X).andinBii22aWum/2(miantt^^  In  his  memoir  Minkelers  tells  us  how  he  made  his 

^  i};PJ!5f'™iu9?  ^i^t^^^^^^  *^?  ^"*  redaction  of  the  precious  discovery:   from  the  very  beginning  of  his 

rule  (1403)  with  the  Rule  of  St.  Francis,  see  Maxarra.  Legen-  £L-»««;,«^„*„  u^  u„^  i,«  j  av^  :  j^^  «r<.»««iX»;—  -Jfi :«  *\.^ 

dario  Fnmeeecano,  IV  (Venice,  1721).  441-60 :  Mohtoia  (O.  experiments  he  h«l  had  the  idea  of  enclowng  oU  m  the 

Minim.).  Cr&niea  general  de  la  Orden  de  loe  Minxmoa  de  S.  Fran-  barrel  of  a  gun  and  heating  it  m  a  forfle.  Under  action 

ewoo  de  Paula  Madrid.  1619);  Ankibau  da  Latrra  (O.  of  the  heat  the  oil  dissolved  and  gave  place  to  a  pemark- 

Ji"^:^V?n?^t^l7l?r35'j?^^^  ably.lightgas   having  other  al^nlageous  quaUties. 

und  Kongrtoationen  der  katholiechen  Kirehe,  2nd  ed..  II  (Pader-  Having  proved  that  Oil  gas  was  the  best  for  balloons, 

bom.  1907).  527.  For fuU  bibliography  see  Rorrrti  I.  17-22.  Minkelers  used  it  for  many  balloons  which  rose  rapidly 

^'^rJS'o^J'^S^^X SSISSXt^^SSi  and  travelled  great  distances  in  the  neighbourhood. of 


Lou  vain.    As  we  leam  from  his  pupil  von  Hulstein. 

LiVARiUB  Ouger.  who  was  in  his  class  in  1785,  Minkefers  at  times  used 

this  same  gas  to  light  his  workshop.    Moreover,  the 

BCiiiistar. — The  term  minister  has  long  been  ap-  ^^^  o^  ^^  memoir  proves  clearly  that  in  its  inventor's 

propriated  in  a  distinctive  way  to  the  clergy.    The  «ye8  the  great  combustibility  of  the  gas  was  one 

Unguage  of  I  Cor.,  iv,  1-2  •  Heb.,  vui,  2;  Matt.,  xx,  26,  ©^  '^^  leading  qualities.    When  Joseph  II,  m  1788, 

etc.  must  have  helped  to  familiarise  the  thought  that  transferred  the  University  of  Louvam  to  Brussels, 

those  chaiged  with  spiritual  functions  in  the  Christian  Minkelers  continued  as  professor,  but  when  it  was  re- 

Churoh  were  called  upon  to  be  the  servants  (miniairi)  moved  back  to  Louvain  he  refused  to  return.     He  re- 

of  their  brethren.     Even  before  the  Reformation  the  ^igaed  in  1794  and  was  appoint^  professor  of  physics 

word  minister  was  occasionally  used  in  English  to  ^^^  chemistry  at  the  Central  School  of  Maastricht, 

describe  those  of  the  clergy  actually  taking  part  in  a  ^  iy^Vt  ^^24.                   „  .   .  ^         ,..-.,.    ..^. 

fnnnf  inn    nr  thA  nplphrftnt  aa  HUf  incniiahAH  fmrn  f  Ko  MiNKRLRns,  Mfmoire  ew  Vatr  tnflammable  tiri  de  difftrtnln 

tunction,  or  tne  ceieorant  as  aiatmguisnea  trom  tne  g^gumcee  (Louvain,  1784);  Dr  Ra».  HiMorieeh  Venlag  over  J. 

assistants,  but  It  was  not  then  used  ^tneaddttotodejlg-  P,  Minkelera  (Maastricht,  1807):    Vbrbambn.  Lee  dnayant* 

nate  an  ecclesiastic.     This  employment  of  the  term  demHrea  anniee  de  VuniveraiU  de  Louvain  (Li^ce,  1884);  Ue 

dates  from  Calvin,  who  objected  to  the  name  priest  etc.  f^^"'  ^*  vervaardiging  van  liehtgae  uit  eUenhiUn  (Alkmaar. 

as  involving  an  erroneous  conception  of  the  nature  "  '                                                            D.  Nra. 
of  the  sacred  o.lice.    These  Calvinistic  views  had 

scnne  influence  in  England.    In  the  Book  of  Common  Mi2m6iota»  one  of  the  North  Central  States  of  the 

Praver  the  word  minister  occurs  frequently  in  the  sense  American  Union,  lies  about  midway  between  the 

of  tne  officiant  at  a  service,  and  in  the  thirty-second  eastern  and  western  shores  of  the  continent,  and  about 

of  the  Canons  Ecclesiastical  (1603)  we  read ''no  bishop  midway  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Hudson's 

shall  make  a  person  deacon  and  minister  both  upon  Bay. 

one  day  ",  where  clearly  minister  stands  as  the  equiva-  Geography. — Minnesota  extends  from  43*  SO*  to 

lent  of  priest.     As  regards  modem  usage  the  Hist.  49**  N.  lat.  and  from  89^  39*  to  97®  5'  W.  long.     lU 

En^.  Dictionary  says:  "The  use  of  minister  as  the  length  from  north  to  south  is  about  400  miles  and  its 

designation  of  an  Anglican  clercyman  (formerly  ex-  greatest  breadth  about  354  miles.     Of  its  total  area  of 

tensively  current,  sometimes  with  more  specific  appli-  84,287  sq.  miles,  no  less  than  5637  are  water  surface, 

cation  to  a  beneficed  clergyman)  has  latterly  become  owing  to  the  great  number  of  inland  lakes  (number- 

,  and  is  now  chjiefly  associated  with  Low  Churoh  ing  about  ten  thousand)  and  watercourses,  large  and 


327  MnnnsoTA 

BoaS.  HinneMtataboundedcaitbenortbb^CaiuuIa,  Naue. — The  name  of  the  state  la  derived  fima  the 
ixx  the  eut  by  Lake  Superior  and  Wiscontm,  oa  the  Dakota  Ungiuage.  Before  the  white  men  came  to 
south  by  Iowa,  and  on  the  west  by  North  and  South  their  hunting  grounds,  the  Dakotas  called  the  river 
Dakota.  Within  the  wide  domain  of  the  State  origi-  which  rises  on  the  western  border  of  the  stete  and 
nate  the  three  priDdjMl  water  systemsof  North  Amer-  flows  into  the  Hisdasippi  near  the  site  of  St.  Paul  the 
ica:  those  of  the  Hiaaisaippi  and  the  Red  River  of  the  MinUotah  (mini,  water;  solah,  sky-coloured),  and. 
North,  and  the  St.  Lawrenoe  system  beginning  with  when  the  rerion  between  the  western  border  of  Wi»- 
the  St.  Louis  River,  which  rises  in  the  north-eastern  conain  and  the  Missouri  River  was  oreaniied  by  Con- 
part  of  Minnesota  and  flows  into  the  western  end  gress  into  a  territory,  it  was  {pveu  the  name  of  this 
of  hake  Superior.  river  in  a  sli^tly  modifled  form —  the  name  wliich  the 

SocL  AND  GsoMWr. — A  lar^  portion  of  the  state  state  bears  at  present, 

was  originally  prune,  but  along  the  riven  a  dean  Histobt. — At  the  time  when  the  explorations  of 

growth  of  trees  has  always  extended,  while,  between  white  men  bcsan,  the  region  now  known  as  Minnesota 

the  Minnesota  River  and  the  Misdssippi  and  extend*  was  inhabited  by  people  of  two  great  divisions  of  the 

ing  north-westerly,  almost  to  the  Red  River,  is  the  American  race.    From  the  southern  tmundaiy  of  the 

great  forest  of  hardwood  trees,  commonly  known  as  state  as  far  north  as  lat.  46°  30',  the  land  was  in- 

tbe  "Big  Woods".    The  northern  part  of  the  state  habited  by  the  Dakotas,  while  the  shore  of  Lake 

was  formeriv  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  pine^  and  Superior  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  state  were 

.  has  supplier  a  large  portitm  of  the  white  pine  utilized  occupied    b^    the 


by    the 
Many 


A^e  from  the  dlstricte  originally  covered  by  pine  pbces  in  Minnesota 
and  the  rooky  ridges  near  Lake  Superior,  the  state  bear  Indian  names, 
i  soil  of  great  fertility.    Itsgeo-    and  those  derived 


logical  formations  vary  from  the  Laurention  trap-  from  the  respect!'.  _ 

rock,  granite,  and  basalt  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Su-  languages  of  these  1 

perior  and  the  banlu  of  the  St.  Croix,  with  outcrops  of  two  aboriginal  na-  I 

(dmilar  formatdons  in  various  other  portions  of  the  tions   show  very  I 

state,  to  the  soft  limestone  of  a  later  period.    The  clearly  at  the  pies-  | 

granite  is  of  various  colours,  ranging  from  daric  brown  eut  tune  the  areas 

to  light  grey,  and  is  highly  valued  for  building  pur-  which  they  icspect- 

poses.    Another  excellent  biuldins  material  a  the  ively  ocoupied. 

Kaaota  limestone,  which  has  been  largely  used  in  the  The   French    come 

coostruction  of  the  new  and  magnificent  state  captel.  into  contact,    first 

In  the  north-eastern,  and  to  a  conaderable  extent  with  the  Oiibways 

throughout  the  entire  northern  part  of  the  stete,  are  and   other   Kindred                Bkal  of  UutHxaoTA 

found  exteodve  beds  of  iron  ore  of  excellent  quality.  Indian  nations  of  the  Algonquin  family,  who  in  their 

Shipmente  of  this  ore  have  been  so  great  during  recent  language  designated  the  Dakotas  the  Nadoueitioux 

years  as  to  render  Hiimesota  the  neatest  iron  pro-  (Ojibway  for     enemies").     The  French  soon  abbre- 

ducing  state  of  the  Federal  Uniwi.    No  less  than  150,-  viated  this  long  word  intoite  final  syllable,  and  called 

000,000  tons  of  ore  have  been  mined  and  shipped,  and  the  Dakotas  the  Sioux,  under  which  title  they  have 

the  amount  still  underground  is  estinvit«d  at  lutly  one  been  commonly  known  since  the  days  of  Marquette 

thousand  million  tcos,  a  supply  that  will  not  be  ex-  and  Alloues. 

hausted  for  fifty  years.  The  real  history  of  the  state  may  be  said  to  b^n  in 
SirKTACB  AND  CuuATE. — ^Ths  fact  that  the  state  Is  ISSO  with  the  visit  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  and  ad- 
Oie  source  of  three  continental  river  systems  suggesta  jaoent  regions  made  1^  Rev.  Louis  Hennepin  and  his 
ite  high  elevation.  The  Mississippi,  which  has  its  companions,  Accault  and  Augelle.  Durmg  the  same 
4^ef  source  in  Lake  Itasca  at  on  elevation  of  1466  year  Sieur  Daniel  Greyolaon  Du  Lhut  explored  the 
feet,  leaves  the  stete  at  620  feet  above  seo-Icvel.  The  northern  part  of  the  stete,  and,  in  July,  joined  Father 
Red  lUver  of  the  North  rises  near  Itasca  I^ke  at  an  Hennepin  at  or  near  the  lake  now  known  as  Mille  Lacs, 
altitude  of  1600  feet,  and,  after  a  circuitous  route  Late  in  the  autumn  Du  Lhut  and  Hennepin  departed 
south  and  west  to  Breckenridge  in  Wilkin  County,  from  the  land  of  the  Dakotas  and  returned  to  £^tem 
turns  north  and  enters  Canada  at  an  elevation  of  750  Canada.  From  the  time  of  these  e^loiatioos  to  the 
feet.  The  Minnesote  shore  of  Lake  Superior  is  602  English  conquest  of  Canada  in  1760,  France  held  away 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  avemge  elevation  of  the  over  the  Upper  Mississippi  t^on.  Formal  assertion 
stat«  is  given  as  about  1275  feet,  the  highest  elevation  of  sovereignty  was  made  in  1089,  as  appears  from  a 
being  the  Misauoh  Hills  in  Cook  County  (2230  feet),  document  di^wn  up  at  Qreen  Bay  on  the  western 
Ite  elevation  aoove  the  aea,  ite  fine  drainage,  and  the  shore  of  I^ke  Michigan,  in  which  Nicholas  Perrot, 
drvnessofiteatmosphere  give  Minnesota  an  unusually  commandLig  for  the  king  at  that  post  and  holding  a 
salubrious  and  most  agreeable  climate.  The  mean  commission  fror.i  Marquis  Denonville,  Governor  of 
annual  temperature  is  44°;  the  mean  summer  tem-  New  France,  issued  a  declaration  in  these  words: 
perature  7(^,  Owing  to  ite  higher  latitude,  Minne-  "  We  this  day,  the  8th  day  of  May,  1689,  do  in  the 
sote  enjoys  correspondingly  longer  days  in  summer  presence  of  Reverend  Father  Marest  of  the  Society  of 
than  stetes  farther  south,  and  during  the  growing  sea-  Jesus,  Missionary  among  the  Nodouessioux;  of  Mon- 
aoo  there  are  two  and  a  half  hours  more  sunshine  than  sieur  de  Borieguillot,  commanding  the  French  in  the 
(e.  g.)  in  Cincinnati.  This  fact,  taken  in  connexion  neighbourhood  of  the  Ouiakonche  on  the  Mississippi: 
with  the  abundant  rainfall  of  early  snmmer,  aceoimte  Augustine  Legaideur,  Sieur  de  Caumont,  and  of 
lor  the  rapid  and  vigorous  growth  of  crops  in  Miime-  Messieurs  Le  Sueur,  Hebert  Lemire,  and  Blein: 
sota  and  ti>eir  early  maturity.  The  winter  climate  "Declare  to  all  whom  it  may  concern,  that,  being 
is  one  cpf  the  attractive  features  of  the  stete.  Its  come  to  the  Bay  des  Puante  IGreen  Bay],  and  to  the 
uniformity,  ite  general  freedom  from  thaws,  excessive  Lake  of  Ouiskonches,  and  to  ttie  River  Mississippi,  we 
periods  of  cold,  severe  weather,  or  heavy  snowstorms,  did  transport  ourselves  to  the  country  of  the  Nadoue»- 
and  ite  dryness,  together  with  the  bririit  sunshine  and  sioux,  on  the  borfer  of  the  River  St.  Croix,  «id  to  the 
a  fun  suppl:f  of  osone  in  the  atmosphere,  all  tend  to  mouth  of  the  River  St.  Pierre,  on  the  bank  of  which 
make  the  wmtera  of  Minnesota  very  delif^tful.  It  is  were  the  Mantantana;  and  further  up  to  the  interior 
asserted  by  labourers  from  abroad  that  they  can  work  te  the  north-east  of  the  Mississippi,  as  far  as  the  Hen- 
out-of-doors  on  more  days  of  the  vear  in  Minnesote  cbokatonx,  with  whom  dwell  the  majority  of  the 
than  in  any  otiter  regjon  in  which  they  have  lived.  Songeskitons,  and  other  Nodouessioux,  who  are  to  the 


328  MimiBSOTA 

north-east  of  the  Miasissippi,  to  take  possession  for,  some  veiy  beautiful  rockets  were  shot  off  and  the  air 

and  in  the  name  of,  the  King,  of  the  countries  and  was  made  to  resoimd  with  a  hundred  shouts  of  'Vive 

rivers  inhabited  by  the  said  tnbes,  and  of  which  they  le  Roy'  and  'Vive  Charles   de  Beauhajnois '.   .  .  . 

are  the  proprietors.    The  present  act  done  in  our  pres-  What  contributed  very  much  to  the  merzy-making  was 

ence^  and  si^aed  with  our  hand  and  subscribed.'^  the  fright  of  some  Indians.    When  these  poor  people 

Without  delay,  practical  measures  were  taken  to  saw  fireworks  in  the  air  and  the  stars  falling  from 

ensure  the  rights  of  France.    A  map  o£the  year  1700  the  sky,  the  women  and  children  fled  and  the  more 

shows  a  fort  on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Pepin.    In  1695  courageous  of  the  men  cried  for  mercy,  and  earnestly 

a  second  post  was  established  bv  Le  Sueur  on  an  begged  that  we  should  stop  the  astonishing  play  of 

island  above  the  lake.    Thus,  in  the  beginning  of  the  the  terrible  medicine."    It  may  be  stated  in  expla- 

eighteenth  centuiy  what  was  officially  termed  "La  nation  that,  among  all  the  American  Indians,  any 

Bare  Department",  consisting  of  a  hne  of  military  phenomenon   which   exerted  a  powerful   influence 

and  tradmg  posts,  was  oiganised  to  command  the  upon  the  physical  and  nervous  system  was  desig- 

waterwa^  from  Green  Bay  to  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  nated  by  a  term  correspcmding  to  the  word  medicine 

Not  imtil  1727.  however,  were  systematic  efforts  in  other  languages. 

made  to  establish  permanent  milita^  garrisons  north  In  a  report  made  in  October,  1728,  by  the  Governor 

of  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin  River.  of  Canada  to  the  Government  of  France,  Fort  Beau- 

In  the  spring  of  1685  Governor  De  La  Barre  of  New  hamois  was  said  to  be  bacQy  situated  on  account  of 
France  sent  from  Quebec  to  the  west  twenty  men  freshets^and,  therefore,"  as  the  report  says,  "this  fort 
under  the  command  of  Nicholas  Perrot  to  establish  could  be  removed  four  or  five  arpents  from  the  lake 
friendly  alliances  with  the  Dakotas.  Proceeding  to  shore  without  prejudice  to  the  views  entertained  in 
the  Mississippi,  he  established  a  post  near  the  outlet  of  building  it  on  its  present  site."  The  report  declares 
Lake  Pepin,  which  was  known  as  Fort  Perrot.  War  that  the  interests  of  religion,  of  the  service,  and  of  the 
having  oeen  declared  in  1687  between  the  French  and  colony  demand  that  the  fort  on  the  bank  of  Lake 
the  Indians,  Perrot  and  his  followers  left  the  Missis-  Pepin  be  permanently  maintained.  In  September, 
sippi  River  and  repaired  to  Mackinac.  Early  in  1689,  1730,  FortBeauhamois  was  rebuilt  on  a  plot  of  higher 
however,  he  returned  with  a  party  of  forty  men  to  his  g^und  near  the  old  establishment.  Upon  this  lofty 
post  on  Lake  Pepin,  and  re-estabushed  trade  with  the  site,  surrounded  by  some  of  the  most  beautiful  scenery 
Dakotas.  On  a  map  published  in  1700  this  post  is  in  America,  now  stands  the  Ursuline  Convent,  Villa 
denominated  Fort  Bon  Secours;  three  years  later  it  Maria.  The  convent  chapel  veiy  properiv  bears  the 
was  marked  Fort  Le  Sueur,  but  was  in  that  year  aban-  same  name  as  its  historic  predecessor,  St.  Michael  the 
doned.  In  a  much  later  map  it  is  correctly  called  Fort  Archangel.  Sieur  Linctot  was  made  commandant  of 
Perrot.  In  1700,  actiiig  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  new  fort  in  Jime,  1731,  and  in  1735  was  succeeds! 
the  Governor  of  Louisiana,  Pierre  Le  Sueur,  a  native  bv  St.  Pierre.  The  Dakotas  having  shown  a  very  hos- 
of  Artois,  France,  came  to  the  re^on  now  known  as  tue  spirit,  St.  Pierre  decided  to  abandon  Fort  Beau- 
Miimesota  with  an  intelligent  ship  carpenter  named  hamois,  and  accordingly  on  13  May,  1737,  the  post 
Penicaut  and  about  twenty  others,  in  search  of  cop-  was  burned.  In  1743,  and  again  in  1746,  representa^ 
per  which,  according  to  earlier  enilorers,  existed  m  tive  chiefs  of  the  Dakota  nation  made  a  journey  to 
the  Sioux  country.  Le  Sueur  and  £ds  party  spent  the  Quebec  and  presented  to  the  Government  of  New 
winter  of  that  year  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  great  France  a  petition  for  the  re-estabiishment  of  the  fort 
bend  of  the  Minisotah,  and  there  gathered  a  large  and  for  the  restoration  of  trade  relations.  Their  re- 
quantity  of  green  earth  which  was  supposed  to  con-  quest  was  not  granted  until  1750.  when  Pierre  Marin 
tain  copper  m  the  crude  state.  From  the  circum-  was  commissioned  to  rebuild  the  little  fortress.  Fort 
stance  that  this  earth  is  sometimes  described  by  Le  Beauhamois  was  retained  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
Sueur  and  his  contemporaries  as  **  blue  earth  '*,  that  war  between  the  English  and  French,  but  it  was  never 
name  has  been  given  to  the  tributary  of  the  Minnesota  occupied  after  the  surrender  which  followed  the  defeat 
River  at  the  mouth  of  which  Le  Sueur  spent  a  winter  of  Montcalm  in  the  famous  battle  of  Quebec  (1759). 
and  built  a  fort,  and  also  to  the  ^countev  within  which  About  one-third  of  the  state,  comprismg  its  north- 
the  site  of  this  old  fort  is  situated.  The  Dakota  word  eastern  part  to  the  east  of  the  Mississippi,  was  in- 
Mahkahto  means  blue  or  green  earth,  and  that  word,  eluded  in  the  territory  surrendered  bv  Cfreat  Britain 
corrupted  in  the  course  of  tune  to  Manhato,  is  the  imder  the  treaty  of  1783,  at  the  end  of  the  War  of 
name  (»f  the  county  seat  of  Blue  Earth  County.  Independence ;  toe  greater  portion  (about  two-thirds) 

A  trading  company,  formed  in  Montreal  to  carry  on  of  the  territory  ernbraced  within  the  boundaries  of 
traffic  in  furs  witn  the  Indians  of  the  La  Baye  Depart-  Minnesota,  however,  was  included  in  the  Louisiana 
ment,  dispatched  on  16  June,  1727,  an  expedition  un-  Purchase,  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  France  in 
der  Ren6  Boucher  to  the  luid  of  the  Sioux.  The  ex-  1803.  In  1805  a  grant  of  land  nine  miles  square,  at 
pedition  arrived  at  its  destination  on  the  shore  of  Lake  the  confluence  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Peter  (now 
Pepin  on  17  September.  Two  Jesuit  missionaries.  Minnesota)  Rivers,  was  obtained  from  the  Sioux  In- 
Michel  Guignas  and  Nicholas  de  Gonnor,  accompanied  dians.  A  military  post  was  established  on  the  grant 
Boucher  and  his  small  command.  Before  the  end  of  in  1819,  and  in  1820  armngements  were  made  for  the 
October  a  small  fort,  called  Beauhamoia  as  a  compli-  erection  of  a  fort,  which  was  completed  in  1822  and 
ment  to  the  Governor  of  New  France,  was  built  on  the  named,  at  first  Fort  St.  Anthony,  but  later  Fort 
low  lands  opposite  the  towering  dUf  which  now  bears  Snelling  after  the  commanding  officer.  The  grant  has 
the  name  of  Maiden  Rock.  A  chapel  was  erected  ever  since  been  known  as  the  Fort  Snelliog  Reserva- 
within  the  enclosure  of  Fort  Beauhamois,  and  was  tlon.  In  1823  the  first  steamboat  ascended  the  Mis- 
dedicated  to  St.  Michael  the  Archangel.  This  was  the  sissippi  as  far  as  Fort  Snelliz^,  and  annually  thereafter 
first  Christian  temple  to  cast  its  beneficent  shadow  one  or  two  trips  were  made  by  steamboats  to  this 
upon  the  soil  of  Minnesota.  The  first  ceremony  of  isolated  post  for  a  number  of  years, 
note  in  the  new  chapel  was  the  celebration  of  the  feast  From  the  date  of  the  English  victory  over  the 
of  St.  Charles  of  which  Father  Guignas  writes:  French  until  the  establishment  of  Fort  St.  Anthony 
"We  did  not  forieet  that  the  4th  day  of  the  month  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  conditions 

Eovember]  was  the  saint's  day  of  the  general.    Holy  were  imfavourable  for  the  maintenance  of  Catholic 

iss  was  said  for  him  in  the  momins,  and  we  were  missions  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  country.    However, 

well  prepared  to  celebrate  the  event  m  the  evening,  some  colonists  from  Switserfand,  who  possessed  the 

but  tne  slowness  of  the  pyrotechnists  and  the  variable-  true  Faith  and  spoke  the  French  language,  having 

ness  of  the  weather  led  to  the  postponement  of  the  migrated  from  their  original  settlements  near  Fort 

eelebration  to  the  14th  of  the  same  month,  when  Garry  in  Canada  to  a  place  seven  or  eight  miles  below 


imililSOTA 


320 


ihe  Falls  of  8t.  Anthoay,  Bishop  liAthias  Lona  of 
Dubuque,  whose  diooeee  included  the  entire  region 
now  called  Minnesota,  visited  Fort  Snellixig  and  the 
adjacent  Swiss  settlement  in  1839,  and  in  the  following 
year  sent  a  missionary  to  Minnesota,  Father  Lueien 
Ualtier.  The  latter  established  himself  upon  the 
present  site  of  the  metropolitan  city  of  St.  Paul,  and 
m  the  foUowioff  vear  built  a  loe  chapel  which  he  called 
by  the  name  of  the  jppneat  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  The 
sradual  increase  of  population  about  ihe  chapel,  the 
development  of  the  community  into  a  village  and 
finall:^  into  a  laige  city  under  the  name  of  St.  Paul, 
constitute  an  imposing  material  monument  to  the 
missionary  seal  of  Father  Galtier,  and  for  ever  assocH 
ate  the  name  and  fame  of  the  capital  citv  of  Minnesota 
with  the  glories  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  Minnesota  was 
organiieof  as  a  Federal  territoxy  by  Act  of  Congress 
of  1849,  and,  on  11  May,  1858,  its  territorial  existence 
terminated  and  it  became  a  state. 

Population. — The  population  of  the  state  has 
shown  a  rapid  increase.  According  to  the  successive 
census  returns  the  population  was:  172,023  in  1860; 
250,099  in  1865;  439,706  in  1870;  780,773  in  1880; 
1,117,798  in  1885;  1,301,826  in  1890;  1,997,912  in 
1905.  In  that  year,  the  population  of  the  five  laigest 
cities  was:  Minneapolis,  261,874;  St.  Paul,  197,023; 
Duluth,  64,942;  Winona,  20,334;  Stillwater,  12,435. 
The  population  of  Minnesota  accoiding  to  nationali- 
ties was  thus  classified  by  the  census  of  the  year  1905: 

Native  bom   366,767 

Minnesota  bom  1,057,566 

Germany 119,868 

Sweden  126,283 

Norway 111,611 

Canada   .., 47,211 

Ireland   19,531 

Denmaric 16,266 

England   11,598 

Bohemia 8,403 

Poland 7,881 

Finland 19,847 

Austria  14,403 

Russia 8,835 

Scotland  4,651 

France 1.277 

Wales    1,035 

All  other  Countries 18,345 

Phis  makes  a  total  foreign  bom  population  of  537,041. 
The  inmates  of  state  institutions,  and  the  10,225  In- 
diana in  the  state  at  the  time  of  taking  the  census,  are 
not  included  in  the  above  figures. 

The  piogress  of  the  Catholic  Faith  in  Minnesota 
has  been  marvellous.  In  1841  the  mission  of  Father 
Galtier  included  some  twenty  families,  and  in  1851, 
when  Father  Joseph  Cretin  (q.  v.)  was  named  first 
Bishop  of  St.  Paul,  the  number  of  Catholics  in  Minne- 
sota is  estimated  to  have  been  about  1000.  In  1888 
the  See  of  St.  Paul  was  raised  to  archiepiscopal  rank, 
the  dioceses  of  St.  Cloud,  Winona,  Duluth,  Faigo, 
Sioux  FaUs,  and  Lead  becoming  later  its  suffragans.  As 
each  of  these  dioceses  is  treated  in  a  special  article,  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  quote  here  some  general  statistics 
for  the  State  of  Minnesota,  which  includes  the  Arch- 
diocese of  St.  Paul  and  the  first  three  of  the  above- 
ntaned  suffragans:  1  archbishop:  4  bishops;  602  priests 
(476  secular) ;  406  churches  with  resident  priests;  168 
missions  with  churches ;  67  missions  without  churches ; 
67  chapels;  1  university;  6  orphan  asylums;  14  hospi- 
tals; 32,426  children  in  parochial  schools;  427,027 
Catholics.  The  recently  established  Diocese  of  Crooks- 
ton,  separated  from  Duluth,  will  constitute  an  addi- 
tional suffragan  of  St.  Paul. 

LiBERTr  OP  Conscience. — The  Constitution  pro- 
ridea  expressly  for  religious  liberty  by  declaring  that 
^the  right  of  every  man  to  worship  God  according  to 
the  dietatea  of  his  own  conscience  shall  never  be  in- 


fringed nor  shall  any  man  be  compelled  to 
erect  or  support  any  place  of  worship,  or  to  maintain 
any  religious  or  eoolesiastieal  ministry,  against  his  con« 
sent,  nor  shall  any  control  of  or  interference  with  the 
rights  of  conscience  be  pemiitted  or  any  preference  be 
given  by  law  to  any  religious  establishment  or  mode  of 
womhip."  It  further  provides:  "No  religious  test  or 
amount  of  property  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualifi- 
cation for  any  office  of  public  trust  imder  the  State. 
No  religious  test  or  amount  of  property  shall  ever  be 
required  as  a  qualification  of  any  voter  at  any  election 
in  this  state;  nor  shall  any  person  be  rendered  incom- 
petent to  give  evidence  in  any  court  of  law  or  equity  in 
conseauenoe  of  his  opinion  upon  the  subject  of  re- 
ligion. This  Constitution  has  been  interpreted  by 
the  legislature  in  the  most  liberal  manner,  and  Minne- 
sota iSu  led  all  of  the  other  states  in  the  Union  in  pro- 
viding liberty  of  conscience  and  the  free  exercise  or  re- 
ligion in  favour  of  the  inmates  of  penal,  correctional, 
and  eleemosynaiy  institutions.  Tne  general  statutes 
now  in  force  contain  these  provisions:  "Religious  In- 
struction.— Said  Board  [The  State  Board  of  Control] 
shall  provide  at  least  one  hour,  on  the  first  day  of  each 
week,  between  nine  o'clock  a.  m.  and  five  o'clock  p.  m., 
for  religious  instruction  to  inmates  of  all  prisons  and  re- 
fonnatories  imder  its  control,  dining  which  clergymen 
of  good  standing  in  any  church  or  denomination 
may  freely  administer  and  impart  religious  rites  and 
instruction  tothose  desiring  thesame.  it  shall  provide 
a  private  room  where  such  instruction  can  be  given  by 
clergymen  of  the  denomination  desired  by  the  inmate, 
or  in  case  of  minors,  by  the  parents  or  guiudian,  and, 
in  case  of  sickness,  some  other  day  or  hour  may  be 
designated ;  but  all  sectarian  practices  are  prohibited, 
and  no  officer  or  employee  ot  the  institution  shall  at- 
tempt to  influence  the  religious  belief  of  any  inmate, 
and  none  shall  be  required  to  attend  religious  services 
against  his  will "  (Revised  Laws,  1905,  chap.  25,  sec. 
1903).  As  to  the  state  prison,  the  laws  provide: 
"  Visitors. — Fees. — The  members  of  the  state  board  of 
control,  the  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  members  of 
the  legislature,  state  officers,  ana  regularly  authorised 
ministers  of  the  Gospel  may  visit  the  prisoners  at 
pleasure,  but  no  other  persons,  without  special  per- 
mission of  the  warden,  under  rules  prescribed  by  said 
board.  A  moderate  fee  nuiy  be  required  of  visitors, 
other  than  those  allowed  to  visit  at  pleasure.  Such 
fees  shall  be  used  to  defray  the  expenses  of  ushers  for 
conducting  such  visitors,  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
prison  library,  the  prison  band,  and  other  entertain- 
ments of  the  inmates''  (Chap.  105,  sec.  5434). 

REQULATiONa  CONCERNING  PROPERTY. — The  Con- 
stitution of  Minnesota  provides  security  for  private 
rights  in  the  declaration  that "  every  person  is  entitled 
to  a  certain  remedy  in  the  laws  for  all  injuries  or 
wrongs  which  he  nuiy  receive  in  his  perscm.  property 
or  clukracter;  he  ought  to  obtain  lustice  treelv  and 
without  purchase;  completely  ana  without  denial; 
promptly  and  without  delay* ;  conformably  to  the  laws", 
and  by  the  further  provision  that,  "  private  property 
shall  not  be  taken,  destroyed  or  damaged  tor  pul>- 
lie  use.  without  compensation  therefor  first  paid  or 
secured".  To  prevent  any  revival  of  abuses  and 
monopolies  such  as  grew  up  under  the  feudal  svstem, 
the  Constitution  contained  this  provision:  "All  lands 
within  this  State  are  declared  to  be  allodial,  and  feudal 
tenures  of  every  description,  with  all  their  incidents, 
are  prohibited.  Leases  and  grants  of  agricultural 
land  for  a  longer  period  than  twenty-one  years,  heie- 
after  made,  in  which  shall  be  reserved  any  rent  or  ser* 
vice  of  any  kind,  shall  be  void." 

The  statutes  of  Minnesota  provide  for  the  free  and 
untrammelled  acquisition  of  real  property,  and  also 
for  abundant  security  to  its  possessor.  Estates  in 
lands  are  divided  by  statute  into  estates  of  inheritance, 
estates  for  life,  estates  for  years,  and  estates  at  will  ami 
by  sufferance.    The  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court 


330 


WMNUOTA 


establiBh  the  prioeiple  tiiat  tenaneieB  from  year  to 
year  are  estates  at  will.  The  laws  further  provide 
that  evenr  estate  of  inheritance  shall  continue  to  be 
termed  a  fee  simple,  or  fee ;  and  e vei>  ^uch  estate  when 
not  defeasible  or  conditional,  shall  be  a  fee  simple 
absolute.  All  estates  which  would  at  common  law  be 
considered  as  estates  tail  are  deemed  and  adiudged  to 
be  fee  simple  estates  in  the  person  who  would,  othei^ 
wise,  be  seised  thereof  in  fee  tail.  Every  future  estate 
is  void  in  its  creation,  which  suspends  the  absolute 
power  of  alienation  by  any  limitation  for  a  longer 
period  than  during  the  continuance  of  two  lives  in 
being  at  the  creation  of  the  estate,  except  that  a  con- 
tingent remainder  in  fee  may  be  created  on  a  prior 
remainder  in  fee,  to  take  effcKSt  in  the  event  that  the 
persons,  to  whom  the  first  remainder  is  limited,  die 
under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  or  upon  any  other 
contingency  by  which  the  estate  of  such  persons  may 
be  determined  before  thev  attain  their  full  age.  The 
rule  in  Shelley's  case  has  been  abolished,  mth  a  few 
express  exceptions,  no  corporation,  unless  organised 
for  the  construction  or  operation  of  a  railway,  canal,  or 
turnpike,  may  acquire  more  than  five  thousand  (5000) 
acres  of  land.  Uses  and  trusts,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
have  been  abolished. 

Religious  Corpobationb. — In  furtherance  of  the 
liberal  principles  regarding  the  exercise  of  religion 
contained  in  the  state  Constitution,  the  laws  of  Minne- 
sota provide  for  the  creation  of  religious  coiporations 
and  special  statutoiy  provisions  enable  a  Dishop  of 
tl»B  Catholic  Church,  m  association  with  the  vicar- 
general  and  the  chancellor  of  his  diocese,  to  create  such 
diocese  a  corporate  body.  The  bishop  and  vicar- 
general,  in  association  with  the  pastor  of  any  parish, 
are  likewise  authorised  to  create  parochial  corpora- 
tions. These  corporations  have  the  right  to  acquire 
and  to  hold  land  to  the  same  extent  as  have  individu- 
als. Every  person  (and  the  term  includes  married 
women)  may  dispose  of  his  estate,  real  and  personal, 
or  any  part  thereof,  or  right  or  interest  therein,  by 
a  last  will  and  testament,  in  writing.  There  is  no 
limitation  on  religious  bequests,  and  full  force  and 
effect  have  been  given  thereto  by  the  decisions  of 
the  courts. 

Charitable  Societies  and  Institutionb.— ^The 
laws  of  Minnesota  contain  the  most  liberal  provisions 
for  the  founding  and  incorporation  of  charitable 
societies.  Under  these  provisions,  many  Catholic 
hospitals,  orphanages,  refuses,  and  reformatories  have 
been  established.  The  public  charitable  institutions 
of  the  state  are  various  and  manifold.  Provision  is 
made  for  the  care  and  treatment  of  all  insane  persons, 
not  onl^  in  great  general  hospitals,  but  also  in  various 
institutions  equipped  with  buildings  on  the  "cottage 
group"  plan  for  tne  custody  of  the  harmless  and  in- 
curable insane.  The  state  prison  is  situated  at  Still- 
water and  is  a  most  admirably  conducted  penitentiaiy. 
The  state  reformatory  is  at  St.  Cloud  and  receives 
for  correction,  rather  than  for  punishment,  offenders 
whose  i^es  range  from  sixteen  to  thirty  3rears.  This 
institution  is  managed  upon  the  benevolent  plan  of  in- 
struction of  the  mind  and  the  rehabilitation  of  chaxao- 
ter.  For  bojrs  of  wayward  tendencies  who  have  re- 
peatedly violated  the  laws  of  the  state,  is  provided  the 
state  training  school,  at  Red  Wing,  which  is  not  only  a 
school  of  moral  and  mental  discipline,  but  also  a 
manual  training  school.  Waywara  girls  are  accom- 
modated and  placed  under  moral  restraint  at  a  similar 
institution.  £)ach  county  provides  for  paupers  in  a 
county  alms-house,  and  also  distributes  out-door  re- 
Jief  to  the  poor.  All  public  charitable  institutions 
and  agencies  are  under  the  watchful  care  of  the  state 
board  of  control,  consisting  of  three  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor.  The  board  of  control  not 
only  has  visitorial  powers,  but  is  also  invested  with 
administrative  functions.  It  has  proved  highly 
efficient.     The  public   charities  of  Minnesota  are 


famous  throughout  the  world  for  their  adTaneed 
humanitarianism  and  general  excellence. 

Mabbiaob  and  Divorce. — The  statutes  of  Minne- 
sota declare  that  marriage,  so  far  as  its  validity  in  law 
is  concerned,  is  a  civil  contract,  to  which  the  consent 
of  the  parties  capable  in  law  of  contracting  is  essential. 
Every  male  person  who  has  attained  t!ie  full  age  of 
eighteen  years,  and  every  female  person  who  h£  at- 
tamed  the  full  age  of  fifteen  yeare,  is  capable  in  law 
of  contracting  marriage,  if  otherwise  competent.  No 
marriage  may  be  contracted  while  either  of  the  parties 
has  a  husband  or  wife  living*  nor  within  six  months 
after  either  has  been  divorced  from  a  former  spouse; 
nor  between  parties  who  are  nearer  of  kin  than  first 
cousin,  whether  of  the  half  or  full  blood,  computed  by 
the  rules  of  the  civil  law;  nor  between  persons  either 
one  of  whom  is  epileptic,  imbecile,  feeble-minded,  or 
insane.  Marriage  may  be  solemnised  by  any  jtistice 
of  the  peace  in  the  coimty  in  which  he  is  elected,  and 
througnout  the  state  by  anv-  judge  of  a  court  of  record . 
the  superintendent  of  the  oepartment  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb  (in  the  state  school  for  the  deaf  and  dtixnb),  or 
by  any  licensed  or  ordained  minister  of  the  gospel  in 
regular  communion  with  a  reli^ous  society.  Before 
any  persons  are  joined  in  mamaffe,  a  license  must  be 
obtamed  from  tne  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  the 
county  in  which  the  woman  resides,  or,  if  not  a  resident 
of  the  state,  then  from  such  clerk  in  the  county  where 
the  marriage  is  to  take  place. 

The  statutes  of  Minnesota  are  liberal  in  regard  to 
divorce.  A  divorce  from  the  bonds  of  matrimonv  may 
be  adjudged  by  the  district  court  for  any  of  the  follow- 
ing causes:  (1)  adultery*;  (2)  impotency ;  (3)  cruel  and 
inhuman  treatment;  (4)  sentence  to  imprisonment  in 
any  state  prison  or  state  reformatory  subsequent  to 
the  marria^,  and  in  such  case  a  pardon  will  not  restore 
conjusal  rights;  (5)  wilful  desertion  for  one  year  next 

Sreoeoing  the  filmg  of  the  complaint;  (6)  habitual 
runkenness  for  one  year  immediately  preceding  the 
filling  of  the  complaint.  Limited  divorces,  extending 
to  a  separation  a  merua  el  toro  permanently  or  for  a 
litnitea  time,  may  be  adjud^^  by  the  district  court, 
on  the  complaint  of  a  mamed  woman,  between  any 
husband  and  wife  who  are  inhabitants  of  the  state,  or 
in  cases  where  the  marriage  has  taken  place  within  the 
state  and  the  wife  is  an  actual  resident  at  the  time  of 
filling  her  complaint ;  or  in  cases  where  the  marriage  has 
taken  place  outside  the  state  and  the  parties  have  been 
inhabitants  of  the  state  at  least  one  year,  and  the  wife 
shall  be  an  actual  resident  at  the  time  of  the  filing  of 
her  complaint.  The  grounds  upon  which  limited 
divorces  may  be  granted  are:  (1)  cruel  and  inhuman 
treatment  by  the  nusband ;  (2)  such  conduct  on  the 
part  of  a  husband  toward  his  wife  as  mav  render  it 
unsafe  and  improper  for  her  to  cohabit  wiui  him*  (3) 
the  abandonment  of  the  wife  by  the  husband  and  his 
refusal  or  neglect  to  provide  for  her. 

PuBuc  Education. — The  public  property  of  the 
state  consists  of  realty  used  m  connexion  with  the 
various  public  institutions,  and  also  of  a  large  public 
domain  consisting  of  lands  granted  to  the  State  Gov- 
ernment by  the  General  Government  of  the  United 
States  at  tne  time  when  the  State  of  Minnesota  was 
admitted  to  the  Union ;  such  {pints  having  been  made 
for  the  benefit  of  the  state  umversity,  for  the  support 
of  the  common  school  system,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
miJdng  intemnl  improvements.  The-  title  to  such 
lands  is  vested  in  the  State  of  Minnesota,  and  the  care 
and  contrM  of  such  lands  is  vested  in  the  auditor  of  the 
state,  who  is  er:  officio  Land  Commissioner  of  Minne- 
sota. The  portion  of  the  grant  assigned  to  the  support 
of  public  eauc&tion  has  been  estimated  by  competent 
authority  to  be  sufficient  to  yield  ultimately  a  fimd  of 
$250,000,000.  The  educational  system  of  the  state 
is  organised  as  follov.s:  School  districts  are  divided 
into  common,  independent,  and  special.  Among 
schools  are  distinguished  state  rural  schools,  state 


MraOB  331 

0emi-ffreded  aehoola,  state  oaded  sehoolB*  state  high  auired  bjr  law  for  the  performance  of  certain  acts  or 

schools,  normal  schools,  and  univeruty:     A  common  tne  exercise  of  certain  nffhts;  in  practice  the  utmost 

school  district  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  three  mem-  limit  is  considered,  and  beyond  it  there  exists  no 

bers ;  an  independent,  by  one  of  six  members ;  a  special,  restriction ;  those  are  called  minors  who  have  not  yet 

by  a  board  of  six  or  more  members.    Ck>mmon  schools  reached  the  age  at  which  the  law  makes  them  capable 

are  supervised  b^  a  county  superintendent;  inde*  of  performing  all.  civil  acts  whatever,  especially  the 

pendent  and  special  districts  have  their  own  superin*  administration  of  their  property.   This  age  being  fixed 

tendents,  and  in  the  main  are  not  subiect  to  the  countv  by  most  modem  laws  at  twenty-one  3rears,  everyone 

superintendents.    The  state  sradea  and  state  high  is  a  minor  until  the  age  of  twenty-one,  or  whatever 

schools  are  subject  to  a  board  of  five  members;  the  may  be  the  legal  afje  of  majorl^.    As  the  matter  is 

president  of  the  state  university,  the  superintendent  of  primarily  one  of  ci  vu  rights,  the  Church  leaves  distino- 

public  instruction^  and  the  president  of  normal  school  tions  to  the  civil  law,  &  what  concerns  canon  law  and 

board  are  exrofficio  members,  a  city  superintendent  or  Christian  acts,  no  uniform  limit  of  minority  has  ever 

high  school  principal  and  a  fifth  member  are  appointed  been  established ;  for  given  acts  and  rights  the  canon 

by  the  governor.    The  nonnal  schools  are  controlled  law  and  ecclesiastical  usace  have  established  the  neces- 

by  a  board  of  nine  members ;  five  of  these  are  resident  sary  and  sufiicient  age.   In  the  first  place  children  are 

directors;  three  are  appointed  for  the  state  at  large,  not  considered  as  minors;  ii  is  presumed  that  until  the 

and  one,  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  age  of  reason,  legally  fixed  at  seven  years,  a  child  poe- 

serves  ex-ofltoio.    The  state  university  la  situated  in  sesses  neither  the  intelli^nce  nor  the  experience  to 

MinneapoliB  and  is  in  a  most  flourishing  condition.  Its  commit  sin  or  to  exercise  any  rights  whatsoever, 

enrollment  for  the  year  190^10  includes  5000  students.  When  no  longer  a  child  a  person  becomes  a  minor. 

The  university  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  twelve  re-  Minors  are  eiuier  under  or  over  the  age  of  pubertyi 

gents ;  the  governor,  the  president  of  the  university  and  which  is  fixed  by  the  Roman  law  at  fourteen  full  years 

toe  superintendent  of  public  instruction  are  ex-ofificio  for  boys  and  twelve  full  years  for  girls;  between  the 

members,  and  nine  are  appointed  by  the  governor.  age  of  seven  years  and  that  of  puberty  they  are  said  to 

The  public  schools  of  the  state  are  supported  by  a  be  nearer,  or  less  near  to  infancy  or  puberty,  as  the 
direct  tax  upon  the  property  of  the  school  districts,  by  case  may  be.  For  those  under  puberty,  there  begins 
a  county  <me-mill  ($*001)  tax,  by  a  state  mill  tax.  and  with  the  age  of  reason  the  obligation  of  observing  the 
by  the  income  from  the  permanent  school  funa,  to-  moral  law  and  those  precepts  of  the  Church  from 
eether  with  small  fines  that  are  accicdited  to  this  fund,  which  they  are  not  exempt  by  their  age,  notably  the 
No  religious  school  receives  any  subsidy  direct  or  in-  obligation  to  receive  the  Sacraments;  such  minors 
direct.  The  educational  institutions  established  by  therefore  are  capable  of  sinning  although  their  respon- 
the  Catholic  Church  have  exhibited  wonderful  vitality  sibility  is  less  in  proportion  as  they  are  nearer  cnild- 
and  increase.  The  Seminanr  of  St.  Paul,  a  monument  hood;  for  this  reason  they  are  not  liable  to  the  pen- 
to  the  seal  of  Archbishop  Ireland,  is  the  leading  in-  alties  of  the  forum  externum,  except  where  this  is 
stitution  of  theologioal  instruction  in  the  North-  specially  provided.  It  is  presumed  that  with  puberty 
west.  A  university  is  conducted  by  the  BenecUe-  the  Christian  begins  to  enjoy  the  plenitude  of  his  intet 
tines  at  C(^effBviUe,  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Cloud,  ligence  and  Uberty  in  spiritual  matters  and  purely 
Minnesota,  ana  is  well  supplied  with  all  the  facilities  personal  rights:  the  minor  of  the  ap^e  of  puberty  can 
for  modem  education,  including  laboratory  equipment  contract  marriage,  he  can  receive  minor  orders,  and  be 
and  scientific  collections.  The  College  of  St.  Tnomas  nominated  to  and  administrate  a  benefice  (Cone.  Trid., 
at  St.  Paul  has  not  only  acquired  a  reputation  as  a  seat  Sess.  XXIII,  c.  vi,  *'  De  ref. ";  c.  iii,  **  De  judic. ",  in  6). 
of  learning  and  soimcf  instmetion  in  the  classics,  but  There  are,  however,  acts  binding  his  future  which  he 
also  as  a  military  school  of  the  first  rank.  It  is  at-  cannot  perform  until  at  a  more  advanced  age;  he  cannot 
"tended  by  six  hundred  cadets  and  is  constantly  ex-  make  a  religious  mofesslon  until  the  age  of  sixteen  is 
panding  Both  in  educational  facflities  and  in  attend-  completed  (Gone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXV.  *'  Ue  regular",  c. 
anoe.^The  College  of  St.  Catherine  at  St.  Paul  is  the  xv);  he  cannot  receive  the  sub-diaconate  Kfore  his 
leading  Catholic  institution  for  the  education  of  twenty-first  year  (Sess.  XXIII.  evil).  At  the  age  of 
women,  but  the  education  of  eirls  and  women  is  pro-  twenty-one,  too,  he  begins  to  be  subject  to  the  law  of 
vided  for  in  many  other  exoeUent  institutions  in  the  fasting.  (For  more  ample  developments  see  Agb, 
ArehdiooeBe  of  St.  Paul  and  other  parts  of  the  state.  Canonical.) 

Bakcropt.  Hid.  of  the  U,  8.  A.,  II  (Bonton.  1879):  Nxill.  A  leading  characteristic  in  all  legislation  on  minors 

f^'{rdfe»  S^T^^bi^%^'fi>tn^  Z^^  protection  afforded  them  in  regard  to  the  admin- 

of  Louuiana:  Jenai  Bdaiion;  LXVIII,  207;  AnnaU  of  th*  istration  of  property  and  the  obligations  which  they 

Faith  (Dublin,  1840);  Memoira  of  Bev.  A.  RawuxiSt,  Paul,  can  assume  m  referehoe  to  third  parties.    Asa  general 

^•^^-                                              John  W.  Willis,  rule  the  liberty  of  minors  is  imrestrained  as  to  con- 
tracts which  are  to  their  advantage,  but  they  cannot 

ICnor  (Lat.  minor),  that  which  is  less,  or  inferior  in  make  any  contracts  which  are  burdensome  to  them- 
comparison  with  another,  the  term  being  employed  as  selves  except  under  certain  determined  formaUties, 
well  of  things  as  of  persons.  To  glance  rapidly  at  its  and  with  tne  required  authorisation.  Still  more,  if 
application  to  thinp,  we  may  mention  oauaoB  minore$,  they  consider  themselves  as  suffering  by  such  con- 
matters  of  lesser  importance,  as  opposed  to  causa  tracts  they  may,  by  the  terms  of  the  Roman  Law  (*' De 
majores.  those  more  important;  mmor  benefices  as  minorib.,  xxv,  ann."  ff.,  IV,  iv),  for  four  years  after 
opposed  to  the  major  benefices,  which  imply  jurisdio-  their  majority  of  twenty-five  years,  obtain  the  "resU- 
tion  and  are  confirmed  in  papal  consistory;  minor  tutio  in  integrum",  i.  e.  a  judicial  decree  restored  the 
churches  or  those  of  inferior  rank;  the  minor  excom-  condition  of  things  which  existed  before  liie  contract 
juunication  (now  out  of  use),  as  opposed  to  the  major  by  which  the  minor  suffered.  These  provisions  have 
excommunication.  In  reference  to  persons,  certain  been  more  or  less  completely  embodiea  in  the  modem 
uses  of  the  word  minor  may  also  be  mentioned  which  laws  of  various  coimtries,  the  discussion  of  which 
depend  upon  usage  rather  than  upon  law:  the  younger  would  be  out  of  place  here.  It  is  enough  to  say  that 
of  two  persons  of  the  same  name  is  sometimes  called  the  canon  law  has  accepted  them  (Decret.,  lib.  I,  tit 
minor  (or  "  the  less")  as  St.  James  the  Less.  Through  xli, " De  in  integnim  restitutions"),  and  applied  them 
humili^  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  gave  his  religious  the  to  churches  ana  other  juridical  entities  which  it  was 
nameot"FriarsliIinor",  that  is,  less  than  other  friars,  expedient    to    protect    against    maladministration. 

But  in  its  most  frequent  and  most  strictly  judicial  When  it  is  said  that  churches  are  assimilated  to 

aooeptation.  the  word  designates  a  person  who,  having  minors  (c.  vii,  3^  8,  "De  in  integrum  restit.")  the 

passed  his  infancy,  has  not  yet  reached  the  age  re-  meaning  is  that,  m  respect  to  burdensome  contracts. 


mNOBOA 


332 


churches  and  other  ecclesiastical  establishments  are 
subject  to  the  same  protective  measures,  and  enjoy 
the  same  privileges,  as  minors. 

D'Amnxbaub,  Summula,  I.  n.  33;  Fbrrarzs,  Prampta  BiMi- 
otheea^  a.  v.  Muu;  the  Canonists  on  lib.  I,  Decret,  tit.  IxL  Ses 
alao  bibliocrapby  to  Aob,  Canonicax*. 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

BUsorea,  Diocbsb  of  (Minoiucsnbis),  suffragan 
of  Valencia,  comprises  the  Island  of  Minorca,  the  sec- 
ond in  sise  of  the  Balearic  Islands,  which  are  posses- 
sions of  Spain.  The  civil  ^pital  is  Port  Mahon ;  the 
ecclesiastical,  Ciudadela.  The  origin  of  the  Diocese 
of  Minorca  is  not  known,  but  it  certainly  existed  in  the 
fifth  century,  as  its  bishop,  Macarius,  together  with 
Elias  and  OpUio,  Bishops  of  Majorca  and  Ivisa,  came 
to  Carthage  in  484  to  make  profession  of  his  faith. 
Baronius  published  from  a  Vatican  MS.,  a  letter  of 
Sevenis,  Bishop  of  Minorca  in  the  fifth  centurv.  Da- 
meto  translates  and  inserts  it.  Tlie  learned  Antonio 
Roig,  a  native  of  Minorca,  rector  of  Felanitx,  pub- 
lished in  1787  a  Latin  treatise  commenting  upon  it  and 
defending  its  authenticity.  But  the  account  of  the 
expedition  undertaken,  under  the  direction  of  a  cer- 
tam  Theodore,  to  convert  the  Jews  who  were  in  pos- 
session of  Minorca,  and  the  events  therein  related,  are 
of  a  legendary  character. 

The  Vandals  took  possession  of  Minorca,  as  well  as 
of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily,  and  during  their  do- 
minion the  Diocese  of  Minorca  was  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  metropolitan  See  of  Sardinia.  The  Bull  of 
Pope  Romanus,  dated  897^  in  which  among  other  ter- 
ritories assigned  to  ti^e  Bishop  of  Gerona  we  find  the 
islands  of  Majorca  and  Minorca,  shows  that  the  inva- 
sion of  Spain  by  the  Mohammedans  brought  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Diocese  of  Minorca  to  an  end.  It  was  not 
re-established  until  the  eighteenth  centuiy.  When 
Minorca  was  recovered,  in  1783.  from  the  English, 
who  obtained  possession  of  it  in  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession  (1701-14),  the  re-establishment  of  the 
diocese  was  considered.  Pius  VI  by  the  Bull  of  23 
July,  1795,  erected  the  new  Diocese  of  Minorca.  Its 
first  bishop,  Antonio  Vila,  a  native  of  Minorca,  took 
possession  of  the  see  on  2  September,  1 798 .  He  was  a 
man  of  learning,  and  the  author  of  ''  El  noble  bien 
educado"  (Madrid,  1776),  "Vida  y  Virtudes  del  in- 
victo  mdrtir  .  .  .  S.  Juan  Nepomuceno"  (Madrid, 
1777},  and  "El  VasaUo  instruulo"  (Madrid,  1792). 
The  last-named  won  for  its  author  his  canoniy  in  the 
cathedral  of  Minorca.  He  also  worked  on  an  ency- 
clopedic dictionai^  of  which  twenty  volumes  in  folio 
are  still  preserved  in  the  cathedral  of  Albarracfn.  On 
26  July,  1802,  Bishop  Vila  was  transferred  to  the  Dio- 
cese of  Albarracfn,  where  he  died  30  October,  1809. 
D.  Pedro  Antonio  Juano  was  appointed  to  succeed  him 
in  1814,  and  was  followed  by  the  famous  D.  Jaime 
Creus  y  MartJL  canon  of  Ui^l,  president  of  the  Jimta 
Suprema  of  Oatalonia  during  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence, deputy  in  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz,  and  a  member  of 
the  rUyjtX  Coimcil.  Having  been  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  Archbishop  of  Tarragona,  he  was  succeeded  by 
D.  Antonio  de  Ceruelo  and  the  Dominican  Fray  An- 
tonio Dias  Merino,  who,  since  1825,  had  been  an  active 
collaborator  m  the  ''Biblioteca  de  Religi6n".  In 
1837  Fray  Antonio  was  exiled  first  to  Cadis  and  then 
to  France,  and  died  at  Marseilles  in  1844.  His  succes- 
sor, D.  Mateo  Jaume  was  present  at  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil. Since  then  the  see  has  been  filled  in  succession  by 
D.  Manuel  Mercador  (1875-90),  D.  Juan  Comes  y  Vidal, 
founder  of  the  Academia  de  la  Juventud  Cat61ica  (26 
Jubr,  1906),  D.  Salvador  Castellote  y  Pinaso  (1901-6), 
and  £>.  Juan  Torres  y  Ribas,  the  present  bishop. 

The  capital.  Port  Mahon,  which  has  a  population  of 
18,445,  is  on  the  east  coast  and  has  the  best  port  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  saying,  '' Junio,  Julio,  Agosto  y 
Puerto  Mah6n,  Los  mejores  puertos  del  Mediterraneo 
son ' '  (J\me,  July.  August,  and  Port  Mahon  are  the  hesi 
V  arbours  in  the  Mediterranean),  is  attributed  to  tiie 


famous  Andrea  Doru.  At  the  entiaaoe  stand  the  foi  • 
tresses  of  San  Felipe,  buHt  by  Philip  II,  la  Mola,  and 
Isabel  II.  The  IcOa  del  Rey  (Island  of  the  King)  so 
called  from  the  fact  that  Alfonso  III  landed  there  wnen 
he  visited  Minorca  in  1287,  is  in  the  centre.  Inthethir- 
teenlii  century  the  famous  military  hospital  was  built 
on  this  island .  Port  Mahon  has  a  school  for  aeoondaiy 
instruction  and  a  custom-house  of  the  first  order. 

Among  the  public  buildings  the  most  noteworthy 
are  the  court-house  and  the  parish  church  built  by 
order  of  Alfonso  III .    Tlie  latter  has  a  magnificent  or- 

Sn.  A  handsome  facade  ornaments  the  entrance  to 
e  cemetery.  Ciudadela.  the  episcopal  city,  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  Jamnona  ot  the  Carthaginians,  founded 
by  their  captain  Jamna,  or  Jama.  Many  traces  of  an 
eariier  Celtic  civilisation  are  to  be  found  here,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  ialaycU  (Cyclopean  con- 
structions of  huge  blocks  of  stone  in  the  slmpe  of  a 
tower  with  a  high  entrance),  obelisks,  dolmens,  oov^ 
ered  galleries,  and  comeilUma,  or  Celtio  cemeteries. 
Ifany  Roman  inscriptions,  vases,  and  coins  are  also  to 
be  foimd.  Tlie  city  is  fairiy  well  laid  out  and  wdl 
kept,  and  has  a  population  of  8,000.  It  has  a  fortress 
and  other  defensive  works. .  On  tiie  Paseo  del  Borne 
there  is  an  obelisk  about  72  feet  in  height,  erected  to 
the  memory  of  the  heroes  of  9  July,  1558,  when  the 
Turks  attacked  Ciudadela.  The  defenders  of  the  city 
on  this  occasion  were  commanded  by  Negrete  y  Ar- 

Suimbau,  and  the  monument  was  erected  on  the  initia- 
ive  of  the  Franciscan,  Jos6  Niu,  who  died  caring  for 
the  victims  of  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1865. 

Tlie  cathedral  of  Minorca  had,  from  the  tune  of  its 
foundation  in  1287,  all  the  magnificence  requisite  for 
the  only  parish  church  of  Ciudadela,  then  the  capital 
of  the  island.  A  memorial  tablet  of  the  year  1362 
says  that  Juan  Corc»  held  a  benefice  in  this  churdi. 
Constructed  in  the  Gothic  style  of  architecttire,  with 
a  single  nave,  it  presents  an  imposing  appearance. 
The  belfry  is  square,  finished  with  an  octa^nal  spire. 
In  the  bennning  of  the  last  centuiy  the  mam  entrance 
was  enriched  with  a  mass  of  Grseoo-Roman  architecture^ 
but  the  original  Gothic  portal  is  still  preserved  behind 
this.  When  the  Turks  attacked  the  city  they  fired 
the  church.  Bishop  Comes  y  Vidal  restored  it,  adding 
numerous  small  windows,  and  restoring  the  main  al- 
tar. Other  church  buildings  of  note  are  the  chapel  of 
the  convent  of  the  Poor  Clares  (ogival  style)  and  the 
church  of  San  Agustfn,  very  qiacious  and  elegant. 
The  latter  has  two  towers  on  each  side  of  the  portico, 
colossal  frescoes,  now  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation, 
and  rich  gildings ;  it  is  used  at  present  for  the  chapel  of 
the  diocesan  seminary  which  was  installed  by  Bt^op 
Jaume  in  the  ancient  convent  del  Socorro.  This  sem- 
inary (San  Ildefonso)  was  founded  by  the  learned 
Franciscan  Niu,  in  1858.  Lastly,  there  may  be  men- 
tioned the  church  of  San  Francisco,  in  the  Gothic 
style. 

Crdniea  gentrol  de  Etpana;  FULOOflio,  Cf&nica  dm  lu  mIm 
BaUarea  (Mjulrid.  1807);  Biogr^dia  eeUmddica  eompUta  (M*- 
drid.  1848-68);  db  la  Fubntb.  HitUma  eeUaidMtiea  de  Eepo^m 
(Baroelona,  1h66),  III:  Pifbrrbr  and  Cuadrado,  BepaHa^  mum 
monummUoM  y  arUa:  Imtu  AilcorM  (Baraakma,  1888). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Minor  Olerks  Eegnlar.    See  Francis  Cabacciolo, 

Saint. 

Mtnozitas.  See  Franciboan  Ordbs;  Fsubb 
Minor. 

Minor  Orders  (Lat.  Ordinea  Aftnores)  .—-The  lower 
degrees  of  the  hierarchy  are  designated  bv  the  name 
of  minor  orders,  in  opposition  to  the  ''^major"  or 
"sacred"  orders.  At  the  present  time  the  ranks  of 
the  der^  are  entered  bv  the  tonsure  (q.  v.),  after 
which  tM  the  orders  without  omission  are  received 
in  succession.  Moreover,  ecclesiastics,  as  a  senenl 
rule,  no  longer  remain  in  the  lower  orders,  the  uturei- 
cal  fimctions  of  which  are  dischaiged  either  by  the 
clergy  in  the  h^her  orders,  as  in  exorcism,  (v  by  the 


333 


MINSK 


laity,  as  in  nnging  and  serving  at  the  altar.  Formerly 
one  entered  the  cleigy  by  beine  appointed  to  discharge 
any  of  the  functions  reserved  to  ecclesiastics.  Such 
functions  were  of  two  kinds.  The  liturgical  ones  con- 
stituted orders,  though  of  a  lower  rank  fby  ordination 
the  recipients  of  the  minor  orders  received  official 
authority  to  perform  these  functions.  The  other 
ecclesiastical  functions  were  rather  offices  entrusted 
to  clerics,  whether  ordained  or  not.  Thus  in  the  first 
centuries  there  figured  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  no- 
taries, defenaorcB  eoclesia,  ceconami,  catechists,  cantors. 
fosaores  (for  the  cemeteries),  etc.,  to  say  nothing  of 
deaconesses.  But  these  various  offices  did  not  con- 
stitute orders,  and  those  who  filled  them  formed 
part  of  the  clergy  without  having  been  ordained,  like 
tonsured  clerics  and  lay-brothers  of  to-day.  As  to  the 
liturgical  fimctions  attached  to  the  various  minor  or- 
ders, they  are  really  but  a  participation,  originally 
rather  indefinite,  in  the  lituigical  ministry  formerly 
confided  entirely  to  the  deacons.  This  explains  why 
minor  orders  differ  in  the  Latin  Chureh  and  in  the 
various  Eastern  Chiutshes. 

In  the  East,  though  at  an  early  date  we  hear  of  por- 
ters and  exoreists  (never  of  acoljrtes),  after  the  Tnulan 
Synod  in  692,  in  accordance  with  its  sixth  canon,  only 
lectors  and  cantors  are  known,  and  often  even  these 
orders  coalesce,  or  are  conferred  at  the  same  time ;  the 
three  other  minor  orders  of  the  Latin  Church  Tporter, 
exorcist,  acolyte)  are  held  to  be  included  in  the  sub- 
diaconate.  ni  the  East,  moreover,  the  subdiaconate 
has  remained  a  minor  oider;  in  the  West  it  was  grad- 
ually detached  from  the  minor  orders,  on  account 
of  its  higher  liturgical  functions  and  also  because  of 
the  vow  of  celibacv  it  called  for.  Finallv,  Innocent  III 
definitively  incluaed  it  in  the  major  orders,  and  made 
the  subdeacon,  as  well  as  the  deacon  and  priest,  eliei- 
ble  for  the  episcopate  (c.  9,  "De  setate  et  qualit.",  1, 
tit.  14,  an.  1207).  There  are,  then,  in  the  Western 
Church  four  minor  orders:  porter,  lector,  exoreist,  and 
acolyte;  the  cantors  merely  exercise  an  office  and  are 
not  an  order.  These  four  orders  are  all  mentioned 
about  the  year  252  in  the  famous  letter  of  Pope  Cor- 
nelius to  Fabius  of  Antioch  (Euseb.,  "  Hist.  Eccl. ",  I, 
vi,  43) :  **  He  (Novatian)  knew  that  there  were  in  this 
Church  (of  Rome)  46  priests,  7  deacons,  7  subdeacons, 
42  acoljrtes,  and  52  exorcists,  lectors,  and  porters." 
This  quotation  shows  that  besides  the  acolytes,  who 
were  enumerated  separately  and  were  at  Rome  almost 
assimilated  with  the  subdeacons,  there  was  a  kind  of 
indefinite  class  formed  by  the  clerics  of  the  three  latter 
orders.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  all  clerics  did  not 
neoessarfly  pass  through  the  four  lower  orders;  as  a 
matter  of  fact  the  Coimcil  of  Sardica  (can.  xiii)  men- 
tions only  the  lectorate  as  obligatorv  before  receiving 
the  diaconate.  Pope  Siricius  (Ad  Himerium,  nn. 
9-10)  and  Pope  Zosimus  (Ad  Hesychiiun,  nn.  1  and  3) 
describe  for  us  the  ordinary  career  of  Roman  clerics: 
from  boyhood  or  youth  they  are  lectors;  about  the 
age  of  twenty,  acolytes  or  subdeacons;  those  who 
enter  the  clergy  when  already  ^wn  up  are  first 
exorcists  or  lectors,  after  a  certam  time  acol3rtes  or 
subdeacons.  Briefly,  it  appears  that  the  obligation 
of  receiving  all  the  minor  orders  without  exception 
18  a  law  dating  from  the  time  when  the  minor  orders 
ceased  to  be  exercised  in  the  original  way.  Moreover, 
there  is  no  longer  any  fixed  age  at  which  the  minor 
orders  may  be  received.  Canon  law  is  silent  on  the 
subject.  Canonists,  including  Benedict  XIV  (Consti- 
tution, "Eo  auamvis",  4  May,  1745),  admit  that  minor 
orders  may  oe  conferred  not  only  on  those  who  have 
reached  the  age  of  puberty,  but  on  boys  over  seven 
years.  In  fact,  minor  orders  are  usually  conferred  on 
efxJesiastieal  students  during  their  seminary  studies. 
The  Council  of  Trent  reouires  merely  that  the  candi- 
dates understand  Latin  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  xii). 

Althou^  several  medieval  theolopans  regarded 
minor  oram  as  sacramental,  this  opinion  is  no  longer 


held,  for  the  fundamental  reason  that  minor  orders, 
also  the  subdiaconate,  are  not  of  Divine  or  Apostolic 
origin.  The  rites  by  which  they  are  conferred  are 
quite  different  from  ordination  to  noly  orders.  Minor 
orders  are  conferred  by  the  presentation  to  the  can- 
didate of  the  appropriate  instruments,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ritual  given  in  the  ^'Statuta  Ecclesi® 
antiqua'',  a  document  which  originated  in  Gaul  about 
the  year  500.  We  do  not  know  now  even  in  Rome  the 
porters  and  exorcists  were  ordained  in  former  tim^. 
Lectors  received  a  simple  benediction;  acolytes  were 
created  by  handing  them  the  linen  bag  in  which  they 
carried  the  Euchanst;  subdeacons  by  the  reception  of 
the  chalice.  Moreover,  while  deacons  and  priests 
could  be  ordained  only  on  the  four  Ember  Saturdavs 
and  on  two  Saturdays  in  Lent,  minor  orders  could  be 
conferred  on  any  day.  Even  at  the  present  time  the 
latter  may  be  conferred,  apart  from  general  ordina- 
tions, on  all  Sundavs  ana  on  Holy  Days  of  obligation, 
not  necessarilv  at  Mass.  The  usual  minister  of  these 
orders,  as  of  the  others,  is  a  bishop;  but  regular  abbots 
who  have  received  episcopal  benediction  may  give  the 
tonsure  and  minor  orders  to  their  subjects  in  religion. 
By  papal  privilege  several  prelates  Ivulliua  (i.  e.,  ex- 
empt) can  confer  tnese  orders.  It  is  an  almost  universal 
custom  now  to  confer  the  four  minor  orders  at  one 
time,  and  the  Council  of  Trent  (loc.  cit.)  leaves  the 
bishop  quite  free  to  dispense  with  the  interstices 
(q.  v.). 

Clerics  in  minor  orders  enjoy  all  ecclesiastical  privi- 
leges. They  may  be  nominated  to  all  benefices  not 
major,  but  must  receive  within  a  year  the  major  orders 
necessary  for  certain  benefices.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  are  not  bound  to  celibacy,  and  may  lawfully 
man^.  Marriage,  however,  causes  them  at  once  to 
forfeit  every  benefice.  Formerly  it  did  not  exclude 
them  from  the  ranks  of  the  clergy,  and  they  retained 
all  clerical  privileges,  provided  tney  contracted  only 
one  marriage  and  tnat  with  a  virgin,  and  wore  clerical 
costume  and  the  tonsure  (c.  imic,  ''de  der.  conjug." 
in  VP) ;  they  might  even  be  appointed  to  the  service  of 
a  church  by  the  bishop  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess  XXIII, 
c.  vi).  This  earlier  discipline,  however,  is  no  longer 
in  accordance  with  modem  custom  and  law.  A 
minor  cleric  who  marries  is  regarded  as  having  for- 
feited his  clerical  privileges,  (^e Orders;  Acolttb; 
Exorcist;  Lector;  Porter;  Sxtbdeacon;  Abbot; 
Tonsure.) 

Makt.  Pneled.  de  aaera  ordinatione  (Paris.  1005),  20. 127, 265, 
etc.;  Gasparrx,  De  aacra  ordinaiume  (Paris,  1803);  Fbrraris^ 
Prompta  MUtolAeoa,  s.  v.  Ordo.  See  also  oommentarifls  of 
various  canoaista  on  the  Decretals,  De  eleneis  amjugaiia,  I,  tit. 
11-14;  III.  tit.  3. 

A.  BOTTDINHOK. 

Minsk,  Diocese  OF  (Minscensis),  suflTragan  of  Mo- 
hileff,  in  Western  Russia.  The  city  of  Minsk  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Swislotsch,  a  tributary  of  the  Beresina, 
which,  sgain,  flows  into  the  Dnieper.  In  1879  it  num- 
bered 91,500  inhabitants,  of  whom  27,280  were  Catho- 
lics. It  is  the  nominal  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic,  a 
Grseco-Ruthenian  Uniat,  and  a  Russian  Orthodox 
bishop.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Sees  of  Smo- 
lensk and  Livland,  Catherine  II  sought  and  obtained 
from  the  pope  the  establishment  of  the  metropolitan 
See  of  Monflew,  at  the  same  time  arbitrarily  abolishing 
the  See  of  Kieff .  To  make  amends  for  this  sup- 
pression, Paul  I,  with  the  concurrence  of  Pius  VI. 
established,  17  Nov.,  1798,  the  Latin  See  of  Minsk,  and 

g laced  it  imder  the  Metropolitan  of  Mohileff .  The 
ret  bishop  was  Jacob  Ignatius  Dederko,  formeriy  a 
canon  of  Wilna  (d.  1829).  After  his  resignation 
(1816),  the  see  remained  vacant  until  1831.  In  1839 
Pope  Gregory  XVI  appointed  Mathias  Lipski,  after 
whose  death  the  see  again  remained  for  some  time 
without  an  occupant,  the  pmpe  and  the  Russian  Qov- 
emment  being  imable  to  agree  as  to  a  successor.  Like 
the  other  dioceses  of  Western  Russia  and  of  Poland, 


MINT 


334 


HINT 


Minsk  suffered  much  from  the  violent  attempts  at 
proselytism  on  the  part  of  Emperors  Nicholas  I  and 
Alexander  II,  by  whom  the  Uniat  Lithuanians  and 
Kuthenians  were  driven  out.  After  the  death  of 
Bishop  Hermann  Woitkiewicz  (1852-^9)  no  successor 
was  appointed,  owing  to  sovemmental  opposition, 
and  since  then  the  diocese  has  been  administered  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Mohileff .  According  to  the  census 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Mohileff  for  1910,  the  Diocese  of 
Minsk  contained  51  parishes,  with  77  priests  and  262,- 
374  faithful.  The  Uniat  Ruthenian  See  of  Minsk  was 
erected  by  Pius  VI,  9  August,  1798,  but  has  been  left 
vacant  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Russian 
(government.    (See  Russia.) 

Joseph  Linb. 

BSint,  PAPAii. — ^The  right  to  coin  money  being  a 
sovereign  prerogative,  there  can  be  no  papal  coins  of 
earlier  date  than  that  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
popes.  Nevertheless,  there  are  coins  ot  Pope  Zach- 
arias  (741-52),  of  Giegory  III  (Ficoroni,  *'Museo 
Kircheriano"),  and,  possibly,  of  Gregory  II  (715-741). 
There  is  no  doubt  that  these  pieces,  two  of  which  are  of 
silver,  are  true  coins,  and  not  merely  a  species  of 
medals,  like  those  which  were  distributed  as  "  presby- 
tcrium ''  at  the  coronation  of  the  popes  since  the  time 
of  Valentine  (827).  Their  stamp  resembles  that  of 
the  Byzantine  and  Merovinfidtui  coins  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries,  and  their  square  shape  is  also 
found  m  Byzantine  pieces.  Those  that  bear  the  in- 
scription oREii  PAPB — SCI  PTR  (Gregorii  Paps — 
Sancti  Petri)  cannot  be  attributed  to  Pope  Gregory  IV 
(827-44),  because  of  the  neculiarity  of  minting.  The 
existence  of  these  coins,  while  the  popes  vet  recognised 
the  Byzantine  domination,  is  explained  oy  Uartmann 
(Das  KOnigreich  Italien,  Vol.  Ill),  .who  believes 
that,  in  the  eighth  century,  the  popes  received  from 
the  emperors  the  attributes  of  ''Prsfectus  Urbis". 
Under  the  empire,  coins  that  were  struck  in  the 
provinces  bore  the  name  of  some  local  magistrate, 
and  those  coins  of  Gregory  and  of  Zacharias  are  simply 
imperial  Byzantine  pieces,  bearing  the  name  of  the 
first  civil  magistrate  of  the  City  of  Rome.  There  are 
no  coins  of  Stephen  III  or  of  Paul  I,  who  reigned  when 
the  Duchy  of  Rome  was  already  indepenoent  of  the 
Eastern  Empire;  the  first  true  papal  coins  are  those 
of  Adrian  I,  from  whose  time  until  the  reign  of  John 
XIV  (984)  the  popes  coined  monev  at  Rome. 

There  is  no  pontifical  money  of  a  date  between  the 
last-named  year  and  1305;  this  is  explained,  in  part, 
by  the  fact  that  the  Senate  of  Rome,  which  sought 
to  replace  the  papacy  in  the  temporal  eovemment 
of  the  city,  took  over  the  mint  in  1143.  On  the  other 
hand,  Prince  Alberic  had  already  coined  money  in 
his  own  name.  The  coins  of  the  Senate  of  Rome 
usually  bear  the  inscription  "  roma  caput  mundi  ", 
or,  s.  p.  Q.  R.,  or  both,  with  or  without  emblems.  In 
1188  the  mint  was  restored  to  the  pope  (Clement 
III),  with  the  agreement,  however,  that  half  of  its 
profits  should  be  assigned  to  the  sindacOf  or  mayor. 
The  Senate,  meanwhile,  continued  to  coin  money,  and 
there  is  no  reference,  on  the  coins  of  that  time,  to 
the  papal  authority.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
Sindaco  caused  his  own  name  to  be  stamped  upon  the 
coins,  and,  consequently,  we  have  coins  of  Branca- 
leone,  of  Charles  I  of  Anjou,  of  Francesco  Anguillara, 
viceroy  of  Robert  of  Naples,  etc. ;  so,  also,  did  King 
Ladislao.  Cola  di  Rienzi,  during  his  brief  tribunate, 
likewise  struck  coins,  with  the  inscription:  n.  tribun. 
AuouBT.:  ROMA  CAPU.  uu.  Papal  coins  reappeared 
with  the  removal  of  the  pontifical  Court  to  Avignon, 
although  there  exists  a  single  coin  that  *is  referred  to 
Benedict  XI  (1303-4),  with  the  legend  coitat.  vbna- 
BiN;  as,  however,  this  pope  never  resided  in  Venaissin, 
which  had  belonged  to  the  Holy  See  since  1274,  the 
coin  should  be  referred  to  Benedict  XII.  There  are 
coins  of  all  the  popes  from  John  XXII  to  Pius  IX. 


The  popes,  and  also  the  Senate  when  it  eoinec 
money,  appear  to  have  used  the  imperial  mint  of 
Rome,  which  was  on  the  slope  of  the  Campidoglio, 
not  far  from  the  Arch  of  Septimius  Severus ;  but,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  mint  was  near  the  bonk  of 
Santo  Spirito.  Finally,  in  1665,  Alexander  \1I 
moved  it  to  the  rear  of  the  apse  of  St.  Peter's,  where 
it  is  at  present.  Bernini  invent^  for  it  a  machine 
to  do  the  work  more  rapidly,  and  Francesco  Girardini 
furnished  a  verv  sensitive  balance ;  so  that  the  mint  of 
RcHne  was  tecnnically  the  most  perfect  one  of  those 
times.  In  1845  Pius  IX  eauipjied  it  with  the  most 
modem  appliances.  The  aommistration  of  the  mint 
was  at  first  entrusted  to  the  cardinal  camerlengo; 
direct  supervision,  however,  was  exereised  by  the 
senate,  from  the  time  at  least  when  that  body  took 
possession  of  the  mint,  until  the  reign  of  Martin  V. 
The  sindaco  and  the  conservators  of  the  Camera 
Capitolina  appointed  the  masters  of  the  mint,  while 
the  mintine  was  witnessed  by  the  heads  of  the  guild 
of  goldsmitns  and  silversmith^.  In  1322  John  XXII 
created  the  office  of  treasurer  for  the  mint  of  Avignon, 
and  its  incumbent,  little  by  little,  made  himself  in- 
dependent of  the  camerlengo.  Later,  the  office  of 
prelate  president  of  the  mint  was  created.  According 
to  Lunadori  (Relax,  della  Corte  di  Roma,  1646),  the 
establishments  for  the  coining  of  money  were  in 
charge  of  a  congregation  of  cardinals. 

Rome  was  not  the  only  city  of  the  Pontifical  States 
that  had  a  mint:  prior  to  the  year  1000,  there  existed 
at  Ravenna  the  former  imperial  mint,  which  was  ceded 
in  996  to  Archbishop  Gerberto  by  Gregory  V;  there 
were  mints  also  at  Spoleto  and  at  Benevento,  former 
residences  of  Lombard  dukes.  The  Arehbishop  of 
Ravenna,  who  was  a  feudatory  of  the  emperor  rather 
than  of  the  pope,  coined  money  as  long  as  his  temporal 
power  over  that  city  and  its  territory  lasted.  The 
mint  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI  was  established  at 
Bologna  in  1194,  and  nearly  all  of  the  coins  struck 
there  bear  the  motto  bononia  docet,  or  bomokia 
MATER  BTUDioRUM.  The  haxoccki  of  Bologna  were 
called  botogninif  while  the  gold  bolognino  was  equiva- 
lent to  a  gold  sequin.  The  lirOf  also  a  Bologneee  coin, 
was  worth  20  bolognini.  These  coins  were  struck  in 
the  name  of  the  commune;  it  is  only  from  the  time 
when  Bologna  was  recovered  by  the  Holy  See,  under 
Clement  VI,  that  Bolognese  coins  may  oe  r^arded 
as  papal. 

Other  cities  had  mints  because  they  were  the  capi- 
tals of  principalities  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  or  in 
virtue  of  a  privilege  granted  them  by  some  prince; 
and  when  these  feudal  states  fell  to  the  Holy  See,  thej 
retained  the  mints  as  papal  establishments.  This 
was  so  in  the  case  of  Camerino  (from  Leo  X  to  Paul 
III),  Urbino,  Pesaro  and  Gubbio  (under  Julius  II, 
Leo  X,  and  Clement  XI),  Ferrara  (from  QemCTt 
VIII),  Parma  and  Piacenza  (from  Julius  II  to  Paul 
III).  There  were  other  cities  to  which  the  popes 
granted  a  mint  for  limited  periods  of  time,  as  Anoona 
(from  Sixtus  IV  to  Pius  VI),  Aquila  (I486,  wheo 
that  city  rebelled  against  Ferdinand  I  of  Naples  and 
gave  its  allegiance  to  Innocent  VIII ;  its  coins,  which 
are  very  rare,  bear  the  inscription  aquilana  libeb- 
tab),  Ascoli  (from  Martin  V  to  Pius  VI),  Avignon 
(from  Qement  V  on),  Carpentras  (under  Clement 
VIII),  Venaissm  (from  Boniface  VIII),  Fabriano 
(under  Leo  X),  Fano  (from  Innocent  VIII  to  Clement 
VIII),  Fermo  (from  Boniface  IX,  1390,  to  Leo  X), 
The  Marehes  (from  Boniface  IX  to  Gregoxy  XIII), 
Macerata  (from  Boniface  IX  to  Gregory  XIV), 
Modena  (under  Leo  X  and  Clement  VII),  Montalto 
(under  Sixtus  V),  Orvieto  (under  Julius  II),  the 
"Patrimony"  (from  Benedict  XI  to  Benedict  All), 
Perugia  (from  Julius  II  to  Julius  III),  Ravenna  (from 
Leo  X  to  Paul  III,  and  under  Benedict  XIV), 
Recanati  (under  Nicholas  V),  Reggb  (from  Juliui 
II  to  Adrian  VI),  Spoleto  (under  Piul  11),  Dudiy  of 


335  MINT 

^x>letDy  pRovxNciJB  DucATus  (undoT  Paul  V)t  Viterbo  the  engraven,  also,  put  their  ciphers  on  the  noms* 

(under  Urbsoi  VI  and  Siztus  IV).    Pius  VI,  being  amon^  these  engravers  may  be  named  Benvenuto 

obliged  to  coin  a  great  deal  of  copper  money,  gave  the  Cellim,  Francesco  Raibolini,  called  11  Francia  (Bolo- 

minting  of  it  to  a  great  manv  cities  of  the  Patrimony,  gna),  the  four  Hamerani,  Giulio  Romano  (trident), 

of  Umbria,  and  of  the  Marches,  which,  together  with  Cavaliere  Lucenti,  Andrea  Perpenti,  etc.    Until  the 

thoac  fliready  named,  continuea  to  strike  these  coins;  time  of  Pius  VI,  the  dies  for  tne  mint  remained  the 

among  them  were  Civitavecchia.  Gubbio.  Matelica,  propertv  of  the  engravers. 

RoncigUone  (the  coins  of  1799  snowing  tne  burning        The  B^santine  monetary  system  is  followed  in  the 

of  this  city  are  famous),  Temi,  and  Tivoli.    Hua  Vll  papal  comage  \mtil  the  reien  of  Leo  III,  after  which 

suppressed  all  the  mints  except  those  of  Rome  and  of  the  system  of  the  Frankisn  Empire  obtains.    John 

Bologna.  XXII  adopted  the  Florentine  system,  and  coined 

As  far  back  as  1370  there  were  coins  struck  during  gold  florins;  the  weight  of  this  com,  however,  varied 

the  vacancies  of  the  Holy  See,  by  authority  of  the  from  22  carats  to  30,  until  Gregory  XI  reduced  it  to 

cardinal  camerlen^,  who,  after  the  fifteenth  century  the  original  24  carats;  but  deterioration  came  again, 

at  least,  caused  his  name  and  his  coat  of  arms  to  be  and  then  there  were  two  kinds  of  florins,  the  papal 

stampea  on  the  reverse  of  the  coin.  Ihe  obverse  bearing  florin,  which  maintained  the  old  weight,  and  the  florin 

the  words  "SEDBVACANTs"  and  the  date,  surrotmding  di  Camera,  the  two  being  in  the  ratio  of  69  papal 

the  crossed  k^  sunnounted  by  the  pavilion.    All  florins  =s  100  florins  di  Camera  s  1  gold  pound  s  10 

papal  coins,  with  rare  exceptions,  bear  the  name  of  earlint.    The  ducat  was  coined  in  the  papal  mint 

the  pope,  preceded  (until  the  time  of  Paul  II)  by  a  from  the  year  1432;  it  was  a  coin  of  Venetian  origia 

Greek  cross,  and  nesuiy  all  of  the  more  ancient  ones  that  circmated  with  the  florin,  which.  In  1531,  was 

bear,  dther  on  the  obverse  or  on  the  reverse,  the  succeeded  by  the  scudo,  a  i)iece  of  French  origin  that 

words  8.  FKTRUS,  and  some  of  thexn.  the  words  s.  remained  the  monetary  unit  of  the  PontificalStates. 

PAULU8  also.    From  Leo  III  to  the  Ottos,  the  coins  At  the  same  time,  there  appeared  the  zecehino.    The 

bear  the  name  of  the  emperor  as  well  as  mat  of  the  ancient  papal  florin  was  equal  to  2  scudi  and  11 

pope.    After  the  sixteenw  century  the  coat  of  arms  baiocchi  (1  oaiocco  =  0*01  scudi) ;  one  ducat  was  eaual 

of  tiie  pope  alone  frequently  appears  on  pontifical  to  one  scudo  and  9  baiocchi.    The  scudo  also  under- 

ooins.    There  are  also  found  images  of  the  Saviour,  or  went  fluctuations.  In  the  market  and  in  its  weight: 

of  saints,  svmbolical  figures  of  men  or  of  animals,  the  so  called  ecudo  deUe  etampe  (1595)  was  worUi 

the  keys  (which  appear  for  the  first  time  on  the  coins  184*2  baiocchi,  that  is,  a  little  less  than  2  scudi. 

of  Benevento),  etc.    From  the  sixteenth  century  to  Benedict  XIII  re-established  the  good  quality  of  the 

the  ei^teenth.  Biblical  or  moral  phrases  are  added,  alloy,  but  under  Pius  VI  it  again  deteriorated.    In 

in  allusion  to  the  saint  or  to  the  sjrmbol  that  is  1835  Gregory  XVI  regulated  the  monetary  system  of 

stamped  upon  the  coin,  as,  for  example,  monstra  tb  the  Pontifical  States,  establishing  the  scudo  as  the 

ESSE  matrem,  bpes  NOSTRA,  BUB  TUX7M  PRjBsiDiuM,  Unit,  and  dividing  it  into  100  baiocchi,  while  the 

TOTA  puix^HRA,  BUPRA  FiRMAM  PBTRAM,  DA  RECTA  baiocco  was  divided  into  5  quattrini  (the  quattrino, 

BAPERB  (during  the  Conclave),  ubi  thesaurus  ibi  until  1591,  had  been  equal  to  i  of  a  baiocco).    The 

COR,  CRBBCENTBM  SEQUTTUR  cuRA  PECUNiAM,  HiLAREM  scudo  was  coiucd  both  in  gold  oud  in  silvcr;  there 

datorem  Diuorr  deub,  pro  pretiq  ANiMiS,  PERRo  were  pieces  of  10  scudi,  cal^  Gregorine;'and  pieces 

NOCENTHTB  AURUM,  IN  SUDORE  vui/FUB,  GONSERVATiB  of  5  scudi,  and  of  2}  scudi  wcrc  also  coined.    The 

PBREUNT,  TOLLE  ET  PROUCE,  etc.    Sometimes  allusion  scudo  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  equal  to  1*65 

is  made  to  an  historical  event,  as  the  acquisition  of  scudi  of  Pius  VII,  which  last  was  adopted  by  Gregory 

Ferrara,  or  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  (1683),  or  to  XVI ;  the  secchino  was  worth  2*2  scudi.    The  scudo 

some  concession  of  the  pope  to  his  subjects,  or  to  is  equal  to  5*3  lire  in  the  monetary  system  of  the 

a  jubilee.    From  the  time  of  Clement  X  the  coins  Latin  Union.    The  fractional  silver  coins  were  the  half 

struck  at  Rome  bear  a  minute  representation  of  the  scudo,  and  the  fff^io.  called  also  paolo,  which  was 

coat  of  arms  of  the  prelate  in  charge  of  the  mint,  equal  to  0*1  scuai.    The  latter  coin  was  created  by 

a  custom  that  obtained  until  1817.    The  only  in-  Julius  II  in  order  to  put  the  car/ini  of  Charles  of  Anjou 

stance  of  a  cardinal  camerlengo  stamping  his  coat  of  out  of  circulation,  these  coins  being  of  bad  alloy, 

arms  on  the  coins  during  the  lifetime  of  the  pope  is  There  were  pieces  of  2  giidu  that  were  called  paveUi, 

that  of  Cardinal  Armellini,  under  Adrian  VI,  in  the  at  Rome,  and  lire  at  Bologna,  a  name  that  was  Later 

case  of  four  grosd,  given  to  them  officially.    A  groaeo,  iatitxluced  in 

The  mints  outside  of  Rome   stamped  the  coins  1736,  was  equal  to  half  a  giulio  (25  baiocchi) ;  there 

with  the  arms  of  their  respective  cities,  or  with  those  were  also  the  mezzogroaeo,  and  the  teaUme  =  30  giulii. 

of  the  cardinal  legate,  of  the  vice-legate,  or  of  the  The  copper  coins  were  the  baiocco  or  soldo  (which 

governor!  thus,  (Cardinal  Scipione  Borg^ese  in  1612  was  called  bologmno,  at  Bologna)  and  the  2  baiocchi 

struck  coins  at  Avignon  with  nis  own  name  and  arms,  piece.    The  name  baiocco  is  derived  from  ti^t  of  the 

omitting  the  name  of  the  pope,  an  example  that  was  city  of  Bayeux. 

followea  a  ye&T  later  by  the  pro-legate  Cardinal        Other  coins  that  were  used  at  various  times  in  the 

Filonardi.    Thecity  ver^oftenplaoed  theimageof  its  Pontifical  States  were  the  haiocchdla  =  1  baiocco, 

patron  saint  on  its  coina.    Ine  date  came  to  be  a  copper  piece  with  a  silver  surface,  and  therefore 

stamped  on  coins  that  were  struck  during  the  vacan-  smaller  than  the  copper  baiocco;  there  were  coins 

cies  of  the  Holy  See,  occasionally  at  first,  and  later  made  of  the  two  metals  of  the  values,  respectively, 

as  a  rule ;  it  rardy  appears  on  other  coins  before  1550;  of  2, 4, 6, 8, 12,  and  16  baiocchi ;  the  copper  madonnina 

the  practice  became  fl»neral  in  the  seventeenth  cen-  (Bologna)  =  5  baiocchi;  the  eampietrino  (Pius  VI) 

tury,  the  year  of  the  Christian  era  or  that  of  the  pon-  =  2}  oaiocchi;  the  valttdella  was  a  soldo,  made  of  an 

tificate  being  used ;  and  Gregory  XVI  established  it  by  alloy  of  copper  ana  silver,  established  b^  Pius  VI 

law,  as  also  the  lequirement  that  each  coin  should  as  a  more  easily  portable  specie  with  which  to  pay 

bear  upon  it  an  expression  of  its  value.    At  Bologna  the  workmen  of  the  Pontine  Marshes;  the  eeHno  =  0*4 

as  eariy  as  the  seventeenth  century,  the  value  of  gold  of  a  baiocco  =:  2  quattrini;  the  leonina  (Leo  XII) 

or  silver  coins  was  usually  Indicated  with  the  figures  =  4-4  Greeorian  scudi ;  the  doblone  =  2  old  scudi 

20,  40,  80,  etc.,  i.  e.  so  many  bolognini  or  baioc3hi;  =  3*3  scuai  of  the  nineteenth  century;  there  were 

at  Rome,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  nearly  all  the  dobloni  of  the  relative  values  of  4,  8,  and  16  scudi; 

copper  coins  bore  an  indication  of  their  value.    The  the  doppio  was  worth  a  little  less  than  the  doblone, 

rim  of  papal  coins  rarely  bore  an  inscription ;  at  most,  that  is,  3*21  scudi  of  the  nineteenth  century;  at 

the  monogram  of  the  city  in  which  the  coin  was  struck  Bologna  there  were  also  coined  scudi  of  80  baiocchi, 

was  stamped  upon  it.    From  the  sixteenth  century,  and  half-scudi  of  40  baiocchi;  the  gabella  was  a  Bolo- 


BdNucnni                    336  MUiuuius 

gnege  eoin,  equivalent  to  a  carlino  or  giulio;  the  Cyprian  (De  Virisy  Iviii).    Fronto  (d.  about  170) 

gabeUone  was  equivalent  to  26  bolognini  (baiooehi) ;  is  mentioned  by  Minucius.    If  the  treatise  "  Quod 

the  franco,   in   the   fifteenth    century,   was  wortii  idda  non  dii  sint"  is  by  St.  Cyprian  (d.  about  258) 

12  baiocchi  at  Bologna,  but  only  10  baiooehi  at  there  is  no  need  of  gpins  beyond  that  dat«,  for  this 

Rome;  the  albereUi  was  a  two-baiooco  piece  that  was  treatise  is  based  on  tne  "Octavius^'.    It  is  true  that 

coined  by  the  Roman  Republic  (1798-09).  the  attribution  of  the  aforesaid  treatise  to  St.  Cypriaa 

No  official  collection  of  the  j>apal  coins  was  made  has  been  contested,  but  without  serious  reason.    If 

before  the  time  of  Benedict  XIV,  who  acquired  from  thia  be  rejected  there  is  no  period  ante  quern  before 

Cardinal  Passionei  the  valuable  collection  of  Scilla  Lactantius. 

which  was  enriched  later  by  other  acquisitions;  in  The  birthplace  of  the  author  is  believed  to  be 

1809,  however,  it  was  taken  to  Paris,  and  was  never  Africa.    This  is  not  proved  by  Minucius's  iznitatioQ 

recovered.    In  the  nineteenth  century  the  Holy  See  of  African  authors,  any  more  than  it  is  by  the  reeem- 

obtained  possession  of  the  fine  collection  of  Belli,  blance  between  Minucius  and  Tertullian.     At  this 

begun  in  the  previous  oenturv  bv  Luigi  Tommasini,  period  the  principal  writers  were  Africans,  and  it 

and  this  collection  became  the  oasis  of  the  Niunis-  was  natural  that  a  Latin,  of  whatever  province  he 

matic  Cabinet,  which  is  under  the  direction  of  the  pre-  might  be,  would  read  and  imitate  them.     The  allu- 

fect  of  the  Vatican  Library  and  has  a  special  custodian,  sions  to  the  customs  and  belief  of  Africa  are  numerous, 

Since  the  loss  of  the  temporal  power,  the  pope  has  not  but  this  may  be  explained  bv  the  African  oii^jn  o€  the 

coined  money:  each  year,  however,  he  strikes  the  champion  of  paaanism.    Tne  "Octavius"  is  a  dia- 

customary  medal  for  the  feast  of  Saint  Peter,  which  logue  of  whicn  Ostia  is  the  scene.    Caecilius  Natalis 

is  given  to  cardinals  and  to  the  employees  of  the  upholds  the  cause  of  paganism,  Octavius  Januanus 

Roman  Curia.  that  of  Christianity;  tne  author  himself  is  the  judge 

CDiAQiA,l^moneudeip<nndsseriu»iniaw»UnnoU%ch€(Fevmot  of  the  debate.    Cscilius  Natalis  was  a  native  of 

BtUi  (Rome.  1835);  FuoRAVANTM.il nhju*  rmnanorum  jxyntifi'  V;™'."®  ."^  ai   ttOme   anu   auentiveiy   tOUOWea 

cum  denani  a  Bensdielo  JX  ad  PatUum  III  (2  vols.,  Rome,  MmuciUS  m  his  activity  as  an  advocate.     OcUviUB 

1738};  Promu,  Maneu  dei  rwnani  ponufiei  avarui  U  1000  had  just  arrived  from  a  foreign  country  where  he  had 

&;;«J^i'jJa'S^V^"tSS&r$?n{to^^^  left  6ia  f«nay.    Minucius  liv«l  at  Rome     AM  ^ 

Capobiancbx,  OrM,n€  deUa  Meeca  del  Senato  rrnnano  nd  uoolo  Were  advocates.     The  name  Mmucius  Fehx  has  been 

XII  (Oamaiino,  1883);  Ambrobou,  Atianlino  di  monete  papali  foimd    on    inscriptions    at    Tebessa    and    Carthage 

':i^:^t:S^%£^^'i^%.Th^&cXI^  ^'-  J^P-  ^y  Vni,  1964  «d  mw; ;  that  of 

pou,  Qarampi.  DxAiuLLA.  PiLA,  Caronx,  VxTALiNi.  Orkooro-  Octavius  JanuaHus  at  Sald»   (Bougie;  ib.,   8962): 

TtUB.  ete.     Orpbr.  De  veterU  numiamatia  potetiaU  ejuaque  that  of  Cscilius  at  Cirta  itself  (ib.,  7097-7098,  6996). 

SSS5«i;2.f^^:2Si?^lfil^?°"^"  '^'^'  ""*■  The  M.  C«ciliu8.  Natalyi  of  the  inBcriptions  di^arged 

U.  Benigni.  important  municipal  duties  and  gave  pagan  festivals 

with  memorable  prodiradity.     He  may  have  belonged 

Blinnciiui  Nix,  (Iliristian   apologist,  flourished  to  the  same  family  as  tbe  interlocutor  of  the  dialogue, 

between  160  and  300;  the  exact  date  is  not  known.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  make  them  identical 

His    "Octavius"  has   numerous   points   of   aeree-  or  to  establish  family  relationship  between  them, 

ment    with    the    '' Apologetic iim''    of    Tertullian,  These  are  pure  hypotheses  subordinate  to  the  opinion 

similarities  that  have  b«en  explained  by  the  theoiy  of  entertained  regarding  the  date  of  the  dialogue, 

a  common  source — an  apology  written  in  Latin,  and  The  persons  are  real.    The  dialogue  may  likewise 

which  is  supposed  to  have  disappeared  without  leav-  be  so,  despite  the  fact  that  Minucius  has  transformed 

ing  any  trace,  not  even  in  the  name  of  its  author,  into  an  almost  judicial  debate  what  must  have  been  a 

This  hypothesis  is  now  generally  abandoned.    It  mere  conversation  or  series  of  ccmversations.     Owing 

seems  improbable  that  such  a  work,  from  which  to  the  adjournment  of  the  courts  during  the  vintage 

Minueius  and  Tertullian  might  have  drawn,  would  time,  the  three  friends  went  for  rest  to  Ostia.     Here 

have  so  thoroughly  disappeared.    Lactantius  (Diu.  they  walked  on  the  sesrshore,  and  when  they  passed 

Inst.,  V,  i,  21^  enumerates  the  apologists  who  pre-  before  a  statue  of  Serapis,  Ceecilius  saluted  it  with  the 

ceded  him  ana  does  not  even  suspect  the  existence  customary  kiss.     Octavius  thereupon  expressed  his 

of  such  a  writer.    The  most  natural  supposition  is  indignation  that  Minucius  should  allow  bis  daily 

that  one  of  the  two  writers,  Minucius  or  Tertullian,  companion  to  fall  into  idolatry.    They  resume  their 

is    directly    dependent    on    the    other.    Formerly,  walk  while  Octavius  gives  an  account  of  his  voyage; 

Minucius  was  regarded  as  posterior  to  Tertullian.  they  go  to  and  fro  on  the  shore  and  the  quay;  they 

The  first  doubts  in  this  respect  were  expressed  in  watch  children  jumping  about  in  the  sea.    "nus  be- 

France  by  Blondel  in  1641,  by  Dallaeus  in  1660,  and  ginning  is  charming;  it  is  the  most  perfect  portion  of 

in  England  by  Dodwell.    The  theory  of  the  priority  Qie  work.    During  the  walk  Caecilius,  silenoed  by  the 

of  Minucius  was  defended  by  van  Hoven  in  the  second  words  of  Octavius,  has  not  spoken.    He  now  explains 

edition  of  Lindner  in  1773.    In  modem  times  it  was  himself  and  it  is  agreed  to  settle  the  debate.     They 

most  ably  defended  by  Ebert.    The  priority  of  Ter-  seat  themselves  on  a  lonely  pier;  Minucius  seated  in 

tullian  has  been  chiefly  defended  by  Aa.  Hamack,  who  the  centre  is  to  be  the  arbitrator.    Thereupon  Cs- 

has  been  refuted  by  A.  Krueger.    M.  Waltzing,  the  cilius  begins  by  attacking  Christianity;  Minueius  says 

scholar  best  acquainted  with  Minucius  Felix  and  a  few  words,  and  then  Octavius  replies.    At  the  end 

what  has  been  written  about  him,  is  inclined  to  think  Minucius  and  Csecilius  express  their  admiration  and 

him  anterior  to  Tertullian.    The  axguments  in  favour  the  latter  declares  that  ne  surrenders.     Fuller  ex- 

of  <me  or  the  other  of  these  theories  are  not  decisive,  planations  of  the  new  religion  are  postponed  until  the 

However,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  passages  taken  next  day.    The  dialogue  therefore  consists  of  two 

from  the  ancient  authors,  such  as  Seneca,  Varro,  and  discourses,  the  attack  of  Csecilius  and  the  refutation 

especially  Cicero,  Minucius  seems  to  be  more  exact  of  Octavius. 

and  closer  to  the  original;  consequently  he  seems  to  The  discussion  bears  on  a  small  number  of  points: 

be  intermediary  between  them  and  Tertullian-     The  the  possibiliti  of  man  arriving  at  the  truth,  creation, 

ecclesiastical  authors  were  probably  not  better  in-  Providence,  tne  unitv  of  God,  the  necessity  of  keepiz^ 

formed  than  we  ar&  with  regard  to  Minucius.     Lactan-  the  religion  of  one's  ancestors  and  especially  the 

tins  puts  him  before  Tertullian  (Diu.  Inst.,  I,  xi,  55 ;  V,  i,  advanta^  to  the  Romans  of  the  worship  of  the  gods, 

21),  and  St.  Jerome  after;  but  St.  Jerome  contradicts  the  low  cnaracter  of  Christians,  their  tendency  to  con- 

himself  by  putting  him  after  St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ixx,  ceal  themselves,  their  crimes  (incest,  worship  oJ  an  ass's 

(Ixxxiii);  v;  1x;  xlviii;  ''In  Isaiam'',  VlII,  prspi.),  ana  head,  the  adoration  of  the  generative  organs  of  the 

elsewhere  putting  him  between  Tertullian  and  St.  priest,  prayers  addressed  to  a  criminal,  saciifioe  of 


MfttAHTt.TA 


337 


lymtAiiiT.TA 


ehfldxen)  their  impious  and  absurd  eonoeption  of  the 
Divinity,  their  doctrine  of  the  end  of  the  world  and  the 
lesurreetion  of  the  dead,  the  hardships  of  their  life, 
threatened,  and  exposed  without  remedy  to  all  sorts 
of  dangers,  cut  off  from  the  joys  of  life.  In  this 
debate  the  conception  of  Christianity  is  very  limited, 
and  is  reduced  almost  solely  to  the  unity  oi  God, 
Providence,  the  resurrection,  and  reward  after  death. 
The  name  of  Christ  does  not  app«ir;  among  the 
apoloeists  of  the  second  century  Anstides,  St.  Justin, 
and  Tertullian  are  the  only  ones  who  pronounced  it. 
But  Minucius  omits  the  characteristic  points  of 
Christianity  in  dogma  and  worship ;  this  is  not  because 
he  is  bound  to  silence  by  the  discipline  of  the  secret, 
for  St.  Justin  and  Tertullian  do  not  fear  to  enter 
into  these  details.  Moreover  in  the  discussion  itself 
Octavius  ends  abruptly.  To  the  accusation  of  ador- 
ing a  criminal  he  contents  himself  with  replying  that 
the  Crucified  One  was  neither  a  man  nor  guilty  (xxix, 
2)  and  he  is  silent  with  regard  to  the  mysteries  of  the 
Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  and  the  Redemption  which 
would  have  made  clear  his  reply.  He  merely  repels 
the  accusation  of  incest  and  infanticide  without 
describing  the  agape  or  the  Eucharist  (xxx  and  xxxi). 
He  does  not  quote  Scripture,  or  at  least  very  little; 
and  he  does  not  mention  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophe- 
cies. On  the  other  hand  he  makes  only  a  brief  allusion 
to  the  manner  of  proceeding  against  the  Christians 
(xxiii,  3).  He  does  not  speak  of  the  loyalty  of  the 
Christians  towards  the  state  and  the  emperors. 
Political  and  judicial  considerations,  which  are  given 
so  much  space  in  Tertullian,  are  almost  entirely 
absent  here.  These  omissions  are  explained  by  a 
voluntary  limitation  of  the  subject.  Minucius  wished 
only  to  remove  the  prejudices  of  the  pagans,  to  pre- 
possess his  readers  by  a  pleasant  discussion,  ana  to 
imow  them  the  possibility  of  Christianity.  He  himself 
indicated  this  intention  by  putting  off  until  the  next 
day  a  more  profound  discussion  (xl,  2) .  He  addressed 
himself  chiefly  to  the  learned,  to  sceptics,  and  to  the 
cultured ;  and  wished  to  prove  to  them  that  there  was 
nothing  in  the  new  relision  that  was  incompatible 
with  the  resources  of  dialectics  and  the  ornaments  of 
rhetoric.  In  a  word  his  work  is  an  Introduction  to 
Christianity,  a  Protrepticon. 

It  is  a  mosaic  of  imitations,  especially  of  Cicero, 
Seneca,  and  Vireil.  The  plan  itself  is  that  of  the  "  De 
natura  deorum"  of  Cicero,  and  Csecilius  here  pla)rs 
the  r61e  of  Cotta.  However  the  personages  have  their 
peculiar  characteristics.    Csecilius  is  a  young  man, 

Eresumptuous,  somewhat  vain,  sensitive,  yielding  to 
is  fiirst  impression.  Octavius  is  more  sedate,  out 
provincial  lue  seems  to  have  made  him  more  intoler- 
ant ;  his  pl«Mling  is  hot  and  emotional.  Minucius  is 
more  inoul^nt  and  calm.  These  learned  men  are 
charmins  fnends.  The  dialogue  itself  is  a  monument 
of  friencwhip.  Minucius  wrote  it  in  memory  of  his 
dear  Octavius,  recently  deceased.  In  reading  it  one 
thinks  of  Pliny  the  Younger  and  his  friends.  These 
minds  adiibited  the  same  delicacy  and  culture.  The 
style  is  composite,  being  a  harmonious  combination 
of  the  Ciceronian  period  with  the  brilliant  and  short 
sentences  of  the  new  school.  It  sometimes  assumes 
poetic  tints,  but  the  dominating  colour  is  that  of 
Cicero.  By  the  choice  of  subjects  treated,  his  ease  in 
reconciling  very  different  ideas  and  styles,  the  art  of 
combinations  in  ideas  as  well  as  in  language,  Minucius 
FelJbc  belong  to  the  first  rank  of  Latin  writers  whose 
talent  consisted  in  blending  heterogeneous  elements 
and  in  proving  themselves  individual  and  original 

in  imitation. 

Mnruaus  Fbux,  Oetaviua,  ed.  Waltiing  (Louvain,  1903); 
WAtmiro.  Siudia  minucianat  I  and  II  (Louvain,  1006):  Idem, 
Ottamiua  de  Minuciua  Felix  t  itUroduetion,  tezte,  commerUaire, 
traduction,  langue  H  wyfdaxe,  appendic4  eritigtie  (2  vols.,  BruKes, 
1909);  Idbu,  Lexicon  Minucianum  in  Bib.  de  la  faculU  de  phv- 
loopkie  ei  iMree  de  VVnivermU  de  LUhje.  fasc.  iii  (U^se  and  Paris, 
1909).  A  complete  bibliography  will  be  found  in  the  firat  throe 
fvorki.with  analyses  and  discussion.    Recently  Eltxr  in  his 


Pfdleoo^neina  mu  Minuciue  Felix  (Bonn,  1909),  has  aitemptad  to 
show  the  Oetaviua  to  be  a  **eonsolation"  intended  exduiivsly 
for  Christian  readen;  this  theoiy  is  without  probability. 

Paul  Lbiat. 

KEirabilia  XMAb  Rom»,  the  title  of  a  medieval 
Latin  description  of  the  city  of  Rome,  dating  from 
about  1150.  Unham]>ered  by  any  vei^  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  historical  continuity  of  the  city,  the 
unknown  author  has  described  the  monuments  of 
Rome,  displaying  a  considerable  amount  of  inventive 
faculty.  From  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  VIII 
(1294r-1303)  to  that  of  John  XXII  (131&-34)  it  was 
revised  and  attained  imquestioned  authority,  despite 
the  increase  in  the  already  large  number  of  miscon- 
ceptions and  errors.  Attention  was  first  called  to 
these  different  recensions  by  de  Rossi  in  the  first 
volume  of  his  "Roma  Sotteiranea"  (158  sqq.).  Al- 
most simultaneouslv  appeared  two  editions  of  the 
text^  by  Parthey  (''Mirabilia  Romss  e  codicibus  Vati- 
canis  emendata  ,  Berlin,  1869)  and  by  Jordan  ("To* 
pographie  der  Stadt  Rom  im  Altertum",  II,  Berlin, 
1871 ,  60&-43),  respectively.  In  the  third  section  Jor- 
dan discusses  at  some  length  the  Mirabilia  and  its 
redactions  (357 sqq.),  in  the  fourth,  the  earlier  divisions 
of  the  work  (401  sqq.);  and  in  the  fifth,  the  topography 
of  the  Mirabilia  (421  sqq.),  presenting  most  valuable 
information,  the  result  of  much  research  on  all  the 
questions  involved.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of 
Duchesne  in  the  "Liber  Oensuum  de  TEglise  Ro- 
maine''  (I,  Paris,  1905,  262-73),  being  the  text  of  the 
original  of  Oencius  Camerarius  with  the  variants  of 
four  other  manuscripts.  Especially  valuable  for  a 
proper  conception  of  the  Mirabilia  are  the  125  notes 
appended  by  Duchesne  on  pp.  273--83,  many  of  them 
of  considerable  length.  (The  concordance  with  the 
text  in  the  "  Exoerta  politici  a  presbitero  Benedicto 
compositi  de  ordinibus  Romanis  et  dignitatibus  Urbis 
et  Sacri  Palatii"  may  be  foimd  in  uie  "Liber  Oen- 
Buum  ",  vol.  II,  91, 92,  n.  5.)  A  critical  edition  of  the 
"Mirabilia  Urbis"  is  still  lacking.  The  contents  of 
the  Mirabilia  fall  into  the  following  sections,  the  titles 
being  taken  from  the  "Liber  Censuimi":  (1)  De  muro 
urbis  (concerning  the  wall  of  the  city);  (2)  De  portis 
urbis  (the  gates  of  the  city);  (3)  De  miliaribus  (the 
milestones);  (4)  Nomina  portanun  (the  names  of  the 
gates);  (5)  Quot  porte  sunt  Transtiberim  (how  many 
gates  are  beyond  the  Tiber);  (6)  De  arcubus  (the 
arches);  (7)  De  montibus  (the  hills):  (8)  De  tennis 
(the  baths);  (9)  De  palatiis  (the  palaces);  (10)  De 
theatris  (the  theatres);  (11)  De  locis  qui  inveniimtur 
in  sanctorum  passionibus  (the  places  mentioned  in  the 
"passions"  of  the  saints);  (12)  De  pontibus  (the 
bridges);  (13)  De  cimiteriis  (the  cemeteries);  (14)  De 
iussione  Octaviani  imperatoris  et  responsione  Sibille 
(the  demand  of  the  Emperor  Octavian  and  the  Sibyl's 
response);  (15)  Quare  facti  sunt  caballi  marmorei 
(why  the  marble  horses  were  made);  (16)  Denomini- 
bus  iudicum  et  eorum  instructionibus  (the  names  of 
the  judges  and  their  instructions);  (17)  De  columna 
Antonii  et  Trajani  (the  colmnn  of  Antony  and  Tra- 
jan) ;  (18)  Quare  factus  sit  equus  qui  dicitur  Constan- 
tinus  (why  the  horse  was  made,  which  is  called  of 
Constant ine);  (19)  Quare  factum  sit  Pantheon  et 
postmodum  oratio  B.  (why  the  pantheon  was  built 
and  later  oration  B.) ;  (20)  Quare  Octavianus  vocatus 
sit  Augustus  et  quare  dicatur  ecclesia  Sancti  Petri 
ad  vincula  (Why  Octavianus  was  called  Augustus, 
and  why  the  church  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula  was  so 
called);  (21)  De  vaticanoet  Agulio;  (22)  Quot  sunt 
templa  trans  Tiberim  (how  many  temples  are  beyond 
the  Tiber);  (23)  Predicatio  sanctorum  (the  preaching 
of  the  saints). 

The  reader  may  consult  in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned 
authors,  the  M<maUberichte  of  the  Berlin  Academy  (1800), 
681  Boq.;  GrX6sr,  BeitrUffe  tur  LiUeratur  vnd  Sage  dee  Mittelal^ 
tera:   TNibbt].  Effemeridi  letterarie  di  Ronta  (1820).  63  eqq. 

8 art  of  thia  was  reprinted  without  alteration  under  the  title  of 
firnbHia  oatna  le  coae  maraviglioae  di  Roma  (Rome,  1864).     Iff 
editing  the  second  of  the  two  reoenaionB  meatiooed  above 


338  IIIK4GLI 

losDAN  (n,  33. 867),  ealfa  lU^tentioii  to  tti«  Etent'  Udoio  mAnu-  exceeds  Uke  power  of  natural  forces,  or  it  takes  plae( 

senpt,  m  ibe  ooUeetum  of  Oarrtinal  Niobolaa  of  Anson  (1356-  inat-AnfjmAAiuilir    wif houf    tho    mpAna    nr    nmrmMM 

02).  on  wUch  an  baaed  the  Grax»Aiaai«r«at«r6M/eoifMt  edited  instantaneously   witnout   tnc   means   or   processes 

^y  OiAMAM,  and  the  ChronicU  of  martinu8  Polonub.  Notwith-  which  nature  employs. .   In  illustration  we  have  the 

standing  the  learned  notes  of  DucBUNB  and  tiieoomprehensiye  multiplication  of     loaves  by   JesuS    (John,   vi),   the 

SSSSS'^i/r^i:  t^l^^.  ^t;^.?pl5Sf  JS!  J*«°«P««  of  water  into  wine  at  Cana  (John  iiWor 

searah  ainoe  the  fifteenth  oentuiy)^  many  questKins  oonceminjr  the  moisture  of  the  air  by  natural  and  artificial  pro- 

the  text  of  the  Af  tniM<ia  stiU  ramain  to  be  cleared  up  or  are  stiu  cesses  18  changed  into  wine — or  the  sudden  hesJinff 

satisfactory  mannerby  Duchesne  in  the  sixth  fascicule  of  the  water.     A  miracle  IS  saiQ  to  DC  contrary  tO  nature, 

Liber  Cmnnan  (97-iM),  which  has  just  appeared.    He  ad;  when  the  effect  produced  is  contraiy  to  the  natural 

duces  numerous  arguments  to  prove  that  the  above-mentioned  «»miMA  Af  i-Ktn<Mi 

Bbnbdict  (Canonious  Sanott  Fetri  de  Urfoe,  cantor  RomaniD  course  oi  wun^.  .       v      ^i_    j.       .  -^ 

£ccl«si»»  the  compiler  of  the  Ordo  Romanua)  was  also  the  author        x  ne  teim  miracle  nere  implies  tne  direct  opposition 

of  the  Mirabiiia,  ''Who.  if  not  the  indulgent  author,  .would  of  the  effect  actually  produced  to  the  natural  causes 

have  wished  to  creato  a  future  for  It  by  moorporating  it  with  the  ^.x  «»nrlr    onri  if  a  inmArfAPf  imrlATHfjLnrlinff  htui  *wisr»n 

Liber  Cmmiwnr\     Duchesne's  thepry  also  explains  the  curious  *?  "^OtiL,  ana  Its  unpeiiect  unoerstanaing  nas  RQren 

fact  that  the  MirobiUa  should  be  found  in  the  Liber  Cmsuiim.  nse  tO  much  confusion  m  modem  thought.     UlUS 

with  which  it  is  in  no  way  connected.  Spinosa  calls  a  miracle  a  violation  of  the  order  of 

Paul  Maria  Baumoabtbn.  nature  (proBvertij  "Tract.  Theol.  Polit.",  vi).    Hume 

says  it  is  a  "  violation ''  or  an  '*  infraction  " :  and  manv 

Miracle  (Lat.  miraculumf  from  mirart,  "to  won-  writeis — e.  g..  Martensen,  Hodge,  Baoen-Powell, 
der")* — ^In  general,  a  wonderful  thing^  the  word  Theodore  Parker — use  the  tenn  for  miracles  as  a 
being  so  usedin  classical  Latin;  in  a  specinc  sense,  the  whole.  But  every  miracle  is  not  of  necessity  con- 
Latin  Vul^te  designates  by  miracula  wonders  of  a  trary  to  nature;  for  there  are  miracles  above  or  outside 
peculiar  kmd,  expressed  more  clearly  in  the  Greek  nature.  A^^un,  the  term  contrary  to  nalure  does  not 
text  by  the  terms  ripara,  dvpdftma,  ^luta,  i.  e.,  mean  "  unnatural '' in  the  sense  of  producing  discord 
wonders  performed  by  supernatural  power  aa  signs  of  and  confusion.  The  forces  of  nature  differ  m  power 
some  special  mission  or  gift  and  exphcitly  ascribiod  to  and  are  in  constant  interaction.  This  produces  inter- 
God.  These  terms  are  used  habitually  in  the  New  ferenoes  and  counteractions  of  forces.  This  is  true  of 
Testament  and  express  the  meaning  of  miraculum  mechanical,  chemical,  and  biological  forces.  So. 
of  tiie  Vuknte.  llius  St.  Peter  in  Sis  first  sermon  also,  at  every  moment  of  the  day  I  mterfere  with  ana 
speaks  of  Chiist  as  approved  of  God,  dvrdfuaip,  ml  coimteract  natural  forces  about  me.  I  study  the 
ripoffip  ml  ffiifiMUnt  fActs,  ii,  22)  and  St.  Paul  says  properties  of  natural  forces  with  a  view  to  obtain 
that  the  signs  of  nis  Apostleship  were  wrought,  conscious  control  by  inteliieent  counteractions  of  one 
ffflfuhii  re  Kal  ripwip  koI  dvpd/i^ip  (II  Cor.,  xii,  12).  force  against  another.  Intelligent  coimteraction 
Their  united  meaning  is  found  in  the  term  tpya  marks  progress  in  chemistry,  in  physics — e.  g.,  steam 
i.  e.,  works,  the  word  constantly  emploved  in  the  locomotion,  aviation — and  in  the  prescriptions  of  the 
Gospels  to  designate  the  miracles  of  Christ.  The  physician.  Man  ccmtrols  nature,  nay,  can  live  only 
analysis  of  these  terms  therefore  gives  the  nature  and  by  the  counteraction  of  natural  forces.  Though  aU 
scope  of  the  miracle.  this  goes  on  around  us,  we  never  speak  of  natural 

I.  Nature.  A.  The  word  Hpara  literally  means  forces  violated.  These  forces  are  still  working  after 
"wonders",  in  reference  to  feelings  of  amazement  ex-  their  kind,  and  no  force  is  destroyed,  nor  is  any  law 
cited'  by  their  occurrence;  hence  effects  produced  in  broken,  nor  does  confusion  result.  The  introduction 
the  material  creation  appealing  to,  and  grasped  by,  of  human  will  may  bring  about  a  displacement  of  the 
the  senses,  usually  by  tne  sense  of  sieht,  at  times  by  physical  forces,  but  no  infraction  of  physical  pro- 
hearing,  e.  e^  the  baptism  of  Jesus,  tne  conversion  of  cesses.  Now  in  a  miracle  God's  action  relative  to 
St.  Paid.  Thus,  though  the  works  of  Divine  grace,  its  bearing  on  natural  forces  is  analogous  to  the  action 
such  as  the  Sacramental  Presence,  are  above  the  of  human  personality.  Thus,  e.  g.,  it  is  a«iinst  the 
power  of  nature,  and  due  to  God  alone,  they  may  be  nature  of  iron  to  float,  but  the  action  of  Eliseus  in 
called  miraculous  only  in  the  wide  meaning  of  the  raising  the  axe-head  to  the  surface  of  the  water  (IV 
term,  i.  e.,  as  supernatural  effects,  but  they  are  not  Kings,  vi)  is  no  more  a  violation,  or  a  transgression, 
miracles  in  the  sense  here  understood,  for  miracles  in  or  an  infraction,  of  natural  laws  than  if  he  raised  it 
the  strict  sense  are  apparent.  The  miracle  falls  under  with  his  hand.  Again,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  fire  to 
the  fnsD  of  the  senses,  either  in  the  work  itself  (e.  e.,  bum,  but  when,  e.  g.,  the  Three  Children  were  pre- 
raismg  tne  dead  to  life)  or  in  its  effects  (e.  g.,  the  eins  served  untouched  in  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii)  there 
of  innised  knowledge  with  the  Apostles) .  In  like  was  xiothing  unnatural  in  the  act,  as  these  writers  use 
manner  the  justification  of  a  soul  in  itself  is  miracu-  the  word,  any  more  than  there  would  be  in  erecting  a 
lous,  but  is  not  a  miracle  property  so  called,  unless  it  dwelling  absolutely  fire-proof.  In  the  one  case,  as 
takes  place  in  a  sensible  manner,  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  case  m  the  other,  there  was  no  paralysis  of  natural  forces 
of  St.  Paul.    The  wonder  of  the  miracle  is  due  to  the  and  no  consequent  disorder. 

fact  that  its  cause  is  hidden,  and  an  effect  is  expected        The  extraordinary  element  'in  the  miracle — ^i.  e., 

other  than  what  actually  takes  place.    Hence,  by  an  event  apart  from  the  ordinary  course  of  things — 

comparison  with  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  the  enables  us  to  understand  the  teaching  of  theologians 

miracle  is  called  extraordinary.    In  analyzing  the  that  events  which  ordinarily  take  place  in  the  natural 

difference  between  the  extraordinary  character  of  the  or  supernatural  course  of  Divine  rrovidence  are  not 

miracle  and  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  the  Fathers  miracles,  althou^  they  are  beyond  the  efficiency  of 

of  the  Church  and  theologians  employ  the  terms  above,  natural  forces.    Thus,  e.  g.,  the  creation  of  the  soul 

contrary  to,  and  otibnde  nature.    These  terms  express  is  not  a  miracle,  for  it  takes  place  in  the  ordinary 

the  manner  in  which  the  miracle  is  extraordinary.  course  of  nature.    Again,  the  justification  of  the  sin- 

A  miracle  is  said  to  be  above  nature  when  the  effect  ner,  the  Eucharistic  Presence,  the  sacramental  effects, 

produced  is  above  the  native  powers  and  forces  in  are  not  miracles  for  two  reasons:  they  are  beyond  the 

creatures  of  which  the  known  laws  of  nature  are  the  grasp  of  the  senses  and  they  have  place  in  the  ordinary 

expression,  as  raising  a  dead  man  to  life,  e.  g.,  Lazarus  course  of  God's  supernatural  Providence. 
(John,  xi),  the  widow's  son  (III  Kinra,  xvii).    A  mir-        B.  The  word  Mpafus^  "  power"  is  used  in  the  New 

acle  is  said  to  be  outside,  or  besme,  nature  when  Testament  to  signify:  (a)  the  power  of  working  mir- 

natural  forces  may  have  the  power  to  produce  the  acles,  {{p  dvpdfui  ^pmUtp — ^Rom.,  xv,  19) ;  (b)  mighty 

effect,  at  least  in  part,  but  coidd  not  of  themselves  works  as  the  effects  of  this  power,  i.  e.,  miracles 

alone  have  produced  it  in  the  way  it  was  actually  themselves  (al  vXtlrrai  Svpdftets  adroG — ^Matt.,  xi,  20) 

brougiht  about.    Thus  the  effect  m  abundance  far  and  expresses  the  efficient  cause  of  the  miracle,  i.  e., 


UOAQL^  339  IIIK4GU 

Divine  power.    Henoe  the  miracle  is  called  mipenmt-  the  miainff  of  Laianu  (John,  xi) :  and  the  Evaiylirt 

uzul>  because  the  efifect  is  beyond  the  proauctive  says  that  jesus,  in  working  His  nist  mirade  at  Gaoa, 

power  of  nature  and  implies  supernatural  agency,  "manifested  his  glory"  (John,  ii,  11).    Therefore  the 

Thus  St.  Thomas  teaches:  *' Those  effects  are  n^tly  miracle  must  be  worthy  the  noliness,  goodness,  and 

Uf  be  termed  miracles  which  are  wrought  by  Divine  justice  of  God.  and  conducive  to  the  true  good  of 

power  apart  from  the  order  usually  observed  in  men.    Henoe  they  are  not  performed  by  God  to  repair 

nature  "  (Contra  Gent.,  Ill,  cii),  and  they  are  apart  physical  defects  in  His  creation;  nor  are  they  intended 

from  the  natural  order  because  they  are  ''beyond  the  to  produce,  nor  do  they  produce,  disorder  or  discord; 

order  or  laws  of  the  whole  created  nature"  (Summa  nor  do  Uiey  contain  any  element  which  is  wicked, 

Theol.,  I,  Q.  cii,  a.  4).    Hence  d^fofut  adds  to  the  ridiculous,  useless,  or  unmeaning.    Hence  they  are 

meaning  of  ripttra  by  pointing  out  the  efficient  cause,  not  on  the  same  plane  with  mere  wonders,  tricks. 

For  this  reason  miracles  in  Scripture  are  called  "the  works  of  ingenuity,  or  magic.    The  efficacy,  useful- 

fin^ger  of  God"  (Ezod.,  viii,  19;  Luke,  xi,  20),  "the  ness,  purpose  of  the  work  imd  the  manner  of  perform- 

hand  of  the  Lord  "  (I  Kings,  v,  6),  "  the  hand  of  our  ing  it  clearly  ahow  that  it  must  be  ascribed  to  Divine 

God  "  (I  Esdras,  viii,  31).    In  referring  the  miracle  to  power.    This  high  standing  and  dimity  of  the  miracle 

God  as  its  efficient  cause,  the  answer  is  given  to  the  is  shown,  e.  g.,  in  the  miracles  of  Moses  (Ezod.,  vii-x), 

objection  that  the  miracle  is  unnatural,  i.  e.,  an  un-  of  Elias  (III  Kings,  xviii.  21-38),  of  Eliseus  (IV  Kings, 

caused  event  without  meaning  or  place  in  nature,  v).     The  multitudes  glorified  God  at  the  cure  of 

With  God  as  the  cause,  the  miracle  haa  a  place  in  the  the  paralytic  (Matt.,  ix,  8),  of  the  blind  man  (Luke, 

designs  of    God's  Providence   (Contra  Gent.,  Ill,  xviii,  43),  at  the  miracles  of  Christ  in  seneral  (Matt., 

xcviii).    In  this  sense — ^i.  e.,  relatively  to  God— St.  xv,  31 ;  Luke,  xix,  37),  as  at  the  cure  of  the  lame  man 

Augustine  speaks  of  the  miracle  as  natural  (De  Civit.  bv  St.  Peter  (Acts,  iv,  21).    Henoe  miracles  are  n^pm 

Dei,  XXI,  viii,  n.  2).  of  the  supernatural  world  and  our  connexion  with  it. 

An  event  vi  above  the  course  of  nature  and  beyond        In  miracles  we  can  always  diBtingmsh  secondary 

its  productive  powers:  (a)  with  regard  to  its  substan-  ends,  subordinate,  howeveiv   to  the   primary  ends, 

tial  nature,  i.  e.,  when  tJie  effect  is  of  such  a  kind  that  Thus  (1)  they  are  evidences  attesting  and  confirming 

no  natural  power  could  bring  it  to  pass  in  any  manner  the  truth  of  a  Divine  mission,  or  of  a  doctrine  €» 

or  form  whatsoever,  as,  e.  g.,  the  raising  to  life  of  the  faith  or  morals,  e.  g.,  Moses  (Exod.,  iv),  Elias  (III 

widow's  son  (Luke,  vii),  or  &e  cure  of  the  man  bom  Kings,  xvii,  24).    For  this  reason  the  Jews  see  in 

blind  (John,  ix).    These  miracles  are  called  miracles  Christ  "the  prophet"  (John,  vi,  14),  in  whom  "God 

as  to  substance  (qitoad  svhstantiam),    (b)  With  re-  hath    visitecf  his  people"   (Luke,  vii,  16).     Henoe 

sard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  effect  is  produced,  the  disciples  believed  m  Him  (John,  ii,  11)  and  Nico- 

1.  e.y  where  there  may  be  forces  in  nature  ntted  ana  demus  (John,  iii,  2)  and  the  man  oom  blind  (John, 

capable  of  producing  the  effect  considered  in  itself,  ix,  38),  and  the  many  who  had  seen  the  raising  of 

yet  the  effect  is  produced  in  a  manner  whollv  different  Lasarus  (John,  xi,  45).    Jesus  constantly  appealed  to 

trom  the  manner  in  which  it  should  naturally  be  per-  His  "worics"  to  prove  that  He  was  sent  by  God  and 

formed,  i.  e.,  instantaneously,  by  a  word,  e.  g.,  the  that  He  is  the  Son  of  God,  e.  g.,  to  the  Disciples  of 

cure  of  the  leper  (Luke,  v).    These  are  called  nuracles  John  (Matt.,  xi,  4),  to  the  Jews  (John,  x^  37).     He 

as  to  the  manner  of  their  production  (mtoad  modum).  claims  that  His  miracles  are  a  greater  testmiony  than 

God's  power  Js  shown  m  the  miracle:  (a)  directly  the  testimony  of  John  (John,  v,  36),  condemns  those 

through  His  own  immediate  action  or  (b)  mediately,  who  will  not  believe  (John,  xv.  24),  as  He  praises 

throueh  creatures  as  means  or  iostrumente.    In  this  those  who  do  (John,  xvii,  8),  ana  exhibits  miracles  as 

case  tSe  effects  must  be  ascribed  to  God,  for  He  works  the  signs  of  the  True  Faith    (Mark,  xvi,  17).    The 

in   and   through  the  instruments —  ''Ipso  Deo  in  Apostles  appeal  to  miracles  as  the  con&mation  of 

illis  operante"  (Augustine,  "De  Civit.  Dei",  X,  xii).  Christ's  Divinity  and  mission  (John,  xx,  31;  Acts,  x, 

Henoe  God  works  miracles  through  the  Instrumen-  38),  and  St.  Paul  counts  them  as  the  signs  of  his 

tality  (1)  of  angels,  e.  g.,  the  Three  Children  In  the  Apostleship    (II  Cor.,   xii,    12).      (2)  Miracles  are 

fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii),  the  deliverance  of  St.  Peter  wrought  to  attest  true  sanctity.    Thus,  e.  g.,  God 

from  prison  (Acts,  xii);  (2)  of  men,  e.  g.,  Moses  and  defends  Moses   (Num.,  xii),   Elias   (IV  Kings,  i), 

Aaron  (Bxoa.,  vii),  Elias  (III  Kings,  xvii),  Eliseus  Eliseus  (IV  Kings,  xiii).    Hence  the  testimony  of  the 

riV  Kings,  V),  the  Apostles  (Acts,  li,  43),  Sit.  Peter  man  bom  blind  (John,  ix,  30  sqq.)  and  the  official 

(Acta,  iii,  ix),  St.  Paul  (Acts,  xix),  the  early  Christians  processes  in  the  canonisation  of  saints.     (3)  As  ben- 

(Galat.,  iii,  5).    (3)  In  the  Bible  also,  as  in  church  efits  either  spiritual  or  temporal.    The  temporal 

history,  we  learn  that  inanimate  thiols  are  instru-  favours  are  always  subordinate  to  spiritual  ends,  for 

ments  of  Divine  power,  not  because  they  have  any  theyarearewardorapledf^ofvlrtue,e.g.,  the  widow 

excellence  in  themselves,  but  through  a  special  re-  of  sarephta  (I II  Kings,  xvii),  the  Three  Children  in  the 

lation  to  Grod.    Thus  we  distinguish  holy  relics,  e.  g.,  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  ill),  tne  preservation  of  Daniel 

the  mantle  of  Elias  (IV  Kings,  u),  the  body  of  Eliseus  (Dan.,  v),  the  deliverance  of  St.  Peter  from  prison 

(IV  Kings,  xiii),  the  hem  of  Christ's  garment  (Mat-  (Acts,  xii),  of  St.  Paul  from  shipwreck  (Acts,  xxvii). 

thew«ix),thehandkerehief8  0fSt.Paul(Acts,xix,  12);  Thus  viifuhp,  i.  e.,  "s^",  completes  the  meaning 

holy  images,  e.  g.,  the  braien  serpent  (Num.,  xxi):  of  d^m/ui,  i.  e.,  "pivine)  power".    It  reveals  the 

holy  thiiu;s,  e.  g.,  Uie  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  the  sacred  miracle  as  an  act  of  God's  supernatural  Providence 

veoeels  of  the  '^mple  (Dan.,  v) ;  holy  places,  e.  g.,  the  over  men.    It  gives  a  positive  content  to  r/pai,  i.  e., 

Temple  of  Jerusalem  (II  Par.,  '/i,  vii),  the  waters  of  "wonder",  for,  whereas  the  wonder  shows  the  miracle 

the  Jordan  (IV  Kings,  v),  the  Pool  of  Bethsaida  as  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  the 

(Jc^m,  v).    Hence  the  contention  of  some  modem  si^  ^ves  the  puipose  of  the  deviation, 
writers,  that  a  miracle  requires  an  immediate  action  of       This  analysis  shows  that  (1)  the  miracle  is  essen- 

Divine  power,  is  not  true.    It  is  sufficient  that  the  mir-  tiallv  an  appeal  to  knowledge.    Therefore  miracles 

acle  be  due  to  the  intervention  of  God,  and  its  nature  can  be  distmguished  from  purely  natural  occurrences, 

is  revealed  by  the  utter  lack  of  proI^rtion  between  A  miracle  is  a  fact  in  material  creation,  and  falls 

the  effect  ana  what  are  called  means  or  instruments,  under  the  observation  of  the  senses  or  comes  to 

Hie  word  ciifuhw  means  "sign",  an  appeal  to  us  through  testimony,  like  any  natural  fact.    Its 

intelligence,  and  expresses  the  purpose  or  final  cause  miraculous    character    is    known:    (a)    from   posi- 

of  the  miracle.    A  miracle  is  a  factor  in  the  Provi-  tive  knowledge  of  natural  forces,  e.  g.,  the  hiw 

dence  of  God  over  men.    Hence  the  glory  of  God  and  of  gravity,  the  law  that  fire  bums.    To  say  that 

the  good  of  men  are  the  primary  or  supreme  ends  of  we  do  not  know  all  the  laws  of  nature,  and  ther^ 

every  miracle.    This  is  clearly  expressed  by  C^hrist  in  fore  cannot  know  a  miracle  (Rousseau,  "  Lett,  de 


840 


USSLkCiM 


Ib  Mont.",  let.  lii),  is  beside  the  question,  for  it 
would  make  the  miraole  an  appeal  to  ignorance.  I 
may  not  know  all  the  laws  of  the  penal  code,  but  I 
can  know  with  certainty  that  in  a  particular  instance 
a  person  violates  one  definite  law.  (b)  From  our 
positive  knowledge  of  the  limits  of  natural  forces. 
Thus,  e.  g.,  we  mav  not  know  the  strength  of  a  man, 
but  we  do  know  that  he  cannot  by  himself  move  a 
mountain.  In  enlarging  our  knowledge  of  natural 
forces,  the  prepress  of  science  has  curtailed  their 
sphere  and  denned  their  limits,  as  in  the  law  of 
abiogenesis.  Hence,  as  soon  as  we  have  reason  to 
suspect  that  any  event,  however  uncommon  or  rare 
it  appear,  mav  arise  from  natural  causes  or  be  con- 
formable to  tne  usual  course  df  nature,  we  immedi- 
ately lose  the  conviction  of  its  being  a  miracle.  A 
miracle  is  a  manifestation  of  God's  power;  so  long  as 
this  is  not  clear,  we  should  r^ect  it  as  such. 

(2)  Miracles  are  signs  of  God's  Providence  over 
men;  hence  thev  are  of  high  moral  character,  simple 
and  obvious  in  the  forces  at  work,  in  the  circumstances 
of  their  working,  and  in  their  aim  and  purpose.  Now 
philosophy  indicates  the  possibility,  and  Revelation 
teaches  the  fact,  that  spiritual  bein^,  both  good  and 
bad,  exist,  and  possess  greater  power  than  man 
possesses.  Apart  from  the  speculative  question  as 
to  the  native  power  of  these  beings,  we  are  certain  (a) 
that  God  alone  can  perform  those  effects  which  are 
called  substantial  miracles,  e.  g.,  raisine  the  dead  to 
life;  (h)  that  miracles  performed  by  tne  angels,  as 
recorded  in  the  Bible,  are  always  ascribed  to  God,  and 
Holy  Scripture  gives  Divine  authority  to  no  miracles 
less  than  Divine;  (c)  that  Holy  Scripture  shows  the 
power  of  evil  spirits  as  strictly  conditioned,  e.  g., 
testimony  of  the  Eg^tian  magicians  (Exod.,  viii,  19), 
the  story  of  Job,  evil  spirits  acknowledging  the  power 
of  Christ  (Matt.,  viii,  31),  the  express  testimony  of 
Christ  himself  (Matt.,  xxiv,  24)  ana  of  the  Apocalypse 
(Apoc.,  ix.  14).  Granting  that  these  spirits  may  per- 
form proai^es — ^i.  e.,  works  of  skill  and  ingenuity 
which,  relatively  to  our  powers,  may  seem  to  be  mirac- 
ulous— ^yet  these  works  lack  the  meaning  and  purpose 
whjchwould  stamp  them  as  the  language  of  God  to  men. 

^C^  Errors. — ^Deists  reject  miracles,  for  thev  den^ 
therrovidence  of  God.  Agnostics,  also,  ana  Posi- 
tivists  reject  them:  Comte  r^ardea  miracles  as  the 
fruit  of  the  theological  imagination.  Modem  Pan- 
theism has  no  place  for  miracles.  Thus  Spinosa  held 
creation  to  be  the  aspect  of  the  one  substance,  i.  e., 
God,  and,  as  he  taught  that  miracles  were  a  violation 
of  nature,  they  would  therefore  be  a  violation  of  God. 
The  answer  is,  first  that  Spinosa's  conception  of  God 
and  nature  is  false  and,  secondly,  that  in  fact  miracles 
are  not  a  violation  of  nature.  To  Hegel  creation  is  the 
evolutive  manifestation  of  the  one  Absolute  Idea,  i.  e., 
God,  and  to  the  neo-H^lians  (e.  g.,  Thos.  Green) 
consciousness  is  identifiedwith  God ;  therefore  to  both 
a  miracle  has  no  meaning.  Erroneous  definitions  of 
the  supernatural  lead  to  erroneous  definitions  of  the 
miracle.  Thus  (a)  Bushnell  defines  the  natural  to  be 
what  is  necessary,  the  supernatural  to  be  what  is  free; 
therefore  the  material  world  is  what  we  call  nature, 
the  world  of  man's  life  is  supernatural.  So  also  Dr. 
Strong  ("  Baptist  Rev.",  vol,  1, 1879),  Rev.  C.  A.  Row 
("Supemat.  in  the  New  Test.",  London,  1875).  In 
this  sense  every  free  volition  of  man  is  a  supernatural 
act  and  a  miracle,     (b)  The  natural  supematuralism 

Sroposed  by  Carlyle,  Theodore  Parker,  Prof.  Pflei- 
erer,  and,  more  recently.  Prof.  Everett  ("The 
Psychologic  Elem.  of  Relig.  Faith",  London  ana  New 
York,  1902),  Prof.  Bowne  ("Immanence  of  God", 
Boston  and  New  YoHe,  1905),  Hastings  ("  Diction,  of 
Christ  and  the  Gospels  ",  s.  v.  "  Miracles  ") .  Thus  the 
natural  and  the  supernatural  are  in  reality  one:  the 
natural  is  its  aspect  to  man,  the  supernatural  is  its 
aspect  to  God.  (o)  The  "Immediate  theory",  that 
God  acts  immediately  without  second  causes,  or  that 


second  causes,  or  laws  of  nature,  must  be  defined  ae 
the  regular  mcrthods  of  God's  acting.  This  tftarhing  m 
combined  with  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 

(d)  The  ''relative"  theory  of  miracles  is  by  far  the 
most  popular  with  non-Catholic  writers.  Tnis  view 
was  originally  proposed  to  hold  Christian  miracles  and 
at  the  same  time  hold  belief  in  the  uniformity  of 
nature.  Its  main  forms  are:  (1)  the  mechanical  view 
of  Babbage  (Bridgewater  Treatises),  later  advanced  by 
the  Duke  of  Argyll  (Reign  of  Law).  Thus  nature  is 
presented  as  a  vast  mechanism  wound  up  in  the  be> 
ginning  and  containing  in  Itself  the  capacity  to  deviate 
at  stated  times  from  Its  ordinary  course.  The  theory 
is  ingenious,  but  it  makes  the  miracle  a  natural  event. 
It  admits  the  assumption  of  opponents  of  miracles, 
vis.,  that  physical  effects  must  niave  physical  causes, 
but  this  assumption  is  contradicted  by  common  facts 
of  experience,  e.  g.,  will  acts  on  matter.  (2)  Hie 
**  unknown  "  law  of  Spinosa,  who  taught  that  IJie  term 
miracle  should  be  imderstood  with  reference  to  the 
opinions  of  men,  and  that  it  means  simply  an  event 
which  we  are  unable  to  explain  by  other  events  famil- 
iar to  our  experience.  Locke,  Kant,  Eichhom,  Paulus, 
Renan  hold  the  same  view.  Thus  Prof.  Cooper  writes 
"  The  miracle  of  one  age  becomes  the  ordinary  workiDg 
of  nature  in  the  next"  (*'Ref.  Ch.  R.",  July,  1900). 
Hence  a  miracle  never  happened  in  fact,  and  is  only 
a  name  to  cover  our  ignorance.  Thus  Matthew  Ar- 
nold could  claim  that  all  Biblical  miracles  will  dis- 
appear with  the  progress  of  science  (Lit.  and  Bible) 
and  M.  MoUer  that  ''the  miraculous  is  reduced  to 
mere  seeming"  (n.  Rel.,  pref.,  p.  10).  The  advocates 
of  this  theory  assume  that  miracles  are  an  appeal  to 
ignorance.  (3)  The  "higher-law"  theory  or  Argyll 
of  ''Unseen  Universe",  Trench,  Lange  (on  Matt., 
p.  153),  Gore  (Bampton  Lect.,  p.  36)  proposed  to  re- 
fute Spinosa's  claim  that  miracles  are  unnatural  and 
productive  of  disorder.  Thus  with  them  the  miracle 
IS  quite  natural  because  it  takes  place  in  accordance 
witn  laws  of  a  higher  nature.  Others — e.  g.,  Sehleier- 
macher  and  Ritschl — ^mean  by  higher  law,  subjective 
religious  feeling.  Thus,  to  them  a  miracle  is  not 
different  from  any  other  natural  event;  it  becomes  a 
miracle  by  relation  to  the  religious  feeling.  A  writer 
in  "The  Biblical  World"  (Oct.,  1908)  h<3ds  that  the 
miracle  consists  in  the  religious  significance  of  the 
natural  event  in  its  relation  to  the  religious  apprecia- 
tion as  a  sign  of  Divine  favour.  Others  explain  nigger 
law  as  a  moraJ  law,  or  law  of  the  spirit.  Thus  the 
miracles  of  Christ  are  understood  as  illustrations  of  a 
higher,  grander,  more  comprehensive  law  than  men 
had  yet  Known,  the  incoming  of  a  new  life,  of  higher 
forces  acting  according  to  higher  laws  as  manifesta- 
tions of  the  spirit  in  the  higher  stages  of  its  develop- 
ment. The  criticism  of  this  theory  is  that  miracles 
would  cease  to  be  miracles:  they  would  not  be  ex- 
traordinary, for  they  would  take  place  under  the  same 
conditions.  To  bring  miracles  under  a  law  not  yet 
understood  is  to  deny  their  existence.  Thus,  when 
Trench  defines  a  miracle  as  "  an  extraordinary  e\''ent 
which  beholders  can  reduce  to  no  law  with  which  they 
are  acquainted",  the  definition  includes  hypnotism 
and  clairvoyance.  If  by  higher  law  we  mean  the 
high  law  of  God's  holiness,  then  a  miracle  can  be  re- 
ferred to  this  law,  but  the  higher  law  in  this  case  is 
God  Himself  and  the  use  of  the  term  is  apt  to  create 
confusion.  / 

tftl.  Antecedent  iMPROBABiLmr — The  great 
problem  of  modem  theology  is  the  plaice  and  value  of 
miracles.  In  the  opinion  of  certain  writers,  their 
antecedent  improbability,  based  on  the  universal  i^ign 
of  law,  is  so  great  that  they  are  not  worthy  of  serious 
consideration.  Thus  his  conviction  of  the  unifotmity 
of  nature  led  Hume  to  deny  testimony  for  miracles  in 
general,  as  it  led  Baur,  Strauss,  and  Kenan  to  explain 
the  miracles  of  Chrust  on  natural  grounds.  The 
fundamental  principle  is  that  whatever  happeoa  is 


UOAOLg 


341 


USBAGLM^ 


natural,  and  what  is  not  natural  does  not  happen. 
On  belief  in  the  unifonnity  of  nature  is  based  the 
profound  conviction  of  the  organic  unity  of  the  uni- 
verae,  a  characteristie  trait  of  nineteenth-century 
thought.  It  has  dominated  a  certain  school  of  lit- 
erature, and,  with  George  Eliot,  Hall  Caine,  and 
Thomas  Hardy,  the  natural  agencies  of  heredity, 
environment,  and  necessary  law  rule  the  world  of 
human  life.  It  is  the  basic  principle  in  modem 
treatises  on  sociolo^.  Its  chief  exponent  is  science- 
philosophy,  a  contmuation  of  the  Deism  of  the  ei^- 
teenth  century  without  the  idea  of  God,  and  the  view 
herein  presented,  of  an  evolving  univexBe  working  out 
its  own  destiny  under  the  rigid  sway  of  inherent 
natural  laws,  finds  but  a  thin  oisguise  in  the  Panthe- 
istic conception,  so  prevalent  among  non-Catholic  the- 
ologians, of  an  immanent  God,  who  is  the  active 
gt>und  of  the  world-development  according  to  natural 
w — ^i.  e..  Monism  of  mind  or  will.  This  oelief  m  the 
gulf  between  the  old  and  the  modem  school  of  theol- 
ogy, acoordine  to  Delitssch  (^*  Deep  Gulf  between  the 
Old  and  the  Modem  Theology",  1890;  Principal  Fair- 
bairn,  "  Studies  in  the  Philos.  of  Hist,  and  Religion  "). 
Max  Mailer  finds  the  kernel  of  the  modem  conception 
of  the  world  in  the  idea  that "  there  is  a  law  and  order 
in  everything,  and  that  an  unbroken  chain  of  causes 
and  effects  holds  the  whole  universe  together"  (**  An- 
tbrop.  Relig.",  pref.,  p.  10).  Througnout  the  urn- 
verse  Uiere  is  a  mechanism  of  nature  and  of  human 
life,  presenting  a  necessary  chain,  or  sequence,  of 
cause  and  effect,  which  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  broken 
by  an  interference  from  without,  as  is  assumed  in  the 
ease  of  a  miracle.  This  view  is  the  groimd  of  modem 
objections  to  Christianity,  the  source  of  modem 
scepticism,  and  the  reason  for  a  prevailing  disposition 
among  Christian  thinkers  to  deny  miracles  a  place  in 
Christian  evidences,  and  to  base  the  proof  for  Chris- 
tianity on  internal  evidences  alone. 

CriHciam,  (1)  This  view  ultimately  rests  upon  the 
assumption  Uiat  the  material  universe  alone  exists. 
It  is  refuted:  (a)  by  proviog  that  in  man  there  is  a 
spiritual  soul  totally  distinct  from  organic  and  inor- 
ganic existence,  and  that  this  soul  reveals  an  intel- 
Irotual  and  moral  order  totally  distinct  from  the 
physical  order;  (b)  by  inferring  the  existence  of  God 
from  the  phenomena  of  the  intellectual,  the  moral, 
and  the  physksal  order.     (2)  This  view  is  also  based 
on  an  erroneous  meaning  of  the  term  nature.    Kant 
made  a  distinction  between  the  noumenon  and  the 
phenomenon  of  a  thing;  he  denied  that  we  c^n  know 
the  noumenon,  i.  e.,  the  thing  in  itself;  all  wife  know  is 
the  phenomenon,  i.  e.,  the  appearance  of  fke  thing. 
This  distinction  has  profoundly  influence^  modem 
thought.    As  a  Transcendental  Idealist,  Kant  denied 
that  we  know  the  real  phenomenon;  to  him  onlythe 
ideal  appearance  is  the  object  of  the  mind.    Thus 
knowledge  is  a  succession  of  ideal  appearances,  and 
a  miracle  would  be  an  interruption  of  tnat  succession. 
Others,  i.  e.,  the  Sense-School  (Hume,  Mill,  Bfun, 
Spencer,  and  others),  teach  that,  while  we  cannot 
know  the  substance  or  essences  of  things,  we  can  and 
do  g^rasp  the  real  phenomena.    To  them  the  world  is  a 
phenomenal  world  and  is  a  pure  coexistence  and  suc- 
cession of  phenomena;  the  antecedent  determines  the 
consequent.    In  this  view  a  miracle  would  be  an  un- 
explained break  in  the  (so-called)  invariable  law  of 
sequence,  on  which  law  Mill  based  his  Logic.    Now  we 
rephr  that  the  real  meaning  of  the  word  nature  in- 
cluoes  both  the  phenomenon  and  the  noumenon.    We 
have  the  idea  of  substance  with  an  objective  content. 
In  reality  the  progress  of  science  consists  in  the  obser- 
vation m,  ana  experimentation  upon,  thin^  with  a 
view  to  find  out  tneir  properties  or  potencies,  which 
in  turn  enable  us  to  know  the  phvsical  essences  of  the 
Tarious  substances.     (3)  Through  the  erroneous  con- 
ception of  nature,  the  principle  of  causality  is  con- 
founded with  the  law  of  the  uniformity  of  nature. 


But  they  are  absolutely  different  things.  The  fomiei 
is  a  primary  conviction  which  has  its  source  m  our  in- 
ner consciousness.  The  latter  is  an  induction  based 
upon  a  long  and  careful  observation  of  facts:  it  is  not 
a  self-evident  truth,  nor  is  it  a  universal  and  necessary 
principle,  as  Mill  himself  has  shown  (Logic,  IV,  xxi). 
In  fact  uniformity  of  nature  is  the  result  of  the  princi- 
ple of  causation. 

(4)  The  main  contention,  that  the  uniformity  of 
nature  rules  miracles  out  of  consideration,  because  they 
would  implv  a  break  in  the  imif  ormity  and  a  violation 
of  natural  law,  is  not  tme.  The  laws  of  nature  are 
the  observed  modes  or  processes  in  which  natural 
forces  act.  These  forces  are  the  properties  or  poten- 
cies of  the  essences  of  natural  things.  Our  experience 
of  causation  is  not  the  experience  of  a  mere  sec^uence 
but  of  a  sequence  due  to  the  necessary  operation  of 
essences  viewed  as  principles  or  sources  of  action. 
Now  essences  are  necessanly  what  they  are  and  un- 
changeable; therefore  their  properties,  or  potencies,  or 
forces,  under  given  cireumstances,  act  m  the  same 
way.  On  this,  Scholastic  philosophy  bases  the 
truth  that  nature  is  imiform  m  its  action,  yet  holds 
that  constancjr  of  succession  is  not  an  absolute  law,, 
for  the  succession  is  only  constant  so  long  as  the  nou- 
menal  relations  remain  the  same.  Thus  Scholastic 
philosophy,  in  defending  miracles,  accepts  the  uni:- 
versal  reign  of  law  in  this  sense,  and  its  teaching  is  in 
absolute  accord  with  the  methods  actually  pursued  b^ 
modem  science  in  scientific  investigations.  Hence  it 
teaches  the  order  of  nature  and  the  reign  of  law,  and 
openlv  declares  that,  if  there  were  no  order,  there 
would  be  no  miracle.  It  is  significant  that  the  Bible 
appeals  constantly  to  the  reign  of  law  in  nature,  while 
it  attests  the  actual  occurrence  of  miracles.  Now 
human  will,  in  acting  on  material  forces,  interferes 
with  the  regular  seouences,  but  does  not  paralyse  the 
natural  foroes  or  destroy  their  innate  tendency  to 
act  in  a  Uniform  manner.  Thus  a  boy,  bv  throwing 
a  stone  into  the  air,  does  not  disarrange  the  order  or 
nature  or  do  awav  with  the  law  of  gravity.  A  new 
force  only  is  brougnt  in  and  counteracts  the  tendencies 
of  the  natural  forces,  just  as  the  natural  forces  interact 
and  counteract  among  themselves,  as  is  shown  in  the 
wfell-known  truths  of  the  parallelogram  of  forces  and 
the  distinction  between  kmetic  and  potential  energy. 
The  analogy  from  man's  act  to  (jod's  act  is  complete 
as  far  as  concerns  a  break  in  the  uniformity  of  nature 
or  a  violation  of  its  laws.  The  extent  of  the  power  ex- 
erted does  not  affect  the  point  at  issue.  Hence  physical 
nature  is  presented  as  a  system  of  physical  causes  pro- 
ducing unif oral  results,  and  yet  permits  the  interposi- 
tion of  personal  agencv  without  affecting  its  stability. 

(5)  The  tmth  of  this  position  is  so  manifest  that 
Mill  admits  Hume's  aigument  against  miracles  to  be 
valid  only  on  the  supposition  that  God  does  not  exist* 
for,  he  says,  "  a  miracle  is  a  new  effect  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  cause  ...  of 
the  adequacy  of  that  cause,  if  present,  there  can  be  no 
doubt "  (Logic,  III ,  xxv) .  Hence,  admitting  the  exist- 
ence of  CSod,  Hume's  ''uniform  sequence"  does  not  hold 
as  an  objection  to  miracles.  Huxley  also  denies  that 
physicists  withhold  belief  in  miracles  because  miracles 
are  in  violation  of  natural  laws,  and  he  rejects  the 
whole  of  this  line  of  aigument  ("  Some  Controverted 
questions",  209; ''Life  of  Hume",  132), and  holds  that 
a  miracle  is  a  question  of  evidence  pure  and  simple. 
Hence  the  objection  to  miracles  on  the  ground  of  their 
antecedent  improbability  has  been  abandoned.  **  Tlie 
Biblical  World"  (Oct.,  1908)  says  "The  old  rigid  sys- 
tem of '  Laws  of  Nature '  is  being  broken  up  by  modem 
science.  There  are  many  events  which  scientists 
recognise  to  be  inexplicable  by  any  known  law.  But 
this  inability  to  furnish  a  scientific  explanation  is  no 
reason  for  denying  the  existence  of  any  event,  if  it  is 
adequately  attested.  Thus  the  old  a  priori  argument 
against  miracles  is  gone."    Thus  in  modem  tnought 


UXBACiM                           342  Mnt^CUi 

the  question  of  the  miracle  is  simply  a  question  of  Geoige  Fisher — ^nush  the  ChristiBn  view  to  the  ex- 
fact,  treme,  and  say  that  miracles  are  necessary  to  attest 
IV.  Plaoc  AND  Value  OF  Miracles  IN  THE  Chri»*  revelation.  Catholic  theologians,  however,  take  a 
TiAN  View  op  the  World. — As  the  great  objection  to  broader  view.  They  hold  (1)  that  the  great  priznsiy 
miracles  really  rests  on  narrow  and  false  philosophical  ends  of  miracles  are  the  manifestation  of  Goa's  gioiy 
views  of  the  universe,  so  the  true  world<view  is  neces-  and  the  good  of  men ;  that  the  particular  or  secondary 
saiy  to  giasp  their  place  and  value.  Christianity  ends,  subordinate  to  the  former,  are  to  eonfinn  the 
teaches  that  God  created  and  govenis  the  world.    This  truth  of  a  mission  or  a  doctrine  of  faith  or  morals,  to 

government  is  His  Providence.    It  is  shown  in  the  attest  the  sanctity  of  God's  servants,  to  ccmfer  bene- 

elicate  adjustment  and  subordination  of  the  tenden-  fits  and  vindicate  Divine  justice.     (2)     Hence  they 

cies  proper  to  material  things,  resulting  in  the  marvel-  teach  that  the  attestation  of  Revelation  is  not  the 

lous  staoilitv  and  harmonv  ^ich  prevail  throughout  primary  end  of  the  miracle,  but  its  main  aecondary 

the  phnrsicaf  creation,  ana  in  the  moral  order,  which  end,  though  not  the  only  one.     (3)  They  say  that  the 

through  conscience,  is  to  guide  and  control  the  ten-  miracles  of  Christ  were  not  necessary  but "  most  fittiDg 

dencies  of  man's  nature  to  a  complete  harmony  in  and  altogether  in  accord  with  His  mission "  (deoeniU' 

human  life.    Man  is  a  personal  being,  with  intelligenoe  Hmum  et  maximapere  conveniens  " — Bened.  XTV,  IV, 

and  free-will,  capable  of  knowing  and  serving  God,  p.  1,  c.  2,  n.  3;  Summa,  III,  Q.  xliii)  as  a  means  to  at- 

and  created  for  that  purpose.    To  him  nature  is  the  test  its  truth.    At  the  same  time  thejr  place  miracles 

book  of  God's  work  reveiuing  the  Creator  throueh  the  among  the  strongest  and  most  certain  evidences  of 

design  visible  in  the  materifd  order  and  throufl^  con-  Divine  revelation.     (4)  Yet  they  teach  that,  as  evi- 

science,  the  voice  of  the  moral  order  based  in  the  very  dences,  miracles  have  not  a  physical  foree,  L  e., 

constitution  of  his  own  being.    Hence  the  relation  oiF  absolutely  compelUns  assent,  but  only  a  moral  foroe, 

man  to  God  is  a  personal  one.    God's  Provklence  is  L  e.y  they  do  no  violence  to  free  will,  though  their 

not  confined  to  the  revelation  of  Himself  through  His  AP^'^  ^  ^®  assent  is  of  the  strongest  kind.     (5) 

works.    He  has  manifested  HLooself  m  a  supernatural  Tliat,  as  evidences,  they  are  not  wrought  to  show  the 

manner  throwing  a  flood  of  light  on  the  relations  which  internal  truth  of  the  doctrines,  but  only  to  give  manir 

should  exist  between  man  and  Himself.    The  Bible  fest  reasons  why  we  should  accept  the  doctrines; 

contains  this  revelation,  and  is  called  the  Book  of  Hence  the  distinction:  not  evidenter  vera^  but  evidenitr 

God's  Word.    It  gives  the  record  of  God's  supemat-  eredibilia.    For  the  Revelation,  which  miracles  attest, 

ural  Providence  leading  up  to  the  Redemption  and  contains  supernatural  doctrines  above  the  compre- 

the  founding  of  the  Clmstian  Church.    Here  we  are  hension  of  tne  mind  and  positive  institutions  in  God's 

told  that  beyond  the  sphere  of  nature  there  is  another  supernatural  Providence  over  men.    Thus  the  opinion 

realm  of  existence,  the  supernatural,  peopled  by  of  Locke,  Trench,  Mill,  Mozley,  and  Cox,  that  the 

spiiitual  beings  and  departed  souls.    Both  spheres,  doctrine  proves  the  miracle,  not  the  miracle  the  doo- 

tne  natural  and  the  supernatural,  are  under  the  over-  trine,  is  not  true.     (6)  Finally,  they  maintainthat  the 

ruling  Providence  of  God.    Thus  God  and  man  are  miracles  of  Scripture  and  the  power  in  the  Chureh  of 

two  great  facts.      The  relation  of  the  soul  to  its  working  miracles  are  of  Divine  faith,  not,  however, 

Maker  is  religion.  the  miracles  of  chureh  histoiv  themselves.     Hence 

Religion  is  the  knowledge,  love,  and  service  of  God:  thev  teach  that  the  former  are  both  evidences  of  faith 

its  expression  is  called  worship,  and  the  essence  of  ancl  objects  of  faith;  that  the  latter  are  evidences  of 

worship  is  prayer.    Thus  between  man  and  God  there  Uie  purpose  for  which  they  are  wrought,  not,  however 

is  constant  intercourse,  and  in  God's  Providence  the  objects  of  Divine  faith.    Hence  this  teaching  guardi 

appointed  means  of  this  intereourse  m  prayer.    By  against  the  other  exaggerated  view  recenUjr  proposed 

Krayer  man  speaks  to  God  in  acts  of  faith,  hope,  by  non-Catholic  writers,  who  hold  that  miracles  are 

ive,  and  contrition,  and   implores  HIei  aid.     In  now  considered  not  as  evidences,  but  as  objects  of 

answer  to  prayer  God  acts  on  tiie  soul  by  His  faith. 

grace   and,   in   special   cireumstances,  by  working  V.  Tebtimont. — ^A  miracle,  like  any  natural  event, 

miracles.    Hence  the  {j^eat  fact  of  prayer,  as  the  lis  known  either  from  personal  observation  or  from  the 

connecting  link  of  man  to  God,  implies  a  constant  testimony  of  others.    In  the  miracle  we  have  the  fact 

interference  of  God  in  the  life  of  man.    Therefore,  itself  as  an  external  occurrence  and  its  miraculous 

in  ike  Christian  view  of  the  world,  miracles  have  a  diaracter.     The  miraculous  character  of  the  fact 

place  and  a  meaning.    They  anse  out  of  the  personal  consists  in  this:  that  its  nature  and  the  surrounding 

relation  between  G^  and  man.    The  conviction  that  cireumstances  are  of  such  a  kind  that  we  are  forced  to 

the  pure  of  heart  are  pleasing  to  God,  in  some  mvste-  admit  natural  forces  alone  could  not  have  produced  it, 

rious  way,  is  world-wide;  even  among  the  heathens  and  the  only  rational  explanation  is  to  be  had  in  the 

pure  offerings  only  are  prepared  for  the  sacrifice.    This  interference  of  Divine  agency.    The  perception  of  its 

intimate  sense  of  God's  presence  may  account  for  the  miraculous  character  is  a  rational  act  of  the  mind,  and 

universal  tendency  to  refer  all  striking  phenomena  to  is  simply  the  application  of  the  principle  of  causAlity 

supernatural  causes.    Error  and  exaggeration  do  not  with  the  methods  of  induction.    The  general  rules 

change  the  nature  of  the  belief  ioimded  in  the  abiding  governing  the   acceptance   of  testimony   apply  to 

convu;tion  of  the  Providence  of  God.    To  this  belief  miracles  as  to  other  tacts  of  historv.    If  we  have  cei^ 

St.  Paul  appealed  in  bds  discourse  to  the  Athenians  tain  evidence  for  the  fact,  we  are  bound  to  accept  it. 

(Acts,  xvh).    In  the  miracle,  therefore,  God  sub-  The  evidence  for  miracles,  as  for  historical  facts  in 

oidinates  physical  nature  to  a  higher  purpose,  and  general,  depends  on  the  knowledge  and  veracity  of  the 

this  higher  purpose  is  identical  with  the  highest  moral  narrators,  i.  e. ,  they  who  testify  to  the  occurrence  of  the 

aims  w  existence.    The  mechanical  view  of  the  world  events  must  know  what  they  tell  and  tell  the  truth, 

is  in  harmony  with  the  teleological,  and  when  pur-  The  extraordinary  nature  of  the  miracle  requires  more 

pose  exists,  no  event  is  isolated  or  unmeaning.    Man  is  complete  and  accurate   investigation.     Sq^   testi- 

created  for  God,  and  a  miracle  is  the  proof  and  pledge  mony  we  are  not  free  to  reject;  otherwise  we  must 

of  His  supernatural  Providence.    Hence  we  can  under-  deny  all  history  whatsoever.    We  have  no  more  rsr 

stand  how,  in  devout  minds,  there  is  even  a  presump-  tional  warrant  for  rejecting  miracles  than  fbr  rejecting 

tion  for  and  an  expectation  of  miracles.    Thev  show  accoimts  of  stellar  eclipses.    Hence,  thejr  who  deny 

the  subordination  of  the  lower  world  to  the  higher;  miracles  have  concentrated  their  efforts  with  the  pur- 

they  are  the  breaking  in  of  the  higher  world  on  the  pose  of  destroying  the  historical  evidence  for  all  mir- 

lower  ("C.  Gent. ''Till,  xcviii,  xcix;   Benedict  XIV,  acles  whatsoever  and  especially  the  evidence  for  the 

1,  c;  1,  rV,  p.  1,  c.  I).  miracles  of  the  Gospel. 

Some  wnters— e.  g.,  Paley,  Mansel,  Moiley,  Dr.  Hume  held  that  no  testimony  could  prove 


MXR4CLI  t  343  MXR4CL1 

for  it  18  more  probable  that  the  testimony  is  false  than  tional  interpretiitiaii  of  oominoDplaoe  events.  They 
that  the  miracles  are  true.  But  (1)  his  coQtention  claim  that  the  facts  which  occumd  were  substan- 
that  "  a  uDJfonn  experience",  which  is  *'  a  direct  and  tially  historical,  but  in  the  narrating  were  covered  over 
full  proof",  is  against  nmacles,  is  denied  by  Mill,  pro-  with  the  interpretations  of  the  wnters.  Hence,  they 
video  an  adequate  cause — i.  e.,  Qod — exists.  (2)  say  that,  in  Btud3ing  the  Gospels,  we  must  aistin- 
Hume's  "experience"  may  mean:  (a)  the  experience  gulsh  between  the  facts  as  they  actually  took  place 
of  the  individual,  and  his  aiieument  is  made  absurd  and  the  subjective  emotions  of  those  who  witnessed 
(e.  ^.,  historic  doubts  about  Napoleon)  or  (b)  the  ex-  them,  their  strong  excitement,  tendency  to  exaggera- 
perience  of  the  race,  which  has  become  common  prop-  tion,  and  vivid  imagination.  Thus  they  appeal  not 
erty  and  the  type  of  what  may  be  expected.  Now  m  to  the  "fallacies  of  testimony"  so  much  as  to  the 
fact  we  get  tais  by  testimony;  many  supernatural  "fallacies  of  the  senses".  But  this  attempt  to  trans- 
facts  are  part  of  this  race  experience ;  this  supernatural  form  the  Apostles  into  nervous  visionaries  cannot  be 
part  Hume  prejudges,  arbitrarily  declares  it  untrue,  held  by  an  unbiased  mind.  St.  Peter  clearly  dis- 
which  ia  the  point  to  be  provecl,  and  assumes  that  tinguisned  between  a  vision  (Acts,  x,  17)  and  a  reality 
miraculoua  is  synonymous  with  absurd.  The  past,  so  (Acts,  xii) ,  and  St.  Paul  mentions  two  cases  of  visions 
expui^gated,  ia  made  the  test  of  the  future,  and  should  (Acts,  xxii,  17;  II  Cor.,  xii),  the  latter  by  way  of 
prevent  the  consistent  advocates  of  Hume  from  ao-  contrast  with-  his  ordinary  missionary  life  of  laboun 
cepting  the  discoveries  of  science.  (3)  Hard-pressed,  and  si^eiingB  (II  Cor.,  xi).  Renan  even  goes  so  far 
Hume  is  forced  to  make  the  distinction  between  testi-  as  to  present  the  glaring  inconsistency  of  a  Christ  re- 
mony  contrary  to  experience  and  testimony  not  con-  mukable,  as  he  says,  for  moral  beauty  of  life  and 
formable  to  experience,  and  holds  that  the  hitter  may  doctrine,  who  nevertheless  is  suilty  of  conscious  de- 
be  accepted— e.  g.,  testimony  of  ice  to  the  Indian  ception,  as,  e.  g.,  in  the  make-believe  raising  of  Laa- 
prince.  But  this  admission  is  fatal  to  his  position,  arus.  This  teaching  is  in  reality  a  denial  of  testi- 
(4)  Hume  proceeds  on  the  supposition  that,  for  practi-r.  mony.  llie  miracles  of  Christ  must  be  taken  as  a 
cal  purposes,  all  the  laws  of  nature  are  known,  yet  ex-  whole,  and  in  the  Gospel  setting  where  they  are  pre- 
perience  shows  that  this  is  not  true.  (5)  His  whole  sentea  as  a  part  of  his  teaching  and  his  life.  On  the 
argximent  rest^  upon  the  rejected  philosophical  prin-  ground  of  evidence  there  is  no  reason  to  make  a  dia- 
ciple  that  external  experience  is  the  sole  source  of  tinction  among  them  or  to  interpret  them  so  that  they 
Imowledge,  rests  upon  the  discredited  basis  that  become  other  than  they  are.  The  real  reason  is  pre- 
miraclee  are  opposed  to  the  uniformity  of  nature  as  judgment  on  false  philosophical  grounds  with  a  view 
violations  of  natural  laws,  and  was  advanced  throup^  to  gjet  rid  of  the  supematuml  element.  In  fact,  the 
prejudice  ngainst  Christianity.  Hence  later  sceptics  coniectures  and  h3rpotheses  proposed  are  far  more  im- 
nave  receded  from  Hume's  extreme  position  and  pronable  than  the  miracles  themselves.  Again,  how 
teach,  not  that  miracles  cannot  be  provea,  but  that  as  thus  explain  the  great  miracle  that  the  hero  of  a  base- 
a  matter  of  fact  they  are  not  proved.  less  legend,  the  impotent  and  deceitful  Christ,  could  be- 

The  attack  by  Hume  on  miracles  in  general  has  been  come  we  founder  of  the  Christian  Church  and  of  (Jhris- 
applied  to  the  miracles  of  the  Bible,  and  has  received  tian  civilisation?  Finally,  this  method  violates  the  first 
added  weight  from  the  denial  of  Divine  inspiration,  principles  of  interpretation;  for  the  New-Testament 
Varying  in  form,  its  basic  principle  is  the  same,  vis.,  writers  are  not  allowed  to  speak  their  own  language, 
the  humanism  of  the  Renaissance  applied  to  the-  J^  The  theory  of  Biblical  Humanism. — ^Tne  fun- 
ology.  Thus  we  have:  (1)  The  old  rationalism  of  damental  idea  of  Hegel's  metaphysic  (vii.,  that  ex- 
Semler,  Eichhom,  de  Wette,  and  Paulus,  who  held  the  isting  things  are  the  progressive  manifestation  of  the 
credibility  of  the  Bible  records,  but  eontended  that  idea,  i.  e.,  the  absolute)  gave  a  philosophical  basis 
they  were  a  collection  of  writings  composed  by  natural  for  the  organic  conception  of  the  universe,  i.  e.,  the 
intelligence  alone,  and  to  be  treated  on  the  same  plane  Divine  as  oiganic  to  the  human.  Thus  revelation  is 
with  other  natural  productions  of  the  human  mind,  presented  as  a  human  process,  and  history— «.  g.,  the 
They  got  rid  of  the  supernatural  by  a  bold  int^reta-  Bible— is  a  record  of  human  experience,  the  product  of 
tion  of  miracles  as  purely  natural  facts.  This  is  a  human  life.  This  phUosophy  of  history  was  applied 
called  the  "interpretation"  theory,  and  appears  to-  to  explain  the  miraculous  in  the  Gospels  and  appears 
day  under  two  forms :ia)  modified  raticmalism,  which  under  two  forms:  (a)  the  Tttbingen  School.  Baur 
teaches  that  we  are  warranted  in  accepting  a  very  re^puds  the  Hegelian  process  in  its  objective  aspect, 
considerable  porticm  of  the  Gospel  narratives  as  sub-  i.  e.,  the  facts  as  things.  He  held  the  books  ot  the 
stantifi^ly  historical,  without  being  compelled  to  be-  New  Testament  to  be  states  through  which  the  human 
lieve  in  any  miracles.  Hence  they  give  credence  to  the  life  and  thought  of  early  Christianity  had  passed.  He 
accounts  of  the  demoniacs  and  healing,  but  allege  attempted  to  do  with  reference  to  the  origin  what 
that  these  wonders  were  wrought  by,  or  m  accordance  Gibbon  tried  with  reference  to  the  spread  of  Chris- 
with,  natural  law.  Tlius  we  have  the  electric  theory  of  tisnity^-  i.  e..  get  rid  of  the  supernatural  by  the  tacit 
M.Corelli,the  appealto"  moral  therapeutics  "by  Mat-  assumption  tnat  there  were  no  miracles  and  by  the 
thew  Arnold,  and  the  psychological  theory  advanced  enumeration  of  natural  causes,  chief  of  which  was  the 
by  Prof.  Bousset  of  G5ttingen,  in  which  he  claims  Messianic  idea  to  which  Jesus  accommodated  Himself, 
that  Christ  performed  miracles  by  natural  mental  Tlie  evolution  element  in  Baur's  Humanism,  however, 
powers  of  a  superior  kind  (cf.  **  N.  World  ",  Mareh,  constrained  him  to  deny  that  we  possess  contempo- 
1896) .  But  the  attempt  to  explain  the  miracles  of  the  raneous  documents  of  our  Lord's  life,  to  hold  that  the 
Gospel  either  by  the  natural  powers  of  Christ,  i.  e.,  New-Testament  literature  was  the  result  of  warring 
mental  or  moral  superiority,  or  by  peculiar  states  of  factions  among  the  early  Christians,  and  therefore 
the  recipient,  faith  cure,  and  allied  psychic  phenomena,  of  a  much  later  date  than  tradition  ascribes  to  it,  and 
is  arbitrary  and  not  true  to  facts.  In  many  of  the  that  Christ  was  only  the  occasional  cause  of  Chris- 
miracles  (aith  is  not  required,  and  is  in  fact  absent;  tianity.  He  accepted  as  eenuine  only  the  Epistles 
this  is  shown,  in  the  miracles  of  power,  by  the  ex-  to  the  Galatians,  Romans,  I  and  II  Corinthians,  and 
pressed  fear4>f  the  Apostles,  e.  g.,  at  Christ  stilline  the  the  Apocalypse.  But  the  Epistles  admitted  by  Baur 
tempest  (Mark,  iv,  40),  at  Christ  on  the  waters  (Mark,  show  that  St.  Paul  believed  in  miracles  and  asserted 
vi,  51),  at  the  draught  of  fishes  (Luke,  v,  8),  and  in  the  the  actual  occurrence  of  them  as  well-known  facts 
miracles  of  expelling  demons.  In  some  miracles  Christ  both  in  regard  to  Christ  and  in  regard  to  himself  and 
requires  faith,  but  the  faith  is  not  the  cause  of  the  the  other  Apostles  (e.  g.,  Rom.,  xv,  18;  I  Cor.,  i,  22; 
miracle,  only  the  condition  of  His  exercisinc^the  power,  xii,  10;  II  Cor.,  xii,  12;  Gal.,  iii,  5,  especially  his  re- 

(b)  Others,  like  Holstein,  Renan,  and  Huxley,  fol-  peated  references  to  the  Resurrection  of  Christ,  I 

low  de  Wette,  who  explains  the  miracles  as  the  emo-  Cor.,  xv).    The  basis  on  which  the  Tobingen  School 


344  MXRAOU 

4 

leBts,  vis.,  that  we  posseoB  no  oontemponaeous  leeoida  idting  the  supematuial  chai«cter  of  the  Bible,  so  tlif 
of  Ghiist's  life,  and  that  the  New-Testament  writings  new  Kefonnation  aimed  at  lemoyins  the  supematuiBl 
belong  to  the  second  oentuiy,  has  been  proved  to  he  element  from  the  Bible  and  resting  laith  in  Christisn- 
false  b^  the  h^er  criticisms.  Hence  Huxley  admits  ity  on  the  hish  moral  character  <n  Jesus  and  the  ex- 
that  this  position  is  no  loiiger  tenable  (The  Nineteenth  cellence  of  iSs  moral  teaching.  It  is  in  close  sym- 
Centuiy,  Feb.,  1889),  ana  in  fact  there  is  no  longer  a  pathy  with  some  writers  on  Uie  science  of  religion, 
Tabizigen  School  at  Tabingen.  Haroack  says:  "As  who  see  in  Christianity  a  natural  relisian,  thougji 
regards  the  criticisms  of  the  sources  of  Christianity,  superior  to  other  fonns.  In  describing  tneir  position 
we  stand  unquestionablv  in  a  movement  of  return  to  as  "a  revolt  against  miraculous  beli^",  its  acmerents 
tradition.  Tne  chronological  frameworic  in  which  yet  profess  sreat  reverence  for  Jesus  as  "  that  friend 
tradition  set  the  earliest  documents  is  to  be  hence-  of  Qod  and  Man,  in  whom,  Uiroug^  all  human  frailty 
forth  accepted  in  its  main  outlines"  (The  Nineteenth  and  necessaiy  imperfection,  they  see  the  natoial 
Cent.,  Oct.,  1899).  Hence  Romanes  said  that  the  head  of  their  mmost  life,  the  s^bol  of  those  religiow 
outcome  of  the  battle  on  the  Bible  documents  is  forces  in  man  which  are  primitive,  essential  anid  uni- 
a  signal  victory  for  Christianity  (Thoughts  on  Reli-  versal"  ("The  Nineteenth  Cent.",  Mar.,  1889).  By 
gion,  p.  165).  Dr.  Emil  Reich  speaks  of  the  bank-  way  of  criticism  it  may  be  said  Uiat  this  school  has  its 
niptcy  of  the  higher  criticism  C*  Contemp.  Rev.",  source  in  the  philosophical  assumption  that  the  uni- 
April,  1905).  formity  of  nature  has  made  the  miracle  unthinkable 
(b)  The  "Mjrthical"  School. — Strauss  regarded  the  — an  assumption  now  discarded.  Agiun,  it  has  it^t 
Hegelian  process  in  its  subjective  aspect.  The  facts  basis  in  the  Tobingen  School,  which  mis  been  proved 
as  matters  of  consciousness  with  the  early  Christians  false,  and  it  recruires  a  mutilation  of  the  Gospels  eo 
concerned  him  exclusively.  Hence  he  regarded  Christ  radical  and  wholesREde  that  neariy  every  sentence  has 
within  the  Christian  consciousness  of  the  time,  and  to  be  excised  or  rewritten.  The  miracles  of  Jesus  are 
held  that  Christ  of  the  New  Testament  was  the  out-  too  essential  a  part  of  His  life  and  teaching  to  be  thus 
come  of  this  consciousness.  He  did  not  deny  a  rela-  removed.  We  might  as  well  expurgate  the  records  of 
tively  small  nucleus  of  historical  reality,  but  contended  military  achievements  from  the  lives  of  Alexander 
that  the  Gospels,  as  we  possess  them,  are  mythical  or  of  Csesar.  Strauss  exposed  the  inoonsisteDcies  of 
inventions  or  fabulous  and  fanciful  embellishments  this  position,  which  he  once  held  (Old  Faith  and  the 
and  are  to  be  regarded  only  as  83rmbols  for  spiritual  New),  and  von  Hartmann  considered  the  Liberal  theo- 
ideas,  e.  g.,  the  Messianic  idea.  Strauss  thus  at^ .  lomns  as  causing  the  disintegration  of  Christianity 
tempted  to  remove  the  miraculous— or  what  he  con-  CNSelbsterBetsung  des  Christ",  1888). 
sidered  the  unhistorical  matter — ^from  the  text.  But  (b)  In  its  recent  form,  it  has  been  advocated  by 
this  view  was  too  fanciful  long  to  hold  currencv  after  a  the  exponents  of  the  psychological  theory.  Hence, 
careful  study  of  the  truthful,  matterof-fact  character  where  the  old  school  followed  an  objective,  this  pur- 
of  the  New-Testament  writings,  and  a  comparison  of  sues  a  subjective  method.  This  theory  combines 
them  with  the  Apocrypha.  Hence  it  has  been  rejected,  the  basic  teaching  of  Hegel,  Schleiennacher,  and 
and  Strauss  himself  confessed  to  disappointment  at  Ritschl.  Hegel  taught  that  religious  truths  are  the 
It  of  his  labours  (The  Old  and  New  Faith).  figurative  representation  of  rational  ideas;  Schleier- 
he  Critical  Agnostic  School. — Its  basis  is  the  macher  taught  that  propositions  of  faith  are  the  pious 
Lie  idea  of  the  universe,  but  it  views  the  worid-  states  of  the  heart  expressed  in  language*  Ritschl, 
process  apart  from  God,  because  reason  cannot  prove  that  the  evidence  of  Christian  doctrine  is  in  the 
the  existence  of  God,  and  therefore,  to  the  Aenostic,  "value-judgment",  i.  e.,  the  religious  effect  on  the 
He  does  not  exist  (e.  g.,  Huxley) ;  or  to  the  Christian  mind.  On  thib  basis  Prof.  Gardner  ("A  Historical 
Agnostic,  His  existence  is  accepted  on  Faith  (e.  g.,  View  of  the  New  Test.'',  London,  1904)  holds  that  no 
Baden-Powell).  To  both  there  is  no  miracle,  for  we  reasonable  man  would  profess  to  disprove  the  Chris- 
have  no  way  of  knowing  it.  Thus  Huxley  admits  the  tian  miracles  historically :  that  in  historical  studies  we 
facts  of  miracles  in  the  New  Testament,  but  says  that  must  accept  the  principle  of  continuity  as  set  forth 
the  testimony  as  to  their  miraculous  character  may  be  by  evolution,  that  the  statements  of  the  New  Testa- 
worthless,  and  strives  to  explain  it  by  the  subjective  ment  are  based  mainly  on  Christian  experience,  in 
mental  conditions  of  the  writers  ( ''  The  Nineteenth  which  there  is  alwa3rB  an  element  of  false  theory;  that 
Cent.",  Mar.,  1889).  Baden-Powell  (in  *'Essavs  and  we  must  distinguish  between  the  true  underiyinp  fact 
Reviews"),  Holtzmann  (Die  synoptischen  Evange-  and  its  defective  outward  expression;  that  this  ex- 
lien),  and  Harnack  (The  Essence  of  Christianity)  ad-  pression  is  conditioned  by  the  intellectual  atmosphere 
mit  the  miracles  as  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  but  hold  of  the  time,  and  passes  away  to  give  place  to  a  higher 
that  their  miraculous  character  is  beyond  the  scope  and  better  expression.  Hence  the  outward  expressicm 
of  historical  proof,  and  depends  on  the  mental  as-  of  Christianity  should  be  different  now  from  what  it 
sumptions  of  the  readers.— -Criticism:  The  real  prob-  was  in  other  days.  Hence,  while  miracles  may  have 
lem  of  the  historian  is  to  state  well-authenticated  had  their  value  for  the  early  Christians,  they  have  no 
facts  and  give  an  explanation  of  the  testimony.  He  value  for  us,  for  our  experience  is  different  from  theirs, 
should  show  how  such  events  must  have  taken  place  Thus  M.  R^ville  (''Liberal  Qiristianity",  London, 
and  how  such  a  theory  only  can  explain  them.  He  1903)  says:  "The  faith  of  a  liberal  Protestant  does  not 
takes  cognizance  of  all  that  is  said  about  these  events  depend  upon  the  solution  of  a  problem  of  historteal 
by  competent  witnesses,  and  from  their  testimonv  he  criticism.  It  is  founded  upon  his  own  experience  of 
draws  the  conclusion.  To  admit  the  facts  and  to  the  value  and  power  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ",  and 
deny  an  explanation  is  to  furnish  very  great  evidence  "The  Gospel  of  Jesus  is  iodepenaent  of  its  local  and 
for  their  historical  truth,  and  to  show  qualities  not  temporary  forms"  (pp.  54,  68). — ^All  this,  however,  is 
consistent  with  the  scientific  historian.  philosophy,  not  history;  it  is  not  Christianity,  but 
(4)  The  theory  of  liberal  Protestantism. — (a)  In  nationalism;  it  inverts  the  true  standard  of  historical 
its  older  form,  this  was  advocated  by  Carlyle  (Froude's  criticism — ^vis.,  we  should  study  past  events  in  the 
"Life  of  Cariyle"),  Martineau  (Seal  of  Authority  in  light  of  their  own  surroundings,  and  not  from  the 
Relkion),  Rathbone  Greg  (Creed  of  Christendom),  subiective  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  historian  of  what 
ProtT  Wm.  H.  Green  (Woncs,  III,  pp.  230,  253),  pro-  might,  could,  or  would  have  occurred.  There  is  no 
posed  as  a  religious  creed  under  the  title  of  the  "  new  reason  to  restrict  these  principles  to  questions  of  reUg- 
Reformation ''  ^''The  Nineteenth  Cent.",  Mar.,  1889)  ious  history;  and  if  extended  to  embrace  the  whole 
and  popularised  by  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward  in  "  Robert  of  past  historv,  they  would  lead  to  absolute  scepticism. 
Elsmere".  As  the  old  Reformation  was  a  movement  Vl.  The  Fact. — ^The  Bible  shows  that  at  lul  times 
to  destroy  the  Divine  authority  of  the  Church  by  ex-  God  has  wrought  miracles  to  attest  the  Revelatior 


imUGU                         345  Mnucu 

of'  HJB  wiU.    (1)  The  TninMsliw  of  the  Old  Testameat  Admit  that  Christ  wrought  man^  miracles,  or  confess 

reveal  the  Provkienoe  of  God  over  His  chosen  people,  that  we  do  not  know  Him  at  all — ^m  fact,  that  He  never 

They  are  convincing  proof  for  the  commission  oi  Moses  existed.    The  historical  Christ  of  the  Gospels  stands 

(Ehcod.,  iii,  it),  manifest  to  the  people  that  Jehovah  is  before  us  remarkable  in  the  chann  of  personality,  ex* 

Sovereign  Lord  (Exod.,  x,  2;  Deut.,  v,  25),  and  are  traordinary  in  the  elevation  of  life  and  beauty  of 

represented  as  the  "  finger  of  God  "  and  **  the  hand  of  doctrine,  strikingly  consistent  in  tenor  of  life,  exercis- 

Ciod."     God  punishes  Fhaiaoh  for  refusins  to  obey  ing  Divine  power  in  varied  ways  and  at  every  turn. 

Hia  oommanas  given  by  Moses  and  attested  by  mira-  He  rises  supreme  over,  and  apart  from,  His  surround- 

cles,  and  is  displeased  with  the  infidelity  of  the  Jews  ings  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  fruit  of  individual 

for  whom  He  worked  many  miracles  (Num.,  xiv).  invention  or  as  the  product  of  the  age.    The  simplest, 

Bftlraeles  convinced  the  widow  of  Sarephta  that  Elias  clearest,  only  explanation  is  that  the  testimony  is  true. 

was  "  a  man  of  God  "  (III  Kincs,  xvii,  24) ,  made  the  They  who  den^  nave  vet  to  ofifer  an  explanation  strcmg 

people  cry  out  in  the  dispute  between  Elias  and  the  enough  to  withstand  the  criticism  of  the  sceptics 

prophets  of  Baal,  ''the  Lord  he  is  God"  (III  Kings,  themselves. 

xviu,  39),  caused  Naaman  to  confess  that  "there  is  no  (3)  The  testimony  of  the  Apostles  to  miracles  Is 
other  God  in  all  the  earth,  but  only  in  Israer'  (IV  twofold:  (a)  They  preached  the  miracles  of  Christ, 
Kings,  v,  15),  led  Nabuchodonosor  to  issue  a  public  especially  tne  Resurrection.  Thus  St.  Peter  speaks 
decree  in  honour  of  God  upon  the  escape  of  the  Three  of  the  "  miracles,  and  wonders,  and  signs  "  which  Jesus 
Children  from  the  fiery  furnace  (Dan.,  iii),  and  Darius  did  as  a  fact  well-known  to  the  Jews  (Acts,  ii,  22),  and 
toiasuealikedecraeontheescapeof  Daniel  (Dan.,  v).  as  published  through  Galilee  and  Judea  (Acts,  x, 
The  ethksal  element  is  conspicuous  in  the  miracles  37).  The  Apostles  profess  themselves  witnesses  of  the 
and  is  in  consonance  with  the  exalted  ethical  charao-  R^urrection  (Acts,  ii,  32),  they  say  that  the  char- 
ter of  Jehovah,  "  a  king  of  absolute  justice,  whose  love  acteristic  of  an  Apostle  is  that  he  be  a  witness  of  the 
for  bis  people  was  conditioned  by  a  law  of  absolute  Resurrection  (Acts,  i,  22),  and  upon  the  Resurreo- 
righteousness,  as  foreign  to  Semitic  as  to  Aryan  tion  bftse  their  preaching  in  Jerusalem  (Acts,  iii,  15; 
tradition ",  writes  Dr.  Robertson  Smith  ("  Religion  of  iv,  10;  v,  30; x,  40),  at  Antioch  (Acts,  xiii,  30  sqq.),  at 
the  Semites",  p.  74;  cf.  Kuenen,  Hibbert  Lect.,  p.  Athens  (Acts,  xvii,  31),  at  Corinth  (I  Cor.,  xv),  at 
124).  Hence  tne  tendency  among  recent  writers  on  Rome  (Rom.,  vi,  4),  and  in  Thessalonica  (I  These., 
the  histoiy  of  religion  to  postulate  the  direct  inter-  i,  10).  (b)  They  worked  miracles  themselves,  won- 
vention  of  God  throiu^  revelation  as  the  only  ex-  ^  ders  and  signs  in  Jerusalem  (Acts,  ii,  43),  cure  the 
planation  for  the  exalted  conception  of  the  Deitv  'lame  (Acts,  iii,  xiv),  heal  the  side,  and  drive  out 
set  forth  by  Moses  and  the  prophets  (R.  Kettel,  demons  (Acts,  viii,  7,  8),  raise  the  dead  (Acts,  xx,  10 
''  Geschichte  der  Hebrfter",  1889-02).  sqq.).  St.  Paul  calls  the  attention  of  the  Christians 
(2)  The  Old  Testament  reveals  a  hig^  ethical  con-  at  Rome  to  his  own  miracles  (Rom.,  xv,  18, 19),  refers 
oeption  of  God  who  works  miracles  for  hif^  ethical  to  the  well-known  miracles  performed  in  Galatia 
purposes,  and  unfolds  a  dispensation  of  prophecy  (Gal.,  iii,  5),  calls  the  Christians  of  Corinth  to  witness 
feaaing  up  to  Christ.  In  fulfilment  of  this  prophecy  the  miracles  he  worked  among  them  as  the  signs  of 
Christ  works  miracles.  His  answer  to  the  messengers  his  apostleship  (II  Cor.,  xii,  12),  and  gives  to  the 
of  John  the  Baptist  was  that  they  should  bo  and  tell  working  of  miracles  a  place  in  the  economy  of  the 
John  what  they  had  seen  (Li^e,  vii,  22;  cf.Isa.,  XXXV,  Christian  Faith  (I  Cor.,  xii;.  Thus  the  Apoetles 
5).  Thus  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  in  proving  the  worked  miracles  in  their  nussionaiy  journeys  in  virtue 
truth  of  the  Christian  religion  from  the  miracles  of  of  the  power  given  them  by  Christ  (Marie,  iii,  15)  and 
Christ, Join  them  with  prophecy  (Origen,  "C.Celsum",  confirmed  after  His  Resurrection  (Mark,  xvi,  17). 
I,  ii;  IrensDus,  Adv.  hser.  L,  ii,  32;  St.  Augustine,  (4)  Dr.  Middleton  holds  that  all  miracles  ceased 
"  C.  Faustum  ",  XII).  Jesus  openly  professed  to  work  with  the  Apostles.  Mosley  and  Milman  ascribe  later 
miracles.  He  appeals  repeatedly  to  His  "works"  as  miracles  to  pious  myths,  fraud,  and  foigeiy.  Trench 
moflt  authentic  and  decisive  proof  of  His  Divine  Son-  admits  that  few  points  present  greater  dimculty  than 
ship  (John,  v,  18-36;  x,  24-37)  and  of  His  mission  the  attempt  to  aetermine  the  exact  period  when  the 
(John,  xiv,  12),  and  for  thjs  reason  condemns  the  power  of  working  miracles  was  withdrawn  from  the 
obstinacy  of  the  Jews  as  inexcusable  (John,  xv,  22, 24) .  Church.  This  position  is  one  of  polemical  bias  against 
He  worked  miracles  to  establish  the  Kinraiom  of  God  the  Catholic  Church,  just  as  presumptions  of  various 
(Bfatt.,  xU;  Luke,  xi),  gave  t6  the  Apostles  (Matt.,  x,  kinds  are  behind  all  attacks  on  the  miracles  of  script- 
S)  and  disciples  (Luke,  x,  9,  19)  the  power  of  working  ure.  Now  we  are  not  obliged  to  accept  every  miracle 
miracles,  thereby  instructing  them  to  follow  the  same  alleged  as  such.  The  evidence  of  testimony  is  our 
method,  and  promised  that  the  gift  of  miracles  should  warrant,  and  for  miracles  of  church  histonr  we  have 

g^rsist  inthe  Church  (Mark,  xvi,  17).    At  the  sight  of  testimony  of  the  most  complete  kind.    If  it  should 

is  marvellous  works,  the  Jews  fMatt.,  ix,  8),  Nico-  happen  that,  after  careful  investigation,  a  supposed 

demus  (John,  iii,  2),  and  the  man  Dom  blind  (John,  ix,  miracle  should  turn  out  to  be  no  miracle  at  all,  a 

33)  confess  that  they  must  be  ascribed  to  Divine  power,  distinct  service  to  truth  would  be  rendered.    Throuffh- 

Pfleiderer  accepts  tne  second  Gospel  as  the  authentic  out  the  course  of  church  history  there  are  miracles 

work  of  St.  Mark,  and  this  Gospel  is  a  compact  account  so  well  authenticated  that  their  truth  cannot  be 

of  miracles  wrought  bv  Christ.    Ewala  and  Weiss  denied.    Thus  St.  Clement  of  Rome  and  St.  Ignatius 

speak  of  the  miracles  of  Christ  as  a  daily  task.    Mir-  of  Antioch  speak  of  the  miracles  wrought  in  their 

aclea  are  not  accidental  or  external  to  the  Christ  of  the  time.    Origen  aAys  he  has  seen  examples  of  demons 

Gospels;  they  are  inseparably  bound  up  with  His  expelled,  many  cures  effected,  and  prophecies  fulfilled 

supernatural  doctrine  and  supematurar  life — a  life  (''C.  Celsum",  I,  II,  III,  VII).    Irensus  taunts  the 

and  doctrine  which  is  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  and  magic-workers  of  his  day  that  "  they  cannot  give  si^t 

the  source  of  Christian  civilisation.    Miracles  form  to  tne  blind  nor  hearing  to  the  deaf,  nor  put  to  flight 

the  very  substance  of  the  Ciospel  narratives,  so  that,  demons;  and  they  are  so  far  from  raising  the  dead, 

if  removed,  there  would  remain  no  recognisable  plan  as  Our  Loid  did,  and  the  Apostles,  by  prayer,  and  as 

of  work  and  no  intelligent  portrait  of  the  worker,  is  most  frequently  done  among  the  brethren,  that 

We  have  the  same  evidence  for  miracles  that  we  have  they  even  think  it  impossible"  (Adv.  luer.,  II).    St. 

for  Christ.    Dr.  Holtsmann  says  that  the  very  traits  Athanasius  writes  the  life  of  St.  Anthony  from  what  he 

whose  astonishing  combination  in  one  person  presents  himself  saw  and  heard  from  one  who  had  long  been  in 

the  highest  kind  of  historical  evidence  for  His  exist-  attendance  on  the  saint.    St.  Justin  in  his  second 

enbe  are  indissolubly  connected  with  miracles.    Un-  apology  to  the  Roman  Senate  appeals  to  miracles 

*      we  accept  miracles,  we  have  no  Gtospel  history,  wrou^t  in  Rome  and  well  attested.     Tertulliaa 


liimiAnT.1  346  MnUGU 


Aftltenys  the  heathen  magistrates  to  woik  the  mim-  mirooleB.    They  ean  be  oonsidefed  in  lelaAioQ  to  the 

oles  whieh  th»  Christians  perform  (ApoL,  xxiii) ;  St.  office  and  person  of  Christ  as  Redeemer.    Thus  (a) 

Paulinusi  in  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose,  narrates  what  they  have  their  source  in  the  hypostatic  union  and 

he  has  seen.    St.  Augustine  gives  a  long  list  of  ex-  follow  on  the  relation  of  Christ  to  men  aa  Redeenter. 

traordinary  miracles  wrought  before  his  own  eyes,  In  them  we  can  see  references  to  the  great  redemp- 

mentions  names  and  particulars,  describes  them  as  tion  work  He  came  to  accomplish.    Hence  the  £van> 

well  known,  and  aayu  tney  happened  within  two  years  selists  conceive  Christ's  miraculous  power  as  an  in- 

before  he  published  the  written  account  (De  civit.  nuence  radiating  from  Him  (Marie,  v,  30;  Luke,  vi, 

Dei.,  XXII,  viii;  Retract.,  I,  xiii).    St.  Jerome  wrote  19).  and  theolonans  call  the  miracles  of  Christ  the- 

a  hock  to  confute  Vigilantius  and  prove  that  rel-  anarical  works  vBellar,  ''Controv.",  I,  lib.  V,  e.  vii). 

ics  should  be  venerated,  by  citins  muacles  wrou^t  (b)  Their  aim  is  the  glory  of  God  in  the  manifestation 

through  them.    Theodoret  publisned  the  life  of  St.  of  Christ's  glory  and  in  the  salvation  of  men,  as  e.  g. 

Simon  Stylites  while  the  saint  was  living,  and  thou-  in  the  miracle  of  Cana  (John,  ii,  11),  in  the  Transfig- 

sands  were  alive  who  had  been  eye-witnesses  of  what  uration  (Matt.,  xvii),  the  Resurrection  of  LasaniB 

had  happened.    St.  Victor,  Bishop  of  Vita,  wrote  the  (John,  xi,  15),  Christ's  last  prayer  for  tline. Apostles 

history  of  the  African  confessors  whose  tongues  had  (John,  xvii),  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  (Acts,  x,  40). 

been  cut  out  by  command  of  Himneric,  and  who  yet  re-  St.  John  opens  his  Gospel  with  the  Incarnation  of  the 

tained  the  power  of  speech,  and  challenges  the  reader  Eitemal  Word,  and  ados,  "we  saw  his  glory"  (John, 

to  go  to  Repatatus,  one  of  them  then  living  at  the  palace  i,  14).    Hence  Irensus  (Adv.  hser.,  V)  and  Athana- 

of  the  EmperoV  Zeno.    From  his  own  experience  sius  (Incam.)  teach  that  the  works  of  Christ  were  the 

Sulpicius  Severus  wrote  the  life  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  manifestations  of  the  Divine  Word  who  in  the  hegm" 

St.  Gregory  the  Great  writes  to  St.  Augustine  of  Can-  ning  made  aU  things  and  who  in  the  Incarnation  dk- 

terbury  not  to  be  elated  by  the  many  miracles  God  placed  His  power  over  nature  and  man,  as  a  manifes- 

was  pleased  to  work  through  his  hands  for  the  con-  tation  of  the  new  life  imparted  to  man  and  a  revelation 

version  of  the  people  of  Britain.    Hence  Gibbon  of  the  character  and  purposes  of  God.    The  repeated 

sa3rB,  "The  Christian  Church,  from  the  time  of  the  references  in  the  Acts  and  in  the  ESpistles  to  the 

Apostles  and  their  disciples,  has  claimed  an  uninter-  "glory  of  Christ"  have  relation  to  His  miracles.     The 

rupted  succession  of  miraculous  powers,  the  gift  of  source  and  purpose  of  the  miracles  of  Christ  is  the 

tongues,  of  visions  and  of  prophecy,  the  power  of  reason  for  their  initiate  connexion  with  His  life  aod 

expelling  demons,  of  healing  the  sick  and  of  raising  teaching.    A  saving  and  redeeming  mission  was  the 

the  dead"  (Decline  and  Fail,  I,  pp.  264,  288) ;  thus  purpose  of  the  miracles,  as  it  was  of  the  doctrine  and 

miracles  are  so  interwoven  with  our  religion,  so  con-  life  of  the  eternal  Son  of  God.    (c)  Their  motive  was 

nected  with  its  origin,  its  promulgation,  its  progress  mercy.    Most  of  Christ's  miracles  were  works  of 

and  whole  history,  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  mercy.    They  were  performed  not  with  a  view  to  aws 

ihem  from  it.    The  existence  of  the  Church,  the  men  by  the  feeling  oi  omnipotence,  but  to  show  com- 

kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  in  which  Christ  and  His  passion  for  sinful  and  suffering  humanity.    They  are 

Holy  Spirit  abide,  rendered  illustrious  by  the  mirao-  not  to  be  regarded  as  isolated  or  transitory  acts  of 

ulcus  lives  of  saints  of  all  countries  and  all  times,  is  a  sympathy,  but  as  prompted  by  a  deep  and  abiding 

perpetual  standing  witness  for  the  realityof  miracles  mercy  which  characterises  the  office   of   Saviour. 

(Bellar.,  "De  notis  eccl.",  LIV,  xiv).    The  well-at-  The  Redemption  is  a  work  of  mercy,  and  the  miracles 

tested  records  are  to  be  found  in  the  official  process^  reveal  the  mercy  of  God  in  the  works  of  His  Incarnate 

for  the  canonization  of  saints.    Moiley  hela  that  an  Soni  (Acts,  x,  38).     (d)  Hence  we  can  see  in  them  a 

enormous  distinction  exists  between  the  miracles  of  symbolical  cnaracter.  They  were  signs,  and  in  a  special 

the  Gospel  and  those  of  church  history,  through  the  sense  they  signified  by  the  typical  language  of  external 

false  notion  that  the  sole  purpose  of  miracles  was  the  facts,  the  inward  renewal  of  the  soul.    Inua,  in  com- 

attestation  of  revealed  truth:  Newman  denies  the  menting  on  the  miracle  of  the  widow's  son  at  Nairn, 

contention  and  shows  that  both  are  of  the  same  type  St.  Augustine  says  that  Christ  raised  three  from  the 

and  as  well-authenticated  by  historical  evidence.  death  of  the  body,  but  thousands  from  the  deaAh  of 

VII.    Place  and  Value  of  the  Gospel  Miracles,  sin  to  the  life  of  Divine  grace  (Seim.  de  verbis  Dom., 

— ^In  studying  the  Gospel  miracles  we  are  impressed  xeviii,  al.  xliv). 

by  the  accounts  given  of  their  multitude,  and  by  the  The  relief  which  Christ  brought  to  the  body  rep- 
fact  that  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  them  is  re-  resented  the  deliveranoe  He  was  working  on  soub. 
lated  by  the  jQvangelists  in  detail;  the  Gospels  speak  His  miracles  of  cures  and  healings  were  the  visible 
only  in  the  most  general  terms  of  the  miracles  Cnrist  Picture  of  His  spiritual  work  in  the  warfare  with  evil, 
peitormed  in  the  great  missionary  journeys  through  These  miracles,  summarised  in  the  answer  of  Jesus  to 
Galilee  and  Judea.  We  read  that  the  people,  seeing  the  messengers  of  John  (Matt.,  xi.  5),  are  explained 
title  things  which  He  did,  followed  Him  in  crowds  bv  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  with  reference  to  the 
(Matt.,  iv.,  25),  to  the  number  of  5000  (Luke,  ix,  14),  ills  of  the  soul  (Summa,  III,  Q.  xliv).  The  motive 
so  that  He  could  not  enter  the  cities,  and  His  fame  and  meaning  of  the  miracles  explain  the  moderation 
spread  from  Jerusalem  through  Syria  (Matt.,  iv,  24).  Christ  showed  in  the  use  of  His  infinite  power.  Re- 
His  reputation  was  so  great  that  the  chief  priests  in  pose  in  strength  is  a  sublime  trait  in  the  character  of 
council  spedE  of  Him  as  one  who  "  doth  many  mira-  Jesus ;  it  comes  from  the  conscious  possession  of  power 
des"  (John,  xi,  47),  the  disciples  at  Elmmaus  as  the  to  be  used  for  the  good  of  men,  Rousseau  confesses, 
"  ptopnet,  mightv  in  work  and  word  before  God  and  all  "  All  the  miracles  of  Jesus  were  useful  without  pomp 
the  people"  (Luke,  xxiv,  19),  and  St.  Peter  describe  or  display,  but  simple  as  His  words.  His  life.  His 
Him  to  Ck>melius  as  the  wonder-working  preacher  whole  conduct "  (Lettr.  de  la  Montag.,  pt.  I,  lett.  iii). 
(Acts,  X,  38).  Out  of  the  great  mass  of  miraculous  He  does  not  perform  them  for  the  sake  of  being  a  mere 
events  surrounding  our  Lord's  person,  the  Evangelists  worker  of  miracles.  Everything  He  does  has  a  mean- 
made  a  selection.  True,  it  was  impossible  to  narrate  ing  when  viewed  in  the  relation  (Christ  holds  to  men. 
all  (John,  XX,  30).  Yet  we  can  see  in  the  narrated  In  the  class  known  as  miracles  of  power  Jesus  does  not 
miracles  a  twofold  reason  for  the  selection.  show  a  mere  mental  and  moral  superiority  over  ordi- 

(1)  The  great  purpose  of  the  Redemption  was  the  nary  men.     In  virtue  of  His  redeeming  mission  He 

manifestation  of  God's  glory  id  the  salvation  of  man  proves  that  He  is  Lord  and  Master  of  the  forces  of 

throughthe  life  and  work  of  His  Incarnate  Son.     Thus  nature.    Thus  by  a  word  He  stills  the  tempest,  by  a 

it  ranks  supreme  among  the  works  of  God's  Providence  word  He  multiplied  a  few  loaves  and  fishes  so  that 

over  men.    This  expuiins  the  life  and  teaching  of'  thousandsfeastedand  were  filled,  by  a  word  He  hefiled 

Christ ;  it  enables  us  to  grasp  the  scope  and  plan  of  His  lepers,  drove  out  demons>  raised  the  dead  to  life,  azid 


MXR4CII                           347  MXR4CU 

finally  set  the  great  seal  upon  His  mission  by  rising  ment,  their  own  prophetic  character  as  fulfflled  inth'. 

from  death,  as  He  had  explicitly  foretold.    Thus  development  of  His  Kingdom  on  earth. 

R^ian  admits  that  "even  the  marvellous  in  the  Gos-  VIII.  Special  Providencbb. — Prayer  is  a  great 

pels  is  but  sdt)er  good  sense  compared  with  that  which  fact,  which  finds  expression  in  a  persistent  manner, 

we  meet  in  the  Jewish  apocryphal  writings  or  the  and  enters  intimately  into  the  life  of  humanity.    So 

Hindu  or  European  mythologies"  (Stud,  in  Hist,  of  universal  is  the  act  of  prayer  that  it  seems  an  instinct 

Relig.,  pp.  177,  203).  and  part  of  our  bein^.     It  is  the  fundamental  fact  of 

(e)  Hence  the  miracles  of  Christ  have  a  doctrinal  religion,  and  relijeion  is  a  universal  phenomenon  of  the 

import.    They  have  a  vital  connexion  with  His  teach-  huipan  race.    Gnristian  philosophy  teaches  that  in 

inp  and  mission,  illustrate  the  nature  and  purpose  of  his  spiritual  nature  man  is  made  to  the  image  and 

Hia  kingdom,  and  show  a  connexion  with  some  of  the  likeness  of  God,  therefore  his  soul  instinctively  turns 

greatest  doctrines  and  principles  of  His  Church.    Its  to  his  Maker  in  aspirations  of  worship,  of  hope,  and  of 

catholicity  is  shown  in  the  miracles  of  the  centurion's  intercession.    The  real  value  of  prayer  has  been  a 

servant  (Matt.o^iii)  and  the  Sjrro-phenieian  woman  vital  subject,  for  discussion  in  modem  times.    Some, 

(Mark,  ^i).     The  Sabbatical  miracles  reveal  its  pur-  like  O.  B.  Frothringham  (Recollections  and  Impres- 

poee,  i.  e.,  the  salvation  of  men,  and  show  that  Christ's  sions,  p.   296),  Drobisch   and   Herbart  (PfleldiBrer, 

kingdom  marks  the  passing  of  the  Old  Dispensation.  "Phil,  of  Religion",  II,  p.  206),  hold  that  its  value 

Hia  miracles  teach  the  power  of  faith  and  tne  answer  lies  only  in  its  being  a  factor  in  l^e  culture  of  the  moral 

given  to  prayer.    The  central  truth  of  His  teaching  life,  by  giving  tone  and  strength  to  character.    Thus 

was  life.    He  came  to  give  life  to  men,  and  this  teach-  Professor  Tjrndall,  in  his  famous  Belfast  address,  pro- 

ing  is  emphasised  by  nusins  the  dead  to  life,  especially  posed  this  view,  maintaining  that  modem  science  has 

in  the  case  of  Lasarus  and  His  own  Resurrection.    Th e  proved  the  phvsical  value  of  pmyer  to  be  unbelievable 

sacramental  teaching  of  the  miracles  is  manifested  in  (Fragments  of  Science).   He  based  his  contention  on 

the  miracle  of  Can'a  (John,ii),  in  the  cure  of  the  para-  the  uniformity  of  nature.    But  this  basis  is  now  no 

lytic,  to  show  he  had  the  power  to  forgive  sins  [and  longer  held  as  an  obstacle  to  prayer  for  physical  bene- 

he  used  this  power  (Matt.,  ix)  and  gave  it  to  the  fits..    Others,  like  Baden- Powell  (Order  of  Nature), 

Apostles  (John,  xx,  23)  ],  in  the  multiplication  of  the  admit  that  God  answers  prayer  for  spiritual  favours, 

loaves  (John,  vi)  and  in  raising  the  dead.    Finally,  the  but  denies  its  value  for  physical  effects.    But  his 

prophetic  element  of  the  fortunes  of  the  individual  basis  is  the  same  as  that  of  Tyndall,  and  besides  an 

and  of  the  Church  is  shown  in  the  miracles  of  stilling  answer  for  spiritual  benefits  is  in  fact  an  interference 

the  tempest,  of  Christ  on  the  waters,  of  the  draught  on  the  part  of  God  in  nature.    Now  Christian  philos- 

of  fishes,  of  the  didrachma  and  the  barren  fig-tree,  ophy  teaches  that  God,  in  answer  to  prayer,  confers 

Jesus  makes  the  miracle  of  Lasarus  the  type  of  the  not  only  spiritual  favours  but  at  times  interferes  witii 

General  Resurrection,  just  as  the  Apostles  take  the  the  ordinary  course  of  physical  phenomena,  so  that, 

R^mrrection  of  Christ  to  signify  the  rising  of  the  as  a  result,  particular  events  happen  otherwise  than 

soul  from  the  death  of  sin  to  the  life  of  grace,  and  to  Ihev  should.  Tliis  interference  takes  place  in  miracles 

be  a  pledse  and  prophecy  of  the  victory  over  sin  and  and  special  providences. 

death  and  of  the  final  resurrection  (I  Tness.,  iv):  .  When  we  Imeel  to  pray  we  do  not  alwajw  beg  God 

(2)  The  miracles  of  Christ  have  an  evidential  value,  to  work  miracles  or  that  our  lives  shall  be  constant 
This  aspect  naturally  follows  from  the  above  consid-  prodigies  of  His  power.  The  sense  of  our  littleness 
erations.  In  the  first  miracle  at  Cana  He  *'  manifested  gives  an  humble  and  reverential  spirit  to  our  prayer. 
Hia  glorJr'^  therefore  the  disciples '' believed  in  Him"  We  trust  that  God,  through  His  Infinite  Imowledge 
(John,  11,  11).  Jesus  constantly  appealed  to  His  and  power,  will  in  some  way  best  known  to  Him  bring 
**  worics  "  as  evidences  of  His  mission  and  His  divinity,  about  what  we  ask.  Hence,  by  special  providences 
He  declares  that  His  miracles  have  greater  evidential  we  mean  events  which  happen  in  the  course  of  nature 
value  than  the  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  ^John,  and  of  life  through  the  instrumentality  of  natural 
v,  36) ;  their  logical  and  theological  force  as  evidences  laws.  We  cannot  discern  either  in  the  event  itself  or 
is  expressed  by  Nicodemus  (John,  iii,  2).  And  to  the  in  the  manner  of  its  happening  any  deviation  from 
miracles  Jesus  adds  the  evidence  of  prophecy  (John,  the  known  course  of  things.  What  we  do  know,  how- 
V,  31).  Now  their  value  as  evidences  for  the  people  ever,  is  that  events  shape  themselves  in  response  to 
then  living  is  foimd  not  only  in  the  display  of  omnip-  our  prayer.  The  laws  of  nature  are  invariable,  3ret 
otenee  in  His  redeeming  mission  but  also  in  the  one  important  factor  must  not  be  forgotten:  that  the 
multitudeof  His  works.  Thus  the  unrecorded  miracles  laws  of  nature  may  produce  an  effect,  the  same  con- 
had  an  evidential  bearing  on  His  mission.  So  we  ditions  must  be  present.  If  the  conditions  vary,  then 
can  see  an  evidential  reason  for  the  selection  of  the  the  effects  also  vary.  By  altering  the  conditions, 
miracles  as  narrated  in  the  Gospels.  other  tendencies  of  nature  are  made  predominant, 

(a)  This  selection  was  euided  by  a  purpose  to  make  and  the  forces  which  otherwise  would  work  out  their 

el^r  the  main  events  in  Christ's  life  leadm^  up  to  the  effects  yield  to  stronger  forces.    In  this  way  our  will 

Crucifixion  and  to  show  that  certain  definite  miracles  interferes  with  the  workings  of  natural  forces  and  with 

(e.  g.f  the  cure  of  the  lepers,  the  casting  out  of  demons  human  tendencies,  as  is  shown  in  our  intercourse  with 

in  a  manner  marvellously  superior  to  tne  exoroisms  of  men  and  in  the  science  of  government.    Now,  if  such 

the  Jews,  the  Sabbatical  miracles,  the  raising  of  Laa-  power  rests  with  men,  can  God  do  less?    Can  we  not 

arus)  caused  the  rulers  of  the  Synag<M;ue  to  conspire  oelieve  that,  at  our  prayer,  God  may  cause  the  condi- 

and  put  Him  to  death,     (b)  A  second  reason  for  the  tions  of  natural  phenomena  so  to  combine  that, 

selection  was  the  expressed  purpose  to  prove  that  through  His  special  agency,  we  may  obtain  our  heart's 

Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God  (John,  xx,  31).    Thus,  for  desire,  and  jret  so  that,  to  the  ordinarv  observer,  the 

us,  who  depend  on  the  Gospel  narratives,  the  evi-  event  happens  in  its  ordinary  place  and  time.    To  the 

dential  value  of  Christ's  miracles  comes  from  a  com-  devout  soul,  however,  all  is  different.    He  reoomixes 

pamtively  small  number  related  in  detail,  though  of  a  God's  favour  and  is  devoutiv  thankful  for  the  fatheriy 

most  stupendous  and  clearly  supernatural  kino,  some  care.    He  knows  that  God  has  brought  the  event 

of  which  were  performed  almost  in  private  and  fol-  about  in  some  way.    When,  therefore,  we  pray  for 

lowed  by  the  strictest  injunctions  not  to  publish  them,  rain,  or  to  avert  a  calamity,  or  to  prevent  the  ravages 

In  considering  them  as  evidences  in  relation  to  us  now  of  plague,  we  beg  not  so  much  for  miracles  or  signs  of 

living,  we  may  add  to  them  the  constant  reference  to  omnipotence:  we  ask  that  He  who  holds  the  heavens 

the  multitude  of  miracles  unrecorded'  in  detail,  their  in  His  hands  and  who  searehes  the  ehyss  will  listen 

intimate  connexion  with  our  Lord's  teaching  and  to  our  petitions  and,  in  His  own  good  way,  bring 

i^e,  their  relation  to  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testa-  about  the  answer  we  need. 


MXR4CU 


348 


JflRinT.! 


Br.  Tbqhab,  Comira  prnttn.  III,  xeriU-orii;  Idbii,  Summa,  I.  Q.  o 
aq. ;  III.  Q.  xUii-zlv;  Bbnbdxct  XIV,  />•  a^norumlUibMHfieaiion*, 
lY  (Pnto,  1839);  Ziouaba.  Propadeuiioa  ad  taeram  th9olog%am 
(Rome,  1884):  Lb  Camus,  tr.  Hickst,  TKe  Lift  of  Chnd  (New 
York,  1006);  Coluxdoi,  Tkt  Fublie  Lif9  of  Our  Lord  (Loodon, 
1876);  Hat,  TU  Dodtrw*  <if  MiradM  Bxplain^  (New  York, 
1873):  NawMAN.  Bmoum  on  MiraeiM  (New  York  uicl  Londcni, 
1800);  Law-Wilaon.  Th€  Thootogy  of  Modom  TKoughi  (Edin- 
burgh,  1800);  Tmnuroirin  BrU.  Mod.  Jtmr,  (Loodon,  Auf.,  1010); 
GAaQUvr,  ibM.;  Ruch,  FaUtaro  of  thi  Hiohiir  CriHeum  (London, 
1010);  WARD,  Pkilooophy  of  TKo%$m  (London,  1884);  Dxxkoll, 
Chriatian  PhOooophy:  God  JNew  York.  1006);  Bnranf.  Lourdea, 
tr.  OxBBS  (London.  1008):  Bnnoir,  Laurdeo  in  Aw  Moria,  LXVII: 
John  Rickabt,  Bxplanation  of  Miradot  by  Unknown  Natural 
Force*  in  Tho  Month  (London,  Jan.,  1877) ;  Hooan,  Tho  Miraeur 
lout  tn  ChuTth  UitAory  in  Amer.  Cath,  Quart,  (PhiladelphiB,  April, 
1808);  Callan,  Naiuro  and  PotnbUUy  of  MiracUt  in  Iriak  TkaoL 
QuaH,  (Dublin.  Oct.,  1010). 

John  T.  Dbibcqvu. 

Mtraole  Plajm  and  Myiterles.— These  two  names 
are  used  to  designate  the  religious  drama  which  devel- 
oped among  Christian  nations  at  the  end  of  the  Middle 
/^S^.  It^ould  be  noted  ^t  the  word-  ''mystery" 
has  often  been  applied  to  all  Christian  dramas  prior  to 
the  sixteenth  century,  whereas  it  should  be  confined  to 
those  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which  represent  the 
ereat  dramatic  efifort  anterior  to  the  Renaissance.'  Be- 
fore this  period  dramatic  pieces  were  called  "plays" 
or  "miracles".  The  embryonic  representations,  at 
first  given  in  the  interior  of  the  churches,  have  been 
designated  as  liturgical  dramas. 

LiTOBQiCAL  Drama. — ^The  origin  of  the  medieval 
drama  was  in  religion.  It  is  true  that  the  Churoh  for- 
bade the  faithful  during  the  early  centuries  to  attend 
the  licentious  representations  of  decadent  paganism. 
But  OQce  this  immoral  theatre  had  disappeared,  the 
Church  allowed  and  itself  contributed  to  the  gradual 
development  of  a  new  drama,  which  was  not  only 
moral,  but  aJso  edifying  and  pious.  Ou  certain 
solemn  feasts,  such  as  Saster  and  Christmas,  the 
Office  was  interrupted,  and  the  priests  represented,  in 
the  presence  of  those  assisting,  the  religious  event 
whi<m  was  being  celebrated.  At  first  the  text  of  this 
liturgical  drama  was  verv  brief,  and  was  taken  solely 
from  the  Gospel  or  the  Office  of  the  day.  It  was  in 
prose  and  in  Latin.  But  by  degrees  versification  crept 
m.  The  earliest  of  such  dramatic  "  tropes  "  (q.  v.)  of 
the  Easter  service  are  from  England  and  date  irom  the 
tenth  centurv.  Soon  verse  i)ervaded  the  entire 
drama,  prose  oecame  the  exception,  and  the  vemacu- 
]ax  appeared  beside  Latin.  Thus,  in  the  French 
drama  of  the  "  Wise  Vimns  "  (first  half  of  the  twelfth 
century) ,  which  does  lit  tie  more  than  depict  the  Gospel 
parable  of  the  wise  and  foolish  virgins,  the  chorus  em- 
ploys Latin,  while  Christ  and  the  viigins  use  both 
Latin  and  French,  and  the  angel  speaks  only  in 
French.  When  the  vernacular  had  completely  sup- 
planted the  Latin,  and  individual  inventiveness  had 
at  the  same  time  asserted  itself,  the  drama  left  the 
precincts  of  the  Church  and  ceased  to  be  liturgical, 
without,  however,  losing  its  religious  character.  This 
evolution  seems  to  have  been  accompliBhed  in  the 
twelfth  centurv.  With  the  appearance  of  the  ver- 
nacular a  development  of  the  cuama  alone  national 
lines  became  possible.  Let  us  first  trace  this  devel- 
opment in  France. 

Plats  and  Miracles  of  the  Twelfth  and  Thir- 
teenth Centuries. — ^The  first  French  drama  offered 
by  the  twelfth  centuiY  is  called  "Adam",  and  was 
written  by  an  Anglo-Norman  author  whose  name  is 
unknown.  The  subject  extends  from  the  Fall  in  the 
terrestrial  Paradise  to  the  time  of  the  Prophets  who 
foretell  the  Redeemer,  relatuig  in  passing  the  history 
of  Cain  and  Abel.  It  is  written  in  French,  though  the 
directions  to  the  actors  are  in  Latin.  It  was  flayed 
before  the  gate  of  the  church.  From  the  thirteenth 
century  wenave  the  "Plav  of  St.  Nicholas"  by  Jean 
Bodel,  and  the  "Miracle  of  Theophilus "  bv  Rutebeuf. 
Jean  Bodel  was  a  native  of  Arras,  and  followed  St. 
Louis  on  the  crusade  to  Egypt.    He  lays  the  scene  of 


his  play  in  the  East,  and  mIngleB  with  heroic  episodee 
of  tne  crusades  realistic  pictures  taken  from  taverns. 
His  drama  concludes  with  a  general  conversion  of 
the  Mussulmans  secured  throu^  a  miracle  of  St. 
Nicholas.  Rutebeuf,  who  flourished  in  the  second 
half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  bom  in  Champagne, 
but  lived  in  Paris.  Thoum  at  first  a  gambler  and 
idler,  he  seems  to  have  ended  his  days  m  a  cloister. 
His  miracle  depicts  the  legend,  so  famous  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  of  Theophilus,  the  ceconomus  of  the 
Church  of  Aoana  in  Cificia,  who  on  losing  his  oflioe 
bartered  his  soul  to  the  devil  for  its  recovery,  but,  hav- 
ing repented,  obtained  from  the  Blessed  Virgin  the 
miraculous  return  of  the  nefarious  contract. 

Miracles  of  Our  Ladt. — Save  for  the  play  of 
Griseldis,  whose  heroine,  a  poor  shepherdess,  married 
to  the  Marauis  de  Saluces,  is  subje^^d  to  cruel  trials 
by  her  husband,  and  through  tne  protection  of  St. 
Agnes  triumphs  over  all  obstacles,  the  entire  dramatic 
activity  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  devoted  to  the 
miracles  of  Our  Lady.  Forty-two  specimens  of  this 
style  of  drama  are  extant.  Herein  the  Blessed  Vir|:in 
saves  or  consoles  through  marvellous  intervention 
those  who  are  guiltless  and  unfortunate  and  some- 
times great  sinners  who  have  confidence  in  her.  The 
author  or  authors  of  these  works  are  unknown. 

The  MYBTERiios. — ^The  fifteenth  century  is  the  cen- 
tury of  the  "mysteries".  The  word  is  doubtless  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  minisierium  and  means  "  act  *\ 
In  the  Middle  Ages  sacred  dramas  were  also  ciUled 
bv  other  names ;  in  Italy  fumione,  in  Spain  autoa  (acts) . 
Even  to-day  we  say  "drama",  a  word  of  analogous 
signification.  But  the  dramatic  and  the  dogmatic 
mysteries  were  soon  confused,  and  it  was  thought  that 
the  former  derived  their  name  from  the  latter  oecaus^ 
the  plays  frequently  took  for  subject  the  mysteries  of 
Christian  belief.  However,  the  mysteries  were  often 
devoted  to  a  saint,  and,  in  exceptional  cases,  even 
represented  matters  which  were  not  religious.  Thus 
we  have  the  " Mysterv  of  the  Si^e  of  Orleans",  and 
even  the  "  Mystery  of  the  Destruction  of  Troy  ",  the 
only  two  profane  mysteries  which  have  been  pre- 
served. Ine  mysteries  may  be  grouped  under  three 
cycles,  that  of  &e  Old  Testament,  that  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  that  of  the  saints.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  in  all  these  the  authors  mingled  truth 
and  l^end  without  distinction.  The  most  celebrated 
of  these  were  the  passion  plays,  by  which  must  be 
understood  not  only  the  plays  devoted  to  the  Passion 
properly  so  called,  out  also  those  which  set  forth  the 
complete  history  of  the  Saviour.  From  1400  to  1550 
the  authors  were  numerous;  about  a  hundred  of  them 
are  known,  many  of  them  priests. 

At  first  somewhat  shoit,  the  dramas  eventually 
became  verv  long.  Thus  Amoul  Greban,  canon  of  the 
church  of  Le  Mans,  wrote  about  1450  a  "Passion** 
consisting  of  about  35,000  verses.  This  play  was  still 
further  developed  more  than  thirty  years  later  by  a 
physician  of  Angers,  Jean  Michel,  whose  work  was  the 
most  famous  and  the  best  of  its  kind.  The  same 
Greban  and  his  brother  Simon,  a  monk  of  St.  Riquier, 
composed  together  an  enormous  mysteiy  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles",  consisting  of  nearlv  62,000  verses, 
which  was  played  in  its  entirety  at  Bouiges,  the  per^ 
formance  lasting  forty  days.  The  number  of  verses 
of  mysteries  still  extant  exceeds  1,000,000,  and  an 
equally  large  number  may  have  heea  lost.  Hiese 
pieces  were  not  played  by  professional  actors,  but  by 
dramatic  associations  whicn  were  formed  in  all  large 
towns  for  the  purpose  of  representing  them.  Some 
were  permanent,  such  as  the  "Confr6rie  de  la  Pas- 
sion", which  in  1402  secured  the  monopoly  of  the 
representations  in  Paris. "^or  the  pec^le  of  the 
middle  classes,  artisans,  and  priests  (all  ranks  in  this 
matter  being  equal),  it  was  an  enviable  honour  to  take 
part  in  this  religious  performance.  To  play  it  the> 
condemned  themselves  to  a  labour  to  whi<m  few  of  our 


MQUCLS 


349 


MQUCLl 


■;Qntemporaries  would  care  to  submit.  In  some  "  pas- 
sions" the  actor  who  represented  Christ  had  to  recite 
neariy  4000  lines.  Moreover,  the  scene  of  the  oruci* 
fixion  had  to  last  as  long  as  it  did  in  reality.  It  is  re- 
late that  in  1437  the  cur6  NiooUe,  who  was  playing 
the  part  of  Christ  at  Met2.  was  on  the  point  of  dy- 
ing on  the  cross,  and  haa  to  be  revived  in  haste. 
During  Uie  same  representation  another  priest.  Jehan 
de  Missey,  who  was  playing  the  part  of  Judas,  re- 
mained hanging  for  so  long  that  his  heart  failed  and 
he  had  to  be  out  down  and  borne  away. 

As  r^ards  the  aesthetic  side  of  this  drama,  modem 
standaids  ^ould  not  be  applied.  This  theatre  does 
not  even  offer  unity  of  action,  for  the  scenes  are  not 
derived  from  one  another:  they  succeed  one  another 
without  any  other  imity  than  the  interest  which  at- 
taches to  the  chief  personage  and  the  general  idea  of 
eternal  salvation,  whether  of  a  single  man  or  of  hu- 
manity, which  constitutes  the  common  foundation  of 
the  picture.  Moreover,  side  by  side  with  pathetic  and 
exalted  scenes  are  found  others  which  savour  of 
bufifooneiy.  The  plays  used  as  many  as  one,  two,  and 
even  five  hundred  characters,  not  counting  the  chorus. 
and  they  were  so  lon^  that  they  could  not  be  played 
on  one  occasion.  This  is  true  at  least  of  the  mysteries 
datine  from  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  on  the 
other  nand,  Uie  oldest  of  them  and  the  miracles  were 
rather  short.  Two  faults  have  at  every  period  char^ 
acteriied  this  dramatic  style,  viz.  weakness  and  wordi- 
ness. The  poets  said  things  as  the^  occurred  to  them, 
without  display  of  selection,  gradation,  or  taste.  Thev 
had  facility,  but  they  abused  it  and  never  amended. 
Furthermore,  in  the  drawing  of  character  there  was 
no  art  whatever.  The  dramas  of  the  Middle  Ages  are 
simply  grand  and  animated  spectacles.  Doubtless 
their  auuors  sometimes,  though  rarely,  succeeded  in 
fittingly  depictins  the  patience  and  meekness  of  the 
aug;ust  Victim  of  the  Passion.  In  this  they  were 
assisted  by  recollections  of  the  Gospel.  More  often 
they  succeeded  in  attractively  interpreting  the  com- 
plex emotions  experienced  by  the  soul  of  tne  Blessed 
Vii;gin,  but  as  a  definite  object  the  analysis  of  the  soul 
did  not  occupy  them  at  afl. 

A  few  woros  may  be  said  as  to  the  manner  of  repre- 
sentation and  technic.  Places  were  indicated  by  vast 
scenery,  rather  than  really  represented .  Two  or  three 
trees,  for  example,  represented  a  forest,  and  although 
the  action  often  changed  from  place  to  place  the  sce- 
nery did  not  change,  for  it  showed  simidtaneously  all 
the  various  localities  where  the  characters  succes- 
sively appeared  in  the  course  of  the  drama,  and  which 
were  thus  in  close  proximity,  even  though  in  reality 
they  were  often  far  removed  from  each  other.  For 
the  rest  nothiog  was  neglected  to  attract  the  eye.  If 
the  scenery  was  immovable,  it  was  very  rich  and 
secrets  of  theoretical  mechanism  often  produced  sup- 
prising  and  fairy-like  effects.  The  actors  were  richly 
dressed;  each  defrayed  the  cost  of  his  own  costume, 
and  looked  more  for  beauty  than  for  truth.  The  sub- 
ject-matter admitted  of  the  marvellous  and  was  bor- 
rowed from  religion.  For  the  rest  there  was  some 
difference  between  the  miracles  and  the  mysteries. 
Ihe  miracles  emphasised  the  supernatural  interven- 
tion of  a  saint  or  the  Blessed  Virgin :  the  events  might 
be  infinitely  varied,  and  thii  anorded  the  authors  a 
wide  field  of  which,  however,  they  did  not  take  fuD 
advantage,  thoiijgih  they  incidentally  supply  us  a  host 
of  details  regarding  the  manners  of  tne  tunes  which  are 
not  found  elsewhere. 

The  mysteries,  at  least  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment cycles,  followed  a  previously  traced  out  path, 
from  which  they  could  with  difficulty  depart  since  the 
foundation  was  borrowed  from  Holy  Scripture.  The 
traditional  doctrine  and  the  august  characters  of  the 
diief  personages  had  to  be  respected.  But,  to  offset 
this  handicap,  what  exalted,  dramatic,  and  affecting 
fubjecta  were  theirs  1    These  poets  recalled  not  only 


the  events  of  this  worid,  but  depicted  before  their 
audience  the  terrors  and  the  hopes  of  the  next.  They 
set  forth  at  the  same  time  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  and 
this  enonnous  subject  gave  occasion  for  scenes  of 
powerful  interest.  The  scenes  of  the  Passion  are 
surely  the  most  wonderful,  the  most  moving,  and  the 
most  beautiful  that  can  be  enacted  on  earth.  The 
poet  lacked  art,  but  he  was  saved  by  his  subject,  as 
Sainte-Beuve  himself  has  observed,  and  from^ime  to 
time  he  became  sublime  despite  himself.  And  what 
the  spectator  saw  represented  was  not  fiction,  but  the 
holy  realities  which  from  his  childhood  he  had  learned 
to  venerate.  What  was  put  before  his  eyes  was  most 
calculated  to  affect  him,  the  doctrines  of  his  faith, 
the  consolations  it  afforded  in  the  sorrows  of  this  life, 
and  the  immortal  joys  it  promised  in  the  next.  Hence 
the  great  success  of  these  religious  performances. 
The  greatest  celebration  a  city  could  indulge  in  on  a 
solemn  occasion  was  to  play  the  Passion.  On  this 
occasion  the  entire  populace  crowded  into  the  enor- 
mous theatre,  the  city  was  deserted,  and  it  was  neces- 
sary to  organize  banos  of  armed  citizens  to  protect  the 
deserted  nouses  against  robbery.  This  custom  en- 
dured imtil  1548,  wnen  the  Parliament  of  Paris  forbade 
the  Confreres  de  la  Passion  to  play  thenceforth  "the 
Sacred  mysteries".  The  prohioition  was  due  to  the 
opposition  of  the  Protestants  against  the  mixing  of 
comedy  and  fabulous  traditions  with  Biblical  teach- 
ings. These  attacks  aroused  the  scruples  of  some 
Catholics,  and  the  judiciary  considered  it  time  to  inter- 
fere. The  mysteries  perished*  for  the  example  of 
Paris,  where  they  were  forbidden  to  be  played,  was' 
by  degrees  followed  by  the  provinces.  Thus  the  re- 
ligious drama  of  the  Midale  Ages  disappeared  in 
France  at  the  height  of  its  success. 

Geoboes  Bebtrin. 

England. — ^There  is  no  record  of  any  religious 
drama  in  England  previous  to  the  Norman  Conquest. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  we  hear  of 
a  play  of  St.  Catharine  performed  at  Dunstable  by 
Geoffrey,  later  abbot  of  St.  Albans,  and  a  passage  in 
Fitzstephen's  *'  Life  of  Becket "  shows  that  such  ^ays 
were  common  in  London  about  1170.  These  were 
evidently  **  miracle  plays ",  thoiigh  for  England  the 
distinction  between  miracles  ana  msrsteries  is  of  no 
importance,  all  religious  plays  being  called  "  miracles  " . 
Of  miracle  plays  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  nothing 
is  preservea  in  English  literature.  The  earliest  re- 
ligious plays  were  imdoubtedly  in  Latio  and  French. 
Ine  oldest  extant  miracle  in  Edigliah  is  the  "  Harrow- 
ing of  Hell"  (thirteenth  centurjr).  Its  subject  is  the 
apocr^mhal  descent  of  Christ  to  the  hell  of  the  damned, 
and  it  belongs  to  the  cycle  of  Easter-plays.  From  the 
fourteenth  century  dates  the  play  of  *'  Abraham  and 
Isaac".  A  great  impetus  was  again  given  to  the  re- 
ligious drama  in  England  as  elsewhere  by  the  institu- 
tion of  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  (1264;  generally 
observed  since  1311)  with  its  solenm  processions. 
Presently  the  Eastern  and  Christmas  cycles  were 
joined  into  one  great  cycle  representing  the  whole 
course  of  sacred  history  from  the  Creation  to  the  Last 
Judgment.  Thus  arose  the  four  great  cycles  still 
extant  and  known  as  the  Towneley,  Chester,  York, 
and  Coventry  plays,  the  last  three  designated  from  the 
place  of  their  performance.  The  Towneley  mysteries 
owe  their  name  to  the  fact  that  the  single  MS.  in  which 
they  are  preserved  was  long  in  the  possession  of  the 
Towneley  family.  They  were  performed,  it  seems, 
at  Woodkirk,  near  Wakefield.  These  cycles  are  very 
heterogeneous  in  character,  the  plays  being  by  differ- 
ent authors.  In  their  present  form  the  number  of 
plays  in  the  cycles  is:  Towneley  30  (or  31),  Chester  24, 
York  48,  Coventiy  42.  Four  other  plays  are  also 
preserved  in  the  Digby  codex  at  Oxford.  The  so- 
called  "moralities"  (q.  v.)  are  a  later  offshoot  of  the 
"miracles".    These  aim  at  the  inculcation  of  ethical 


MXR4CU8                            350  MXR4CLI8 

truths  and  the  dramaHB  peraona  are  abetxaet  penozi-  Robert,  "Miracles  de  Notre-Dame^'  (8  vols.,  Parii, 
ifieatioDS,  such  as  Virtue,  Justice,  the  Seven  Deadly  187&-03);  Rotsehiid  et  Picot,  "Le  Misi&ie  du  Yieil 
Sins,  etc.  The  character  caUed  "the  Yioe"  is  e»>  Testament"  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1888-91);  Paris  et  R^y- 
pecially  interesting  as  beine  the  precursor  of  Shake-  naud,  "Le  Mystdre  de  la  Passion  d'A.  Greban'* 
speare's  fool.  After  the  Reformation  the  miracle  (Paris,  1878).  (B)  English:  Towneley  plays,  edited 
plays  declined,  thou^  performances  in  some  places  by  Paine  and  Gordon  (London,  1836) ;  Coventjr,  ed. 
are  on  record  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century.  by  HalUwell  (London,  1841) ;  Chester,  by  Wrioit  (2 
Germany. — In  Germany  the  religious  drama  does  vols.,  London,  1843-47);  York  Plays,  bvL..  T.  Smith 
not  show  a  development  on  as  grand  a  scale  as  in  (Oxford,  1885).  Selections  in  Manlv,  '^Specimens  of 
France  or  England.  The  oldest  extant  plays  hail  from  Preshakespearean  Drama"  (3  vols.,  Boston  and 
Freisiogen  and  date  from  the  eleventh  century.  They  London,  1900),  and  Pollard,  "  English  Miracle  Plays, 
are  hi  Latin  and  belons  to  the  ChruBtmas  cycle.  Re-  Moralities  and  Interludes"  (CMord,  1895).  (C) 
Ugious  dramas  were  eany  taken  up  by  the  schools  and  Gennan:  Mone,  "Altdeutsche  Schauspiele"  (Qued- 
performed  by  travelling  scholais,  and  this  tended  to  linbure-Leipsig,  1841)  and  "Schauspiele  des  Mittel- 
secularise  them.  The  great  Te^insee  play  of  "An-  alters '^  (Karlsruhe.  1846) ;  Froning,  "Das  Drama  des 
tichrist"  (about  1160)  snows  this  influence.  It  is  in  Mittelalters"  in  xCttrschner's  "I^utsche  National- 
Latin,  but  is  pervaded  by  strong  national  feeling  literatur",  XTV  (Stuttgart,  1891). 

and  devoted  to  the  glorification  of  the  Gennan  impe-  On  tiie  relUpoaa  dnm*  of  the  Middle  Aces  in  ceneral  coDflolt 

rialpoww.    Gennan  song,  totenipewedm  the  Latm  ^SSSS^J^.'^SS;:^^ 

text  are  found  m  a  Passion  pl^r  preserved  m  a  MS.  (2toI«..  Paris.  1880);  Habs.  Dm  ffciatf.  SehaiuiM  (Leipaic.  isss). 

of  the  thirteenth  century  from  Benedictbeuren.    The  tx,  /AcxeoN  .(isso):  Bmr,  Le*^  angina  eathUiqum  du  thtdtrt 

oWert  Burter-pUy  whorfy  m  Genn«.  d«te» J k«i  the  S?j^^z!??&JS'S.'fe;^7ti.1d'^^ 

beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  hails  from  Bin.  tU  la  langue  tttUla  mtSnUwrt  firantaUe  (Parie.  1S95-9).  If. 

Muri,  Switserland.    Unfortunately,  it  is  preserved  3W  m.;  LpmuiAc.L«<*«ft!ji  efrintt 

onlv  in  £«gnent«Tr  f<mn.     During  the  fourteenth  SS^tSl-^SSSS:  ?5u^/iif^^^ 

and  fifteenth  centuries  the  religious  drama  flourished  the  Enciiah  dnma  aee  pollau>.  op.  cU„  introductioa:  Wabo, 

greatly,  and  specimens  are  extant  from  all  parts  of  BiHrQrEi^^DramaHeLa,^ 

Uerman  temtonr,  m  *lJgn  «  ]"™  af  A^  Uerman  York.  1893),  h.  i,  234-310;    Batm.  Bngliah  lUHgunu  Droma 

dialects.     We  also  meet  with  attempts  at  a  COmpre-  (New  York,  1902).    For  the  German  drama  aee  Wilxbit.  GtmA, 

hensive  representation  of  the  whole  of  sacred  history  «r  oeua,  SpMe  in  p^tudUand  (Gdttingen,  1872):   Hnmau 

m  the  manner  of  the  gieat  ajgUah  cyclee-e.  g   in  the  a;^:gSS.1Si5f.Sira?.5S  ^!S^SJ^:T!^^, 

Corpus  Chnsti  plays  of  Eger  and   KQnselsau  m  ediuon  mentioned  above. 

Bwabia    (both    from   fifteenth   century).    Subjects  Abthur  F.  J.  Remt. 
taken  from  Old  Testament  history  are  not  frequently 

met  with.    Of  dramatic  versions  of  New  Testament  MJracteBy  Qdt  op. — ^The  gift  of  miracles  is  one  of 

parables  the  "Play  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Yiigins",  those  mentioned  by  St.  Paul  in  his  First  Bpistle  to 

performed  at  Eisenach  in  1322,  is  particulariy  famous  the  Corinthians  (xii,  9,  10),  among  the  extraordinaiy 

on  account  of  its  tragic  outcome.    Landgrave  Fred-  graces  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    These  have  to  be  dish 

erick  of  lliuringia,  who  was  a  spectator,  was  plunged  tinguished  from  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost 

into  despair  over  the  failure  of  the  Blessed  Vii^in  to  enumerated  by  the  Pro{>het  Isaias  (xi,  2  sq.)  and  from 

save  the  foolish  virgins,  and  brooding  over  this  is  said  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  given  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle 

to  have  brought  on  a  stroke  of  apop&xy,  to  which  he  to  the  Galatians  (v^  22).    The  seven  gifts  and  the 

succumbed  in  1324.    Of  German  miracles  dealing  with  twelve  fruits  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  always  infused 

legend  few  are  preserved.    Of  miracles  in  praise  of  with  sanctifying  grace  mto  the  souls  of  the  just 

Our  Blessed  Lady  we  have  a  Low  German  play  of  They  belong  to  ordinary  sanctity  and  are  within  the 

Theophilus  and  the  well-known  play  of  "  Frau  Jutten  **  reach  of  every  Christian.    The  gifts  mentioned  in  the 

(1480)  by  a  cleric  of  Millhausen  named  Theoderich  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  are  not  necessarily  con- 

Schemberg.    It  is  the  story  of  an  ambitious  woman  neeted  with  sanctity  of  life.    They  are  special  and 

who  assumes  man's  disguise  and  attains  to  high  extraordinary  powers  vouchsafed  by  God  only  to  a 

ecclesiastical  office,  finally  to  the  papacy  itself;  but  few,  and  primarily  for  the  spiritual  good  of  others 

her  crimes  are  at  last  discovered,  whereupon  she  sub-  rather  than  of  the  recipient.    In  Greek  they  are  called 

mits  to  the  most  rigorous  penance  and  is  ultimately  x^^f^'f'^j  which  name  has  been  adopted  by  Latin 

saved  through  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  authors;  they   are   also   designated   In   theological 

In  Germany,  as  in  Endand  and  France,  the  Reforma-  technical    language   as   graiuB  qraiis   datm    (graces 

tion  sapped,  the  life  of  the  medieval  religious  drama,  gratuitously  given)  to  distinguish  them  from  gratia 

Plays  continued  to  be  produced,  but  the  drama  was  gratum  facientes,  which  means  sanctifying  grace  or 

often  used  for  polemical  purposes.    In  Catholic  parts  any  actual  grace  granted  for  the  salvation  of  the 

of  the  coimtry  the  traditional  performances  of  passion-  recipient. 

plays  have  been  kept  up  even  to  the  present.     (See  Tne  gift  of  miracles,  as  one  of  these  charigmata,  was 

article  on  Passion  Pultb.)  expressly  promised  by  Christ  to  His  disciples  (John, 

Netherlands. — Of  miracle  plays  and  mysteries  xiv,  12;  Mark,  xvi,  17, 18),  and  St.  Paul  mentions  it  as 

in  the  Netherlands  few  have  been  preserved.     One  of  abiding  in  the  Church :  '*  To  another  [is  given]  the  grace 

the  best-known  is  the  miracle  "Van  Sinte  Trudo",  of  healmg  . . .  To  another,  the  working  of  miracles  " — 

written  about  1550  by  Christian  Fastraets.    The  per-  (I  Cor.,  xii,  9,  10).    Christ  imparts  this  cdft  to  chosen 

formance  of  such  plays  in  the  Netheriands  was  un-  servants  as  He  did  to  the  Ap(»tles  and  aisciples,  that 

dertaken  by  associations  formed  for  that  purpose.  His  doctrine  may  become  credible  and  that  Christians 

especially  the  Rederijkerskamera  (Rederijker  corrupted  may  be  confirmed  ia  their  faith,  and  this  the  Vatican 

from  Rhetorical f  which  sprang  into  existence  at  the  Council  has  declared  in  chapter  iii,   "De   Fide", 

end  of  the  fourteenth  century.    Besides  the  mysteries  This  ^t  is  not  given  to  any  created  being  as  a  per- 

and  miracles,  the  Netherlands  also  have  "Spelen  van  manent  habit  or  quality  of  the  soul.    The  power  of 

Sinne^',    symbolical    plays    corresponding    to    the  effecting  supernatural  works  such  as  mirades  is  the 

moralities.  Divine  Omnipotence,  which  caimot  be  communicated 

Editions  of  Texts. — (A)  French:  Monmerqu^  et  to  either  men  or  angels.    The  greatest  thaumaturgus 

Michel,  "Le  Th^&tre  fran^ais  au  moyen  &ge"  (Paris,  that  ever  appeared  m  this  world  could  not  work  mira- 

1839);  de  Montaiglon,   "  Ancien  th^tre  fran^ais"  cles  at  wilt,  neither  had  he  any  permanent  gift  of  the 

(3  vols.,  Paris,  1854) ;  Foumier,  "  Le  th^tre  frangais  kind  abiding  in  his  soul.    Tlie  Apostles  once  asked 

avant  la  Renaissance"  (Paris,  1872);  G.  Paris  et  U.  concerning  a  cure  of  demoniacal  possession:    "Why 


MZBJBUB 


351 


MnUkliDOLA 


dould  we  not  eaat  him  out?"  Christ  replied,  ''this 
kind  Is  not  cast  out  but  by  prayer  and  fastms"  (Matt., 
xvii,  18  sqq.)-  Eliseus  could  not  raise  to  life  the  son 
of  the  Sunamitess  with  his  staff. 

The  grace  of  miracles  is  therefore  only  a  transient 
gift  by  which  God  moves  a  person  to  ao  something 
which  issues  in  a  wonderful  work.  Sometimes  God 
makes  use  instnunentally  of  contact  with  the  relics 
of  the  saints,  or  visits  to  sacred  shrines  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  miraculous  work  is  always  the  effect  of 
Omnipotence;  nevertheless,  men  and  angels  may  be 
said  to  work  miracles  in  a  threefold  way  (1)  by  their 
prayers  invoking  a  miraculous  effect;  (2)  by  disposing 
or  acoommodatmg  the  materials,  as  it  is  said  of  the 
angels  that  they  will  in  the  resurrection  collect  the 
dust  of  the  deaa  bodies  that  these  may  be  re-animated 
by  the  Divine  {>ower;  (3)  by  {performing  some  other 
act  in  co-operation  with  the  Divine  agencjr,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  application  of  relics,  or  of  visits  to  holy 
places  which  God  has  marked  out  for  special  and  ex- 
traordinary favours  of  this  kind.  To  Christ  even  as 
man,  or  to  His  himianity,  was  granted  a  perpetual 
and  constant  power  of  mutides.  He  was  able  of  His 
free  will  to  work  them  as  often  as  He  judged  it  ex- 
pedient. For  this  He  had  the  evei^ready  concur- 
rence of  His  Divinity,  althou^  there  was  in  His 
Humanity  no  permanent  quality  which  could  be 
the  physical  cause  of  miracles. 

Benedict  XIV  tells  us  sufficient  with  regard  to 
miracles  in  their  reliation  to  sanctity  of  life  when  ex- 
plaining their  estimate  In  the  cause  of  the  beatifica- 
tion and  canonization  of  the  saints.  He  says:  ''It 
is  the  common  opinion  of  theologians  that  the  grace  of 
miracles  is  a  grace  aratis  data^  and  therefore  that  it  is 
given,  not  only  to  the  just  but  also  to  sinners  (thou^ 
only  rarely).  Christ  says  that  He  knows  not  those 
who  have  done  evil,  though  they  may  have  prophesied 
in  His  name,  cast  out  devils  in  His  name,  and  done 
many  wonderful  works.  And  the  Apostle  said  that 
without  charity  he  was  nothing,  though  he  might 
have  faith  to  remove  mountains.  On  this  passage 
of  the  Apostle,  Esbius  remarks:  'For  as  it  oners  no 
contradiction  to  the  Apostle  that  a  man  should  have 
the  gift  of  tongues  or  prophecy,  or  knowledge  of 
mysteries,  and  excel  in  knowledge,  which  are  first 
8XK>ken  of ;  or  be  liberal  to  the  poor,  or  give  his  body 
to  be  burned  for  the  name  of  Christ,  which  are  after- 
wards spoken  of  and  yet  not  have  charity;  so  also  there 
is  no  contradiction  m  a  man  having  faith  to  remove 
mountains,  and  being  without  charity'  "  (Treatise  on 
Heroic  Virtue,  III,  130). 

These  graces  manifest  themselves  in  two  ways: 
one  way  as  dwelling  in  the  Church,  teaching  and 
sanctifymgher,  as,  for  example,  when  even  a  sinner  in 
whom  the  Holy  Ghost  does  not  abide  works  miracles 
to  show  that  the  faith  of  the  Church  which  he 
preaches  is  true.  Hence  the  AposUe  writes:  "God 
also  bearing  them  witness  by  signs,  and  wonders,  and 
divers  miracles,  and  distributions  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
acoordinp  to  his  own  will ' '  (Heb ..  ii,  4) .  In  another  way, 
^e  manifestation  is  made  by  tne  graces  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  as  belon^^  to  him  who  performs  the  works. 
Hence  in  Acts  it  is  said  that  St.  Stephen,  "full  of 
grace  and  fortitude,  did  great  wonders  and  signs 
amon^  the  people"  (Acts,  vi,  8).  Here  we  have 
a  distmctiott  clearly  drawn  out  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  gratuB  gratis  data  may  be  to  the  advantage 
of  the  person  receiving  them  as  well  as  to  the  utility 
of  others,  and  how  it  is  that  by  these  graces  persons 
without  sanctifying  grace  may  perform  signs  and 
wonders  for  the  gcxxl  of  others,  i^ut  these  are  rare 
sikI  exceptional  cases,  and  real  miracles  can  never  be 
performed  by  a  sinner  in  proof  of  his  own  personal 
sanctity  or  m  proof  of  error,  because  that  would  be 
a  deception  and  derogatory  to  the  sanctity  of  God  Who 
alone  can  perform  miracles. 

BsMBDicr  XIV.  Heme  Virtue  (London  Oratorina  Series. 


1851);  Dvfms,  Jfonual  o/  Myetieai  Theolotnf  (Landan.  1008)i 
Donxf  PrineipUe  of  Relioioue  Life  (London,  — );  Ribkt.  La 
Myatique  Divine  (Paris,  1803):  Scrram,  Theotagia  MyaHea; 
SiLYXDS,  In  It-Hfj,  Thomae^  clzxviii,  ».  1. 

A.  DsviNS. 

MirsBiu  (Lb  Mire),  Aubert,  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian, b.  at  Brussels,  30  Nov:,  1573;  d.  at  Antwerp,  19 
Oct.,  1640.  After  studying  at  Douid  and  Louvam  he 
was  made  canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp  in  1608 
and  secretary  to  his  unde,  John  Mirseus,  who  was  then 
Bishop  of  Antwerp.  In  1611  he  was  appointed  al- 
moner and  librarian  to  Archduke  Albert  of  Austria, 
then  viceroy  of  the  Netherlands,  and  in  1624  he  be- 
came dean  of  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp  and  vicar- 
general  of  the  diocese.  He  was  an  indefatigable  his- 
torical writer,  as  is  attested  by  the  thirtjr-nine  works 
on  profane,  ecclesiastical,  and  monastic  history  which 
he  nas  given  to  the  world.  On  the  whole  he  is  a  relia- 
ble historian,  though  some  of  his  works  are  wanting  in 
thoroughness  and  accuracy. 

His  chief  literary  productions  are:  (1)  "Rerum  toto 
orbe  gestarum  chronica  a  Christo  nato  ad  hac  usque 
tempera  ",  Antwerp,  1633  (containing  the  chronicles  of 
Eusebius,  St.  Jerome,  Sigebert  of  Gembloura,  Anselm 
of  Gembloura,  and  others  up  to  the  year  12()0,  and  a 
oontiauati<m  of  these  chronicles  by  Ifineus  up  to 
160S);  (2)  "Notitia  eplscooatuum  orbis  universi", 
Antwerp,  1611, 1613;  (3)  "  Polltia  ecclesiastica,  sive  de 
statu  religionis  ChristiansB  per  totum  orbem", 
Cologne,  1603,  Lyons,  1620;  (4)  "Geographica  Eo- 
desiastica  *',  Lyons,  1620;  (5)  "Notitia  ecclesiarum 
Beleii",  Antwerp,  1630  (this  work,  together  with  other 
Works  of  Mineus  on  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the 
Netherlands,  was  re-edited  by  Foppens.  under  the 
title  of  "Mlrsei  ooera  diplomatica  et  Historica",  4 
vols.,  Brussels,  172 1-48) ;  (6)  **  Bibliotheca  ecclesias- 
tlca",  2  vols.,  Antwerp,  1639-49  (a  compilation  of 
short  sketches  on  ecclesiastical  writere  written  by 
St.  Jerome.  Gennadius,  St.  Isidore,  St.  IldephonsuSy 
Honorius  Augustodunensis,  Sigebert  of  Gembloura, 
and  Henry  of  Ghent,  anJ  is  furnished  with  notes  by 
Miraeus);  (7)  "Vita  Justi  Lipsu",  Antwerp,  1609 
(Mirseus  had  Justus  Lipsius  as  teacher  at  Louvain); 
(8)  "  Originum  monasticarum  libri  IV  ",  Cologne,  1620. 
He  had  previously  published  in  separate  volumes  the 
beginning  of  the  Benedictines  (Antwerp,  1608),  of  the 
Carthusians  (Cologne.  1609),  of  the  Military  C^era 
(Antwerp,  1603),  of  tne  Carmelites  (Antwerp,  1610), 
of  the  Augustinians,  in  French  (Antwerp,  1611),  of  the 
Canons  Re.;ular  (Cologne,  1614),  of  the  Sistera  of  the 
Annunciation  (Antwerp,  1618).  Some  of  his  lettera 
were  published  by  Burbure  in  "  Messager  des  Sdenoes 
Historiques  de  Belgique"  (1859). 

Db  Riodbi,  Avhert  Le  Mire.ea  vie,  w«  icriia,  mimoire  hielO' 
riftte  el  eritique  (Paris,  1865):  Waotbrs  in  Bioffraphie  NatianeUe 
de  Be^iffiM  (BniSMb,  ISMhOl),  XIV,  882-^5. 

Michael  Ott. 

Miraada,  BAnTOLOM^  de.  See  Cahranza,  Babt 
tolom£. 

Miraadola,  Giovanni  Francesco  Pico  della. 
Italian  philosopher,  nephew  of  Mirandola,  Giovamu 
Pico  della  (see  next  article),  b.  about  1469;  d. 
1533.  Though  very  gentle  and  pious  he  was  drawn 
into  the  bitter  feuds  of  his  fainilv  and  fell  at  the 
foot  of  the  crucifix  with  his  son  Albert,  killed  by  his 
nephew  Galeotto  II,  who  had  just  seised  the  Castle  of 
Mirandola.  His  wife  and  the  children  of  his  other  son 
were  shut  up  in  dreadful  dungeons.  At  Rome  he  de* 
fended  the  eclectic  Latin  style  against  the  Ciceronian 
Bembo.  Like  his  uncle  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
philosophy,  but  made  it  subject  to  the  Bible,  though 
m  his  treatises,  "De  studio  divinss  et  humame  sa- 
pientire "  and  ^rticularly  in  the  six  books  entitled 
**  Examen  doctrinse  unitatis  gentium  ",  he  depreciates 
the  authority  of  the  philosophers,  above  all  of  Aris- 
totle. He  wrote  a  detailed  biography  of  his  uncle  and 
another  of  Savonarola.    Having  observed  the  daneen 


maAMDOLA                            352  MTCTBIEK 

to  which  Italian  sooiety  was  exposed  at  the  time,  he  C'Disputationes  adveraus  astroloeiam  diyiDatrioein"| 

sounded  a  warning  on  the  occasion  of  the  Lateran  Bologna,  1495).    Becauseof  this  book  and  his  eontio- 

Council:  "  Joannis  Franciscl  Pici  oratio  ad  Leonem  X  versy  agaiar;t  astrology,  Pico  marks  an  era  and  a  ded- 

et  concilium   Lateranense  de  reformandis  Ecclesiie  sive  progressive  movement  in  ideas.    He  died  two 

Moribus"   (Hagenau,  1512,  dedicated   to  Pirckhei-  montns  after  his  intimate  friend  Politian,  on  the  day 

mer).     He  was  discussing  fimerals  and  tombs  with  Charles  VIII  of  France  entered  Florence.    He  was 

Lillio  Giraldi  when  the  catastrophe  occurred  which  interred  at  San  Marco,  and  Savonarola  delivered  the 

carried  him  off.    Giraldi  commemorate  the  tragic  fimeral  oration. 

event  in  a  touching  postscript  to  the  "  De  sepulcris  "  Besides  the  writings  already  mentioned,  see  his  coni- 

(in  his  works,  Basle,  1580,  I,  640).  plete  works  (Bologna,  1496;  Venice,  1498;  Strasbuig, 

NicArom.  Af AnotVM.  xaaflV;  Itab^  1504;Basle,  1557, 1573, 1601).    He  wrote  in  Italian  an 

SXS^r&V^SSJiiiri^Q&T^^^  imiteticm  of  Plato's  "Bjmouet".    His  letters  ("  Aun« 

peoded  to  Umm  of  his  uncle  in  the  ed.  of  Basle,  1801.  sd  familiares  epistolse   ,  Pans,  1499)  are  unportaot 

Fattl  Lsjat.  for  the  histoi^  of  contemporary  thought.    The  many 

editions  of  his  entire  works  in  the  sixteenth  eentuiy 

MlTOTdola,  Giovanni  Pico  della,  Italian  phi-  sufficiently  prove  his  influence, 

losopher  and  scholar,  b.  24  February,  1463;  d.   17  Victnos,  Mhnoire»,XXXTV;TtRABOBc^ 

November  1494     He  beloa«d  to  a/amily  tU  had  3SS.^^»i.ter'*^  ^J^  t  ^^:S^ 

long  dwelt  m  the  Castle  of  Mirandola  (Duchy  of  HutoryofClMticalSdioUurahip^UijCamhndaB,  190S),S2. 

Modena),  which   had   become   independent   in   the  rAVi*  Lsjat. 
fourteenth  century  and  had  received  m  1414  from  the 

Emperor  Sigismund  the  fief  of  Concordia.  To  devote  Mlridite.  ABBEYOF(MiBn>iTAKUM,orSANcn  Auac- 
him^lf  wholly  to  study,  he  left  his  share  of  the  an-  andri  de  Oroshi),  the  name  of  an  abbatia  nuUiu$  in 
cestral  principality  to  his  two  brothers,  and  in  his  Albania,  where  there  formerly  stood  a  BenedicUne 
fourteenth  year  went  to  Bologna  to  study  canon  law  abbey,  now  destroyed,  dedicated  to  St.  Alexander, 
and  fit  himself  for  the  ecclesiastical  career.  Repelled,  martyr.  By  decree  of  25  October,  1888,  this  abbey  with 
however,  by  the  purely  positive  science  of  law,  ne  de-  its  two  affiliated  parishes,  tc^ther  with  five  other  par- 
voted  himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  theology,  ishes  in  the  Diocese  of  Ljes  (Alessio,  or  Alise),  were  re- 
and  spent  seven  years  wandering  through  the  chief  moved  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Ljes.  In 
universities  of  Italy  and  France,  studying  also  Greek,  1890  three  parishes  from  the  Diocese  of  Sappa  were 
Latin,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Arabic.  An  impostor  added,  and  in  1894  five  from  Ljes.  The  country  forms 
sold  him  sixty  Hebrew  manuscripts,  asserting  posi-  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions  in  Europe  and  is  inhsb- 
tively  that  they  were  written  by  order  of  Esdras,  and  ited  bvMohammedans,  Greek  Schismatics,  and Catho- 
contained  the  secrets  of  nature  and  religion.  For  lies.  The  Catholics  number  16,550,  and  are  under  the 
many  years  he  believed  in  the  Kabbala  andinterwove  care  of  secular  and  regular  cleigy.  The  abbot  is  chosen 
its  fancies  in  his  philosophical  theories.  His  aim  was  from  among  the  secular  clei^.  The  present  abbot, 
to  conciliate  religion  and  philosophy.  Like  his  Mgr.  Primus  Docchi,  who  resides  at  Oroshi  was  bom 
teacher,  Marsilius  Ficinus,  he  based  his  views  chiefly  at  Bulgri,  7  Feb.,  1846,  and  studied  at  the  Propa- 
on  Plato,  in  opposition  to  Aristotle  the  doctor  of  ganda  Collc^,  Rome.  The  Franciscans  have  a  parish 
scholasticism  at  its  decline.  But  Pico  was  constitu-  and  a  hospital  at  Gomsice. 
tionally  an  eclectic,  and  in  some  respects  he  represented  j,SSSSl'^nf^!SS^l?^M^^^ 
a  reaction  against  the  exaggerations  of  pure  human-  «onM  Catholicm;  Mmamvic  SeraMSd  Penwj,  XXl2  (livno. 
ism.  According  to  him,  we  should  study  the  Hebrew  Sarajevo,  1909).  126.  A.  L.  Gancevi6. 
and  Talmudic  sources,  while  the  best  products  of 

scholasticism  should  be  retained.  His  **  Heptaplus ",  BQMrere.  the  first  word  of  the  Vulgate  text  of 
a  mystico-allegorical  exposition  of  the  creation  accord-  Psalm  1  (Heorew,  li).  Two  other  Psalms  (Iv  and  4vi) 
ine  to  the  seven  Biblical  senses,  follows  this  idea  begin  with  the  same  word,  and  all  three  continue  with 
(Florence,  about  1480) ;  tn  the  same  period  belongs  the  mei,  Deus  (Have  mercy  on  me,  O  God).  In  alpha- 
"De  ente  et  uno",  with  its  explanations  of  several  betical  indexes  to  the  (Latin)  Psalms  they  are  inter- 
passages  in  Moses,  Plato,  and  Aristotle;  also  an  oration  distinguished  by  the  fourth  word,  which  in  Ps.  1  is 
on  the  Dignity  of  Man  (published  among  the  "Com-  secundum;  Ps.  Iv,  quoniam;  in  Ps.  Ivi,  miserere:  so 
mentationes ") .  that  Ps.  1  will  appear  as  ''Miserere  .  .  .  secundum'*. 

With  bewildering  attainments  clue  to  his  brilliant  So  liturgically  and  musically  pre-eminent  is  Ps.  1, 
and  tenacious  memory,  he  returned  to  Rome  in  1486  however,  that  it  is  commonly  referred  to  as  the  Mis- 
and  undertook  to  mamtain  900  theses  on  all  possible  erere,  without  further  qualification.  The  psalm  has  a 
subjects  ("Oondusiones  philosophies,  cabalasticse  et  title  which  is  one  of  the  best  authenticated  of  all,  as  it 
theologies  *\  Rome,  1486,  in  fol.).  He  offered  to  pay  is  found  in  the  Hebrew,  the  Greek,  and  the  Latin,  and 
the  expenses  of  those  who  came  from  a  distance  to  en-  which  in  the  Vulgate  reads : "  In  finem,  Psalmus  David, 
gage  with  him  in  public  discussion.  Innocent  VIII  Cum  venit  ad  eum  Nathan  propheta,  quando  intravit 
was  made  to  believe  that  at  least  thirteen  of  these  ad  Bethsabee.''  This  title  forms  w.  1  and  2  of  the 
theses  were  heretical,  though  in  reality  they  merely  psalm,  and  refers  to  the  sin  of  David  (II  Kings,  xi) 
revealed  the  shallowness  of  the  learning  of  that  epoch,  and  to  the  reproaches  and  warnings  of  the  prophet 
Even  such  a  mind  as  Pico's  showed  too  much  creciulitv  Nathan  (II  Kings,  xii).  Some  commentators  tnink 
In  nonsensical  beliefs,  and  too  great  a  liking  for  childisn  that  the  last  two  verses  of  the  psalm  were  added  in  the 
and  unsolvable  problems.  Tne  proposed  disputation  time  of  the  Captivity.  Delitzsch  nevertheless  con- 
was  prohibited  and  the  book  contaimng  the  theses  was  siders  them  quite  admissible  in  the  mouth  of  David, 
interdicted,  notwithstanding  the  author's  defence  in  arguing  that  the  Hebrew  word  for  "build"  means 
^Apologia  J.  Pici  Mirandolani,  Concordis  comitis"  not  omy  ''to  rebuild",  but  *'to  complete  what  is 
(1489).  One  of  his  detractors  had  maintained  that  being  built",  and  that  Solomon's  wall  (III  Kings,  iii, 
Kabbala  was  the  name  of  an  impious  writer  against  1)  can  be  regarded  as  a  fulfilment  of  David's  praver 
Jesus  Christ.  Despite  all  efforts  Pico  was  condemned,  "  that  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  may  be  built  up  ".  {Cf. 
and  he  decided  to  travel,  visiting  France  first,  but  he  the  appended  bibliography,  which  gives  the  suffrajges 
afterwards  returned  to  Florence.  He  destroyed  his  of  some  recent  Catholic  commentators  to  the  tradi- 
poetical  works,  gave  up  profane  science,  and  deter-  tional  ascription,  in  addition  to  the  opiniooa  of 
mined  to  devote  his  old  age  to  a  defence  of  Christianity  several  of  the  more  recent  non-Catholie  commenta- 
a^inst  Jews,  Mohammedans,  and  astrologers.  Apor-  tors.) 
tion  of   this  work  was   published  after  his  death  The  Miserere  has  a  most  prominent  place  ^n  the  Di- 


353 


Tynrg«ttF.Tt» 


vine  Office  and  in  various  ceremonies.  It  is  the  first 
paalm  at  Lauds  in  all  the  ferial  (week-day)  Offices 
throughout  the  year,  outside  of  Paschal  Time,  and  in 
the  Sunday  Offices  from  Septuagesima  to  Palm  Sun* 
day  inclusive.  It  holds  the  same  place  in  the  Office 
of  the  Dead.  It  is  the  psalm  chosen  for  the  preces  /er- 
iales  at  Vespers  for  all  the  weekdays  in  Lent  with 
the  exception  of  ihe  triduum  of  Holy  Week,  for  those 
in  Advent,  for  the  ember-davs  except  those  of  the 
Pentecostal  season,  and  for  all  vigils,  except  those  of 
Christmas,  Epiphanv,  the  Ascension,  and  Pentecost. 
In  addition  it  is  said  just  before  the  oraiiOf  or  prayer, 
in  all  the  Canonical  Hours  in  the  triduum  of  Holy 
Week,  except  the  Vespers  and  Compline  of  Holy  Sat- 
urday. As  it  is  also  the  fourth  in  order  of  the  seven 
penitential  psalms  (q.  v.),  its  times  of  recitation  will 
oe  governed  by  the  appropriate  rubric  in  the  Brevi- 
ary. It  (or,  as  alternative,  Ps.  cxvi,  "  Laudato  .  .  . 
omnes  ")  is  said  daily  in  the  prayers  after  dinner  (post 
prandium)f  except  on  days  when  only  one  meal  is 
taken  (in  which  case  the  prayers  are  those  stvled  post 
cctnam,  "after  supper")  and  also  except  the  times 
from  Christmas  to  the  ()ctave  of  the  Epiphanv,  from 
Holy  Saturday  until  Low  Sunday  exclusively,  and 
from  Ascension  Thursday  to  the  Octave  of  Pentecost 
exclusively.  It  is  verv  prominent  in  the  ceremony  of 
the  Aspexxes  (q.  v.),  ouring  which  the  choir  sings  the 
antiphon  ^Asperses  me,  Domine,  hyssopo",  etc.  (i.  e. 
Ps.  1,  verse  8;  Vu&.,  9),  then  the  verse  "Miserere  mei, 
Deus",  etc.  (i.  e.  Ps.  1,  1;  Vulg.,  3),  then  the  Gloria 
Patri,  and  finally  the  antiphon  "Asperges  me",  the 
celebrant  meanwhile  reciting,  either  alone  or  alter- 
nAtelv  with  the  sacred  ministers,  the  entire  Miserere. 
On  rassion  and  Palm  SundavB  the  Gloria  Patri  is 
omitted,  and  during  Paschal  Time  the  antiphon  and 
ps^m  are  "Vidi  aquam"  and  "Confitemini"  (Ps. 
cxvii)  respectively. 

The  Auserere  is  found  in  many  other  ceremonial 
functions;  at  the  Burial  of  the  Dead,  with  the  anti- 
phon "Exultabunt  Domino  ossa  humiliata",  taken 
from  the  9th  (Vulg.,  10th)  verse  of  the  psalm;  at  the 
episcopal  visitation  of  parishes;  the  blessing  of  a  bell; 
tne  consecration  of  an  altar-stone;  the  laying  of  the 
comer-stone  of  a  church;  the  blessing  of  a  church,  of  a 
cemeteiy,  of  a  house,  of  congregations,  and  fields;  the 
reconciliation  of  a  profaned  church  (whether  conse- 
crated or  merely  blessed)  or  of  a  profaned  cemetery.  It 
is  especially  prominent  in  the  consecration  of  a  church, 
when  it  is  first  said  like  other  psalms,  and  afterwards 
in  a  more  solemn  manner,  with  the  antiphon  "As- 
pei^^"  repeated  after  each  group  of  three  verses, 
dunng  the  sprinkling  of  the  altars  with  holy  water. 
It  is  said  by  the  pemtent  who  is  to  be  absolved  from 
excommunication  (in  foro  externa),  and  by  the  ab- 
solving priest  in  the  case  of  a  deceased  excommunicate 
who  had  given  some  sign  of  contrition  before  death, 
the  ceremony  entitling  to  ecclesiastical  burial.  At 
the  Visitation  of  the  Sick  the  priest  may  say  the  Mis- 
erere or  any  other  of  the  first  three  penitential  psalms. 
While  carrying  the  Blessed  Sacrament  to  the  sick,  the 
priest  ia  to  say  the  Miserere  ("  which  is  the  best  suited 
for  obtaining  divine  mercy  for  the  sick" — de  Heidt, 
**  Praxis  '0  and  other  psalms  and  pravers.  In  monas- 
teries it  is  said  during  the  customary  "  discipline  " .  It 
figured  prominently  in  the  ancient  ceremony  of  the 
Reconciliation  of  Penitents  on  Maundy  Thursday, 
both  as  one  of  the  seven  penitential  psalms  recited  by 
the  bishop  in  the  sanctuaiy,  and  as  one  of  the  three 
psalms  commencing  with  Miserere  during  the  prostra- 
tion of  cler^  and  laity  (includliig  the  penitents) .  For 
an  interesting  description  of  this  ancient  function,  cf. 
the  volume  entitled  " Passiontide  and  Holy  Week",  of 
Gu^ranger's  "  Litur]^cal  Year." 

In  some  Jewish  rituals  the  Miserere  is  recited  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Angli- 
can Commination  Service.  In  a  fragmentary  form  it  is 
also  prominent,  in  the  selection  of  some  of  its  most 


searching  verses,  for  the  pteces  of  Prime  in  the  Divine 
Office ;  in  the  verse  "  Domine  labia  mea  aperies  ",  etc.. 
with  which  the  Office  commonly  opens  at  Matins  ana 
Prime ;  in  the  use  of  the  antiphon  "  Asperges  ",  and  the 
verse  "  Miserere  "  in  the  Communion  of  the  Sick,  and 
of  the  antiphon  alone  at  fbctreme  Unction  (de  Herdt, 
"  Praxis  ") ;  in  the  selection  of  various  verses  for  use  as 
antiphons  in  the  Office,  and  for  an  Offertory,  a  Com- 
mimion,  and  an  Alleluia-verse  at  Mass.  The  partial 
use  made  of  it  at  Mass  and  Office  has  been  mmutely 
detailed  in  Bishop  Marbach's  exceedingly  elaborate 
work,  "Carmina  Scripturarum"  (Strasourg,  1907), 
134-36. 

As  remarked  above,  the  Miserere  is  not  only  the  first 
psalm  at  Lauds  in  the  ferial  Office,  but  is  also  re- 
peated just  before  the  oratio  at  the  end  of  Lauds  in  the 
triduum  of  Holy  Week.  The  thought  of  givins  to  this 
second  Miserere  a  musical  treatment  more  elaborate 
than  the  ordinary  plain-song  used  for  the  psalms  in 

general,  and  of  making  it  serve  as  a  climax  to  the 
ramatic  ceremonial  of  the  Tenebrss,  is  probably 
due  to  Leo  X.  In  1514  the  Miserere  was  sune  to  a 
falsobordone.  The  oldest  example  extant  is  that  of 
Costanzo  Festa  (1517),  which  alternated  verses  in 
plain-song  with  verses  in  falsibordoni  of  four  and 
five  voices.  This  interestingly  contrasted  setting  or 
method  of  treatment  formed  the  type  for  imitation 
ever  since. 

The  musical  settings  of  the  Miserere  are  very  many. 
Three  of  them  (Baini^  on  Wednesday,  Bai's  on  Thurs- 
day, and  Allegri's  on  Friday  afternoons)  are  especially 
famous  because  of  their  yearly  repetition  in  the  pope's 
chapel  during  the  Tenebrse.  Among  the  numerous 
estimates  recorded  by  musicians  and  travellers  on 
these  three  settings,  mention  may  be  made  of  Men- 
delssohn's, Cardinal  Wiseman's,  Madame  de  Stall's 
(in  "Corinne"),  Mr.  Rockstro's  (in  Grove,  Diction- 
ary of  Music),  and  especially  of  the  young  Mozart's 
sincerest  tribute  in  the  famous  copy  of  it  made 
by  him  at  one  hearing  of  Allegri's  Miserere  (with  cor- 
rections made  at  a  subsequent  hearing).  In  the 
second  of  his  "  Four  Lectures  on  the  Offices  and  Cere- 
monies of  Holy  Week",  Cardinal  Wiseman  gives  a 
comparative  estimate  of  these  settings  and,  in  accord 
with  all  who  have  heard  them,  awards  the  palm  of  su- 
premacy to  Allegri's.  His  description  is  glowing  and 
vivid;  but  that  of  Mr.  Rockstro  is  equally  apprecii^ 
tive  and  musically  more  precise  and  detailed  in  re- 
spect of  Allegri's  Miserere,  of  which  he  ^ves  many 
illustrations,  and  which  he  defends  against  certain 
criticisms.  (Cf.  in  the  same  dictionary  articles  on 
Bai,  Baini.) 

M'SwxNET,  l^ndation  of  the  Pmlms  and  CaniieUa  tnth  Com- 
mentaru  (St.  Louis,  1901).  186-00,  gives  a  bi-oolumnar  tnixLila- 
tion  from  the  Vulgate  and  the  Hebrew  Maaaoretictext,  186-190: 
"With  the  exception  of  the  two  last  veraee,  probably  added  to 
the  Psidm  during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  there  is  no  valid 
reason  for  assigning  this  Psalm  to  a  poet  of  a  later  age,  who 
undertook  to  set  forth  the  thoushts  and  emotions  of  David,  on 
the  occasion  mentioned  in  the  title".  D'Etragubb,  Les 
Paawnea  traduiU  de  VfUbreu  (Paris,  1904),  146-51,  ascribes  it  to 
David:  "Verses  20-21  were  doubtless  added  after  the  return 


viaouRoux  praises  me  worx  as  one  oi  iireproacnaDie  learning. 
Against  the  Davidic  authorship:  Chbyne,  The  Book  of  Paalmt 
(New  York,  1892).  144>149;  Bfuacs.  A  Critical  and  Bzegetical 
Commentaru  on  the  Book  ofPaalma  (New  York^  1907),  II,  3-12: 
"  Ps.  51  is  a  penitential  prayer  of  the  congregation  in  the  time  of 
Nehemiah." — Neutral:  KxnKPATRicK,  The  Book  of  Psalma 
(Cambridge,  1901),  bks.  11,  III.  284-05,  brie&y  disposes  of  some 
objections  to  the  Davidic  authorship  and  allows  weight  to  othen: 
Les^tre.  Le  Livre  de  Paaumes  (Paris,  1883),  a  very  extended 
commentary;  Kenrxck,  The  Paalmf,  etc.  (Baltimore,  1861), 
very  condensed,  but  satisfactory ;  Wolter,  PaaUite  Sajrienter 
(Paallieret  tBeiM)  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1905).  II.  294-331.  an  ex- 
tensive account  of  the  mystical  and  litunpcal  uses  of  the  Mise- 
rere.— Metrical  translations  into  English:  Baqshawe,  7%e 
Paalme  and  Cantidea  in  English  Verse  (St.  Louis,  1903),  pro- 
poses the  use  of  metrical  versions  of  the  I^lms  by  Catholics 
and  gives  (106)  his  metrical  version  of  Ps.  1;  Milbourne.  The 
Paaime  of  David  in  English  Metre  (London,  1698),  105-08. 
gives  two  translations  into  English  verse;  The  PaaUer,  a  revised 
Ed.  of  the  Scottish  Metrical  Version  of  the  Psalms  ati  to  svHahle 
music  (DubUn,  1880).  68. — Latin  metrical  versions:  Gborou  Bu- 


BaSSRICOBDS  354  BdSSAL 

cHANAwi  SoMi.  Paropftrtma  Patdnunwn  Davidia  PoeUoa  (Edin-  established  the  Orphan  Asvium  and  Kindergarten  dt 

fc3f^iL'l^iiJI^-^«l,lS^  (IdlSf.SS.  1?SS^4rf  Jfri  St.  Myy's  of  the  Angeb.  at  Hartedale  with  ^rs,  10 ; 

sioD  into  thirty-nine  elegiac  couplets.— Mathbson,  The  Paalm-  attendants,  20;   average  number  of  children  during 

Mt  and  theScteiuist  (New  York.  1894).  263-^,  taJcce  Pa.  1  to  the  year,  150.    In  Green  Bay,  Wis.,  a  house  was  es- 

repreeent    the  Psalmist  a  view  of  sin    as  beuig    infranatural",  4.aKir«Ko#l  :«.  i  onn  «r;4>k  a;.^-^-.   i  o .  .^.^L.^^  i  c .  «,,»«»»» 

"  a  life  of  disorder  existing  in  the  midst  of  order ".    Taylor;  tablished  in  1900  With  Sisters,  13 ;  nurses,  1 6 ;  average 

David,  Kino  of  Imul  (New  York,  1874),  272-73,  argues  for  the  number  of  patients  and  children  during  the  year,  450. 

sincerity  of  the  Psahnist  and  includes  the  anecdote  of  Voltaire's  In  Oak  ParK,  111.,  a  hospital  was  foimded  in  1905  with 

3SS2E'c^J5r?^A"rrw'S^^o^^iSS?ir]^^^  '^*^«>  15;  patients,  712.  Jhe  ertablistanent  at  Mil- 

the  ceremonial  and  rubrical  details  of  man/  functionsm  which  waukee  contains  accommodations  for  Sisters,  9;    pa- 
ths Miserere  is  used:  Singbnbergbr,  Ouide  to  Catholic  Church  tlents.  112.  SlSTEB  St.  BbatBICE. 
Mutie  (St.  Francis,  Vis.,  1906).|rive8  (202)  author,  voices,  and  ''^"**'  **^-  owiju»  oi.  oiuii^iiuos. 

grade  of  twmty:fwirsottmBBfor;Buriatoo^^^  ICiaericordia.    See  Burial,  sub-title  Burial  Con- 
ox)  of  twenty-eight  settmgs  for  Lauds  of  Holy  Week.  fralemitiM 

BUBlma.    See  Talmud. 

?«r?S^ni^  nr?S^.rin^^rif  n«.?^,^7A™l  (?« ^AUCIN^  BT  Cai^ncjs),  in  the  canton  of  GrisonB, 

for  tUe  Pu^oee  rf  procumng  ^intu^M^d  corporal  ^^ti^rfand  comprises  the  valley  of  the  Moesa,  whicri 

assistance  for  poor  mothen.  and  unfMtunate  girls.  ,^,^8  at  the  pass  of  San  Bemaitfino  and  flows  i^to  the 

The  foundress,  Madame  R^lie  Jett6.  m  religion  Ticino.  and  also  the  valley  of  Calanca,  through  which 

I^^^r^!Lr°^t    li!fAp%±S^WHrt.r';^Jf  «»e  oLlasanca  flows,     fhe  population  is  TO27.  of 

superior.  Sister  St.  Jane  de  ChMital  hefd  that  office,  ^j,       gQ^        Catholic  (6946  Italians).     For  ad- 

Tlie  institution  was  approved  byPius  IX.  7  June,  n^instrative  purposes  the  prefecture  is  divided  into 

1867,  and  the  c«i8titutioM,revMed  according  to  the  twochapteni,bothof  which  aresubject  to  an  episcopal 

latest  rules  of  the  Roman  ConeresaUons,  received  the  v!-„--./*i.«  a«.«  „«  r<i„._     t_  »»,_  ii.-_*_- _*  ii:.^ !Zr 


approbation  of  Pius  X,  21  MarcM.O^    The  onier  is  ^hTch  embmcS  the  ;;riiey  of  JA^^Wer^^^T^rl 

^^y^^^  ^*  f^'P^^TriT^'  ff  "^  ^.-^r'a^S?:  ^^1 5  Capuchins  and  4  secular  priests.    In  the  cfiap- 

cillors,  a  secretary  and:  a  buraar,  who  reside  at  the  ^^  ^f  CalaSca  there  are  11  parishes,  with  5  Capuchiis 

motheruhouse,  Montreal  Canada.    All  branch  houses  ^^^  3  geculara.    At  Misocco  (M^cco  in  Italian) 

are  under  the  control  of  the  general  administmtion.  ^^^  ^  ^  ^          ^.^1^  ^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^ 

Each  house  m  p)vemed  by  alocal  suoenor  and  two  ^j^^^,  ^^   ^^^  ^  Mi^cco  and   three  in  San 

assistante  forming  her  counc J;  in  each  a  burwir  has  yittore.    At  Roveredo  there  is  a  Catholic  Institute 

charge  of  temporal  matters,  but  is  controUed  by  the  ^^  g^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  F^^here  of  the  "  Piccola  Qisa 

^k'^'^J^-.u^®?  "^  ""ii^  ""^^  novitiate,  atMontreal^ al-  ^^^^^  Proviaenza".    The  prefecture  was  established 

though  the  rules  authorise  more  ^  n«»ssarv.    Can-  ^  1535  ^^  ^^  suggestion  of  Bishop  Joseph  Mohr 

didates  are  received  from  all  parts  of  the  world.    The  ^^  ^hur,  at  whoslinstance  the  Propaganda   sent 

novitiate  lasts  a  year  dunng  which  the  novice  is  m-  Capuchii  missionaries  to  the  Italian-sp^^g  inhabi- 

structed  in  the  constitutions  ^^^  ^^  Prisons   valleys  of  Misoccrand  *Calanca. 

mattera  of  the  religious  life ;  a  supplemento^^  Capuchins  from  Milan  were  the  first  missionaries; 

ship  of  SIX  month^  m  which  to  become^fanuliar  with  ^^^  1790-1802  Novara  and  then  until  1850  Pavia 

the  woric  of  the  order,  w  given  before  tak^  Capuchins  had  chaise;  since  then  the  mission  has 

renewed  annuaUy  dunng  a  penod  of  five  v^^^^  be4  administered  by  the  Capuchins  of  Ticino.    The 

then  made  perpetual.    The  sisters  abo  conduct  Mag-  vice-prefect,    Father   HilarlS    Odelino,    resides   at 

dalen  asylums.    In  receivm^  patients  no  discnmma-  Cama 

tion  is  made  in  regard  to  religion,  colour,  or  national-  Bocm.  Die  katholixhe  Kirche  in  der  Schwit  (Munich.  1002); 
ity.  After  their  convalescence,  those  who  desire  to  Daucodrt,  Lee  ivichie  euieeee  (Fribouxg.  1901):  Mieeionee 
remain  in  the  home  are  placed  under  a  special  sister  C<rt*oitc«  (Rome.  l?07).  106;  Geooraphiechee  Lexiam  der 
andareknownas"Daughter8ofSt.Margaret".  They  5cAt.e«  (Neuenbung.  1902-08).  Joseph  Lins. 
follow  a  certain  rule  of  life  but  contract  no  religious  BSisBal  (Latin  Missale  from  Mtssa,  Mass),  the  book 
obligations.  Should  they  desire  to  remain  in  the  con-  which  contains  the  prayers  said  bv  the  priest  at  the 
vent,  after  a  period  of  probation,  they  are  allowed  to  altar  as  well  as  all  that  is  officially  reaua  or  sung  in 
become  Magdalens  and  eventually  make  the  vows  of  connexion  with  the  offering  of  the  holy  Sacrifice  of  the 
the  Magdalen  order.  The  congregation  celebrated  its  Mass  throughout  the  ecclesiastical  year. 
fiftieth  anniversary  16  January,  1898.  Thb  Present  Roman  Missal,  now  almost  uni- 
At  present  the  congregation  numbers  professed  versally  used  in  the  Catholic  Church  wherever  the 
sisters,  189;  novices,  23;  candidates,  10.  Branch  Latin  Rite  prevails,  consists  essentially  of  two  parts  of 
houses  have  been  established  throughout  Canada  and  very  unequal  length.  The  smaller  of  these  divisions 
the  United  States.  The  mother-house  contains  60  containing  that  portion  of  the  liturgy  which  is  said  in 
sistera;  with  this  is  associated  an  Orphan  Asylum  everv  Mass,  the  ^'Ordo  Miss®"  with  the  prefaces  and 
with  sisters,  7;  infants,  525;  also  a  hospital  with  5  the  Canon,  is  placed,  probably  with  a  view  to  the  more 
sisters  and  accommodations  for  175  patients.  At  convenient  opening  of  the  book,  near  the  centre  of 
Sault-au-Recollet,  P.  Q.,  the  sisters  conduct  a  home  the  volume  immediately  before  the  proper  Mass  for 
for  aged  and  retired  priests  and  an  Orphan  Asylum  Easter  Sunday.  The  remainder  of  the  book  is  de- 
with  sisters,  10;  attendants,  15;  priests,  5;  orphans,  voted  to  those  portions  of  the  liturgy  which  vary 
40.  The  hospital  at  Ottawa,  founded  in  1879,  was  from  day  to  day  according  to  feast  and  season, 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1900.  The  new  building,  com-  Each  Mass  consists  usually  of  Introit,  Collect,  Epis- 
pleted  in  1904,  accommodates  sisters,  10;  nurses,  5;  tie.  Gradual  and  Alleluia  or  Tract,  Gospel,  Offertory, 
patients,  100.  A  house  was  established  at  Winni-  Secret,  Communion,  and  Post-Communion,  the  pas- 
peg,  Man.,  in  1898,  of  which  a  branch  was  foimded  sages  or  prayers  corresponding  to  each  of  these  titles 
at  St.  Norbert,  Man.,  in  1904.  The  two  houses  have  being  commonly  printed  in  full.  The  beginning  of  the 
sisters,  19 ;  trained  nurses,  15 ;  attendants,  25 ;  average  volume  to  the  "  Ordo  Misss  *'  is  devoted  to  the  Masses 
number  of  patients  and  children  during  the  year,  700.  of  the  season  (Proprium  de  Tempore)  from  Advent 
In  1900  a  house  was  opened  at  Edmonton,  Alberta,  to  the  end  of  Lent,  including  the  Christmas  cycle, 
with  sisters,  12;  trained  nurses,  6;  average  number  After  the' 'Ordo  Missse"  and  Canon  follow  immediately 
of  patients  during  the  year,  300.  In  the  United  the  Masses  of  the  season  from  Blaster  to  the  last  Sun- 
States  the  sisters  have  a  large  hospital  in  New  York  day  after  Pentecost.  Then  come  the  proper  Masses 
City,  containing  sisters,  19;  aven^  number  of  pa-  of  the  separate  festivals  (Proprium  Sandorum)  for  the 
tients  during  the  year,  496.    From  this,  in  1901,  was  ecclesiastical  year;  while  these  are  often  printed  in  full. 


355 


indicating  that  um  larger  porbon  of  each  Mass  (some- 


R resent  dav,  reprodudng  in  substance  the  manuscript 
inns  of  toe  latter  part  of  the  Hiddk  Ages,  has  re- 
times everything  except  the  collect)  is  to  be  sought  in  suited  From  the  amaleamaticm  of  a  number  of  separate 
the  Common  of  Saints  (Commune  Sanctorum),  printed  service  books.  In  the  eariy  centuries^  owing  to  the 
at  the  conclu^on  of  the  Proprium  Sanetontm  (Proper  lack  of  competent  scribes,  the  scarcity  of  writing 
of  Saints).  This  is  supplemented  by  a  ceruiin  materials,  and  various  other  causes,  economv  had 
□umber  of  votive  Hoaaes,  among  the  rest  Masses  for  greatly  to  be  studied  in  the  production  of  Dooka. 
the  dead,  and  b  collection  of  sets  oF  collecta,  secrets.  The  book  used  by  the  priest  at  the  altar  for  the  prayers 
and  poet-communions  for  special  occasions.  Here  of  the  Mass  usually  contained  no  moie  than  it  b»- 
also  are  inserted  certain  beoedictions  and  other  mis-  longed  to  him  to  say.  It  waa  known  commonly  as  a 
^eUaneoua  matt«r,  while  appendixes  of  varying  bulk  "Sacramentary"  (Sacramentarium),  because  all  its 
<u[^ly  a  number  of  Masses  conceded  for  use  in  certain    contents  centred  round  the  great  act  of  the  consecra- 


Bibliolhtaue  Nfttionmle,  Paris 

localities  or  in  certain  reli^ous  orders,  and  arranged  tionof  the  sacrifice.    On  the  other  hand  those portiont 

according  to  the  order  of  the  calendar.     To  the  whole  of  the  service  which,  like  the  Introit  and  the  Gradual: 

book  is  prefixed  an  elaborate  calendar  and  a  sys-  the  Offertory  and  the  Communion,  were  rendered  by 

tematized  collection  of  rubrics  for  the  guidance  of  the  choir,  were  inscribed  in  a  separate  book,  the"  Anti- 

priesta  in  high  and  low  Mass,  aa  also  prayers  tor  the  phonarium  Missie"  or  "  Graduate "  (a.  v.).    So  again 

private  use  of  the  celebrant  in  making  his  preparation  the  paasagea  to  be  read  to  the  peopleby  the  deacons  or 

and  thanksgiving.     It  may  be  mentioned  here  once  lectors  in  the  ambo  (pulpit) — the  Epistle  and  Goepel, 

forsllthat  the  colteetion  of  rubrics  now  printed  under  with  lessons  from  too  Old  Testament  on  particiilar 

tberespeetivelieadings"Rubrictegeneiale8Mi8aaliB",  occadons — were  collected  in  the   " Epistolarium "  or 

"  Ritua  celcbrandi  Missam",  and  "DeDefectibusdrca  "Apostolus",the  "Evangeliarium", and  other  lectiona- 

Missam  oecurrentibua "  are  founded  upon  a  tmctate  rieB(q.v.).     BesideathiBan"Ordo"or''Directorium" 

entitled  "  Ordo  Misse  "  by  John  Burchard,  master  of  (q.  v.l  Was  required  to  determine  the  proper  service 

ceremonies  to  Innocent  VlII  and  Alexander  VI,  at  (mly  by  a  alow  process  of  development  were  the  eon- 

the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.     They  are  ctmae-  tent80lthesacramentary,thegrsidual,thevariouBleo- 

quently  absent  from  the  first  printed  edition  of  the  tionarie8,andthe"0rdo    amidiamateclBothatalltbat 

'  Uissale  Romanum  "  (1474).  was  needed  for  the  oeleb^f^uUlHS  was  to  be 

OBiaii«  or  THS  Missal.— The  printed  Missal  of  the  found  irithin  the  otntSSl^^^^^^l^   The  first 


MI88AL                              356  MI88AL 

ttep  in  this  evolution  seems  to  have  been  furnished  by  centuries  which  may  be  referred  in  particular  to  two 
the  introduction  of  certain  smaller  volumes  called  distinct*  types.  In  the  first  place  tne  sacramentanr, 
"  Libelli  Misss  **  intended  for  the  private  celebration  lectionary,  and  antiphonary  were  sometime^  simp^jr 
of  Masses  of  devotion  on  ordinary  days.  In  these  bound  up  together  in  one  volume  as  a  matter  of  cqd- 
only  one,  or  at  most  two  or  three  Masses,  were  written;  venience.  Codex  101  in  the  library  of  Monsa  offen 
but  as  they  were  not  used  with  choir  and  sacred  min-  an  example  of  this  kind  in  which  the  three  component 
isters,  all  the  service  had  to  be  said  by  the  priest  and  elements  are  all  of  the  ninth  or  tenth  century,  but 
ail  was  consequently  included  in  the  one  small  booklet,  even  earlier  than  this  in  an  extant  notice  of  the 
A  typical  example  of  such  a  volume  is  probably  fur-  visitation  of  the  Church  of  Vicus  (Vieil-St-Remy)  m 
nished  bv  the  famous  "  Stowe  Missal  .  This  little  *  859  by  Bishop  Hincmar  of  Reims  we  find  mention  of  a 
book  of  Iridi  origin  of  which  the  leaves  measure  only  ''Missalecumevangeliisetlectionibusseuantiphoiiario 
five  and  a  half  by  four  inches,  is  nevertheless  one  of  our  ydumen  1 ".  Ajb  a  rule,  however,  the  fusion  between 
most  priceless  hturgical  treasures.  The  greater  part  the  original  sacramentary  and  the  books  used  by  the 
is  devoted  to  a  singpus  Mass  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  readers  and  the  choir  was  of  a  more  intrinsic  nature, 
in  which  the  Epistle  and  Gospel  are  inserted  entire  as  and  the  process  of  amalgamation  was  a  very  gradual 
weU  as  a  number  of  communion  anthems,  tbe  private  one.  Sometimes  we  find  sacramentaries  in  which  a 
preparation  of  the  priest,  and  other  matter  including  later  hand  has  added  in  the  margin,  or  on  any  avail- 
rubrical  directions  m  Irisn.  Thus,  so  far  as  Mass  was  able  blank  space,  the  bare  indication,  consistmg  of  a 
concerned ,  it  was  in  itself  a  complete  book  and  is  prol>-  few  initial  words,  of  the  Antiphons,  tne  f^istles,  and 
abl;^  the  tvpe  of  numberless  others — fragments  of  the  Gospels  belonging  to  the  particular  Mi^.  Some- 
similar  Irish  ''libeUi  Miss»"  are  preserved  among  the  times  tni^  "Commune  Sanctorum"  and  the  votive 
manuscripts  of  St.  Gall — ^which  were  used  by  mis-  Masses  have  from  the  beginning  included  the  passa^ 
sionaries  m  their  journeys  among  peoples  as  yet  only  to  be  sung  and  read  written  out  in  full,  thou^  the 
half  christianised.  ''Proprium  de  Tempore"  and  "de  Sanctis"  show 

The  convenience  of  such  books  for  the  private  cele-  nothing  but  the  Mass  praj^rs.  Sometimes  again,  as 
bration  of  Mass  where  sacred  ministers  and  choir  were  in  the  case  of  the  celebrated  Leofric  Missal  in  the  Bod- 
wanting,  must  soon  have  made  itself  feh.  When  one  leian,  the  original  sacramentary  has  had  extensiTe 
thinks  of  the  many  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  later  supplements  bound  up  with  it  containing  new 
Masses  which  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  every  Masses  wnich  include  the  parts  to  be  read  and  sung, 
large  monastery  was  called  upon  to  say  for  deceased  In  one  remarkable  example,  the  Canterbury  Biissal 
brethren  in  virtue  of  its  compacts  with  other  abbeys  (MS.  270  of  Corpus  Christi,  Cambridge),  a  number  of 
(see  details  in  Ebner,  '' Gebets-Verbrademugen ",  the  old  prefaces  of  the  Gregorian  type  have  bera 
Katisbon,  1890),  it  appears  obvious  that  there  must  erased  throughout  the  volume  and  upon  the  blank 
have  been  great  need  of  private  Mass-books.  Conse-  spaces  thus  created  the  proper  Antipnons  from  the 
quently  it  soon  became  common  to  adapt  even  the  Graduale.  and  sometimes  also  the  Epistles  and  Gospels 
larger  sacramentaries  to  the  use  of  priests  celebrating  for  each  Mass,  have  been  written  entire.  In  not  a  fe'w 
privately  b^r  inserting  in  some  of  the  "  missee  quo-  instances  the  Gospels  may  be  found  included  in  the 
tidiansB  votivte  et  diverse ",  or  sometimes  again  in  Mass-book  but  not  the  Epistles,  the  reason  probably 
the  "commune  sanctorum"  such  extracts  from  the  being  that  the  latter  could  be  read  by  any  derk, 
"Graduale",  "Epistolare",  and  "Evangeliarium"  whereas  aproperlv  ordained  deacon  was  not  always 
as  made  these  particular  Masses  complete  in  them-  available,  m  which  case  the.  priest  at  the  altar  had 
selves.  Examples  of  Sacramentaries  thus  adapted  himself  to  read  the  Gospel.  Regarding  however  this 
ma^  be  found  as  early  as  the  ninth  century.  Ebner  development  as  a  whole  it  may  be  said  that  nearly  all 
for  instance,  appeals  to  a  manuscript  of  this  date  in  the  the  Mass-books  written  from  the  latter  half  of  Uie 
capitular  liorary  of  Verona  (No.  86)  where  in  the  thirteenth  century  onwards  were  in  the  strict  sense 
"MiascB  votivcB  et  diveracB*'  the  choral  passages  are  Miasalia  plenaria  conforming  to  our  modem  type, 
written  as  well  as  the  prayers.  Whether  the  word  The  determining  influence  which  established  the  ar- 
Misaalis  liber  was  speciall^^  employed  for  service  rangement  of  parts^  the  selection  of  Masses,  etc.,  with 
books  thus  completed  fo^  private  use  there  seems  no  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  "Missale  Romanum" 
evidence  to  determine.  Alcuin  writing  in  801  cer-  to-day,  seems  to  have  been  the  book  produced  during 
tainly  seems  to  contrast  the  term  "  Missalis  Ubellus "  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  under  Fran- 
with  what  he  calls  "  libelli  sacratorii "  and  with  "  sacra-  ciscan  auspices  and  soon  made  popular  m  Italy  under 
mentaria  maiora  "  (see  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  Epist.,  IV,  the  name  Missale  secundum  consuetudinem  Romans 
370) ;  but  the  phrase  was  older  than  Alcuin,  for  Arch-  curise  "  (see  Radulphus  de  Rivo,  "  De  Canonum  Obser- 
bishop  Egbert  of  York  in  his  "  Dialogus  "  speaks  of  the  vatione  ",  in  La  BWe,  "  Bib.  Max.  PP.".  XI,  455). 
dispositions  made  by  St.  Gregory  for  the  observance  Varibtieb  op  Missals. — ^Although  the  "  Missale 
of  the  einber-days  in  " Antiphonaria  cum  missaUbus  secundum  consuetudinem  Romans  curia"  obtained 
Buis"  which  he  had  consulted  at  Rome  (Haddan  and  great  vogue  and  was  destined  eventually  to  be  d£- 
Stubbs,  "Councils",  III,  421),  where  certainly  the  cially  adopted  and  to  supplant  all  othere,  throughout 
language  used  seems  to  suggest  that  the  "Missalia"  the  Middle  Ages  every  province,  indeed  almost  every 
and'  "  Antiphonaria "  were  companion  volumes  sep-  diocese,  had  its  local  use,  and  while  the  Canon  of  the 
arately  incmnplete.  Certainly  it  may  be  affirmed  Mass  was  everywhere  the  same,  the  prayers  in  the 
with  confidence  that  what  was  afterwards  known  as  "  Ordo  Missse ",  and  still  more  tne  "  Iroprium  Sanc- 
the  "  Missale  plenum  ",  a  book  like  our  present  Missal,  tonim  "  and  the  "  Ftoprium  de  Tempore  ",  were  apt  to 
containing  all  the  Epistles^  Gospels,  and  the  choral  differ  widely  in  the  service  books.  In  England  espe- 
antiphons  as  well  as  the  Mass  prayers,  did  not  come  cially  the  Uses  of  Sarum  and  York  showed  many  cus- 
into  existence  before  the  year  900.  Dr.  Adalbert  tinctive  characteristics,  and  the  Ordinary  of  the  lutas  in 
Ebner,  who  spent  immense  labour  in  examining  the  its  external  features  resembled  more  the  rite  at  present 
liturgical  manuscripts  of  the  libraries  of  Italy,  reports  followed  by  the  Dominicans  than  that  of  Rome.  After 
that  the  earliest  example  known  to  him  was  one  of  the  the  invention  of  printing  a  great  number  of  Miaaals  were 
tenth  century  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan ;  but  produced  both  in  England  itself  and  especially  at  Paris 
although  such  books  are  of  more  frequent  occurrence  and  other  French  cities  for  use  in  Endand.  Of  the 
from  the  eleventh  century  onwards,  the  majority  of  Sarum  Missal  alone  nearly  seventy  different  editions 
the  Mass-books  met  with  at  this  period  have  still  only  were  issued  between  that  of  1487  (printed  for  Oaxton 
an  imperfect  claim  to  be  regarded  as  "  Missalia  plena",  in  Paris),  and  that  of  1557  (London).    After  EUia- 

We  find  instead  a  great  variety  of  transition  forms  beth's  accession  no  more  Missals  were  published,  but  a 

belonging  to  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  little  book  entitled  "Missale  parvum  pro  Sacerdoti- 


FRAGMENTS  OF  AN  EGYPTIAN  LITURGY  OF  THE  SEVENTH  OR  EIGHTH  CENTURY 

M,   WHO  RECOONISED  THEIR  LITUROICAI.  CHARACTER 


Tur  ^T'^'^r  Yn^v 


^ 


357  MISSION 

bus  in  AngBa,  Scotia,  et  Ibemia  itiiieiantibus''  was  etc.  would  be  BapetfluouB.    On  the  nibrioi  of  the  Mteal  the 

ni-Snf^^  fv«\  nr  lihrciA  fimAfl  tnwitivlii  fhtk  hAffinninir  nf  reaaer  may  be  referred.  besidoB  such  Catholic  works  as  Mercati, 

printed  two  or  tnree  umee  wwaros  tne  oeginmng  w  G^^,„^"Jnd  Van  dbr  Stappbn.  to  Wickham  Lboq.  TraeiM  on 

the  seventeenth  oenturv  for  the  use  of  missionary  c^  j^om  (Herny  Bradshaw  Society.  1904). 

pnests.    Its  sue  allowed  it  to  be  carried  about  easily  Herbkbt  Tkurston. 
without  attracting  observation,  and  as  it  contained 

relatively  few  Masses,  only  those  for  the  Sundavs  Mission, Conoregation of Priestbofthe.— Aeon- 
and  the  principal  feasts,  it  recalled  in  a  measure  the  erection  of  secular  priests  with  religious  vows  foimded 
"  libelli  BiissiB  '*  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Irish  mission-  hy  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  members  add  the  let- 
aries  nine  centuries  eariier.^  Even  at  this  date  the  ters  C.M.  to  their  name.  As  with  many  other  corn- 
peculiarities  of  the  Sarum  Rite  were  not  retained  and  munities,  an  appellation  from  the  founder  or  the  place 
the  Oanon  and  Masses  of  this  "Missale  parvum"  they  dwell  in  has  superseded  the  original  title.  Thus 
were  aU  Roman  with  the  exception  of  one  special  in  France  and  in  almost  all  coim  tries  they  are  called 
Mass  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  which  is  described  Lazarists,  because  it  was  in  the  Priory  of  St.  Lazare  in 
in  the  1616  edition  as  "taken  from  the  Missal  accord-  Paris  that  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  dwelt  and  that  he 
ing  to  the  Use  of  Sarum".  Moreover^  just  as  the  established  his  princi^Md  works.  In  the  Irish  prov- 
Roman  liturgy  came  in  this  way  to  prevail  m  England,  ince,  which  includes  practically  aU  English  speaking 
so  in  France  and  throughout  the  rest  of  Europe  the  countries  except  the  United  States,  they  are  called 
local  uses  have  for  the  most  i>art  been  surrendered  by  Vincentians,  and  this  name  is  gradually  replacing 
degrees,  two  of  the  prindpal  influences  at  work  being  that  of  lAiarists  in  the  United  States.  In  countries 
no  doubt  the  advantage  of  iiniformitv  and  the  author-  whose  language  is  Spanish  they  are  called  Paules. 
ity  and  relative  puritv  of  the  Roman  Missal,  as  author-  This  appellation,  like  the  preceding,  is  obviously  de- 
itatively  revised  and  improved  after  the  Council  of  rived  from  the  name  of  the  founder.  The  name  Con- 
Trent,  gregation  of  the  Mission  indicates  their  first  and  chief 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  "  Missale  Romanum  "  ob'  ect. 
lately  republished  by  the  Henry  Bradshaw  Society  in  i.  Origin  of  the  Congregation. — ^In  the  beginning 
two  volumes  (1899  and  1907),  was  produced  at  Milan  of  the  year  1617,  Vincent  de  Paul  was  at  the  Ch&teau 
in  1474.    Numerous  editions  foUowed,  but  nothing  de  FoUeville  in  Picaidy  with  the  famfly  of  M.  de 
authoritative  appeared  until  the  Council  of  Trent  left  Gondy,  Count  de  Joigny,  General  of  the  Galleys  of 
in  the  hands  of  the  pope  the  charge  of  seeing  to  the  France,  and  had  charge  of  tihe  education  of  M.  de 
revision  of  a  Catechism,  Breviaiy,  and  MiesaL    This,  ijoad$ii«>-8eiift*f>ne-0f  whom  became  the  celebrated 
last,  committed  to  the  care  of  Cardinals  Scotti  knd  ^  Cgjodifialt  de.tt^,  C^iutor  of  Paris.    Vincent  had 
Sirlet  with  Thomas  Gokiwell  (an  Englishman,  Bisiiop  • '6t>ik)rtitmtied*o(  obs^rvmg  the  ignorance  of  religion 
of  St.  Asaph,  deprived  Of  his  see  upon  the  accession  of  o  tf  t^  jAe^^N^ii  jolf  ibbe  neighbourhood.    As  the  result 
Elisabeth),  and  Julius  Poggio.  was  published  in  l|7(>.  of  a  sermon  which  he  preached  on  the  25  Jan.,  1617, 
St.  Pius  V  published  a  Bull  on  the  occasion,  ktiU  in  the  church  of  Folleville,  Vincent,  with  two  Jesuit 
printed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Missal,  in  whicli  he  JFathen3>l)®9BiAr%t  Mme  de  Gondv's  reG|ue8t,  to  preach 
enjoined  that  all  dioceses  and  religious  orders  of  ibh^^Vb  aiid  lnstnu^/{tie  people  of  tne  neig^bourine  vil- 
Latln  Rite  should  use  the  new  revision  and  no  otlflS)'.*'lageis\»n'ii6rM^ftte:  •  Thus  b^an  the  work  which  was 
excepting  only  such  bodies  as  could  prove  a  presctip-  ^:  to  become  eig^t^^ears  later,  in  1625,  the  Congregation 
tion  of  two  hundred  ^ars.    In  this  way  tne  olifig-.-.  ^-^te^Miasion;  -  Mnie  de  Gondy  wished  to  make  a 
orders  like  the  Carthusians  and  the  Dominicans  were  foundation  that  wouM  secure  a  mission  every  five 
enabled  to  retain  their  ancient  liturgical  usages,  but  years  for  the  rural  population  of  her  extensive  estates, 
the  new  book  was  accepted  throughout  the  greater  The  Oratorians  and  Jesuits  being  unable  to  under- 
part  of  Europe.    A  revised  edition  of  the  "  Missale  take  this  work,  ^e  urged  Vincent  to  gather  together 
Romanum"  appeared  in  1604  accompanied  by  a  brief  some  zealous  priests  and  organise  missions  for  the 
of  Clement  VIII  in  which  the  pontiff  complained  poor  coimtnr  people  at  that  time  so  little  in  touch 
among  other  things  that  the  vetua  liala  version  of  the  with  the   clergy.    Ecclesiastical  authorization  waa 
Scripture  which  had  been  retained  in  the  antiphonal  easily  obtaineo^from  John  Francis  de  Gondy,  then 
passagesofthePianMlssalhad  been  replaced,  through  Archoishop  of  Paris,  brother  of  the  General  of  the 
the  unauthorized  action  of  certain  printers,  by  the  Galleys.    He  also  handed  over  to  Vincent  the  owner- 
text  of  the  newly  edited  Vulgate.    Another  revision  ship  and  all  the  ri^ts  of  an  old  coUege  in  Paris,  called 
bearing  more  especially  upon  the  rubrics  foUowed  **deB  Bons  Ebifants".    Vincent  de  Paul  took  posses- 
under  Urban  VIII  in  1634.    In  the  early  part  of  the  sion  throudi  his  first  disciple  and  co-labourer  Anthony 
nineteenth  century,  owing  largely  to  the  exertions  of  Portail,  6  March,  1624.    The  next  year  a  contract 
Dom  Gu^ranger,  the  Benedictine  Uturgist,  a  number  confirming  the  previous  promises  was  signed  by  the 
of  the  dioceses  of  F^rance  which  had  up  to  this  per-  de  Gondy  family  in  favour  of  Vincent  and  his  com- 
sistently  adhered  to  their  own  distinctive  uses  upon  a  panions  united  ^' under  the  name  of  Company,  Con- 
more  or  less  valid  plea  of  immemorial  antiquity,  made  eregation  or  Confraternity  of  Fathers  or  Priests  of  the 
a  sacrifice  to  uniformity  and  accepted  the  ''^Missale  Siission".    Tlus  took  place  on  17  April,  1625. 
Romanum".    The  last  authoritative  revision  of  the  Edified  by  the  success  of  their  labours,  the  Arch- 
Missal  took  place  in  1884  \mder  Leo  XIII.    It  ^ould  bishop  of  Paris  gave  his  official  approval  a  year  later, 
be  noticed  nnally  that  the  term  Missal  has  been  ap-  24  April,  1626,  to  the  contract  ot  foundation^  and  on 
plied  by  a  loose  popular  usage  to  a  number  of  books  4  Sept.,  1626,  before  two  notaries  of  Ch&telet  m  Paris, 
which,  strictly  speaking,  have  no  right  to  the  name.  Vincentand  his  first  compimions  declared  that  they  had 
The  "Missale  Franoorum",  the  "Missale  Gothicum",  joined  together  "to  live  in  a  community  or  confra- 
the  "Missal  of  Robert  of  Jumi^ges^i  etc.,  are  aU,  temity  and  to  devote  themselves  to  the  salvation  of 
properly  speaking,  Sacramentaries.  the  poor  country  people  ".    Only  three  priests  sisned 

The  moet  important  contribution  to  the  subject  is  Ebkbr,  this  declaration  with  Vincent  de  Paul:  Du  Couoray, 

QutUm  vnd  Portchunoen  gw  Oesch.  tmd  Kun$tift9ch.  dee  MindU  PortaO,  and  de  la  Salle.  Very  soon  afterwards  four  other 

Bomanttm  in  MitUialter  (Freiburg.   1896).  a  monograph  in  •.-•^of-  ininaH  fhft  lit+lp  Anmnanv  Tnhn  R4rii    of  th« 

which  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  pictorial  Pnests  jomeO  tne  UtUe  company.  Jonn  cecu,  01  me 

decoration  of  ancient  Missals.    Another  valuable  work  which  Diocese  of  Amiens;  Anthony  Lucas,  of  Pans;  John 

has  at  least  an  indirect  bearing  on  early  missals  is  Dsuslb,  Brunet,  of  the  Diocese  of  Clennont;  and  John  d'Hor- 

proJktucfcs  QuatiaUchr.  (Lins.  1907):  Lippb  and  Lego,  The  Loujs  XIII.  added  the  seal  of  his  royal  authonty  to 

MinaU  Romanum  of  J471,  III  (2  vols. »Henrv  Bradshaw  Society,  the  act  of  foundation  already  approved  by  ecclesiaa- 

1907).    To  give  a  l»t  of  the  more  famous  published  Missals  such  x;^  i  -nthoritv  f  hi>  nrt^at^Amo  veAr      In  Mav  1fi27  he 

aa  the  UUmU  ad  uaum  eceUna Sarum  (London;  1861,  etc.).  the  P^^  autnonty  tne  preoeaing  year,     in  May,  ^oz/,  ne 

Tork  Arusa2,the  Ambronan  MiaBolt  the    Moaarahte  Mieaal^  issued  letters  patent,  allowmg  the  missionaries  to  fonD 


•  kJ;U» 


358 


•  Kk« 


a  congregation,  to  live  in  oommunitv^  and  to  devote 
themselves  witn  the  consent  of  the  bishops  to  works 
of  charity.  Community  life  being  established,  St. 
ViDcent  could  no  loneer  hold  as  his  own  property  the 
College  des  Bons  Entants,  which  was  annexed  to  the 
mission  by  a  decree  of  the  Archbishop  of  Pans  granted 
8  June^  1627.  The  court  of  the  Parlement  ordered 
the  rep;istration  of  the  letters  patent  of  1627  whidi  the 
opposition  of  certain  pastors  of  Paris  had  delaved,  and 
pontifical  authorization  was  granted  by  tne  Bull 
^'Salvatoris  Nostri"  of  Urban  VIII,  12  Jan.,  1632. 
In  1632  an  important  change  took  place  in  the  in- 
stallation of  the  new  community.  On  8  January, 
Vincent  took  possession  of  the  house  of  St.  Lazare, 
then  in  the  outskirts  of  Paris.  It  was  an  immense 
priory  where  onl^  ei^t  regular  canons  of  St.  Victor 
remamed  and  wmch  Frior  Adrian  Le  Bon,  seeing  the 
great  good  that  Vincent  de  Paul  and  his  missionaries 
were  accomplishing,  had  resolved  in  concert  with  his 
religious  to  transfer  to  him.  An  agreement  was  en- 
ter^  into  between  Adrian  Le  Bon  and  his  religious 
on  one  side,  and  Vincent  de  Paul  acting  in  the  name  of 
his  communitv  on  the  other,  on  7  Jan.,  1632,  and  the 
next  day  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  granted  the  transfer 
of  the  house  of  St.  Lazare,  and  came  himself  to  intro- 
duce Vincent.  Vincent  left  some  of  his  priests  at  the 
College  des  Bons  Enfants,  which  was  destined  to  be- 
come a  seminary  imder  the  name  of  St.  Firmin.  The 
house  of  St.  Lazare  became  the  headquarters  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Mission. 

Tne  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  according  to  the 
desire  of  its  founder  and  from  a  canonical  standpoint, 
is  a  "congregation  of  secular  dergymen";  this  is  the 
term  the  Sovereign  Pontiffs  use ;  for  instance,  Benedict 
XIII  in  the  Bull  of  the  Beatification  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  calls  him  "Congreeationis  presbyterorum  ssec- 
ularium  Missionis  funoator"  (13  August,  1729). 
To  ensure  its  permanency  St.  Vincent  surrounded  his 
work  with  safeguards  including  vows,  but  on  the 
other  hand,  for  many  reasons,  was  careful  to  prevent 
its  becoming  a  religious  orderr  Meanwhile  tne  mis- 
sionaries extended  their  labours  oVer  France  and  in 
foreign  lands.  They  imdertook  labours  of  various 
kinds.  But  the  exact  form  of  the  congregation  had 
not  yet  been  determined.  Vincent  saw  communities 
arotmd  him,  which  he  used  to  say,  people  entered  and 
left  like  a  well  conducted  hotel.  In  1642  and  1651  he 
held  two  assemblies  of  the  priests  who  had  been  long- 
est with  him.  They  deciaed  at  first  on  a  vow  of 
stability,  and  afterwards  on  the  three  ordinary  vows 
of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  without  meaning 
to  form  a  religious  order,  though  they  had  due  respect 
for  the  religious  state.  Almost  immediately  after  his 
election  Alexander  VII  completed  the  work  of  Ur- 
ban VIII,  confirming  the  transfer  of  St.  Lazare  to  the 
Congregation  of  the  Mission,  and  authorizing  on  22 
Sept.,  by  the  Brief  " Ex commisso  Nobis'',  the  consti- 
tution of  the  community.  The  Brief  declares  that  at 
the  end  of  two  years  of  probation,  simple  vows  are  to 
be  taken,  but  that  nevertheless  the  community  be- 
longs to  the  secular  clergy.  That  there  might  be  no 
question  of  changing  the  nature  of  his  institute,  Vin- 
cent did  not  estaolisn  a  novitiate  for  the  aspirants  to 
his  community,  but  a  seminary,  which  is  known  as  in- 
ternal, to  distinguish  it  from  the  diocesan  or  external 
seminaries.  He  also  made  it  a  rule  that  his  mission- 
aries wear  the  dress  of  secular  priests;  in  a  word  that 
they  should  be  distineuished,  m  the  exercise  of  the 
apostolic  functions,  omy  by  their  organized  effort  to 
save  souls  (cf.  Maynard,  "St.  Vincent  de  Paul",  I, 
p.  253,  ed.  1886} .  Such  is  the  canonical  status  of  the 
Congregation  ol  the  Mission. 

II.  Rule  and  Government. — ^There  was,  moreover 
need  of  rules  according  to  which  the  society  he  had 
just  constituted  should  perform  its  functions.  Vincent 
de  Paul  wi^ed  to  test  first,  by  experience,  what  cir- 
ftumstances  might  gradually  require  among  the  mis- 


sbnarieB  as  to  their  manner  of  life  and  their  work. 
Thus  he  was  82  years  old  when,  17  May,  1658,  he 
distributed  to  the  community  the  little  book  of 
"Common  Rules  or  Constitutions".  From  these 
rules  can  be  seen  the  elements  of  which  the  congrega- 
tion is  made  up,  the  life  it  leads,  its  spirit,  and  Se 
works  to  which  its  enersies  are  directed.  The  ele- 
ments, or  members,  of  which  it  is  composed  are  ac- 
cording to  the  ''Common  Rules",  ecaesiastics  azui 
laymen.  The  ecclesiastics  are,  in  imitation  of  CSirifit 
and  His  disciples,  to  preach  and  break  the  bread 
of  the  Word  of  uod,  to  recall  sinners  to  a  Chris- 
tian life,  to  give  themselves  up  to  various  apostolic 
works  whicE  zeal  for  God's  glory  may  call  for 
among  the  people  and  the  clergv.  The  laymen, 
or  coadjutor-brothers,  have  for  their  work,  while 
labouring  also  at  their  personal  sanctification,  the 
care  of  temporal  concerns,  and  the  practice  of 
praver  and  mortification  to  obtain  the  oiessing  of 
Goa  upon  the  labours  of  the  missionaries.    The  life 

grescnbed  by  the  rule  is  that  which  was  led  by  Jesur 
hrist  and  His  disciples.  It  does  not  prescribe  an^ 
special  austerities.  But  as  Collet,  one  of  the  discp 
pies  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  says,  although  the  Itfe 
prescribed  has  nothing  very  extraordinary  about  it 
nothinff  even  which  the  Sacred  C^ons  have  not  al- 
ready uiid  down  as  a  law  for  ecclesmstics  who  live  is 
community^  the  servant  of  God  knew  that  he  must 
adopt  special  means  to  sustain  human  weakness  in 
so  regular  and  laborious  a  life.  For  this  purpose  he 
prescribed  to  his  followers  the  daily  exercises  of  piety 
which  every  priest  who  is  desirous  of  his  own  perfec- 
tion should  impose  on  himself.  As  to  their  daily  inter- 
course, he  especially  recommends  charity  among  his 
followers,  ursing  them  in  particular  not  to  speak  evil 
of  any  one,  skbove  all  of  otner  communities,  and  never 
to  decry  other  nations  or  countries.  So  far  as  inter- 
course with  the  outskle  worid  is  concerned,  he  pre- 
scribes dependence  on  superiors,  which  is  a  guarantee 
of  prudence  and  r^;ulates  whatever  unwisdom  mi^t 
be  found  in  even  the  best  intentioned  seal.  If,  in  the 
words  of  Abelly,  Bishop  of  Rodes  and  fijst  biogra^^er 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  man  of  God  made  it  his 
rule  never  to  anticipate  Providence,  in  the  words  c^ 
another  Bishop  of  Rodes,  Cardinal  Bourret,  in  the 
nineteenth  centurv,  it  is  not  less  true  to  say  that  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  nas  always  followed  closely  in  the 
footsteps  of  Providence.  Asylums  for  foundlings,  for 
old  people,  the  institution  of  tne  Dau^ters  of  Charity, 
retreats  in  preparation  for  ordination,  seminaries,  the 
apostolate  of  toreim  missions  among  the  infidels  of 
Madagascar  and  Barbary,  all  show  the  seal  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  and  this  seal  he  urged  his  sons  not 
to  allow  to  be  extinguished  among  them  after  his 
death.  Finally,  according  to  the  rules,  the  works 
that  form  the  special  object  of  the  congregation 
founded  by  St.  Vmcent  de  Paul  are  thus  determined: 
besides  devoting  himself  to  his  own  perfection,  eaxh 
one  shall  be  employed  in  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the 
poor,  especially  to  poor  ooimtry  people^  and  m  helping 
ecclesiastics  to  the  knowledge  and  virtues  requisite 
for  their  state. 

During  the  life  of  the  founder,  establishments  were 
made  not  only  in  France  but  also  in  Poland  and  in 
Italy.  The  congregation  \mdertook  mission  work  in 
the  North,  in  the  Hebrides,  in  the  Tropics,  in  Bariuiry 
and  Madagascar.  It  was  under  Vincent  (in  1642) 
that  the  houses  of  the  congregation  were  grouped  in 
provinces,  each  having  at  its  head  a  provincial  supe- 
rior called  visitor.  The  same  year  a  rule  was  intro- 
duced for  the  holding  of  genciral  assemblies,  for  the 
election  of  the  supenor  general,  for  the  nomination 
of  his  advisers  unaer  the  name  of  assistants,  and  for 
other  matters  of  importance.  The  following  estab- 
lishments were  founaed  in  St.  Vincent's  lifetime:  in 
Paris:  Bons  Enfans  (1625)  and  St.  Lazare  (1632); 
Toul:  seminary  and  mission  centre  (1635);  Notit 


359  msSION 

Dame    do   la    Robo:   misBiona    (1637);   Richelieu:  selecte",  discussed  in  the  general  assembly  of  1668 

pariah  and  miaaiona  (1638) ;  Annecy :  seminaiy  and  and  approved  by  it,  has  been  submitted  to  the  auUior- 

misBion   (1639):   Cr6cy:   missiona   (1641);   Cahors:  ity  of  the  Holy  See.    The  text  was  examined  and 

eeminaryy  panan,  and  missions  (1643) ;  Marseilles:  changed  in  some  points  by  the  examiners  appointed 

mission  (1643);   Sedan:   parish  and  mission  (1643)  by  the  pope.    In  this  form  it  has  been  dted  in  its 

Saintes:  seminaiy  and  missbn  (1643) ;  Montmirail:  entirety  in  the  Brief  "£x  injimcto  Nobis"  of  Qement 

missions  (1644) :  Le  Mans:  seminanr  and  missions  X  of  2  June,  1670.    This  is  the  chief  act  of  internal 

(1645)  ;  Sahit  M^ea:  missions    (1645);   Paris:    St.  legislation  for  the  Lazarists.    It  has  been  publi^ed 

Charles  Seminaiy  (1645);    Treguier:  seminary  and  in  the  "Acta  apostolica  in  gratiam  Coneregationis 

missions  (1648) ;  Ajgen:  seminary  and  missions  (1648) ;  Missionis"  TParis.  1876).     Alm^ras  secured  the  draw- 

Montauban :  seminary    and    missions   (1652) ;   also  ing  up  of  tne  rules  for  the  offices,  which  were  sent 

foundations  in  Rome  (1642),  Genoa  (1645),  Turin  to  all  the  houses  in  1670.    Edmund  Jolly  completed 

(1654),  Warsaw  (1651),  Tunis  (1645),  Algiers  (1646),  this  work. 

Madagascar  (1648).    At   the  death  of  its  foimder        Bonnet^  elected  in  1711,  had  the  longest  and  fullest 

the  congregation  numbered  500  members.  generalship  of  all  the  superiors  general  b^ore  tiie 

The  ^vemment  of  the  congregation  is  very  simple.  Kevolution.    He  had   keen  inteUigence  and   great 

It  consists  of  the  superior  general,  and  four  assistants,  capacity  for  work.    A  brief  sketch  of  his  life  and 

aided  by  the  procurator  general  and  secretary  general,  character  is  raven  in  the  preface  to  a  collection  of 

All  these  officiiUs  are  chosen  by  a  majority  vote  of  a  meditations  ^ich  he  composed  and  Collet  published. 

general  assembly,  idiich  is  composed  of  the  visitors  of  He  had  to  pass  with  his  community  throu^  the 

uie  several  provinces  and  two  delegates  from  each  difficult  period  of  Jansenism.    His  congregation  in 

province,  elected  by  secret  ballot  in  the  provincial  charge  oi  a  great  number  of  seminaries,  and  hence 

assemUies.    Each  house  in  domestic  assembly  selects  in  close  contact  with  a  great  number  of  bishops 

also  by  secret  ballot,  a  delegate  to  accompany^  the  whose  tendencies  were  very  doubtful,  was  inde<^  in  a 

superior  to  the  provincial  assembly.    The  provmcial  delicate  position.    Rome  condemned  Jansenism,  and 

government  is  made  up  of  a  visitor  appointed  by  the  Bonnet^  regardless  of  the  inconveniences  his  commu- 

supttrior  eeneral  and  of  consultors  approved  by  him.  nity  mi^t  suffer,  here  and  there,  as  a  consequence, 

Usually  for  the  appointment  of  a  visitor  three  names  held  firmly  the  coujse  marked  out  by  the  pope.    He 

are  sdected  by  tne  provincial  council,  and  presented  expelled  from  the  congregation  men  otherwise  most 

to  the  superior  general  who  chooses  one  to  govern  the  distineuished  such  as  Himoert  and  PhUopald.    After 

province.    Local  superiors  also  are  appointed  by  the  him,  Uouty  and  Debras  showed  themselves  equally 

superior  general,  witn  the  advice  of  the  visitor  and  his  faithful  and  courageous  in  the  doctrinal  difficulties 

council.    A  general  assembly  is  held  ever^r  twelve  which    still    continued.    The   Congregation   of   the 

years  to  legiuate  for  the  congregation.    This  is  the  Lazarists  had  sometimes  to  suffer  for  this  fidelity:  for 

only  l^slative  body  in  the  congregation.  instance  at  Auxerre  all  the  directors  of  the  seminary 

An  assembly  is  held  every  six  years  made  up  of  the  were  placed  \mder  interdict  by  de  Caylus.  an  im- 

general  officers  of  the  congremtion,  and  of  one  dele-  periousi)i8hop.  a  friend  of  the  Jansenists,  out  they 

gate  from  each  province.    Tnis  bodv  may  elect  to  were  reinstated  by  de  Condorcet,  his  successor  (see 

vacancies  among  the  superior  general  %  assistants  and  Migne,    "  Dictionnaire   des   Ordres    Relieieux",    II, 

may  also  decide  minor  matters  of  discipline.    Decrees  766) .    The  Lazarists  held  firmly  to  the  siae  of  Kome. 

of  general  assemblies  are  binding  on  the  entire  congre-  One  of  them.  Soardi,  superior  of  the  seminary  of 

gation.    Tlieir  interpretation  rests  with  the  superior  Avignon,  published  an  important  work  "  De  Suprema 

general  and  his  coxmcil.    The  office  of  superior  general  Romani  Pontificis  auctontate"  (1747),  which  passed 

IS  held  for  life,  or  imtil  his  resignation.    Provision  is  almost  in  its  entirety  into  the  work  of  Abb^,  after- 

however,  made  in  the  "Constitutions "for his  removal  wards  Cardinal,  Yillecourt,  on  "The  Rights  of  the 

from  office  for  crime,  or  perpetual  inability  to  govern.  Holy  See''.    Another  Lazarist,  Peter  Collet,  produced 

Visitors  remain  in  office  at  tne  discretion  of  the  supe-  amone   other  works,   a  theology  of  merit,   which 

nor  general.    In  like  manner  local  superiors  are  re-  made  him  the  butt  of  various  attacks.    In  1764  ap- 

movable,  for  cause,  by  the  visitor,  whose  action,  how-  peared  a  "Denunciation"  of  the  theology  of  Peter 

ever,  must  be  approved  by  the  superior  general,  who  Collet  addressed  to  the  Bishop  of  Troyesby  a  great 

alone  has  the  ngnt  to  appoint  ana  remove  superiors,  number  of  ecclesiastics  of  his  diocese  (120  pp.  duo- 

III.  History. — From  St.  VtncerU  uiM  the  Kevolt^  decimo,  1764).    The  clergymen  who  signed  it  num- 

tian. — ^From  St.  Vincent's  death  until  the  Revolution  bered  one  hundred  and  nine  says  an  anonymous  note. 

there  were  nine  superiors  general,  whose  part  was  to  They  accuse  Collet  of  inclining  scandalouslv  towards 

complete  the  organisation  of  the  new  society  and  to  a  lax  morality.    The  period  of  the  Frencn  Revolu- 

formrd  the  various  works  for  which  it  was  instituted,  tion  was  approaching.    The  superior  ^neral  since 

These  superiors  general  were:  Ren6  Alm^ras  (1661),  1788  was  Feiix  Cayla,  a  man  of  great  ability.    Elected 

Edmund  Jolly  (1673),  Nicholas  Pierron  (1697),  Francis  as  the  first  alternate  for  the  deputation  of  the  clergy 

Watd  (1703),  John  Bonnet  (1711),  John  Couty  (1736),  of  the  National  Assembly,  he  had  in  fact  to  take  part 

Louis  Ddbras  (1747),  Antome  Jacquier  (1762-1788).  in  it  because  of  the  departure  of  one  of  the  ecciesi- 

Felix  Gavla  was  at  the  head  of  the  congregation  dur-  astical  deputies,  and  he  refused  at  the  tribunal  of  the 

ins  the  Aench  Revolution.  It  was  during  the  general-  assembly  the  oath  for  the  civil  constitution  in  1791. 

ship  of  Ren^  Alm6ras.  especially,  that,  m  1668,  what  He  was  immediately  sent  into  exile. 
are  sometimes  called  toe  "Great  Constitutions"  were        When  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  died  in  1660  the  secular 

drawn  up.    They  were  discussed  and  accepted  bv  the  clergy  of  Paris  had  a  solemn  service  at  which  the 

fneral  assembly  held  that  year  from  15  July  to  preacher,  Hennr  de  Maupas  du  Tour,  Bishop  of  Puy, 

Sept.,  and  were  approved  in  October  following  bv  who  had  been  for  many  years  in  very  close  intimacy 

the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Harduin  de  Pdr4fixe,with  with  Vincent  did  not  hesitate  to  take  as  his  text; 

authoritv  granted  him  by  the  Bull  of  Urban  VIII,  in  "Whose  praise  is  through  all  the  churches"  (II  Cor., 

1632.   llie  title  is ''Constitutions  which  concern  the  viii,  18).    Abelly,  Bishop   of   Rodez,  writing  only 

superior  general  and  the  government  of  the  whole  four  years  later,  declared  that  the  work  founded  by 

Congregation  of  the  Mission".    These  are  the  general  this  humble  priest  had  already  extended  most  widely 

constitutions  in  force  at  the  present  day.    Alm^ras  is  and  through  nis  congregation  would  spread  still  more. 

responsible  for  the  compilation  of  an  abridgment  of  (1)  Missions. — ^The  end  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  be- 

these  constitutions  whicn  has  a  still  eraiter  authority  einning  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  for  France  a 

in  the  sense  that  this  condensed  edition  under  the  half  century  of  political  and  religious  anarchy.    The 

OMie  ^  ^Swamaiy",  or,  in  liatin  "CQQ0titution«0  clergy  of  the  large  cities,  where  tbcro were  umvemti^ 


360 


M.K 


were  enlturedj  but  the  rural  deigy  were  imoTant  and  number  of  those  given  by  the  miaBionaries  in  various 
neglected  their  flocks,  who,  in  face  of  the  disorders  dioceses  of  France  cannot  be  reckoned, 
created  by  the  conflict  between  the  Protestant  Refor-  (2)  Parishes  and  Chapels. — ^It  is  only  with  regret 
mation  and  Catholicism,  not  knowins  which  to  be-  that  the  Lasarist  Missionaries  accept  chapds  and 
lieve,  lost  ail  interest  in  religion,  lo  remedy  this  parishes.  For  they  wish  to  be  free  to  sp  nere  and 
indifference  and  this  ignorance,  was  what  Vmcent  there  on  missions  to  give  the  help  peculiar  to  their 
de  Paul  chiefl^r  sought.  The  nrst  missions  of  the  ministry,  and  by  preadiing  and  hearing  oonfessioiis 
Lazarists  were  in  tiie  suburbs  of  Paris  and  in  Picardy  to  revive  if  need  oe  or  maintain  the  good  effects  of  the 
and  Champagne.  The  method  and  rule  given  bv  St.  work  of  the  parish  priests.  They  accepted  the  charge 
Vincent  de  Paul  has  been  preserved  for  us  by  Abell^,  a  of  parishes  and  chapels  only  in  two  circumstances: 
contemporary  of  the  samt.  It  is  in  all  essentials  when  they  could  make  of  these  parishes  a  residence 
identical  with  the  system  used  by  his  missionaries  and  for  other  missionaries  who  would  go  out  preaching 
in  fact  by  sJl  modem  missionaries.  ''There  was  one  missions,  or  when  circumstances  made  it  impossible 
thing  that  Mr.  Vincent  observed  on  the  missions",  to  refuse.  An  example  of  these  circumstances  is  the 
B&yB  Abdl^,  his  contemporary  biographer,  ''ana  parish  of  Richelieu  founded  by  the  Cardinal  of  that 
which  he  wished  his  spiritual  sons  to  observe  most  name,  minister  of  Louis  XIII,  and  the  parish  of  Sedan, 
faithfully;  to  give  all  the  instructbns  and  render  all  In  1638  Cardinal  Richelieu  wished  to  establish  the 
services  gratuitously  without  being  in  any  way  a  Lazarists  not  only  in  the  city  of  his  ducal  title  but  also 
charpe  to  those  to  whom  they  render  these  offices  of  in  the  Diocese  of  Lugon  of  which  he  had  been  bishop, 
chanty",  and  this  the  priests  of  the  Mission  have  in-  Bjr  an  act  of  4  Jan.,  passed  at  Ruel,  he  obtained  of 
violably  observed.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  Vin-  Vmcent  seven  priests  who  were  to  be  sent  to  Ridielieu 
cent  de  Paul  would  not  agree  to  the  establi^ment  of  in  the  following  February,  and  to  whom  three  others 
a  mission  house  unless  it  nad  a  sufficient  foimdation  should  be  added  within  two  years.  Four  of  these  the 
to  allow  the  missions  to  be  given  gratuitously.  In  act  declares  "  shall  remain  at  Richelieu  to  perform  the 
the  United  States  indeed  where  there  are  no  founda-  functions  of  the  mission.  The  three  othen  shall  be 
tions  it  has  been  the  custom  of  St.  Vincent's  mission-  sent  every  five  jrears  for  the  same  purpose,  to  every 
aries  to  accept  whatever  offering  mijg^t  be  made  them,  town  and  village  of  the  duchy,  and  while  awaiting  the 
but  this  usage  is  confined  to  &^ish  speaking  coun-  time  to  begin  their  rounds  a^^un  they  shall  give  mis- 
tries,  elsewhere  this  most  disinterestea  custom  is  in  sions  in  the  Diocese  of  Poitiers,  or  other  places  in 
full  vieour.  The  fruits  of  these  missions  were  ver^  the  adjacent  country  as  it  shall  please  His  Eminence 
markea  and  many  bishops  desired  to  procure  this  to  arrange.  The  three  remaining  priests  shall  be  sent 
blessine  for  their  dioceses.  Soon  after  the  establish-  to  Lugon  for  the  same  purpose  and  all  shall  go  to  the 
ment  of  the  congregation,  while  he  was  at  the  College  country  four  times  a  year  at  the  period  most  suited 
des  Bons  Enfants,  that  is  to  say  from  1625  to  1632,  for  this  work,  and  labour  there  for  six  weeks  each 
St  Vincent  himself  gave  one  hundred  and  forty  time.  One  of  the  four  priests  living  at  Richelieu  shall 
missions.  act  as  pastor  with  as  many  assistants  as  shall  be 
In  1638  Louis  XIII  wished  Vincent  to  h&ve  his  deemed  expedient.  In  the  nouse  of  Richelieu  shall 
missionaries  give  a  mission  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye  be  received  gratuitously  and  for  twelve  days  those 
near  Paris,  where  he  then  was  with  all  the  court.  Vin-  who  are  to  be  ordained  for  the  Diocese  of  Poitiers  at 
cent  offered  many  excuses  but  to  no  avafl.  He  the  four  seasons  of  the  year,  and  for  fifteen  dajrs  such 
recommended  his  missionaries  to  preach  as  simply  at  priests  of  the  diocese  as  the  Bishop  of  Poitiers  ^ail 
court  as  they  did  in  the  rural  districts,  having  notmng  in  send  to  make  the  exercises  of  the  spiritual  retreat", 
view  but  the  good  of  souls.    The  mission  was  a  com-  On  his  part  the  cardinal  agrees  to  have  erected  and 

Slete  success  and  Anne  of  Austria  a  few  3rear8  later,  to  furnish  a  suitable  house  and  to  obtain  the  annexa- 

641,  asked  for  another  in  the  same  place  and  under  tion  of  the  parish  to  the  Congregation  of  the  MissioD 

the  same  circumstances.    Mission  preaching  has  been  and  to  procure  for  it  the  necessary  revenues, 

employed  in  every  age  of  the  Church ;  but  systematic  Sometimes  special  spiritual  needs  have  caused  the 

parish  missions  as  now  imderstood  were  commenced  Lasarists  to  accept  a  parish.    Hardly  was  Louis 

by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (American  Ecdes.  Rev.,  XI,  XIII  in  possession  of  Sedan  when  he  desired  Vincent 

90),  and  the  wonderful  influence  of  the  modem  form  to  send  his  priests  there.    The  needs  of  rdigion  were 

of  this  great  work  of  zeal  dates  from  the  first  missions  verv  pressing  for,  through  their  continual  intercourse 

of  St.  Vincent  and  his  companions  in  the  infant  Con-  with  the  Husuenots,  the  number  of  Catholics  was 

eregation  of  the  Mission.    St.  Vincent  cites  instances:  daily  diminishing  and  the  true  faith  almost  extin- 

"A  mission  was  given  among  the  banditti  and  these  guisned.    The  parish  of  Sedan  was  at  first  transferred 

wretched  people  were  converted  by  the  grace  of  God."  to  the  Mission  by  the  Archbishop  with  the  consent  of 

Elsewhere  he  generalizes:  ''Of  all  the  means  which  the  Abbot  Mouzon  and  the  religious  of  the  abbey,  and 

the  Almighty  nas  left  to  mankind  for  the  correcting  Louis  XIII  gave  an  annual  income  of  2.500  livres  for 

of  their  lives  there  is  none  that  has  produced  effects  the  administration  of  the  parish  and  the  support  of 

more  striking,  more  multiplied  and  more  marvelous  the  missions.    Besides  a  priest  to  officiate  at  Balan, 

than  the  exercises  of  a  mission."    What  the  spiritual  there  were  to  be  at  Sedan  a  parish  priest,  seven  other 

exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  have  done  for  religious  and  priests,  and  two  brothers.    At  least  four  of  the  priests 

the  clergy  and  for  individuals  among  tiie  Taity,  the  were  to  remain  in  charge  of  the  work  of  the  parish  and 

missions  as  organized  by  the  Lazarists  have  done  for  four  others  were  to  preach  missions  to  the  people  of 

the  people  at  large.     Vincent  fully  appreciated  the  the  surrounding  country.    Three  more  priests  were 

value  01  retreats  and  his  house  ana  the  houses  of  his  added  in  1680,  because  since  its  foundation  in  1644 

sons  have  always  been  open  to  laymen  and  clerics  for  the  number  of  communicants  had  increased  by  t^*o- 

retreat.    From  their  foundation  to  the  present  time  thirds.    Soon,  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  among 

innumerable  missions  have  been  given  throughout  the  whom  at  first  not  more  than  1,500  Catholics  could 

Catholic  world  and  the  pioneers  in  the  field  have  done  be  counted,  hardly  a  third  part  remained  heretics.  It 

a  goodly  share  of  the  work.    It  has  been,  however,  was  by  means  of  the  pacific  method  always  reoom- 

eamestly  pursued  by  almost  all  the  active  orders  and,  mended   by   St.   Vincent,   that  the   Lazarists   thus 

especially  in  recent  jrears,  by  zealous  members  of  the  diminished  the  number  of  Protestants  and  increased 

diocesan  priesthood.    St.  Vincent  always  insisted  that  so  wonderfully  the  number  of  Catholics.     Inst-ead  ci 

this  is  the  chief  work  of  his  community  and  should  be  controversies  which  often  embitter  hearts,  they  pre- 

held  in  the  highest  esteem  bv  all  its  members.  ferred  the  explanatory  syrtem  which  gave  solid  and 

From  1652  to  1660  more  than  seven  hundred  missions  practical   instruction  to   Catholics  and   Protestants 

were  given  from  the  house  of  St.  Lazare  alone.    The  alike.    At  the  same  tim'  they  extended  their  labours 


msszoN  361 

to  the  districts  surrounding  Sedan  almost  depopu-  vais  (1679)  ;TouiB,Chartre8,Toul,  and  Auzerre  (1680): 

iated  by  war  and  they  helped  the  people  by  exhorts^  Poitiers,  Boulogne,  and  Ch&lons  (1681);  Bayeux  and 

tions   and  alms.    Their  charity  thus  helped   their  Bordeaux  (1682);   Sariat  (1683);  Pau  (1684);  Ma- 

E reaching  and  gained  the  hearts  of  those  that  were  nosque(1685);Sa!int-Pol-de-Ldon(1689);Notre-Dame- 
^ast  disposed.    At  Sedan  as  elsewhere  they  aided  the  de-la-D^vrande  (1692);  Vannes  (1701);  Angoul^me 
Protestants  as  well  as  the  Catholics  as  Brother  Sirven  (1704) ;    Avignon    (1705) ;    Notre-Dame-de-Buglose 
testifies  whose  eulogium  Vincent  wrote  in  a  letter  to  (1706) ;  Toulouse  (1707) ;  Poitiers  (1710) ;  Saint-Servan 
Laudin  in  Mans,  7  Aug.,  1660:  "The  whole  city  and  (1712);  Pamiers  and  Tours  (1715);  Momant  (1717); 
surroundins  country  regret  him,  even  the  heretics  who  Chartres  (1719) ;  Villefranche  (1723) ;  Figeac  (1735) ; 
were  edified  by  his  modesty  and  aided  by  his  charity."  Aries  (1752);  Lurs  (1753);  I&  Rochelle  and  Metz 
(3)  The  Seminaries.— The  Congregation  of  the  Mis-  (1763) ;  Rodez  (1767) ;  Lu^on  (1771) ;  Cambiai  (1772) ; 
sion  founded  bv  St.  Vincent  has  for  its  chief  object  Albi(1774);  Nancy  (1780);  Soi8sons(1786);  finally,  Cas- 
te gether  with  the  missions  devotion  to  the  service  of  tres  ( 1 788 ) ,  the  last  seminary  that  was  given  to  the  Con- 
ecclesiastics.    In  France   in   his  day  there  were  in  gregationWore  the  Revolution.    In  all  43  theological 
the   cities  a  certain  number  of  weU  educated  and  and9preparatory8emiDaries(Maynard,II,p.234).The 
distinguished    clergymen,  but    the    sreat  majority  Lazansts  soon  spread  outside  of  France.    In  Italy, 
especially  in  the  oountiy  places  had  no  practical  in  1641,  a  papal  Bull  authorized  an  establishment  m 
means  of  formation.    Manv  zealous  priests  of  this  Rome,  andjthe  Duchess  of  AiguUlon  gave  them  a  donar- 
period,  Condren  and  Berulle  of  the  ()ratory,  Bour-  tion  to  devote  their  time  to  missions  for  the  rural  popula- 
doise  of  St.  Nicholas,  above  all  Olier  of  St.  Sulpioe  tion,  to  labour  for  the  clergy,  the  spiritual  retreats  for 
were  preoccupied  witn  the  matter.    Vincent  used  to  those  to  be  ordained,  etc.    In  1697  the  pope  mve 
say,  as  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  a  military  them  the  house  and  church  of  Sts.  John  and  Paul 
oozninander  after  he  has  conquered  a  country  to  leave  on  the  Coelian  Hill,  but  this  has  been  exchanged  for 
behind  him  Earrisons  to  maintain  his  conquest,  so  St.  Svlvester's  on  the  Quirinal.    In  1645  they  were 
when  apostouc  men  have  led  the  people  to  God,  or  called  to  Genoa,  to  Turin  in  1655,  to  Naples  in  1668. 
brought  them  back  to  Him,  it  is  a  vital  matter  to  In  St.  Vincent's  tune  they  went  to  preach  in  Ireland 
preserve  this  conquest,  by  procuring  worthy  and  and  in  the  Hebrides;  later  Charles  11  called  them  to 
sealoua  priests  to  labour  among  them.    He  arranged  London  for  his  chapel  as  Louis  XIV  had  done  in 
with  the  Bishop  of  Beauvais  as  eariv  as  1628  for  a  re-  France  for  his  chapel  at  Versailles.    In  Poland,  in  the 
treat  for  those  to  be  ordained  in  tnat  city.    During  time  of  John  Casimir  and  his  queen  Louise  Marie  de 
the  days  preceding  ordination  they  were  assembled  Gonzaga,  they  were  called  to  Warsaw  in  1651,  to 
for  exercises  of  piet^  and  for  immediate  preparations  Krakow  in  1656,  to  Culm  in  1677.  to  Vilna  in  1687, 
for  the  pastoral  ministry.    These  exercises  were  estab-  and  to  many  other  cities,  so  that  before  the  Revolu- 
lished  at  the  house  des  Bons  Enfants,  afterwards  at  tion  Poland  was  one  of  the  most  flcturishing  provinces. 
St.  Lazare  for  the  Diocese  of  Paris.    The  archbishop  In  Spain  ^ey  were  established  in  Barcelona  and  from 
made  them  obligatory  for  all  who  received  orders  in  there  settled  in  several  other  cities.    They  reached 
Paris.     At  Rome,  enjoined  by  the  pope,  they  have  Portugal  in  1718  thou£^  not  recognized  by  the  kins, 
been  held  at  the  house  of  the  lazarists  at  Montedtorio  John  V,  who  up  to  ^s  time  was  opposed  to  theur 
up  to  the  present  day.    At  Paris  in  the  house  des  Bons  dependence  upon  the  superior  general  in  Paris,  but 
F^fa-nta  in  February,  1642  Vincent  de  Paul  established  who  afterwards  favoured  them  and  built  them  the 
an  ecclesiastical  seminary  and  gave  it  a  rule  for  the  magnificent  house  of  Rilhafolles  in  the  suburbs  of 
exercise  of  piety  and  for  the  order  of  studies.    It  is  no  Lisbon,  a  house  which  was  confiscated  by  the  Revolu- 
doubt  the  same  that  was  put  in  practice  by  the  Laza-  tion.    At  the  Revolution  of  1834  there  were  six  estab- 
lists  when  they  b^n  tne  theological  seminary  at  liahments  of  the  Portuguese  ton8:ue. 
Annecy  in  1641,  and  in  the  seminary  at  Alet.    It  was        (4)  Foreign  Missions  among  the  Infidels. — ^Foreign 
in  substance  that  which  is  in  vogue  in  the  seminaries  missions  had  a  place  in  the  schedule  of  apostolic  works 
of  France  at  the  present  dav.    The  rule,  as  given  in  drawn  up  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  although  this 
Maynard  (op.  cit.,  II,  211;.  exhibits  an   excellent  sort  of  labour  did  not  develop  among  his  sons  before 
oonapromise  between  the  seciuar  and  the  cloistered  life  the  Revolution  to  so  great  an  extent  as  it  did  in  the 
and  a  wise  mingling  of  study,  piety,  and  discipline,  nineteenth  centuiy,  yet  from  the  beginning  they  gave 
The  object  is  to  fit  the  cleric  for  his  sacred  functions,  themselves  to  this  work.    In  1645  the  missionaries 
In  the  seminary  as  conceived  and  actually  established  set  out  for  Barbary,  as  they  then  called  it.     The 
by  St.  Vincent  students  of  classics  were  separated  from  regencies  of  Tunis  and  Algiers  in  the  power  of  the 
students  of  theology.    He  withdrew  the  former  pupils  Turks  were  a  den  of  pirates  where  a  great  number 
at  Bons  Enfants  and  placed  them  in  a  separate  estab-  of  Christians  taken  prisoners  by  Turkish  Corsairs  were 
iishment  at  St.  Lazare,  in  what  constituted  the  pre-  held  captives.    The  Lazarists  did  mission  work  there, 
paratoryseminary  of  St.  Charles.    The  beneficial  effect  and  from  time  to  time  they  even  fulfill^  the  duties 
wajB  inunediately  apparent.  of  consul,  when  it  was  too  difficult  to  find  a  layman 
As  eariy  as  1647,  Vincent  de  Paul  could  write  what  for  this  office.  Some  were  imprisoned  by  the  Deys  of 
he  afterward  embodied  in  his  ''  Constitutions":  " Our  Algiers,  some  were  put  to  death  at  the  cannon's  mouth 
insctitute  has  but  two  chief  ends,  the  instruction  as  John  Le  Vacher  and  Francillon.    They  kept  this 
of   the  poor  coimtry  people  and   the  seminaries."  duty  till,  finalljr,  in   1830,   France  destroyed  that 
After  the  first  successes  of  Vincent  and  Olier  there  stronghold  of  puates.    The  Lazarists  of  the  seven- 
was  a  rivalry  among  the  bishops  to  endow  their  dio-  teenm  century  also  preached  the  Gospel  in  the  Island 
with  these  most  useful  establishments.      In  of  Madaeuscar,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  in 


1643  the  Lazarists  were  entrusted  by  Alain  de  Solmin-  Bourbon  Island  and  the  Isle  de  France.  They  passed 
haCy  Bishop  of  Cahors,  with  a  mission  house  and  the  over  into  China,  at  first  one  by  one,  like  Appiani  and 
direction  of  the  seminarv  of  that  city.  In  1644  the  Pedrini  durine  the  nunciature  of  Cardinal  de  Toumon. 
Bishop  of  Saintes  placed,  them  in  charge  of  his  semi-  and  like  Mullener  who  became  Vicar  Apostolic  oi 
uaryi  in  1645  those  of  Mans,  of  St.  Malo  and  St.  M6en  Se-Tchuen.  They  were  called  to  Macao,  a  possession 
were  confided  to  them;  that  of  Agen  in  1650,  and  of  of  the  Portuguese,  by  the  Portuguese  Government  in 
Montaubon  in  1660.  After  the  death  of  the  saint  until  1784,  and  directed  many  houses  of  education  there. 
the  time  of  the  Revolution  the  following  seminaries  After  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  de- 
were  directed  by  the  Lazarists:  Narbonne  and  Metz  spite  the  refusal  of  the  superior  general  because  of  the 
(1661);  Amiens,  Troves,  and  Noyon  (1662);  Saint-  inadequate  number  of  subjects,  through  an  agree- 
Brteuc  (1666) ;  Marseilles  (1672) ;  Saint-Flour  (1674) ;  ment  between  the  King  of  France  and  the  Propaganda 
Sena(1675);  Arras(1677);  B^ziers and  Alet (1678);  Beau-  at  Rome,  the  Lasarists  were  chaiged  with  the  duty  of 


MIS8X0M  362 

taking  the  places,  so  far  as  they  could,  which  had  been  Rome.    Some  of  these  martjrn  were  FraiiQois  and 

held  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  Levant  and  in  China  (1782-  Grujrer,  massacred  at  St.  Finnin  in  Paris,  Matthew 

1783).    Father  Viguier,  a  Lazarist,  took  possession  Caron,  John  Colin  and  John  GaUois  at  VerBaillei. 

of  the  mission  at  Constantinople  and  8  May,  1785,  Many  perished  on  the  scaffold:  Francis  Bo^n  at 

another  Lazarist,  Father  Raux,  took  possession  of  the  Cahors,  John  Quibaud  at  Mans,   Louis  Hayer  at 

mission  of  Pekin.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Rev-  Niort,  Francis  Martelet  at  Besancon.    In  addition, 

olution  there  were  in  France,  Spain,  Portu^,  and  the  several  succumbed  in  prison:  Nictiolas  Bailly,  Paul 

Palatinate  along  with  the  missions  outside  Europe  Brochois,  Victor  Julienne,  and  An^us  Bernard  La- 

about  one  hundred  and  fifty  Lazarist  establishments,  mourette,  nephew  of  the  Constitutional  bidiop,  or  on 

Under  the  Revelation. — Even  before  the  Revolution  the  prison-ships  of  Rochefort  and  at  the  Isle  Madame, 

in  France  many  nations  had  been  the  prey  of  internal  as  John  Janet  and  Nicholas  Paiiaot;  or  at  Sinnamari, 

dissensions.    In  the  first  place  must  be  mentioned  as  Claude  Cuin. 

Poland  whose  discords  were  leading  it  to  dismember-  Such  is  the  tribute  whidi  the  Congr^ation  of  the 
ment  and  ruin.  In  1772,  in  the  first  partition  of  Mission  paid  during  the  blood>[  Revolution.  As  a  re- 
Poland,  twelve  houses  of  the  Lazarists  passed  under  suit  of  the  ledslation  oonoeming  the  Constitutional 
foreign  dominion,  Austrian,  Prussian,  or  Russian.  The  Church  and  the  decrees  of  suppression  of  religioos 
Poli^  houses  which  became  Austrian  disappeared  orders,  all  the  establishments  of  the  Lazarist«  in  France 
before  the  exactions  of  Joseph  II  of  Austria.  The  were  destroyed.  At  that  time  they  had  in  France 
King  of  Prussia,  who  when  taking  his  share  of  Poland  provinces  comprising  78  houses  wim  824  members, 
had  promised  to  respect  religious  institutions,  soon  Obliged  to  flee,  the  superior  general,  Ciiyla,  took 
began  confiscating  ecclesiastical  property.  Neverthe-  refuge  in  Rome,  where  ne  died  12  Fci>ruaiy,  1800. 
less,  in  1789  the  Polish  province  of  the  Lazarists  still  His  death  at  a  period  when  the  scattered  monberB  of 
numbered  twenty-two  houses.  A  second  and  a  third  the  congregation  could  not  come  together  to  elect  his 
division  took  place  in  1793  and  in  1795,  amons  Au&-  successor,  bc»ui  an  interregnum  which  was  full  of 
tria,  Prussia,  and  Russia,  leaving  nothing  of  uimappv  difficulties.  There  were  vicars-general ;  ordinarily  two 
Poland.  In  the  part  that  fell  to  Russia  the  Polish  vicars-general  governed  simultaneousljr,  one  for  the 
Lazarists  constituted  a  new  province  called  the  Lith-  Lazarists  in  France  and  the  foreign  missiona  and  as 
uanian,  remaining  as  far  as  possible  in  .communication  superior  of  the  Daughters  of  Charity,  the  other  had 
with  the  superior  general  m  Paris.    Tlie  Polish  up-  authority   over   the   Lazarists   of  other   countries. 


rising  of  1830  and  1863  drew  down  upon  the  Catholics  This  provisional  organisation  laated  untfl  1827,  when 

the  ngours  of  the  Prussian  and  Russian  Governments,  a  supMsrior  general  was  finally  named.    During  these 

The  Lazarist  houses  at  Culm.  Gnesen,  and  Posen  were  twenty-seven  years  the  vicars  general  were  as  follows, 

suppressed  by  the  laws  ot   1836.    The  houses  in  On  the  death  of  the  superior  general,  Fdix  Ca^a,  in 

Russia,  much  more  numerous,  were  destroyed  by  the  1800.  Francis  Bnmet,  his  companion  in  exile  atKome 

Government  in  1842  and  1864.  It  was  onlv  later,  un-  and  nis  assistant,  was  appointed  vicar-general.     Re- 

der  the  Austrian  dominion,  that  the  Polisn  Lazarists  turning  to  France  in  1804  Brunet  lodged  at  the  house 

could    reorganize.    They    have    establishments    on  of  the  Dau^ters  of  Charity  and  died  there  in  1806. 

Austrian  territory  in  GaJicia  and  Bukowina.    In  the  Claude  Placiard,  his  successor,  who  seemed  destined 

different  states  of  Italjr,  where  the  princes  of  the  House  for  a  longer  career,  died  the  next  vear  after  an  illness 

of  Bourbon  reigned,  life  was  no  loneer  an  easy  matter  of  three  days.    He  was  succeeded  by  Dominic  Hanon. 

for  religious  communities.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  The  zeal  with  which  the  latter  strove  to  maintain  the 

they  were  forced  under  penalty  of  suppression  to  stop  authority  which  the  superior  eeneral  used  to  exercise 

all  mtercourse  with  the  houses  of  the  community  in  over  the  Dau^tersof  Cnarity  drew  upon  him  the  ani- 

foreign  states  and  especially  with  the  superior  general,  mosity  of  the  imperial  power  and  he  waa  imprisoned 

This  state  of  affairs  oontmued  from  1790  tul  1815.  in  the  fortress  ot  Fenestrelle.    He  did  not  regain  his 

About  1789  the  houses  of  the  congregation  in  Itcdy  liberty  imtU  1814  when  he  returned  to  Paris  where  he 

were  divided  into  two  provinces:  the  province  of  died  m  1816.     The  next  year  he  had  as  his  successor 

Rome  with  twelve  houses  and  the  province  of  Lorn-  Charies  Verbert,  who  lived  till  1819.     On  his  death 

bardy  with  fifteen  houses  which  included  the  founda-  Charies  Boujard  was  invested  with  the  vicar-general- 

tions  at  Barcelona,  Palma,  and  Barbastro  in  Spain,  ship,  like  his  four  predecessors,  and  it  was  under  his 

In  Paris  on  the  day  after  the  taking  of  the  Bastille  government,  lasting  about  ei^t  years,  that  the  cod- 

the  mob  made  an  attack  upon  the  house  of  St.  Lazare  p'egation  succeeded  in  reorganizmg,  and  noticeablv 

which  was  one  of  the  chief  religious  establishments  in  mcreased.    These  five   vicar-genends   were   FrencL 

Paris.    The  furniture  was  broken  and  thrown  out  of  and    resided   in    Paris.    The   Italian  vicars-general 

the  windows,  the  priests  and  students  were  obliged  residing  in  Rome  were  Dominic  Sicardi  from  1804 

to  disperse.    The  missionaries  returned  and  banded  to  1818  and  Antony  Baccari  from  1819  to  1827.      Even 

together  there  some  davs  afterwards,  but  they  had  to  under  the  provisional  regime  of  the  vicars-general,  the 

separate  again  in  1792,  and  to  abandon  this  house  work  of  preaching,  of  the  seminaries,  and  of  the 

in  which  St.  Vincent  had  lived  and  died,  and  which  foreign   mission    was   midually    re-established.    In 

was  the  central  house  of  the  congregation.    The  other  France  as  early  as  1819  Verbert  saw  gathered  around 

house  of  the  Lazarists  in  Paris,  the  old  College  des  him  a  considerable  body  of  young  men  and  of  ecclesias- 

Bons  Enfants,  became  the  scene  of  still  more  dramatic  tics  already  formed  and  could  state  that  the  Lazarists 

events  in  1792.    On  the  second  and  third  of  Septem-  had  houses  at  Amiens,  Soissons,  Sariat,  Montauban. 

ber  of  this  year  massacres  occurred  in  different  estab-  Vannes,  Valfleury,  St.  Etienne  (C^ular  letters,  II, 

Ushments  m  Paris  in  which  the  Revolutionists  had  351).    At  the  same  period  some  of  the  houses  in  Italy 

locked  in  the  priests.    The  Abbey,  Carmel,  and  St.  that  were  suppressed  by  the  Revolution  reopened. 

Finnin  served  as  prisons.    In  the  last  house  more  than  There  were  six  houses  in  Spain,  six  also  in  Portugal, 

seventy  priests  were  cruelly  massacred,  among  others  counting  the  college  at  Macao  wnich  was  a  Portuguese 

the  Lazarist  superior  of  the  establishment.  Father  possession.    The  province  of  Poland  or  of  Warsaw 

Louis  Joseph  Francois  and  his  confrere,  Henry  Gruyer.  numbered  twelve  nouses.    The  Lithuanian  province 

The  superior  general  of  St.  Lazare,  Cayla,  at  the  because   of   pK)litical    circumstances    had    but  littie 

Assembly,  refused  the  oath  of  the  Civil  Constitution  intercourse  with  the  superiors  of  the  congregation, 

of  the  clergv.    Among  the  members  of  his  congrega-  The  foreign  missions  had  to  suffer  too  from  t£e  critical 

tion  several  publish^  learned   protests  against  it  conditions  brought  about  by  the  Revolution  in  those 

and  all  refusea  it  except  a  few,  three  of  whom  after-  countries  whence  thev  drew  their  supphr  of  missioD- 

wards   became   Constitutional    bi^ops.     A   goodly  aries.    This  period  of  expectation  was  u>llowed  by  » 

number  died  martyrs  to  their  fidelity  to  the  Church  of  period  of  expansion. 


MISSION  363  msSION 

Atier  the  French  Revolution. — ^After  the  sanguinary  for   scientific   training.    The   Congregation  of   the 
crisis   of  the   Revolution,    the   way   was   gradually  Mission  had  then  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  order  of 
paved  for  the  restoration  of  the  congregation,    it  thin^.     Finally,  as  to  tl^e  foreign  missions,  new 
was  not  until  1827,  however,  that  its  abnormal  situa-  facilities  of  travel  and  communication,  and  new  means 
tion  ceased  when  the  two  vicars-general  Boniard  in  of  influence  and  of  intercourse  with  pagan  or  savage 
France  and  Boccari  in  ^tome  having  resigned,  Pope  peoples  have  given  a  new  character  to  the  work  of 
Leo  XII,  by  a  Brief  of  16  Jan.,  1827,  nominated  Peter  evangelization,  requirins  missionary  bodies  to  change 
Dewully  superior  g^eral.*  In  1804  an  imperial  de-  their  methods  to  meet  tnese  changed  conditions. 
cree  dated  27  May  re-established  the  Congregation        IV.  Literart  and  Scientific  Activity. — Teaching. 
of  the  Lazarists;  m  1816,  imder  the  Government  of  — ^The  method  of  teaching  which  prevails  in  Lazarist 
the  Restoration  a  royal  ordinance  recognized  it  in  the  colleges  and  seminaries,  is  that  of  explaining  a  well 
condition  in  which  it  had  been  placed  by  the  Act  of  chosen  text  of  some  approved  author  from  w'lose 
1804.    It  was  especially  on  the  basis  of  these  two  opinions  even  the  professor  is  not  allowed  to  dei^art, 
decrees  that  the  Coimcii  of  State  of  16  Jan.,  1901,  except  by  the  express  permission  of  his  superiors, 
considered  the  Congregation  of  St.  Lazare  as  legally  Such  a  text  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  pupus,  who 
recognized  in  France.    The  old  house  of  St.  Lazare  learn  a  portion  of  it,  and  receive  explanations  and 
having  been  transferred  by  the  State  to  the  public  comments  from  the  professor.    Individual  research  is 
service,  the  Government  handed  over  to  the  use  of  the  encouraged  but  within  limits  suggested  by  the  practi- 
congregation  apiece  of  property  situated  at  Rue  de  cal  character  of  Lazarist  college  and  seminary  train- 
Sdvres  95,  the  Eidtel  des  Lorges,  and  here  Verbert,  the  ing.    Conformably  to  the  commands  and  recommen- 
vicar-general,  entered  with  his  community  still  small  dations  of  Leo  aIH  and  Pius  X,  philosophy  and 
in  number,  19  Nov.,  1817.    Some  adjoining  ground  theology  are  taught  in  accord  with  tne  doctrines  of 
on  the  Rue  de  Sdvres  was  bought  partly  by  King  St.  Thomas  and  of  his  most  authorized  interpreters. 
Charles  X  for  the  building  of  a  chapeL  which  was  Novelties  in  doctrine  are  distinctly  discouraged,  while 
blessed  by  Mgr.  de  Qu^len,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  1  Nov..  professors  are  bidden  to  make  themselves  acquainted 
1827.    Tne  following  is  a  list  of  the  superiors  general  with  modem  errors,  for  refutation.     Writings. — ^The 
who  have  been  elected  by  the  general  assemblies  life  of  Lazarists  is  above  all,  an  active  life,  in  colle^, 
held  in  Paris  down  to  1910.    After  Peter  Dewailly  in  the  seminary,  and  on  the  missions,  hence  their  wnt- 
died,  23  Oct.,  1828,  the  general  assembly  of  15  May,  ings  have  been  called  forth  for  some  practical  utility, 
1829,  selected  as  his  successor  Dominic  Salhorgne.  or  as  a  result  of  their  scientific  explorations  and  their 
He  had  the  consolation  of  seeing  the  relics  of  St.  journeys  as  missionaries.     The  following  are  note- 
Vincent  which  had  to  be  hidden  during  the  Revolu-  worthv  as  writers:   (1)  Theology. — Collet,  Peter,  a 
t  ion  brou^t  back  in  solemn  state  to  his  rSigious  family  Frenchman  (b.  1693;  d.  1770),  professea  theology 
in  1830.    Under  the  weight  of  age  and  infirmities  he  with  success  m  Paris.     When  Toumely  died  f  17^ 
resigned  in  1835.     The  general  assembly  named  as  leaving  imfinished  a  course  of  theologv  whicn  the 
his  successor  John  Baptist  Nozo  who  was  succeeded  university  and  the  seminaries  held  in  ni^  esteem, 
in  1843  by  John  Baptist  Etienne  whose  long  and  most  Cardinal  Fleury,  then  prime  minister,  invited  Collet 
successful  generalship  continued  until  his  death  in  1874.  whose  talents  he  knew,  to  continue  and  complete  the 
Then  Eugene  Bor6  was  elected,  a  man  well  known  work,  which  Collet  did  with  much  success,  publishing 
in  the  world  of  literature  and  science.    Death  claimed  ''Continuatio  Preelectionum  Theologicarum  Horatu 
him  after  four  years,  and  in  1878  the  general  assembly  Toumely"  in  8  volumes   (Paris,    1733-1760).    He 
made  Anthony  Fiat  his  successor,  and  he  is  now,  made  an  abridgment  of  this  work  as  a  class  book  of 
1910,  at  the  head  of  the  congregation.  theology  for  seminaries.    "  Institutiones  theologies 

The  work  of  the  congregation  has  remained  un-  quas  a  fusioribus  suis  editis  et  ineditis  ad  usum 
changed  save  for  adaptations  to  new  circumstances.  Seminariorum  contraxit  Petrus  Collet"  (Paris,  1744, 
Missions  at  home  are  no  less  necessary  than  formerly.  5  vols.).  Whilst  engaged  in  this  great  work,  Collet 
A  special  consideration  makes  them  more  than  ever  composed  more  than  fort^  volumes  on  different  the- 
the  objects  of  solicitude.  It  is  that  the  people  of  our  ological,  canonical,  liturgical,  and  devotional  sub- 
democratic  age  have  acquired  an  influence  and  an  au-  jects.  Brunet,  Francis  Florentin  (b.  in  France,  1731; 
thority  which  they  never  exercised  before.  Besides  d.  1806),  wrote  a  "Paralldle  des  Religions"  in  5  vol- 
missions  to  the  people,  the  congr^;ation  has  adapted  umes  4^  (Paris,  1792) ,  which  by  its  abundant  researches 
its  methods  in  seminaries  to  new  conditions.  In  the  paved  the  way  for  the  comparative  histories  of  reli- 
aeventeenth  and  ei^teenth  centuries  clerics  received  gion  now  so  much  in  vogue.  Morino,  John,  visitor  of 
their  formation  chiefly  at  the  imiversities  or  in  the  the  Neapolitan  province,  issued  in  1910  the  seventh 
colleges  of  the  chief  cities ;  clerics  who  did  not  study  edition  of  his  Aforal  Theology.  MacGuiness,  John,  a 
there  unfortunately  but  too  often  did  not  study  native  of  Ireland  and  professor  in  the  Irish  College  in 
at  all.  In  this  state  of  affairs  it  sufficed  to  provicfe  Paris,  has  recentlv  published  a  second  edition  of  a 
seminaries  as  ecclesiastical  homes  for  clerics  who  went  complete  course  of  tneology.  McNamara,  Thomas,  a 
out  to  follow  the  courses  in  the  universities  and  col-  pioneer  Irish  Vincentian,  published  many  books  of 
leges  of  the  city.  In  the  seminary  there  was  a  course  great  utility  to  the  clergy,  the  best  known  of  these  is 
in  liturgy;  the  students  were  helped  to  make  for  ^Programme  of  Sermons  and  Instructions",  which 
themselves  a  practical  abridgment  of  moral  theology  is  stflT  much  used. 

and  when  the  time  came  tney  were  aided  by  the        (2)   Works    on   Canon    Law    and    Liturey. — De 

exercises  of  the  retreat  to  prepare  for  ordinations.  Martinis  (b.  in  Italy,  1829;  died  1900),  Arcbbishop 

Two  or  three  priests  at  most  sufficed  for  such  estab-  of  Laodicsa,  published  "Juris  Pontificii  de  Propar 

lishmento.    To-day  all  is  changed  in  this  regard,  ganda  Fide,  Pars  Prima  continens  Bullas,  Brevia, 

Seminarians  ordinarily  spend  all  tneir  time  within  the  Acta  S.S.  a  Congregationis  institutione  ad  prsesens, 

walls  of  the  seminary.    The  seminary  ^ves  Ihem  juxta    temporis    seriem    disposita"  (Rome,    1888- 

ecclesiastical  instruction  in  philosophy,  history,    ex-  1897,  7  vols.,  in  quarto),  a  collection  of  documents 

egesis,  canon  law,  and  theolo^,  teaching  that  they  emanating  from  the  Propaganda  in  everv  respect 

could  not  find  outside  save  in  a  few  universities,  superior    to    any   preceding    collection.    Baldeschi, 

Seminary  life  no  longer  lasts  for  some  months  only,  Joseph  (b.  in   I^y,    1791*  d.   1849).  published  an 

as  it  usually  did  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  "Espositione  delle  Sacre  Ceremonie''  (Rome,  1830, 

centuries,  but  for  several  years,  so  that  the  faculty  4  vols.,   24mo.),  which   has   been   translated    into 

required  for  a  seminary^  whether  it  be  composed  of  various    tongues.     Mandni,    Calcedonio    (d.    1910) 

members  of  a  community  or  of  the  secular  clergy,  began  at  the  Lazarist  house  of  Montecitorio,  Rome, 

miiflt  be  much  more  numerous  and  specially  equipped  in    1887,   the  publication   of  a   monthly  review^ 


BIIB8ION 


364 


MISSION 


'' Ephemerides  Litur^csB^j  which  is  still  issued, 
fiuroni,  Joseph  ^b.  in  Piedmonty  1821),  besides 
theological  and  lituigical  writingp9,  has  published 
several  philosophical  Wbrks,  the  chief  is  "  Dell' 
Essere  e  del  Conoscere''  (Turin.  1877);  he  had 
previously  issued  a  large  portion  of  it  under  the  title 
^' Delia  Filosofia  di  Antonio  Rosmini  saggio  di  Giu- 
seppe Buroni"  (1877-80).  (3)  Languages.— Led  by 
their  ministry  to  speak  the  languages  of  the  nations 
they  evangelized  the  Lazarists  have  issued  divers 
works  in  or  concerning  these  languages.  Caulier, 
Philip  Albert  (b.  in  France,  1723;  d.  1793),  com- 
posed an  abridged  catechism  in  the  language  of 
•  Madagascar,  ana  wrote  a  Malagasy  grammar  for 
the  Antanosy  dialect.  Gonsalves,  Joachim  Al- 
phonsus,  published  among  other  works  in  the 
Chinese  language,  ''Lexicon  Magnum  Latino-Simi- 
cum  ostendens  etymologiam,  prosodiam  et  construc- 
tionem  vocabulorum"  (Macao,  1841,  in  folio).  Vi- 
guier,  Peter  Francis  (b.  France,  1745;  d.  1821), 
published  "Elements  of  the  Turkish  Language,  or 
Analytical  Tables  of  the  ordinary  Turkish  Language 
with  developments"  (Constantinople,  Printing  Pr^ss 
of  the  Palais  de  France,  1790,  4^).  Coulbeau.  John 
Baptist  (b.  in  France,  1843),  has  published  in  tne  glez 
language  or  primitive  Ethiopian  tongue,  the  "Missal 
of  me  Ethiopian  Rite"  (Kerew,  Printing  Press  of  the 
Catholic  Mission,  1890)  and  other  works.  He  also 
published  other  books  in  Armarigoa,  the  present 
idiom  of  Abyssinia,  for  example  "Dialogues  on  the 
Things  of  Faith"  (Kerew,  Printing  Press  of  the 
Catholic  Mission,  1891).  6chreiber,  Jules,  compiled  a 
manual  of  the  Tigrai  language  spoken  in  Central  and 
Northern  Abyssinia  (Vienna,  1887)  and  Gren.  John  (b. 
in  Germany.  1842;  d.  1907),  " La  Lengua  Qmchua",  a 
dialect  of  tne  Republic  of  Ecuador  (Freiburg,  1896, 
in  12mo).  More  than  half  a  million  Indians  in 
Ecuador,  says  the  author,  understand  no  language 
but  the  Quichua.  He  also  wrote  the  first  grammar 
and  dictionary  of  this  language.  Bedian,  Paul,  a 
Persian  Lazarist,  has  written  and  published  many 
works  for  the  use  of  his  fellow  coimtrymen.  Dur- 
ing twenty  years  he  printed  more  than  forty  volumes 
in  the  Syriac  and  Neo- Aramaic,  reproducing  almost 
all  the  ancient  MSS.  hitherto  unpublished  in  the 
various  branches  of  ecclesiastical  science  and  history. 
Tlie  latest  is  the  most  curious  and  important,  the 
hitherto  unpublished  autobiography  of  Nestorius, 
"Nestorius,  Le  Livre  d'Heraclide  de  Damas  4dit6  par 
Paul  Bedjan,  Lazariste"  (Leipzig,  1910,  in  8^). 

(4)  Travels  and  Scientific  Explorations. — Hue, 
(q.  v.)  Evariste-R^gis  (b.  in  France,  1813;  d. 
i860),  published  "Travels  in  Tartary,  Thibet,  and 
China '^  (Paris,  1850,  2  vols,  in  8°),  which  was 
immediately  translated  into  many  lan^a^.  Later 
he  published  a  sequel,  "The  Chinese  Empire"  (Paris, 
1854,  2  vols.  8vo).  and  finally  "Christianity  in  Tibet, 
Tartary,  and  Chma"  (Paris,  1854,  4  vols.  18mo). 
David,  Armand  (b.  in  France,  1826-  d.  1900),  corre- 
sponding member  of  I'Institut  de  France,  travelled 
in  ike  East  and  Far  East.  Commissioned  by  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  of  Paris  to  make  explora- 
tions, he  enriched  the  collection  by  numerous  dis- 
coveries. He  wrote  "Journal  of  Travel  in  Central 
China  and  in  Eastern  Tibet"  which  appeared  in 
"Nouvelles  Archives  du  Mus6um".  VIIl,  IX,  and 
X,  "Journal  of  my  Third  Tour  of  Exploration  in 
the  Chinese  Empire"  (Paris,  1875,  2  vols.  8°).  Be- 
sides numerous  studies  edited  by  him,  there  are 
several  works  published  at  the  expense  of  the  French 
Government  describing  the  scientific  discoveries  of 
David:    "The    Birds   of  China  with  Atlas  of   124 

folates  "  (Paris,  1877) :  "  Plantae  Davidianae  ex  Sinarum 
mperio  par  Frarichet"  (Paris,  1884,  2  vols.  4°),  etc. 
Boccardi,  John  Baptist,  has  published  astronomical 
studies  of  observations  made  at  the  Vatican  Observa- 
tory and  at  Catania.    He  is  the  director  of  the  Royal 


Observatory  of  Turin  (1910).  Many  oi  his  studies 
have  appeared  in  the  "Bulletin  AjBtronomique  de 
rObservatoire  de  Paris"  1898,  1899.  See  "Notices 
Bibliographiques  sur  les  Ecrivains  de  la  Congs^gation 
de  la  Mission^'  (Angouitoe,  1878,  8^).  The  English 
edition  of  the  "Annals  of  the  (x>ng.  of  the  Miss.", 
Nos.  38  and  39  (1903),  contains  m  thirty  closely 
printed  pa^  a  list  of  books  published  by  the  Lazar- 
ists in  various  languages. 

V.  Present  Status. — The  LazarisU  in  Europe. — 
The  mother-house,  the  residence  of  the  superior 
general  of  the  whole  oongre^tion,  is  at  Paris,  95  Rue 
de  Sevres.  This  central  residence  is  also  a  house  of 
formation  with  its  internal  seminary,  or  as  it  is  often 
less  accurately  called,  its  novitiate  and  scholasticate. 
A  second  house  of  formation  is  established  at  Dax,  a 
city  a  little  south  of  Bordeaux.  In  1900  there  were 
about  fifty  establishments  in  France,  missions,  semi- 
naries, and  colleges.  Since  1902  and  1903  the  greater 
number  of  these  establishments  had  to  be  abandoned 
when  a  large  number  of  the  establishments  of  commu- 
nities were  closed,  and  when  congregations  not  author- 
ized by  the  State  were  suppressed.  France  has  hitherto 
supplied  almost  exclusively  subjects  for  the  Laza- 
rists' missions  in  Qiina,  I'ersia,  the  Levant,  Ab>'8- 
sinia,  and  Uie  different  countries  of  South  Ainerica. 
In  Germany,  where  the  Lasarists  had  been  established 
since  1832,  they  were  expelled  by  the  Kulturkampf 
(1873),  and  since  then  they  have  establishments  on 
the  frontier  of  their  coimtr^r  in  Belgium  and  Holland. 
There  are  establishments  in  Syria,  and  in  Central 
America  at  Costa  Rica.  In  Austria  there  are  two 
centres  of  activity  for  the  Lazarists,  one  at  Grats  for 
the  houses  of  Austria  and  Hungary,  the  other,  Polish 
in  language,  at  Krakow  for  tne  establishments  of 
Galicia  and  Bukowina,  and  for  the  colonies  of  Polish 
emigrants  to  America.  In  Spain,  where  the  works 
of  the  Lazarists  are  in  a  flourishing  condition,  the 
houses  are  divided  into  two  provinces,  Madrid  and 
Barcelona.  The  Spanish  Lazarists  furnish  to  a  great 
extent  labourers  for  several  of  the  old  Spanish  colonies, 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  Mexico,  and  the  Philippine 
Islands.  They  were  twice  expelled  from  their  country 
by  the  revolutions  of  1835  and  1868.  They  have  been 
recognized  by  the  Governments  since  the  Concordat  of 
1851.  In  Portugal  where  they  had  six  houses  before 
the  political  and  religious  revolution  of  1835,  they 
have  gradually  been  restored  both  on  the  mainland 
and  in  the  Maaeira  Islands,  where  they  are  enga^^  in 
their  former  works.  The  Congregation  of  the  Mission 
in  Italy  has  felt  the  political  vicissitudes  of  that  coun- 
try in  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Napoleonic  wars 
with  their  suppression  of  religious  houses,  the  con- 
fiscation of  ecclesiastical  property  by  the  Italian 
princes  m  1848,  1860,  and  1873.  At  the  present  time 
there  are  38  houses  divided  into  three  provinces,  Turin, 
Rome,  and  Naples.  As  to  Bel^um  and  Holland,  it  is 
chiefly  since  the  difficulties  in  France  that  the  Laza- 
rists have  secured  in  these  coimtries  houses  for  tlie 
missions  and  especially  for  the  training  of  their 
young  men.  The  congregation  has  taken  up  apain 
work  in  Northern  Africa,  in  Algiers.  There  is  a 
vicariate  Apostolic  in  southern  Madagascar  and  an- 
other in  Abyssinia,  and  there  are  establishments 
at  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  They  have  also  founded 
schools  in  the  Levant,  Turkey  in  Europe,  and  Turkey 
in  Asia.  There  are  prominent  colleges  in  Constan- 
tinople, in  Smyrna,  and  in  Antoura  near  Beirut. 
They  have  also  other  establishments  for  missions  and 
education,  near  Constantinople,  at  Bebeck,  in  the 
Archipelago  at  Santorin,  in  Macedonia,  Salonica,  at 
Ca valla  and  at  Monastir  near  Salonica;  at  Zeitenlik 
they  maintain  a  seminary  for  the  Bulsarian  Rite,  the 
hope  for  the  religious  regeneration  of  that  country. 
In  Syria  they  are  engaged  in  the  same  work  in  various 
houses.  In  Persia  where  the  Lazarists  have  had 
establishments  since  1840,  and  where,  since   1842, 


HXSSXON  365  IHSSION 

the  Holjr  See  sdeeted  from  their  number  the  prefects  impulse  to  what  resulted  in  the  eLtablishment  d 

Apostolic  and  the  Apostolic  delegate  for  that  oountrv,  the  communitsr  in  Ireland.    Early  in  the  last  century 

thev  exercise  the  apostolate  by  preaching  and  by  worKB  when  the  lack  of  church  accommodation  had  been 

of  onarity.    One  of  the  lAsarist  missionaries  in  Persia  partially  supplied,  the  desire  of  establic^iing  lAzarists 

said  forty  years  asp:  "No  mission  is  so  militant  and  or  some  kindred  institute  for  missions  in  Ireland  was 

perhaps  also  so  difficult  as  this."  expressed  by  Dr.  Doyle  who  had  known  them  in 

In  China,  whidi  is  one  of  the  widest  fields  for  apoa-  Ooimbra,  by  Dr.  Maher  who  had  been  with  them  at 

tolic  labour,  the  lAsarists  are  in  chai^  of  the  impor-  Montedtorio  and  by  Father  Fitzgerald,  O.P.,  of  Carlow 

tant  missions  of  Peking  and  of  several  vicariates  College,  but  nothing  was  done.    In  1832  four  young 

Apostolic.    Sent  to  China  towards  the  close  of  the  men  at  Maynooth  approaching  ordination,  impressea 

eighteenth  century,  during  the  eariy  part  of  the  nine-  by  the  dangers  surrounding  the  ministry,  and  the 

teenth  century  they  passed   through   most   trying  importance  of  working  for  God  and  the  ralvation  of 

times.    Persecutions  burst  forth  sometimes  in  certain  souls,  amped  that  a  community  life  was  desirable  for 

localities,  sometimes  ever^here.    In  1820  Francis  them.    They  were  James   Lynch,   Peter   Richard 

R^gis  Clet  (q.  v.),  a  lasarist,  died  a  martyr,  and  in  Kenrick,  Anthony  Reynolds,  and  Michael  Burke,  all 

1840  Jean-Gabriel  Perboyre  (q.  v.)  had  a  like  fate  and  of  the  Diocese  of  Dublin.    On  consulting  with  the 

like  honour.    Both  have  been  oeatified.    The  work  of  senior  dean,  they  were  directed  to  the  Congregation 

spreading  tiie  Goa)el  was  not  interrupted,  however,  of  the  Mission.    The  dean,  Father  Philip  Dowley, 

Apostolic  work  has  De«n  prosperous.   Instead  of  the  old  soon  after  became  their  leader.    He  had  just  been 

residence  of  Petang  at  Peking  a  new  and  much  more  made  vice-president  of  the   college  but   resigned, 

commodious  residence  has  been  erected  on  a  large  About  this  time  they  were  joined  by  Father  Thomas 

tract  of  land  given  by  the  Chinese  Government  and  a  McNamara,  a  valuable  recruit,  as  his  powers  of  oi^n- 

new  cathedral  was  begun  in  December  1888.    This  ization  contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of  the 

important  work  was  begun  and  finished  by  the  bishop,  missions  and  other  works  of  the  congregation  in  Ir&- 

Mgr  Ta^iabue^  and  Rev.  A.  Favier  who  after  became  land.    With  the  approval  of  Archbishop  Murray  a 

Bishop  of  Pekmg.     Around  the  cathedral  of  Peking  small  college  was  opened  in  Dublin  to  serve  as  a 

are  groupjed  the  weological  and  preparatory  semina-  preparatory  seminary.  Another  newly-ordained  priest, 

ries,  a  printing  office,  schools,  and  cnaritable  institu-  Rev.  John  McCann,  supplied  the  funds  for  the  pur- 

tions.    Apostolic  zeal  has  not  grown  lax.    In  1008  the  chase  of  Castleknock.    In  1838  the  little  churcn  in 

lazarists  of  the  Vicariate  of  Pekins  had  the  joy  of  num-  Phibsborou^,  a  suburb  of  Dublin,  was  placed  in  the 

bmng  more  than  thirty  thousand  baptisms  of  adults,  hands  of  Dr.  Murray  of  Dublin,  to  which  he  soon 

The  total  for  the  last  five  years  was  fully,  If  not  be-  added  a  foundation  for  two  annual  missions.    It  was 

yond,    one    hundred    thousand    conversions.    The  for  missions  they  had  banded  together,  but  thoudi 

Lasarists  in  Cbma  have  six  other  vicariates  Apostolic  they  gave  three  in  their  neighbourhood,  other  works 

with  their  centres  at  Youn^Ping-Fou  and  Ching-  took  up  all  their  energies.    By  this  time  they  had  lost 

Ting-Fou  in  Tche-Ly;  Ninc-Po  in  the  Province  of  Father  Anthony  Reynolds  by  death.    Father  Peter 

Tche-Kiang;  Kiou-Kiang,  Fou-Tcheou-Fou  and  Ki-  Richard  Kendnck  joined  his  orother,  then  Bishop  of 

N^an-Fou  in   the   Province  of   Kisne-Si.    In   the  Philadelphia,  and  subsequently  became  Archbisho]>  of 

missions  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists  in  China  there  are  St.  Louis.    Overtures  were  made  to  the  congregation 

at  present  one  hundred  and  forty-five  European  in  Paris  for  the  aggregation  of  the  Iri^  community 

Lazarists  and  thirty-five  Chinese  Lazarists,  eleven  and  this  was  soon  accomplished;  two  of  the  Fathers  be- 

secular  priests  from  Europe  and  eightpr-nine  native  ginning  their  internal  seminary  course  or  novitiate  in 

secular  cler^.    The  Lazarists  in  China  have  two  Paris  and  finishing  it  in  Ireland  under  Father  Girard 

internal  seminaries  or  novitiates.    The  procurator  of  were  delected  by  the  superior  to  form  these  postulants, 
these  missions  resides  at  Shanghai.  Father  Hand  who  had  early  joined  the  community 

Such  are  the  works  of  the  Coneregation  of  the  Mis-  left  before  this  time  to  found  All  Hallows  Collie  at 

sion  carried  on  by  its  3249  meinbers  (1909).  priests.  Drumcondra   for   the   foreign   missions.    The   first 

students,  lay  brotners,  and  novices.    It  may  oe  added  mission  of  these  Lazarists  was  given  in  Athy  in  Dublin 

that  wherever  they  are,  there  is  commonly  to  be  found  Diocese.    It  was  the  introduction  of  the  modem 

the  other  oongr^ation  founded  by  St.  Vincent,  the  mission  into  Ireland.    At  this  and  the  following  mis- 

Daugliters  or  Sisters  of  Charity  (ComeUes).    Such  is  sions  the  people  attended  in  thousands  and  the  con- 

the  case  in  Europe,  in  America,  and  even  on  the  for-  fessionals  were  thronged  night  and  day.    The  church 

^gn  missions  as  in  Madagascar,  Persia,  Syria,  China,  at  Phibsborough  has  given  place  to  a  fine  Gothic 

They  number  (1910)  more  than  30,000  and  labour  structure.    Here  the  oevotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart 

also  in  places  where  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  was  promoted  most  vigorously  after  the  consecration 

is  not  established.  of  Ireland  to  the  Sacred  Heart  by  the  bishops  in  1873. 

Tlis  English  Speaking  LaxarisU, — (1)  The  Irish  Here  too  the  care  of  the  poor  lea  Father  Jonn  Gowan, 

Province. — ^During  St.  Vincent's  lifetime  his  priests  CM.,  to  foimd  a  flourishing  community  of  sisters 

were  sent  to  Ireland  at  the  request  of  Innocent  X,  to  called  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Faith  (q.  v.)  recently  ap- 

help  the  persecuted  Catholics.    Eig^t  priests  went  proved  by  Rome.  The  b^^mings  in  Cork  were  similar 

to  Limerick  and  Caidiel.    In  Cashel  and  tne  surround-  to  those  of  Dublin.    A  pnest  of  high  standing  desired 

ing  towns  they  gave  missions  and  heard  eighty  thou-  to  open  a  house  for  missionaries,  on  the  mooel  of  the 

sand  general  confessions.    In  Limerick  too  their  sue-  congregation  but  with  some  modifications.    He  began 

oess  was  most  marked  and  its  memory  is  not  yet  dead,  by  opening  a  day  college.    He  was  the  Rev.  Michael 

But  new  and  terrible  persecutions  under  Cromwell,  O'Suilivan,  vicai^general  of  the  diocese.    For  some 

forced  the  missionaries  to  go  into  hiding  and  idtimately  years  the  coUege  succeeded,  but  afterwards  did  not  ^t 

to  fly  tibe  country.    A  lay  brother  who  had   accom-  on  so  well.    He  then  offered  the  college  to  the  superior 

panied  them  died  a  martyr's  death.    When  Maynooth  at  Castleknock  and  entered  as  a  member  of  the  com- 

Oollege  was  founded  in  1798,  Father  Edward  Ferris,  munity.    Two  who  as  superiors  had  a  large  share  in 

an  assistant  of  the  superior  general,  was  allowed  by  his  the  development  of  the  Cork  foundation  afterwards 

superiors  to  come  to  the  aid  of  the  new  college,  became  bishops,  Dr.  Lawrence  Gillooly  (1819-1895), 

Arahbisbop  Troy  of  Dublin  had  asked  for  him  and  Bishop  of  Elphin,  and  Dr.  Neil  McCabe,  Bishop  of 

made  him  dean  of  the  new  seminary.    A  few  years  Ardam.    In  1853  a  church  in  Shefiield  where  tnere 

later  he  took  the  chair  of  moral  theology  which  he  was  plenty  of  work  among  the  poor  was  confided  to  the 

held  until  his  death,  26  November,  1809.    There  is  a  congregation. 

tradition  that  his  copy  of  the  "  Rules  "  of  the  congrega-        St.  Vincent  himself  had  sent  a  member  of  his  com- 

tion,  found  at  Maynooth  after  his  death,  gave  the  mst  munity  to  the  French  consul  in  London  in  the  hope  ol 


msSION  366  MUSIOH 

getting  some  foothold  for  his  communitv  in  England    In  getting  three  Lasarist  prieeta,  with  a  brotlier,  to 


by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.    A  house  was  established  in  Blanka.     Bishop  Ryan  of  Buffalo  wrote  of  them  aa 

Mill  Hill,  London,  in  1889,and  it  is  now  a  parish,  and  has  coming  "to  do  for  religion  and  the  Qiurch  in  the 

the  direction  of  the  provincial  house  of  the  Sisters  of  distant  and  still  undeveloped  West  what  a  Carroll, 

Charitv.  A  normal  college  at  Hammersmith  was  en-  a  Cheverus,  a  Flaget,  and  otner  great  and  holy  men  had 

trusted  to  the  Lazarists  in  1899.  In  Scotland,  Fathers  done  and  were  £>mf  in  other  parts  of  the  coimtry " 

Duggan  and  White  laboured  in  St.  Vincent's  time,  (Eariy   Lasarist  Missions   ana   Missionaries,  1887). 

sent  thither  by  him.    Father  Duggan  worked  seal-  They  embarked  12  June,  1816,  on  an  American  brig 

ouslv  in  the  Hebrides  travelling  from  place  to  place  bound  for  Baltimore,  reachinjg  there  26  July.    They 

untu  his  labours  were  cut  short  by  death.    Father  were  welcomed  at  St.  Mary^  Seminary  by  Father 

White's  busy  life  of  missionary  travd  on  the  mainland  Brut^.    On  their  way  to  St.  Louis,  they  stopped 

of  Scotland  was  interrupted  by  his  imprisonment  in  all  winter  at  Bardstown,  where  Fatner  de  Andreis 

Cromwell's  time;  on  his  release  with  the  condition  that  taught  theology  in  St.  Tiiomas'  Seminary.    He  had 

if  he  be  cau^t  preaching  or  baptizing  he  would  already  taught  it  with  great  success  at  the  Cbllege 

be  hanged  without  trial,  he  resumed  his  work  un-  of  the  Propaganda   in   Rome.    He  was,  however, 

daimted  in  the  mountain  districts.    But  it  was  not  eager  to  ^  andpreach  the  Gospel  to  the  poor  savara 

until  1859  that  the  £rst  Scotch  house  was  established  and  studied  the  Indian  language  with  this  design.    On 

at  Lanark.    The  magnificent  church  destroyed  by  8  Jan^  1818,  Father  de  Andreis  settled  down  as  pastor 

fire  in  1907  has  been  rebuilt  and  the  work  of  giving  ofSt.  Louis  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  an  appoint- 

missions  has  gone  on  uninterruptedly.  ment  he  had  received  on  leaving  Rome.   He  writes:  "It 

Li  1840,  the  houses  of  Ireland  were  fonned  into  a  will  not  be  easy  to  establish  our  missionaries  on  the 

Province  and  Rev.  Philip  Dowley  (1788-1864),  was  same  footing  as  in  Italy.    Here  we  must  be  like  a  regi- 

appointed  visitor.    He  was  succeeded  in  1864  by  ment  of  cavalry  or  flsring  artillery  ready  to  run  wherever 

Father  Thomas  MacNamara  (1809-1892),  a  man  of  the  salvation  of  souls  may  require  our  preseice." 

great  seal  and  learning,  who  did  much  for  tne  spiritual  Several  of  those  who  came  from  Eiurope  at  Bishop 

wdfare  of  the  deaf-mutes  in  Ireland  and  was  nead  of  Dubourg's  invitation  joined  the  little  community, 

the  Irish  College  from  1868  to  1889.    Father  Duff  Father  Joseph  Cosetti  died  on  the  eve  of  his  ieceptk>n 

(1818-1890)  be^une  visitor  in  1867.    He  was  followed,  into  the  internal  seminary.     Father  Andrew  Ferari, 

in  1888,  by  Father  Morrissey  who  resigned  in  1909,  F.  X.  Dahmen,  a  subdeacon,  and  Joseph  Tichitoli,  a 

after  a  most  successful  career  and  was  succeeded  by  subdeacon,  were  admitted  to  the  novitiate  on  3  Dec., 

Rev.  Joseph  Walsh.    The  novitiate  was  started  in  1818,  in  St.  Louis. 

1844  at  Castleknock.  Prior  to  that,  and  even  to  some  Early  in  1818  the  beginningB  of  an  estublish- 
extent  afterwards,  the  novices  were 'trained  at  the  ment  were  made  at  the  Barrens,  Perry  C6.,  Mis- 
mother-house  in  Paris.  In  1873,  a  new  site  was  se-  souri,  and  thither  ^e  novitiate  was  transferred  and 
cured  and  the  novitiate  transferred  thither.  It  is  placed  under  Father  Rosati.  In  1820,  a  small  log 
known  as  St.  Joseph's  Vincentian  Novitiate,  Black-  nouse  twenty-five  by  ek^teen  feet  was  occupied  by 
rock,  near  Dublin.  In  1858  the  Irish  College  in  Paris  priests,  seminarians,  and  brothers.  In  1820,  shortly 
(q.  y.),  founded  in  the  last  years  of  the  sixteenth  after  writing  to  Father  Rosati  of  his  joy  at  the  near 
century,  was  transferred  to  the  Irish  Vincentians.  prospect  of  goinp  to  work  among  the  Indians,  Father 
Father  Lynch,  the  leading  spirit  of  the  young  priests  de  Andreis  oied  m  tiie  odour  of  sanctity.  The  process 
who  founded  the  congregation  in  Ireland,  wasconse-  of  his  beatification  has  been  begun  (1910).  In  a  few 
crated  bishop  while  head  of  this  college:  going  first  years  a  large  brick  building  arose  and  gradually  the 
to  Scotland,  and  afterwards  to  the  See  of  luldare  and  splendid  ^roup  of  buildings,  church,  mother-house  of 
Leifi^Jin.  Armagh  seminary  was  confided  to  them  tne  Lasansts  of  the  West,  and  apostolic  college  were 
b^Dr.  Dixon  in  1861.  About  1888,  the  Irish  Laza-  added.  The  eariy  days  were  fiul  of  missionary  ac- 
nsts  were  made  spiritual  fathers  at  Maynooth,  then  tivity  for  the  new  community.  They  gave  the  first 
according  to  Cardmal  Newman  the  most  important  real  impetus  to  the  progress  of  the  Church  in  Illinois, 
ecclesiastical  seminary  in  Catholic  Christendom.  In  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Indiana,  Mississippi,  and  Texas 
1875,  a  training  school  was  begun  at  Drumcondra,  were  the  scenes  of  missionary  journeys.  Here  and 
Dublin,  and  in  1883  it  was  superseded  by  the  newly  there  churches  were  establi^ed  but  these  were  gen- 
founded  normal  college  entrusted  to  the  Irish  Laza-  erally  relinqmshed,  as  diocesan  priests  were  found  to 
rists  by  the  Government.  In  the  space  of  twenty-six  take  them.  Fatiier  Rosati,  who  had  been  appointed 
years  it  has  sent  out  over  2300  Catholic  teachers,  superior  by  Fa^er  de  Andreis,  wrote  in  1822:  "  We 
All  Hallows  College  (q.v.)  was  placed  under  the  care  are,  19  March,  ten  priests,  three  clerics,  and  six 
of  the  Lazarists  in  1892.  The  Australian  mission  of  brothers."  He  refusM  the  post  of  Vicar  Apostolic 
the  Irish  Province  was  begun  in  1885  with  a  most  of  Florida  and  only  the  peremptory  commana  of  the 
successful  series  of  missions  from  their  new  mission  pope  made  him  accept  the  coadjutorship  of  New 
house  in  New  South  Wales.  At  the  urgent  request  of  Orleans.  Though  overburdened  with  wohl  he  con- 
Bishop  Patrick  Joseph  Byrne  they  assumed  charge  of  tinned  still  to  hold  the  office  of  superior  of  the  Lasa- 
St.  Stanislaus  College,  Bathurst,  New  South  Wides,  rists  imtil  1830  when  Father  Toraatore  arrived  fix>m 
which  had  been  founded  some  years  previously.    A  Rome. 

mission  centre  and  parish  were  establisned  at  Malvern  In  the  year  1835  theprovince  of  the  United  States  W8£ 

near  Melbourne  in  1892.    The  Irish  Province  numbers  formed.    Rev.  John  Timon,  bom  at  Conewago,  Penn., 

(1910)  125  priests.  30  lay  brothers,  and  20  scholastics,  in   1797,  was  appointed  visitor.    He  became  first 

(2)  The  United  States  Province.— The  Congrega-  Bishop  of  Buffak),  dying  in  1867.    With  Father  Odin 

kton  of  the  Mission  was  brought  to  the  United  States  in  (q.  v.),  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans,  he 

1816  by  Bishop  Dubourg  (q.v.)  of  New  Orieans.    His  had  done  great  work  in  Texas  where  the  Lazansis 

diocese  comprised  both  upper  and  lower  Louisiana  as  it  succeeded  m  having  the  State  restore  to  the  Church 

was  then  called.    Upper  Louisiana  to  which  he  sent  the  proper^  it  had  taken  when  Texas  separated  from 

the  Lazarists  included  what  became  afterwards  the  Mexico.    Tne  parish  of  La  Salle,  Illinois,  a  centre  for 

States  of  Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  Illinois  and  all  the  the  missionary  labours  of  the  Lazarists,  was  estab- 

territory  north  and  west  of  tnese  states.    There  were  lished  in  1838  and  they  still  minister  to  the  faithful 

but  four  priests  there  at  this  time  and  three  of  them  died  there.    The  same  year,  1838,  a  school  was  begun 

soon  ftfterwards-    He  succeeded  after  some  difficulty  at  Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri,  by  Father  Odin,  where 


mssioN 


367 


MISSION 


a  diurch  had  been  opened  two  years  before.  This 
was  the  commencement  of  St.  Vincent's  College,  Gape 
Girardeau.  In  1893,  the  theological  department  of  tne 
Gape  was  transferred  to  the  Kenrick  Seminary  in  St. 
Louis  directed  by  the  lAzarists  with  Aloysius  J.  Meyer 
as  superior.  In  1900  a  preparatory  seminary  was  added 
to  the  theological  department  in  St.  Louis.  The 
Seminary  of  the  Assumption  of  Bayou  La  Fourche 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Lazarists  by  Bishop 
Blanc.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Rebuilt  in  New 
Orleans  it  was  not  occupied  imtil  the  Lazarists  opened 
there  the  seminary  of  St.  Louis,  but  the  fewness  of 
the  candidates  for  the  priesthood  did  not  justify  a 
separate  institution  and  it  was  closed  again  in  1907. 
Since  1849  St.  Stephen's  Church  in  New  Orleans  with 
its  schools,  hospit&ls,  and  orphan  asylum  has  been 
cared  for  by  the  Lazarists.  They  also  have  charge 
of  St.  Joseph's,  established  in  1858  and  St.  Catherine^, 
for  the  coloured  people  of  the  whole  city. 

Between  the  years  1842  and  1847  the  Bishops  of 
Cincinnati,  LouisviUe,  Philadelphia,  and  New  York 
urged  the  visitor  to  take  charge  ol  their  respective 
seminaries,  to  which  by  the  advice  of  his  council 
he  consented.  These  seminaries  remained  in  the 
charge  of  the  Lazarists  for  a  few  years,  but  most  of 
them  were  given  up  owing  to  the  withdrawal  of 
European  Lazarists  to  their  own  land  where  religious 
disturbances  had  ceased,  and  the  promotion  of  mem- 
bers to  the  episcopacy.  The  New  York  seminary, 
after  its  removal  from  La  Fargeville  to  Fordham  was 
accepted  by  the  Lazarists  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
Hughes.  Father  Anthony  Penco,  who  was  made 
superior,  did  not  approve  of  the  seminarians  teaching 
in  the  college,  so  we  community  retired  from  the 
work.  For  eleven  years  the  Lazarists  had  charge  of 
the  diocesan  seminary  at  Philadelphia.  They  had 
been  invited  there  by  Bishop  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick. 
His  former  professor  at  the  Propaganda,  Father  Tomar 
tore,  presided  for  a  time  over  the  seminary.  The 
oonununity  withdrew  from  the  seminary,  in  1854,  when 
Father  Thaddeus  Amat  (q.  v.)  the  superior  was  made 
Bishop  of  Monterey,  Cal.  The  CoUe^  or  Seminary 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  was  founded  m  1856  by  Rev. 
John  Joseph  L3mch,  who  left  it  when  called  to  become 
Bi^op  and  Archbishop  of  Toronto.  It  became  the 
Niagara  University  in  1883.  Its  deceased  presidents 
have  been  Rev.  John  O'Reilly  (b.  1802;  d.  1862), 
Rev.  Thomas  J.  Smith,  afterwards  visitor.  Rev.  R.  £.  V. 
Rice  (b.  1837;  d.  1878)jjmd  Rev.  P.  V.  Kavanaugh 
(b.  1842;  d.  1899).  The  Immaculate  Conception 
parish  in  Bidtunore  was  founded  by  the  Rev.  Mark 
Anthony  in  1850.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  saintly 
Fatlier  Joseph  Giustiniani  (b.  181 1 :  d.  1886)  who  built 
the  present  beautiful  church  and  schools.  In  1850  the 
parish  at  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  was  placed  in  chargje  of 
the  Lazarists  and  there  resided  the  Rev.  Mariano 
Mailer,  first  director  from  St.  Vincent's  priests  of  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  when  Mother  Seton's  Sisters  were 
affiliated  to  the  central  house  in  Paris.  Father  Mai- 
ler's successors  in  the  office  of  director  of  the  Daugh- 
ters of  Charity  of  the  province  of  the  United  States 
were  Rev.  Francis  Burlando  (b.  1814;  d.  1873), 
1853-1873;  Rev.  Felix  Guedry  (b.  1833;  d.  1893), 
1873-1877;  Rev.  Alexis  Mandine  (b.  1832;  d.  1892), 
1877-1892;  Rev.  Sylvester  V.  Haire,  1892-1894;  Rev. 
Robert  A.  Lennon,  1894-1907;  Rev.  James  J.  Sul- 
livan, 1907.  This  province  was  divided  in  1910,  Rev. 
J.  J.  Sullivan  becoming  director  of  the  western  with 
headc^uarters  at  St.  I^uis,  Mo.»  and  the  Rev.  John 
P.  Cnbbins  director  of  the  eastern  and  residing  at 
Emmitsbuig,  Md.  St.  Vincent's  Church,  German- 
town,  was  established  in  1851  by  Father  Domenec« 
who  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Pittsburg  in  1860. 
The  mother-house  for  the  United  States  was  trans- 
ferred from  St.  Louis  to  Germantown  in  1868.  There 
magnificent  buildings  in  Chelten  Avenue  have  been 
erected,  including  a  house  of  studies,  an  internal 


seminary,  and  an  apostolic  school,  as  well  as  a  beauti- 
ful churcn. 

Father  Philip  Bor^na  laboured  in  Brooklyn  at  St. 
Mary's  Church,  Williamsburg,  during  the  year  1843- 
44.  A  later  date,  1868,  saw  the  beginnings  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist's  Church  and  College,  the  growth  of  which 
has  been  constant.  The  first  president  was  Father  John 
Theophilus  Landry  (b.  1839;  d.  1899).  The  diocesan 
seminary  of  Brooldyn  ( 1891)  has  been  imder  the  care  of 
the  Lazarists  since  its  establishment.  In  1865  Los 
Angeles  college  was  opened.  From  1875  in  Chicago 
dates  St.  Vincent's  Church  and  College,  now  De  Paul 
University.  In  1888  the  province  of  the  United 
States  was  divided :  the  western,  with  the  mother- 
house  at  the  old  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Perryville, 
Missouri ;  the  eastern  retaining  as  the  newer  mother- 
house,  St.  Vincent's  Seminary,  Germantown.  In 
1905  Holy  Trinity  College,  witn  an  especially  fine 
equipment  for  exigmeering,  was  built  at  Dallas,  Texas, 
and  St.  Thomas'  Seminary  at  Denver,  Col.,  in  1907.  A 
mission  house  was  opened  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in 
1903  and  another  at  Opelika,  Alabama,  1910.  Mission 
bands  are  also  stationed  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  at 
Niagara,  N.  Y.,  in  the  East,  and  at  St.  Louis  and 
Perryville.  Mo.,  in  the  West. 

Since  Father  Timon  the  visitors  have  been:  Rev. 
Mariano  MaUer  (b.  1817;  d.  1892),  1847-1850;  Rev. 
Anthony  Penco  (b.  1813;  d.  1875),  1850-1855; 
Rev.  John  Masnou  [pro-visitor]  (b.  1813 ;  d.  1893), 
1855-1856,  recalled  to  Spain  and  made  visitor  there; 
Rev.  Stephen  V.  Ryan  (b.  1825,  d.  1896),  1857-1867, 
when  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Buffalo ;  Rev.  John  Hay- 
den  (b.  1831;  d.  1872),  1867-1872;  Rev.  James  Ro- 
lando (b.  1816;  d.  1883),  1872-1879;  Rev.  Thomas  J. 
Smith  (b.  1832;  d.  1905),  1879-1905.  In  1888  the 
Rev.  James  McGill  became   head  of   the   eastern 

Erovince;  at  his  resignation  (1909),  the  Rev.  P. 
[cHale  became  visitor.  In  the  West  Father  Smith's 
successors  have  been  Rev.  William  Barnwell  (b. 
1862;  d.  1906,  a  few  months  after  his  appoint- 
ment) and  the  present  visitor  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Finney.  The  two  provinces  number  over  two  hun- 
dred priests  who  have  charge  of  six  colleges,  one  pre- 
paratory seminary,  two  apostolic  schools  for  students 
aspiring  to  become  Lazarists,  four  theological  sem- 
inaries, about  fifteen  churches,  and  about  eighty 
lay  brothers  and  scholastics.  Lazarists  from  the 
Polish  province  have  churches  for  their  fellow  coun- 
trymen, at  Conshohocken  and  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
at  Derby  and  New  Haven,  Conn.,  whence  also  they  go 
to  preach  Polish  missions.  The  Polish  Lazarists  are 
also  preparing  to  build  a  college  at  £rie^  Penn.,  1910. 
Two  Lazarists  from  Barcelona  provmce  in  1908 
began  work  for  the  Spanish  in  Pniladelphia,  where 
they  have  a  church  and  conduct  night  classes,  and  an 
employment  agency.  The  establishments  of  the  Laz- 
arists at  Ponce  and  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  as  well  as 
those  at  Manila.  Calbayog,  Cebu,  Jaro,  andf  Nueva  C^ 
ceres  in  the  Philippine  Islands  may  also  be  mentioned 
in  connexion  with  the  Lazarists  of  the  United  States. 

ABEL1.T,  Vie  du  VinirabU  Serviteur  de  Dieu^  Vincent  de  Paul 
(Paris,  1664):  Bouoaud,  L'Hiatoire  de  Saint  Vincent  dePaut, 
tr.  Bradt  (New  York,  1899):  Maynard,  Saint  Vincent  de 
Pavlt  new  edition,  4  vob. ;  Heltot,  Hiatoire  dee  Ordrea  Re- 
lioieux  et  Militairee  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1792):  Dictionnaire  dea 
Ordrea  Religieux  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1848);  Hknrion,  T<U>leau 
dea  CongrSgationa  ReHgieuaea  (Paris,  1831) ;  Pioxjbt,  Lea 
Miaaiona  Catholiguea  Pran^aiaea  (Paris,  1874);  Annalea  de  la 
Conorigation  de  la  Miaaion  1854-1910:  there  are  Italian,  Ger- 
man, Soaniah,  and  Polish  editions,  and  an  English  edition,  1894r- 
1910;  Mimoirea  de  la  Congriaption  de  la  Miaaion;  Pologne, 
Madagaacar,  Algirie  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1866):  Favier,  Pehin  (P»- 
kinff,  1897);  Posbbt,  Vie  de  M,  Etienne  (Paris,  1881):  Botlb. 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  Vincentiana  in  Ireland,  Scotland^  ana 
England,  1638-1009  (London,  1909);  [BurlandoI.  Skelehea 
of  the  lA/e  of  Very  Reverend  Felix  de  Andreie  (Bidtimors, 
1861 :  enlaried  edition,  St.  Louis,  1900) :  Rtan,  Early  LoMorial 
Miaaiona  and  Miaaionariea  (in  U.  8.),  (1887). 

A  complete  biblioinuphy  is  to  be  found  in  the  Annate  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Miaaion,  No.  40  (Emmitsburs,  Md.,  1903). 
Bee  also  bibliography  under  Vincent  de  Paul,  &p, 

B.  Randolph. 


anssioNABiss  368  muuuonart 

Miiflionarias  of  St.  Oharlas  BorroDMO.  Congbb-  tunes  after  his  death.  At  that  time  Monseigneur 
GATioN  or,  founded  by  John  Baptist  Scalabrini.  RUey.  a  sucoessor  of  the  Saint  in  the  See  of  Annecy, 
Bishop  of  Piaoensai  Italy  (d.  1  June,  1905) ;  approveci     broacned  the  subject  of  such  a  society  to  Father 


in  principle  by  Leo  XIII  in  a  Brief  dated  25  Novemberi  Mermier,  who  had  been  considering  the  same 

1887;  constitution  definitively  approved  by  a  decree  <tf  Accordingly,  Father  Mermier  put  the  design  into 

the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  3  October,  execution.    In  1830  the  institute  was  fonned  with 

1908.   The  expediency  of  providing  for  the  spiritual —  La  Feuillette  as  the  site  for  the  mother-house.    This 

and  also,  in  some  degree,  for  the  temporal — ^needs  of  was  solemnly  blessed  by  the  bishop  on  8  August,  1837, 

Italian  emigrants  to  America  was  forcibly  brought  and  the  congresation  canonically  instituted  by  hon  oo 

home  to  Bishop  Scidabrini  by  the  pathetic  spectacle  of  8  October,  1838.    The  society  was  not  to  be  a  mere 

a  number  of  such  emigrants  waitmg  in  the  great  rail-  association  of  priests,  but  a  new  religious  congregation, 

way  station  of  Milan.    Acting  upon  this  inspiration,  bound  by  simple  vows.    Hence  Father  Mermier,  the 

and  encouraged  by  Cardinal  Simeoni,  then  Cardinal  first  superior-^neral,  offered  himself  and  his  oompan- 

Prefect  of  Propaganda,  the  bishoD  acquired  at  Piaoemsa  ions  to  the  pope  for  foreign  missions.    In  1845  his 

a  residence  which  he  convertea  into  "The  Christo-  offer  was  accepted  by  the  Propaganda,  and  the  first  mia- 

pher  Columbus  Apostolic  Institution  ",  fonning  there  sionaries  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  set  out  for  India.    The 

a  community  of  priests  which  was  to  be  the  nucleus  of  work  has  prospered  and  since  that  time  more  than 

a  new  congregation.  100  priests  and  seminarians  have  been  sent  out  by  the 

This  congregation,  which  was  henceforth  to  be  known  congregation,  besides  many  lay  brothers.    More  than 

as  the  "  Missionaries  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  ",  was  to  200  nuns  of  different  orders  have  gone  out  at  the  call 

be  governed  b^  a  superior-general,  dependent  upon  of  the  missionaries  to  help  them.    The  dioceses  of 

the  Congregation  of  Propaganda;    its  aim  was  to  Nagpur  and  Yisagapatam  have  always  been  governed 

maintain  Catholic  faith  and  practice  among  Italian  by  prelates  belonging  to  this  institute.    At  Visaga- 

emigrants  in  the  New  Worid,  and  "  to  ensure  as  far  as  patam  the  first  vicar  Apostolic  was  Mgr  Neyret 

possible  their  moral,  civil,  and  economical  welfare";  (1850);  he  was  succeeded  by  Mgr  Tissot,  fint  bishop 

it  was  to  provide  priests  for  the  emigrants,  as  well  as  of  the  diocese.    The  present  occupant  of  the  see  is 

committees  of  persons  who  should  give  the  good  ad-  Mp  Clere.    The  first  Bishop  of  Nagpur  was  Mgr 

vice  and  practical  direction  needed  by  poor  Italians  Riccas;  after  him  came  Mgrs  Pel  vat,  trochet.  Bona- 

newly  amved  in  foreign  ports;  to  establish  churches,  venture,  and  Coppel.    In  England  ^e  fathers  have 


schools,  and  missionary  homes  in  the  various  Italian  three  missions  in  the  Diocese  of  Clifton.    Since  the 

colonies  in  North  and  South  America,  and  to  train  persecution  of  1903,  the  congregation  has  been  obliged 

youths  for  the  priesthood.    The  members  of  the  con-  to  leave  Savoy  for  England,  wnere  the  juvenate,  the 

gregation  promise  obedience  to  their  superiors  in  the  novitiate,  and  the  house  of  studies  are  successfully 

congregation  and  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  carried  on.    The  superiors-general  since  the  founda- 

Seven  priests  and  three  lay  brothers  of  Bishop  tion  are:  the  Vei^  Rev.  Fathers  Mermier,  Gaiddon, 

Scalabrinrs  institute  left  Italy,  on  12  July,  1888,  of  Clavel,  Tissot,  Gojon,  and  Bouvard. 

whom  two  priests  and  one  lay  orother  were  bound  for  ,  JSdkoa  ^^^^^fiV^S*    ^•W  VfV*^^  ^^^^J*   1«»-10): 

New  York,  five  priests  and  two  lay  brothere  for  vari-  -*'"«»»«*  <^  St.  Fnmcai,  de  SoI^m  <^«'fr li^>y 

ous  parts  of  Brazil.    On  this  occasion,  Cesare  Cantt!i,        m*j    j       »    i.         o      t*      ^^^"  vaixuutt. 

the  famous  Italian  historian,  addressed  to  the  Bishop  Mtiilonary  Rector,  bee  KscroR. 
of  Piacenza  some  memorable  words  of  congratulation,  BCiBSionary  Socioty  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostls^ 
asking  leave  to  add  to  the  bishop's  blessing  on  the  otherwise  known  as  the  Pauust  Fathebs^  a  corn- 
departing  missionaries,  "  the  prayers  of  an  old  man  munity  of  priests  for  giving  missions  and  domg  other 
who  admires  a  courage  and  an  abnegation  so  full  Apostolic  works,  especially  for  making  converts  to  the 
of  humility".  A  welcome  had  already  been  assured  Catholic  Faith.  It  was  founded^  Rome  and  in  New 
these  first  missionaries  of  the  congregation  bv  a  com-  York,  in  1858,  by  Father  Isaac  Thomas  Hecker,  with 
mendatory  letter  (1  Jime,  1888)  of  Leo  AlII  ad-  whom  were  associated  Augustine  F.  Hewit,  Georse 
dressed  to  the  American  bishope.  Deshon,  Francis  A.  Baker,  and  Clarence  A.  Walworth. 

Immediately  after  their  arrival  in  New  York  the  All  of  these  had  been  members  of  the  Congregation  of 

new  missionaries  were  enabled  to  secure  a  favourable  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer,  and  owing  to  certain  misun- 

site  in  Centre  Street,  where  there  was  a  colony  of  derstandingshad  been  suspected  of  disloyalty  to  their 

Italians,  and  in  a  short  time  a  chapel  was  opened;  order  and  accused  of  disobedience, 

soon  after  this  the  church  of  the  Resurrection  was  In  order  to  set  matters  right  and  to  explain  their 

opened  in  Mulberrv  Street;    lastly,  a   building  in  case  to  the  superior  general,  Father  Hecker  went  to 

Roosevelt  Street,  wnich  had  been  a  Protestant  place  Rome,  and  on  29  .August,  1857,  three  days  after  his 

of  worship,   became  the  property  of  the  mission  arrival,  was  expelled  from  the  Redemptorists.    This 

fathers  who  transformed  it  into  the  church  of  St.  action  was  appealed  to  the  Holy  See  and  was  not  ap- 

Joachim,  the  first  specially  Italian  church  in   the  proved.    Father  Hecker  and  the  above  named  priests 

Diocese  of  New  York.    The  Society  of  St.  Raphael  were  then  at  their  own  request  dispensed  from  their 

(see  Emigrant  Aid  Societies)  was  organised  at  Ellis  vows,  and  proceeded  to  form  the  new  community. 

Island.     The  good  work  thereafter  spread  rapidly  Hecker  received  letters  from  Propaganda,  strongly 

through  the  continent.    The  United  States  and  Can-  recommending  him  and. his  associates  to  the  bishops 

ada  now  (1910)  contain  21  parish  churches,  besides  of  the  United  States.   This  is  the  official  origin  of  tne 

several  chapels,  served  by  the  congregation ;  in  Brazil  Paulists. 

the  fathers  have  charee  of  13  parish  cnurches,  mostly  But  long  before  this,  however,  the  Holy  Spirit  ^ve 

with  schools  attached,  and  2  important  orphanages.  Father  Hecker  distinct  and  unmistakable  intimations 

The  two  provinces  (Eastern  and  western)  of  the  con-  — to  use  his  own  words — ^that  he  was  **  set  apart  to 

gregation  in  the  United  States  number  45  priests  and  undertake  in  some  leading  and  conspicuous  way  the 

3  lay  brothers,  while  the  single  province  of  Brazil  conversion  of  this  countrv   .   He  adds  that  he  **  made 

numbers  35  priests  and  5  lay  brothers.  an  explicit  statement  of  these  supernatural  visitations 

Victor  Cangiano.  to  various  persons,  singly  and  in  common,  always  un- 
der compulsion  ot  obedience  ot  necessity".    These 

MissionarieB  of  St.  Frauds  de  SalM  of  Annecy.  advisers  included  Cardinal  Bamabo,  the  Prefect  of 

— Amid  the  many  activities  to  which  St.  Francis  de-  Propaganda  at  this  time,  and  several  of  the  most  ap» 

voted  himself,  he  long  had  the  desire  to  found  a  proved  directors  of  souls  m  Rome.  They  unanimomy 

society  of  missionary  priests.     This  wish,  however,  decided  that  he  acted  wisely  in  following  this  interior 

was  not  to  find  its  realization  until  nearly  two  cen-  supernatural  guidance. 


MISSION                             369  MISSION 

During  the  summer  of  1858  a  practioal  beghming  of  though  not  seldom  given  separately.  The  effects  of 
their  apostolate  was  made  by  the  Paitlists  in  New  this  apostolate  have  justified  Father  Hecker's  lifelong 
York,  to  which  diocese  they  were  made  heartilv  wel-  contention  that  America  is  a  ripe  field  for  the  zeal^ 
come  by  Archbishop  John  Hughes.  He  gave  them  a  Catholic  missionaries.  Many  Uiousands  c^  converts 
parish  in  what  was  then  a  suburb  ancf  is  now  the  heart  have  been  made,  some  immediately,  more  after  pro- 
of the  city.  As  they  had  given  missions  as  Redemp-  longed  examination  of  the  claims  of  the  Church,  and 
torists  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  they  were  weU  and  multitudes  of  half-hearted  and  indifferent  Catholics 
favourably  known  to  the  bishops  and  clergy  and  were  have  been  restored  to  the  practice  of  their  religion,  a 
veiy  popujar  with  the  people.  They  were  all  men  of  result  which  so  invariably  follows  these  lectures  as  to 
ability,  quite  above  the  ordinary  intellectual  standard,  give  them  a  very  high  place  in  the  work  of  **  stopping 

S>werful  preachers,  and  of  mature  spirituality.  Father  the  leaks  ". 

ecker  especially  was  known  as  a  remarkable  man,  In  the  year  1894,  the  Paulists  introduced  missions 

a  leader  in  Catholic  thought,  of  prof  oundlv  interior  to  non-Catholics  among  the  diocesan  clergy,  beginning 

spirit  of  prayer,  joined  to  such  a  seal  for  souls  as  char-  with  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland.    This  work  has  now 

acterixes  only  the  saints.   They  were  all  Americans  and  been  extended  into  over  twenty-five  American  dio- 

all  converts,  and  under  their  founder's  inspiration,  they  oeses,  and  also  into  England  and  Australia.     The 

soon  developed  their  high  gifts  of  preaching,  of  writing,  number  of  secular  priests  activel)^  engaged  in  these 

and  of  the  guidance  of  soijJs.   To  provide  a  house  azid  diocesan  apostolates  is  very  considerable.    For  the 

church  the  new  communitv,  having  but  a  handful  of  training,  and  in  many  oases  for  the  support,  of  these 

garishioners,  appealed  to  their  friends  everywhere  for  bands  of  convert-makers,  members  of  the  Paulist 
nandal  help.  The  response  was  generous,  and  they  community  brought  about  the  establishment  of  the 
built  in  West  59th  Street,  a  convent  and  church  com-  Catholic  Missionary  Union,  a  corporation  whose  board 
bined,  which  in  later  years,  when  the  present  church  of  directors  is  controlled  bv  members  of  the  hierarchy. 
was  erected,  was  used  wholly  for  their  dwelling.  Under  its  direction,  but  administered  whoUy  by  Paiu- 
This  is  the  mother-house.  In  course  of  time  founda-  ists,  the  Apostolic  Mission  House  was  opened  on  the 
tions  were  made  in  San  Francisco  and  Berkeley,  Cali-  Catholic  University  grounds,  Washington,  D.  C,  in 
fomia;  Chicago,  Illinois;  Winchester,  Tennessee;  and  1903,  and  from  its  classes  most  of  the  diocesan  mis- 
Austin,  Texajs.  The  novitiate  and  house  of  studies  is  sionaries  have  been  recruited.  The  present  sovereign 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  the  scholastic  training  being  pontiff  wrote  to  Cardinal  Gibbons  a  letter  of  ap- 
affiliated  to  the  courses  of  the  Catholic  University.  proval  of  this  institution  in  September,  1908. 

A  programme  of  rule  was  drawn  up  at  the  time  of  With  the  same  end  in  view  the  Paulists  have  vig- 

the  founding  of  the  community,  in  1858,  and  approved  orously  engaged  in  the  apostolate  of  the  press.    The 

by  Archbishop  Hughes.    This  served  aU  neeoful  pur-  first  fathers  printed  and  circulated  their  sermons  in 

poees  for  twenty  years,  when  it  was  much  enlarged,  the  earliest  years  of  the  community,  and  in  1865 

It  is  still  in  process  of  experiment  before  being  pre-  Father  Hecker  started  the  "Cathohc  World  Mi^a- 

aented  to  the  Holy  See  for  canonical  approbation.   Its  cine  ",  then  the  only  Catholic  monthly  in  the  country: 

Spiritual  features  are  substantially  the  same  routine  of  and  tnis  was  immediately  followed  by  an  organizea 
evout  exercises,  in  private  and  m  common,  observed  propaganda  of  missionary  books,  pamphlets,  and 
by  the  original  fatners  while  Redemptorists.  Al-  tracts,  most  of  which  were  either  distributed  to 
though  the  Paulists  do  not  make  vows  of  religion,  Protestants  gratis  or  disposed  of  at  nominal  prices-r- 
thev  imdertake  to  observe  the  evangelical  counsds  a  work  highly  praised  by  the  Second  Plenary  Council 
as  fervently  as  if  canonically  bound  to  do  soi  This  of  Baltimore,  and  still  energetically  carried  on.  The 
is  expressed  in  the  formula  of  profession  as  a  "  whole-  Paulist  Fathers  also  consider  it  part  of  their  vocation 
hearted  determination  to  obey  the  rules,  to  as-  to  influence  the  secular  press  in  tne  interests  of  Catho- 
pire  after  Christian  and  religious  perfection,  to  devote  lie  truth.  The  preaching  of  missions  to  Catholics  also 
oneself  energetically  to  the  labours  of  the  Apostolic  has  en^ged  much  of  the  zeal  of  the  Paulists. 
ministry,  and  to  persevere  in  the  same  vocation  to  the  No  innovation  on  traditional  Catholic  methods, 
end  of  life'*.  The  training  <^  the  members  is  provided  least  of  all  on  the  Catholic  spirit,  has  ever  been  ob- 
for  in  the  exercises  of  the  novitiate  and  house  of  studies,  served  in  their  public  utterances  or  ministrations, 
Permanency  in  the  community  is  secured  by  this  orig-  though  the  personal  tone  and  character  of  the  Paulists 
inal  training,  and  the  act  of  profession  witnesses  to  a  has  imparted  to  their  discourses  and  writings  a  pecul- 
well  matuTMi  purpose  of  striving  afterperfection  and  iar  zest.  Parish  work  has  occupied  many  members  of 
to  a  sincere  love  of  community  life.  To  this  bond  of  the  institute,  characterized  by  special  care  in  prepar- 
union  is  joined  that  of  zeal  tor  souls  actuating  the  ing  and  preaching  sermons,  the  training  of  children, 
members  of  the  institute  individually  and  in  common,  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  beauty  and  dignit]^  of  cere- 
Father  Hecker's  estimate  of  the  f  unoamental  principle  monial,  and  the  proper  rendering  of  the  official  music 
of  the  Paulist  life  is  as  foUows:  "The  desire  for  per-  of  the  Church.  The  making  of  converts  is  a  promi- 
sonal  perfection  is  the  foundation  stone  of  a  religious  nent  feature  of  their  parish  activities.  Constant 
community;  when  this  fails,  it  crumbles  to  pieces."  endeavours  are  made  to  attract  non-Catholics  to  the 
And  again:  "The  main  purpose  of  each  Paulist  must  sermons  and  the  public  services  of  the  Church,  as  weU 
be  the  attainment  of  personal  perfection  by  the  prac-  as  to  private  conference,  and  converts  are  always 
tice  of  those  virtues  without  which  it  cannot  oe  se-  under  instruction. 

cured — ^interior  fidelity  to  grace,  prayer,  detachment  The  number  of  Paulists  is  now  67,  of  those  not  yet 

and  the  like."                                                              ^  ordained,  23.    The  increase,  though  not  numerically 

In  the  external  order,  the  Paulist  vocation  is  pri-  great,  has  been  continuous,  the  largei  number  of  thd 

marily ,  as  was  the  original  vocation  of  Father  Hecker.  novices  being  attracted  by  the  non-Catholic  missions, 

ihe  conversion  of  non-Catholics.     It  embraces  all  ,„S5'^» '*'*^ii^^r^«^<2^,/'™^'^>^^^ 

oranches  of  the  Catholic  apostolate,  lecturing  and  >^^'^  KuAort,  The  L^e  of  Father  Hed^^e^^k^^. 

preaching,  printing  and  distribution  of  missionary  --,    .       „,            •*.!.«        ^  ww    ^     a      ^ 

fitemtiii^.  and  nrivate  conference  with  earnest  in-  Miiaion  EMpwi  of  tha  _Sacred  Heart.    See  In- 


literature,  and  private  conference  with  earnest  in- 
quirers. The  spread  of  Catholicism  holds  the  first  place 


BTITUTB  OF  THE  MISSION  HELPERS  OF  THE  SaGRBD 

both  in  their  prayers  and  in  their  active  Ufe;  it  out-  Heart. 
ranks  in  importance  all  other  external  labours.  It  is  Mission  Indiaiis  (of  Caufobnia). — ^A  name  of  no 
on  this  account  that  Paulists  are  most  commonly  real  ethnic  significance,  but  used  as  a  convenient  pop- 
known  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church  as  convert  ular  and  official  term  to  designate  the  modem  de- 
makers.  Missions  for  non-Catholics  are  systematically  scendants  of  those  tribes  of.  California,  of  various 
n^iven.  being  very  often  joined  to  Catholic  missions,  stocks  and  languages,  evangelized  by  the  Franciscans 
X.— 24 


370 


IK     Ui 


in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  eariypart  of  present  limits  of  San  Francisco  City.    20.  San  RabiA 

the  nineteenth  centuries,  beginning  in  1769.    llie  his-  i  Aroangel) :   Payeras.    1817.  Indian  name  Aw^nxwi 

toric  California  missions  were  twenty-one  in  number,  (Nanaguami).    Mortn  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  at  pres- 

excluding  branch  foundations,  eztendizig  along  the  ent  San  Rafael,  Marin  Co.    21.  San  Francisco  Sotano, 

coast  or  at  a  short  distance  inland  from  San  Diego  in  aliaa  Sonoma:  Xltimira,  1823.  Indian  name,  Sonoms 

the  south,  to  Sonoma,  beyond  San  Francisco  Bay.  in  (?).   North  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  at  present  Sonomft, 

the  north.    Besides  these,  two  others,  established  in  Sonoma  Co. 

1780  in  the  extreme  south-eastern  comer  of  the  pres-  II.  Tribes  and  LANauAQES. — ^Nowhere  in  North  or 

ent  state,  had  a  brief  existence  of  less  than  a  year  South  America  was  there  a  greater  diversity  of  lao- 

when  they  were  destroyed  by  the  Indians.    As  their  guages  and  dialects  than  in  California.     Of  forty-six 

period  was  so  short,  and  as  they  had  no  connexion  native  linguistic  stocks  recocpiised  within  Uie  limits  of 

with  the  coast  missions,  they  will  be  treated  in  an-  the  United  States  by  phuologists,  twenty-two,  or 

otiier  place  (see  Yuma  Indians).  practically  one-half,  were  represented  in  Ci^omia,  of 

I.  Mission  Sites. — ^The  following  are  the  twenty-  which  only  six  extended  beyond  its  borders.  Seven 
one  missions  in  order  from  south  to  north,  with  name  of  distinct  linguistic  stocks  were  found  within  the  tern- 
founder,  location,  and  date  of  foxmding.  In  several  tory  of  actual  mission  colonisation,  from  San  Diego  to 
cases  the  mission  was  removed  from  the  original  site  Sonoma,  while  in  the  border  territory  north  and  east 
to  another  more  suitable  at  no  great  distance.  It  will  from  which  recruits  were  later  drawn,  at  least  four  more 
be  noti(^  that  the  northwara  advance  does  not  en-  were  represented.  As  most  of  the  dialects  have  per- 
tirely  accord  with  the  chronolcwcal  succession:  ished  without  record,  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many 

1.  S^  Diego  (de  ^caU):  founder,  Fr.  Junfpero  there  may  have  been  originally,  or  to  differentiate  or 
Serra,  1769.  Indian  name  of  site,  Cosoy.  At  Old  locate  them  closely.  As  tribal  organisation  such  ss 
Town,  suburb  of  present  San  Diego,  in  county  of  same  existed  amon^  the  Eastern  Indians  was  almost  im- 
name.  Removed  1774  to  Nipaguav  (Indian  name),  known  in  California,  where  the  rancKeria,  or  village 
north  bank  of  San  Di^K>,  six  miles  above  present  city,  hamlet,  was  usually  the  largest  political  unit,  the 
2.  San  Luis  Rey  (de  Francia) :  Fr.  Feimm  Francisco  names  commonly  used  to  designate  dialectic  or  local 
Lasuen,  1798.  Indian  name,  Tacayme.  Four  miles  groups  are  generally  merely  arbitrary  terms  of  con- 
up  San  Luis  Rey  River,  south  side,  San  Diego  Co.  (a)  venience.  For  the  linguistic  classification  the  princi- 
San  Antonio  de  Pala,  branch  mission:  Fr.  Antonio  pal  authorities  are  Kroeber,  BarreH,  and  other  ex- 
Peyrd,  1816.  At  Pida,  about  20  mUes  above,  north  perts  of  the  University  of  California, 
side  of  same  river,  in  same  county.  3.  San  Juan  1.  PomOf  or  KtUanapatif  Stock, — The  Indians  of  this 
Capistrano:  Serra,  Nov.,  1776.  Inclian  name,  Sajirit  stock  bordered  on  the  northern  frontier  of  the  mis- 
or  Quanis-savit.    At  present  San  Juan,  Oranse  Co.  sion  area,  and  althoujgh  no  mission  was  actually  e»- 

4.  San  Gabriel  (Areangel) :  Serra,  Sept.,  1771.  Indian  tablished  in  their  territorv  in  the  earlier  period,  num- 
name,  Sibagna,  or  Tobiscagna.  San  Gabriel  River,  bers  of  them  were  brought  into  the  missions  of  San 
about  ten  miles  east  of  Los  Angeles,  Los  Angeles  Co.  Rafael  and  San  Francisco  Solano.     Broadly  speakins, 

5.  SsA  Fernando  (Rey  de  Espafta):  Lasuen,  Sept.,  the  Pomoterritory  included  the  Russian  River  and  ad- 
1797.  Indian  name,  Pashecgna.  At  present  Fer-  jacent  coast  region  with  all  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
nando,  Los  Angeles  Co.  6.  Sa^  Buenaventura:  Serra,  Clear  Lake  basm.  Barrett  has  classified  their  numer^ 
1782.  Indian  name,  Miscanaga.  Ventura,  Ventura  ous  local  bands  and  rancherias  into  seven  dialectic 
Co.  7.  Santa  Barbara:  Palou,  1786.  Indian  name,  divisions,  but  all  probably  mutually  intelligible.  Of 
Tasmayan.  Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Barbara  Co.  8.  their  southern  buids,  some  of  the  Gallinomero  (or 
Santa  In^:  Tapis,  1804.  Indian  name,  Alajulapu.  Kainomero),  of  lower  Russian  River,  were  brought 
North  side  Santa  Ines  River,  about  present  Santa  into  San  Rafael  mission  and  the  Gualala  also  were 
Inez,  Santa  Barbara  Co.  9.  Purisima  Concepcl6n:  represented  either  there  or  at  Sonoma.  The  so-called 
Palou,  1787.  Indian  name,  Algsacupf.  Near  pres-  "  Diggers  "  of  the  present  mission  schools  at  Ukiah  and 
ent  Lompoc,  Santa  Barbara  Co.     10.  San  Luis  Obispo  Kelseyville  are  chiefly  Pomo. 

(de  Tolosa) :  Serra,  1892.'   Indian  name,  Tishlini.    In  2.  Yukian  Stock.— -The  Yuki  tribes  were  in  four 

S resent  San  Luis  Obispo  town  and  county.     11.  San  divisions,  two  of  which  were  north  of  the  Pomo  terri- 

[iguel:  Lasuen,  Julv,   1797.    Indian  name  Vshi^  tory  and  therefore  beyond  the  sphere  of  mission  influ- 

(Vatica),  or  Chidun  (Cholame).    West  bank  Salinas  ence.   The  two  southern  bodies,  originally  one,  speak- 

River,  at  present  San  Miguel,  San  Luis  Obispo  Co.    12.  ing  one  language  with  slight  dialectic  variations,  and 

San  Antonio  (de  Padua) :  Serra,  July,  1771.    Indian  commonly  kiaown  as  Wappo  (from  Spanish  auapo),  oc- 

name,  Teshhaya,  or  Sextapay.    East  side  San  An-  cupied  (a)  a  small  territory  south  of  Clear  Lake  and  east 

tonio  River,  about  six  miles  from  present  Jolon,  Mon-  from  the  present  Kelseyville ;  (b)  a  larger  territory  in- 

terey  Co.     13.  (Nuestra  Sefiora  de  la)  Soledad:  Palou,  eluding  upper  Napa  River  and  a  portion  of  Russian 

Oct.,  1791.    Indian  name,  Chuttu^lis.    East  side  River,  and  extending  approximately  from  Geyserville 

Salinas  River,  about  four  niiles  from  present  Soledad,  to  Napa.  They  were  probably  represented  at  Sonoma 

Monterey  Co.     14.  San  Carlos  (Borromeo,  de  Monte-  mission,  as  they  probEtbly  are  also  under  the  name  of 

rey^,  oZicM  Carmelo:  Serra,  1770.     Indian  name  (see-  "  Diggers  "  in  the  present  mission  sehool  at  KelseyviUe. 

ona  site),  Eslenes  (Esselen?).    First  at  present  Monte-  srWtrUun,  or  Copekan,  Stock. — ^This  stock  hekl 

rey,  but  removed  in  same  year  to  Carmelo  River,  a  few  all  (excepting  the  Wappo  projection)  between  the 

miles  distant,  Monterey  Co.     15.  San  Juan  Bautista:  Sacramento  River  and  the  main  Coast  Range  from  San 

Lasuen,  24  June,  1797.    Indian  name,  Popelout,  or  Pablo  (San  Francisco)  and  Suisun  Bays  northwards  to 

Popeloutchom.    West  side  San  Benito  River,  about  Mount  Shasta,  including  both  banks  of  the  river  in  its 

present  San  Juan  and  six  miles  from  Saivent,  in  San  upper  course.    The  various  dialects  are  grouped  b^ 

Benito   Co.     16.  Santa  Cruz:    Palou,   Sept.,  1791.  Kroeber  into  three  main  divisions  or  languages,  <Sf 

Indian  name,  Aulintac.  Present  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  which  the  southern,  or  Patwin,  includes  all  south  from 

Clara  Co.     17.  Santa  Clara  (de  Asfs):  Serra,  1777.  about  Stony  Creek,  and  possibly  also  those  of  Sonoma 

Indian  name,  Thamien.    First  established  near  Guada-  Creek  on  the  bay.    Inciians  of  these  southern  bands 

lupe  River,  about  head  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Re-  were  brought  into  the  missions  of  Sonoma,  San  Ra- 

moved  in  1781  three  miles  to  present  site  of  Santa  fael,  and  even  San  Francisco  (Dolores)  across  the  bay. 

Clara,  Santa  Clara  Co.    18.  San  Joe^ :  Lasuen,  1 1  June,  At  Sonoma  mission,  among  others,  we  find  recorded  the 

1797.    Indian  name,  Oroysom.  East  of  San  Francisco  Napa  and  Suisun  bands.    Acconling  to  Kroeber  the 

Bay,  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  San  Joe^  City  near  whole  region  of  Putah  Creek  was  thus  left  vacant  un- 

present  Irvin^n,  in  Alameda  Co.     19.  San  Francisco  til  repopulated  after  1843  by  Indians  who  had  origi- 

(de  Asfs),  ahaa  Dolores:  Serra,  Oct.,  1776.    Within  nally  been  taken  thence  to  Sonoma  mission. 


MISaiON 


371 


MUBION 


4.  Moqudumnan,  or  Miwot,  Slock.— The  numerous  Rafael  and  Soncana,  both  of  which  were  eaUblUhed 

baoda  of  this  stook  occupied  three  distinct  oreaB,  via,,  within  their  territoiy.    In  1824  nearly  500  Indiana  of 

(&)  Northern:  A  very  small  temtoiy  south-east  of  this  group  were  brought  back  from  San  Fnncisco  and 

Clear  Lake  and  about  the  heads  of  Putah  Creek,  in  Son  JobA  to  reoide  in  the  new  mission  of  Sonoma. 

lAice  Co.,  occupied  by  a  band  known  aa  Oleomi,  or  The  whole  group  was  known  as  Olamentke  bjr 

Guenock  (T),  speaking  a  language  apparently  distinot  Russians.    Among  the  principal  bands  ( 


CAUFO 

INDIA 


h 


-^^tSVEK       CA.|f--. 


.  „    -  ,.  -      =-  -      -  ,     -- ;  The 

coast  eastwardstobeyondS^oma,  included  irithin  the  main  area,  occupying  nearly  the  whole  region  east  of 

present  Marin  and  lower  Sonoma  Counties.    The  van-  San  Joaauin  River  to  the  heads  of  the  tributary 

oua  bands  of  this  area  spoke  the  same  language  in  two  streams,  from  Cosumnee  River  on  the  north  to  Fresno 

slightly  different  dialects  (three,  according  to  Mer-  River  on  the  south.    Their  numerous  bands,  eoUect- 

riam)  and  wen  gathered  into  the  two  missions  of  San  ively  known  usually  as  Hiwok,  spoke  four  di&eratt 


mssiON  372 

dialects,  of  which  that  of  the  north-western  plaina  sec-  Telanmi  from  Tulare  lake  and  eastward  were  brought 

tion  may  be  considered  a  distinct  language.    Al-  into  San  Antonio.    A  few  are  now  gathered  upon 

thouffh  no  missions  were  established  in  the  territory  of  Tule  River  reservation,  while  a  few  otheis  still  te- 

the  Miwok,  large  numbers  of  them  were  brought  mto  main  in  their  old  homes. 

San  Juan  Bautista,  Santa  Clara,  and  San  Job6,  9.  Chumashan  Stock, — ^The  Indians  of  this  stock  held 

5.  Coatanoan  Stock. — The  territory  of  this  linguis*  approximately  the  territory  from  San  Luis  Obispo 
tic  group  extended  from  the  coast  inland  to  the  San  Bay  south  to  Point  Muku,  including  the  Santa  Marfa, 
Joaquin  River,  and  from  San  Francisco  and  Suisun  Santa  In^,  and  Santa  Clara  Rivers,  the  adjacent  east- 
Ba^  on  the  north  southwards  to  about  the  line  of  ern  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  divide  and  the  islands  of 
Pomt  Sur,  including  the  seven  missions  of  San  Fran-  Santa  Crus^  Santa  Rosa,  and  San  Miguel.  The  mi»- 
cisco  (Dolores),  San  Jos^,  Santa  Clara,  Santa  Cruz,  San  sions  San  Luis  Obispo,  Purfsima,  Santa  1u6b,  Santa 
Juan  Bautista,  San  Carlos,  and  Soledad.  Although  Barbara,  and  Stm  Buenaventura  were  all  within  this 
there  was  no  true  tribal  organization,  a  nimiber  of  area.  They  seem  to  have  been  represented  also  at 
divisional  names  are  recognia^,  probably  correspond-  San  Miguel.  There  were  at  least  seven  dialects,  viz., 
ing  approximately  to  dialectic  distinctions.  Cin  the  at  each  mission,  on  Santa  Cruz,  and  on  Santa  Rosa, 
peninsula,  and  later  gathered  into  San  Francisco  mis-  That  of  San  Luis  Obispo  was  sufficiently  distinct  to  be 
sion  were  the  Romonan  (at  present  San  Francisco),  considered  a  language  oy  itself. 

Ahwaste,  Altahmo,  Tulomo,  and  Olhone,  or  Costano  10.  Shoahonean  Stock, — ^This  is  the  first  stock  within 

proper,  all  apparently  of  one  language  in  different  dia-  the  mission  area  which  extended  beyond  the  limits  of 

lects.    The  Saclan,  about  Oakland,  were  in  the  same  California,  the  cognate  tribes  within  the  state  being  an 

mission.    The  Karkin  along  Carquinez  straits  and  the  outpost  of  the  same  great  lij)guistic  group  which  in- 

Polye  further  south  were  Withered  into  San  Jos^.  eludes  the  Piute,  Ute,  Comanche,  and  Pima  of  the 

Santa  Clara  had  two  native  dialects,  whUe  Santa  Cruz  United  States,  the  Yaqui,  Tarumari,  and  famous  Az- 

apparently  had  another.    About  San  Juan  Bautista  tec  of  Mexico.    The  five  missions  of  San  Fernando,  San 

was  spoken  the  Mutsun  dialect,  known  through  a  Gabriel,  San  Juan  Capistrano,  San  Luis  Rey,  and  its 

grammar  and  phrase  book  written  by  the  resident  branch  mission  of  San  Antonio  de  Pala,  were  all  in 

missionary,  Father  Arroyo  de  la  Cuesta,  in  1815,  and  Shoshonean  territory,  and  the  gteat  majority  of  the 

published  in  Shea's  "American  Linguistics"  in  1861.  Mission  Indians  of  tchday  are  of  this  stock.      Those 

Eastward  were  the  Ansauna  and  about  the  mouth  of  within  the  mission  sphere  were  of  five  languages,  each 

the  Salinas  were  the  Kalindaruk.    At  San  Carlos  the  with  minor  dialectic  differences,  nearly  equivalent  to 

principal  band  was  the  Rimsen.  of  which  a  remnant  as  many  tribes,  as  follows: — (a)  Gabrxelino:  from 

still  exists,  and  at  Soledad  were  Chalone,  besides  others  about  Santa  Monica  southward  neariy  to  San  Juan 

of  Esselen,  Salinan,  and  Yokuts  lineage.  Capistrano,  and  from  the  coast  back  to  the  foothills  of 

6.  Esselen  Stock, — ^The  Esselen,  or  Ecclemach,  con-  the  San  Bernardino  ranse,  toother  with  Santa  Cata- 
stituting  a  distinct  stock  in  themselves,  occupied  a  lina  island.  It  was  spoken  m  slightly  different  dia- 
small  territory  on  Carmel  and  Sur  rivers,  south  of  lects  at  San  Fernando  (Femandefio)  and  San  Gabriel. 
Monterey  Bay,  untU  gathered  into  San  Carlos,  and  per-  The  names  Kij,  Kizh,  and  Tobikhar  have  been  used  to 
haps  into  Soledad  mission.  designate  the  same  group,     (b)  Lmsefio:  from  the 

7.  Salinan  Stock. — ^This  stock  centred  upon  the  GabrielinoborderaboutAusos  creek  southwards  along 
waters  of  the  Salinas,  chiefly  in  Monterey  and  San  the  coast  to  the  Yuman  frontier  beyond  Esoondido, 
Luis  Obispo  Counties,  from  the  seacoast  to  the  Coast  including  lower  San  Luis  Rev  River.  Temecula,  Santa 
Range  divide,  and  from  the  head  streams  of  the  Rosa,  San  Jacinto,  and  probably  the  islands  of  San 
Salinas  down  (north)  nearly  to  Soledad.  San  Antonio  Nicolas  and  San  Clemente.  Spoken  in  slightly  differ- 
and  San  Miguel  missions  were  within  their  territory,  ent  dialects  at  missions  of  San  Luis  Rey  (Luisefio, 
Nothing  definite  is  known  of  their  divisions,  except-  Kechi)  and  San  Juan  Capistrano  (Juanefio,  Gaitchun, 
ing  that  there  seem  to  have  been  at  least  three  prm-  Netela,  Aca^hemem).  (c)  Panakhil,  or  Agua  Ca- 
cipal  dialects  or  languages,  viz.,  of  San  Miguel,  oi  San  liente,  occupied  a  limited  territory  on  the  heads  of  San 
Antonio,  and  of  the  Playanos,  or  coast  people.  Be-  Luis  Rey  River,  and  now  at  Pala  and  Los  Coyotes  re- 
sides those  native  to  the  r^on,  there  were  also  Yokuts  serves,  (d)  Cahuilla,  or  Kawia:  the  eastern  slopes  of 
from  the  east  and  Chumash  from  the  south  in  the  the  San  Jacinto  Range  from  aboutSaltonnorthwarols  to 
same  missions.  Banning,  together  with  the  head  waters  of  Santa  Mar- 

8.  Yokuts,  or  Mariposan,  Stock. — ^The  Indians  of  this  garita  River.  First  visited  by  Father  Francisco  Gar- 
stock  had  true  tribal  divisions,  nimibering  about  forty  c6i  in  1776.  (e)  Serrano:  in  San  Bernardino  moun- 
tribes,  and  holdins  a  compact  territory  from  the  Coast  tains  and  valley  on  Mohave  River  and  northwards  to 
Range  divide  to  the  foothills  of  the  Sierras,  including  Tejon  and  Paso  Creeks  of  San  Joaquin  Valley;  the 
the  upper  San  Joaquin,  Kings  River,  Tulare  Lake,  and  Beileme  of  Father  Garc^  in  1776  and  the  Takhtam  of 
most  of  Kern  River,  brides  a  detached  tribe,  the  Cho-  Gatschet.  Some  of  them  were  gathered  into  San  Ga- 
lovone,  about  the  present  Stockton.    Together  with  briel.    Three  dialects. 

the  Miwok  and  eastern  Costanoan  tribes,  they  were  11.  Yuman  Stock. — ^This  stock  also  has  its  main 

known  to  the  Spaniards  under  the  collective  name  of  home  beyond  the  eastern  boimdaries  of  the  state,  and 

Tularefios,  from  their  habitat  about  Tulare  lake  and  includes   the   Mohave,^  Walapai,  and  others.     San 

along  San  Joaquin  River,  formerly  Rio  de  los  Tulares.  Diego  mission  was  within  its  territory,  as  also  the  two 

Tlieir  numerous  dialects  varied  but  slightly,  and  mav  short-lived  missions  on  the  Colorado.     Neariy  all  the 

have  been  all  mutually  intelligible,  the  principal  dif-  present  Mission  Indians  not  of  Shoshonean  stock  are 

ference  being  between  those  of  the  river  plains  and  of  Yuman.    Those  within  the  mission  sphere  were  of 

the  Sierra  foothills.     Although  outside  of  the  mission  two  languages,  viz..  Yuma  in  the  east,  about  the  junc- 

territory  proper,  the  Yokuts  area  was  a  principal  re-  tion  of  uie  Gila  ana  Colorado  rivers;  and  Dieguefio  in 

cruiting  ground  for  the  missions  in  the  later  period,  the  west,  in  two  main  dialect  groups:  (a)  Dieguefio 

hundreds  of  Indians,  and  even  whole  tribes,  being  proper,  along  the  coast,  including  San  IMego,  and  (b) 

carried  off,  either  as  neophyte  subjects  or  as  inilitary  Comeya,  farther  inland.. 

Srisoners  of  war,  to  San  Jos^,  San  Juan  Bautista,  Sole-  Very  little  is  in  print  concerning  the  lanpaages  of  the 

ad,  San  Antonio,  San  Miguel,  San  Luis  Obispo  (?),  mission  territory.    For  vocabularies  ana  grammatic 

and   probably   other   nei^bouring   missions.     One  analysis  the  reader  may  consult  Bancroft's  volume 

Spanish  expedition,  about  1820,  carried  off  three  hun-  on  " Myths  and  Languages",  Power's  "Tribes  of  Cali- 

dred  men,  women,  and  children  from  a  single  rancheria  fomia",  Gatschet  in  "Wheeler's  Rept.",  and  above 

to  San  Juan  Bautista,  where  their  language  was  after-  all,  Barrett  and  Kroeber  in  the  University  of  Califor- 

wards  recorded  by  Father  La  Cuesta.    The  Tachi  and  nia  publications  (see  bibliography),  with  other  work? 


MISSION  373 

and  eoUeetions  therein  noted.    Among  the  important  Shell  beads  were  uaed  for  necklace  puix)06e8;  and  eagle 

single  studies  are  a  ''  Grammar  of  the  Mutsun  Lan-  and  other  feathers  for  head  adornments.    Dance- 

guage '' by  Fr.  Arroyo  de  la  Cuestai  published  in  Shea's  leaden  and  priests  at  ceremonial  functions  wore 

"  American  Linguistics  ",  IV  (1861) ;  a  Chumashan  (?)  feather  crowns  and  short  skirts  trimmed  with  feathers, 

catechism  and  prayer  manual  bv  Fr.  Mariano  Payeras  Light  sandals  were  sometimes  worn.    Musical  instru- 

of  PuriBima,  about  1810,  noted  by  Bancroft;  and  a  ments  were  the  rattle,  flute,  and  bone  whistle.    The 

MS.  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  Luiseno  Ian-  drum  was  unknown.    Weapons  were  the  bow  and  ar- 

suage,  by  Sparkman,  now  awaiting  publication  by  the  row,  wooden  club,  stone  knife,  and  a  curved  throwing 

University  of  California.    The  missionaries  were  more  stick  for  hunting  rabbits.    Cremation  was  xmivcrs&i, 

than  once  urged  in  prefectual  letters  to  acquire  the  na-  excepting  in  the  Chumashan.    Marriage  and  divorce 

tive  languages  in  order  better  to  reach  the  Indians,  were  simple,  and  polygamy  was  frequent, 

and  in  1815  the  official  report  states  that  religious  in-  Of  the  mythology  and  ceremonial  of  the  coast  tribes 

atruction  was  given  both  in  Lidian  and  Spsnish.  of  the  mission  area  northwards  from  Los  Angeles  we 

m.  Arts,  Custom,  and  Rftual. — ^The  Indians  of  know  almost  nothing,  as  the  Indians  have  perished 
California  constituted  a  culture  body  essentially  distinct  without  investi^tion,  but  the  indications  are  that 
^m  all  the  tribes  east  of  the  Sierras.  The  most  obvi-  they  resembled  those  of  the  known  interior  and  south- 
ous  characteristic  of  this  culture  was  its  negative  qual-  em  tribes.  For  these  our  best  authorities  are  the 
ity,  the  absence  of  those  features  which  dominated  missionarv  Boscana,  Powers,  Merriam,  and  especially 
tribal  life  elsewhere.  There  was  practically  no  tribal  the  ethnolofipsts  of  the  University  of  California.  The 
organization  and  in  most  cases  not  even  a  tribal  name,  southern  tnoes — Juanefio,  Luisefio,  Diegueno,  etc. — 
the  rancheriay  or  vlllagp  settlement,  usually  merely  a  base  their  ritual  and  ceremonial  upon  a  creation  myth 
larger  family  ^up,  being  the  ordinary  social  and  gov-  in  which  Ouiot,  or  Wiyot,  fieures  as  the  culture  hero  of 
emmental  unit,  whose  people  had  no  common  desig-  an  earlier  creation  in  whidn  mankind  is  not  yet  en- 
nation  for  themselves,  and  none  for  their  neighbours  tirely  differentiated  from  the  animals,  while  Chungich- 
excepting  directional  names  having  no  reference  to  nish  (Chinigchinich  of  Boecana)  appears  as  the  lord 
linguistic  or  other  affiliation.  Chiefs  were  almost  andrulerof  the  second  and  perfected  creation,  which, 
without  authority,  except  as  messengers  of  the  will  of  however,  is  a  direct  evolution  from  the  first.  The  orig- 
the  priests  or  secret  society  leaders.  The  clan  system  inal  creators  are  Heaven  and  Earth,  personified  as 
IB  held  by  most  investijgators  to  have  been  entirely  brother  and  sister.  The  rattlesnake,  the  tarantula, 
wanting,  although  Merriam  claims  to  have  found  ewir  and  more  particulariy  the  lightning  and  the  eagle,  are 
denoe  (»  it  amon^  the  Miwok  and  Yokuts.  Excepting  the  messengers  and  avengers  of  Chungichnish.  In  the 
basketry,  all  their  arts  were  of  the  crudest  develop-  Dieeuefio  myth  thej  whole  living  creation  issues  from 
ment,  pottery  being  fougd  only  in  the  extreme  south,  the  Dody  of  a  great  serpent. 

while  agriculture  was  entirely  unknown.  Both  men-  The  principal  ceremonies,  still  enacted  within  re- 
tally  and  physically  they  represented  one  of  the  lowest  cent  memory,  were  the  girls'  puberty  ceremony,  the 
types  on  the  continent.  The  ordinary  house  struo-  boys'  initiation,  and  the  annual  mourning  rite.  In 
ture  throughout  the  mission  area  was  a  conical  frame-  the  puberty  ceremony  the  several  girls  of  the  village 
work  of  p<Mes  thatched  with  rushes  and  covered  with  whohad  attained  the  menstrual  age  at  about  the  same 
earth,  built  over  a  circular  excavation  of  about  two  time  were  stretched  upon  a  bed  of  fresh  and  fragrant 
feet  deep.  The  fire  was  built  in  the  centre,  and  the  herbs  in  a  pit  previously  heated  bv  means  of  a  large 
occupants  sat  or  lay  about  it,  upon  skins  or  sage  fire,  and,  after  oeing  covered  with  blankets  and  other 
bushes,  without  beds  or  other  furniture.  The  Galu-  herbs,  were  subjected  to  a  sweating  and  starving  pro- 
nomero,  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  built  a  communal  cess  for  several  days  and  nights  while  the  elders  or  the 
house  of  L  shape,  with  a  row  of  fires  down  the  centre,  band  danced  around  the  pit  sinking  the  songs  for  the 
one  for  each  family.  The  "sweat-house",  for  hot  occasion.  The  ordeal  ended  with  a  procession,  or  a 
baths  and  winter  ceremonies,  was  like  the  circular  race,  to  a  prominent  cliff,  where  each  girl  inscribed 
lodge,  but  much  larger.  The  dance  place  or  medicine  symbolic  painted  designs  upon  the  rock.  The  boys' 
lodge  was  a  simple  circular  inclosure  of  brushwood  initiation  ceremony  was  a  preliminary  to  admission  to 
open  to  the  sky,  with  the  sacrifice  poles  and  other  a  privileged  secret  society,  the  officers  of  which  con- 
ceremonial  objects.  stituted  the  priesthood.     A  principal  feature  was  the 

Afpculture  beins  unknown,  the  food  supply  was  drinking  of  a  decoction  of  the  root  of  the  poisonous 
obtamed  in  part  by  nimtins  and  fishing,  but  mostly  by  toloache,  or  jimson-weed  (datura  meieloidea),  to  pro- 
the  gathering  of  wild  seeds,  nuts,  and  berries.  The  duce  unconsciousness,  in  which  the  initiate  was  sup- 
islanders  lived  almost  entirely  by  sea-fishing,  while  posed  to  have  communication  with  his  future  protect- 
about  San  Francisco  they  depended  mainly  on  the  mg  spirit.  Rigid  food  taboos  were  prescribed  for  a 
salmon.  The  Chumashan  coast  tribes  fished  from  large  long  period,  and  a  common  ordeal  test  was  the  lower- 
dugout  canoes.  Hunting  was  usually  confined  to  ing  of  the  naked  initiate  into  a  pit  of  vicious  sting- 
small  game,  particularly  rabbits  and  jackrabbits,  the  ing  ants.  A  symbolic  "sand  painting",  with  figures 
larger  animals  being  generally  protected  by-  some  re-  in  vari-coloured  sand,  was  a  part  of  the  ritual, 
ligious  taboo.  On  account  of  a  prevalent  ritual  idea  The  corpse  was  burned  upon  a  fimeral  pile  immedi- 
which  forbade  the  himter  to  eat  game  of  bis  own  killing,  ately  after  death,  together  with  the  personal  property, 
men  generally  himted  in  pairs  and  exchanged  the  re-  by  a  man  specially  appointed  to  that  duty,  the  bones 
suit.  Grasshoppers  were  driven  into  pits  and  roasted  being  afterwards  gathered  up  and  buried  or  otherwise 
as  a  dainty.  Among  vegetable  foods  the  acom  was  preserved.  Once  a  year  a  ereat  tribal  mourning  cere- 
first  in  importance,  &ing  gathered  and  stored  in  laige  mony  was  held,  to  which  the  people  of  all  the  nei^h- 
quantities,  pounded  into  meal  in  stone  mortars  or  bouring  rancfierias  were  invited.  On  this  occasion 
ground  on  metates,  leached  with  water  to  remove  the  large  quantities  of  property  were  burned  as  sacrifice  to 
bittemess,  and  cooked  as  mush  (porridge)  or  bread,  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  or  given  away  to  the  visitors. 
Wild  rice  was  also  a  staple  in  places,  while  in  the  bios-  an  effigy  of  the  deceased  was  bumed  upon  the  pyre, 
sozn  season  whole  communities  lived  for  weeks  upon  and  the  performance,  which  lasted  through  several 
raw  clover  tope.  The  men  went  nearly  or  entirely  days  and  nights,  concluded  with  a  weird  nisht  dance 
naked,  exceptmgfor  a  skin  robe  over  the  shoulders  in  around  the  blazing  pile,  during  which  an  eagle  or  other 
cold  weather.  Women  usually  wore  a  short  skirt  with  great  bird,  passed  from  one  to  another  of  the  circling 
fringes  of  woven  or  twisted  bark  fibre.  Both  sexes  dance  priests,  was  slowly  pressed  to  death  in  their 
commonly  kept  their  hair  at  full  length,  but  bunched  arms,  while  in  songs  they  implored  its  spirit  to  cany 
up  behind.  Some  bands  shaved  one  side  of  the  head,  their  messages  to  their  friends  in  the  other  world. 
lattooing  was  practised  by  both  sexes  to  some  extent.  The  souls  of  priests  and  chiefs  were  supposed  to  ascend 


( 


feasting  and  d&ncing,  the  idea  of  future  punUunent  or  under  the  dioceee  of  Los  Angeles,  wiui  a  luloj  ciuui- 
Kwanibeing  foreign  to  the  Indian  mind.  The  dead  ment  in  1900  of  1894  pupils.  Of  these  the  largest  an 
were  never  named,  and  the  sum  of  insult  to  another  at  Pala  (260),  La  Jolla  (195},  Pauma  (180),  Soboba, 
was  to  say  "  Your  father  is  dead."  or  6an  Jacinto  (163),  Campo  (125),  and  Martlnei 
Id  connexion  with  childbirth  moot  of  tbe  tribes  (125).  All  are  day-achoola,  excepting  St.  Boniface 
practised  the  amvode,  the  father  keeping  his  bed  for  boarding-school  at  Banning  with  100  pupils.  About 
WKne  dajTB,  subjected  to  ri^  diet  and  other  taboos,  thesametimeCatholicmiBsion  work  was  begun  among 
until  released  hy  a  ceremonial  exorcism.  Besides  the  the  remnant  tribes  on  the  northern  border  of  tbe  origi- 
gieat  ceremonies  already  noted,  they  had  numerous  nal  mission  territory.  In  1870  the  mission  of  St.  Tun- 
Other  dances,  including  some  of  dramatic  or  sleight-of*  bius  was  founded  hy  Father  Luciano  Osuna,  north  of 
band  character,  and,  among  the  southern  tnbes,  a  Kelseyville  in  Lake  County.  In  1889  Saint  Mary's 
grossly  obscene  dance  which  gave  the  missionaries  mission  was  established  near  Ukiah  in  Mendocino 
much  trouble  to  suppress.  Among  the  Gallinomero,  County.  Thelndionsof  bothstationsarelocallycalled 
and  peAaps  otheis,  ^«d  parents  were  sometimes  "Diggers  ",  but  are  properly  Porno  and  Yukai  and 
choked  to  death  by  their  own  children  by  crushing  the  Bcnne  of  the  older  ones  still  nave  recollection  of  the 
neck  with  a  stick,  early  mission  fathers.  They  are  in  charge  of  the  Friars 
Ordinary  morality  Minor  and  Capuchins.  All  these  northern  missions  are 
could  haidly  be  in  the  ArchdkMieae  of  San  Francisco. 
said  to  exist  even  According  to  a  careful  estimate  made  by  Herriam, 
in  theory.  Infan-  theoriginallndianpopulationof  themissionterTitory, 
tkiide  and  abor-  eastwards  to  the  San  Joaquin  and  lower  Sacramento 
tdonwere  ao  prev-  rivers,  was  approximately  &0,000  souls.  About 
alent  that  even  the  30,000  were  domiciled  in  the  missions  at  the  time  of 
most  strenuous  confiscation.  Following  the  ruin  of  the  Dusaions  and 
efforts  of  the  mis-  the  invasion  (rf  the  Americans,  they  died  in  such  thou- 
aionaries  hardly  sands  that  of  all  those  north  of  Oie  present  Los  An- 
succeeded  in  check-  eelea,  comprising  perhaps  fouivfifths  of  the  whole,  not 
in^  the  evil.  In  300  are  believed  to  survive  to-day.  The  soutnem 
this  and  certain  tribes,  being  of  manlier  stock  and  in  some  deetee  pro- 
Other  detestable  tected  by  their  desert  environment,  have  hdd  them- 
ouBtoros  the  coast  selves  better,  and  number  to^ay  on  the  "  Mission  In- 
tribes  were  like  dian"  reservations,  as  already  stated,  2,775  souls,  a 
the  California  In-  decrease,  however,  of  152  in  nine  years.  The  Mission 
dians  generally,  Indians  of  California  have  dwindled  to  fewer  than 
whom  Powers  one-sixteenth  of  their  original  number,  and  indications 
characteriKs,  in  point  to  their  extinction.  (See  Caufobnia.) 
their  heathen  con-  Ams,  Alport  ui  nvonl  b>  condMoH  o/  ifunim  Ind*.  fai  RrpL 

ditfon,  „  p,rh.p.  srrjjiiif AiSf (£rasifiS6^i?iS£'»s 

„      .           _                                  the     most      iicen-  Roch.  I:   WiU  Triba  <8u  Fiucuoo.  ISBfl);  Idbm.  NoHf 

OiKAHnm  BnwAHA                      tious     race     exi»-  «aett.  ill;  IfytU  and  Lannaof  (Sao  Pnodwo,  1BM>;  Bar- 

tent.     Even  before  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries,  IV^' ff'^S^^P^S^!A^Jid^a^J'nTo^ 

their  blood,  like  that  of  all  the  coast  tribes  as  for  north  fBerkday.  ImS):  Idek,  Oopnipi^  md  DitO^rSfiit  iHrat 

as  Alaska,  had  been  so  poisoned  by  direct  or  trane-  IniiianM.ibid.,m.a(Bt,ti^,lKiai,BjLKiiom.EiJaia-Biitoni,eJ 

™ti»d  jonuci  ,iih  <ii«,iut.  «jW,"«i,.t«dj™  K;:SSJS.'S;si?.;t°fJi«tB:S;.'S;W;S5 

crews,  that  the  race  was  already  in  swift  decline.  The  (^an  jtum  Capiunw  /ndi.),  truuU^  pubiuM  in  Robih- 

confiacation  of  the  missions  and  the  subsequent  influx  aan.  Lift  in  CaUfiimiallltw  York,  ISU):  Bimauof  Am.  EIA- 

of  the  gold-hunters  doomed  the  race  to  extinction.  lm?^.n^^h^^i^J!:''^^ni^r^^ 

IV.VrTAt,  STAT»Tic8.-By  the  confiscation  of  the  Citb^^^(:^i,ott>^T;^h7f'a^ni2!^S::S^(!>l!Gt^) 

missions  (1834-38)  the  Indians  lost  their  protectors  (NowYork,iW)0):Ct™Mw.o/i«i.ii^ai™,<iim.«)>i».o/cWHh- 

together  with  their  stock  and  other  movable  property,  sS^SJii^viil  Bo^^B^ikdw  "wos)  ■^D^r^'i"  mS4^« 

andbythetransferotCalifomiatotheUnitedStatesm  Ex^or<a<oiid*t^rrltiindtVOT*9<^.^dotihmif.tte.  (Pui.; 

1848  they  were  left  without  legal  tiUe  to  their  lands,  i84*j!EMo«LKAiii>T.fnnin*Ban«mC<K»fenita<HKborapmi», 

they  died  by  thousands  and  were  fast  approaching  ex-  jwr-u)-  Hsblici*.  Pt,vwU>a  AnO,r<H>eUm  e/CoKAriii  in 

tinction.     With  the  exception  of  occasional  ministra-  Oniv.  of  CaLHTdlickamib*.ia An. ink. imS Etkn..VV  ^tiVtr 

tions  by  secular  priests  or  some  of  the  few  remain-  ^4„i^''iJ^^^'^^'^,^^^U^li^^^^i^ 

ing  missionaries,  they  were  also  left  entirely  without  moan  'in  Vnit.  o/  CaL  pvbt.  in  im!  5«*.'  and  £(An.  (Berbp 

spiritual  or  educational  attention,  notwithstanding  tar).  via^Liiivu>v(>a/(A«  (3otit*)  CMMa/Catt/srniai- — lVf« 

wteh  «»  Chri«to  Indi«.  oopllnurf  to  ke»  th.  I'jS^l^iliS.SffiSei'iffiJJ^A.'S^rS 

Faith  and  transmitted  the  tradition  to  their  children.  Cai.—Rtiiaim  of  Da  ind.  arcaiihrnia  (iv,  \wiiy.Eii,noera^ 

At  last,  as  the  result  of  a  governmental  investigation  t/VitCaAuUiaindm.; — A  MimanRmirdoiAxCiu.  huU.—kn- 

in  1873,  a  number  of  viflage  reservations  were  as-  fei.^  f.\f.^'S*fv'n/\ohoS^^l^T;^'^^2^^ 

.         ,    I ^               .-        _       r°_^    .-         -       la^E    .      .1  aovUitm  Laufona^  (VIll,   1009)1  MtHWAi*,  papers  id  An. 

Signed    by   executive   proclamation    m    1875   to   the  SiiMropoto^,  new  .eriM  {Lan™ter).vii.,  fcifeVjWiiWwii 

southern  remnant,  the  northern  bands  being  already  o/Co;i/«tiio(yii.  iWfi)LMeiMnS(oc*o/c<iKA>nita{IX.i907): 

"t^L,  ">' ■»&""«  ifss?'™  f™  ™ "^  »  ?ss',s»sa.&>'»  I- hVsifJ!:^c-jl 

tablished  some  thirty  small  Mission  Indan  reserva-  ^trniaiaCant.uilf.  An.  BlJm.^ill  (WmhiiiBton,  1S77}:  Rob- 
tions,  all  in  western  and  central  San  Diego  and  River-  wbob  (uioq.I.  Lift  in  California  (contain*  abo  Bohcaha's  as- 
side  Counties,  California,  with  a  total  j>opulation,  in  ^Varf^*ta  Am  A^'^i^l^  ^i^^r^^^^i" (^J^tS 
1909,  of  2775  souls,  representing  five  tribes  and  Ian-  looe);  Shia  Caikolic  (indwn)  Miinoiu  (New  York,  !8m)] 
guoges,  vis.,  Luiseno,  Serrano,  Cahuilla,  Agua  Cali-  Surra.  InnCal.Miniont  /ndt.(odo(«(.S«iuoya  League  Bull  5 
Inte,  and  Di(«ueno.  The  lai^t  groupings  are  at  SS^L^tSC^'ln  l^/o/^L7'AS?'>«*ASAo.;f£iIl^ 
Morongo  adjoining  Banning  (chiefly  Cahuilla)  238;  Vll(BeTkt\ey.i9ii3):  Txriim.  IndiaiuaJCalifomia;  *jiic]^ia 
Pala  (Luiseflo  and  Agua  Calient*)  226;  Pechanga  Coi  yannw- (San  Fimcboo,  ia«o-l);  Wati:iim*»,«»b«. /»- 
a«»«o)  170 ;  md  a.ni.  Y«,b.J  No.  3  (™»".«o)  185  t^rS^^^  fS^I^'f^SfX  SfcS  iX' 
'Oej  are  oracticolly  all  Catbidics  and  besides  twelve  cstw,  oj  CaL  miti.  in  Am.  owl  son.,  vm  (BeArier,  leio)- 


875  IIIB8ION8 


?^'^^^  P^^f^i^*vl>^l^  vpo^  U.  a.  GmgroMe^  8ur^  aiy  societies  have  been  foimded  in  the  different 

^^i^r^^SS.^i^'T^J^^  ^^S!S^  Catholic  countries     T^e  mort  important  of  th«« 

(WMhmcUm,  1879):  Rotcb  ako  Tbomab,  Indian  Land  Ce»-  societies  sie:  the  Society  of  Foiejgn  MiBBions  (Mis- 

mant  in^AiMniA  BtpL  (9»i  M)  But.  Am,  BVuuflon  (Wash-  sions  Etrangftree),  founded  at  Paris,  1820;  Society 

*'*«*°^  ****^-                                      T^™-  \[nf^^w^  ^or  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  founded  at  Lyons, 

JAMES  MOONBT,  jggg.  Leopoldmische  Stiftung,  founded  at  Vienna, 

Mliiioni,    Cathouc— The  histoiy   of   Catholic  1829;   Bavarian  Ludwis-Missionsverein  (1839);  8o- 

missions  would  necessarily  hcfpn  with  the  missionaiy  ciety  of  the  Holy  Childhood  (Paris,  1843) ;  Society 

labours  of  Christ,  and  would  cover  a  very  consider-  of  the  Holy  Land  (1895).     To  arrive  at  even  an 

able  portion  of  the  history  of  the  Cathouc  Church,  approximate  estimate  of  the  total  sum  contributed 

The  principal  chapters  of  this  history  will  be  found  by  Catholics  towards  their  foreign  missions  is  im- 

elaewnere  m  Thb  Cathouc  Encyclopkdia,  in  the  possible.    To  re^rd  the  sums  coUected  by  a  few  of 

articles  devoted  to  the  various  coimtries,  provinces,  the  leading  missionary  societies  as  the  total  Catholic 

dioceses,  vicariates,  reli^ous  orders,  and  congr^a*  contribution  towards  the  missions,  and  to  tsJce  such 

tions.  notable  missionanes,  etc.    The  present  article  total  as  indicative  of  Catholic  interest  in  the  propaga- 

will  be  confined  to  a  short  general  survey  of  the  tion  of  the  Gospel  (as  is  too  commonly  done  to-£by 


I.  Organisation  of  Catholic  Missions;  II.  Iteoeipts  be  made  of  the  great  sums  expended  by  all  the  reli- 

and  EScpenditure;  III.  Utility  and  Object  of  Mission  gious  ordera  and  congregations  (which  are  in  turn 

Statistics;  IV.  Statistics.  practically  dependent  on  voluntary  contributions)  on 

I.  Orqanization. — ^The  main  directioa  of  the  the  preparation  of  their  members  for  missionary 
Catholic  missions  is  vested  in  the  Sacred  Congregation  labours  and  on  the  missions  themselves. 

of  Propaganda  under  the  supreme  jurisdiction  of  which  .A4;;ain,  the  numberless  contributions  made  directly 

stand  most  of  the  missions  of  the  Catholic  world  (see  to  the  missions,  offerings  given  to  non-missionary  or- 

Pbopaganda,  Conobeqation  op).    This  congre^  ders  or  secular  priests  to  be  forwarded  to  the  heads  of 

tion  determines  the  ecclesiastical  rank  of  each  mission  certain  missions,  l^acies  and  similar  gifts,  never  ap- 

(prefecture,  vicariate,  diocese),  assigning  to  it  a  su-  pear  in  the  statistics  of  receipts  furnished  by  the 

Serior  according  to  this  rank,  and  undertakes  the  collecting  societies.  So  important  a  portion  of  the 
uty  of  supplying  missionaries  wherever  their  services  total  amount  do  these  contributions  form  that  Baum- 
are  necessary.  For  the  training  of  Catholic  mission-  garten  ("Die  kathol.  Kirche  u.  ihre  Diener  in  Wort 
aries  numerous  secular  seminaries  have  been  in-  u.  BUd ",  HI.  Munich,  1903,  p.  399)  declares  that  we 
stituted;  the  most  important  are:  the  Urban  (so  must  multiply  the  sum  collected  by  the  missionary 
called  after  its  founder.  Urban  VIII),  English,  Irish,  societies  bv  four  or  five  to  arrive  approximately  at  the 
Scotch,  American,  ana  Canadian  Colleges  at  Rome:  sum  contributed  towards  Catholic  missions.  Those  who 
Pontifical  Seminaiy  of  Kandy;  Leonine  Seminary  or  contrast  the  apparent  totals  of  the  sums  contributed 
Athens;  the  seminaries  at  Milan,  Lyons,  and  Paris  by  Catholics  ana  Protestants  towards  their  respective 
(this  last  is  the  headmiartera  of  the  famous  Society  missions  thus  fail  to  take  into  account  all  the  data 
of  Foreign  Missions) ;  Josephinum  College,  Columbus,  for  the  comparison.  Krose  (op.  cit.  in  bibliography, 
Ohio,  U.  S.  A. *  American  College,  Louvain:  Finglish  p.  38)  quotes  tJie  case  of  two  similarly  situated  states 
Colleges  at  VaUadolid  and  Usb^ ;  Scotch  College  at  of  about  the  same  sise.  Catholic  Belgium  and  Protes- 
Valladolid;  Irish  Collese,  Paris;  AU  Hallows,  Dublin;  tant  Holland,  whose  respective  contributions  towards 
St.  Joseph's Semioarv,  Mill  Hill,  London;  St.  Joseph's,  foreien  missions  were  1.019,474  (only  the  sum  col- 
Rosendaal,  Holland;  St.  Joseph's,  Brixin,  Tyrol;  lected  l^  a  few  of  the  leading  missionary  societies) 
General  College  of  Pulo  Pinang.  The  religious  orders  and  701,000  francs.  The  same  writer  points  out 
— Benedictines,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Jesuits,  (loc.  cit.)  that,  even  accepting  the  known  Catholic 
Ausustinians,  etc. — ^which  continue  with  unabated  contributions  as  the  total,  and  accepting  the  Protes- 
aeal  to  labour  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel,  are  tant  total  at  the  fisnire  given  by  their  own  statisticians, 
assisted  by  a  series  of  new  orders  and  congregations,  the  German  Cath^ics  contributed  15  pfennig  jpfr  cap- 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  cite  here  the  names  of  the  ita  towards  their  missions,  and  the  German  Protest- 
aocieties  most  widely  engaged  in  forei^  missions,  tants  12  pfennig,  although  the  latter  are,  as  a  class, 
and  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  special  articles  for  par-  the  wealtnier.  This  last  circumstance,  indeed,  merits 
ticulars:  Ckmeregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  special  attention,  if  we  would  not  accept  a  single  lam 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary;  Congregation  of  tiie  Mis-  donation  of  a  millionaire  as  indicative  of  more  wicw- 
sion  (Laiarists) ;  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate;  spread  missionary  seal  than  a  thousand  humble  sub- 
Societ^  of  Mary;  Oratorians  and  Oblates  of  St.  scriptions  of  the  poor.  The  astonishing  success  of  the 
Francis  de  Sales;  Redemptorists;  Paulists;  Coi^mga-  Catholic  missions  during  the  nineteenth  century,  al- 
tion  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Bfary ;  Priests  though  most  of  the  propertv  of  the  missionary  or^ 
dT  the  Foreign  Missions  (Missions  Etrangdres).  ders  was  confiscated  or  secularised,  was  entirely  due 
For  A  fuller  list  see  "Misdones  Catholics",  853-8.  to  the  extraordinary  seal  and  self-sacrifice  of  the 
Among  the  colleges  of  the  regular  orders  specially  Catholic  missionaries  in  the  face  of  innumerable 
devoted  to  the  training  of  missionaries  may  be  men-  difficulties.  Regular  contributions  to  the  missionaiy 
tioned:ihe  College  of  St.  Fidelis  (Capuchiu),  Coll^^  societies  and  the  centralisation  of  the  missions  fund 
of  St.  Anthony  (Franciscan),  Coll^  of  St.  Isidore  are  highly  desirable:  men  are,  as  a  rule,  read^  to 
flrish  Franciscan),  and  the  College  of  the  Irish  subscribe  freely  to  conspicuouslv  successful  missions, 
Augustinians,  at  Rome;  Seminary  of  Scheut,  near  while  the  less  prosperous,  in  which  the  missionaries 
Brussels  (Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  have  to  faoe  perhaps  greater  obstacles  and  disappoint- 
Maiy) ;  the  coueRes  of  the  Society  of  African  Mis-  ments,  receive  but  faint  support, 
sionaries  (White  Fathers) ;  the  Veronese  Institute  and  III.  UriLmr  and  Object  op  Mission  Stattbticb. 
the  ooUegies  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word.  — Scientifically  compiled  statistics  render  self-decep- 

II.  Receipts  AND  ExPENnrruRE. — Of  late  yean  the  tion  impossible,  preventing  us  from  being  unduly 
support  formerly  lent  by  various  European  states  elated  or  disheartened  by  isolated  successes  or  reverses. 
to  missionary  enterprises  nas  been  considerably  dim-  They  tend,also,  to  lessen  the  heated  controversies  which, 
inished,  and  the  missions  are  tonday  largely  dependent  unfortunately,  too  frequently  centre  aroimd  the  diris* 
for  their  support  on  the  volimtary  contributions  of  the  tian  missions.  The  duty  of  supplying  the  oublic  witk 
faithful.    For  the  ooUeotion  of  ^ese  offerings  mission-  accurate  and  complete  statistics  rests  with  the  missiooi. 


_J 


lOSSIOMB 


376 


MI88I0N8 


aries  themselves.  A  report  of  comparative  faOuie 
does  not  prejudice  their  cause:  the  more  numerous 
the  difficulties  with  which  they  have  to  contend,  the 
more  conspicuous  is  their  self-sacrifice.  As,  however, 
statistics  now  receive  the  attention  of  all  denomina- 
tions, words  of  explanation  should  be  added  concerning 
local  difficulties,  and  in  cases  where  a  non-Catholic 
might  be  misled.  Thus,  e.g.,  a  non-Catholic  might 
not  know  that  a  Catholic  priest  may  not,  in  general, 
baptise  a  pagan  child  without  its  parents'  consent, 
nor  an  adult  without  proper  instruction. 

The  object  of  mission  statistics  is  to  supply  the 
reader  with  such  information  as  will  enable  him  to 


used  exclusively  of  such.  How  many  of  the  mission- 
aries are  natives  should  also  be  indicated,  since  Hiis 
information  reveals  the  progress  made  towards  the 
ideal  of  all  missicHiary  work,  the  establishment  of  a 
native  priesthood.  Besides  the  number  of  mission- 
aries, exact  information  should  be  given  oosioeming 
the  male  and  female  auxiliaries,  who  are  engaged  as 
catechists,  as  teachers,  or  to  care  for  the  sick;  likewise 
concerning  all  the  lay  brothers  and  sisters  f  not,  how- 
ever, mere  servants)  who  are  employed  oiiectly  or 
indirectly  in  the  woric  of  evan^liaition. 

(3)  Mission  Establishments. --In  this  category  may 
be  classed  the   mission-stations,  churdies,  diapels. 


STATISTICAL  TABLE  OP 


Gboqsavbicai.  DzTxnoNS 


Japan  and  Dependencies 

Cmna    „  »,  (including  Macao) . . 

Further  India 

East  Indies 

India  and  Ceylon 

Anterior  Asia 

Mindanao 

Total  for  Asia 

Australia  and  Oceania 

South  Africa 

Central  , 

N.  W.     ..     

N.  E 

African  Islands 

Total  for  Africa 

South  America 

Central      „    I 

West  Indies   S 

N.  America  Negroes 

„         M       Indians 

Total  for  America 

Total  of  Mitnons  (1) 

Philippines 

Africa  (Seychelles.  Cape  Verde  Isles,  Angola) 

South  and  Central  America  Negroes 

South  America  Indians 

Central       «t  it 

Mexico  Indians 

West  Indies  Negroes. 

ToUd  oS  MUsiaru  (2) 

Totoi  (1)  and  (2) 


Catboucb 


Total 


128,773 

1,026.168 

1.060.369 

66,217 

2,242.922 

629.797 

157.640 


6.299.886 
170.054 

92.840 
231,358 

74.032 
146,359 
310.342 


853.931 

401.796* 

350,963 

112,700 
liOJll 

976.160* 


7,300,031* 

6.702,402 
1.038.132 
3.500.000 
3,200.000 
1.300,000 
4.500.000 
1.750.000 

21.990.534 

29,290,565* 


Of 

European 

Race 


About  1.000 
„  14.000 
.,  12.000 
„  25,911 
,.  80.000 
.,        6.000 


137,911 


45.000 

15,660 
50.000 
20,000 

130,000' 


150.000 
20.000 


170.000 
437,911 


About  10.000 
.,       15,000 


Cate- 
chumens 


24,672* 
426,480 
22.576* 

1.133 
65.443 


630,30(* 


3.930 

272,929 

17.480 

259.870* 
■554,209* 


MuaiONABIBS 


Total 


233 
1.811 
1.253 

78 
2.804 
2.937 

33 


9,149 

892 

313 
687 
378 
347 

_217_ 

1.842 

476* 

186 

59 
138* 


_25.000* 
462.911* 


859*^ 
12,242* 

1.100 


Native 


43 

650 

652 

1 

1.755 

2.266 


5.257 

9 

1 
2 

7 
111 
2* 

123* 


5.388* 


Brothers 


99 
291* 
164* 
32 
517 
1.811 
16_ 

2.930* 

291* 

445 
309 

88 
403 
112* 

1.357*" 

239* 
46* 


285^ 
4.863* 


judge  how  far  the  work  of  the  mission  has  been  suc- 
cessful. The  special  points  on  which  exact  infor- 
mation is  most  desirable  may  be  grouped  under  four 
heads:  (1)  Number  of  Christians;  (2)  Personnel  of 
the  Mission;  (3)  Mission  Establishments;  (4)  Ad- 
ministrative Statistics. 

{I)  Number  of  Christians, — In  recording  the 
number  of  Christians,  a  distinction  should  alwavs  be 
drawn  between  converted  heathens  and  Christian 
settlers.  While,  in  most  missionary  countries,  the 
latter  class  may  constitute  so  small  a  proportion  of  the 
totals  as  to  be  negligible,  there  are  many  countries  in 
which  the  number  is  sufficiently  large  to  create  a  false 
idea  of  the  progress  of  the  mission,  if  this  distinction  be 
not  observed  in  the  statistics.  A  distinction  between 
Christians  and  catechumens  is  equally  necessary,  and 
xmder  the  former  head  none  but  the  baptized  should 
ever  be  included.  By  catechumens  are  to  be  under- 
stood onlv  such  heathens  as  are  actually  being  in- 
structed tor  baptism:  as  they  constitute  the  harvest 
of  the  mission,  they  should  never  be  excluded  (as  is 
now  too  often  the  case)  from  the  statistics. 

(2)  Personnel  of  the  Mission, — ^The  statistics 
concerning  the  personnel  of  the  mission  should  state 
how  many  are  priests,  the  term  mtssionary  being 


schools  of  eveiy  Idnd,  hospitals,  and  charitable  estab- 
lishments. Chief  stations  are  most  simply  distin- 
guished from  sub-stations  by  ccmfining  the  former 
term  to  stations  which  have  at  least  one  resident  mis- 
sionary, and  the  latter  to  stations  wheie  Divine  ser- 
vice is  periodically  or  constantly  held  by  a  non-resi- 
dent missionary.  To  attempt  to  restnct  the  tenn 
chief  station  to  centres  of  imusual  missionary  activity 
must  lead  to  great  uncertainty,  as  it  would  be  hope- 
less to  expect  that  any  uniform  dividing-line  could  be 
universally  observed.  Again,  the  name  sub-Motion 
should  never  be  applied  to  places  where  instruction 
alone  is  given:  the  number  of  such  might  easily  as- 
sume proportions  which  would  almost  necessarily 
lead  to  misapprehension  of  the  exact  position  oi 
Christianity  in  the  country.  Outposts,  such  as  those 
here  indicated,  should  (if  eiven)  be  kept  separate 
from  the  stations.  The  schools  and  educational  es- 
tablishments possess  a  peculiar  interest,  since  in  many 
lands  the  task  of  reclaiming  adults  of  a  low  cultural 
level,  whose  minds  are  obsessed  with  superstitions 
and  brutalized  by  crime,  is  a  well-nigh  impossible  one. 
The  statistics  should  alwa3rs  distinguish  between  male 
and  female,  elementary  and  secondary.  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic  pupUs,  and  also  between  ordinary  pupils 


MISSIONS 


377 


mssioNs 


and  oxphans.  It  is  also  advisable  to  specify  the 
teaching  staff  (European  and  native)  and  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  receiving  instruction  in  handicrafts  and 
agriculture.  A  seminary,  if  such  exists,  ^ould  re- 
ceive special  mention,  since  it  has  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  formation  of  a  native  priesthood.  Other 
institutions  may  be  given  xmder  one  head,  as  in  many 
eases  one  building  serves  for  various  purposes. 

{%)  AdminUtraUve  Statistics. — ^The  figures  dealing 
with  the  actual  ministry  of  the  missionaries  are  of 
course  the  surest  indication  of  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity. In  giving  the  number  of  baptisms,  adults 
should  always  be  distinguished  from  children,  the 


ever,  the  word  misaion  is  confined  to  the  work  of 
bringing  pagans  into  the  Chursh.  In  view  of  this 
difference  in  the  use  of  the  term  miasum,  our  statistics 
will  contain  a  statement  of  the  present  condition  of  (1) 
the  Catholic  missions  in  lanos  prevailingly  or  ex- 
clusively pagan,  and  (2)  the  Catholic  missions  in  lands 
which  have  been  won  to  Christianity  since  the  Refor- 
mation. As  the  negroes  of  the  United  States  are  ad- 
mitted into  the  statistics  of  Protestant  missions,  the 
inclusion  of  this  second  class  is  necessary  to  supply  a 
uniform  basis  of  comparison  between  Catholic  and 
non-Catholic  missionary  activity. 
With  reference  to  the  accompanying  table  it  may  be 


CATHOUC  MISSIONS 


ArrxiUABZBS 

ChIBV  AMD 

SUB- 
BTATIONB 

« 

Cbttbcbbs 

AKD 

Cbapblb 

SCBOOL0 

PimLB 

• 

Chari- 
table 

Institu- 
tiona 

Baptxsiu 

* 

Relijpoua 
Women 

Catcehista 

Ordinary 

Orphans 

Adult 
Heathens 

Children 
in  Ex- 
tremis 

CathoHo 
Children 

416 
3,S46* 
3.169* 

408 
2,033 
1.224* 

•   • 

314*  . 
6,992*    - 
1,914 
75 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

287 

13.046 

5,081 

156 
4,677 
1,713 

176 

291 
6,025 
4.475 
76 
4.980 
1.769 

176 

113* 
4.821  , 
3,138 
96 
3,636 
1.090 

153 

6,889* 

118.013  ' 

90.325 

9.285 

212.944 

67.118* 

•   • 

2.097 

23.380 

14.088 

588 

11.586 

1.962 

■  • 

22 
234 

•  • 

•  • 
■  • 

6,757 
71,963 
13,68G^ 

16,i27 

•  • 
■  • 

4.194 
76,808* 
28.i20 

•  • 

4,230 
34.668* 

•  • 

•  • 

•  * 

•  • 

11,996* 

631* 

1,667 
323 
304 
969 
405* 

•  • 

592* 

2.565 
338 

1.329* 

25,136 
547* 

258 

1.569(T) 
334 
200 

1,341* 

17.792 

553* 

269 

1,384(T) 

228 

230 

1,307* 

13.047* 
497* 

• 

299 

1,210* 

337 

191 

1.355* 

504,074* 

20.634* 

17.021 

66.872 

19,071* 

17,717* 

73,132* 

193,813* 

18,898* 

35.071* 

9.050* 
6.240* 

53,651* 
959* 

952* 
6.996* 
1.673* 

482* 
173(7) 

•  • 
■  « 

11* 
211* 
96* 
33* 
23(?) 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  ■ 

•  m 

•  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

•  m 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  •  * 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

3,668* 

435* 
263* 

391 

4.232* 

•  • 

•  ■ 

■  ■ 

•  • 

3,702* 

418* 
284 

306 

3.418* 

340* 

282 

75 
197 

3.392* 

299* 
265 

134 

72 

10.276* 

374* 

•  • 

12* 
24 

•  • 

•  • 

•  « 

1,081* 
468* 

•  • 

•  • 

•  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 
■  « 

4.735* 
1.395* 

1,089* 

•  • 

1.008* 

894* 

770            69,259* 

•  • 

•    • 

17.2 

• 
• 
m  « 

•  • 

•  • 
m  m 

•  a 

84* 

• 
• 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 
■  ■ 

30.393* 

•  • 

•  • 
■  • 

•  • 

•  « 

•  • 

22,657* 

17.706* 

787,780* 

■  ■ 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  « 
■   • 

•  * 

•    ■ 

•  • 

•  ■ 

..1 

•  ■ 

«    • 

■  ■ 

•  ■ 

•   *                                         »  • 

■  • 

•    • 

number  baptized  in  articulo  mortis  being  given  in  both 
cases.  The  number  of  Easter  and  of  devotional  com- 
munions driven  separately)  are  of  special  importance 
as  indicating  approximately  the  number  of  Chris- 
tians who  have  reached  the  use  of  reason  and  the 
fervour  of  religious  life.  Such  concrete  figures  give 
a  better  idea  of  the  spirituality  of  the  newly-converted 
than  long  dissertations  on  their  seal.  Naturally, 
explanations  of  local  conditions  must  accompany 
the  figures,  which  might  otherwise  lead  to  miscon- 
ception. 

IV.  Statistics  op  the  Catholic  Missions. — In 
dealizig  with  mission  statistics,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  make  clear  from  the  first  in  what 
precise  sense  the  word  mission  is  to  be  undeistood.  In 
canon  law  the  term  si^ifies  all  districts  which  are  sub- 
ject to  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  and  it  might 
thus  include  territories  (e.  g.,  until  November,  1908, 
England  and  the  United  States)  with  which  the  idea 
of  mission  is  never  associated  in  ordinary  speech. 
We  also  find  two  clearly  defined  meanings  commonly 
assigned  to  the  word  by  popular  usage.  By  mission- 
ary activity  is  often  imderstood  all  efforts  directed  to- 
wards the  propagation  of  the  Faith,  whether  among 
heathens  or  amcmg  non-Catholics;  more  usually,  how- 


stated  that  the  imperfect  state  of  the  figures  available 
and  considerations  of  space  render  it  impossible  to  in- 
clude all  the  particulars  above  advocated .  An  asterisk 
denotes  that  the  returns  are  incomplete.  No  figures 
have  been  given  where  returns  for  a  ve^  small  per- 
centage of  the  missions  are  available.  For  fuller  in- 
formation the  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  cited  in 
the  biblii^raphy  and  to  the  articles  on  the  various 
countries  m  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

HuoNDEB,  Der  einheimiaehe  Klerus  in  den  HeidenUlndem  (Frei- 
burg. 1909);  Idem.  DeuUche  JeiuitenmUsiondre  det  17.  und  18, 
JahrhunderU  (Freibure.  1899) ;  Idem.  Kathol,  u.  ^protetianUadiB 
Miationaalmosen  (Freibura.  1910);  Krosb.  Katholtaehe  Mistiont' 
atatistik  (Freiburg,  1908) ;  Stocklbin,  Der  neue  Welt-BoU  mitaUer* 
hand  Nachrichten  deren  Misaion&ren  S.  J.  (Augsburg,  1726);  Kac^ 
EAR.  Den  kathol,  Misaione-Hiatorie  (Copenhagen.  1828) ;  Haxart, 
Kerkelijke  Hiatorie  pan  de  o^heele  toereldl  (4  vols.,  Antwerp.  1667- 
71);  Hahn.  OeachiehU  der  kathol.  Miaaionen  (5  vols..  Cologne, 
1857-65) ;  Mullbauer.  Geachiehte  der  kathol.  Miaaionem  in  Oatin- 
dien  (Freiburg.  1852) ;  Louvet,  Lea  Miaaiona  Catholiqtiea  au  X IX* 
Sikcle  (Lyons.  1894) ;  Delplace.  Le  Chriatianiame  au  Japan  (2  vols., 
Brussels,  1909-10);  Suau.  La  France  A  Madagaaear  (Paris.  1910) ; 
PioLET.  Lea  Miaaiona  Catholiquea  FranQaiaea  au  XIX*  8iMe  (6 
vols.,  Paris,  s.  d.);  Lb  Blant,  Lea  martyra  de  VBxtritae-Orieni  at 
lea  persicutiona  antiquea  (Arras.  1877);  hAUJfKY,  Histoire  oinirale 
de  la  SoeiM  dea  Mitaiona  Etrangkrea  (3  vols..  Paris,  1894);  Hbn- 
RiON,  NiMtoire  dea  Miaaiona  Catholiquea  (Paris.  1847);  Louvet,  La 
Cochinchine  reliffieu^e  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1885);  Depibrrb,  Situation 
du  Catholieiafne  en  Cochinchine  d  la  fin  du  XIX*  Siicle  (Saigon, 
1900):   Mianona  Dcminicainea  dana  Vextrtme  Orient  (2  vols.. 


aossiONS  378 


ti.i^ 


^•*^i^^  \ Ii'?^°^V'  JS*^*-.**  ^^f^  CaihcHqum  (2  tribal  polities  of  the  natives  likewise  resulted  in  ♦lieii 

vols..  Pana.  1864) ;  Hue,  L»  Chntttanunu  «n  CAtn«,  en  Tartant  tt  •»•«;-,« -«,^--,  k^uwl  4^  ^Y^a  «»«»  ««»«#»  a..#1  ^^k^  »«i4^:«>f.^^:^^« 

•u  7%«<  (Pari..  1857-68).  tr.  Haiutp  (LoodoQ.  1857;  New  York.  Pf  Jjng  more  heed  to  the  war  son^  and  the  satisfaction 

1887) :  CoBoiBB,  Reiatiotu  <U  la  Chine  avee  Ua  pviMancM  Mran-  of  their  passions  than  to  the  question  of  their  spiritual 

^et  (Pan«,  1901) ;  Victob  B»wi>ubdin  db  RotTBic .  Hui.  unit.  tUt  advancement.     Le  Caron  worked  faithfully,  evangel- 

tfiMnofM  /rane%aea%ne$  (Pans,  1808);  WoLrBBSTAif,  The  Cathohe  :,:«„  *u^  .avaMMi  t^y>A  no«n«»f.  i->«a  wa«r  f/*»  ^/yCa*.  •>«*;fl,4o 

Church  in  China  from  1880-1907  (St.  LoBi».  1910) ;  EifOBLHikBDT.  J*"^8  "1®  savagcs  and  paving  the  Way  for  other  pnests 

Jlunoiu  and  MiMumariee  of  CaUfomia  (Baa  IVaaetMso,  1008);  by  the  preparation  of  a  dictionary  of  the  Huron 

P^'?5v"*  ««m^  Pnuu  of  North  Ammo  (2  voU..  New  York,  language.    Having  made  a  trip  to  France,  he  returned 

^SSi"  i  ^r%.^r?9l'^;'^*£SS;LpSSii"iJSr:  ^\^^  F?^'^  NMo1«  \^el  -ad  Bn,ther  Gabriel 

Oxmdon.  1801);  Mabshall.  CAmtian  JifMfiofM  (London,  1862);  Sagard,  the  future  historian  of  the  early  C&tholic 

Satow.  The  Jeauit  Mieeion  Preaa  in  Japan:  1591-1810  (London,  missions  in  Canada. 


}i!§^ !  i°»"JrSSZ*lJS<JS^w'^S:*SS^^  .  Yet  the  result,  of  the  R«»Ue«rt8'  Iabou»  were  but 

(Cleveland.  1806-1001).  See  alao  in  Vacabt.  Diet,  de  thM.  eath.  mdi£rerent.    So  these  religious  generously  yielded 

ffana.  i«»TJ.  !-■  ^Sf.  ■•  ▼•  ^^y^^J^JSStV:^^^*  ■•^-  their  places  to  the  Jesuits,  who  reached  Quebec  on  19 

ta^S^'  II  liSio?^*  ■•  ""•       •  •  2070-2110:  FouBif».  June,  1625,  the  first  to  arrive  being  Fathers  J6rtme 

ikiflrion  Staiutios:  Kbosb.  KaihoKaehe  MienoneeiatiaUk  (Fn^  Lalemant,  £.  Mass6,  and  Jean  de  Br6beuf.     Father 

burg,  1008};  A^deeMianone  de  laSoeiiU  deeMietione  f^ran-  Mass6  had  already  laboured  among  the  Micmacs  of 

tS^^JSSU^"^  lfSSS::fZJS3::V:Z^^^  l^  »  no*  Nov.  Sc^i«     He  renewed  hfa  exertions 

1843);  OBCNDBiiAKN.  Kleine  Mienona^eographie  undSkUiaUk  m  their  midst,  while  Brebeuf  succeeded  I^e  Caron  at 

(Stuttgart.  1001) :  Wbbnbb.  Ortna  terrarum  eathoUeua  (Freibttxi,  the  head  of  the  Huron  mission,  whither  he  was  accom- 

1800)  and  the  Catholio  directories  for  the  vanoua  countnes.  mmuvl   htr  fliwuA  nthnr  nnosta  tmm   Fmam^    nAOA\ 

PubUcationa  by  Religious  Orders:  Conapeetua  omnium  mia-  V^^^Z  "^         ^    i'  P"^^  \"*°*  *I?^?^    Up26). 

aionumOrdinis  FratrumMinoruman,  1904-^  (Qa»neehL  1905);  One  of.  these,  a  sealous  Franciscan,  Father  de  la 

Annal^de  taCongrigaiion  de  la  Mieaion  (Paris,  annuallv);  Mia-  Roche  Dallion,  directed  his  Steps  towards  the  Neutnd 

V^J^^'^f^H'!^£;:^At£rASS^'Sna  nation  opwhi*  he  co^d  make  no  ta,,re88ioa.    He 

Conorigation  du  3.  BavrU  at  du  5.  Caur  de  IfarM  YParis.  1886—);  finally  left  (1627),  while  Br^beufs  Jesuit  COmpamon 

St.  Jofevh'B  Foreign  jiiaaionaru  AdaoeauOMidotk,  quarterly) ;  had  lUso  to  retum  East  in  the  couTse  of  the  same  year. 

lss!i±c^;:zs:J^::t^:^^^  ^^^f  >•*»«««»  ^r^^zj^i^  the  mwt'^diH 

aomheaigaUnUerMenJeau{mtiw,l8M-^;MiaaionaenChineat  COUn«ing  apathy,   if  not  hostility,   of  the   HuTOnS. 

ail  Congo  (Bruxellesj  188^):  BXCorreo  Sina-AnnamiUa,  Conaa-  In  1633,  after  a  temporary  absence  from  his  post,  he 

^S^^nSaSS^,^)    iVedu«dors.  m  Formoaa.  Ck,na  y  jetumei  West  with  Fathers  Antoine  Dai^  knd 

Thomas  Kennsdt.  Ambroise  Devest.    Incredible  hardships  led  them  to 

the  village  of  Ihonatiria,  where  they  met  a  pleasant 

BSissiona,  Cathouc   Indian,  of  Canada. — ^Tlie  reception.    Thence  they  visited  hamlet  after  hamlet, 

French  diBOoverers  of  Canada  did  not  fail  to  impress  teaching  and  exhorting  the  Indians,  at  first  with 

the  aborigines  they  met  with  a  vague  idea  of  the  re-  no  very  great  success.  In  the  East  Fathers  Dolb^u 

ligbn  they  professed.    Tlius,  on  3  July,  1534,  when  and  Jamay,  with  Brother  Duplessis,  were  displaying 

Jacques  Cartier  reached  Bale  des  Chaleurs,  he  pre-  their  seal  on  behalf  of  the  roving  Montagnais  and 

sented  the  Indians  with  prayer  beads,  and    shortly  Algonquins  of  the  Saguenay,  Ottawa,  and  Lower  St. 

afterwards  erected  a  laree  cross  with  the  inscription  Lawrence.    In  1636  Father  Dolbeau  had  even  ex- 

"Vive  le  Roide  France''^  thereby  combining  patriot-  tended  his  activities  to  the  outlying  bands  of  the 

ism  with  religion.    In  his  second  expedition  (1535)  Labrador  Eskimos.    Thus  were  missions  established 

he  was  accompanied  by  two  chaplains,  who,  of  course,  at  Tadoussac  for  the  Montagnais;  at  Gasp6  for  that 

could  not  impart  much  instruction  to  the  Eskimos,  tribe  and  the  Micmacs;  for  the  latter  alone  at  Miscou, 

Micmacs,  Algonquins,  and  Hurons  with  whom  they  New  Brunswick,  and  at  Three  Rivera  for  the  Montag- 

came  into  contact,  yet  must  have  indicated  in  some  nais  and  the  Algonquins.    As  a  rule,  those  Indians, 

wav  the  interest  the  newcomera  took  in  their  spiritual  though  lower  than  the  Hurons  in  the  social  scale, 

welfare.    Moreover  this  important  voyage  ultimately  showed  themselves  more  amenable  to  Christian  ideals, 

resulted  in  the  conversion  and  baptism  of  Donnaoona,  To  the  west  of  these,  missionary  operations  were 

the  Quebec  chief  kidnapped  to  France  by  the  discov-  thenceforth  to  be  concentrated  chiefly  with  a  view 

erer.    Likewise,  when  the  Sieur  de  Monts  establic^ed  towards   the  conversion  of   tribes   of   tiie    Huron 

his  colony  (1604)  in  what  was  to  become  known  as  confederacy.    By  the  end  of  1635  Fathera  Daniel 

Acadia,  he  had  with  him  priests  who  soon  turned  their  and    Devest,   going   to   Quebec,   met    two   priests 

attention  to  the  surrounding  tribes.    In  the  course  proceeding  to  the  north,  and  at  Three  Rivera  Father 

of  time  a  few  Micmacs  received  baptism  (1610),  and  Isaac   Jogues,    newly   arrived    from   France.     This 

their  companions  ever  manifested  the  greatest  attach-  missionary  soon  after  left  with  a  part^  of  Hurons 

ment  for  the  compatriots  of  their  missionaries.    Two  with  whom  he  was  to  make  his  apprenticeship  of  the 

priests^   Father  Pierre  Biard  and  Edmond  Mass6.  hardships  in  store  for  him.    From  the  central  mission 

left  Dieppe  for  Port  Royal  (26  January,  1611).  ana  of  St.  Joseph,  or  Ihonatiria,  some  twenty-eifht  towns 

started  their  ministrations  among  the  natives  oy  a  were  visited,  the  inhabitants  of  which  proved  as  fickle 

wise  show  of  prudence^  which  some  were  tempted  as  they  were  superstitious.    Hence  continual  dangen 

to  regard  as  an  excessive  dilatoriness  in  admitting  for  the  missionaries  neariy  culminated  in  their  death 

into  me  Church.    Four  yearo  later  more  important  at  the  hands  of  those  for  whose  salvation  they  were 

missions  were  commenced  on  the  arrival  at  Quebec,  then  devoting  themselves.    In  1638  there  were  nine  priests 

founded  seven  yeara,  of  Fathers  Denis  Jamay,  Jean  Dol-  working  sealouslv  in  thirty-two  villages   of  some 

b^iu,  and  Joseph  Le  Caron,  Recollects,  accompanied  twelve    thousanci    souls.      Gradually    they    estab- 

by  a  lay  brother.    While  the  firat-named  remained  lished  the  residences  of  the  ([Conception,  St.  Mary's, 

at  the  Frendi  fort,  Father  Dolbeau  went  to  instruct  and  St.  Joseph's,  named  after  the  one  at  Ihonatiria. 

the  Montagnais  who  repaired  to  Tadoussac  at  the  Thence  they  visited  the  Petuns  (1639),  and  in  1641 

mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  and  Father  Le  Caron  went  to  Fathera  Charles  Raymbault  and  Isaac  Jogues  went 

the  Hurons  in  the  West.     Champlain,  in  order  to  among  the  Ottawas.     Then,  smallpox  having  made 

secure  the  friendship  of  the  latter^  the  most  numerous  its  appearance  among  the  Hurons,   fresh  dangera 

of  the  Indian  bands  in  his  vicinity,  deemed  it  good  ensucKi  for  the  missionaries,  ever  considered  the  cause 

policy  to   espouse  their  cause  against  their  invet-  of  such  visitations.    They  now  turned  their  attention 

erate  enemies,  the  powerful  Iroquois  of  the  South,  tothe  Neutrals,  a  powerful  nation  settled  on  the  penin- 

This  step  eventually  embroiled  the  French  colony  in  sula  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  where  they 

incessant  hostilities.     Well  meant  though  it  undoubt-  experienced  new  insults,  and  met  with  very  few 

edly  was,  and  perhaps  necessary  imder  the  circum-  consolations  (164(M1).     Though  they  thus  visited 

Stances,  the  French  leader's  intervention  in  the  inter-  eighteen  villages,  tiying  to  win  over  the  people  by 


MISSIONS  379  MISSIONS 

their  gentleiiJeaB  and  their  devotion  to  their  interests,  into  the  river.    The  one  oonsolation  in  the  midst  of 

thev  were  everywhere  greeted  with  maledictions  ana  these  ruins  was  the  const|mcy  with  which  the  oon- 

raillery.    Nevertheless  it  would   seem   as   if   their  verts  stuck  to  their  faith,  even  when  in  the  land  of 

patience  and  fortitude  must  have  at  length  struck  their  executioners.    So  thoroughly  did  tibey  share 

those  uncouth  savages,  for  in  1645  they  invited  them  the  fortitude  of  their  pastors,  that  many  of  tnem  not 

to  their  country,  promising  a  better  reception  for  the  only  confessed  their  faith  in  Qirist  at  the  peril  of  their 

tireless  apostles.    The  days  of  the  Neutrals,  however,  lives  but  even  exhorted  their  persecutors  to  embrace 

jrere  nimibered;  the  Iroquois  were  to  be  the  uncbn-  it  themselves.     Some  of   the  fugitives  went  west, 

scious  executors  of  the  justice  of  God  upon  them.  while  oldiers  found  a  temporary  refuge  on  the  desert 

To  the  north  of  Huronia  lav  the  territory  of  the  islands  of  Lake  Huron,  or  among  the  Neutrals  who 
Algonquins  who  counted  at  tnat  time  no  less  than  had  soon  themselves  to  flee  for  their  lives.  -Mean- 
one  hundred  and  four  distinct  groups.  One  of  these,  while  the  exiles  of  Christian  Island,  after  untold 
the  Nipissings,  was  visited  by  Fathers  Claude  Pijart  sufferings,  retired  in  the  spring  of  1650  to  the  nei^- 
and  Raymbault  (1640),  who  were  cordially  received,  bourho^  of  Quebec,  finally  settling  at  the  Lorette 
Though  they  soon  made  a  number  of  baptisms,  their  Mission  (see  Huron  Indians).  Their  chief  occupa- 
sucoess  was  scarcely  commensurate  with  their  exer-  tion  having  ceased  with  the  practical  extinction  of  the 
tions.  Little  by  little,  however,  the  Nipissings  Huvons  as  a  people,  the  Jesuit  missionaries  now 
tired  of  the  missionaries,  and,  as  if  bv  way  of  punish-  turned  their  attention  to  the  fierce  Iroouois,  repeating 
ment,  they  were  in  1650  exterminatea  by  tne  Iroquois,  the  prodines  of  self-denial  with  whi(m  their  victims 
Unfortunately  good  and  bad  alike  had  too  often  to  had  beentavoured.  Against  their  tenacious  perse- 
suffer  by  the  invasions  of  those  warlike  aborigines,  verance  and  devotion  to  duty  no  bigptry  can  standT  To 
In  the  summer  of  1652  Father  Jogues  and  Brother  Protestants  as  well  as  to  Catholics  they  are  nothing 
Ren^  Goupil  were  surprised  by  a  party  of  that  short  of  heroes  of  Christian  fortitude.  To  the  west  of 
nation,  who  shockingly  mutilated  and  shamefully  Huronia  proper  was  the  land  of  the  Petuns  who 
tortured  the  former,  and  put  the  latter  to  death  (see  boasted  nme  or  ten  villages  with  a  population  of  per- 
GouPiL  and  Jogues).  In  common  with  practically  haps  ten  thousand  in  1640.  Two  missions,  that  of  St. 
all  the  missionaries  of  the  time,  Father  Jogues  was  a  John's  and  that  of  St.  Mathias,  had  been  established 
native  of  France;  an  Italian,  Father  Francis  Joseph  among  them.  These  Indians  were  commencing  to 
Bressani,  was  soon  to  walk  in  his  footsteps  (see-  yield  to  the  influence  of  ^ce  when  they,  too,  had  to . 
Brebsani).  Nothing  daunted  by  torments  which,  retire  before  the  victorious  march  of  the  ruthless 
humanly  speaking,  should  have  proved  fatal,  Bressani,  Iroquois.  In  1652  we  find  them  at  Michillimakinac, 
after  his  experience  with  the  Mohawks,  returned  to  whence  they  set  out  on  a  series  of  peregrinations 
Canada  (1645)  and  consecrated  his  unfailing  energies  which  landed  them  among^ tribes  of  the  United  States, 
to  the  welfare  of  the  Hurons,  who  could  not  help  re-  by  whom  they  were  ultimately  absorbed.  The  other 
garding  him  as  a  hero.  Meantime,  ccHistantly  har-  remnant  of  the  Huron  nation  fared  better.  About  1665 
assed  by  the  Iroquois,  who  had  burnt  several  of  their  they  enjoyed  the  ministrations  of  an  able  and  pious 
villages,  the  Hurons  were  rapidly  marching  to  their  priest.  Father  Joseph  M.Chaumonot,  a  pioneer  mission- 
doom.  Yet,  thanks  to  the  fearlessness  of  their  spirit-  ary  who  had  given  no  less  than  fifty-three  years  of  his 
ual  guides,  mission  work  grew  apace  among  tnem.  life  to  the  Ul-fated  Huions  (d.  1692). 
Indeed  about  1648  Father  Bressani  felt  warranted  to  Considered  as  a  nation,  the  Hurons  had  been  wiped 
write  that  "whereas  at  the  date  of  their  arrival  they  off  the  face  of  the  earth.  Such  of  the  priests  as  were 
fotmd  not  a  single  soul  possessing  a  knowledge  of  the  not  required  for  missionary  work  within  what  is  now 
true  God,  at  the  present  day,  in  spite  of  persecution,  the  American  Union  then  turned  their  attention 
want,  faminef  war,  and  pestilence,  there  is  not  a  single  toward  the  more  pacific  tribes  nearer  home.  The 
fwnoily  which  does  count  some  Christians."  Better  Bficmacs  had  from  the  first  accepted  Christianity  (see 
still,  the  converts  were  living  up  to  the  Christian  Micmacs).  On  20  July,  1657,  Gabriel  De  Queylus. 
standard  of  morality,  and  the  general  tone  of  the  Gabriel  Souart,  and  Dominique  Galinier,  members  ot 
nation's  society  was  gradually  undergoing  a  decided  a  newly  founded  ecclesiastical  society,  the  Sulpicians, 
change  for  the  better.  But  the  implacable  Iroquois  accompanied  by  M.  d'Allet,  a  deacon  of  the  same 
would  not  allow  tiiem  to  profit  peacefully  by  the  min-  institute,  arriving  at  Quebec,  immediately  proceeded 
istrations  of  their  priests.  One  by  one  their  villages  to  the  village  of  Ville-Marie,  now  Montr^,  where 
were  attacked  and  destroyed.  In  the  spring  of  they  replaced  the  Jesuits  in  the  chai^  of  the  local 
1648  St.  Joseph's  was  annihilated  and  its  mission-  pansh.  Though  more  especially  destmed  for  work 
ary.  Father  Daniel,  killed  while  comforting  his  flock,  among  the  whites,  the  Sulpicians  did  not  overlook 
Next  came  the  turn  of  the  fortified  town  of  St.  Louis  the  salvation  of  the  native  tribes.  Thus,  ten  years 
where  the  lion-hearted  Brdbeuf  and  his  companion,  after  their  arrival  in  Canada  (1667),  they  ministered 
Father  Lalemant,  were  martyred  (see  Brebeup).  to  the  Ottawas  and  other  Alponquin  groups.  Bishop 
St.  Ignatius  villa^  suffered  a  similar  attack,  and  De  Montmorency-Laval,  the  first  prelate  in  the  colony, 
most  of  its.  inhabitants  were  butchered.  Then  St.  entrusted  to  them  the  care  of  a  mission  established  at 
Bfary's  was  assailed  by  the  enemy;  but,  warned  in  Quints  Bay  on  Lake  Ontario,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
tinoie,  it  succeeded  in  repulsing  the  attack.  Numer-  Cayu^is,  an  Iroquois  tribe,  and  many  adopted  Hurons 
ous  Huron  villages  were  successively  razed,  and  many  settled  in  their  midst.  Tneir  success  with  the  adult 
of  their  peonle  massacred,  while  othera  were  led  off  to  population  was  not  complete;  but  their  very  presence 
the  lana  of  the  invaders,  there  to  undergo  torture,  pAved  the  way  towards  establishing  missionary  sta- 
perpetual  captivity,  or  death.  tions  all  along  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Ontario 

No  wonder,  then^  if  the  Hurons  lost  heart  and  (1669).    Soon  after,  the  Sulpicians  were  succeeded  in 

sought  safety  in  flight  and  dispersion.    Their  de-  that  field  by  the  Recollects  who  had  just  returned  to 

voted  pastors  followed  them  in  their  exile.    They  Canada.    Father  Louis  Hennepin  and  others  laboured 

at  first  gathered  remnants  of  their  once  powerful  with  energy,  but  harvested  only  tares,  and  the  natives 

nation  on  an  island  in  Lake  Huron,  callea  to-day  oadually  returned  south ;  all  traces  of  a  mission  on 

Christian  Island,  while  the  Petun  village  of  Etharita  we  Canadian  side  of  the  lake  disappeared, 
succumbed  under  the  blows  of  the  southern  aborip^ies.        It  was  then  that,  quite  a  number  of  Iroquois  of  the 

and  with  it  Father  Charles  Gamier  who,  thou^  m  the  American  Union  having  been  won  over  to  the  Faith, 

grasp  of  death,  dragged  himself  to  nunister  to  the  a  step  was  taken  by  their  spiritual  advisers  of  which 

spiritual    needs   of   his   afflicted    flock.    His    com-  the  results  were  to  last  to  our  day.    To  withdraw  them 

panion.  Father  Noel  Chabanel,  was  at  the  same  time  from  the  daneers  of  their  pagan  environment,  the 

the  victim  of  an  apostate  Huron  who  flung  his  body  Jesuits  induced  them  (1668)  to  settle  at  La  Prairie^ 


mSSIOHB 


380 


near  Montreal,  whence  they  moved  (1676)  to  Sault  St. 
Louis,  and  then  to  Caughiiawa«a.  One  of  the  chief 
reasons  for  that  migration  was  the  prevailing  excesses, 
principally  owing  to  the  intoxicants  dealt  out  by  the 
Dutch.  The  Frendi  colony  itself  was  not  free  from 
that  greatest  of  curses  for  the  American  aborigine. 
But,  m  addition  to  the  solemn  promise  to  abstain 
therefrom  which  was  exacted  of  all  the  newcomers 
into  the  model  settlement,  the  stopping  of  the  evil 
was  more  easy  on  Canadian  than  on  American  (or, 
as  it  was  then,  English)  soil.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
missionaries  of  New  France,  and  especially  their 
valiant  head,  Bishop  Laval,  fought  it  with  unnag^g 
perseverance,  appealing  to  the  French  authorities 
whenever  their  representatives  on  the  St.  Lawrence 
proved  unwilling  to  stay  the  spread  of  this  scourga 
in  their  new  home  at  Sault  St.  Louis  the  Iroquois 
Christians  gave  great  consolations.  Thus  one  of  the 
Tormer  torturers  of  Father  de  Br^beuf ,  Garonhia^6 
by  name,  became  one  of  the  most  zealous  catechists 
of  the  new  mission,  and  the  war-chief  Kryn  shone  by 
his  virtues  as  much  as  by  his  courage.  But  the  best 
known  example  of  Christian  efflorescence  in  that 
settlement  was  Catherine  T^kwitha,  a  native  virgin 
sumamed  the  "  Lily  of  the  Mohawks",  who  died  in 
1678  after  a  short  life  passed  in  the  practice  of  heroic 
virtues.  About  that  time  events  shaped  themselves 
in  such  a  way  as  to  further  increase  the  extent  of  the 
missionary  field  in  the  East.  The  Abenakis,  an 
Algonquin  nation^  ever  a  staunch  alljr  of  the  French, 
thoudi  most  of  its  tribes  were  considerably  nearer 
to  the  English,  were  attracting  the  attention  of 
Father  Gabriel  Druillettes,  who  visited  them  re- 
peatedly in  their  original  homes.  These  natives 
were  soon  to  swell  the  ranks  of  the  Canadian  Indians 
under  the  care  of  the  Jesuits.  After  a  series  of  hos- 
tilities in  the  course  of  which  the  English  had  at  one 
time  to  agree  to  pay  them  tribute,  the  Abenakis 
were  defeated  on  3  Dec.,  1679.  Rather  than  re- 
main neighbours  to  the  victors,  most  of  them  imme- 
diately vMtde  their  way  to  Canada  and  Acadia,  where 
they  have  since  remained. 

The  following  year  (1680)  two  Jesuits,  the  brothers 
Vincent  and  Jacques  Bigot,  were  appointed  to  watch 
over  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  newcomers.    These, 

Skthered  at  the  village  of  Sillery,  joined  St.  Joseph's 
ission  which  in  1681  counted  already  some  five 
hundred  or  six  hundred  inhabitants,  as  yet  \m- 
baptized,  but  animated  bv  excellent  dispositions. 
Their  congeners  in  Acadia,  having  heard  of  the  wel- 
come extended  to  them,  asked  for,  and  were  granted, 
1  July,  1683,  a  land  concession  of  thirty-«ix  square 
miles  on  the  Chaudi^re  River,  to  which  they  flocked 
in  large  numbers.  This  was  given  the  name  of 
St.  Francis'  Mission.  For  over  twenty  years  the 
Bigot  brothers  devoted  their  energies  to  the  welfare 
of  the  Indians  of  both  missions,  and  their  seal  was 
rewarded  bv  complete  success.  In  1708  other 
aborigines  of  the  same  stock  were  settled  at  B^can- 
court,  with  a  view  to  serve  as  a  rampart  against  the 
Iroquois.  They  ''were  all  Christians,  and  practised 
with  much  edification  the  precepts  of  Christianity" 
(Charlevoix,  "Journal  Hist.",  V,  p.  164).  Twelve 
years  later  (1720)  they  numbered  about  five  hundred 
souls.  A  short  time  before  (1716),  the  mission  of 
Oka,  or  Lake  of  the  Two  Mountains,  was  established, 
where  Christianized  Iroquois  and  remnants  of  the 
Algonquin  nation  were  gathered  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Sulpicians.  In  these  various  foundations  the 
secular  authorities  generously  seconded  the  efforts 
of  the  missionaries  by  the  grant  of  large  tracts  of  land 
for  the  benefit  of  their  charge. 

Now  that  the  French  were  more  or  less  at  peace 
with  the  Iroquois,  and  friendly  with  the  other  trioes  in 
the  East,  they  dreamt  of  fresh  conquests  in  the  West. 
The  "Western  Sea"  (Pacific  Ocean)  was  especially 
the  object  of  their  ambition.    They  commissioned 


the  Sieur  Pierre  QauHhier  de  Laverendrye  to  undei^ 
take  an  expedition  in  that  direction,  ana  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1735  Father  Jean  Pierre  Aulneau,  S.J.,  ac> 
companied  him  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  previous  to 
attempting  his  ultimate  mission,  the  conveiaioa  of 
the  Mandans  of  the  Upper  Missouri  With  a  party 
of  twenty  Frenchmen,  he  was  treacherously  slain 
on  an  island  of  the  same  lake  by  the  Sioux  on  8  June  of 
the  following  year.  Father  Claude  Godefroy  Coquart, 
of  the  same  order,  took  his  place  (1743)  as  chi^Iain 
of  the  exploring  expedition,  and  dwelt  a  short  time  at 
the  present  Portaee  la  Prairie,  but  could  acooznpliafa 
nothing  for  the  Western  Indians.  The  mission  of 
Michilimakinac,  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Huron,  was 
'then  the  base  of  operations  for  such  expeditions. 
Thence  also  the  Jesuits  scoured  the  woods  in  quest  of 
souls  to  save,  and  Ross  Cox  says  that  the  impression 
they  made  on  their  wayward  wards  was  such  that, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centurr,  the  de- 
scendants of  the  latter  haa  not  forgotten  ^'the  good 
white  fathers  who.  unlike  other  white  men,  never 
robbed  or  cheated  tnem  "  ("Adventures  on  the  Colum- 
bia River",  New  York,  p.  149).  But,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  reservations  of  the  Abenakis  and  the 
Micmacs  in  the  far  East,  all  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits,  most  of  the  Catholic  missions  in  Canada 
were  along  the  St.  Lawrence.  Quite  a  few  were  at 
the  various  localities  then  called  the  Posts  of  the 
'  King,  the  Malbaie,  Tadoussac,  Mingan,  Chiooutimi, 
and  other  places,  concerning  which  Father  Coquart 
addressed  a  memoir  to  the  Intendant  of  New  France 
under  date  5  April,  1750. 

Shortly  before,  a  Sulpician,  Father  Francis  Picquet, 
had  started  a  movement  among  the  aborigines,  the 
results  of  which  were  most  remarkable.  In  a  village 
called  Ogdensburg  he  established  a  reduction,  the  suc- 
cess of  which  soon  attracted  widespread  attention.  In 
the  space  of  four  years  he  grouped  over  three  thounnd 
Indians  and  opened  for  their  benefit  the  missions  of 
La  Presentation,  La  Galette,  Susatsi,  L'lle  au  Galop, 
and  L'lle  Picquet,  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  So  great 
was  his  success  and  so  considerable  the  extent  S  his 
operations  that  (1749)  it  took  the  Bishop  of  Quebec 
ten  days  to  inspect  his  central  establishAent  officially. 
Two  years  later  Father  Picquet  visited  the  Indians  oo 
Lake  Ontario,  whence  he  repaired  to  the  land  of  the 
Senecas.  When  Quebec  was  captured  in  1759,  that 
missionary  had  converted  lai^  numbers  of  heathens. 
Unfortunately,  the  ensuing  unsettled  state  of  ^e 
countnr  put  a  stop  to  his  activities,  and  in  May,  1760, 
he  had  to  leave  Ogdensburg,  never  to  return.  An- 
other Sulpician,  Father  Jean  Mathevet,  after  having 
mastered  the  language  of  the  Abenakis,  of  which  he 
compiled  a  dictionary,  was  then  ministering  to  tiie 
mixed  congregation  of  Oka  (1746-81),  together  with 
Father  Vincent  Guichart,  whose  missionary  labours 
extended  from  1754  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  1793. 
Perhaps  the  most  famous  Canadian  missionary  of  that 
period  was  Father  Jean-Baptiste  Labrosse,  a  Jesuit, 
who  exercised  bis  ministry  slII  through  Lower  Canada 
and  New  Brunswick  during  no  less  than  thirty-five 
years,  being  with  the  Montagnais  and  the  Maiecites 
from  1754-^2,  when  he  died  regretted  by  all  for  his 
unremitting  charity.  Two  events  then  conspired  to 
interrupt  the  progress  of  the  Catholic  missions  in 
Canada.  These  were  the  change  of  political  masters, 
owing  to  which  several  members  of  the  deigy  re- 
turn^ to  France,  and  the  suppression,  in  1773,  of  the 
Jesuit  Order.  Bv  the  fortieth  clause  of  the  Monti^ 
capitulation  England  had  granted  religious  liberty  to 
the  Indians  as  well  as  to  the  whites  then  in  the  colony. 
Yet  some  of  the  instructions  soon  after  sent  to  her 
representatives  on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  were 
openly  against  the  spirit,  if  not  the  letter,  of  that 
treaty.  The  ofl[iciaIs  were  told  that  "all  missionaries 
among  the  Indians,  whether  established  under  the 
authority  or  appointed  by  the  Jesuits,  or  by  any  other 


MXSSXOim                             381  1SIB8ION8 

eoclfiBiastica]  authority  of  the  Romish  Churoh,  [must]  had  preceded  him  in  that  distant  regbn.    Tlien 

be  withdrawn  by  degrees,  and  at  such  times  and  in  Thibault  joum^^  even  farther  west,  and  founded 

such  a  manner  as  sh^  be  satisfactory  to  the  Indians  the  mission  of  St.  Ann,  whence  he  and  other  priests 

and  consistent  with  the  public  safety,  and  Protestant  thenceforth  attended,  with  some  measure  of  success, 

missionaries  appointed  in  their  places  "   (Royal  In-  to  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  surrounding  tribes.    He 

Btructions  to  oir  Geoige  Prevost).    The  natives  re-  next  went  (1844)  as  far  as  Cold  Lake/Lac  la  Biche 

fused  to  pcu*t  with  their  priests  on  uiy  consideration,  and  even  He  ^  la  Crosse,  where  the  Uin6  Indians 

thereby  showing  the  extent  of  the  influence  these  received  him  with  open  arms. 

had  acquired  over  them.  After  the  suppression  of  A  short  time  before  (1S42)  another  Canadian  mis- 
the  Society  of  Jesus  the  care  of  the  Indians  lell  entirely  sionary,  Father  Modeste  Demers,  began  work  through- 
on  the  shoulders  of  the  Sulpicians  and  of  such  of  the  out  British  Columbia,  or  New  Caledonia,  as  that  cotm- 
secular  cleigy  as  could  be  spared  for  that  work,  try  was  then  called,  going  as  far  as  Stuart  Lake,  where 
Among  the  former  we  mav  mention  Father  Thavenet,  he  accomplished  wonders.  As  eariy  as  1838,  after 
who  laboured,  mostly  at  the  Oka  mission,  from  1793  to  having  crossed  the  entire  continent  from  Quebec, 
1815.  Of  the  latter  one  of  the  most  prominent  was  a  Father  Demers  had  reached  the  Columbia  valley, 
refugee  from  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution,  where  he  was  everywhere  received  as  the  special  en- 
AbbS  le  Courtois,  who  reached  Canada  on  26  June,  voy  of  the  Almighty,  and  produced  among  the  popu- 
1794,  and  dicKl  on  18  May,  1828,  after  having  devotea  lous  tribes  of  the  Pacific  an  impression  which  power- 
himself  to  the  service  of  the  northeastern  and  St.  fully  worked  for  imity  when,  later  on,  the  mmisters 
Lawrence  aborigines.  of  various  sects  made  their  appearance.  In  the 
Meantime  an  event  had  taken  place  in  the  West  Bpring  of  the  followingyear,  Father  Jean  Baptiste  Z. 
which  was  portentous  of  the  most  imfwrtant  results  Bolduc  reintroduced  Christianitv  on  Vancouver  Is- 
for  Catholic  influence  among  the  natives  of  North  land,  where  it  had  been  planted  at  the  time  of  the 
America.  The  Earl  of  Sellurk  having  foimded,  in  occupation  of  Nootka  by  the  Spaniards  (1789-95). 
1812,  a  colony  of  Scotch  Presbyterians  and  Irish  In  1845-47  Father  John  Nobili,  a  Jesuit,  retraced 
Catholics  at  the  jimction  of  the  Assiniboine  and  Red  Demers'  itinerary,  and  finall;^  went  even  so  far  as 
Rivers,  was  violently  opposed  by  the  representatives  Babine  Lake  in  the  course  of  his  missionary  excursion, 
of  the  Northwest  Company.  This  opposition  re-  Meantime  a  new  worker.  Father  Jean  E.  Darveau, 
suited  (19  June,  1816)  in  the  Battle  of  Seven  Oaks,  in  was  in  a  fair  way  towards  materially  improving  the 
which  twenty-two  whites,  including  the  governor  spiritual  condition  of  the  hardened  Saulteux  of  what 
of  the  colony,  lost  their  lives.  As  it  was  evident  to  the  is  to-day  Northern  Manitoba,  when  he  was  murdered, 
noble  foimder  that  no  permanent  success  could  be  4  June^  1844,  by  Indians  who  sided  with  a  Protestant 
achieved  without  the  aid  of  religion,  he  obtained  from  catechist  stationed  at  Le  Pas,  Lower  Saskatchewan, 
the  Bishopof  Quebec  two  missionaries,  Father  Joseph-  where  the  priest  intended  to  start  a  permanent  mis^ 
Norbert  Provencher  and  Joseph  Nicholas  S.  Du-  sion.  East  of  the  Manitoban  lakes.  Father  Domini- 
moulin,  who,  on  16  July,  1818,  arrived  to  found  the  que  Du  Banquet^  S.J.,  inaugurated  in  April  of  the 
church  of  St.  Boniface.  opjMsite  Fort  Douglas,  the  same  year  the  missionary  station  of  Walpole  Island, 
headquarters  of  the  traders  in  the  ooimtry.  One  of  on  Lake  Superior,  whence  he  visited  various  posts, 
the  chief  objects  of  the  new  mission  was  the  conver-  and  in  the  following  July  another  Jesuit.  Father 
sbn  of  the  aborigines  of  the  Middle  West  of  Canada.  Chon^,  took  up  his  residence  at  Wikwemikong,  on 
Father  Dumoulin  tried  to  meet  the  wishes  of  his  bidiop  Manitoulin  Island,  where  a  secular  priest  had  pre- 
in  this  respect;  but^  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  coidd  ceded  him.  No  less  than  twenty-one  posts  on  the 
give  only  naif  of  his  time  to  the  Indians,  he  accom-  island.  Georgian  Ba^  from  Mississagu^  to  Owen  Sound, 
plished  little  enough.  In  fact,  such  was  the  rebellious  as  well  as  Lake  Nipissing  and  Beausoleil  Island,  were 
temper  of  his  native  charges,  that  he  was  twice  shot  attended  from  that  mission.  Great  was  the  opposi- 
at  by  one  of  them.  Scarcely  anything  could  be  done  tion  of  the  Protestant  ministers  (among  whom  was 
to  better  their  lot  until  1831,  when  Father  George  A.  James  Evans,  the  inventor  of  the  Cree  syllables) ; 
Belcourt  arrived  among  them  from  Lower  Canada,  but  the  Jesuits  held  their  own,  and  managed  to  or- 
The  newcomer,  an  able  man,  immediately  commenced  gsjnze  the  flourishing  Christian  settlements  of  Garden 
to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language  of  River  and  Pigeon  River  (1848).  The  latter  station 
the  Saulteux,  or  Qiippewas,  which  he  reduc<3  to  was  transferrai  in  1849  to  Fort  William  by  Fathers 
writins  and  of  which  he  composed  a  dictionaiy.  In  Chon^  and  Frimiot.  Thence  these  missiotiaries  min- 
1833  he  established  on  the  Assiniboine  an  Indian  istered  to  the  Indians  of  Port  Arthur,  Prince's  Bay, 
village,  known  as  St.  Paul's  Mission,  where  he  strove  Royal  Island,  and  Lake  Nepigon.  Still  further 
to  teach  farming  as  well  as  the  elements  of  the  east,  in  the  very  land  of  the  Abenakis,  less  consoling 
Christian  doctrine.  Owing  perhaps  to  his  insistence  events  had  taken  place  some  time  previously.  An 
on  the  former,  his  success  was  far  from  complete.  Indian  known  by  the  name  of  Masta  had  been  edu- 
In  the  summer  of  the  same  year,  Father  Jean-Baptiste  cated  in  the  United  States,  whence  he  returned  in 
Thibault  reached  the  Middle  West;  thou^  less  1830  to  St.  Frauds  Mission  with  the  title  and  at- 
brilliantly  endowed  than  Belcourt,  he  was  to  prove  tributes  of  a  Protestant  minister.  After  much  op- 
more  successful  as  a  missionary.  The  latter  was  then  position  at  the  hands  of  his  fellow  Abenakis  he 
joumcnring  to  Rainy  River,  where  he  found  the  In-  succeeded,  bv  dint  of  skilful  in tri^e  and  with  the  con- 
dians  "little  disposed  to  leave  the  bottle  for  the  word  nivance  of  the  Canadian  authorities,  in  puttins  im  a 
of  God",  according  to  the  founder  of  the  Red  River  Protestant  chapel  in  the  very  midst  of  the  Indian 
Missions,  now  Bishop  Provencher.  In  the  course  of  village  (1837).  Three  years  later  Father  J.  A. 
1838  Belcourt  established  a  second  post  at  the  Maurault  was  sent  thither  by  Bishop  Simay  to  learn 
confluence  of  the  English  and  Winnipeg  Rivers,  the  language  of  the  natives,  and  in  1847  he  actualljr 
Tliis  was  Wabassimong.  which  soon  aca  uired  a  degree  became  their  missionary.  Thenceforth  the  Abenala 
of  celebrity,  though  it  nad  to  be  abanaoned  in  1847.  preacher  saw  whatever. mfluence  he  had  ^ined  wane 
In  1842  a  new  and  larcer  field  was  opened  to  the  zeal  until  he  had  to  leave  the  scene  of  his  exploits.  At  the 
of  the  missionaries,  the  Far  West,  to-day  Alberta,  same  time  a  still  better  known  pnest  was  com- 
where  Father  Thibault  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  mendng  his  apostolic  career  at  Oka,  Father  J.  A. 
Crees  and  Blackfeet  who  repaired  to  Fort  Eklmonton.  Cuoccj,  an  able  Sulpician,  who  was  to  consecrate  his 
Without  becoming  at  once  converts  to  our  holy  faith,  energies  for  over  hsdf  a  century  to  the  welfare  of  the 
these  aborigpes  were  persuaded  by  the  preaching  Mohawks  and  Aigonquins,  whose  languages  he  event- 
of  the  Canadian  priest  to  the  extent  of  definitively  re-  ually  mastered, 
jecting  the  advances  of  the  Methodist  minister  who  A  new  era  dawned  foj  the  Indian  missions  of 


382 

Canada.  At  the  request  of  Mgr  Bourget,  Bishop  of  the  eveiiiiig  servioe,  when  every  mother  teodies  the 
Montreal,  four  Oblates  of  Blary  Immaculate  readied  members  of  her  family  how  to  pray  to  the  Great 
the  St.  Lawrence  from  France  (1841)  and  imme-  Spirit"  (Rapport  siu*  les  Missions  de  Quebec,  March, 
diately  began  preaching  missions,  not  only  to  the  1851,  p.  36).  A  regular  house  of  the  Oblates  was  e»- 
wh'tes,  but  also  to  the  Indians  of  Lower  Canada,  tablished  (1851)  at  Rividre  au  Desert,  now  Maniwaki, 
Several  missionaries  of  the  new  order.  Fathers  Louis  and  later  on  (1862)  others  were  erected  at  Bethsia- 
D^^ge^  Flavien  Durocher,  and  Jean-N.  Laverioch^re,  mits  and  Ville-Marie  (Pontiac),  whence,  as  well  as 
soon  distinguished  themselves.  Hearing  of  their  from  the  residences  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  not  only  the 
success,  Bishop  Provencher  begged  for  the  co-opera-  rovins  bands  of  the  interior,  Montagnais,  Algpnquiiis, 
tion  of  their  brethren  in  religion.  On  25  Auff.,  1845,  and  Nascapis,  but  even  such  as  resorted  to  the  trsuding- 
Father  Pierre  Aubert  and  Brother  Antonin-Alexandre  posts  of  Aobittibbi,  Albanv,  and  Moose  Factoir,  on 
Tach6  arrived  at  St.  Boniface^  and,  while  the  older  Hudson  Bay,  were  visited,  by  the  ''Black-Robes", 
missionaiv  was  sent  to  Wabassunong,  Brother  Tach^  In  spite  of  their  precarious  circumstances,  Uioeeaborig- 
left  after  nis  ordination  (22  Oct..  1845)  for  the  distant  ines  often  enough  repaid  by  a  faithful  discharge  of 
post  of  He  k  la  Crosse.  There  ne  had  for  a  superior  their  religious  duties  tne  devotedness  of  their  spiritual 
Father  Louis  Lafldche,  who  had  established  that  mis-  cuides.  The  same  may  be  eaid  of  the  Indians  of 
sion  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  year.  Both  priests  tne  inhospitable  steppes  of  the  Far  North,  where  the 
did  a  vast  amount  of  good  to  the  native  population.  Tach^,  Farauds,  Grandins,  Grolliers,  and  a  host  of 
In  1846  two  other  Oblates,  Father  Henri  Faraud  and  a  others  were  ^aalv  undergoing  Ihe  pangs  of  hunger, 
companion,  reached  the  Canadian  West.  In  the  and  setting  at  defiance  the  rigours  of  Arctic  winters 
north  Father  Tach^  mdually  extended  his  field  of  and  the  fatigues  of  endless  marches  on  snowshoes, 
action.  He  visited  (1847),  first  of  all  missionaries,  for  the  sake  of  the  souls  entrusted  to  their  care, 
the  shores  of  Lake  Athabasca,  where  Father  Faraud  Their  courage  and  devotion  to  duty  were  so  great,  and 
was  to  inaugurate  the  Nativity  Mission  on  8  September,  their  successes  so  striking,  that  they  often  elicited 
1849.  On  24  June  of  the  following  year  Father  flattering  encomiums  from  Protestant  traders  and 
Tadi^  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Proven-  explorers.  OnSONovember,  1859,  Father  Grandin  was 
cher,  and  temporarily  left  tne  lie  ji  la  Crosse  mission  consecrated  Bishop  of  Satala  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop 
m  the  hand  ot  newcomers.  Fathers  Maisonneuve  and  Tach^;  yet  he  remained  in  the  north^  spending  moet 
T^ssot,  whose  inexperience  was  somewhat  resented  by  of  his  time  in  incessant  travelling.  His  presence  there 
the  Indians.  Hence  Bishop  Tach^  had  to  return  to  was  all  the  more  necessaiv  as  the  preceding  year  had 
them  after  his  consecration  (23  Nov.,  1851).  and  for  witnessed  the  arrival  in  the  Mackenzie  district  of  the 
several  years  the  young  prelate  continued  among  first  Protestant  clergyman,  the  forerunner  of  numerous 
them  the  labours  wnich  pertain  more  to  the  province  Anglican  missionaries  in  the  north.  Fatiier  Grollier 
of  a  simple  priest  than  to  that  of  a  bishop.  Father  was  immediately  dispatched  to  Fort  Simpson,  the 
Henri  Urollier,  a  young  Oblate  who  was  to  become  headquarters  of  the  enemy,  where,  in  spite  of  the  in- 
the  Apostle  ot  the  Arctic  Circle,  came  to  swell  the  ducements  offered  by  the  local  Protestant  trader,  he 
ranks  of  the  missionaries  (June,  1852),  while  Father  had  the  consolation  of  seeing  the  great  majority  of 
Albert  Lacombe  started  on  his  long  career  as  an  the  natives  side  with  the  representative  of  Camoli- 
itinerant  missionary  over  the  Saskatchewan  plains,  cism.  He  then  founded  (1858)  the  missionary  post  of 
Father  Grollier  soon  went  to  Lake  Athabasca,  where  Our  Lady  of  Good  Hope,  likewise  on  the  Madceniie 
he  was  for  some  time  Father  Faraud's  companion,  and  just  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Then  he  e\*en 
Then  he  foimded  the  mission  of  Fond  du  Lac,  on  the  went  down  as  far  as  the  first  Eskimo  village  (Sept^ 
same  body  of  water  (1853),  while  Father  Ren4  Rtoas  1860),  while  Father  Gascon,  a  new  recruit,  was  pro- 
establiE^ra  that  of  Lac  la  Biche.  The  principal  event  tecting  the  savages  of  the  Liard  River  against  the 
of  1854  was  the  arrival  in  the  Canacuan  Northwest  wiles  of  the  preacher.  Simultaneously  Uie  difficult 
of  Father  Vital  J.  Grandin,  a  young  Oblate  who  was  station  of  Lake  Caribou,  just  southwest  of  the  Barren 
to  do  yeoman  service  in  the  cause  of  the  missions  Grounds,  was  established  under  Father  V^grevflle. 
there.  The  new  recruit  was  sent  to  Lake  Athabasca,  The  year  1862  saw  the  beginning  of  what  was  to 
to  relieve  Father  Faraud,  who  established  (1856)  St.  become  a  most  important  establishment  under  the 
Joseph's  Mission  on  Great  Slave  Lake.  Illustrative  title  of  the  Divine  Providence,  on  Uie  Mackenzie, 
of  the  result  of  the  Oblates'  exertions  in  the  north,  where  Fathers  Gascon  and  Petitot  made  the  very  first 
we  may  sa;y  that,  by  the  end  of  1856,  there  remained  clearings.  That  same  year  a  Protestant  minister, 
of  the  seven  hundred  and  thirty-five  natives  who  Mr.  Kirkby,  despairing  of  success  east  of  the  Rocky 
formed  the  population  of  He  k  la  Crosse,  only  one  Moimtains,  crossed  that  range  into  the  Yukon, 
hundred  and  forty-eight  heathens.  Hearing  of  this,  an  intrepid  missionary.  Father 
In  the  far  East  other  Oblates  were  emulating  those  S^guin,  immediately  followed;  but  the  conflict  was 
of  the  Canadian  Northwest;  in  addition  to  those  already  unequal;  the  preacher,  besides  the  powerful  influence 
mentioned  there  were  Fathers  Andr6  Garin  and  Charies  of  the  traders,  had  resources  of  which  the  priest  could 
Ainaud,  then  Fathers  Louis  Babel  and  Jean-Pierre  not  dispose.  Above  all,  he  had  the  advantage  of 
Gu6guen.  These  missionaries  repeatedly  visited  in  priority,  and,  despite  two  other  visits  of  the  CaUiolie 
succession  Tadoussac,  Les  Escoumains,  Maskuaro,  missionaries,  that  of  Father  Petitot  (1870)  and  that  of 
Mingan,  Portneuf,  and  Les  Ilets.  As  a  rule  their  Bishop  Clut  with  Father  Lecorre  (1872),  the  Loucheux 
efforts  were  crowned  with  success.  Not  only  did  they  of  the  Far  Northwest  were,  to  a  great  extent,  lost 
teach  their  neophytes  the  rudiments  of  the  Christian  to  the  Church.  Thin^  were  Drifter  on  Uie  Saskat<;h- 
doctrine,  but  they  even  imparted  to  them  some  ewan  and  in  the  adjoining  region,  where  new  posts, 
knowledge  of  the  secular  sciences,  and  enhanced  the  denoting  constant  progress,  were  being  established  on 
attractiveness  of  the  Catholic  worship  by  solemn  all  sides.  Even  martyred  Darveau's  old  mission  of 
processions  and  other  pious  devices.  As  early  as  30  Duck  Bay  had  been  in  a  sense  revived,  though  trans- 
Sept.,  1850,  one  of  them.  Father  Amaud,  at  this  ferred  to  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Manitoba 
writing  (1910)  still  actively  engaged  in  the  eastern  under  the  name  of  St-Laiu«nt.  A  still  more  iin- 
field,  wrote  of  the  natives  of  Les  Ilets:  ''They  are  the  portant  event  was  the  erection  of  the  Athabasca  and 
best  instructed  on  the  coast;  they  all  know  how  to  read  Mackenzie  districts  into  a  separate  vicariate  Apos- 
and  write.  It  is  inspiring  to  see  them  in  the  church,  tolic,  with  Father  Faraud  (consecrated  30  Nov.,  1804) 
the  men  on  one  side  ana  the  women  on  the  other,  as  first  titular.  The  new  prolate  was  (1866)  g^r&i 
prayer-book  in  hand,  vying  with  each  other,  as  it  were,  a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of  Bishop  Isidore  Clut. 
m  modesty  and  fervour.  Another  spectacle  scarcely  With  tnis  perfected  organization  the  northern  mis* 
less  strildng  is  that  of  the  little  children  in  prayer  after  sions,  served  by  such  sterling  missionaries  as  Fathers 


1 


383 


Stenn,  Grouard,  and  the  learned  exploYer,  linguiBt, 
and  etnnograixher,  Father  Petitot,  managed,  in  the 
teeth  of  opposition  and  extreme  poverty,  not  onlv  to 
hold  their  own,  but  to  increase  the  number  of  their 
stations  and  converts.  In  the  course  of  1866  Father 
Petitot  procured  for  the  natives  of  Great  Bear  Lake 
the  visit  of  the  first  minister  of  the  Gospel  they  had 
ever  seen  in  their  dreanr  wastes.  In  the  south 
Fathers  Laoombe,  Gast^,  Leduc,  Fourmond,  Bonnald, 
and  others  were  neither  less  active  nor  less  success- 
ful. While  in  the  far  East  secular  priests  were  looking 
after  the  spiritual  interests  of  the  Abenalds,  the 
Oblates  continued  their  visits  to  the  Indians  north  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Jesuits  to  the  natives  of 
the  Lake  Superior  basin. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  work  of  evangelization 
inaugurated  by  Father  Demers  likewise  advanced. 
That  missionary,  having  been  made  Bishop  of 
Vancouver  Island  (1847),  called  to  his  aid  the  Ob- 
lates lately  established  in  Oregon.  The  stations 
of  Esquimalt,  Sanish,  and  Cowitchen,  and  the  con- 
version of  hosts  of  aborieines  were  the  immediate 
results.  From  the  island  missionary  work  spread 
to  ^e  adjacent  mainland.  On  8  Oct..  1859,  Father 
Qiaries  M.  Pandosy  founded  Ihe  OicanagBin  mis- 
sion, and  Fathers  Casimir  Chirouse,  Lten  Fouauet. 
Paul  Durieu,  and  other  Oblates  powerfully  helped 
their  superior.  Father  Louis-Josepn  D'Herbomez.  in 
regenerating  the  Indians  of  the  Lower  Fraser.  Most 
consoling  were  the  results  of  their  zeal,  and  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  a  more  thoroup^  change  from  habitual  intemper- 
ance and  other  vices  was  ever  effected  in  Nortti 
America  than  that  which  rejoiced  the  hearts  of  the 
Oblates  in  British  Columbia. 

On  20  Dec.,  1863,  Father  d'Herbomes  became  the 
fiirst  bi^op  of  the  mainland,  and  this  circumstance 
gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  evangelization  of  that  im- 
mense country.  Shushwaps  andChilootins  were  then 
granted  the  same  spiritual  advantages  as  had  been 
lor  some  time  enjoyed  b^  the  natives  of  the  Lower 
Fraser  vaUev,  for  the  special  benefit  of  whom  the  mis- 
sion of  St.  Mary's  haa  been  established  (1861).  In 
the  course  of  1868  Bishop  dUerbomez  himself  visited 
the  whole  of  the  northern  interior  of  British  Columbia, 
aa  far  as  Babine  Lake,  doing  much  good  to  the  D4n^ 
and  other  Indians  he  met.  Fathers  Le  Jaoq  and 
McGuckin  walkea  in  his  footsteps  imtil  the  former 
established  (1873)  the  mission  of  Stuart  Lake, 
which  was  to  become  the  great  centre  of  missionary 
activities  in  the  north  of  the  Pacific  province.  In 
June,  1875,  Father  Pierre-P.  Durieu  was  named 
coadjutor  to  Bishop  d'Herbomez.  On  Vancouver 
Island  a  devoted  secular  priest,'  Father  August 
Brabant,  had  long  been  battling  at  his  own  per- 
sonal risk  against  the  apathy  of  the  less  religiously 
inclined  Indians  of  the  west  coast.  He  was  finally 
successful,  while  secular  priests.  Fathers  J.  N.  Lem- 
mens,  Joseph  Nicolaye,  and  omers.  were  gradually 
taking  the  places  of  the  Oblates  who  had  oeen  the 
pioneers  of  the  island  diocese.  In  1871  the  Holy 
See  formed  the  Province  of  St.  Boniface  with  Ardi- 
bishop  Tach6  as  metropolitan  and  three  suffrasans. 
Bishop  Grandin,  now  titular  of  St.  Albert,  ana  the 
vicars  Apostolic  of  Athabasca-Mackenzie  (Mgr.  Far- 
aud)  ana  of  British  Columbia  (Mgr.  d'Herbomez). 
The  archdiocese  lost  importance  as  a  missionary  coun- 
try in  proportion  as  it  saw  the  wave  of  white  immi- 
gration rob  over  the  soil  tilled  by  so  many  devoted 
v^orkers.  The  districts  of  the  Saskatchewan,  Atha- 
basca, and  the  Mackenzie  were  Ions  to  remain  rich 
fields  for  apostolic  men  zealous  for  the  lowest  in  the 
social  scale.  That  the  difliculties  and  even  dangers 
attending  the  evaneelization  of  the  Indians  had  not 
disappeared  from  those  territories  was  made  evident 
by  the  drowning  in  Lake  Athabasca  (1873)  of  a 
veteran  of  the  northern  missions.  Father  Emile 
Eynard,  an  ex-official  of  the  French  Govenunent,  the 


freezing  (1874)  of  Louis  Daz4,  a  lav  missionaiy  of  the 
St.  Albert  diocese,  and  the  fate  which  befell  Brother 
Alexis  (July,  1875),  killed  and  eaten  by  an  Iroquois 
companion. 

Yet  there  is  no  denying  that  local  conditions  were 
little  by  little  imdergoing  some  alterations.  On  the 
plains  of  what  is  now  southern  Alberta  and  southern 
Saskatchewan  white  immigration  had  commenced.  At 
that  time  treaties  were  made  with  Ihe  Indians,  en- 
tailing the  establishment  of  new  missionary  posts  and 
of  industrial  schools.  While  some  of  these  were  as- 
signed to  l^testant  sects,  the  Church  could  not  be 
content  with  a  second  place  in  a  country  where  she  had 
done  most  of  the  pioneer  work.  In  spite  of  occasional 
ill-will  on  the  part  of  those  in  power,  she  readily 
adapted  herself  to  the  new  circumstances.  Thus 
were  founded  the  important  Indian  schools  of  (1) 
Dunbow,  Alberta  (1884);  (2)  Qu'Appelle,  Saskatche- 
wan (1884);  (3)  St.  Boniface  (1890);  (4)  Duck  Lake, 
in  Saskatchewan  (1897),  and  other  similar  institutions 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Indian  3routh.  British  Cblumbia 
already  possessed  the  Indian  industrial  schools  of  St. 
Marv's,  William's  Lake,  Kamloops,  and  Kootenay,  all 
in  the  hands  of  the  Catholic  missionaries  and  nuns. 
Then  came  the  Saskatchewan  Rebellion  (1885),  which 
resulted  not  only  in  the  destruction  of  seven  Ciatholio 
missions,  but  even  in  the  death  at  the  hands  of  pagan 
Oees  (2  April)  of  Fathers  Fafard  and  Marcnand, 
young  Oblates  then  in  charge  of  the  posts  of  Frog 
Lake  and  Onion  Lake  respectively.  Quite  a  few  of 
the  misguided  Indians,  however,  eventually  profited 
by  these  troubles,  since  their  condemnation  to  aealh  or 
confinement  led  them  to  join  the  Church  they  had  so 
grievously  injured. 

Thenceforth  the  roving  life  of  the  pioneers  be- 
came more  or  less  a  thing  of  the  past  for  the  mis- 
sjlonaries  of  the  western  prairies,  who,  penned  up 
with  their  char^  in  well-defined  reservations,  con- 
tinued their  mmistrations  without  that  element  of 
romance  which  breaks  the  monotony  of  the  daUy  rou- 
tine and  contributes  to  the  making  of  history.  It 
may  now  suffice  for  us  to  mention  the  labours  of 
Fatners  Gast^  at  Lake  Caribou;  Bonnald  at  Cumber- 
land: Grouard  (who  replaced  Bishop  Faraud,  d.  Oct., 
1892),  at  Lac  la  Biche  and  Athabasca;  of  Father 
Pascal  (appointed  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  newly  crea- 
ted district  of  the  Saskatohewan,  19  April,  1891),  at 
Lake  Athabasca  and  elsewhere;  of  Father  S^guin,  on 
the  Lower  Mackenzie,  and  of  manv  other  equally  de- 
serving missionaries.  Even  the  lonely  missions  of 
the  great  northern  stream  and  tributaries  have  had  a 
share  in  the  material  progress  so  noticeable  in  the 
south.  Thanks  to  the  initiative  of  Bishop  Grouard, 
a  steamer  has  been  built  which  annually  saves  to 
those  poor  missions  laige  sums  of  money  formerly 
paid  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  for  their  periodical 
outfitting.  In  the  far  East  a  new  impetus  was  im- 
parted to  the  missions  of  the  faithful  Micmacs  by  the 
arrival  of  the  Capuchin  Fathers  in  October,  1894, 
at  Ste-Anne  de  Restigouche.  In  British  Columbir 
material  circumstances  were  never  quite  so  precarious 
as  in  Mackenzie.  Owin^  to  the  efforts  of  Bishop 
Durieu,  the  spiritual  conditions  of  the  Indians  of  the 
mainland  of  uiat  province  have  ever  been  exception- 
ally bright.  Witn  the  aid  of  such  tried  co-workers 
as  Fathers  Le  Jacq,  Fouquet,  Chirouse  lunior,  and 
others,  the  wonders  of  the  Paraguayan  Reductions 
have  oeen  reproduced,  if  not  surpassed,  among  the 
Indians  of  the  Pacific.  Others  workine  there  were 
Rev.  A.  G.  Morice,  who  directed  Stuart's  Lake  mis- 
sion during  nineteen  years  and  invented  an  Indian 
^Ilabary  now  ^widely  known  in  the  North;  N. 
(joccola,  who  did  wonders  in  the  Kootenay;  Fr. 
Thomas,  and  V.  Rohr. 

Of  a  native  population  of  111,043,  Canada  officially 
counts  to-day  40,820  Catholic  Indians  thus  distrib- 
uted: Prince  Edward  Island,  274;  New  Brunswick, 


MISSIONS 


384 


1871;  Nova  Scotia,  2103;  Quebec^  7026;  Ontario, 
6319;  Manitoba,  1734;  Saskatchewan,  2939;  Al- 
berta, 1873;  Northwest  Territories,  2252;  Yukon 
Territory,  59,  and  British  Columbia,  11,470.  These 
are  the  omcial  figures,  which  represent  only  the  treaty 
Indians.  In  so  far  at  least  as  the  present  vicariates 
Apostolic  of  Athabasca  and  of  Mackenzie  are  con- 
cerned, they  are  manifestly  out  of  proportion  with  the 
actual  population^  since  the  Catholic  Indians  and 
halfbreeds  of  those  territories  alone  are  locally  esti- 
mated at  11,000  and  5,000  respectively,  with  perhaps 
500  native  Protestants.  55,000  is  a  fairly  accurate 
figure  for  the  total  of  the  Catholics  among  the  Cana- 
dian Indians. 

For  books  bearint  on  the  Catholic  miaiionfl  in  Canada  see  the 
bibliography  after  the  article  Huron.    Also. — 

Beoo.  HxaUny  of  Britiah  Columbia  (Toronto,  1894);  Bboo, 
(a  namesake  of  forecoinic),  Tht  Creaiion  of  Manitoba  (Toronto, 
1871):  Idbm,  Hiatmy  of  the  Norih-veat,  3  vols.  (Toronto.  1894); 
Bknoit,  Vie  de  Mpr  TacM,  2  vols.  (Montreal,  1904) ;  Boclton, 
Reminiteenicea  of  the  NorihweH  Rebellions  (Toronto,  1886):  BuA- 
txn.  Vie  de  Catherine  TtkahgufUa  (Montreal) ;  Duoas.  Moneei- 
meur  Proveneher  (Montreal,  1889);  Idem.  Hietoire  vindigue  dee 
raita  qui  ont  prSpari  le  Mouvement  dee  MStia  (Montreal,  1905); 
Insii,  Hietoire  de  VOue&t  Canadien  de  18 f 2  h  1869  (Montreal, 
1906);  Haroraye,  Red  River  (Montreal.  1871);  Hiu.,  Manitoba 
(Toronto,  1890);  Jones,  Relation  viUdiU  du  R.  P.  Pierre  Laure, 
8.J.  (Montreal.  1889);  Idem,  TheAulneau  Collection  (Montreal, 
1893);  JoNQUET.  Monaeigneur  Grandin  (Montreal.  1903):  Ljnd- 
BAT,  Notre-Dame  de  la  Jeune  Lorette  (Montreal,  1900) :  BiAimN, 
Hurona et  Iroquoia  (Paris,  1898):  Maurauxa*,  Hietoire aea  Abina- 
kia  (Sorel.  1866):  MomcK,  A  u  Pay  a  de  VOura  notr  (Paris.  1897); 
Idem,  Hiatoru  of  the  Northern  Interior  of  Britiah  ColunUna  (To- 
ronto, 1904) :  Idem.  Dietionnaire  hiatorique  dea  Canadiena  et  dee 
MHia  francaU  de  fOueat  (Quebec,  1907);  Idem,  Hiatory  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Weatem  Canada,  2  vols.  (Toronto.  1910); 
Mulyant.  The  Hiatory  of  the  Norihtoeat  Rebellion  of  1886  (To- 
ronto, 1886) ;  Paqubt,  Fragmenta  de  F Hietoire  relioieuae  et  civile 
da  la  paroiaae  de  St  Nioolaa  (Ldvis.  1894);  Petttot,  Ches  lea 
Oranaa  Eaquimaux  (Paris,  1887) :  Idem.  En  route  pour  la  Mer 
Olaciale  (Paris,  1888) ;  Idem,  Quinxe  Ana  aoua  le  Cfercle  Polaire 
(Paris,  1889);  Idem,  Autour  du  Grand  Lac  dea  Badavea  (Paris, 
1891};  Idem,  Exploration  de  la  Riffion  du  Grand  Lac  dea  Oura 
(Pans,  1893);  Piglet,  Lea  miaaiona  catholiquea  francaiaea  au 
XIX*  aiteU,  Vl  (Paris,  s.  d.),  61-164:  Somerset,  The  I^nd 
of  the  Muakeg  (London,  1855);  Souixrin,  Le  Phre  LaverlocMre 
(Paris.  8.  d.). 

Periodicaki:  Annalea  de  la  Propaoation  de  la  Foi  (Lyons)  iMio' 
aiona  de  la  CongrfgatUm  dea  Oblatea  de  Marie  ImmacuUe  (Paris, 
1862-1910};  NottceanicrolooiqueadeaO.M.  L  CParis);  Rapporta 
aur  lea  Miaaiona  du  Dioc^  da  Qu^>ec  (Quebec). 

A.  Q.  MORICB. 

Millions.  Catholic  Indian,  op  the  Untteid 
States. — ^The  spiritual  welfare  of  the  native  tribes 
of  America  was  a  subject  of  deep  concern  to  the  Gov- 
ernments of  Catholic  Spain  and  France  from  the  veiy 
discovery  of  the  Western  Continent.  To  th^s  fact  all 
the  early  patents  bear  witness.  That  granted  to 
Ayllon  in  1532  for  exploration  and  settlement  alons 
the  Florida  coast,  as  quoted  by  Shea,  is  t3rpical: 
"Whereas  our  principal  intent  in  the  discovery  of  new 
lands  is  that  the  inhabitants  and  natives  thereof,  who 
are  without  the  light  or  knowledge  of  faith,  may  be 
brought  to  understand  the  truth  of  our  holy  Catholic 
Faith,  that  they  may  come  to  a  knowledge  thereof, 
and  become  Christians  and  be  saved,  and  this  is  the 
chief  motive  that  you  are  to  bear  and  hold  in  this 
affair,  and  to  this  end  it  is  proper  that  religious  persons 
should  accompany  you,  by  these  presents  I  empower 
you  to  carry  to  the  said  land  the  religious  whom  you 
may  judge  necessary,  and  the  vestments  and  other 
things  needful  for  the  observance  of  Divine  worship; 
and  I  command  that  whatever  you  shall  thus  expend 
in  transporting  the  said  religious,  as  well  as  in  main- 
taining them  and  givinc  them  what  is  needful,  and 
in  their  support,  and  K>r  the  vestments  and  other 
articles  required  for  the  Divine  worship,  shall  be  paid 
entirely  from  the  rents  and  profits  which  in  anv 
manner  shall  belong  to  us  in  tne  said  land. "  With 
few  exceptions  secular  priests  and,  missionaries  ac- 
companied every  Spanish  expedition  of  discovery. 
The  first  Mass  celebrated  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States  was  probably  that  offered  up  by 
the  priests  of  Ponce  de  Le6n's  expedition  at  the 
aouib-westem  point  of  Florida  in  1521.    The  next 


was  celebrated  by  the  noted  Dominican  Antooio  de 
Montesinos,  the  earliest  opponent  of  Indian  slaveiy, 
at  Ayllon's  temporair  colony  of  San  Miguel  de  Guan- 
dape  in  Viiginia  in  1526,  eighty  yeazB  before  the  found- 
ing of  Jamestown. 

I.  South-Eastekn  States  (Virqinia  to  Alabama, 
Inclusive). — ^The  whole  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
United  States,  extending  westwards  to  or  bevond  the 
Mississippi,  was  known  in  the  early  Spanisn  period 
under  the  general  name  a!  Florida.  Altnough  at  least 
fifteen  priests  had  lost  their  lives  in  ihia  region  with 
the  expeditions  of  Narv&es  and  De  Soto  in  1 527-2S  snd 
1539-42.  an  attempt  to  evan^lize  the  native  tribes 
was  made  in  1549  by  the  Dommican  Luis  Cancer,  the 
apostle  of  Guatemala,  under  a  royal  commission 
Granted  at  his  own  request  for  the  conversion  of 
Florida.  Forced  by  the  obstinacy  of  the  ship-captain 
to  land  at  Tampa  Bay  among  the  nerce  Calusa,  instead 
of  being  given  an  opportunity  to  search  out  a  friendly 
tribe,  Father  Cancer  and  his  two  companions  had 
hardly  touched  the  shore  when  they  were  killed  by 
the  assembled  savages  in  sight  of  the  ship,  being  thus 
the  first  missionary  martyrs  of  the  eastern  United 
States.  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  the  first  permanent 
settlement  in  the  eastern  United  States,  was  founded 
by  Men^ndez  in  1565.  In  the  next  year,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Kins  of  Spain,  three  Jesuits  were  sent  out, 
one  of  whom,  lather  Pedro  Martfnei,  having  landed 
with  a  small  party  on  Cumberland  Island  on  the 
Georgia  coast,  was  attacked  and  murdered  by  the 
savaees.  The  other  two  Jesuits,  Father  Juan  ilogel. 
and  Brother  Francisco  de  Villareal,  after  spending  a 
winter  studying  the  language,  proceeded  to  work 
among  the  Calusa  tribe  in  southern  Florida.  Rein- 
forcea  by  ten  more  Jesuits  in  1568,  they  went  over  to 
Havana  to  establish  there  a  school  for  Indian  boys 
from  Florida.  Father  Juan  Bautista  Segura,  as 
Jesuit  vice-provincial,  then  took  dmrge  of  the  Florida 
mission,  establishing  stations  among  the  Calusa, 
Tegesta,  and  Tocob^a  tribes  of  the  south  and  west 
coasts,  while  Father  Antonio  Sedefio  and  Brother 
Domingo  B^s  began  the  first  Georgia  mission  on 
Guale  ^t.  Simon's?)  Island  among  the  Yamasee,  in 
whose  language  Brother  Biez  prenared  a  sranmiar 
and  a  catechism.  In  1569  Father  Rogel  witn  several 
other  Jesuits  b^an  work  iii  South  Carolina  among  the 
Crista  (£>listo)  and  others  in  the  neighbourfaowl  of 
the  Spanish  post  of  Santa  Elena.  After  about  a  year, 
the  results  proving  unsatisfactory,  both  the  Orista 
and  the  Guale  missions  were  abandoned,  the  mission- 
aries returning  to  Havana  with  a  number  of  b<r^  for 
the  Indian  school. 

In  1570  Father  Segura,  accompanied  by  Father 
Luis  de  Quires  and  seven  (?)  novices  and  lav  broth- 
ers, all  Jesuits,  together  with  four  instnictea  Indian 
youths,  undertook  a  mission  ctmong  the  Powhatan  Li- 
dlans  in  what  is  now  Virginia.  Tne  guide  and  inter- 
preter on  whom  they  depended  to  bring  them  into 
touch  with  the  natives  was  a  young  Indian  of  the 
region,  who  was  the  brother  of  a  local  chief  and  had 
been  brought  off  by  a  Spanish  eJtpedition  nine  years 
botore,  educated  imder  tne  Dominicans  in  Mexico  and 
Spain,  and  baptised  imder  the  name  and  title  of  Don 
Luis  de  Velasco.  Their  destination  was  Axacan 
(Oshacon) — supposed  by  Shea  to  have  been  on  the 
Rappahannock — but  more  probably  situated  farther 
soutn.  They  met  with  friendly  reception,  and  a  log 
chapel  was  erected  (September,  1570),  but,  before  the 
winter  was  over,  Don  Luis  proved  treacherous,  and 
imder  his  leadership  the  Indians  attacked  the  missioD 
(February,  1571)  and  massacred  the  'entire  partv 
with  the  exception  of  one  Indian  boy,  who  was  spared, 
and  finally  escaped  to  tell  the  taie.  The  massacre 
was  avenged  on  the  principals  by  Men^ndea  a  year 
later.  In  consequence  of  the  small  result  in  Flori'i^ 
the  Jesuits  were  shortly  afterwards  transferred  to  the 
more  promising  field  of  Mexico.    Years  afterwardc:  oo 


MISSIONS                             385  MISSIONS 

tlie  efltablkhmeiit  of  the  Catholic  colony  d  liaiylandy  of  them  with  their  ohuiehes,  made  prisoner  the  mis- 

acme  attention  was  given  to  the  neighbouring  Indians  sionaries.  and  then,  proceeding  farther  southward, 

of  Virginia  (see  below^ .    In  1577  several  Francis-  biuned  the  town  of  St.  Augustine  with  the  Franciscan 

cans  under  charge  of  Father  Alonso  de  Reynoso  ar*  church  and  convent  and  one  of  the  finest  libraries  then 

rived  at  St.  Augustine  and  began  work  among  the  in  America.    The  fortress  held  out  until  relieved  by  a 

Timucua  Indians  near  the  city,  of  wh<nn  a  number  Spanish  fleet.    In  January,  17CMt,  Moore,  at  the  head 

were  soon  r^ular  attendants  at  the  parish  church,  of  about  fifty  Carolina  men  and  a  thousand  or  more 

Fifteen  years  later  four  Franciscan  priests  and  two  well-armed  Creek,  Catawba,  and  other  savages,  rav- 

lay  brothers  were  at  work  in  the  towns  of  the  Timucua  aged  the  Apalachee  country,  destroyed  ten  of  the 

and  Yamasee  from  St.  Augustine  northwards  into  eleven  missions  iowns,  slaughtered  hundreds  of  the 

Georgia.    In  1593  twelve  more  were  sent  out  in  chaige  people,  including  a  niunber  of  waniors  who  made  a 

of  Father  Juan  de  Silva,  including  the  noted  Father  stand  under  the  Spanish  lieutenant  Mexia,  and  carried 

Francisoo  Pareja,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  our  off  nearly  1400  Christian  Indians  to  be  sold  as  slaves 

most  complete  account  of  the  Timucua  people  and  in  Carolina  or  distributed  for  tortme  or  adoption 

language  and  for  several  devotional  worlcs,  the  first  among  the  savages.   The  missions,  with  their  chunshes, 

books  printed  in  any  Indian  language  of  the  United  gardens,  and  orance  groves,  were  utterly  demolished, 

States.  the  vestments  andsacred  vessels  destroyed  or  carried 

In  1597  a  chief  of  the  Yamasee  organized  a  con-  off,  and  numbers  of  the  neophytes  burned  at  the  stake. 
Bpiracy  which  seems  to  have  included  also  a  part  of  Four  of  the  mission  fathers  were  also  killed  Ttwo 
the  Tmiucua  tribe  about  St.  Augustine.  Five  mi»-  being  tortured  and  burned  at  the  stake),  and  tneir 
flionB,  stretching  from  St.  Augustine  to  Ossabaw  island  bodies  hacked  to  pieces  by  deliberate  permission  of 
in  Geoigia,  were  attacked  and  five  of  the  six  mis-  Moore  himself,  who  gave  up  Lieutenant  Mexia  and 
sionaries  miurdered.  Father  De  Avila  (or  Ddvila^,  four  Spanish  soldiers  to  the  same  fate, 
although  badly  wounded,  being  rescued.  The  aa-  This  wa4  practically  the  end  of  the  florida  missions, 
vance  of  the  Indians  was  fimuly  checked  by  some  although  for  more  than  twenty  years  thereafter  efforts 
Spanish  troops,  after  all  the  Yamasee  missions  had  were  made,  with  some  temporary  success,  to  ^ther 
been  destroyed.  The  missions  among  the  more  peace-  together  again'  the  remnants  of  the  Apalachee,  Timu- 
ful  Timucua  about  the  lower  Saint  John's  River,  cua,  and  other  Christian  tribes,  and  in  1726  there  were 
Florida,  continued  to  flourish,  being  in  1602  four  in  still  counted  more  than  1000  Cnristian  Indians.  With 
number,  besides  temporary  stations,  with  1200  Chris-  the  establishment  of  the  English  Georgia  colony  and 
tian  Inoians.  Other  Franciscans  arriving,  the  Yama-  the  ensuing  war  of  1740  the  attempt  was  abandoned. 
see  missions  were  re-established  in  1605,  the  Potano  and  the  mission  territory  reverted  to  its  original  wila 
tribe  on  the  Suwanee  river  almost  entirely  Christian-  condition.  In  1753  only  136  Indians  remained  in  four 
iaed  two  years  later,  and  a  beginning  made  among  the  mission  stations  close  to  St.  Augustine.  In  1743  the 
lower  Creek  bands.  In  1633  missionaries  were  sent  Jesuit  Fathers  Jos^  Miu^a  Monaco  and  Joa6  Xavier  de 
to  the  powerful  Apalachee  of  western  Florida  in  re-  Alana  began  a  mission  near  Cape  Florida  among  the 
sponse  to  repeated  requests  from  that  tribe.  In  1655  utterly  savage  Als  and  Job^  with  such  success  that  a 
tnere  were  35  Franciscan  missions  in  Florida  and  community  of  Christian  Indians  was  built  up,  which 
Georgia  with  a  Christian  Indian  i>opulation  of  26,000  continued  imtil  the  Seminole  War  (1817-18). 
souls.  This  was  the  zenith  of  their  prosperitv.  Two  II.  Mabyland. — ^The  English  Catholic  colony  of 
years  later  the  Apalachee,  in  consequence  of  the  un-  Maryland,  foimded  in  1634,  was  served  in  its  first  years 
just  exactions  of  the  governor,  became  involved  in  a  by  the  Jesuits,  who  made  the  Indians  their  special  care, 
warwith  the  Spaniards,  which  compelled  the  abandon-  Under  the  superior.  Father  Andrew  White,  and  his 
inent  of  the  eight  flourishing  missions  in  that  territory,  companions,  several  missions  were  established  among 
The  fathers  embarked  for  Havana,  but  were  all  the  Fiscataway  (Conoy)  and  Patuxent  of  lower  Mary- 
drowned  on  the  passage.  In  1674,  through  the  efforts  land,  west  of  Chesapeuce  Bay,  and  considerable  atten- 
of  Bishop  Calder6n,  the  Apalachee  mission  was  re-  tion  was  also  given  to  the  Potomac  tribe  in  Viiiginia. 
stored,  and  several  new  foundations  established.  In  The  principal  mission  was  begim  in  1639  at  Kittama- 
1684  tne  Diocesan  Synod  of  Havana  promulgated  regju-  miindi,  or  Fiscataway,  near  the  mouth  of  the  creek  of 
laticns  for  the  covemment  and  protection  of  the  mis-  that  name.  Other  stations  were  Mattapony  on  the 
sion  Indians.  In  the  same  year  the  Governor  of  Flor-  Patuxent,  Anacostan  (Anacostia)  adjoinmg  the  pres- 
ida,  alarmed  at  the  growing  strength  of  the  English  ent  Washington,  and  Potopaco  (Port  Tobacco),  where 
<x>Iony  of  Carolina,  imdertook  to  remove  the  Incuans  nearly  all  the  natives  were  baptized.  In  16^,  dm*- 
of  the  northern  missions  to  more  southern  settlements  ing  an  extended  visit  amons  the  Potomac,  on  the 
wiUi  the  result  that  the  Yamasee  a^un  revolted  and.  Virginia  side.  Father  White  baptized  the  chief  and 
being  supplied  with  guns  by  the  English,  attacked  ana  principal  men,  with  a  number  of  others.  The  work 
destroyea  the  mission  on  Saint  Catherine  island,  was  much  hampered  bv  the  inroads  of  the  hostile 
Georgia,  and  carried  off  a  troop  of  Christian  Indians  Susquehanna  from  the  bead  of  the  bay,  and  was 
prisoners  to  sell  as  slaves  in  Carolina.  In  1696  an  at-  brought  to  a  sudden  and  premature  close  in  1645  bv 
tempt  to  establish  missions  about  Cape  Cafiaveral  re-  the  Puritans  and  other  malcontents,  who,  taking  aa- 
sulted  in  the  killing  of  a  religious  and  six  companions,  vantage  of  the  Civil  War  in  England,  repaid  the  gen- 
A  like  attempt  in  the  next  year  among  the  fierce  erosity  which  had  given  them  asylum  in  Maryland  by 
Calusa  south  of  TamrA  Bay  also  proved  abortive.  seizing  the  Government,  plundering  the  churches  and 

For  years  the  Eru^ish  slave-traders  of  Carolina  had  missions  and  the  houses  of  the  principal  Catholics,  and 
made  a  business  ofarming  certain  tribes  with  guns  sending  Fathers  White  and  Copley  to  Ekigland  to  be 
and  sending  them  out  to  make  raids  upon  other  tribes  tried  for  their  lives,  while  Father  Martwell,  the  new 
to  procure  slaves  for  Carolina  and  the  Barbadoes.  The  superior,  and  two  other  missionaries  escaped  to  Vir- 
Spanish  Goverzmient,  on  the  eontraj^,  refused  guns  ginia.  Later  efforts  to  revive  the  mission  had  only 
even  to  the  Christian  Indians.  The  War  of  the  Span-  temporary  success  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the 
wh  Succession  g^ve  an  opportimity  for  an  attack  upon  Protestant  Government  and  the  rapid  wastmg  of  the 
the  Florida  missions.  In  May,  1702,  the  heathen  native  tribes.  Before  1700  the  remnanl  of  the  Piscat- 
Lower  Creeks,  armed  and  instigated  by  Governor  away  removed  bodily  from  Maryland  and  sought  ref- 
Moore  of  Carolina,  attacked  Santa  F6,  occupied  by  uge  in  the  north  with  the  Delawares  and  Iroquois, 
the  Timucua,  and  burnt  the  church.  In  October  of  the  among  whom  they  have  long  since  become  entirely  ex- 
same  year  a  combined  English  and  Indian  land  expe-  tinct.  To  Father  White's  anon3anous  "  Relatio  itl- 
dition,  co-operating  with  a  naval  force,  attacked  the  neris  ad  Maxylandiam"  (translation  published  in  1833 
nuflsion  towns  nor^i  of  S%.  Augustine,  burned  three  and  again  in  1874)  w^  M^  iod^bted  fpr  t^^^  t^f^9\uit 


386 

H  the  wegtem  Maryland  tribes.    He  also  composed  nal  languages.    Earlier  in  the  year  the  nussion  village 

an  Indian  catechism,  still  extant,  and  a  manuscript  and  fine  church  on  the  Penobscot,  placed  under  Father 

grammar  of  the  Piscataway  language,  now  unfortu-  Lauverjat,  had  been  destroyed  by  another  party,  fol- 

nately  lost,  the  first  attempt  at  an  Indian  munmar  by  lowing  which  event  Massachusetts  had  summoned  the 

an  E&gliG^man  and  antedating  Eliot's  Bible  bv  at  Indians  to  deliver  up  eveiry  priest  among  them  and 

least  a  dosen  years.     (See  Piscataway  Indians.)  had  set  a  price  on  Rasle's  head.  Although  repeatedly 

New  England. — ^The  earliest  Christian  mission  on  uiged  to  seek  safetv  in  Canada,  he  refused  to  desert 

the  soil  of  New  England  was  that  of  Saint-Sauveur  be-  his  flock.    At  last  the  blow  fell.    On  23  August,  1724, 

gun  among  the  Abenakis  in  connexion  with  a  French  the  New  England  men  with  a  party  of  Mohawk  In- 

post  on  Mount  Desert  Island,  Maine,  by  Father  Pierre  dians  surprised  Norrideewock  while  most  Cfi  the  war- 

Biard  and  three  other  Jesuits  in  1613.    Both  post  and  riors  were  away,  killed  several  of  the  defenders,  and 

mission  were  destroyed  a  few  months  later  by  the  plundered  and  burned  the  church  and  village.    The 

English  captain  Argall,  Brother  DuThet  being  killed  in  devoted  missionary,  now  old  and  crippled,  was  shot 

the  attack  and  Fathers  Biard  and  Quentin  carried  down  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  scalped,  bis  skull 

prisoners  to  Virginia.     In  1619  the  Recollects  arrived  crushed  and  his  body  almost  hacked  in  pieces.    A 

to  minister  to  the  French  fishermen  scattered  along  the  monument  to  his  memory  was  erected  on  the  spot  in 

coast,  and  gave  attention  also  to  the  Indians,  chiefly  1S33,  the  year  in  which  the  greater  monument,  his 

in  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.    In  1633  they  Abenaki  dictionary,  was  published, 
were  succeeded  by  the  Capuchins,  who  made  their        Mission  work  was  continued  in  some  measure,  al- 

heodquarters  at  Port  Royal  (Annapolis),  Nova  Scotia,  though  under  difficulties,  among  the  Indians  of  the 

and  had  stations  as  far  south  as  the  Kennebec,  the  Penobscot  and  the  St.  John,  but  most  of  the  Norridge- 

principal  one  being  among  the  Penobscot,  near  the  wock  band  retired  to  Saint  Francis,  which  thus  became 

Frencn  Fort  Pentagouet  (Castine),  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  most  flourishing  missions  in  Canada.     In 

the  Penobscot.     In  1655  the  i>ost  wa&  seized  by  1759  it  was  attacked  by  a  strong  New  England  force 

the  English,  and  the  resident  missionary.  Father  De  imder  Colonel  Rogers  and  completely  destroyed  with 

Crespy,  carried  ofif.     Although  restored  to  France  by  its  church  and  records,  two  hundred  Indians  being 

treaty  in  1667,  the  mission  languished,  and  in  1693  killed.    The  mission  was  re-established  near  the  pres- 

was  consigned  to  the  Jesuits,  who  made  the  new  mia-  ent  Pierreville,  Quebec,  and  still  exists,  numbering 

sion  of  ^inte  Anne  (estaolished  by  Father  Louis  about  350  mixed  bloods,  while  B^ancour  has  about 

Thury  in  1684  higher  up  the  river,  near  the  present  50  more.    The  Abenaki  bands  which  remained  in 

Oldtown)  their  chief  residence  among  the  Penobscot.  Maine  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Americans  in  the 

The  Capuchins  had  laboured  also  among  the  Etchemin  Revolution,  and  in  1775  made  application  to  the  new 

(see  MaIjISBBT  Indians)  on  the  northern  frontier  of  Government  for  the  return  of  their  French  prints. 

Maine,  their  chief  station  being  at  Medoctec  on  the  The  Massachusetts  commissioners,  although  willing. 

Saint  John,  established  by  Father  Simeon  in  1688  and  were  unable  to  supply  them,  but  a  later  ap^ication  to 

revived  by  the  Jesuits  in  1701.    In  1646  the  noted  Bishop  Carroll  resulted  in  the  appointment  of  the  Sul- 

Jesuit,  Gabriel  Druiilettes,  was  sent  from  Quebec,  and  pician  Father,  Francois  Ciquard,  to  the  Penobscot 

established  at  Norridgewock  (Indian  Old  Point)  on  the  at  Oldtown  about  1785.    For  nearly  ten  vears  he 

Kennebec  the  Assumption  mission,  which  for  neariy  ministered  to  them  and  the  Passamaquodd.y,  when 

eighty  years  thereafter  held  its  place  as  the  prin-  he  was  transferred  to  the  Maliseet  on  the  Saint  John, 

cipal  of  the  Abenaki  missions.    The  most  noted  worker  After  various  changes  the  Maine  missions  reverted 

at  this  post  was  Sebastian  Rasle  (RAle,  Rasles),  who  again  to  the  Jesuits  in  the  person  of  Father  John 

labour^  with  the  utmost  zeal  from  1695  until  his  Bapst,  who  arrived  at  Oldtown  in  1S48.     The  most 

heroic  death  in  1724  at  the  age  of  sixty-six.  distinguished   of  the  later  missionaries    Is    Eugene 

TTie  chronic  warfare  throughout  all  this  period  be-  Vetromile,  S.J.  (d.  1S81),  author  of  several  works  on 

tween  the  rival  French  and  English  colonies,  in  which  the  Abenaki  tribe  and  language.    The  two  tribes  aie 

the  native  tribes  almost  solidly  took  the  side  of  the  entirely  Catholic. 

French,  exposed  the  Indian  missions  to  the  constant        III.  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. — A  large  part 

attacks  of  the   English  and  made  the  missionaries  of  what  is  now  New  York  State  was  held  by  t£e  five 

marked  men,  both  as  Catholic  priests  and  as  supposed  confederated  tribes  of  the  fierce  and  powerf m  Iroquois 

agents  of  the  French  Government.    In  consequence  (q.  v.),  numbering  nearly  two  thousand  fighting  men. 

many  fugitives  from  the  Abenaki  bands  retired  to  Through  the  unfortunate  circumstances  of  Champlain's 

Canada,  where  they  were  joined  by  refugees  from  the  allying  himself  with  a  party  of  their  enemies  in  1609, 

Pennacook  and  other  southern  New  England  tribes,  they  conoeived  a  bitter  hostility  to  the  French  which 

driven  out  by  King  Philip's  War  of  1675-76.     In  1683  they  ratified  #ith  deadly  effect  after  procuring  guns 

these  were  gathered  by  the  Jesuit  Father  Jacques  from  tne  Dutch  thirty  years  later.   Fortnis  reason,  and 

Bigot,  into  the  new  mission  of  Saint  Frangois  de  Sales  from  the  additional  fact  that  their  territory  was  within 

(St.  Francis)  on  the  Chaudidre,  near  Quebec.    In  1700  the  sphere  of  English  influence,  no  permanent  Catholic 

the  mission  was  removed  to  its  present  location.     In  mission  was  ever  established  within  their  limits,  al- 

spite  of  repeated  demands  by  the  New  England  Gov-  though  several  attempts  were  niiade,  and  larse  nimi* 

emment   (1698,   1701,   1712),  the  Abenaki  refused  bers  were  drawn  off  from  the  confederacy  andformed 

either  to  send  their  missionaries  away  or  to  accept  into  mission  settlements  under  French  control.    So 

Protestant  teachers.  Realizing  the  danger,  the  Jesuits  far  as  is  known,  the  first  missionary  to  enter  this  region 

urged  that  the  Abenaki  Indians  and  missions  be  re-  was  the  Recollect  father,  Joseph  ae  la  Roche  de  Dsdl- 

moved  to  a  safer  location  in  Canada,  but  the  project  Ion,  of  the  Huron  mission  in  Ontario,  who  in  1626 

was  not  favoured  by  the  Canadian  Govenmient.    In  made  a  perilous  exploration  of  the  country  of  the 

1704-5  two  New  England  expeditions  ravaged  the  Neuter  Nation,  adjoining  tiie  Iroquois  in  western  New 

Abenaki,  burning  Norridgewock,  with  its  church,  and  York.    In  1642  the  heroic  Jesuit,  Isaac  Jogues,  was 

lootine  tne  sacred  vessels.    In  1713  some  Indians  re>  captured  with  two  white  companions  and  sex'eral 

moved  to  the  St.  Lawrence  and  settled  at  B6cancour,  Hurons  by  an  Iroquois  war  party  and  taken  to  the 

where  their  descendants  still  remain.     Norrideewock  Mohawk  town  of  Caughnawaea  (alica  Ossemenon) 

was  rebuilt,  and  in  1722  was  again  destroyed  oy  the  near  the  present  Auriesville,  where  the  Hurons  were 

New  England  men.     As  part  of  the  plimder  the  raiders  burned  at  the  stake,  and  the  three  Frenchmen  cruelly 

carried  off  the  manuscript  Abenaki  dictionaiy  (preserved  tortured  and  mutilated,  though  not  put  to  death, 

at  Harvard  and  publisned  in  1S33),  to  wnicn  Father  Father  Jogues  had  his  nails  torn  out,  two  fingei^ 

Rasle  had  devoted  thirty  years  of  labour,  and  which  crushed  by  the  teeth  of  the  savages,  and  one  thumb 

ranks  as  one  of  the  greatest  inonuments  of  our  abori^-  sawn  off.    One  of  hi?  companions,  the  npvioe  Rege 


msuoira 


387 


MI8SXOK8 


GoupS,  was  killed  shortly  afterwards  for  making  the 
sign  of  the  cross  over  a  sick  child.  The  third  French- 
man, Couture,  was  finally  adopted.  After  a  terrible 
captivity  of  fifteen  months  during  which  he  baptized 
manv  prisoners  at  the  stake  as  well  as  dying  infants, 
besides  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  language,  Father 
Jogu»  was  rescued  by  the  Dutch  and  fiiudly  found  his 
way  to  France.  In  the  meantime  another  Huron  mis- 
sionary. Father  Joseph  Bressani,  had  been  captured 
by  the  same  Mohawks,  tortured  in  even  more  terrible 
fashion  at  the  same  town,  and  likewise  ransomed 
through  the  kindness  of  the  Dutch  (1644).  In  the 
summer  of  1544  Father  Jogues  was  back  again  in  Can- 
ada, assisting  in  negotiating  an  tmcertain  peace  with 
the  Mohawks.  In  Mav,  1646,  he  was  sent  with  a  single 
white  companion  to  tne  Mohawk  countiy  to  consum- 
mate the  agreement.  This  done,  he  returned  to  Can- 
ada to  make  his  report,  and  then,  with  another  French- 
man and  a  Huron  guide,  set  out  once  more  for  the 
Mohawk  to  establisn  a  mission.  They  were  inter- 
cepted on  the  way  by  a  war  party  of  the  same  perfidi- 
ous Mohawks,  and  carried  to  Caughnawaga,  where, 
after  various  cruelties,  all  three  were  put  to  death  on 
18  October,  1646,  the  head  of  Father  Jogues  being  set 
upon  the  palisades  of  the  town,  and  his  body  thrown 
into  the  Mohawk  River.  The  site  of  the  Indian  town 
is  now  the  property  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  a 
memorial  chapel  marks  the  spot  of  their  martyrdom. 

In  August,  1653,  Father  Joseph  Poncet,  S.J.,  was 
capturednear  Montreal  by  a  Monawk  war  party,  car- 
ricKl  to  their  towns,  and  there  terribly  toitured,  but 
finally  sent  back  with  overtiues  of  joeace.  Of  the  five 
confederated  Iroquois  tribes,  the  Onondaga,  Oneida, 
and  Cavuga  were  also  now  for  peace  with  the  French, 
and  only  the  Seneca  (who,  however,  nearly  equalled 
all  the  others  together)  held  back.  Father  Poncet 
reached  Montreal  late  in  the  year,  and  peace  was 
made.  Father  Simon  Le  Moyne,  S.  J.,  volunteered  to 
go  back  to  ratify  the  terms  in  the  Iroquois  towns,  and 
arrived  in  the  summer  of  1654  at  Onondaga,  their 
capita],  where  he  successfully  effected  his  purpose  and 
was  invited  to  select  a  spot  for  a  French  settlement. 
As  a  result  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Joseph  Chaumonot  and 
Claude  Dablon  established  the  first  Iroquois  mission 
at  Onondaga  in  November,  1654.  In  all  the  Iroquois 
tribes  there  were  numerous  Christian  Huron  captives 
(see  HuBON  Indians),  who  gave  the  missionaries  a 
warm  welcome.  In  1656  Father  Le  Moyne  was  again 
witJi  the  Mohawks.  In  July,  1655,  a  party  of  nfty 
French  colonists  with  several  more  Jesuits  arrived  at 
Onondaga  to  f  oimd  a  settlement  there,  as  requested  by 
the  Iroquois,  although  it  was  strongly  felt  that  the 
latter  were  insincere  and  meditated  treacheiy.  Mis- 
sion stations  were  established  in  each  of  the  trioes,  but 
almost  before  a  year  had  passed  the  Iroauois  raids 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  broke  out  afresh,  ana  in  March, 
1658,  the  mission  at  Onondaga  was  abandoned. 

Besides  the  Huron  and  other  Indian  captives,  Chris- 
tianity still  had  many  friends  among  the  Iroquois 
themselves,  foremost  of  all  being  Garaconthi^,  the 
Onondaga  chief  and  qrator.  Through  his  influence  the 
Onondaga  and  Cayuga  sought  for  peace  in  1661,  and 
Le  Mo^e  was  recalled  to  Ononaaga.  In  1666  an 
expedition  under  De  Courcelles  completely  humbled 
the  Mohawks.  In  the  same  year  New  York  and  the 
Iroquois  country  passed  from  Dutch  to  English 
control.  Following  the  peace  six  Jesuit  fathers 
(Jacques  Fremin,  Jean  Pierron,  Jacques  Bruyas, 
Julien  Gamier,  Etienne  de  Carheil,  and  Pierre  Milet) 
proceeded  to  the  Iroquois,  and,  before  the  end  of 
1G68,  regular  missions  were  established  in  each  of 
the  five  tribes.  Garaconthi^  publicly  declared  him- 
self a  Christian,  and  his  example  was  followed  by 
several  other  cniefs.  As  converts  increased  it  was 
realised  that  the  prevailing  intemperance  and  de- 
bauchei^  consequent  upon  the  presence  of  traders  in 
the  Indian  towns  were  a  serious  obstacle  to  Christian- 


ity, and  many  of  the  better-disposed  removed  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  mission  settlements  in  Canada, 
In  this  wi^  originated  in  1668  the  Iroquois  mission 
village  of  La  Prairie  (St.  Fran9ois  Xavier  des  Pr&s), 
the  precursor  of  the  modem  Caughnawaea  (q.  v.). 
Among  the  names  prominently  identified  witn  the 
mission  are  those  of  Fathers  Bruyas  and  Marcoux. 
Iroquois  philologists;  Father  Lafitau,  ethnologist  and 
historian*  and  the  sainted  Indian  girl,  Catherine 
Tegakwitha.  In  the  same  year  a  Su^ician  mission 
was  established  among  some  Christian  Iroquois,  chiefly 
Cayuga,  Quints  Bay,  at  Lake  Ontario;  but  after  a  few 
years  it  was  absorbed  by  the  Iroquois  mission  of 
The  Mountain,  established  in  1676  on  the  island  of 
Montreal  by  the  Sulpicians.  This  mission  was  trans- 
ferred in  1704  to  the  Sault  au  Recollet,  north  of  Mont- 
real, and  in  1720  to  its  present  site  at  Lake  of  Two 
Mountains  (aliaa  Oka,  or  Canasada^),  on  the  island 
of  Montreal,  a  number  of  Algonqum  sharing  the  vil- 
lage. Among  the  missionaries  was  Father  Jean-Andi^ 
Cuoq,  author  of  a  number  of  works  in  the  two  lan- 
guages, the  most  notable  of  which  is  a  standard 
Iroquois  dictionarv. 

With  the  withdrawal  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Christian  element  to  Canada  andthe  renewaJ  of  war 
in  1687  all  missionary  effort  in  the  Iroquois  territory 
was  finally  abandoned,  althotigh  Father  Milet  con- 
tinued with  the  OneidjBi  until  1694.  In  the  war  of 
1687-99  Catholic  Iroquois  from  the  Canada  missions 
fought  beside  the  French  against  their  heathen  kindred 
of  uie  confederacy. 

At  the  request  of  the  Iroquois  a  mission  was  re- 
established at  Onondaga  and  another  among  the  Sen- 
ecas  in  1702  by  the  Jesuit  fathers,  Jacques  de  Lamber- 
ville,  Julien  Gamier,  and  Vaillant  du  Gueslis,  and  had 
the  effect  of  holding  the  Iroquois  neutral  in  the  next 
war  between  France  and  England,  until  broken  up  by 
the  New  York  Government  in  1709.  In  1748  the  Sul- 
pician  father,  Francois  Picouet,  established  the  Presen- 
tation mission  on  the  St.  Lawrence  near  the  French 
post  of  Oswegatchie,  now  Ogdensbuig,  New  York, 
with  the  design  of  drawing  off  the  last  renuuning  Cath- 
olic Indians  from  among  the  Iroquois.  Although 
raided  by  the  Mohawks  in  the  next  year,  it  was  at  once 
rebuilt  and  grew  rapidly  until  the  opening  of  the  war 
of  1754-63,  which  brought  it  to  the  verge  of  ruin,  most 
of  those  who  remained  Joining  with  others  from  the 
Caughnawaga  mission  (Canada)  in  1756  to  establish  a 
new  settlement  under  Jesuit  auspices  at  Aquasasne, 
alias  St.  Francois  R^gis,  which  still  exists  under  the 
name  of  St.  Regis,  on  both  sides  of  the  New  York- 
Canada  boundary  where  it  strikes  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  Oswegatchie  settlement  was  finallv  abandoned  in 
1807.  The  Catholic  Iroquois  now  number  about  4025 
outof  a  total  18,725,  Caughnawaga  itself  with  217580u1b 
beinjg  the  largest  Indian  settlement  north  of  Mexico. 

About  1755  the  first  mission  in  western  Pennsyl- 
vania was  started  among  the  Delawares  at  Sawcunk. 
on  Beaver  River,  where  also  were  some  Shawnee  and 
Mingo  (detached  Iroquois),  by  the  Jesuit  Claude- 
Frangois  Virot,  but  was  soon  discontinued. 

IV.  Ohio  River  and  Lake  Region. — ^Under  this 
head  we  include  the  states  carved  out  in  whole  or  part 
from  the  old  "Northwestern  Territory",  viz.,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 
As  the  mission  history  of  this  section  is  treated  in  detail 
under  the  principal  tribal  titles,  we  may  confine  our- 
selves here  to  a  brief  summary.  Excepting  southern 
Illinois  and  Indiana,  all  of  this  vast  territory  was 
originally  included  within  the  French  jurisdiction  of 
Canada,  and  up  to  the  close  of  the  French  period  in  1763 
was  coiifided  generally  to  the  spiritual  charge  of  the 
Jesuits,  who  continued  in  the  work  into  the  American 
period.  The  first  mission  west  of  the  Huron  country 
was  established  in  1660,  on  Keweenaw  Bay,  a  few  miles 
north  of  the  present  L'Anse,  Upper  Michigan,  by  the 
veteran  Huron  missionary,  Father  Ren6  Menardi  in 


MISSIONS  388  MISSIONS 

respoiiM  to  uzgent  requests  from  the  Chippewas  and  Marquette  had  descended  the  Mississippi  aa  Car  as  the 

Ottawas.  The  next  vear  a  call  came  from  some  furtive  villages  of  the  Arkansas,  later  known  as  Quapaw,  at 

Huronsy  who  had  ned  to  Green  Bay  in  Wisconsm,  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  making  the 

escape  the  Iroquois.   To  the  remonstrance  of  those  who  earliest  map  of  the  region  and  indicating  the  poeitioQ 

knew  the  dangers  of  the  way  he  replied/' God  calls  me.  of  the  vanous  tribes,  but  without  undertaking  a 

I  must  go,  if  it  cost  me  my  life. ''    In  making  a  dan-  foundation. 

gerous  portage  he  became  separated  from  his  gmdes  and        In  1682  the  ReooUect  Franciscan  Father  Zenobius 

was  never  seen  again,  but  as  the  searchers  came  upon  Membra,  with  the  party  of  the  commander  La  Salle, 

a  hostile  trail,  and  his  Breviary  and  cassock  were  after-  descended  the  Mississippi  to  its  mouth  and  letiimed, 

wards  found  with  the  Sioux,  it  is  believed  that  he  was  planting  a  cross  among  Uie  Arkansas,  and 


killed  by  a  lurking  enemy.    His  place  was  filled  by  to  them  and  to  the  Taensa,Natches.  and  othera  farther 

Father  Claude  Alloues,  who,  as  vicar-general  in  the  down.    In  1683  a  French  fort  wasbuiltat  the  Arium- 

West,  established  the  second  Chippewa  mission  in  sas,  and  the  commander  Tonty  set  apart  a  mission  site 

1665,  under  the  name  of  Saint-Esprit  at  La  Fointe  and  made  formal  request  for  a  Jesuit  missioDary,  but 

Chegoimegon,  now  Bayfield,  Wisconsin,  on  the  south  apparently  without  result. 

shore  of  I^e  Superior.    Other  missions  soon  followed  In  1698,  under  authority  of  the  Bishop  of  Quebec, 

at  Sault  Sainte  Marie  (Sainlie  Marie)  and  Mackinaw  the  priests  of  the  seminaiy  of  Quebec,  an  offshoot  of 

^t.  Ignace)   in  Upper  Michi^tn;    Green  Bay  (St-  the  Paris  Congregation  of  Forei^  Missions,  midertook 

Frangois  Xavier),  St.  Marc,  and  St.  Jacques  in  Wisoon-  the  lower  Mississippi  field  despite  the  protests  of  the 

sin,  among  Chippewas.  Ottawas.  Hurons,  Maacoutens,  Jesuits,  who  consiaered  it  partly  at  least  within  their 

Kickapooe,  Foxes,  and  Miami.  Among  the  noted  Jesuit  own  sphere.    Eariy  in  1699^  three  seminaiy  priests 

workers  were  Fathers  Claude  Dablon,  Gabriel  Dnul-  having  arrived,  as  many  missions  were  established* 

lettes,  and  the  explorer  Jacques  Marquette.    In  1688  vis.,  among  the  Tamaroa  (Tamarois),  a  tribe  of  the 

the  mission  of  St.  Joseph  was  foimded  by  Alloues  among  Illinois  confederacy,  at  Caholda,  Illinois,  by  Father 

the  Potawatomi  in  northern  Indiana.     The  mission  Jean-Frangoisde  St-Cosmej  among  the  Taensa,  above 

at  Lapointe  was  abandoned  in  1671  on  accoimt  of  the  the  present  Natchea,  Mississippi,  by  Frangoia-J.  de 

hostile  Sioux,  but  most  of  the  o^ers  continued,  with  Montigny;  and  among  the  Tonica,  at  the  present  Fort 

interruption,  down  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  Adams,  Mississippi,  by  Father  Antoine  Davion.    Fa- 

1764.  In  1727  the  Jesuit  father,  Louis  Guignas,  founded  ther  de  Montim^  shortly  afterwards  transferred  his 

the  mission  of  St.  Michael  among  the  Sioux,  on  Lake  mission  to  the  lundred  and  more  important  Natches 

Pepin  in  Minnesota,   which   continued   until  some  tribe,about  the  present  city  of  that  name,  ministering 

time  after  1 736,  being^lMuadoned  probably  on  account  th\is  to  both  tribes.  Father  Davion  laboured  also  with 

of  liie  war  with  the  Foxes.  the  Yasoo  and  minor  tribes  on  that  river.   Otherpriests 

The  first  mission  among  the  Illinois  was  that  of  the  of  the  same  society  arrived  later.  In  the  meantime  Ibep> 

Immaculate  Conception,  founded  by  Marquette  in  ville,  the  father  of  the  Louisiana  colony,  had  brought 

1674  near  the  present  Bockford,  minois,  and  known  out  from  France  (1700)  the  Jesuit  father,  Paul  du  Ru, 

later  as  ^e  Kaskaskia  mission.    Others  were  estab-  who,  first  at  Biloxi,  Mississippi,  and  later  at  Mobile, 

lifiiied  Later  at  Peoria  Lake  and  at  Caholda,  opposite  Alabama,  ministered  to  the  small  tribes  gathered 

St.  Louis,  until  hj  1725  the  entire  Illinois  nation  was  about  the  French  post,  including  a  band  of  fugitive 

enrolled  as  Christian.   Among  the  Jesuit  names  prom-  Apalachee  from  the  revived  Florida  mission.    In  the 

inently  connected  with  the  Illuiois  missions  are  those  same  year  another  Jesuit,  Father  Joseph  de  Limoges, 

of  Majxiuette,  Rasle,  and  Jacques  Gravier,  author  of  from  Canada,  planted  a  mission  among  the  Huma  ana 

the  preat  manuscript  Illinois  dictionary.  Bayagula,  Choctaw  bands  about  the  mouth  of  Red 

Missions  were  also  established  later  among  the  van-  River,  Louisiana. 

o\is  bnmches  of  the  Miami  in  Indiana  as  weU  as  In  1702  Father  Nicholas  Foucault,  of  the  Semina> 

among  the  Potawatomi,  which  continued  to  flourish  rists,  who  had  established  a  mission  among  the  Arkan- 

until  the  decree  of  expulsion,  when  the  mission  prop-  sas  two  years  before,  was  murdered,  with   three 

erty  was  confiscated,  although  the  Jesuits  generally  companions,  by  the  savage  Koroa  of  Upper  Mississippi 

remained  as  secular  priests  until  their  death.    Their  while  on  his  way  to  Mobub.   Their  remains  were  foimd 

successors  continued  to  minister  to  Indians  and  whites  and  interred  by  Father  Davion.     In  1706  Father  St- 

alike  till  the  removal  of  the  tribes,  1820-40.  Cosme,  then  stationed  at  the  Natches  mission,  was 

The  majority  of  the  Indians  of  Michigan  and  Wis-  murdered  by  the  Shetimasha,  near  the  mouth  of  the 

consin  remained  in  their  own  homes,  with  missions  Mississippi,  while  asleep  in  a  night  camp, 

maintained  either  as  regular  establishments  or  as  visit-  The  Tonica  station  was  abandoned  m  1708,  being 

in^  stations  served  by  secular  priests.    Of  the  later  threatened  by  the  Chickasaw  in  the  KnglysH  interest, 

missionaries  one  of  the  distin^ished  names  is  that  of  The  whole  southern  work  languished,  the  TnHijmi^ 

the  author  and  philologist  Bishop  Frederick  Baraga  themselves  being  either  indifferent  or  opoily  hostile 

(d.  1865),  best  known  for  his  grammar  and  dictionary  to  Christianity,  and  when  Father  Charievorx  made  his 

of  the  Chippewa  language.    (^  for  more  recent  work,  western  tour  in  1721  he  foimd  but  one  priest  on  the 

Chippewa     Indians:    HxmoN    Indians;    Ilunois  lower  Mississippi,  Father  Juif,  among  the  Yaaoo. 

Indians;  Kickapoo  Indians;  Mascoutens  Indians;  Partly  in  consequence  of  Father  Charlevoix's  report, 

Menominee    Indians;    Miami     Indians;    Ottawa  the  Louisiana  Company,  which  had  taken  over  control 

Indians;   Potawatomi   Indians;    Sioux    Indians;  of  the  colony,  gave  permission  to  the  Jesuits  to  imder- 

Winnebago    Indians;    Baraga;    Gravier;    Mar-  take  the  Indian  work,  while  the  French  posts  and  set- 

QUETTE,  Diocese  of;  BiARQTTETTE,  Jacques.)  tlements  were  assigned  to  other  priests.    In  1726, 

y.  Lower  Mississippi  Region:  The  Loxtisiana  therefore,  Father  Paul  du  Poisson  restored  the  Arkan- 

MissioN. — ^Ilie  ''Louisiana  Mission"  of  the  French  sasnussion,  which  had  been  vacant  since  1702;  Father 

colonial  period  included  the  present  States  of  Missouri,  Alexis  de  Guyenne  imdertook  the  AHbamon,  a  tribe 

Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Alabama,  with  of  the  Creek  nation,  above  Mobile,  and  Father  Mathu- 

the  Tamarois  foundation  near  Caholda  in  Illinois,  but  rin  le  Petit  be^an  work  amcmg  the  Choctaw  in  south- 

excluding  the  Caddo  establishments  on  the  disputed  em  Mississippi.    The  Uisuline  convent  foundation  at 

Spanish  frontier  of  Texas.    For  several  reasons,  rival-  New  Orleans  in  1727  is  due  to  Jesuit  effort.     In  the 

ries  and  chances  among  the  religious  orders,  intrigues  next  year  the  Jesuit  father,  Michel  Baudouin,  under- 

of  English  tracers,  and  general  neglect  or  open  nos-  took  a  mission  among  the  warlike  Chickasaw, 

tility  of  the  Louisiana  colonial  administration,  these  In  1729  the  southem  missions  were  almost  ruioed 

southern  missions  never  attained  any  large  measure  of  by  the  outbreak  of  war  with  the  Natches,  provoked  by 

prosperity  or  permanent  soooees.    In  1673  the  Jesuit  the  aibitraxy  exactions  of  the  French  commandant  i, 


ikeir  country.  The  war  began  on  28  November  with  a  these,  suocessful  mission  schools  have  been  establiflhecl 
massacre  of  the  French  garrison,  the  firat  victim  beins  within  the  past  thirty  years,  and  are  now  in  operation, 
Father  du  Poisson,  who  was  struck  down,  and  his  head  among  the  Northern  Cheyenne  (secular),  Assiniboin 
hacked  ofiF,  while  on  his  way  to  attend  a  dying  man.  (Jesuit),  Crow  (Jesuit),  Gros ventre  (Jesuit),  and  Fie- 
Father  Souel  was  killed  on  1 1  December  by  tne  Yasoo,  ram  Black! eet  (Jesuit^  in  Montana ;  the  Antpaho  and 
who  then  turned  upon  the  French  eanison  in  their  Shoshoni  (Jesuit)  in  Wyoming;  and  the  Southern  Ute 
country.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1730,  uie  Jesuit  Father  (Theatiae)  in  Colorado  (see  Lite  Indians). 
Doutreleau,  on  his  way  down  the  river  with  some  VII.  Texas,  etc. — ^Texas  as  a  Spanish  colony  was 
boatmen,  was  fired  ufxin  at  close  lange  by  some  of  the  connected  with  Mexico,  and  was  niled  in  missionary 
same  tribe  while  saying  Mass  on  shore,  but  escaped  affairs  from  Quer6taro  and  Zacatecas,  instead  of  from 
although  badly  wounded.  The  war  involved  the  Havana,  as  was  Florida.  Its  immense  area,  four  times 
whole  Tower  Mississippi,  and  ended  in  the  extinction  as  great  as  that  of  all  New  England,  contained  hun- 
of  the  Natches  as  a  people.  A  part  of  the  refugees  drcds  of  petty  tribes  or  bands— -«o  many,  in  fact,  that 
havinjs  fl^  to  the  Chickasaw,  a  war  ensued  with  ttokt  they  have  never  been  counted — speaking  scores  of  Ian- 
tribe  m  1736,  durinff  which  a  French  expedition  was  guages  or  dialects,  but  mostly  ^uped  into  a  few  loose 
cut  to  pieces,  and  the  Jesuit  chaplain,  Father  Anto-  conlederacies,  based  upon  linguistic  affiliation,  of 
ninus  Senat.  was  burnt  at  the  stake.  which  the  principal  within  the  mission  sphere  may  be 

In  1730  Father  Gaston,  a  newly-arrived  Seminarist,  designated  as  the  (^do,  Hasinai,  Karankawa,  Tonk- 

had  been  killed  at  the  Tamarois  (C!ahokia)  mission,  awa,  Wichita,  and  Pakaw  A.  Ofthese,  the  Caddo  group 

In  1754  the  last  Seminarist  was  sent  out  as  a  parish  extended  into  western  Louisiana,  while  the  tribes  of 

priest.     The  Arkansas  mission  had  been  killed  by  the  Wichita  connexion  ranged  north  into  Kansas, 

official  neglect.   The  missionaryamong  the  Alibamon  The  total  Indian  population  within  the  present  state 

Creeks  was  driven  out  by  the  French  commander  at  limits  was  probably  originally  close  to  40,000.    The  be- 

Fort  Toulouse  (Montgomenr,  Alabama^  for  his  opposi-  ginning  of  mission  work  in  Texas  was  made  by  the 

tion  to  the  liquor  traffic.    Father  Baudouin  continued  Franciscan  Father  Andrte  de  Olmos,  who  in  1544 

with  good  effect  amon^  the  Choctaw  for  eighteen  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and,  after  gathering  a  large 

yean  until  appointed  viear-ceneral  in  1757.  when  his  body  of  converts,  led  them  back  into  Tamauhpas, 

place  was  filled  by  Father  Nicholas  le  Feovre  until  where  they  were  oiganiised  into  a  mission  town,  Olives. 

17&4 (?) .   The  Alibamon  mission  was  restored  and  con-  In  1 685  the  French  commander  La  Salle  erected  a  fort 

tinned  under  Father  Jean  Le  Pr6dour  from  1754  until  on  Matagorda  Bay,  and  two  years  later,  after  a  succes- 

the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1764,  which  brought  the  sion  of  misfortunes,  started  to  make  his  way  overland 

''Louisiana  Mission"  to  a  close.    The  Natches  and  to  Illinois,  leaving  behind  about  twenty  men,  including 

Yazoo  are  long  since  extinct,  but  a  considerable  por*  the  Recollect  missionaries,  Fathers  Zenobius  Membr6 

tion  of  the  Choctaw.  Quapaw,  and  mixed-blood  Huma  and  Maximus  Le  Clercq,  and  the  Sulplcian  Father 

still  keep  the  Faitn.     (See   also  Caddo  Indians;  Chefdeville.   A  Spanish  expedition  which  arrived  later 

Choctaw  Indians;  Natchez,  Diocese  or;  Quapaw  to  dispossess  the  French  fotmd  only  blackened  ruins 

Indians  ;  Tonica  Indians  ;  Yazoo  Indians.)  and  tmburied  bones.    All  but  two  men  had  been  killed 

VI.  NoRTREBN  AND  Central  Plains. — The  earliest  by  the  Indians,  among  whom  the  chalices  and  Brevi- 

labourer  here  was  the  Franciscan  Father  Juan  de  Pa-  aries  of  the  murdered  priests  were  afterwards  recovered, 

dilla,  who  with  foxir  others  of  his  order  accompanied  In  1690  a  company  of  Spanish  Franciscans  from  the 

the  famous  expedition  of  Coronado  in  1540-42,  and  Quergtaro  College,  headea  by  Father  Damian  Maza- 

on  the  return  volimteered  to  remain  behind  with  the  net,  established  a  mission  amongthe  friendly  Hasinai 

Wichita  in  the  "Province  of  Quivira".  probably  in  (Annais,  Cenis),  in  north-east  Texas,  and  projected 

southern  Kansas.    He  was  killed  soon  afterwards,  ap-  others,  but  the  work  was  abandoned  three  years  later, 

parentlv  by  Indians  hostile  to  the  Wichita.  The  latter.  In  1699  the  Franciscans  of  the  Zacatecas  College  befinn 

reduced  to  about  300  souls,  are  represented  at  the  a  series  of  missions  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Kio 

Catholic  mission  school  at  Anadarko,  Oklahoma  (see  Grande,  to  which  they  gathered  in  a  number  of  In- 

Wichita)  .  dians  oi  tlie  Pakawd  group  in  southern  Texas.    These 

The  powerful  Sioux^  or  Dakota,  whose  territory  were  kept  up  until  1718,  when  the  chief  mission  was 

stretchcMi  from  the  Wisconsin  boraer  almost  to  the  transferred  to  San  Antonio  in  Texas, 

foot  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains,  were  visited  by  the  In  1715  ttte  two  colleges  combined  to  restore  the 

Jesuit  Allouez  as  early  as  1666,  but  tribid  jealousies  Texas  missions,  urged  by  the  zeal  of  the  venerable 

interrupted  friendly  communication  and  prevented  founder  of  the  Zacatecas  college.  Father  Antonio 

any  mission  establishment.     In  1680  the  Recollect  Margil.    The  Hasinai  mission  (San  Francisco)  was 

Franciscan,  Father  Louis  Hennepin,  spent  some  months  restored  and  another.  La  Purfsima,  established  amone 

with  them  as  a  captive  on  the  upper  Mississippi.    In  the  cognate  Hainai  (Aynais)  in  the  neighbourhood  <n 

1690  (?)  the  Jesuit  Father  Joseph  Marest,  and  in  1728  the  present  Nacogdoches.    Another  (N.  S.  de  Guada- 

the  Jesuit  Father  Ignatius  Guig^ias.  made  unsuccessful  lupe)  was  founoed  bv  Marsil  himself  among  the 

mission  attempts  in  the  tribe,  and  in  1736  the  Jesuit  Nacogdoches  band  of  tne  Caddo  in  1716,  and  others  in 

Father  Jean-Pierre  Aulneau  (or  Amand)  was  one  of  a  1717  among  the  Ais  (N.  S.  de  Dolores)  and  Adai  or 

partv  of  twenty-one  Frenchmen  massacred  by  them  Adayes  (Stm  Miguel  de  Linares),  the  last  being  within 

on  tne  Lake  of  the  Woods,  just  beyond  the  northern  the  limits  of  Louisiana.    In  1719,  war  having  been 

Minnesota  boundary.    In  1837  a  regular  mission  was  declared  between  France  and  Spain,  a  French  expedi- 

established  among  the  eastern  Sioux  in  Minnesota  bv  tion  under  St-Denis  plundered  tne  mission  at  the  Adai. 

Father  Augustin  Ravoux,  and  in  1848  the  noted  Jesuit  In  consequence  the  missions  were  abandoned  until 

missionary  Father  de  Smet  first  preached  to  those  peace  was  declared  two  years  later, 

west  of  the  Missouri.     Nearly  one-tourth  of  the  tribe  In  1718  the  mission  of  San  Francisco  Solano  was 

is  now  Catholic  (see  Sioux  Indians).  transferred  to  San  Antonio  de  Valero.    Other  missions 

The  famous  Flathead  mission  in  Montana,  estab-  were  established  in  the  vicinity,  making  a  total  of  four 

liabed  by  Father  de  Smet  in  1840,  the  Osage  mission,  in  1731,  including  San  Antonio  de  Padua,  the  cele- 

Oklahoroa,  regularly  established  about  1847  by  the  brated  Alamo,    "nie  principal  tribes  represented  were 

Jesuit  Fathers  Schoenmaker  and  Bax,  the  Kiowa  and  Caddo  and  Hasinai  from  tne  East;  Xarame  from  the 

Quapaw  missions,  and  those  among  the  immigrant  Rio  Grande;  Pakaw^  (Pacoa)  and  a  few  Toilkawa  of 

Choctaw,  Potawatomi,  and  Miami,  also  in  Oklahoma,  the  immediate  neighbourhood.    In  the  meantime  a 

those  of  the  Winneba^  in  Nebraska  and  the  Man-  lay  brother  had  perished  in  a  prairie  fire,  and  another, 

dan  and  associated  tnbes  in  North  Dakota  are  all  BroUier  Jose  Pita,  in  1721,  with  a  small  party,  had 

described  elsewhere  under  the  tribal  titles.    Besides  been  massacred  by  the  Lipan  while  on  his  way  to  his 


lossfom 


390 


MttSlOMS 


station.  In  1722  the  mission  of  Guadalupe  was  estab- 
licdied  at  Bahia,  on  Lavaca  (Matagorda)  Bay  among 
the  Kanmkawa.  Nine  years  later  it  was  moved  to 
the  Guadalupe  River.  In  1 752  the  Candelaria  mission 
was  attacked  by  the  Coco,  a  Karankawa  band,  and 
Father  Jos^  Gansabal  killea.  In  1757  the  mission  of 
Sim  Sab^  was  established  by  Father  Alonso  Terreros 
for  the  conversion  of  the  wild  and  nomadic  Lipan 
Apache,  but  they  refused  to  settle  in  It*  the  following 
year  the  tribes  destroyed  the  mission,  killing  Father 
Terreros  and  two  other  priests.  Another  attempted 
Lipan  mission,  in  1761,  was  broken  up  in  1769  by  the 
Comanche.  At  this  period  the  Texas  missions  had 
reached  their  highest  point,  with  an  Indian  population 
of  about  15,000.  In  1760  Father  Bartolome  Garcia 
published  his  religious  manual  for  the  use  of  the  San 
Antonio  missions,  which  remains  almost  our  only 
linguistic  monument  of  the  Pakawd  tribes  of  oentru 
Texas.  In  1791  another  mission  was  established 
among  the  Karankawa. 

Although  constantly  hampered  by  the  Spanish 
authorities,  the  missions  continued  to  exist  until  1812, 
when  they  were  suppressed  by  the  revolutionary  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  Indians  scattered  (see  PakawX  In- 
dians; Tonka WA  Indians;  Wichita). 

VIII.  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. — ^The  earliest 
exploration  in  this  territonr  was  made  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan Marco  de  Niza  (Blarcos  of  Nisza)  in  1539, 
and  the  first  missions  were  imdertaken  in  1542  by 
the  Franciscans  who  accompanied  Coronado.  (For 
the  missions  among  the  Pueblo  and  Hopi  see  Pueblo 
Indians.)  The  most  important  event  in  this  connexion 
is  the  great  Pueblo  revolt  of  1680  in  which  twenty-one 
missionaries  and  some  400  others  were  massacred. 

The  missions  among  the  Pima  and  Papajo  of  Ari- 
zona are  of  later  foundation,  b^innins  about  1732, 
and  originated  with  the  Jesuits,  with  whom  they  con- 
tinued until  the  expulsion  of  the  order  in  1767,  when 
they  were  taken  over  by  the  Franciscans  (see  Papajo 
Indians;  Pima  Indians). 

Attempts  to  evangelize  the  powerful  tribe  of  the 
Navajo  m  northern  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  were 
made  by  the  Franciscans  as  early  as  1746,  but  without 
result.  Lately  the  work  has  been  again  taken  up  suc- 
cessfully by  German  Franciscans.  To  their  scnolar- 
ship  and  scientific  iaterest  we  owe  also  a  moniunental 
''Ethnological  Dictionary  of  the  Navaho  Language". 
(See  Navajo  Indians.)  Secular  mission  work  is  also 
now  conducted  in  the  Mescalero  tribe  of  about  450 
souls  at  Tularosa,  New  Mexico. 

IX.  The  Columbia  Region. — ^The  first  knowledge 
of  Christianity  among  the  tribes  of  this  region  came 
through  the  Catholic  Iroquois  and  Canadian  French 
employees  of  the  Hudson  Bav  Compimy,  by  whose  in- 
fluence and  teaching  many  of  the  Indians,  particularly 
amone  the  Flathes^s  and  Nez  Perc^,  were  induced 
to  emorace  the  principles  and  practices  of  Catholicism 
as  early  as  1820,  leadmg  some  years  later  to  a  reauest 
for  missionaries,  in  response  to  which  the  Flatnead 
mission  ia  Montana  was  founded  by  the  Jesuit  Father 
Peter  de  Smet  in  1841,  followed  shortly  afterwards  by 
another  among  the  Cceur  d' A16ne  in  Idaho,  established 
by  the  Jesuit  Father  Nicholas  Point.  In  1839  Father 
Francis  Blanchet,  secular,  who  had  come  out  to  attend 
the  Canadian  residents,  established  St.  Francis  Xavier 
mission  on  the  Cowlitz,  in  western  Washington,  and 
another  on  the  lower  Willamet  at  Champoeg,  Oregon, 
while  about  the  same  time  Father  J.  B.  Bolauc  began 
work  among  the  tribes  on  Puget  Soimd.  In  1844  tlu^e 
Jesuit  missions  were  established  among  the  Pend 
d'Oreilles  and  Colvilles  of  the  Upper  Columbia,  besides 
three  others  across  the  Britisn  line.  In  1847  the 
Oblates  arrived,  and  missions  were  established  by 
Father  Pandosy  among  the  Yakima  and  by  Father 
Ricard  near  the  present  Olympia.  In  1848  the  secu- 
lar Fathers  Rousseau  and  Me«pl4e  f oimded  a  station 
among  the  Wasoo,  at  the  Dalles  of  the  Columbia,  in 


Oregon.  Work  was  also  attempted  among  the  deceL» 
erate  Chinooks,  with  little  result.  The  noted  OUate 
missionary.  Father  Casimir  Chirouse  (d.  1892),  best 
known  for  nis  later  work  at  Tulalip,  reached  Or^>n  in 
1847  and  began  his  labours  among  the  tribes  of  Puget 
Sound  and  the  lower  Columbia  about  the  same  period. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Wasco  and  the  Chmooks, 
these  missions  or  their  successors  are  still  in  successful 
operation,  numbering  amon^  their  adherents  the 
majority  of  the  Christian  Indians  of  Wash^gton  and 
southern  Idaho.  To  Fathers  Saintonse  and  Pandosy 
we  are  indebted  for  iim)ortant  ccmtributions  to  Yak- 
ima linguistics.  (See  Chinooks;  Kaubpel  Indians; 
KuTENAi  Indians;  Lake  Indians;  Luioa  Indians; 
PxTTAixup  Indians;  Spokan  Indians;  Tuulup  Indi- 
ans; Yakima  Indians.) 

Besides  these  there  are  Jesuit  missions  of 


moie 


recent  establishment  amons  the  Nez  Perc^  of  Idaho; 
and  amon^  the  Umatilla,  lUamath,  Warmspring,  and 
Siletz  Indians  in  Oregon,  besides  another  among  the 
remnant  tribes  of  Grand  Ronde  reservation,  Oregon, 
served  by  a  priest  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour. 
(See  SiLETz  Indians;  Umattlla  Indians;  Wabx- 
BPBiNo  Indians;  Yamhill  Indians.) 

X.  California. — ^Forthe  mission  history  see  Cali- 
fornia; and  Mission  Indians. 

For  a  statement  of  the  present  oiganization  of 
Indian  mission  work  and  the  sources  and  methods  of 
financial  support,  see  article  Indian  Missions,  Bu- 
reau OF  Catholic. 

XI.  The  Missionary  Martyrs. — ^The  following  in- 
complete and  tentative  list  of  missionaries  who  died  by 
violence  or  other  untimely  death  in  direct  ccmnexion 
with  their  work  will  show  that  even  before  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  republic  the  soil  of  the  United  States 
had  been  baptized  in  the  blood  of  Catholic  missionaries 
from  ocean  to  ocean.  A  few  other  names  are  induded 
for  special  reasons.  Those  who  perished  with  the  ex- 
ploring e?q)editions  under  Narvdez,  De  Soto,  and  others 
are  not  noted. 

1542  Padilla,  Juan  de,  Franciscan,  killed  in  KansasC?). 
Escalona,  Brother  Luis  de,  Franciscan,  killed  by 

Pecos,  New  Mexico. 
La  Cruz,  Juan  de,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Tigua, 
New  Mexico. 
1549  Cancer,  Luis,  Dominican,  killed  by  Calusa,  Floi^ 
ida. 
Tolosa,  Di^o  de,  Dominican,  killed  by  Calusa, 

Florida. 
Fuentes,  Brother,  killed  by  Calusa,  Florida. 
1566  Martinez,  Pedro,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Yamasee, 

Georgia. 
1569(?)  Bdez,  Brother  Dom.  Agustfn,  Jesuit,  died  of 

fever,  with  Yamasee,  florida. 
1571  Segura,  Juan  Bautista 
Quiros,  Luis  de 
G6mez,  Brother  Gabriel 
(novice) 
1571  Zerallos,  Brother  Sancho 
de  (novice) 
Solis,  Brother 
Mtodez,  Brother 
Redondo,  Brother 
Linares,  Brother 
1581  L6pez,  Francisco,  Franciscan,  killed  at  Tigua, 
New  Mexico. 
Santa  Maria,  Juan  de 
Rodriguez  (or  Ruiz), 
Brother  Agust&i 
1597  Corpa,  Pedro  de 
Roarfguez,  Bias 
AufLon,  Miguel  de 
Velasco,  Francisco  de 
Badajdz,  Broker  An- 
tonio 
1613  Du  Thet,  Brother  Gilbert,  Jesuit,  killed  by  the 
English,  Maine. 


Jesuits,  killed  by 
Powhatan,  Vir- 
ginia. 


!  Franciscans,  killed  at 
Tigera,  New  Mex- 
ico. 


Franciscans,  killed  by 
Yamasee,  Georgia 
and  Florida. 


MISSIONS 


391 


MISSIONS 


Santo  Domingo 
Pueblo,  New 
Mexico. 


1631  Miranda  de  Avila,  Pedro,  Franciscan,  killed  by 

Taos,  New  Mezica 

1632  Letrado,  Francisco    }  Franciscans,     killed     by 
Arvide,  Martin  de,    f     '*  Zipias  ",  New  Mexico. 

1633  Porras,    Francisco,    Franciscan,    poisoned    by 

Hopi,  Arizona. 

1642  Goupil,  Ren^  (novice),  Jesuit,  killed  by  Mohawks, 
New  York. 

1644  Bressani,  Joseph,  Jesuit,  tortured  by  Mohawks, 
but  rescued.  New  York. 

1646  Jogues,  Isaac,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Mohawks,  New 
York. 

1653  Poncet,  Joseph,  Jesuit,  tortured  by  Mohawks, 
but  rescued.  New  York. 

1657  Eight  Franciscans  drowned,  en  rovte  Florida 
missions  to  Havana. 

1661  Menard,  Ren^  Jesuit,  lost,  supposed  killed  by 
Sioux,  Wisconsin. 

1675  "Several  missionaries'',  Franciscans  (record  in- 
complete), killed  by  Pueblos.  New  Mexico. 

1675  Marquette,  Jacques,  Jesuit,  died  in  woods,  Mich- 
igan. 

1680  La  Ribouide,  Gabriel  de,  Recollect,  killed  by 
Kickapoos,  Illinois. 

1680  Twenty-two  Franciscans  killed  in  general  massa- 
cre by  revolted  Pueblos,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona,  vix.: 
Talaban,  Juan 
Lorenzana,  Francisco  Anto- 
nio de 
Montes    de    Oca,    (Juan?) 

Jos^de 
Pio,  Juan  Bautista  de,  Tesuque  Pueblo,  New 

Mexico. 
Torres,  Tomas,  Nambe  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

B«'«^ff  .k'^*'""'  }     lo,  New  Mexico. 
Rendon,  Matias  de,  Picuris  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

pS^jSTde  (t««  Pueblo.  New  Mexico. 

Maldonado,  Lucas,  Acoma  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

Bal,  Juan  de,  Alona  (ZufLi)  Pueblo,  New  Mexico. 

Figueras,  Jos6  de 

Trujillo,  Jos6 

Espeleta,  Jos^  de 

Santa  Maria,  Agustfn  de 

Bemal,  Juan  {cusioti)      )  Galisteo  (Tano)  Pueb- 

Vera,  Juan  Domingo  de  )      lo,  New  Mexico. 

Velasco,  Francisco  (Fernando?),  de,  Pecos  Pueb- 
lo, New  Mexico. 

Tinoco,  Manuel,  San  Marcos  Pueblo,  New  Mex- 
ico. 

Jesus,  Simon  (Juan?)  de,  Jemes  Pueblo,  New 
Mexico. 
1683  {circa)  Beltran,  Manuel,  Franciscan,  killed  by 

Tanos(?),  New  Mexico. 
1687  Membr6,  Zenobius,  Recol- 
lect, 

Le  Clercq,  Maximus,  lie- 
collect, 

Chefdeville, — ,  Sulpician, 

1696  ,  ,   Franciscan,  by  Ais(?)    (Tororo), 

killed  Florida. 
1696  Arbizu,  Jos6  de        )  Franciscan,  killed  by  Taos, 

Carbonel,  Antonio  V      New  Mexico. 

Corvera,  Francisco    )  Franciscans,  killed  by  Te- 

Moreno,  Antonio       )      hua,  New  Mexico. 

CasaiSes,  Francisco,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Jemes, 
New  Mexico. 
1702  Foucault,  Nicholas,  Sem.  For.  Missions,  killed, 
by  Koroa,  Mississippi. 


Hop!  Pueblos,  Ari- 
2ona. 


^killed  by  Karan- 
kawa(?),  Texas. 


1706  Delhalle,  Nicholas,  B.C.,  Recollect  (parish  priest, 

Detroit),  killed  by  Ottawa,  Michigan. 
St-Coeme,  Jean-Francois  de,  Sem.  For.  Missions, 

killed  by  Shetimasna,  Louisiana. 
1708  Gravier,  Jacques,  Jesuit,  died  of  wound  inflicted 

by  Illinois  (1705),  Illinois. 
1715  {circa)  Vatier,    Leonard,    Recollect,   killed   by 

Foxes,  Wisconsin. 
1718  Mantesdoca  (Mantes  de  Oca),  Brother  Luis  de, 

Franciscan,  killed  in  prairie  fire,  Texas. 

1720  {circa)  Mingtles,  Juan,  Franciscan,  killed  in  mas- 

sacre by  Missouri,  Missouri  (?). 

1721  Pita,  Brother  Jos6,  Franciscan,  killed  in  mas- 

sacre by  Lipan,  Texas. 
1724  Rasle  (Rasles.  RMe),  Sebastien,  Jesuit,  killed  by 
Ikiglish  and  Indian  allies,  Maine. 

1729  du  Poisson,  Paul,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Natches, 

Mississippi. 
Souel,  Jean,  Jesuit,  killed  by  Yazoo,  Mississippi. 

1730  Gaston, ,  Sem.  For.  Missions,  killed  by  Illinois, 

Illinois. 

1736  Senat,  Antoninus,  Jesuit,  tortured  and  burned 
with  whole  party  by  Chickasaw,  Mississippi. 
Aulneau  (Amaud),  Jean-Pierre,  Jesuit,  killed 
with  twenty  others  in  massacre  by  Sioux,  on 
Massacre  Island,  Lake  of  Woods,  about  two 
miles  beyond  the  Minnesota-Caiuuia  line. 

1752  Ganzabal,  Jos^  Francisco,  Franciscan,  held  by 
Coco  (Karankawa),  Texas. 

1758  {circa)  Silva^^ ,  Franciscan,  killed  by  mission 


Indians,  Texas. 
Terreros,  Alonso  G.  de,^ 

Franciscan, 
Santiesteban,  Jos6, 
Franciscan. 
1775  Jayme,  Luis,  Franciscan,  killed  by  DiegueiSo, 

California. 
1780  Dfaz,  Juan 


killed  in  massacre  at 
San  Sabd,  by  mis- 
sion Indians,  Texas. 


^Franciscans,   killed  by 
Yuma,  California. 


1704  Parga,  Juan  de 

Mendoza,  Manuel  de 
Delgado,  Marcos 
Idiranda,  Angel 


Franciscans,  tortured 
andkilled  by  English 
and  Indian  allies, 
Florida, 


Morena,  Matias 
Garces,  Francisco 
Barraneche,  Juan  J 

1812  Quintana,  Andres,  Franciscan,  killed  by  Mis- 
sion Indians,  CaJifomla. 

1833  Diaz, ,  killed  by  Caddo(?),  Texas. 

Bancboft,  hiBtoriee,  Calif omiat  Oregon^  IFcuAtn^ton,  New 
Mexico^  ArxKona,  etc.  (San  FranciBco,  1886-00) ;  BabcL4,  Entayo 
Croru}ld0%eo  (Madrid,  1723) ;  Bureau  Cath.  7nd.  Miaaioru,  uuxuaX 
reports  ( Washinston) ;  Jesuit  Ae2cUum«,  ed.  THWArrEs  (73  vols., 
Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Moricb.  Catholic  Church  in  WeUem 
Canada  (2  vols.,  Montreal,  1910);  Pabkman,  Jeeuite  in  North 
America  (Boston,  1867) ;  Idbm,  Pioneer*  of  France  (Boston,  1883) ; 
Shba,  Catholic  Mieeione  (New  York,  1865);  Idbm,  Catholic  Church 
in  Colonial  Days  (New  York,  1886) ;  also  authorities  under  cross- 
referenced  articles. 

James  Moonet. 

MUaioiiB,  Catholic  PABOcHiAii. — ^This  term  is  used 
to  designate  certain  special  exertions  of  tbe  Church's 
pastoral  agencies,  made,  for  the  most  part,  among 
Catholics,  to  instruct  them  more  fully  in  the  truths  (h 
their  religion,  to  convert  sinners,  rouse  the  torpid  and 
indifferent,  and  lift  the  good  to  a  still  higher  plane  of 
spiritual  effort.  To  distinguish  them  from  those  mis- 
sions which  represent  the  apostolic  activity  of  the 
Church  among  pagans  and  heretics,  these  home  mis- 
sions are  known  in  some  commimities  of  English-speak- 
ing Catholics  as  "  parochial  missions '' .  Such  missions 
usually  consist  of  a  systematic  course  of  preachine  and 
instruction,  extending  over  a  stated  number  of  days, 
performed  by  authorized  missionaries.  The  present 
article  treats  of:  I.  The  Necessity  and  Utility  of 
Popular  Missions;  II.  Origin  and  History;  III.  Method. 

1.  Necessity  and  Utility. — From  the  above  defini- 
tion it  is  evident  that  the  primary  object  of  a  popular 
mission  is  not  the  making  of  converts  to  the  Faith. 
However,  owing  to  the  familiar  relations  between 
Catholics  and  non-Catholics  in  the  United  States,  this 
is  so  r  ->mmon  a  result  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  nor- 
mally a  part  of  the  work  in  that  country,  and,  beginning 
from  the  lasf  depmle  of  ^he  nineteenth  century,  aQ 


BCI88I01I8  392 

orgaiiiied  missionary  movement  for  the  conversion  of  cies  of  religious  education  might  to  soime  extent  be 
non-Catholics  has  been  carried  on  throughout  that  supplied,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  such  reading  k 
country.  (See  Missionary  Socistt  or  St.  Paul  the  saaly  neglected.  To  supply  this  defect  is  one  of  the 
Apostle.)  But  the  con  verts  whom  a  pastor  most  of  all  aims  of  the  mission.  Tne  missionary  comes  to  in- 
seeks  dunng  a  regular  parish  mission  are  among  his  struct,  to  present  the  truths  of  salvation  clearly,  foici- 
own  people.  And  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  dear,  bly,  consecutively,  and  in  such  language  as  shall  reach 
forcible,  and  consecutive  exposition  of  the  most  im-  the  entire  audience.  The  end  of  man,  the  need  of 
portant  truths  of  salvation,  together  with  a  course  of  grace,  the  Divine  Attributes,  the  essential  parts  of  the 
mstructions  to  prepare  the  people  for  the  worthy  re-  Sacraments  of  Penance  and  the  Eucharist,  and  the 
ception  of  the  sacraments  and  enlighten  them  on  the  conditions  required  for  their  worthy  reception ;  matn- 
duties  of  their  daily  lives,  affords  a  powerful  means  to  mony,  the  laws  of  the  Church  governing  it,  and  the 
renovate  a  parish  spiritually.  Everyone  finds  in  these  right  way  of  preparing  for  it  anoentering  it — such  are 
seimons  and  instructions  something  that  appeals  pe-  some  familiar  themes  of  the  mission.  In  times  like 
culiariy  to  him,  and  is  likely  to  bear  fruit  in  the  future,  the  present,  and  in  the  social  conditions  of  modem  life, 
These  missions  are  for  the  laity  what  retreats  are  for  the  ordinary  "cure  of  souls  "  hardly  suffices  to  protect 
the  deigy  and  religious  communities.  In  fact  they  are  souls  against  the  deadly  influences  of  constant  f  rictioD 
an  adaptation  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the  faithful  with  a  materialistic  world ,  and  against  the  all-pervad- 
of  the  spiritual  exercises  long  tnuutional  in  the  Churoh,  ing  atmosphere  of  sensuality  and  worldliness.  Pass- 
and  made  use  of  especially  during  the  Ages  of  Faith  ing  their  lives  face  to  face  with  extraordinary  spiritual 
when  people  were  in  the  habit  of  retiring  to  monaster-  perils,  Catholics  in  the  twentieth  century  ne!ed  the  ex- 
ies  to  devote  themselves  for  a  certain  period  of  time  to  traordinary  succour  and  protection  wnich  are  fur- 
that  renewal  in  the  spirit  of  their  mind,  which  the  nished  only  by  the  mission.  Thus  the  instructions 
Apostle  recommends:  And  be  renewed  in  the  spirit  of  given  to  the  intelligences  of  the  faithful  at  a  missiaa 
your  mind :  and  put  on  the  new  man,  who  according  to  are  of  no  less  importance  than  the  sermons  which  are 
God  is  created  in  justice  and  holiness  of  truth  "  (Eph.,  addressed  to  their  wills.  The  duties  and  responsibili- 
iv,  23,  24).  In  view,  then,  of  the  many  benefits  that  ties  of  parents  towards  their  children,  and  of  chUdren 
accrue  from  a  retreat,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  towards  their  parents,  the  mutual  obligations  of  em- 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  Divine  Providence,  a  mis-  ployers  and  employed,  as  the  Church  views  them,  are 
sion  is  the  greatest  grace  that  God  can  confer  upon  by  no  means  to  be  taken  for  granted  as  fidly  grasped 
an V  parish.  "There  is  nothing",  says  St.  Aiphonsus,  even  by  the  more  intelligent  among  average  well- 
"  that  is  better  adapted  than  missions  or  retreats  to  meaning  Catholics. 

enlighten  the  minds  of  men,  to  purify  corrupt  hearts  Here,  lastly,  it  is  important  to  note  one  vital  pur- 

and  to  lead  all  to  the  exercise  of  a  truly  Christian  life" .  pose  which  the  parochial,  or  popular,  mission  ser\'e8  in 

The  usefulness  of  missions,  moreover,  for  the  sane-  many  dioceses  of  the  United  States.    With  a  rapidly 

tification  and  salvation  of  souls  has  received  not  a  lit-  increasing  Catholic  population,  the  oraanisation  oif 

tie  recognition  from  various  popes  during  the  last  two  new  parishes  is  a  frequent  necessity.    It  is  not  a&- 

centuries.    Paul  III  recommended  the  Spiritual  Ex-  sumed  by  any  means  tnat  the  majonty  of  the  faithful 

ercises  of  St.  Ignatius  as  "  full  of  piety  and  sanctity  are  grievous  sinners,  nor  do  the  diocesan  dergy  lose 

and  veiy  usefm  and  salutary  for  the  edification  ana  sight  of  the  truth  that  the  popular  missian  is  no  less 

spiritual  advancement  of  the  faithful''.    Benedict  efficacious  for  making  the  good  better,  and  stimulat- 

XIV,  after  comparing  missionaries  to  those  whom  the  ing  further  effort  on  toe  part  of  those  who  are  already 

Apostles  Peter  and  Andrew  called  to  assist  them  in  wuling,  than  for  reclaiming  those  who  have  taken  the 

landing  their  nets,  says  that  for  "  purifying  corrupt  broad  path  of  evil.    In  this  view,  it  is  the  common 

morals  .  .  .  nothing  is  more  effective  than  to  solicit  practice  to  commence  the  life  of  a  new  parish  with.a 

the  aid  of  others,  namely  to  establish  evenrwhere  mission  conducted  by  priests  of  some  specially  chosen 

(that  is  in  every  diocese)  sacred  missions.    Nor  can  missionary  institute.    In  such  a  mission  the  fervour 

this  be  called  a  new  ana  uncertain  remedy  which  is  of  the  new  parishioners  is  not  onlv  increased,  but 

proposed  for  purifying  the  morals  of  the  people.    It  is  effectively  applied  to  the  purpose  of  solidifying  and 

an  old  one  and  inaeea  the  onl^  one  suitablv  adapted  organising  their  corporate  religious  life.     One  chief 

to  cure  existing  evils,  one  which  many  bisnops  have  means  to  this  end  is  the  erection  of  pious  confratemi- 

employed  in  their  dioceses  with  extraorainary  results  "  ties  for  which  the  mission  affords  opportunity.    Thus 

r^Gravissimum",    8    Sept.,    1745).    Pius   VI    con-  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Holy  Name  Sod- 

demned  the  proposition  of  those  who  called  missions  ety,  the  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  or  the  Rosaiy 

an  empty  noise  with  at  most  a  transient  effect  ^Auct.  Confratemitv  becomes  at  the  very  outset  the  instru- 

Fid.,  prop.  65).     Leo  XII  granted  a  plenary  mdul-  ment  of  incalculable  spiritual  benefit,  and  a  fulcrum 

gence  to  the  missions  given  oy  the  Fathers  of  the  Soci-  by  means  of  which  the  efforts  of  the  new  pastor  attain 

ety  of  Jesus.     Gregory  XVI  extended  this  indulgence  more  than  double  the  results  which  mignt  otherwise 

to  the  sick  who  could  not  attend  the  missions,  but  have  been  expected  of  them. 

complied  with  the  required  conditions  at  their  homes;  II.  Origin  and  History. — ^In  substance,  missions 

and  in  1834  the  same  pontiff  extended  it  to  all  mis-  are  coeval  with  Christianity.    The  Founaer  of  the 

sions,  irrespective  of  the  orders  to  which  the  mission-  Chureh  was  also  its  first  missionaiy.    His  life  was 

aries  belonged.     In  1849  Pius  IX  wrote  to  the  bishops  a  missionary  life,  "teaching  daily  m  the  temple'*, 

of  Italy  uiging  the  work  of  spiritual  exercises  and  mis-  ''  preaching  to  the  multitude  from  the  ship  ",  and,  at 

sions,  declaring  them  very  useful  for  fostering  piety  the  dose  m  His  life's  work,  entrusting  its  continuation 

and  exciting  confirmed  sinners  to  repentance  ("^Nos-  to  His  Apostles — "  Going  therefore,  teach  ye  all  na- 

tris",  8  Dec.,  1849);  and  he  made  tnis  appeal  again  tions;  .  .  .  Teaching  them  to  observe  all  things  what- 

tothebishopsof  Austria  in  the"  Singulariquidem,  17  soever  I  have  commanded  you"  (Matt.,   xxviii,  19, 

March,  1856.  20).    Obedient  to  this  injunction,  the  history  of  the 

The  mission  is  an  appeal  to  the  intellect  and  the  Church  has  become  a  history  of  missionary  activity, 

will.    The  general  end  to  be  obtained  is  the  enlighten-  whether  by  it  be  understood  the  prolonged  missionaxy 

ment  of  the  former  and  the  movement  and  elevation  labour  among  heathen  tribes,  or  the  exercise  of  r^u- 

of  the  latter.  The  necessity  of  these  are  apparent .  It  is  lar  mission  work  among  the  faithful, 

the  experience  of  missionaries  that,  owing  to  the  press-  It  is  true  that  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 

ing  material  necessities  of  modem  life,  much  ignorance  century  there  existed  no  organise  form  of  popular 

prevails  among  the  Catholic  laity  as  a  class  in  matters  missionary  work  exactly  as  it  is  now  understood.    But 

Sertaining  to  their  religion.    It  is  true,  there  is  no  even  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Chureh  we  find  such  emi- 

..e^h  oTgood  reading  matter  whepeby  the  deficjen-  nent  saints  ^d  doctors  119  the  two  Gr^ries  (of  Nmit 


MUSIONS                           393  M1MI0N8 

ADSUB  kbd  of  Ny88a)i  Basil,  and  ChryBOrtom,  Am-  Capuchins.  The  apostolic  labours  of  these  misBionarieft 
brose,  Leo,  Augustine,  and  Gregory  the  Great  making  were  everywhere  blessed  with  remarkable  success.  In 
special  efforts  on  special  occasions  to  strengthen  faith  France,  the  birthplace  of  popular  missions,  the  Lazarists 
and  foster  piety  by  extraordinary  series  of  instruc-  and  the  Jesuits  were  the  pioneers  of  a  missionary  activ- 
tions,  exhortations,  and  devotions.  The  good  work  ity  which  stirred  up  the  faithful  to  greater  seal  and  de- 
of  the  wandering  Celtic  missionaries  in  the  sixth  and  votion  in  every  part  of  the  country.  Other  oiders  and 
seventh  centuries — e.  g.,  Sts.  Columbanus,  Gall,  Ki-  congregations  graduallv  came  to  their  assistance,  and, 
lian,  Fridolin — ^may  also  be  taken  as,  in  some  sense,  an  thoufi;h  there  was  a  slight  falling  off  in  this  respect  dur- 
early  type  of  the  popular  mission.  Sts.  Bernard,  Peter  in^  the  period  of  the  French  He  volution,  yet,  in  the 
Daxnian,  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  the  other  great  preach-  reign  of  Napoleon  I,  the  emperor  himself  arransed  for 
era  of  the  Crusades  were  eminent  popular  mission-  missions  in  the  dioceses  of  Troyes,  Poitiers,  La  Ro- 
aries,  and  their  appeals  to  the  Christian  seal  of  Europe  chelle,  and  Metz,  to  be  conducted  at  the  expense  of 
were  splendid  instances  of  popular  missions  adAjptM  the  Government.  After  the  Restoration  in  1815,  a 
to  the  conditions  of  the  age.  With  the  rise  of  the  new  impetus  was  given  to  missionary  work  by  the 
mendicant  orders  began  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Abb6  Forbin-Janson,  who,  with  his  friend  the  Anb6  de 
missionary  endeavour.  The  Dominicans  and  Fran-  Rausan,  founded  the  Missionaires  de  France,  and  by 
ciscans  were  popular  missionaries  in  the  truest  sense  of  Charles  de  Masenod,  who  founded  the  Oblates  of  Mary 
the  word.  They  went  from  town  to  town  preaching  Immaculate,  at  Marseilles,  in  1815.  In  Germany  paro- 
to  the  people  everywhere,  in  the  public  places  as  well  chial  missions  had  been  given  sporadically,  cniefly 
as  in  the  churches.  They  preached  cniefiy  to  the  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  Redemptorists,  before  1848; 
masses,  the  poor  people,  using  simple,  unadorned  Ian-  after  that  date  they  became  more  general.  The  bish- 
guage.  As  a  consequence,  the  people  followed  them  ops  everywhere  encouraged  and  urged  them.  The 
m  crowds,  drawn  by  their  simple  elo(]uence.  Their  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  in  1843,  maintained 
strict  rule  of  life  and  renunciation  exercised  during  the  that  the  people  of  every  parish  are  entitled,  at  least  ex 
Middle  Ages  a  most  salutary  social  influence  over  the  carUaUt  to  have  the  benefit  of  a  mission.  During  this 
enslaved  and  unprivileged  classes  of  the  population,  period  the  German  Church  could  pride  itself  on  many 
In  the  fourteentn  century  we  have  the  eminent  Do-  eminent  missionaries — Redemptorists,  Jesuits,  Do- 
minican preachers,  Tauler  and  Henry  S\iso;  in  the  fif-  minicans,  Franciscans — ^who  devoted  themselves  en- 
teenth,  St.  Vincent  Ferrer  and  Savonarola;  in  the  six-  tirely  to  popular  mission  work:  the  names  of  Fathers 
teenth,  Louis  of  Granada.  The  acme  of  Franciscan  Roh,  KlinknofstrOm,  Pott^ieser,  and  others  are  still 
preaching  was  reached  by  the  Observants  in  the  fif-  held  in  benediction.  On  the  expulsion  of  Uie  Jesuits, 
teenth  century,  especially  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Redemptorists  and  other  orders  from  the  German 
FamoiiB  popular  missionaries  of  the  Franciscan  Order  Empire,  in  1872,  there  was  a  short  interruption,  but 
were  Sts.  Bemardine  of  Siena,  John  Capistran,  and  the  work  was  soon  taken  up  and  carried  on  with  the 
Peter  of  Alcantara.  Bythe  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen-  richest  results  by  the  congregations  which  had  been 
tury  the  Society  of  Jesus  took  up  this  work.  St.  Igna-  permitted  to  remain.  The  Redemptorists,  on  their 
tius  coxnbatted  chiefly  the  errors  of  the  Reformers.  In  return  in  1894,  entered  the  field  with  renewed  vigour. 
1592  the  Yen.  C^sar  de  Bus  (a.  v.)  founded  the  ''  Pr6-  In  Italy  systematic  mission  work  was  introduce  by 
tres  aeculiersde  la  doctrine  cni^tienne",  acongrega-  the  Lazarists  during  the  lifetime  of  their  foimder. 
tion  devoting  itself  entirely  to  the  work  of  catechis-  With  the  rise  of  the  Redemptorists,  the  Passionists, 

ing  and  pressing  the  Christian  doctrine.                  the  Fathers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  and  several  other 

All  these  saints,  religious  institute^  and  preachers]  con^;regations,  the  work  spread  rapidly  over  the  entire 
may  be  said  to  have  represented  the  work  of  popular  /  peninsula,  and,  in  spite  of  the  disturbances  of  the 
missionii  in  its  rudimentary  form.  That  work  was  not/  nineteenth  century,  popular  missions  have  flourished 
reduced  to  a  system  imtil  the  foundation  of  the  Con-;  there.  In  Austria  they  developed  during  the  reign  of 
gregation  of  Priests  of  the  Mission  early  in  the  seven-  Maria  Theresa,  but  under  her  successor,  Joseph  II, 
teenth  century  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  circum-  missions  were  to  a  great  extent  prohibited,  and  mis- 
stances  which  led  to  St.  Vincent's  taking  up  this  work,  sionaries  banished.    The  Redemptorists  were  recalled, 


together  with  a  full  account  of  his  institute  (com- 
monly called  the  Lasarists)  and  its  methods,  will  be 


but  could  labour  only  on  condition  of  submitting  to 
official  persecution.    It  was  only  after  the  Revolution 


found  under  Missions,  Congregation  of  Priests  of'  of  1848  had  spent  itself  that  the  Redemptorists,  Jes- 
THE.  The  holy  enterprise  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  had  uits.  Capuchms,  and  Franciscans  could  carry  on  the 
France  for  its  birthplace;  in  Italy,  a  century  later  work  of  missions  immolested,  esf)ecially  in  Bohemia 
^1732),  St.  Alphonsus  founded  his  congregation  and  the  Tyrol,  in  Westphalia,  Bavaria,  and  Wdrtem- 
(see  Rbdeebosi,  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy),  beig.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  Redemp- 
Their  primary  occupation  is  the  apostolic  ministry  in  torists,  missions  were  again  prohibited.  Later,  how- 
the  preaching  of  missions  and  retreats  to  all  classes  ever,  Capuchins  and  Franciscans  took  up  the  work, 
of  Catholics,  but  especially  to  the  most  neglected,  and  diocesan  priests  also  entered  the  field  as  mission- 
The  congregation  spread  rapidly  throughout  Europe. ,  aries  and  directors  of  retreats.  In  1786,  St.  Clement 
About  one  hundred  years  later  Venerable  Caspar  x  Mary  Hofbauer^econd  founder  of  the  Redemptorists, 
Bufalo  (d.  1837)  founded  in  Rome  the  Congregation  )  with  his  friend  Thad&us  Hobl,  founded  a  house  of  the 
of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  (see  Precious  Blood,  /  congregation  in  Warsaw,  where  King  Stanislaus  Poni- 
CoNGREGATiON  oftheMost),  to  dcvotc  itsclf  cxclu- /  atowski  placed  the  German  national  church  of  St. 
sively  to  parochial  mission  work.  The  causes  which  |  Beimo  at  their  disposal.  The  labours  of  St.  Clement 
have  led  to  the  ra^ici  diffusion  of  this  newly  organised  \  and  his  companions  at  Warsaw  from  1786  to  1808 
mission  work  in  the  last  three  centuries  are  not  far  to  I  were  crownea  with  extraordinary  success, 
seek.  Owing  to  the  changed  conditions,  intellectual,  After  the  death  of  St.  Alphonsus,  his  miuionaries 
social,  as  well  as  religious,  the  older  style  of  popular  '  evangelized  the  deserted  Catnolics  in  the  Russian  Prov- 
preaching  had  become  inadequate  to  the  exi^ncies  of  i  inces  of  Courland  and  Livonia,  on  the  invitation  of 
the  age.  The  increasing  number  of  sects  with  itiner-  Monsignor  Saluzzo,  Apostolic  Nvmcio  in  Poland.  In 
ant  representatives,  and  a  corresponding  spread  of  Belgium  and  in  Holland  the  missionary  spirit  has,  with 
religious  indifference,  called  for  specially  organised  one  or  two  slisht  interruptions,  always  been  active, 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  Church.  The  Lazarists  laboured  in  Great  Britain  as  early  as 

The  work,  once  b^un,  was  soon  taken  up  by  other  1640,  and  until  the  penal  laws  made  organized  mission 
orders  whose  primary  end  was  different.  Notable  work  impossible.  It  was  not  until  about  1850  that 
among  these  were  the  Jesuits,  who  were  the  foremost  the  work  was  effectively  begun  in  that  country.  In 
labouren  in  the  field,  the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,    Ireland,  missions  were  recommended  by  national  and 


BCI88I88IPn  394  BCI8SI88IFPI 

?rovinoifll  flynods— e.  g.,  by  the  Plenary  Synod  of  sively  and  the  second  for  men.    If  it  is  to  continue 

'hurles,  in  1850;  bv  the  Synods  of  Cashel,  1853,  and  four  weeks,  the  first  week  is  for  married  women,  the 

of  Tuam,  1854,  and  the  Plenary  Synod  of  Maynooth,  second  for  unmarried  women,  the  third  for  married 

1875.    In  England  they  were  recommended  by  the  men,  and  the  fourth  for  immanied  men.    As  f ar  ss 

Provincial  Council  of  Westminster,  in  1852,  and  afi;ain  time  will  permit,  the  sermons  usually  deal  with  the 

in   1859;  in  Scotland  by  the  Plenary  Council  of  following  general  subjects,  which  are  varied  to  some 

1886.    The  Plenary  Council  of  Australia,  held  at  extent  according  to  circumstances:    Ssuvation,  Sin, 

Sydney  in   1885,  and,  in  Canada,  the  Provincial  Repentance,  Hdl,  Death,  Judgment,  Heaven — with 

Council  of  Quebec,  in  1863,  strongly  urged  parochial  special  instructions  on  matrimony,  temperance,  Chii&- 

missions.  tian  education,  etc.    The  instructions  deal  also  with 

the  United  States  there  was  no  systematic  popu*  the  essentials  of  the  sacrament  of  penance,  certain 

lar  missionary  work  until  about  1860,  though  missions  commandments  of  God  and  of  the  Church,  Holy  Com- 

had  been  given  earlier.    The  Lasarist  Fathers  arrived  munion,  the  Mass,  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin, 

in  1816,  the  Redemptorists  in  1832,  and  the  Passionists  prayer,  duties  of  parents  and  children,  etc.    The  style 

in  1852;  but,  although  missions  and  spiritual  retreats  of  these  instructions  is  simple  and  didactic, 

are  the  special   work  of  these  congregations,  the  ^A«RTMT^rA«>^wP«teroiM  (Paderbom,  I90i).  3i,257-«0; 

warcity  of  priests  in  this  country  co  Jed  them  at  J^Tp.'^^^SSSSS?^  ISSl^^Zm'^Jii^^ 

first  to  postpone  such  work  to  the  ordinary  spiritual  Die  vJlkimiBnonen  ein  BedHrfniaa  unaerir  ZeU  (SdbafliAUM! 

wants  of  a  scattered  population.       In  1839  Gregory  lS5l)'j  HvrKnn,  VolksmUnonen  ui^  MuHonwerneuerunQ  (Vxi}-- 

XVI  sent  the  Abb6  Forbin-Janson  on  a  missionary  ??SSn'-  w".  ^®^®2*  /^5??"^*'  P^  Voiksmiuion  (Padcrboni. 

AIM.  oKjuv  MA^  xi.1^^  j.wi,^uA-vc»uov»u  ^jru  »  ^AA»i,xvru«M J  1909);  HxLAJiioN,  L« M unofiatfe.  ott ToTf  deM  mts^snona  (Pans, 

tour  through  the  Umted  States,  where,  for  two  years,  i879);  Botlb.  St,  Vineeta  de  PaS  and  the  Vineemiant  m  h^ 

he  gave  missions  to  the  people  and  retreats  to  the  land,  Seuilar^  and  Enpland,  A.  p^  1909); 

cleiwr,  brin^g  the  faithful  to  the  «|craments  m  num-  *«*  i^J^:^M)fii-n\h"-l^^^ll]:*"k'^^ 

bers  which  smce  then  have  scarcely  been  equalled.    In  st.  Vincent  de  Paul,  tr.  Bradt  (2  vob..  New  York,  18&). 

the  Second  Provincial  Council  of  Cincinnati  (1858),  See.alao  the  bio«r»phi««  of  su.  Alphonsua  Liniori.  Philip 

the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1866),  and  ^Jg;  ^^^  *»'  ^^  ^roM,  Dommio.  Fraacim  fknatiiM  La- 
the Tenth  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore  (1869),  Joseph  Schbokdeb, 
parochial  missions  are  strongly  recommended.  Among 

the  more  active  missionaries  of  this  period.  Fathers        BliaaiBBippii  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 

Smarius,  Weninger,  Damen,  D.  Young,  O.P.,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  Mississippi  River  that  forms 

Hewit  are  still  gratefully  remembered.  its  western  boundary  from  35^  to  31^  N.  lat.   The  Act 

With  the  increase  in  the  number  of  priests,  the  of  Congress  of  1  March,  1817,  creating  the  state,  fixed 
parochial  mission  has,  during  the  last  centmy,  become  its  boundaries  as  follows:  "  Beginning  on  liie  Missis- 
an  extremely  influential  element  in  the  life  of  the  sippi  River  at  a  point  where  the  southern  boundary  of 
Catholic  Chureh  in  the  United  States.  Besides  the  ^e  State  of  Tennessee  strikes  the  same,  thence  east 
Lazarists,  Redemptorists,  and  Passionists  already  along  the  said  boundary  line  to  the  Tennessee  River, 
mentioned,  Dominicans,  Augustinians,  Paulists,  and  thence  up  the  same  to  the  mouth  of  Bear  Creek,  thence 
Marists  have  been  active  in  this  field.  To  supply  the  by  a  direct  line  to  the  north-west  comer  of  the  County 
lack  of  missionaries  of  the  regular  institutes,  a  highly  of  Washington,  thence  due  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
satisfactory  expedient  has  been  devised  in  "diocesan  ico,  tiience  westwardly,  including  all  of  the  islands 
apostolates".  These  groups  of  priests,  selected  from  within  six  leagues  of  the  shore,  to  the  most  eastern 
the  secular  clergy,  are  trained  for  mission  work  with  jimction  of  Peart  River  with  LaJce  Borgne,  thence  up 
special  reference  to  the  conversion  of  non-^athoIics.  said  River  to  the  thirty-first  degree  of  North  latitude, 
They  are  exempted  from  ordinary  pastoral  work,  and  thence  west  along  said  degree  of  latitude  to  ibe  Missis- 
held  in  readiness  to  give  missions  whenever  needed,  sippi  River,  thence  up  the  same  to  the  begixming. " 
Under  various  names — as  ''  Apostolic  Missionary  Tne  state  in  its  extreme  length  is  330  miles;  its  great- 
Band'',  ''Diocesan  Mission  Band",  etc. — ^the  svstem  est  width  is  188  miles;  its  area  46,340  square  miles, 
has  become  established  in  the  Archdioceses  of  New  It  has  a  coast-line  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  of  about  75 
York,  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul,  and  San  Francisco,  and  the  miles.  By  government  surveys  begun  in  1803,  the 
Dioceses  of  Alton,  Burlin^on,  Oklahoma,  Peoria,  state  is  divided  into  sections  and  townships. 
Pittsburg,  Providence,  Richmond,  San  Antonio,  Tovography, — It  contains  no  mountains,  but  there 
Scranton,  and  Wheeling.  In  the  average  American  is  a  decided  difference  of  levels  between  the  alluvial 
parish  there  is  a  mission  every  three  years,  in  some  lands  lyine  between  the  Mississippi  and  Yasoo  Rivers 
every  second  year,  and  manv  make  it  an  annual  and  the  otner  sections  of  the  state,  which  may  be  gen- 
event.  In  1903  Pope  Leo  XIII  addressed  a  letter  to  erally  characterised  as  the  uplands  of  the  state.  The 
the  Chureh  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  in  which  he  latter  comprise  approximately  five-sixths  of  ^e  entire 
strongly  recommended  the  giving  of  missions.  For  an  area  of  the  state,  constituting  a  plateau  of  an  undulat- 
account  of  the  Chureh  Extension  Society  founded  by  ing  character,  the  level  of  which  gently  descends  in  a 
the  Rev.  Francis  Kelley,  of  Lapeer,  Mich.,  and  or-  general  southerly  direction  to  the  coast.  Its  general 
ganiaed  at  Chicago,  19  October,  1905,  for  the  develop-  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  near 
ment  of  the  missionary  spirit  among  the  faithful  and  the  coast-line  is  about  150  feet,  and  the  middle  north- 
the  support  of  the  Church  in  poor  or  pioneer  localities,  em  and  north-eastern  portions  are  from  about  150  to 
see  SociETiEB,  Catholic.  500  and  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

III.  Method. — ^While  all  missionanr  bodies  pursue  The  drainage  on  the  west  is  the  Biississippi  River  and 
the  same  end,  their  methods  of  conducting  missions  its  principsi  tributaries  the  Yasoo,  Tallahatchie,  Cold- 
vary  according  to  the  eenius  of  each  institute  and  its  water.  Sunflower,  Big  Black,  and  Womochitto  Rivers; 
traditions.  In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  middle  part  the  Pearl,  which  empties  into  Lake 
purely  dermatic  sermons  are  avoided,  as  well  as  mere  Borgne,  and  in  the  eastern  part,  the  Tombigbee  River, 
appeals  to  the  emotions  and  the  assumption  that  all  the  Chicksawha  River,  and  the  Escatawpa  River,  and 
that  is,  is  bad.  The  aim  is  rather  to  seek  the  virtue  inthesouth  the  Wolf,  Pascagoula,  BUoxie,  Abolochitto, 
that  lies  in  the  middle  course  of  sound  doctrine  and  and  Catahoula  Rivers.  The  upland  sections  of  the 
wholesome  religious  sentiment.  It  is  with  this  end  in  state  are  imdulating,  and  successive  ridges  divide  the 
view  that  the  subjects  of  the  mission  sermons  are  area  between  the  water  courses.  The  north-eastern 
chosen,  and,  as  the  number  of  sermons  is  limited,  only  portion  contains  a  large  area  of  prairie  formation 
the  most  practical  topics,  bearing  on  the  everjrday  which  overlies  a  cretaceous  sub-Btratmn,  commonly 
lives  of  ^e  people,  are  selected.  If  the  mission  lasts  known  as  rotten  limestone.  The  middle  comprises  a 
two  weeks,  the  first  week  is  usually  for  women  e'  'nea  of  uphinds  with  a  sub-stratum  of  clay  for* 


HU8I8BIFPI  395  mssissim 

mation.    The  Boutheni  portion  is  generally  sandy  and        Fauna  and  Flora. — In  Mismsaippi  we  meet  with  all 

loamy.  the  different  anintaJs  that  are  found  in  the  gulf  states. 

The  Yaioo-Misainippi  Delta  conatitutee  the  cotton-  There  are  about  forty  different  speciea  of  mftmmalia  in 

producing  region  of  the  state,  the  finest  and  moat  fer-  the  state.     Among  them  is  the  American  opassum, 

tile  cotton  lands  in  the  world,  not  excepting  the  valleys  which  is  abundant,  and  is  highly  pmod  as  an  anicle 

of  theNileandtheGangee.    It b^ins at tbd Tennessee  of  food.    The  deer  and  the  black  Dear,  that  once  ex- 

line  and  follows  on  its  eastern  boundary  a  line  of  hills  isted  in  great  numbera,  are  disappearir^  owing  to  the 

or  bluffs  to  Vicksburg,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  clearing  up  of  the  country  and  the  inefficient  enforce- 

tbe  Mississippi  River.    It  ties  low  and  its  general  aver-  ment  of  the  game  laws.  Aoout  one  hundred  and  fifteen 

aee  level  is  not  higher  than  the  high-wat^  level  of  the  vaiieties  of  birds  are  found,  about  twenty  of  which  are 

BfissiBsippL    It  comprises  an  estimated  area  of  4,480,-  migratory,  coming  from  the  north  during  the  fall  and 

000  acres  or  6480  square  milee.    It  is  now  protected  winter  mouths.     The  mocking  bird,  exclusively  a 

byascientificallyconstructedsystemof  leveeeextend-  southern  bird,  and  the  moat  remarkable  songster  in 

log  on  the  Mississippi  River  from  the  Tennessee  line  to  the  world,  la  found  in  the  state,  especially  in  the  nud- 

the  hills  at  Vicksbuix,  andup  the  Yaioo  River  and  Its  die  and  southernportions,  in  great  numbers.    The  wild 

tributaries  above  the  danger  points.     The  levees  are  turkey,  a  native  of 

maintained   by  local  assessments   by  the  two  levee  this  country,  is 

boards  in  the'delta  and  by  appropriations  from  the  found  in  nearly  all 

Federal  Government.madefortneimptovementof  the  parts   <^  the  state. 

■'-'-■.-      '-leTevi         -  ■  s^      ■■ 


rivers  and  for  the  maintenance  of  the  levees.    The  cost  Quail  are  also  very 
of  maintaining  this  levee  system  is  great,  but  is  far  abundant.     The  , 
more  than  compensated  for  bv  the  protection  secured  game  laws  are  more  I 
for  this  large  area  of  cotton  Unds.    These  levees  are  effective     and     are  I 
subetaotially  constructed  of  earth  from  15  to  30  feet  more  vigorously  en-  I 
high  with  bnses  brood  in  proportion.    With  the  levee  forced    than    here-  1 
system,  it  is  the  genera]  opinion  of  levee  engineers  that  tofore.    More  than 
any  general  overflow  of  the  delta  is  impossible.      In  fifty  species  of  rep- 
very  nigh  water  an  occasional  break  in  a  levee,  called  tilia  are  found  here, 
a  "crevasse",  may  overflow  a  small  local  area,  but  prominent     among 
with  the  present  scientific  skill  and  equipment,  these  them  being  tbealU- 
breaks  are  generallv  closed  promptly,  with  but  little  gator    (A.    Misait- 

damage  to  land  affected.    The  water  level  in  the  Mi*-  rippienma),  existing  ^'*'-  "'  "'«m«'"'1 

sissippi  and  in  the  rivers  of  the  delta  varies  veiy  much  mainly  in  the  middle  and  southern  portions  of  the  state 

during  the  year.    The  highest  water  is  from  January  ontheriversandlakes.  Itattainaamaximumlengthof 

to  April,  followed  often,  in  the  Mississippi,  by  what  is  from  14  to  15  feet.    There  are  at  least  sixty  species  of 

teimed  the  June  rise  which  is  caused  by  the  melting  of  fish,  the  majority  of  which  are  edible.    The  oysters 

the  snow  and  ice  in  the  upper  Mississippi  and  in  its  and  crustaceans  of  the  gulf  exist  in  great  quantities 

tributaries.    There  are  good  landinm  at  various  points  and  are  of  the  finest  quality  for  food, 
on  the  Mississippi  River,  among  them  being  Green-         The  state,  in  almost  its  entire  area,  was  covered 

viile,  Vicksburg,  and  Natchei.  originally  with  a  magnificent  growth  of  forest  trees. 

Climatic  Conditions. — Hie  climate  is  mild  and  tem-  More  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  exist  at 

S irate.     In  the  summer,  breeses  from  the  Mexican  present.     Among  them  are  fifteen  varieties  of  oak, 

ulf  in  the  middle  and  southern  portions,  and  variable  mcluding  live  o^  and  white  and  red  oalu  which  are 

winds  elsewhere  in  the  state,  render  the  heat  moderate  the  most  valuable.    Cypress  is  still  abundant  in  the 

and  tolerable.  Inthesouthemportionthetemperature  river   bottoms   and   on   the  lakes.     Besides   several 

rarely  falls  as  low  88+32"  Fahr. .  and  generally  doea  species  of  hickory,  the  black  walnut,  chestnut,  sweet 

not  exceed  95°  Fahr.     In  the  middle  part  the  maxi-  gum.  red  cedar,  red  gum,  elms  of  various  varieties, 

mum  is  about  98°  and  the  lowest  is  rarely  lower  than  maple,  csh,  sycamore  exist  here,  among  many  other 

-F20°.       In  the  northern   portion   the  temperature  valuable  varieties,  all  of  large  growth  and  valuable  as 

rarely  falls  to  + 10°,  and  for  a  few  days,  in  an  excep-  timber.    The  long-leaf  pine,  the  moat  valuable  tree  for 

tionally  cold  winter,  may  go  to  -f  5°.     There  is  a  fair  timber  for  various  uses,  abounds  in  the  southern  por- 

and  moderate  rainfall  extended  through  the  year,  with  tions  of  the  state.    The  short-leaf  pine,  not  quite  so 

a  greater  fall  during  the  winter  and  spring.    Near  the  valuable,  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  middle 

coast  the  fall  is  about  65  inches  per  annum,  and  else-  and  northern  sections.    Next  to  cotton,  timber  is  the 

where  it  averages  about  60  inches  annually.  The  stale  most  valuable  product  of  the  stale.   The  value  of  the 

is  as  healthy  in  all  of  its  climatic  and  other  conditions  pine  timber  in  the  stale  was  estimat«d  in  1880,  ap- 

aa  any  of  the  adjacent  states.     In  the  low-lying  por-  proximately,  at  1250,000,000.    Allowing  for  the  cut- 

tions  that  are  not  well  drained  there  are  some  malarial  ting  since  that  time  and  also  for  the  increase  in  the 

fevers,  but  these  conditions  are  being  steadily  im-  price  of  lumber,  a  conservative  approximate  estimate 

proved.    The  death  rate  for  the  state  does  not  exceed,  of  its  value  should  not  be  less  than  S3OO,OO0,OOO  at  the 

annually,  1-20  per  cent.    Yellow  fever,  that  was  the  present  time. 

scourge  of  the  state  for  years  in  recurring  epidemics,         Agricullwe. — This  is  the  principal  industry  in  the 

no  longer  exists,  since  the  discovery  of  the  mosquito  stale;  of  the  male  population  TT.7%  and  of  the  female 

theory,  except  in  rare  and  sporadic  form.    The  yellow  71.8%  areengagedin  agricultural  pursuits.  Fully  one 

fever  experts  ore  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  with  half  of  the  state  is  of  extraordinary  fertility.   The  only 

ordinary  precautionary  measures  there  can  never  be  portion  that  is  unproductive  is  the  small  strip  of  tem- 

another  yellow  fever  epidemic  in  the  Booth.  tory  known  geographically  as  Flat  Woods,  where  only 

Geology. — The  geoic^  of  the  stale  is  not  compli-  the  bottom  kncb  are  fertile.    Cotton  is  tne  principal 

cated  and  is  similar  to  that  of  adjacent  states.    There  product,  being  probably  three  times  greater  than  the 

are  four  groups  of  cretaceous  strata :   (1 )  The  Entaw  other  industries  of  the  stale  combined .    The  value  of 

or  Coffee  group;  (2)  The  Tombigbee  group;  (3)  The  the  cotton  crop  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1900  was 

RottenLime8tonegroup;(4)TheRipleygroup.  Seven  S54,032,341.    The  crop  of  1870-1880  was  valued  at* 

groups  of  the  Tertiary  strata  have  been  distinguished  846,000,000,  showing  an  increase  during  that  period 

as  follows:  (1)  The  Flat  Woods  group;  (2)  The  La  of  over  88,000,000.    Among  other  minor  products  are 

Grange  group;  (3)  the  Buhrstone  group;  (4)  The  Clai-  Indian  com,  oats,  hay,  peas  of  every  variety,  wheat, 

home  group;  (5)  The  Jackson  group;  (0)  The  Vicks-  cane,  sorghum,  rice,  potatoes,  and  almost  every  vari- 

burg  group:  (7)  The  Grand  Gulf  group.  ety  of  orchard  and  garden  product.    In  the  southern 


396 


KKU 


part  oC  the  state,  sub-tropical  and  several  yarieties  oC 
&opica]  fruits  are  successfully  cultivated .  The  YasocH 
Mississippi  Delta  is  the  most  remarkable  agricultural 
section  df  the  state.  Its  area  is  6480  square  miles, 
or  4,147.200  acres.  With  an  alluvial  soil  that  is 
practicidly  inexhaustible,  its  cotton  production  ex- 
ceeds that  of  any  other  land  in  the  world.  Its  land 
produces  from  three  quarters  to  a  bale  and  a  half 
an  acre,  and  with  carerul  tillage  and  in  a  good  cotton 
year  as  much  as  a  bale  and  three  quarters  to  two  bales 
to  the  acre.  The  increase  in  the  value  of  the  lands  in 
the  Delta,  both  timber  and  cultivated,  is  remark- 
able. In  1881  the  state  soki  1,500,000  acres  of  timber 
lands,  by  levee  tax  titles,  which  have  been  held  vaUd, 
for  six  and  one  half  cents  per  acre.  These  lands  are 
now  worth,  on  an  average,  920  per  acre.  Twenty  years 
ago,  cotton  lands  could  oe  bought  for  from  S15  to  $25 
an  acre  that  are  now  worth  from  S50  to  S75  per  acre. 
The  population  of  the  delta  is  195,346 ;  of  this  number 
24,137  are  whites  and  171.209  are  negroes.  The 
negroes  generally  cultivate  tne  cotton  farms  and  the 
large  cotton  plantations  of  the  state,  while  the  small 
farais  are  cultivated  by  white  labour. 

Poptilotum. — The  population  of  the  state,  as  shown 
by  the  census  of  1900,  is  1,551,270,  of  which  641^200 
are  white  and  907,630  are  negroes,  with  2203  Indians 
and  237  Chinese.  A  small  percentage  of  the  popular 
tion  is  forei^  bom.  There  are  5345  males  and  2536 
females  foreign  bom;  total,  7981.  Of  these  7625  are 
white.  The  total  number  of  males  of  voting  age  is 
349,179.  Of  these  150,530  are  whites  and  197,936  are 
negroes.  There  are  118,057  illiterate  males  of  voting 
a05,  and  of  these  105,331  are  negroes  and  12,293  are 
whites.  Illiteracy  in  the  total  population  amounts  to 
32%.  The  illiteracv  of  the  entire  white  population  is 
8%  and  of  the  total  negro  population,  49.1%.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  extensive  school  facilities  provided 
at  the  expense  of  the  state,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy 
is  steadiljT  decreasing. 

Administration,— The  dvil  government  of  the  state 
is  structurally  similar  to  that  of  the  other  states. 
There  are  three  departments — executive,  legislative, 
and  judicial.  The  state  officers  and  members  of  the 
legisJature  are  elected  by  the  people  every  four 
years.  There  are  three  supreme  court  judges,  thir- 
teen circuit  court  judges  and  eight  chancellors,  all 
appointed  by  the  governor  with  the  approval  of  the 
senate.  The  elective  franchise  contains  the  following 
conditions,  viz :  a  voter  must  be  twenty-one  years  old, 
he  must  be  able  to  read  or  to  understand  the  state 
Constitution  when  read  to  him  (that  is,  a  layman's  and 
not  an  academician's  understanding  of  the  Constitu- 
tion) ;  he  must  have  resided  in  the  state  two  years  and 
in  the  precinct  one  year,  and  have  paid  all  taxes,  in- 
cluding an  annual  poU  tax  of  S2  for  two  years  preced- 
ing the  election.  Conviction  of  certain  crimes  against 
honesty  entails  the  disfranchisement  of  a  voter.  This 
qualified  suffrage  has  given  the  state  a  large  white 
majority  in  its  electoral  body.  The  validity  of  these 
suffrage  qualifications  has  been  sustained  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  the  case  of 
Wuliams  vs.  The  State  of  Mississippi,  decided  by  a 
unanimous  court  in  1896.  The  state  maintains  insti- 
tutions for  the  insane,  the  blind,  and  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  affording  ample  facilities  for  both  races.  There 
is  also  a  state  hospital  at  Natches  and  one  at  Vicks- 
burg. 

EducaHan, — ^The  public  educational  system  of  the 
state  consists  of  a  common  school  system  in  which 
each  cotmty  is  a  school-district,  and  in  which  many  of 
the  municipalities  constitute  separate  school-districts. 
This  system  is  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  by 
state,  county,  and  school  distnct;  and  separate 
educational  facilities  are  extended  to  all  of  the 
educable  children  of  both  races  in  the  state.  In 
addition,  the  state  maintains  the  Industrial  Insti- 
tute and  College  for  girls,  at  Columbus,  and  maintains. 


in  large  part,  the  University  at  Oxford^  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College  at  Starkville.  For  col- 
oured students  the  state  maintains  the  Alcorn  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College  near  Brunisburg  and 
and  Rodnev  CoUege  near  Rodnev.  both  in  daibome 
County.  llie  total  number  of  chiloren  enrolled  during 
1906-1907  was  482.206,  and  the  average  attendance 
for  the  same  perioa  was  285,047.  The  total  average 
attendance  in  1905-1906  was  267,898,  showing  an  in- 
crease in  1906-1907  of  17,149.  There  are  7241  schools 
in  the  school  districts,  and  117  schods  in  the  separate 
school  districts.  In  the  session  of  1906-1907,  there  was 
a  larger  attendance  of  negro  pupils  than  white  pupils  by 
15,335.  For  the  session  of  1906-1907,  $2,631,790.35 
of  public  money  went  to  the  support  of  schools,  as 
compared  with  $2,432,426.33  for  1905-1906.  There 
are  the  following  private  institutions  for  white  stu- 
dents: Jefferson  College,  near  Natches;  Rust  Univer- 
sitv.  Holly  Springs;  MiUsaps  College  and  Bellehaven 
College,  Jackson;  Blue  Mountain  College,  Blue  Moun- 
tain; Mississippi  College,  Clinton;  East  Mississippi 
College,  Merioian;  Stanton  College,  Natches.  There 
are  other  private  schools  of  lesser  prominence. 

Penitenkary  Svstem. — ^During  the  period  of  military 
government  in  the  South,  a  prison  system  known  as 
convict  leasing  was  established  in  this  and  other 
southern  states,  and  was  continued  in  Mississippi 
until  1890,  when  it  was  abolished  and  the  present  sys- 
tem was  adopted  of  working  the  prisonera  on  state 
lands  at  agricultural  pursuits  for  the  exclusive  benefit 
of  the  state,  and  under  exclusive  official  control.  The 
state  owns  20,900  acres  of  cotton  and  farm  lands  upon 
which  the  entire  prison  population  of  about  1200  pris- 
oners are  worked.  The  penitentiary  lands  cost  origi- 
nally $145,600  and  are  now  worth  at  least  1600,000. 
The  annual  cash  income  to  the  state  from  the  labour 
of  the  prisonera  is  not  less  than  $150,000.  In  addition 
to  this,  valuable  improvements  are  constantly  being 
made  on  the  property  by  the  prisonera.  The  present 
system  is  a  satisractorj^  solution  of  the  convict  prob- 
lem, in  which  all  conditions,  moral  and  sanitary,  are 
obtained.  Alabanui,  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and 
Louisiana  have  adopted  this  system. 

Transportation.— ^The  railroad  mileage  in  the  state 
amounts  to  3759  miles,  according  to  the  Report  of  the 
State  Railroad  Conmiission  of  1M8.  The  state  is  well 
supplied  with  water  transportation,  having  Uie  follow- 
ing navigable  rivera:  Mississippi,  Yasoo,  Tallahatchie, 
Sunflower,  Pearl,  Pascagoula,  Big  Black,  Tombigbee, 
and  some  minor  streams  that  are  navigable  during  a 
portion  of  the  year.  There  are  deep-water  harboure  on 
the  gulf  coast  at  Horn  Island  opposite  Pascagoula, 
and  Ship  Island  opposite  Gulf  Port.  There  is  a  depth 
of  water  at  the  pier  of  the  Gulf  and  Ship  Island  Rail- 
road at  Gulf  Port  of  23  feet  at  low  tide,  and  30  feet  in 
the  protected  roadstead  inside  of  Ship  Island,  which 
is  accessible  by  tugs  and  lightere  throiurh  a  deep-water 
channel.  There  are  also  harboura  at  Bay  of  St.  Louis 
and  Biloxi. 

History, — In  1540  Hernando  De  Soto,  one  of  the 
most  adventurous  of  the  Spanish  explorera,  discovered 
the  Mississippi  River,  and  his  expedition  reached  the 
present  limits  of  this  state,  ana  remained  until  his 
death  in  1 542.  The  expedition,  under  the  leaderahip  of 
Moscoes,  was  withdrawn  in  1543,  descending  the  nver 
to  the  sea  and  thence  along  the  coast  to  Mexico.  It  is 
difficult  to  trace  the  exact  route  of  De  Soto.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  he  passed  through  Florida  and 
Geor^  as  hieh  as  35^  rf,  lat.,  then  went  to  the 
vicinity  of  Mobile  and  then  north-west  to  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  In  1682  La  Salle  and  Fonti  descended  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  claimed  the 
entire  region  for  the  King  of  France.  In  1698  D'Iber- 
ville  came  to  Mississippi,  authorised  by  the  French 
king  to  colonize  the  lower  Mississippi.  He  went  to 
Ship  Island  and  Cat  Island,  to  the  mainland  on 
Biloxi  Bay>  to  Bay  of  St.  LomSi  and  to  Mobile.  The 


MI88IS8XPPI                            397  BCI88I8SIPPI 

colony  did  not  prosper.  D'Iberville  returned  to  tion  by  the  people  in  October,  1865,  under  the  auspices 
France,  leaving  his  two  brothers,  Sauvoll6  and  Bien-  of  President  Johnson's  plan  of  Reconstruction,  with 
WUe,  in  charge  of  the  country.  In  1699  D'Iberville  Benjamin  G.  Humphreys  as  governor.  Under  the 
returned  and  built  a  fort  on  the  Mississippi  about  400  Reconstruction  Acts  of  Congress  of  Blarch,  1867,  the 
miles  below  Natches.  He  sent  Fonti  on  an  expedition  Humphreys  government  was  abolished  and  a  tempo- 
to  Natches,  who  built  Fort  Rosalie  near  Natcnes.  At  rary  military  government  established  in  its  place  until 
that  time  Louisiana  belonged  to  France,  and  Florida  the  Reconstruction  government  was  established,  un- 
to Spain  by  claim  of  discovery.  In  1763  Spain  ceded  der  the  Acts  of  Congress,  with  James  L.  Alcorn  as 
Florida  to  Great  Britain.  The  northern  line  of  Florida  governor,  who  was  inaugurated  10  March,  1870.  This 
was  claimed  by  Spain  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yaaoo  Reconstruction  period,  with  unlimited  negro  suffrage. 
River  east  to  the  Chattahouchie  River,  a  claim  that  lasted  until  1876,  when  the  white  man  regained  con- 
was  not  conceded  north  of  31^  N.  lat.  In  1772  trol  of  the  state.  The  ordinary  annual  expenses  of  the 
Richard  and  Samuel  Swase  of  New  Jersey  formed  a  state  government  increased  from  $463,209.71  in  1869, 
pennanent  settlement  on  the  Homochitto  River  in  to  $1,729,046.34  in  1871,  under  negro  rule.  In  1876, 
Adams  County.  In  1781  Spain,  then  at  war  with  under  white  rule,  the  expenses  of  the  state  were  re- 
England,  expelled  the  English  from  Florida,  and  took  duced  to  $591,709.00  per  annum.  During  the  Recon- 
poBsession  of  that  coxmtiy.  Florida  was  conceded  to  struction  period  taxation  had  reached  the  point  of 
extend  to  31°  N.  lat.  and  westward  to  the  Perdido  confiscation,  and  one-fifth  of  all  the  lands  in  the  state 
River.  All  south  of  that  parallel  and  west  of  the  Per-  had  been  forfeited  to  the  state  for  taxes, 
dido  River  belonged  to  France.  All  east  of  the  Missis-  From  1876  to  1890,  by  various  extra-legal  methods 
sippi  River  and  north  of  31°  N.  lat.  was  territory  of  the  the  white  men  managed  to  maintain  control  of  the 
United  States  and  was  claimed  by  the  State  of  Georgia,  state,  and  the  constitutional  convention  of  1890  en- 

In  1798  the  Territory  of  Mississippi,  established  by  acted  a  constitution  that  placed  limitations  on  the 
Act  of  Congress,  was  bounded  as  follows:  On  the  west  elective  franchise.  The  state  suffered  severely  during 
by  the  Mississippi  River,  on  the  south  by  parallel  31°  the  Civil  War,  being  the  theatre  of  extensive  military 
N.  lat.,  on  the  north  by  a  line  running  east  from  the  operations.  During  the  Reconstruction  period  there 
mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River  to  the  Chattahouchie  River  was  an  enormous  loss  in  property  values.  At  present 
and  along  the  latter  river  on  the  east.  In  1802  the  the  state  is  in  a  highly  prosperous  condition,  and  each 
State  of  ueoi^a  ceded  to  the  United  States  its  claim  year  witnesses  its  steady  improvement  and  develop- 
to  all  territory  north  of  31°  N.  lat.  as  far  as  the  Ten-  ment. 

nessee  line,  and  in  1804  Congress  attached  all  north  TTie  Diocese  of  Natchez  ((|.  v.)  includes  the  entire 

of  31°  N.  lat.  and  south  of  the  Tennessee  line  to  the  state;  the  Catholic  population  in  1910  amounted  to 

Territory  of  Mississippi.    In  1803  the  Louisiana  Pur-  25,701,  including  2017  coloured  and  233  Indian  Cath- 

chase  was  effected.    In  1812  Congress  added  what  was  ohcs. 

then  termed  the  District  of  Mobile  to  the  Territory  of  Laws  of  the  State  AffecHng  Religion. — ^The  State  Con- 
Mississippi,  being  all  that  territory  extending  from  the  stitution  of  1890  provides  that  no  testamentary  be- 
Feari  to  the  Perdido  rivers,  bounded  on  the  north  by  quests  of  any  property,  real  or  personal,  can  be  made  to 
31°  N.  lat.  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mexican  Gulf.  By  any  religious  or  cnaritable  uses.  The  statutes  regulate 
the  treaty  of  Madrid  of  27  October,  1795,  Spain  had  by  limitations  the  character  of  property  that  reUgious 
csonceded  that  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  societies  or  associations,  or  ecclesiastical  bodies,  may 
Stat^  should  extend  to  oarallel  31°  N.  lat.,  thereby  own  and  hold,  viz. :  a  church,  a  residence  for  a  priest  or 
waiving  all  claim  north  of  that  line.  By  the  treatv  of  minister,  and  a  school  or  seminary  each  for  male  and 
22  Februanr,  1819,  Spain  ceded  all  Florida,  includ-  female  scholars,  and  also  a  cemetery;  and  a  religious 
ing  the  whole  territory  south  of  parallel  31°  N.  lat.  and  denomination  may,  in  addition,  own  such  colleges  or 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  to  the  United  States,  seminaries  of  learning  as  it  may  deem  proper,  and  also 
But  the  United  Stat^  was  then  in  possession  of  Flor-  a  place  of  residence  for  its  superior  der^men.  These 
ida  east  of  the  Perdido  River,  by  conquest;  General  limitations  apply  to  all  reUgious  denominations,  socie- 
Jackson,  havinp^  in  1818  invaded  east  Florida,  con-  ties  and  ecclesiastical  bodies,  without  discrimination, 
quered  the  Indians  and  expelled  the  Spaniards.  Be-  All  divorce  and  marriage  laws,  and  cognate  laws,  ap- 
fore  that  time  the  United  States  claimed  de  jure  all  ply  without  discrimination  to  all  citizens  of  the  state 
west  of  the  Perdido  imder  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  irrespective  of  their  religious  beliefs  and  affiliations. 
The  present  territory  of  Mississippi  was  acquired  and  All  qualifications  of  the  elective  franchise  and  for 
claixned  as  follows:  That  portion  south  of  31°  N.  office  are  of  uniform  character.  So  also  are  all  laws 
lat.  and  west  of  the  Perdido  River,  and  extending  to  regulating  grand  and  petit  jury  duty,  and  road  and 
Pearl  River,  was  claimed  by  original  title  under  the  street  duty,  and  military  service,  and  exempting  all 
Louisiana  Purchase.  From  parallel  31°  N.  lat.  to  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel  from  these  duties,  llie  State 
line  from  the  mouth  of  Pearl  River,  east  to  the  present  Constitution  of  1890  provides  that  no  religious  tests 
Alabama  line,  by  occupancy  and  proprietary  ri^t,  as  a  qualification  for  office  shall  be  required,  and  that 
and  all  north  of  parallel  31°  N.  lat.  to  the  Tennessee  no  preference  shall  be  given  by  law  to  any  religious 
line  was  territory  of  Georgia,  and  was  ceded  bv  that  denomination  or  mode  of  worship.  Absolute  freedom 
state  to  the  United  States.  This  is  the  de  jure  deriva-  in  all  matters  of  religion,  or  modes  of  worship,  it  is 
tion  of  the  titles  of  the  Unit^  States  Government,  declared  by  the  Constitution,  "shall  be  held  sacred". 
The  State  of  Mississippi  was  created  by  Act  of  Con-  The  Bible  is  not  to  be  excluded  from  the  pubb'c  schools, 
gresa  of  1  March,  1817.      ....  meaning  the  schools  maintained  by  the  state.  Secular 

On  9  January,  1861,  Mississippi  passed  the  Ordi-  and  business  pursuits,  not  of  a  necessary  character,  are 

nanoe  of  Secession  and  joined  the  Southern  Confed-  prohibited  on  Sunday.    Blasphemy  and  profanity  in 

eracy  immediately  upon  its  establishment.    The  state  any  public  place  is  prohibited.    The  Senate  and  the 

furnished  80,000  troops  to  the  Confederacy  during  the  House,  as  a  matter  of  custom,  are  opened  with  prayer 

war,  with  a  total  population  of  70,295  white  males  by  some  minister  of  the  Gospel,  on  the  invitation  of 

between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-five  years,  the  presiding  officer  of  the  body.    The  following  legal 

There  were  645  whites  and  79,000  negroes  from  the  holidays  are  designated  by  the  statutes  of  the  state, 

state  enlisted  in  the  Federal  Army.    Upon  the  surren-  via.:    1  January,  22  February  (Washington's  Birth- 

der  of  the  Confederacy  the  state  was  placed  under  day),  26  April,  Memorial  Day,  3  June,  Jefferson  Davis 

military  rule.    In  June,  1865,  a  provisional  govern-  Df^,  4  July,  and  Christmas  Day. 

ment  was  established  by  President  Johnson,  with  The  laws  of  the  state  do  not  preserve  the  inviola- 

William   L.   Sharkey  as  provisional  governor.     A  bility  ol  the  confessional  as  matter  <^  evidence.   The 

civil  state  government  was  establishedf  by  an  elec-  only  privileged  communications  are  those  between  a 


MX88017BI 


398 


client  and  his  lawyer.  There  is  a  general  law  by  which 
the  ^vemor  may  ^"ant  charters  of  incorporation  to 
religious  con^gations  or  societies.  Ail  property 
owned  by  religious  denominations  is  exempt  from  tax- 
ation. The  only  Catholic  who  has  held  a  state  office 
in  Mississippi  is  the  Hon.  Frank  Johnston,  who  was 
attorney-general  in  the  srears  1893,  1894,  1895  under 
appointment  by  the  governor  to  fill  an  unexpired 
term.     (See  Natchez,  Diocese  op.) 

CtAiBORNB,  Mxantnppi  <u  a  Province.  Territory  and  State 
(1880):  Rowland.  Omcial  and  StatiMieal  Requier  (1904); 
GooDBPCBD,  Memoira  of  Miasiaeippi  (1891);  Rzlbt,  Publica- 
tion* of  Miaaiaeippi  Hiatorieal  Soc%ety  (1898-1909):  Johnston, 
Suffrage  and  Reconstruction  in  Miaaiaaippi,  Vol.  Vl,  in  Miaa. 
Htk.  Soe.  Pub.  (1902);  Ltnch,  Bench  and  Bar  of  Miaeiaaiopi 
(1881);  Qarnbr,  Reoonetrudion  in  Miaeiaaippi  (1901):  Ga- 
lARRX,  Hiatory  of  Louiaiana;  Lowrt  and  McOardlb,  Miaaia' 
tippi;   Rowland.  Miaaiaaippi  Territorial  Archivea,  1708-1808 


(190S);  MoNBTTiG,  Fa/i«y  of  the  Miaeiaaippi;  Jenkins,  Miaaia- 
aippi  River,  Vol.  VI.  in  Miaa.  Hiat.  Soc.  Pub.  (1902). 

For  an  elabomte  citation  of  various  printed  works  on  Musis- 
Btppi  as  a  province  and  territory,  see  Rowland,  Miaaiaaippi, 
I  (1907);  Stonb,  Studxea  on  the  American  Race  Problem  (1908). 

Frank  Johnston. 

HisBOUZi,  State  of. — The  State  of  Missouri  was 
carved  out  of  the  Louisiana  Territory,  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  principal  river  flowing  through  its 
centre.  The  name  (pronounced  Miz-zoo'vi)  signifies 
"big  muddy"  in  the  Indian  language.  Geographi- 
cally, Missouri  is  the  central  commonwealth  of  the 
Federal  Union. 

Boundaries  and  Area. — ^The  boundaries  are  the 
State  of  Iowa  on  the  north;  Arkansas  on  the  south; 
on  the  east  the  Mississippi  River  separates  it  from 
lUinois,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee;  on  the  west  it  is 
bounded  by  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  the  new  State  of 
Oklahoma.  It  lies  between  40°  SC  and  36**  30;  N.  lat., 
except  that  a  small  projection,  between  the  Rivers  St. 
Francis  and  Missisuppi,  extends  about  34  miles  far- 
ther south  between  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  The  area 
of  the  state  is  69,415  square  miles. 

Phtbical  (Characteristics. — The  Missouri  River 
follows  the  western  boimdary  of  the  state  as  far  south 
as  Kansas  City;  then  turning  east,  it  flows  across  the 
state  and  empties  itself  into  the  Mississippi  about 
twelve  miles  above  St.  Louis.  The  portion  of  the 
state  l3ring  north  of  the  Missouri  is  a  great  extent  of 
gently  rolling  prairie,  intersected  here  and  there  bv 
streams  which  are  lined  with  timber  and  flow  south 
into  the  Missouri  or  east  into  the  Mississipni.  The 
western  portion  of  the  state,  north  of  the  Missouri 
River,  is  generally  level,  but  rises  to  about  one  thousand 
feet  aoove  sea-level  in  the  north-western  comer  of  the 
state.  The  eastern  portion,  north  of  the  Missouri 
River^  is  more  broken,  with  some  hilly  land  bordering 
the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers.  The  portion  of  the 
state  south  of  the  Missouri  is  more  rolling;  it  is  well 
wooded,  especially  in  the  south-east,  with  some  swamp 
lands  in  the  extreme  south-eastern  section.  The  Ozark 
Mountains  break  into  the  south  central  part  of  the 
state,  but  rise  to  no  considerable  height  (highest  eleva- 
tion 16(X)  feet).  West  of  these  mountains  the  land  is 
rolling,  but  arable  and  fertile,  bein^  especiallv  adapted 
to  fruit-growing.  It  is  in  this  section  that  the  famous 
Missouri  red  apples  are  grown  in  the  greatest  quanti- 
ties. 

Population. — According  to  the  first  federal  census 
of  Missouri,  taken  in  1810,  the  state  had  then  20,845 
inhabitants.  The  census  of  1910  places  the  population 
at  3,293,335.  According  to  the  Missouri  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  for  1909,  the  population  of  the  state 
at  the  beginning  of  that  year  was  3,925,335. 

Resources. — Agricultural  and  Farm  Products. — 
The  value  of  the  output  of  farm  crops  alone  for  the 
year  1908  was  $171,815,553.  Of  the  total  crop  valu- 
ation $98,607j605  consisted  of  Indian  corn,  in  tne  pro- 
duction of  which  Missouri  is  the  first  state  in  the  Union. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  crop  is  consumed  by  live 
stock  within  the  state ;  this  portion  is  not  estimated  in 
tbi  surplus  given  below.  Tne  surplus  in  live  stock  for 


the  year  ending  31  December,  1908,  consisting  of  cat- 
tle, horses,  hogs,  mules,  and  sheep^  was  7,097,055  head, 
valued  at  $112,535,494.  Missouri  is  constantly  gain- 
ing as  a  wool-producing  state;  in  1908  there  was 
$1,306,922  worth  of  wool  sold.  The  farm-vard  prod- 
ucts are  imp<Mlant  items  in  the  agricultural  statistics; 
the  surplus  of  poiUtry,  eggs,  and  feathers  for  the  year 
1908  was  $44,960,973.  Bfissouri  has  never  been  con- 
sidered an  important  dairying  state,  but  since  1904 
there  has  been  a  remarkable  growth  in  this  industry. 
The  statistics  in  1904  show  an  estimated  total  value 
from  the  dairies  of  $4,900,783,  while  the  statistics  of 
1908  give  a  total  value  of  $20,651,778.  The  cotton 
crop  of  1908  brought  $3,723,352. 

Sfinea  and  Timbier. — In  1907  the  Federal  authorities 
ranked  Missouri  the  chief  lead-producing  state  of  the 
Union.  The  returns 
from  the  smelters 
for  1908  show  that 
the  state  mined 
enough  lead  ore  to 
produce  122,451 
tons  of  primary 
lead.  The  total 
valuation  of  the 
lead  produced  in 
1908  was  $8,672,- 
873.  For  1908  the 
State  Mining  De- 
partment placed 
the  production  of 
sine  ore  at  197,499 

tons,  and  its  value  q,^,  «.  n*,— «.,», 

at    $6,374,719.  Seal  or  Mi«k,ub, 

Nickel,  copper,  and  cobalt  are  among  the  valuable 
minerals  produced  in  Missouri.  According  to  the 
United  States  geological  survey  of  1907,  Missouri  and 
Oregon  were  the  only  states  producing  nickel:  400 
tons  of  metalic  nickel,  2(X)  tons  of  metallic  cobalt, 
and  700  tons  of  metallic  copper  were  produced  in  190S. 
Iron  ore  to  the  value  of  $218,182  was  produced  in  the 
year  1908.  There  was  an  output  of  $26,204  in  sil- 
ver. In  the  production  of  clay  and  shale  goods  Mis- 
souri held  seventh  rank  in  1908.  In  cement  the  state 
also  held  seventh  place.  The  total  output  in  lime, 
cement,  brick,  and  tiling  for  1908  aggregated  a  value 
of  $8,904,013.  Petroleum  wells  exist  in  one  or  two 
counties  close  to  the  Kansas  border,  and  some  natural 
gas  has  been  found  in  the  state.  Coal  exists  in  abun- 
dance, the  value  of  the  output  in  1908  being  $5,644,330. 
The  products  of  the  forests  of  Missouri  produced  in 
1908  over  450,000,000  feet  of  assorted  lumber  with  an 
estimated  valuation  of  $8,719,822,  while  over  $4,000,- 
000  worth  of  railroad  ties  were  also  produced  in  that 
year. 

Commerce. — The  following  table  of  surplus  prod- 
ucts, given  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics  in 
1909,  is  a  concise  statement  of  the  surplus  of  the  state 
which  was  added  to  the  commerce  of  toe  world  during 
1908. 

R^SUM^    OF  VALUATtONB  BT   GbOUFS 

Commodity  Value 

Live  stock $112,535,494 

Farm  crops 34,991,518 

Mill  products 30,283,689 

Farmyard  products 44,960,973 

Apiary  ana  cane  products 117,694 

Forest  products 22,958,014 

Dairy  products 8,260,711 

Missouri  "  Meerschaum"  products. .  424,449 

Nursery  products 1,061,173 

Liquid  products 1,210,739 

Fish  and  game  products 636,629 

Packing-house  products 1,872,318 

Cotton  products 3,723,352 

Medicinal  products 95,398 

Vegetable  and  canned  goods 6,692,426 


MISSOTmi 


39d 


mssotmi 


Commodity  Vahie 

Fresh  fruit $5,089,384 

Wool  and  mohair 1,308,812 

Mine  and  quarry  products 24,992,789 

Stone  and  clay  products 8,904,013 

Unclassiiied  products 4,623,953 

Total  value $314,743,528 

Means  of  Communication. — Although  the  Missis- 
sippi River  runs  the  full  length  of  the  eastern  boxin- 
dary  of  the  state,  and  the  Missouri  flows  directly 
through  the  state,  neither  of  these  streams  is  of  any 
considerable  commercial  value  as  a  means  of  com- 
munication or  transportation.  Railroad  facilities, 
however,  are  ample,  there  bein^  7991  miles  of  main 
line  with  about  3000  miles  of  sidings.  There  are  63 
steam  systems  operating  in  the  state.  There  are  one 
railroad  bridge,  one  street-car  bridge,  and  one  combi- 
nation railroad,  street-car,  and  passenger  bridge  across 
the  Mississippi  River  at  St.  Louis,  and  a  municipal  free 
bridge  for  the  accommodation  of  railroads,  electric 
roads,  wagons,  and  foot  traffic,  is  in  process  of  con- 
struction. 

Educational  System.  —  State  University.  —  The 
State  University  of  Missouri  was  established  by  legis- 
lative act  approved  on  11  February,  1839,  and  the 
university  was  located  at  Columbia,  Boone  County, 
on  24  June,  1839.  The  comer-stone  of  the  main  build- 
ing was  laid  on  4  July,  1840.  Courses  of  instruction  in 
academic  work  were  begun  on  14  April,  1841,  and  a 
Normal  Department  was  established  in  1867  and 
opened  in  September,  1868.  The  College  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Mecnanic  Arts  and  the  School  of  Mines  and 
Metallurgy  were  made  departments  of  the  university 
in  1870,  the  School  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy  being 
located  at  Rolla.  The  law  department  was  opened 
in  1872,  the  medical  department  in  1873,  the  engi- 
neering department  in  1877,  and  the  department  of 
journalism  in  1908.  In  1888  the  Experiment  Station 
was  established  under  Act  of  Congress,  and  the  Mis- 
souri State  Military  School  in  1890.  For  the  schol- 
astic year  1908  there  were  enrolled  in  the  entire 
imiversity  3033  students.  The  officers  of  instruc- 
tion and  administration  consisted  of  104  professors, 
64  instructors,  and  54  assistants.  Apart  from  the 
above-mentioned  institutions,  which  are  all  under 
the  supervision  of  l^e  University  of  Missouri  proper, 
the  state  maintains  the  Jjincoln  Institution  at  Jeffer- 
son City  for  the  education  of  negro  children  in  agricul- 
ture and  mechanic  arts. 

Public  Schools.— The  state  is  divided  into  10,053 
school  districts.  The  total  number  of  teachers  in  the 
public  schools  in  the  year  1908  was  17,998,  the  total 
number  of  pupils  being  984,659.  For  the  year  ending 
1  July,  1908,  the  public  schools  cost  the  tax-payers 
$12,769,689.93.  The  law  requires  that  every  child 
with  sound  body  and  mind,  from  six  to  fourteen  years 
of  age,  attend  either  a  public  or  private  school  during 
each  school  year.  Missouri  has  tne  largest  permanent 
interest-bearing  school-fund  of  any  state  in  the  Union. 
This  fund  in  1908  amounted  to  $14,014,335.45.  Apart 
from  the  primary  and  high  schools  there  are  six  state 
normal  institutions,  of  which  one  is  located  in  each  of 
the  following  cities:  Columbia  (Teachers'  College), 
Kirksville,  Warrensburg,  Cape  Girardeau,  Springfield, 
and  Mary  ville. 

First  Settlerb. — ^The  first  settlement  was  made  at 
Ste.  Genevieve  in  1735  by  the  French,  and  the  second 
by  the  French  at  St.  Louis  in  1764.  The  Spanish  also 
came  up  the  river  in  search  of  gold,  and  St.  Louis  was 
soon  a  busy  trading  centre  for  the  citizens  and  the 
Indians  inhabiting  the  surrounding  territory.  From 
the  eastward  soon  came  emigrants  from  other  states — 
especially  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  the  Virginias — 
and  later  came  the  emigrants  from  foreign  shores,  par- 
ticularly the  Germans,  Irish,  and  some  Scoteh.  The 
later  growth  of  the  state  has  been  made  up  of  settlers 
from  almost  all  of  the  states  lying  to  the  eastwardi  but 


more  particularly  from  those  mentioned,  with  many 
from  Maiyland  and  the  Carolinas.  There  are  settle- 
mento  of  Italians,  Hungarians,  and  Bohemians,  but  on 
the  whole  these  nationalities  make  up  only  a  small 
part  of  the  population.  St.  Louis  is  a  cosmopolitan 
city,  but  the  predominant  strains  of  foreign  blood  are 
German  and  Irish. 

Admission  to  the  Union. — ^Missouri  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  conditionally  on  2  March,  1820,  and 
was  fornudly  admitted  as  a  state  on  10  August,  1821, 
during  the  presidential  administration  of  James  Mon- 
roe. At  a  convention  held  at  St.  Louis  on  19  July, 
1820,  the  people  passed  on  the  Act  of  Congress,  which 
was  approvea  in  March  of  the  same  year,  and  a  consti- 
tution was  drawn  up  and  a  new  state  established. 
Under  this  constitution,  in  August,  .18^,  the  people 
held  a  general  election,  at  which  state  and  county 
officers  were  chosen  and  the  state  government  oivan- 
ized.  The  constitution  now  in  force  was  adopted  by 
vote  of  the  people  on  30  October,  1875,  and  came  into 
operation  on  30  November  of  the  same  year. 

Notable  Events  in  Political  History. — ^The  ad- 
mission of  Missouri  as  a  state  provoked  much  bitter 
discussion  in  Congress,  and  terminated  in  what  has 
since  been  known  as  ''The  Missouri  Compromise". 
This  bill  provided  that  Missouri  should  be  aomitted  as 
a  slave  state,  but  forever  prohibited  slavery  in  the 
remainder  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  lying  north  of 
36^  30'  N.  lat.,  which  line  is  the  southern  boundary 
of  Missouri.  The  matter  of  slavexy  was  the  cause  of 
many  controversies  during  the  early  history  of  the 
state,  and  during  the  Civil  War  over  100,000  soldiers 
were  contributed  to  the  Union  army  and  50,000  to  the 
Confederacy. 

Matters  Directly  Apfectino  Reliqion. — Free- 
dom of  Worship. — Section  5,  Article  2,  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  1875  provides  *'  that  all  men  have  a  natural  and 
indefeasible  right  to  worship  Almighty  God  according 
to  their  own  conscience;  that  no  person  can,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  his  religious  opinions,  be  rendered  ineligible 
to  any  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  this  State,  nor  be 
disqiialified  from  testifymg,  or  from  serving  as  a  juror; 
that  no  human  authority  can  control  or  interfere  with 
the  rights  of  conscience;  that  no  person  ought,  by  any 
law,  to  be  molested  in  his  person  or  estate,  on  account 
of  his  religious  persuasion  or  profession;  but  the  lib- 
erty of  conscience  hereby  secured  shall  not  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  excuse  acts  of  licentiousness,  nor  to  justify 
practices  inconsistent  with  the  j^ood  order,  peace  or 
safety  of  this  State,  or  with  the  nghts  of  others.  '*  The 
recognition  of  a  God  herein  manifested  does  not  in  any 
way  prej  udice  the  interests  of  atheists.  That  a  man  is 
an  atheist  or  has  peculiar  religious  opinions  does  not 
prejudice  him  as  a  witness  (11  Mo.  App.  385).  Sun- 
day regulations  are  not  void  on  account  of  peculiar 
religious  opinions  of  certain  citizens  (20  Mo.  214); 
nor  can  a  contract  be  voided  by  one  voluntarily 
entering  into  it  on  the  groimd  that  it  reouires  him 
to  live  up  to  certain  religious  beliefs  (Franta  v. 
Bohemian  Roman  Catholic  C.  U.,  164  Missouri,  304). 
The  Constitution  also  provides  that  no  person  can  be 
compelled  to  erect,  support,  or  attend  any  place  or 
system  of  worship,  or  to  maintain  or  support  any 
priest,  minister,  preacher,  or  teacher  of  any  sect, 
church,  creed,  or  denomination  of  religion;  but  if 
any  person  shall  voluntarilv  make  a  contract  for  any 
such  object,  he  shall  be  held  to  the  performance  of  the 
same;  that  no  money  shall  ever  oe  taken  from  the 
public  treasury  directly  or  indirectly,  in  aid  of  any 
church,  sect,  or  denomination  of  religion,  or  in  aid  of 
any  priest,  preacher,  minister,  or  teacher  thereof  as 
such ;  and  that  no  preference  shall  be  given  to  nor  any 
discrimination  made  against  any  church,  sect,  or  creed 
of  religion,  or  any  form  of  religious  faith  or  worship; 
that  no  religious  corporation  can  be  established  in  tms 
state,  except  such  as  may  be  created  under  a  general 
law  for  the  purpose  only  of  holding  the  title  to  such 


J 


MttSOtttt  400  MttSOtttt 


real  estate  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  church  Marriaae  and  Divorce. — ^liarriages  aie  forbiddsa 

edifices,  parsonages,  and  cemeteries.  and  void  between  first  cousins,  or  persons  more  nearly 

Sunday  Ohiervance. — ^The  law  provides  that  the  related  than  first  cousins,  such  as  uncles  and  nieces. 

Sabbath  shall  not  be  broken  by  tne  performance  of  etc.    Any  judge  of  a  court  of  record  or  justice  of  the 

any  labour,  other  than  works  of  necessity,  on  the  first  peace,  or  any  ordiuned  or  licensed  preacher  of  the 

day  of  the  week,  commonly  called  Simday,  and  the  Gospel,  who  is  a  citisen  of  the  United  States,  may  per- 

master  is  held  to  account  for  compelling  or  permitting  form  a  marriage  ceremony.    A  licence  of  marriage  is 

his  servants  or  apprentices  to  labour  on  that  day.  required,  and  no  licence  will  be  issued  to  a  male  under 

But  anv  member  ot  a  religious  society  which  observes  the  age  of  twenty-one  or  to  a  female  -under  eighteen 

any  other  day  than  Sunday  as  the  Sabbath,  is  not  without  the  consent  of  the  father  of  the  minor  or,  if 

bound  to  observe  Sunday  as  such.     Horse-racing,  the  father  cannot  act,  of  the  mother  or  guardian.   The 

cock-fighting,  and  playixig  games,  as  well  as  hxmting  law  requires  that  the  person  performing  the  marriage 

game,  are  forbidden  on  Sunday.    The  selling  of  any  ceremony  shall  return  a  certificate  of  the  service  to  the 

wares  or  merchandise,  the  opening  of  anv  liquor  state  authorities.    The  causes  for  divorce  are  enumer- 

saloon,  and  the  sale  of  fermented  or  distilled  liquors  ated  in  the  statute,  and,  besides  the  usual  clause,  it  is 

are  forbidden  on  Sunday.  provided  that  a  divorce  may  be  granted  when  it  is 

Administering  of  OaUia, — ^Every  public  oflBicial  is  proved  that  the  offending  person  '^has  been  guilty  of 
required  to  take  an  oath  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  conduct  tibat  makes  the  condition  of  the  complaining 
office  and  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  party  intolerable '\  This  clause  makes  it  possible  to 
States  and  of  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  all  witnesses  secure  a  divorce  on  any  ffroxmds  that  the  judge  con- 
in  every  court  are  required  to  give  their  testimony  siders  sufficient,  and  is  Siought  to  be  the  source  of 
"under  oath";  however,  any  person  who  declares  some  abuse.  Residence  of  one  year  in  the  state  is  re- 
that  he  has  conscientious  scruples  against  takine  any  quired  before  a  petition  for  divorce  may  be  filed, 
oath  or  swearing  in  any  form,  is  permitted  to  maKe  his  There  is  no  statutory  prohibition  against  divorced 
solemn  declaration  or  affirmation  concluding  with  the  persons  marrying  at  any  time  after  a  decree  of  divorce 
words  "under  the  pain  and  penalty  of  perjiu7'\  nas  been  granted. 

Where  it  appears  that  the  person  to  be  sworn  has  any  Cathouc  Education. — ^Ever^  parish  of  any  con- 
particular  mode  of  swearing  in  addition  to  or  in  con-  siderable  sise  in  the  state  maintams  a  parochial  school, 
nexion  with  the  usual  form  of  administering  oaths.  There  are  228  parochial  schools  in  the  state  with 
which  to  him  is  a  more  solemn  and  binding  obligation,  38,098  children  m  attendance.  Each  diocese  has  its 
the  court  or  officer  administering  the  oath  is  required  own  school-board,  and  a  uniform  ^yftem  of  text-books 
to  adopt  the  form  most  binding  on  the  conscience  of  is  used  throughout  the  diocese.  There  are  eight  col- 
the  person  to  be  sworn.  Any  person  believing  in  any  leges  and  aciulemies  for  boys  with  1872  students  in 
other  than  the  Christian  religion,  is  sworn  according  to  attendiuice,  and  38  academies  and  institutions  of 
the  prescribed  ceremonies  of  his  own  religion,  if  ihere  higher  education  for  girls  with  4480  pupils  in  attend- 
be  any  such  (sec.  8840  to  8845  R.  S.  1899).  ance.    The  St.  Louis  University,  conducted  by  the 

Use  of  Prayer  in  Legislature, — ^There  is  no  statutory  Jesuit  Fathers,  vs  one  of  the  leading  educational  insti- 

Ero vision  for  a  chaplain  for  either  branch  of  the  legis-  tutions  of  the  country.   It  conducts  a  school  of  divin- 

tture,  but  Uie  rules  of  these  bodies  provide  for  a  cli^p-  ity,  a  school  of  philosophy  and  science,  a  school  of 

lain  for  each,  who  is  paid  out  of  a  contingency  fund,  medicine,  a  school  of  dentistry,  an  institute  of  law, 

The  chaplain  is  elected  b^  the  legislative  body  for  each  and   an  undergraduate   and  academic  department, 

session.    No  Catholic  priest  has  ever  been  elected  to  There  is  a  total  of  950  lay  students  in  attendance.    No 

this  position.  parochial  or  private  schools  receive  any  assistance  or 

Sm  of  Confession. — Section  4659  R.  S.  1899  pro-  support  from  the  state,  and  all  citizens  are  required  to 

vides  that  a  minister  of  the  Gospel  or  a  priest  of  any  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  public  schools  r^ard- 

denomination  shall  be  incompetent  to  testify  concern-  less  of  whether  their  children  attend  a  private  or  a 

ing  the  confession  made  to  him  in  his  professional  public  institution. 

character  in  the  course  of  discipline  enjomed  by  the  Chabitable  Institutions. — ^There  are  in  the  state 

rules  or  practice  of  such  denomination.  10  orphim  a^lums  with  1248  inmates;  25  hospitals; 

Mattebs  Affecting  Religious  Wobk. — Incorpo-  2  deaf-mute  institutions  with  60  inmates;  3  homes  for 

ration  of  Churches. — No  religious  corporation  can  be  aged  persons;  1  industrial  and  reform  school:  1  found- 

establisned  in  this  state  except  such  as  may  be  created  ling  asylum,  and  1  newsboys'  home — all  under  Catho- 

under  the  general  law  for  the  purpose  only  of  holding  lie  auspices.   The  state  does  not  contribute  anything 

the  title  of  such  real  estate  as  may  be  necessary  for  to  the  Catholic  orphanages,  but  the  foundling  asylum 

churches,  schools,  parsonages,  and  cemeteries.   There  in  St.  Louis  receives  some  remuneration  for  keeping 

is  no  constitutional  or  statutory  recognition,  as  in  waifs  who  are  foimd  by  the  police  and  intrusted  to 

some  states,  of  any  churchman  in  his  official  capacity,  that  institution. 

The  property  of  a  diocese,  for  example,  is  vested  in  the  There  is  a  State  Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections, 

individual  and  not  in  the  bishop  as  such.  of  which  the  governor  is  a  member  ex  officio.    This 

Exemption  from  Taxes  and  Public  Duties. — ^Thecon-  board  has  general  supervision  over  the  charitable 
stitution  of  the  state  exempts  from  taxation  church  institutions  conducted  by  the  state.  There  is  a  state 
property  to  the  extent  of  one  acre  in  incorporated  hospital  at  Fulton,  at  St.  Joseph,  at  Nevada,  and  at 
cities  or  towns,  or  within  one  mile  from  such  cities  or  Farmington.  There  is  a  state  Confederate  Soldiers' 
towns.  Church  property  to  the  extent  of  five  acres  Home  at  HigginsviUe,  and  a  State  Federal  Soldiers' 
more  than  one  mile  from  incorporated  cities  or  towns  Home  at  St.  James.  A  school  for  the  deaf  is  main- 
is  exempt  from  taxation.  These  exemptions  are  sub-  tained  at  Fulton,  a  school  for  the  blind  at  St.  Louis, 
ject  to  tne  provision  that  such  property  is  used  exclu-  and  a  colony  for  the  feeble-minded  and  epileptic  at 
sivelvforreligiousworship,  for  schools,  or  for  purposes  Marshall.  The  Missouri  State  Sanitarium  for  the 
purely  charitable.  treatment  of  tuberculosis  is  located  at  Mt.  Vernon  on 

The  law  also  provides  that  no  clergyman  shall  be  the  crest  of  the  Ozarks. 

compelled  to  serve  on  any  jury.   Ministers  of  the  Gos-  Sale  of  Liquob. — Intoxicating  liquors  may  be  sold 

pel  may  select  such  books  as  are  necessary  for  the  only  by  licensed  saloon-keepers.   In  cities  of  two  thou- 

practice  of  their  profession,  and  the  same  are  exempt  sand  or  more  inhabitants  the  application  for  licenoe 

from  attachment  imder  execution.   It  is  not  lawful  for  must  be  accompanied  by  a  petition  asking  that  the 

any  city  or  municipality  to  exact  a  tax  or  licence  fee  licence  be  granted.    This  petition  must  be  signed  by 

from  any  minister  of  the  Gospel  for  authorising  him  to  a  majority  of  the  tax-paying  citizens  owning  property 

fol'**^  u:-  -.uing^  Qu  l^gg  block  or  square  in  which  the  saloon  is  to  be 


MUSOUBI  401  WSSOUBI 

iDept.  In  cities  or  towns  of  lesB  than  two  thousand  laws,  Its  general  provisions  have  been  foOowedtyy  the 
inhabitants  the  petition  must  be  signed  by  a  majorily  decisions.  A  case  involving  the  Muilanphy  will, 
of  the  tax-paying  citisens,  and  a  majority  in  ^e  olock  which  left  a  fund  to  furnish  relief  "to  all  poor  emi- 
where  the  saloon  is  to  be  kept.  The  law  provides  that  grants  and  travellers  coming  to  St.  Louis  on  their  way 
the  licence  may  be  levoked  upon  the  application  of  bona  fide  to  settle  in  the  West",  reported  in  29  Ma 
any  person  showing  to  the  county  court  that  the  543,  brought  out  an  early  discussion  of  charitable 
licence-holder  does  not  keep  an  orderly  house,  and  it  is  bequests;  this  provision  was  declared  valid,  and,  as  a 
provided  that  one  (1)  whose  licence  has  been  revoked,  precedent,  has  been  geneially  followed.  There  is  no 
(2)  who  has  violated  any  of  the  provisions  of  ^e  licence  statutory  limitation,  as  in  some  states,  upon  the 
law,  (3)  who  has  sold  Hquors  to  any  minor,  (4)  who  amount  that  may  be  bequeathed  or  devised  to  charity, 
has  employed  in  his  business  of  saloon-keeper  any  per-  The  Constitution  of  1865  prohibited  all  bequests  and 
son  whose  licence  has  been  revoked,  snail  not  be  devises  of  hmd  for  religious  purposes.  A  bequest  for 
entitled  to  a  licence.  The  law  prohibits  (1)  Hie  sale  Masses  was  held  void  under  this  section  of  the  consti- 
of  intoxicating  liauors  to  habitual  drunkards,  minors,  tution.  An  outright  ^t  to  the  Archbishop  of  St. 
or  Indians,  (2)  tne  keeping  of  female  employees  in  Louis  was  also  held  void  because  it  was  shown  there 
saloons,  and  (3)  the  keeping,  eidiibitin^,  or  using  of  was  an  understanding  that  the  money  was  to  be  used 
any  piano,  organ,  or  any  other  musical  instrument  in  for  religious  purposes  (Kenrick  vs.  Cole,  61  Missouri, 
a  saloon.  These  laws  are  generally  enforced.  The  law  572).  This  section  was  omitted  from  the  Constitution 
provides  that  upon  appucation  1^  petition  to  the  of  1875,  and  the  courts  have  been  liberal  since  in  con- 
county  court  signed  by  one-tenth  of  the  qualified  struing  such  bequests  as  charitable  and  therefore 
voters  of  any  county,  who  shall  reside  outside  of  the  valid. 

cities  or  towns  having  a  population  of  2500  or  more,  ^  Diocsseb  and  Catholic  Pofitlation. — The  state 

an  election  shall  be  held  to  determine  whether  or  not  is  divided  into  three  dioceses^hose  of  St.  Louis,  Kansas 

spirituous  liquors  shall  be  sold  within  the  limits  of  such  City,  and  St.  Joseph.   The  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  com- 

county.   In  cities  or  towns  with  a  population  of  2500  prises  all  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  state;  that  of  Kan- 

or  more,  the  petition  is  made  by  one-tenth  of  the  quali-  sas  City  the  western  portion  of  the  state,  south  of  the 

fied  voters  to  the  body  having  lenslative  functions  Missouri  River,  and  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph  the 

therein.   If  a  majority  of  the  qualified  voters  at  such  western  portion  of  the  state^  north  of  the  Missouri 

election  vote  against  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors.  River.   The  Catholic  population  in  1909  was  452,703. 

no  licence  can  be  issued  for  the  sale  of  liouor  within  There  are  about  3000  Catholic  negroes  in  the  state, 

such  jurisdiction.  Section  3034  R.  S.  of  1899  provides  with  one  church  in  St.  Louis  and  one  coloured  priest, 

among  other  things  that  nothing  in  the  law  shall  be  so  There  is  one  coloured  Catholic  school  with  1 10  pupils, 

construed  as  to  prevent  the  sale  of  wine  for  sacramen-  and  one  orphan-asylum  for  coloured  children,  oon- 

talpuTposes.  ducted  by  tne  Oblate  Sbters  of  Providence. 

nifsoNS  AND  Rbforicatoribb. — The  state  peniten-  Fntar  Catholic  Missions. — ^The  Cross  was  planted 
tiary  is  at  Jefferson  City;  there  is  a  reformatory  for  among  the  Indians  who  inhabited  the  region  now 
boys  at  Boone ville  and  an  industrial  home  for  girls  at  known  as  Blissouri  during  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
Cblllicothe.  The  law  provides  for  the  appointment  of  century  by  De  Soto,  who  was  buried  in  the  waters  of 
a  chaplain  for  the  pemtentiaiy  by  the  warden  and  the  the  Mississippa  in  May,  1542.  Marquette  descended 
board  of  inspectors,  consisting  of  the  state  treasurer,  the  Mississippi  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-fourth  degree 
auditor,  and  attome^-generaL  The  law  makes  no  in  1673,  more  than  a  century  and  a  quarter  siter  De 
reference  to  the  religious  denomination  of  the  chap-  Soto  had  marched  northward,  and  tells  us  that  he 
lain,  but  provides  that  his  selection  shall  be  governed  preached  the  Gospel  to  all  of  tne  nations  he  met.  It 
by  his  special  qualifications  for  the  performance  of  the  is  thought  by  some  that  there  was  a  white  settlement 
duties  devolving  upon  him.  He  is  required  to  conduct  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Des  P^res  in  Blissouri,  a  few 
at  least  one  service  each  Sunday;  to  visit  convicts  in  miles  south  of  St.  Louis,  even  before  the  historical  set* 
their  cells  at  least  once  a  month,  when  practicable;  to  tlement  of  Cahokia,  Illinois  (the  sole  centre  of  civilizsr 
visit  the  sick  in  the  hospital  at  least  once  a  day;  to  tion  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  for  some  time),  but  the 
hold  religious  services  in  the  hospital  once  a  week.  He  first  permanent  settlement  of  which  we  have  any 
shall  have  chan»  of  the  prison  library  and  the  pur-  record  was  made  at  Ste.  Genevidve  about  1734. 
chase  of  books;  ne  shall  officiate  at  the  funeral  of  each  Amon^  the  oldest  records  in  the  state  are  those  of  the 
convict,  and  be  present  at  his  burial;  he  is  paid  the  Cathohc  church  at  Ste.  Genevieve.  There  was  also  a 
salary  of  $1200  per  annum.  The  law  further  provides  mission  in  1734  at  Old  Mines,  which  was  a  military 
that  clergymen  of  ever^  denomination  of  the  City  of  station  in  Missouri.  Ste.  Genevieve  and  Old  Mines 
Jefferson  shall  at  all  times  have  free  access  to  the  were  attended  by  priests  from  Cahokia.  The  first  mis- 
prison, or  may  visit  any  convict  confined  therein-^  sion  was  established  in  St.  Louis  in  1764,  and  the  first 
subject  only  to  such  rules  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  church  was  built  in  1770.  A  mission  was  estabUshed 
good  government  and  discipline  of  the  penitentiary —  at  Carondelet  in  1767.  Fredericktown,  New  Madrid, 
and  may  administer  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Chinch  St.  Charles,  and  Florissant  were  missionary  points 
to  which  such  convict  belongs,  if  it  be  so^  desired,  during  the  last  half  of  the  eigjiteenth  century.  The 
There  is  no  statutory  provision  for  a  chaplain  at  the  Lasanst  Fathers  were  established  at  PenyviUe  in 
reformatory  or  the  mdustrial  home.  Such  religious  1818,  and  the  Jesuits  at  Florissant  in  1823.  The  early 
ceremonies  as  are  held  at  these  institutions  are  con-  settlements  were  made  up  of  French,  many  of  them 
ducted  by  those  interested  in  the  work  through  ar-  coining  from  Canada.  A  great  many  German  Caliio- 
rangements  made  with  the  offidids  in  charge.  Such  lies  came  to  the  state  during  the  first  part  of  the  nine- 
ceremonies  are  lar^ly  within  the  discretion  of  the  teenth  century,  but  the  first  German  sermon  of  which 
officials,  but  the  spirit  of  the  law  as  laid  down  for  the  we  have  any  record  was  preached  by  Rev.  Joseph  A. 
penitentiary  prevails.  This  is  also  true  of  the  state  Luts  at  St.  Louis  in  1832.  During  this  same  period  a 
msane  asylum  and  the  reform  schools  and  jails  of  the  large  portion  of  the  immigration  was  made  up  of  Irish 
cities.  In  a  majority  of  these  institutions  religious  Catholics.  The  names  of  many  of  the  early  settle- 
services  are  held  by  Catholic  priests  at  regular  inter-  ments  bear  evidence  of  the  CathoIiciBm  of  those  who 
yals,  and  accommodations  are  provided  for  the  celebra-  were  first  established  there.  The  later  immigration 
tion  of  Mass  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  into  the  state  has  been  made  up  of  almost  every  na- 

Chabitabub^  BBQUB8T8.-^The  courts  are  accus-  tionality,  and  almost  all  of  the  Catholic  countries  are 

tomed  to  permit  everv  charitable  use  to  stand,  which  represented.    A  famous  episode  in  the  state's  history 

comes  fairly  within  the  Statute  of  Elizabeth.    While  was    Archbishop    Kenriok's   successful    rwistanoe    to 

this  statute  has  not  been  incorporated  in  the  state  the  test  oath  required  by  the  Drake  Constitution  of 

X.— 26 


MXTHftAISM 


402 


1865.  He  finally  won  the  case  in  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  (see  Oath,  Musoubi  Test). 

Principal  Reliqious  Denominationb. — ^Accord- 
ing to  the  Bulletin  issued  by  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labour  Bureau  of  the  Census  concerning 
reli^ous  bodies  in  1906,  the  total  population  of  church 
members  in  the  State  of  Missouri  was  1,109,239,  and 
the  principal  religious  denominations  were  as  follows: 
Roman  Catholics,  382,642;  Baptists,  218,353;  Con- 
gregationalists,  11,048;  Disciples  or  Christians,  166,- 
137;  German  Evangelical,  32,715;  Lutherans,  46,868; 
Methodists,  214,004;  Presbyterians,  71,999;  Episco- 
palians, 13,328;  Reformed  Bodies,  1284;  United 
Brethren  bodies.  3316;  other  Protestant  bodies, 
23,166;  LatteiHlay  Saints,  8042;  all  other  bodies. 
6439.  Thus,  33.9  per  cent  of  the  total  number  ot 
church-goin^  people  in  the  state  are  Catholics,  the 
Baptists  havmg  the  next  highest  percentage  (18.2),  and 
the  Methodists  being  third  (17.8). 

HoucK.  Hid.  of  Miamwri  (Philadelphia,  1008);  Willeamb, 
Hui.  of  the  StaU  ofMieaouri  (Columbia,  1904);  Billon.  iiniuU* 
of  8t  LouU  (St.  Louis,  1880);  Schabt,  St,  Louia  City  and 
County  (Philadelphia,  1883);  JeauU  Rdationa;  Beck,  OauUeer 
ofMi$9own  (Si.  Louis.  1875);  Irvino,  Conqutat  of  Florida  (New 
York.  1851);  ConatitutionofMiMaoun;  Raviaed  Statytes  (1890); 
Bad  Book;  Buraau  of  Labour  Statiatiea  (Jeffexson  CSty,  1000); 
Manual  ofthaStaia  of  MiaaoUri,  190»-10!  Bulletin  No.  lOS, 
BaUgioua  Bodiaa,  1900,  Bureau  of  the  Cenaua  (WashiDston). 

John  L.  Coblet. 

Mlthraiain. — A  pagan  religion  consisting  mainlv  of 
the  cult  of  the  ancient  Indo-lranian  Sim-god  Mithra. 
It  entered  Europe  from  Asia  Minor  after  Alexander's 
conquest,  spreaa  rapidly  over  the  whole  Roman  Em- 
pire at  the  beginning  of  our  era,  reached  its  lenith  dur- 
mg  the  third  centiuy,  and  vanished  \mder  the  repres- 
sive regulations  of  Theodosius  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  Of  late  the  researches  of  Cumont  have 
brought  it  into  prominence  mainly  because  of  its  sup- 
posed similarity  to  Christianity. 

OaiQiN, — ^Tiie  origin  of  the  ciut  of  Mithra  dates  from 
the  time  that  EUnous  and  Persians  still  formed  one 
people,  for  the  god  Mithra  occurs  in  the  religion  and 
the  sacred  books  of  both  races,  i.  e.  in  the  Vedas  and 
in  the  Avesta.  In  Vedic  h3rmns  he  is  frecmently  men- 
tioned and  is  nearly  always  coupled  with  varuna,  but 
beyond  the  bare  occurrence  of  his  name,  little  is 
known  of  him ;  only  one,  possibly  two,  hymns  are  dedi- 
cated to  him  (Rigveda,  III.  59).  It  is  conjectured 
(Oldenbeig,  "  Die  Religion  des  Veda, "  Berlm,  1894) 
that  Mithra  was  the  risins  sun,  Varuna  the  setting  sun ; 
^  or,  Mithra,  the  sky  at  daytime,  Vanma,  the  sKy  at 
*  night;  or,  the  one  the  sim,  the  other  the  moon.  Jn 
any  case  Mithra  is  a  light  or  solar  deity  of  some  sort; 
but  in  Vedic  times  the  vague  and  general  mention  of 
him  seems  to  indicate  that  his  name  w|is  little  more 
than  a  memory.  In  the  Avesta  he  is  much  more  of  a 
livinff  and  ruling  deity  than  in  Indian  piety;  neverthe- 
less, ne  is  not  only  secondary  to  Ahura  Masda,  but  he 
does  not  belong  to  the  seven  Amshaspands  or  personi- 
fied virtues  wmch  immediately  surround  Ahura;  he  is 
but  a  Yasad,  a  popular  demigod  or  genius.  The 
Avesta  however  gives  us  his  position  only  after  the 
Zoroastrian  reformation;  the  inscriptions  of  the 
A.chfiBmenid£e  (seventh  to  fourth  century  b.  c.)  assign 
him  a  much  higher  place,  naming  him  immediately 
after  Ahura  Mazda  and  associating  him  with  the  god- 
dess Anaitis  (Anahata),  whose  name  sometimes  pre- 
cedes his  own.  Mithra  is  the  god  of  light,  Anaitis  the 
goddess  of  water.  Independently  of  the  Zoroastrian 
reform,  Mithra  retained  nis  place  as  foremost  deity  in 
the  north-west  of  the  Iranian  highlimds.  After  the 
conquest  of  Babylon  this  Persian  cult  came  into  con- 
tact with  Chaldean  astrology  and  with  the  national 
worship  of  Marduk.  For  a  time  the  two  priesthoods 
of  Mithra  and  Ki^rduk  (magi  and  chaldsi  respectively) 
coexisted  iU'the  capital  and  Mithraism  borrowed 
much  from  this  intercourse.  This  modified  Mithraism 
travelled  fA.rther  north-westwiurd  and  became  the 


State  cult  of  Armenia.  Its  rulers,  anxious  to  claim 
descent  from  the  glorious  kings  of  the  past,  adopted 
Mithradates  as  their  roval  name  (so  five  kings  of 
Georgia,  and  Eupator  of  the  Bosporus).  Mithraism 
then  entered  Asia  Minor,  especially  Pontus  and  Cappa- 
docia.  Here  it  came  into  contact  with  the  Phiygiao 
cult  of  Attis  and  Cybele  from  which  it  adopted  a  num- 
ber of  ideas  and  practkses,  though  apparently  not 
the  gross  obscenities  of  the  Phrygum  worship.  This 
Phr^ian-Chaldean-Indo-Iranian  religion,  in  which 
the  Iranian  element  remained  predominant,  came, 
after  Alexander's  conquest,  in  touch  with  the  Western 
Worid.  HeUenism,  nowever,  and  especially  Greece 
itself,  remained  remarkably  free  from  its  influence. 
When  finally  the  Romans  took  possession  of  the  King- 
dom of  Pergamum.  occupied  Asia  Minor  and  stationed 
two  l^ons  of  soldiers  on  the  Euphrates,  the  success 
of  Mithraism  in  the  West  was  secured.  It  spr^ul 
rapidly  from  the  Bosporus  to  the  Atlantic,  from 
niyria  to  Britain.  Its  foremost  apostles  were  the 
legionaries ;  hence  it  spread  first  to  the  frontier  stations 
of  the  Roman  army. 

Mithraism  was  emphatically  a  soldier  religion: 
Mithra,  its  hero,  was  especially  a  divinity  of  fidelity, 
manliness,  and  bravery;  the  stress  it  liud  on  good- 
fellowship  and  brotherliness,  its  exclusion  of  women, 
and  the  secret  bond  amongst  its  members  have  sug- 
gested the  idea  that  Mithraism  was  Masonry  amongst 
the  Roman  soldiery.  At  the  same  time  E^ustem  slaves 
and  foreign  tradesmen  maintained  its  propaganda  in 
the  cities.  When  magi,  coming  from  tCing  Tiridates 
of  Armenia,  had  worshipped  in  r^ero  an  emanation  of 
Mithra,  the  emperor  wisned  to  be  initiated  in  their 
mysteries.  As  Mithraism  passed  as  a  Phryman  cult  it 
b^an  to  share  in  the  official  recognition  which  Phry- 
gian worship  had  long  enjoved  in  Rome.  The  £^- 
Seror  Commodus  was  publicly  initiated.  Its  greatest 
evotee  however  was  the  imperial  son  of  a  priestess  of 
the  sun-god  at  Sirmium  in  JPannonia,  Valerian,  who 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Flavins  Vopiscus,  never 
forgot  the  cave  where  his  mother  initiated  him.  In 
Rome,  he  established  a  college  of  sun  priests  and  his 
coins  bear  the  legend  **  Sol,  Dominus  Imperii Romani  " . 
Diocletian,  Galerius,  and  Licinius  built  at  Cfumuntum 
on  the  Danube  a  temple  to  Mithra  with  the  dedication : 
"Fautori  Imperii  Sui".  But  with  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  Mithraism  came  to  a  sudden  end.  Under 
Julian  it  had  with  other  pagan  cults  a  short  revival. 
The  pagans  of  Alexandria  lynched  George  the  Arian, 
bishop  of  the  city,  for  attempting  to  build  a  church 
over  a  Mithras  cave  near  tbe  town.  *  The  laws  of 
Theodosius  I  signed  its  death  warrant.  The  magi 
walled  up  their  sacred  caves;  and  Mithra  has  no  mar- 
tyrs to  rival  the  martyrs  who  died  for  Christ. 

Doctrine. — ^The  first  principle  or  highest  God  was 
according  to  Mithraism  ^' Infinite  Time";  this  was 
called  Ali&w  or  Sseculum,  Kpdpot  or  Satumus.  This 
Kronoe  is  none  other  than  Zervan,  an  ancient  Iranian 
conception,  which  survived  the  sharp  dualism  of 
Zoroaster ;  for  Zervan  was  father  of  both  Ormuid  and 
Ahriman  and  connected  the  two  opposites  in  a  higher 
unitv  and  was  still  worshipped  a  tnousand  years  later 
by  tbe  Manichees.  This  personified  Tune,  ineffable, 
sexless,  passionless,  was  represented  by  a  human  mon- 
ster, witn  the  head  of  a  lion  and  a  seipent  coiled  about 
his  body.  He  carried  a  sceptre  and  lightning  as  sove- 
reign god  and  held  in  each  hand  a  key  as  master  of  the 
heavens.  He  had  two  pair  of  wings  to  symbolise 
the  swiftness  of  time.  His  body  was  covered  with 
zodiacal  signs  and  the  emblems  of  the  seasons  (i.  e. 
Chaldean  astrology  combined  with  Zervanism). 
This  first  principle  oegat  Heaven  and  Earth,  which  in 
turn  begat  their  son  and  equal.  Ocean.  As  in  the 
European  legend.  Heaven  or  Jupiter  (Oromasdes) 
succeeds  Kronos.  Earth  is  the  Speiita  Armaiti  of  the 
Persians  or  the  Juno  of  the  Westerns,  Ocean  is  ApAm- 
Nap&t  or  Neptune.    The  Persian  names  were  not  for* 


403 

ffAtea,  though  the  Greek  and  Roman  ones  were  hab-  on  earth  in  the  heart  of  man.     Mitbra  in  the  Mediator 

itually  used.    Ahura  Maida  and  Speiita  Armaiti  gave  (Hnlrqi)  between  God  and  man,    Thia  function  first 

birth  to  a  gieat  number  of  lesser  deities  and  heroes:  arose  from  the  fact  that  as  the  lighlr-god  be  is  sup- 

Artagnes  (Herculea),  Sharevar  (Mars),  Atar  (Vulcan),  posed  to  float  midway  between  the  upper  heaven  and 

Anaitis  (Cybele),  and  so  on.     On  the  other  hand  there  the  earth.     Likewise  a  sun-eod,  his  planet  was  sup- 

waa  Pluto,  or  Ahriman,  also  begotten  of  Infinite  Time,  posed  to  hold  the  central  place  amon^  the  seven 

This  Incarnate  Evil  rose  with  the  army  of  darkness  to  planets.     The  moral  aspect  of  his  mediation  between 

attack  and  dethrone  Oromasdes.     They  were  however  god  and  man  cannot  be  proven  t"   ■""   -    -■-    ■        '- 


thrown  back  into  hell,  whence  they  escape,  wander 
over  the  face  ofthe  earth  and  afflict  man.     It  is  man's 
duty  to  worship  the  four  simple  elements,  wat«r  and 
fire,   air  and   earth,   which  m   the  main  are   man's 
friends.     The  seven  planets  likewise 
deities.     The  souls  of  men,  which  wei 
gether  from  the  b^inning  and  which  : 
to  descend  from  toe  empyrean  heavt_ 
prepared  for  them,  received  from  the 


_  ja»dean  dualists  the  Mithraists  were  strongly  inclined 

towards  asceticism:  abstention  from  food  and  absolute 

eontinenoe  seemed  to  them  noble  and  praiseworthy, 

though  not  obligatory.     They  battled  on  Mithra's  side 

'ere  beneficent     against  all  impurity,  against  all  evil  within  and  with- 

all  created  to-     out.     They  believed  in  the  inunortality  of  the  soul, 

,  birth  hod  but     sinners  after  death  were  dragged  to  bell;  the  just 

to  the  bodies    passed  through  the  seven  spheres  of  the  planets, 

planets    through  seven  gates  opening  at  a  mystic  word  t 


r  passions  and  characteristics.     Hence  the  seven     Ahura  Mazda,  leaving  at  each  planet  a  part  of  their 
days  of  the  week  were  dedicated  to  the  planets,  seven     lowerhumanityuntil,as  pure  spirits,  they  stood  before 


metals  were  sacred  to  then 
were  made  to  perfect 
the  Mithr^st,  and 
soon.   As  evit  spirits 


Mithra  was  born  of  a 
mother-rock  by  a 
'  under  a  tree. 


8  of  initiation    God. 


He   I 


the 


world  with  the  Phry- 
fian  cap  on  his  head 
(hence  his  designa- 
tion as  Pileatus.  the 
Capped  One),  and  a 
knife  in  his  hand. 
It  is  said  that  shep- 
herds watched  his 
birth,  but  how  this 
could  be,  considering 
there  were  no  men 
on  earth,  is  not  ex- 
plained. The  hero- 
god  first  gives  battle 
to  the  sun,  conquers 
him,  crowns  him  with 
rays  and  makes  him 

his  eternal  friend  and  fellow ;  nay,  the  sun  becomes  in  a 
0  Mithm's  double,  or  again  his  father,  but  'HXwt 


bull,  which  he  will 
sacrifice,  and  mixine 
its  fat  with  sacred 
wine  he  will  make  all 
drink  the  beverage 
of  immortality.  He 
will  thus  have  proved 
himself  Nabaraea,  i.  e, 
"never  conquered". 
WoRSHi  P. — There 


Thb  S^cRincB 


Mithraio  mysteries. 
The  consecrat^  one 
(tny)Ui)    became    in 

(cor ax),  occult  \cry- 
pAiut),  soldier(tni7««), 
lion  (teo),  Persian 
{Pertea),  solar  mes- 
senger {kdiodromos), 
ana  father  (pa(«r}. 
On  solemn  occasions 
they  wore  a  garb  ap- 
propriate  to  their 
name,  and  uttered 
oom.  Rome  sounds  or  performed 

gesturesinkeepit^withwhatthcyper^onified.  "Some 
--,    .     ^  .     ...  nap  their  wii^  as  birds  imitating  the  sound  of  a  crow, 

HifffMi  li  one' god.  Then  follows  the  struggle  be-  others  roar  as  lions",  says  Paeudo- Augustine  (Quiest. 
tween  Mithra  and  the  bull,  the  central  dogma  of  Vet.  N.  Test,  in  P.  U,  XXXIV,  22U).  Crows,  occults 
Mithraiam.  Ahura  Maxda  had  created  a  wild  bull  and  soldiers  formed  the  lower  orders,  a  sort  of  cate- 
whicb  Mithra  pursued,  overcame,  and  drained  into  chuinens;lionsandthoBeadmitt«dtatheotherdegrees 
hiscave.  This  wearisomejoumey  with  the  struggling  were  participants  of  the  mysteries.  The  fathers  con- 
bul!  towaids  the  cave  is  the  symbol  of  man's  troubles  ducted  the  worship.  The  chief  of  the  fathers,  a  sort 
on  earth.  UnfortunBt«ly,  the  bull  escapes  from  the  of  pope,  who  always  lived  at  Rome,  was  called  "  Pater 
cave,  whereupon  Ahura  Mazda  sends  a  crow  with  a  Patnim"  or  "Pater  Patratus."  The  members  below 
iT.essage  to  Mithra  to  find  and  slay  it.  Mithra  re-  thedegree  of  jiater  called  one  another  "brother,"  and 
luctantly  obeys,  and  plunges  his  dagger  into  the  bull  social  distinctions  were  forgotten  in  Mithraic  unity, 
as  it  returns  to  the  cave.  Strange  to  say,  from  the  The  ceremonies  of  initiation  for  each  degree  must 
body  of  the  dying  bull  proceed  all  wholesome  plants  have  been  elaborate,  but  they  ore  only  vaguely 
and  herbs  that  cover  the  earth,  from  his  spinal  marrow  known — lustrations  and  bathbgs,  branding  with  red- 
the  com,  from  his  blood  the  vine,  etc.  The  power  of  hot  metal,  anointing  with  honey,  and  others.  A 
evil  sends  his  unclean  creatures  to  prevent  or  poison  sacred  meal  was  oelehrated  of  bread  and  haoma  juice 
these  productions  but  in  vain.  From  the  bull  pro-  for  which  in  the  West  wine  was  substituted.  This 
ceed  alt  useful  animals,  and  the  bull,  resigning  itself  -meal  was  supposed  to  give  the  participants  super- 
to  death,  is  transported  to  the  heavenly  spheres,  natural  virtue.  The  Mithraists  worshipped  in  caves, 
Man  is  now  created  and  subjected  to  the  malign  in-  of  which  a  lai^  number  have  been  found.  There 
fiuence  of  Ahriman  in  the  form  of  drouchts,  deluges,  were  five  at  Ostiaalone,  but  they  were  small  and  could 
and  conflagrations,  but  is  saved  by  Mithra.  Finally  perhaps  hold  at  most  200  persons.  In  the  apse  of  the 
man  is  weireatablished  on  earth  and  Mithra  returns  to  cave  stood  the  stone  representation  of  Mithra  slaying 
heaven.  Ho  celebrates  a  lost  supper  with  Helios  and  the  bull,  apiece  of  sculpture  u.suQlty  of  mediocre  artistic 
his  Other  companions,  is  taken  in  his  fiery  chariot  merit  and  alwavs  nuide  after  the  same  Pergamean 
across  the  ocean,  and  now  in  heaven  protects  his  fol-  model.  The  light  usually  fell  through  oitenings  in  tha 
lowers.  For  the  struggle  between  good  and  evil  con-  («p  as  the  caves  were  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
tiniiea  in  heaven  bc^twcen  the  planets  and  stars,  and     A  nideous  monstrosity  representing  Kronos  was  Also 


404 


shown.  A  fire  was  kept  perpetuall]r  burning  in  the 
sanctuary.  Three  times  a  day  prayer  was  offered  the 
sun  towairds  east,  south,  or  west  according  to  the  hour. 
Sunday  was  kept  holy  in  honour  of  Mitnra,  and  the 
sixteenth  of  each  month  wasjsacred  to  him  as  media- 
tor. The  25  December  was  observed  as  his  birthday, 
the  natalis  invicttf  the  rebirth  of  the  winter-sun,  un- 
oonquered  by  the  rigours  of  the  season.  A  Mithraic 
community  was  not  merelv  a  reli^ous  congregation; 
it  was  a  social  and  legal  body  with  its  decemprimif 
magiatri,  curtUoreSf  drfensorea,  and  pcOroni.  These 
communities  allowed  no  women  as  members.  Women 
might  console  themselves  by  forming  associations  to 
worship  Anaitis-Cvbele;  but  whether  these  were  as- 
sociated with  Mithraism  seems  doubtful.  No  proof 
of  immorality  or  obscene  practices,  so  often  con- 
nected with  esoteric  pagan  cults,  has  ever  been  estab- 
lished against  Mithraism;  and  as  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, or  rather  conjectured  it  had  an  elevating  and 
invigoratixig  effect  on  its  followers.  From  a  chance 
remark  of  Tertullian  (De  PrsBscriptione,  xl)  we  gather 
that  their  ''Pater  Patrum^'  was  onlv  allowed  to  be 
married  once,  and  that  Mithraism  haa  its  virgines  and 
continentes;  such  at  least  seems  the  best  interpretation 
of  the  passage.  K,  however.  Dieterich's  Mitnras's  lit- 
urgy be  really  a  liturgy  of  this  sect,  as  he  ably  main- 
tains, its  lituigy  can  only  strike  us  as  a  mixture  of 
bombast  and  charlatanism  in  which  the  mystea  has  to 
hold  his  sides,  and  roar  to  the  utmost  of  his  power 
till  he  is  exhausted,  to  whistle,  smack  his  Ups,  and 
pronounce  barbaric  agQglomerations  of  syllables  as  the 
different  mystic  signs  for  the  heavens  and  the  con- 
stellations are  unveiled  to  him. 

Relation  to  Christianity. — ^A  similarity  between 
Mithra  and  Christ  struck  even  early  observers,  such 
as  Justin,  Tertullian,  and  other  Fathers,  and  in  re- 
cent times  has  been  urged  to  prove  that  Christianity 
is  but  an  adaptation  of  Mithraism,  or  at  most  the  out- 
come of  the  same  religious  ideas  and  aspirations 
(e.  g.  Robertson,  "Pa^an  Christs",  1903).  Against 
this  erroneous  and  unscientific  procedure,  which  is  not 
endorsed  by  the  greatest  living  authority  on  Mithra^ 
ism,  the  following  considerations  must  be  brought 
forward.  (1)  Our  knowledge  regarding  Mithraism  is 
veiy  imperfect;  some  600  brief  inscriptions,  mostly 
dedicatory,  some  300  often  fragmentary,  exiguous, 
almost  identical  monuments,  a  few  casual  references 
in  the  Fathers  or  Acts  of  the  Martyrs,  and  a  brief 
polemic  against  Mithraism  which  the  Armenian  Eznig 
about  450  probably  copied  from  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia  (d.  428)  who  lived  when  Mithraism  was  almost 
a  thing  of  the  past — these  are  our  only  sources,  imless 
we  include  the  Avesta  in  which  Mithra  is  indeed  men- 
tioned, but  which  cannot  be  an  authority  for  Roman 
Mithraism  with  which  Christianity  is  compared.  Our 
knowledge  is  mostly  ingenious  guess-work;  of  the  real 
inner  working  of  Mithraism  and  the  sense  in  which  it 
was  understood  by  those  who  professed  it  at  the  ad- 
vent of  Christianity,  we  know  nothing.  (2)  Some 
apparent  similarities  exist;  but  in  a  nuxnber  of  details 
it  IB  quite  as  probable  that  Mithraism  was  the  borrower 
from  Christianity.  Tertullian  about  200  could  say: 
"  hestemi  sumus  et  omnia  vestra  implevimus ''  C'  we 
are  but  of  yesterday,  yet  your  whole  world  is  full  of 
us'').  It  is  not  unnatural  to  suppose  that  a  religion 
which  filled  the  whole  world,  should  have  been  copied 
at  least  in  some  details  by  another  religion  which  was 
ouite  popular  during  the  third  century.  Moreover 
tne  resemblances  pomted  out  are  supemcial  and  ex- 
ternal. Siimlarity  in  words  and  names  is  nothing; 
it  is  the  sense  that  matters.  During  these  centuries 
Christianity  was  coining  its  own  tecmiical  terms,  and 
naturally  took  names,  terms,  and  expressions  current 
in  that  aay ;  and  so  did  Mithraism.  But  under  identi- 
cal terms  each  system  thought  its  own  thoughts. 
Mithra  is  called  a  mediator;  and  so  is  Christ;  but 
liithra  originally  only  in  a  cosmogonic  or  astronomical 


sense;  Christ,  being  God  and  man,  is  by  nature  the 
Mediator  between  Uod  and  man.  And  so  in  similar 
instances.  Mithraism  had  a  Eucharist,  but  the  idea 
of  a  sacred  banquet  is  as  old  as  the  human  race  and 
existed  at  all  aees  and  amongst  all  peoples.  Mithn 
saved  the  world  by  sacrificing  a  bull ;  Christ  by  sacrific- 
ing Himself.  It  js  hardlv  possible  to  conceive  a  more 
radical  difference  than  that  between  Mithra  taurocfa- 
tonos  and  Christ  crucified.  Christ  was  bom  of  a 
Vii]p;ui;  there  is  nothing  to  prove  that  the  same  was 
believed  of  Mithra  bom  from  the  rock.  Christ  waa 
bom  in  a  cave;  and  Mithraists  worshipped  in  a  cave, 
but  Mithra  was  bom  under  a  tree  near  a  river.  Much 
has  been  made  of  the  presence  of  adoring  shepherds; 
but  their  existence  on  sculptures  has  not  Been  proven, 
and  considering  that  man  had  not  yet  appeared,  it  is 
an  anachronism  to  suppose  their  presence.  (3)  Christ 
was  an  historical  personage,  recently  bom  in  a  well 
known  town  of  Judea,  and  crucified  imder  a  RomBn 
Governor,  whose  name  figured  in  the  ordinary  official 
Usts.  Mithra  was  an  abstraction,  a  personificatioo 
not  even  of  the  sun  but  of  the  diffused  daylight;  his 
incarnation,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  was  supposed  to 
have  happened  before  the  creation  of  the  human  race, 
before  all  history.  The  small  Mithraic  congregations 
were  like  masonic  lodges  for  a  few  and  for  men  only 
and  even  those  mostly  of  one  class,  the  military; 
a  religion  that  excludes  the  half  of  the  human  race 
bears  no  comparison  to  the  religion  of  Christ.  Mith- 
raism was  all  comprehensive  and  tolerant  of  every 
other  cult,  the  Pater  Patnim  himself  was  an  adept  in 
a  number  of  other  religions;  Christianity  was  essen- 
tially exclusive,  condemningevery  other  religion  in  the 
world,  alone  and  unique  in  its  majesty. 

CuMONT,  NoU9  rar  im  tempU  MUkriague  d^OttU  (Gbmi, 
1891);  Idem,  TexUa  et  Monument9jiour6*  rHat.  aux  Mvatht$  de 
Mithn  (2  vols..  Bruasela,  1896-1899);  Idbm.  Let  MyMerrM  dt 
Mithra  (2nd.,  Paris,  1902),  tr.  McCormacx  (liondoo.  1903); 
Idbic,  Religions  OnentaUa  dans  U  Papanigme  Romain  (Paria, 
1906) :  Martindalx,  The  Religion  o/MUhra  in  The  Month  (1908. 
Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec.);  Idbk,  The  Rdiaion  of  Mithra  in  JLcctvrcs  em 
the  HiaL  o/Religione,  II  (C.  T.  S.,  London.  1910);  Dill.  Roman 
Society  from  Nero  to  M.  Awdiua  (London,  1904);  Qr.'Cuiar 
T[0DALL.  Mythic  Chriete  and  the  True;  Dxetbrich,  Sine  Mi- 
thrasliturgie  (Leipxig.  1903):  Ramsat.  The  Greek  of  the  eoHbi 
Church  and  the  Pagan  Ritual  (Edinburgh,  1998-^) ;  BLonGS.  Daa 
heidn.  Mj/eterienwesen  und  die  Hellenteieruno  dee  Chrietenthueu 
in  Slimmen  aue  Maria-Ixtach  (1906-7);  AuM*  Mithriacieme  d 
Chrietianieme  in  Retnie  Pratifpie  d^Apologitique  (Paii%  1906-7); 
Wl BLAND,  Ankldnae  der  ehnetl.  TaufMire  an  dte  Mtthrmeekm 
Myffajogw  (Munich,  1907);  Oasqdet,  Eeaai  eur  U  evUe  et  lea 
myetiree  de  Mithra  (Paris,  1899). 

J.  P.  AXIBNDZSN. 

mtn. — Fomif  Materialf  and  Use, — ^The  mitre  is  a 
kind  of  folding-cap.  It  consists  of  two  like  parts, 
each  stiffened  by  a  lining  and  rising  to  a  peak  *  thc»e  are 
sewn  together  on  the  sides,  but  are  united  aixive  by  a 
piece  of  material  that  can  fold  together.  Two  lappets 
trimmed  on  the  ends  with  fringe  hang  down  from  the 
back.  The  mitre  is,  theoretically,  alwa^  supposed 
to  be  white.  The  official  "Csremoniale  Komanum'* 
distinguishes  three  kinds  of  mitres:  the  mitra  pretiosaf 
auriphrygiataf  and  simplex.  The  firet  two  diner  from 
each  otifier  only  in  the  greater  or  less  richness  of  the 
ornamentation;  the  mitra  simplex,  or  simple  mitre,  is 
one  of  white  silk  or  white  linen  entirely  without  orna- 
ment. The  fringe  on  the  lappets  at  tne  back  shoiild 
be  red.  The  bisnop  must  wear  the  mitra  preHosa  on 
those  davs  on  which  the  hymn  Te  Deum  is  used  in  tiie 
Office,  the  mitre  auriphrygiata  in  the  seasons  of  Ad- 
vent and  Lent,  on  fast  days  and  during  jpenitentiaj 
processions,  the  mitra  simplex  on  GoodT Fridays,  at 
funerals,  and  at  the  blessing  of  the  candles  on  Candle- 
mas-day.  When  bishops  attend  a  general  council,  or 
are  present  at  solemn  pontifical  acts  of  the  pope,  they 
wear  a  plaia  linen  mitre,  while  the  cardinals  on  such 
occasions  wear  a  simple  mitre  of  silk  damask.  The 
right  to  wear  the  mitre  belongs  by  law  only  to  thf 
pope,  the  cardinals,  and  the  bishops.  Others  requirp 
tor  its  use  a  special  papal  privilege.    This  privilege 


iirntcs  or  vl.  Nicoiib  albkroatt  (xt-xti  cgnturt)  kfibcopal  mitrbb  (xv  century) 

■anscoPAL  MITRE  (bpanibh,  xvi  centdry) 


THE  NE'V  rORK 


A^.Tf  .?     L~.V..\  AND 
«  L 


prelates  of  the  pftpaJ  Curia,  but,  ae  m  rule,  tha  right  i 
more  or  km  limited:  for  tnatonae,  suoh  preUtce  can 
only  use  a  simple  mitre  of  white  linen,  unleaa  tlie  con- 
trary is  expreeBly  granted  them.  The  mitie  is  dis- 
tinguisbed  from  the  other  episeop^  veetmenta  in  that 
it  is  always  laid  aside  when  tlie  biahop prays;  for  ex- 
ample, at  the  orationet  Of  the  Maaa,  <k  the  Office,  in 
conferring  Holy  (Mbib,  at  the  Cuion  of  tlie  Mass,  etc. 
The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  commandment 
of  die  Apostle  that  a  man  should  pray  with  uncovered 
bead  (I  Cor.,  xi,  4).  The  giving  of  tlie  mitre  is  a 
ceremony  in  the  consecration  of  a  bishop.  It  occura 
at  the  close  of  the  Mass  after  the  solemn  final  blessing, 
the  coosecrator  having  firat  blessed  the  mitre. 

A  ntiquity. — From  the  seventeenth  century  much  has 
been  written  concemins  the  length  of  time  the  mitre 
iias  been  worn.  According  to  one  opinion  its  use  ex- 
tends back  into  the  age  of  the  Apostles ;  according  to 
another,  at  least  as  far  bock  as  the  eighth  or  ninth  cen- 
tury, while  a  further  view  holds  tliat  it  did  not  appear 
until  the  beginning  of  the  second  millennium,  but  that 
before  this  there  was  an  episcopal  ornament  for  the 
head,  in  form  like  a  wreath  or  crown.  In  opposition 
to  these  and  similar  opinions,  which  cannot  all  be  dis- 
OUAsed  here,  it  is,  however,  to  be  lield  as  certain  that 
an  episcopal  omament  for  the  head  in  the  stiape  of  a 
fillet  never  existed  in  Weetem  Europe,  that  the  mitre 
was  first  used  at  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth 
century,  and  outside  of  Rome  about  the  year  ICMW. 
Exhaustive  proof  for  this  is  given  in  the  work  t<wn-> 
tiooed  in  biblioersphy  below),  "Die  liturgisclie  G/^' 
wandungim  Occident  und  Orient"  (pp.  431-48;h  where 
all  tliat  nas  been  brought  forward  to  prove  the  ftjj^, 
antiquity  cdf  the  mitre  is  exhaustively  discussed  and 
refut«d.  The  mitre  is  depicted  for  the  firs|;  time 
in  two  miniatures  of  the  beginning  of  the  et|vei|th, 
century;  the  one  is  in  a  baptismal  register,  the  ofher  In 
an  Exultet-roll  of  the  cathedral  at  Ban,  Italy!  TIm^  ' 
first  written  mention  of  it  is  found  in  a  Bull  of  &eo  IX 
of  the  year  1049.  In  this  the  pope,  who  had  fohoeriy 
been  Bishop  of  Toul,  France,  confirmed  the  primacy  of 
the  Church  <rf  Trier  to  Bishop  Eberliard  of  Trier,  his 
former  metropolitan,  who  had  accompanied  him  to 
Rome.  As  a  sign  of  this  primacy,  Leo  granted  Bishop 
Eberhard  the  Roman  mitre,  in  order  that  he  might  use 


hi«i|p.|i^     ■■^M    ■FT^W     WSSH^    HwiiSiM 

Tin    TTrr  "(Tfr  TtTT  °ifr 


of  a  cone,  the  original  shape  of  the  miti«.  The  can 
lauoum  was  womoy  the  pope  principally  duringsolei 
processions.  The  mitre  developed  from  the  cameli  . 
cum  in  this  way:  in  tlie  course  of  the  tenth  century 
the  pope  b^^  to  wear  this  head-covering  not  merely 
during  processions  to  tlie  church,  but  also  during  the 
subsequent  chuich  service.  Wliether  any  influence 
was  exerted  by  the  recollection  of  the  sacerdotal  head- 
omoment  of  tile  high-priest  of  the  Old  Testament  is 
not  known,  but  probably  not — at  least  there  is  no 
trace  of  any  sucn  influence.  It  was  not  until  the 
mitre  was  universally  worn  by  bishops  that  it  was 
c^ed  an  imitation  of  the  Jewish  saoerdirt^al  bead- 


Pkbbeht  Tims 


it  according  to  Roman  custom  in  performing  the  offices 
oftheChiu^h.  ByaboutllOO-SOthecustomof  weor^ 
tng  the  mitre  was  general  among  bishops. 

Origin. — The  pontifical  mitre  is  of  Roman  origin: 
it  is  derived  from  a  non-litui^cal  head-covering  dis- 
tinctive of  the  pope,  the  cametaucum,  to  which  also 
'  the  tiara  is  to  be  traced.  The  eamelaucum  was  worn 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  as  is 
shown  by  the  biography  of  Pope  Constantine  I  (708- 
815)  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalia".  The  same  head- 
covering  is  also  mentioned  in  the  so-called  "Donation 
of  Constantine".  The  Ninth  Ordo  states  that  the 
eamelaucum  was  mode  of  white  stuff  and  shaped  like 
a  helmet.  The  coins  of  Sei^ius  III  (904-11)  and  of 
Benedict  VII  (974-83),  on  which  St.  Peter  is  por- 
trayed wearing  4  cvnielauoum,  give  the  cap  the  form 


Granitn^   of  the   Mitre   to   Dignitariea   other   than 
Bithop*. — The  Roman  cardinals  certainly  bad  already 
the  right  to  wear  the  mitre  towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century.    Probably  they  possessed  the  priv- 
ilege as  early  as 
in  the  first  half  of 
the  century.    For 
if  Leo  IX  granted 
the    privil^e    to 
the    cardmaJs    of 
the  cathedral    of 
Besangon    (see 
CAnniNAL:  I.  Car- 
dinal Priettt)    in 
1051,  the  Roman 
cardinals     surely 
bad  it  before  that 

-Arter-TW!   Bfs| 

*ujt*«([»ig;  intent* 

from  the  y  e  s  R 
1063,  whenAlex-J 
«r)def;  1 1  DORfeired; 
the.  initfsn ,-UR«n; 

■  Abbot   ^temu^  ««'"  "-T" 

of  the  Abbey'of  fit.  Augustine  at  Canterbury,  From 
'thig~ttffi9"bh"'ffiiataDcee  of  the  Kranting  of  the  mitre 
to  abbots  constantly  increased  m  number.  At  times 
also  secular  princes  were  granted  permission  to 
wear  the  mitre  as  a  mark  of  distinction;  for  example, 
Duke  WratisLaw  of  Bohemia  receiv^  this  privi^ge 
from  Pope  Alexander  II,  and  Peter  of  Aragon  from 
Irmocent  III .     The  right  also  belonged  to  the  German 

Deveiopmmt  of  Iht  Shape. — As  regards  shape,  thei« 
is  such  difference  between  the  mitre  of  the  eleventh 
century  and  that  of  the  twentieth  that  it  is  difficult 
to  recognire  the  some  ornamental  head-covering  in 
the  two.  In  ita  earliest  form  the  mitre  was  a  simple 
cap  of  soft  material,  which  ended  alx)ve  in  a  point, 
while  around  the  lower  edge  there  was  generally, 
although  not  always,  an  ornamental  band  {circuluii}. 
It  would  also  seem  that  lappete  were  not  always  at- 
tached to  the  t>ack  of  the  mitre.  Towards  1100  the 
mitre  began  to  have  a  curved  shape  above  and  to  grow 
into  a  round  cap.  In  many  cases  tliere  soon  app^red 
adepressionin  the  upper  part  sunilar  to  the  one  which 
is  made  when  a  soft  felt  hat  is  pressed  down  on  the 
head  from  the  forehead  to  the  back  of  the  head.  In 
handsome  mitres  on  ornamental  band  passed  from 
front  to  Ijack  across  the  indentation ;  this  made  more 
prominent  the  puR's.in  the  upper  part  of  the  cap  to  the 
right  and  left  sides  of  the  head.  This  calotte-shaped 
rmtre  was  used  until  late  in  the  twelfth  century;  in 
some  places  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  century. 
From  about  1125  a  rnitre  of  another  form  and  some- 
what different  appearance  is  often  found.  In  it  the 
puffs  on  the  sides  had  developed  into  horns  (eomua) 
which  ended  each  in  a  point  and  were  stiffened  with 

Krchment   or  some   other   interlining.     This   mitre 
Toed  the  transition  to  the  third  style  of  mitre  which 
is  esaentially  the  one  still  usod  t<Hla7';  the  third  mitre 


MITTAULU                           406  HXTTABXLU 

ia  dwtiiiguished  from  its  predecewor,  not  actuallr  by  onuunanted  wiUi  about  five  hundred  mora  or  less 

itHahape,  butonlybvitapoeitioaon  theheiul.     While  ooetly  precioiu  stmies;  it  weighs  over  five  and  a  half 

retaining  its  form,  tne  nutre  waa  henoeforth  ao  placed  pouada.    Similar  mitiM  are  also  mentioned  in  the 

upon  the  head  that  the  comua  no  longer  arose  above  mventori^  of  1295  of  Boniface  VIII.     Eight  medieval 

the  temples  but  above  the  forehead  and  the  back  of  mitras  are  preserved  in  tbe  cathedral  of  Halberatadt. 

the  head.     The  lappeta  had,  naturally,  to  be  fastened  In  the  sevenleentb  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  mitre 

to  the  under  edge  below  the  horn  at  the  back.    The  was  ornamented  with  rich,  heavy  embrotilery  in  gold, 

first  example  of  such  a  mitre  appeared  towards  1160,  which  gave  it  a  Btpill  more  impoeing  appearance.     A 

Elaborate  mitres  of  this  kind  had  not  only  an  oma-  mitreof  theeighl«enth  century  preserved  in  thecathe- 

mental  band  (circWui)  on  the  lower  edge,  but  a  similar  dral  treasury  at  Limburg-on-the-Lohn  is  remarkable 

ornamental  band  {titulut)  went  vertically  over  the  for  the  laige  number  of  precious  atones  that  adoni  it. 

middle  of  the  homs.    In  tbe  fourteenth  centuty  this  Theoriginalmaterialof  tnemitreappearstohave  been 

form  of  mitre  began  to  be  distorted  in  shape.     Up  to  white  Imen  alone,  but  as  early  as  tne  thirteenth  cea- 


BiiTuMTH-CEimiBT  Mrnu  a 

iroader  than  high  tury  (wit_  ..._..., 

n  folded  together,  but  from  this  period  on  it  began,  it  was  generally  made  of  silk  or  omamentea  with  si 

slowly  indeed,  but  steadily,  to  increase  in  height  until,  embroidery. 

in  the  seventeenth  century,  it  grew  into  an  actual         TAe  IMurgical  Head-Covering  in  the  Greek  Rite. — In 

tower.     Another  change,   which,   however,   did   not  the  Orthodox  Greek  Rite  (the  other  Greek  Riles  need 

appear  until  the  fifteenth  century,  was  that  the  sides  not  here  be  considered]  a  1itu:gical  hcad-coveriog 

were  no  iwiger  made  vertical,  but  diagonal.     In  the  was  not  worn  until  the  sixteenth  century.     Before  this 

sixteenth  century  it  began  to  be  customary  to  curve,  only  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  wore  one  as 

more  or  less  decidedly,  uie  diagonal  sides  of  the  horns,  early  as  the  tenth  century,  made  use  of  a  head-cover- 

The  illustmtion  gives  a  summary  of  the  development  ing,  and  his  was  only  a  simple  cap.     The  Greek  pontil- 

of  the  shape  of  the  mitre.     It  should,  however,  be  said  ical  mitre  ia  a  high  hat  which  swells  out  towards  the 

that  tbe  cnanges  did  not  take  place  everywhere  at  the  top  and  is  sparmed  diagonally  bv  two  hoops;  on  tbe 

same  time,  nor  did  tbe  mitre  everywhere  pass  through  highest  point  of  the  dome-shaped  top  is  a  cross  either 

all  the  shapes  of  tbe  development.     A  large  number  standing  upright  or  placed  flat. 

otmitreaofthelaterMiddleAgeshave  been  preserved,         Dr  Ijhab,  Anr^rnt  vtUmrrOM  ■armWaiu,  2"  rfrie    CPilim, 

but  they  all  belong  to  the  third  form  of  mitre.     Many  ii^^ii,S?1i-  ^^A^^'viif (&   l^"bi.^i- 

have  very  costly  ornamentation.      For  even  in  medi&-  Dir  pontifitalnn  OraOndrr  dm  AhtncUaruIrt  (^mburs  im   Br! 

val  times  it  was  a  favourite  custom  to  ornament  es-  iSpB);  Inna.  Dit  iUur^^clu  OrMandtme  im  Oceidmivid  Orimt 

pecialiy  the  mitre  with  embroidery,  rich  bands  (ourt-  C™"™^  ™  »'■■  190''-  Joseph  Bbacn. 

^^«ia),  pearls,  pr«cioua  stones,  small  ornamental  disks 

of  the  precious  metals;  and  even  to  use  painting.        HtttanlB,   Nicola   Giacowo    (in   lelwion   Gian 

Besides  several  hundred  large  and  small  pearia,  a  mitre  Bekbdbito),   monastic   historian,   b.   2   September, 

vt  the  late  Middle  Ages  in  St.  Fetwr'e  at  Salsburg  is  also  1707,  at  Venice;  d.  4  August,  1777,  in  the  mmiasteiy  ol 


MimiNB 


407 


MIVA&T 


San  Michele  di  Muiano  near  Venice.  After  joining  the 
Camaldolese  Order  at  the  early  age  of  fourteen,  he 
studied  thec^ogy  at  Florence  and  Rome,  whereupon  he 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  monastery  of 
San  Micnele  di  Murano.  Because  he  relinquished  the 
scholastic  method,  his  superiors  sent  him  to  the  monas- 
tery of  San  Parisio  in  Treviso  where  he  became  con- 
fessor and  archivist.  In  1760  he  was  elected  Abbot  of 
San  Michele  di  Murano  and  in  1765,  General  of  his 
Order  for  the  space  of  five  years  durine  which  he  re- 
sided in  Rome;  in  1770  he  returned  to  bis  monastery 
where  he  remained  as  abbot  imtil  his  death.  His 
monumental  work,  in  the  preparation  of  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  confreres  Costadini  and  Galofi^ra,  is 
the  "  Annates  Camaldulenses  ordinis  S.  Beneaicti,  ab 
anno  907  ad  annum  1770"  9  vols,  folio  (Venice, 
1755-73).  It  foUows  the  plan  of  Mabillon's  "An- 
nates ordinis  S.  Benedicti' .  His  other  works  are: 
"  Memorie  della  vita  di  San  Parisio,  e  del  monastero 
del  Santi  Christina  e  Parisio  di  Treviso"  (Venice, 
1748),  "  Memorie  del  monastero  della  Santa  Trinity  di 
Fsenza"  (Fffinsa,  1749),  "Ad  Scriptores  rerum  Itali- 
carum  A.  Muratorii  accessiones  historise  Faventinse" 
(Venice,  1771),  "  De  litteratura  Faventinorum  "  (Ven- 
ice, 1775),  and  the  posthmnous  work  "Bibliotheca 
codicum  Mss.  monasterii  St.  MiclueliB  de  Murano  cum 
appendice  librorum  15,  ssBculi"  (Venice,  1779). 

Fabroni,  De  vita  MiHarettii,  prefixed  to  Uie  last  named  work 
of  fifflttarelli;  Idem,  Vita  lUuorum  dodrina  ezeelleniiuin  qui 
Mc.  17  et  18  Jlorverunt,  V  (Raa,  1778-1804),  369-91;  Braun- 
mCllbr  in  KiTthnnlex:  Wnas  in  BiooraphiB  univendU^  XXVIII, 

427.  Michael  Ott. 

MityleDO,  a  titulary  archbishopric  in  the  island  of 
Lesbos.  Inhabitated,  first  by  tne  Felasgians,  then 
by  the  ^olians,  it  was  ruled  in  turn  by  the  Persians, 
the  Athenians,  the  Macedonians,  the  Seleucidse,  ana 
the  Romans.  Included  in  the  empire  of  the  East  after 
the  time  of  Theodosius  it  suffered  much  from  the  dif- 
ferent iavasions  of  the  Scythians  in  376,  the  Slavs  in 
769,  the  Arabs  in  821,  881,  1035,  the  Russians  in  864 
and  1027.  In  1204  after  the  foundation  of  the  Latin 
empire,  the  city  became  a  possession  of  the  French, 
only  to  be  reconquered  in  1248  by  John  Ducas  Vatatzes. 
It  belonged  to  the  Genoese  when  the  sultan,Mahomet  II, 
conquered  it  in  1462.  The  home  of  manv  famous  per- 
sons, among  them  Sappho,  Alcseus,  and  tne  sage  Pitta- 
cus,  Mitylene  was  famous  for  its  beauty  and  for  the 
streng;th  of  its  walls.  St.  Paul  stopped  there  diu^g 
his  third  journey  (Acts,  xx,  14).  Among  its  bish- 
ops, whose  names  will  be  found  in  part  in  Le  Quien, 
"Oriens  christianus",  I,  953-962,  are  Zaoharias 
Rhetor,  or  the  Scholastic,  author  of  an  Ecclesiastical 
History  about  the  year  536;  Saint  Georee  who  died  id 
exOe  at  Cherson  before  821  and  whose  least  occurs  on 
7  April  and  16  May;  another  Saint  George  who  died 
in  843  and  is  venerated  b^  the  Greeks  on  1  February 
with  his  two  brothers,  Samt  Simeon  and  Saint  David 
(Analecta  bollandiana  XVIII,  209  sq.).  Until  this 
time  Mitylene  was  only  an  autocephalous  archbishop- 
ric ;  the '' Notitia  "  of  Leo  the  Wise  about  900  describes 
it  as  a  metropolitan  see  with  five  suffragans.  Doro- 
theas of  Mitylene  stands  out  among  the  friends  of  the 
Union  at  the  Council  of  Florence  of  which  he  wrote  a 
history  in  Greek  (Mausi,  XXXI,  463  sq.,  997,  1009). 
The  list  of  the  Latin  titularies  of  1205  to  1412 
mav  be  found  in  Le  Quien,  III,  991^994;  Eubel, 
I,  370;  Gams,  449.  The  present  city  of  Metilin  num- 
bers 15,000  inhabitants,  tne  greater  number  schismatic 
Greeks;  the  760  Catholics  of  the  island  are  chiefly 
grouped  about  Metilin  and  are  included  in  the  arch- 
hishoi>ric  of  Smyrna.  The  parish  is  directed  by  the 
Franciscans  ;theMarist  Brothers  ha  vea  school  f or  boys. 

Lb  QutBir.  Orient  ehriatianua  I.  953-961:  III,  991-994;  La- 
CROXX.  Ilea  de  la  (Mee  (Parifl.  1853).  297-338;  Cuinet.  La  Tur- 
(mied'Aei^,!  HParis.  1892).  449-74:  Kodvlvkt  Die  antiken 
Bawreaten  der  Fned  Leaboa  (Berlin.  1890);  Wrotr.  Catalof/ue  of 
Oreak  Coina  o/Troaa,  BcAia,  andLeabea  (London.  1894),  184-216. 

S.  Salavillb. 


BflEivart.  St.  Georqe  Jackson,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 
y.P.Z.S.,  F.Z.S.,  Corresponding  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia;  Member  of  the 
Council  of  Linnean  Society,  etc.,  b.  in  London,  30 
November,  1827,  d.  there,  1  April,  1900. 

Professor  Mivart,  whom  Darwin  styled  the  "dis- 
tinguished biologist",  third  son  of  James  Edward 
Mivfiurt,  owner  of  Mivart's  Hotel  in  Brook  Street,  was 
bom  at  39  Brook  St.,  Grosvenor  S(^uare,  London. 
His  parents  were  Evangelicals;  and  his  early  educa- 
tion was  received  at  the  Clapham  Grammar  School, 
at  Harrow,  and  at  King's  College,  London;  from 
which  latter  institution  he  intended  to  go  to  Oxford. 
His  enthusiasm  for  architecture  led  him,  at  the  age  of 
sixteen,  to  make  a  tour  of  Pugin's  Gothic  churches; 
and  while  visiting  St.  Chad's,  in  Birmingham,  he  met 
Dr.  Moore  (afterwards  President  of  St.  Mary's  Colle^, 
Oscott)  who  received  him  into  the  Catholic  Chureh  in 
1844.  Mivart's  conversion  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
termined by  Milner's  "  End  of  Religious  Controversy  ". 
On  his  reception  he  proceeded  to  Oscott  College,  where 
he  remained  until  1846.  On  15  January  of  tnat  year 
he  became  a  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  was  called 
to  the  Bar  in  1851.  He  did  not,  however,  follow  a  le- 
gal career,  but  gave  himself  to  scientific  and  philosoph- 
ical studies;  and  in  1862  was  appointed  Lecturer  on 
Comparative  Anatomy  at  St.  Marjr's  Hospital  Medi- 
cal ^hool.  In  1874,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Biology  at  the  (Catholic)  University  College, Kensing- 
ton, rrom  1890  to' 1893  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures 
on  "The  Philosophy  of  Natural  History"  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Lou  vain.  From  1849  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Institution ;  Fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society 
from  1858,  and  Vice-President  twice  (1869  and  1882) ; 
Fellow  of  the  Linnean  Societv  from  1862;  Secretary 
of  the  same  during  the  years  1874-80,  and  Vico-Presi- 
dent  in  1892.  In  1867  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society— elected  on  account  of  the  merit  of  his 
work  "  On  the  Appendicular  skeleton  of  the  Primates". 
This  work  was  communicated  to  the  Society  by  Pro- 
fessor Huxley.  Mivart  was  a  member  of  the  Meta- 
physical Societv  from  1874.  He  received  the  degrees 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  from  Pope  Pius  IX  in  1876, 
and  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  from  Louvain  in  1884. 
His  communications,  dating  from  1864,  to  the  "pro- 
ceedings" of  learned  Societies — notably  the  Royal, 
the  Linnean,  and  the  Zoological — are  numerous  and  of 
great  scientific  value.  He  contributed  articles  to  the 
"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  and  to  all  the  leading 
Ei^lish  and  American  reviews. 

HI  1871  he  published  his  "Genesis  of  Species",  in 
which  work,  foreshadowed  by  an  article  in  the  "Quar- 
terlv  Review  "  of  the  same  year,  he  took  his  stand  as  the 
leaaing  opponent  of  the  Darwinian  hypothesis.  This 
estrangea  nim  from  Darwin  and  Huxley;  but  his  repu- 
tation as  a  specialist  in  bioloeical  science  was  in  no 
way  impairea  by  the  position  ne  took  up.  In  subse- 
quent editions  of  his  "  Origin  of  Species  'Darwin  deals 
at  great  length  with  the  objections  raised  by  Mivart. 
His  since  puDlished  "Life  and  Letters"  afford  ample 
evidence  of  how  weighty  he  felt  them  to  be.  Mivart, 
however,  himself  professed  a  theory  of  evolution;  but 
he  unhesitatingly  and  consistently  asserted  the  ir- 
reconciliable  difference  between  the  inanimate  and 
animate,  as  well  as  between  the  purely  animal  and  the 
rational.  By  maintaining  the  creationist  theory  of 
the  origin  of  the  human  soul  he  attempted  to  recon- 
cile his  evolutionism  with  the  Catholic  faith.  In  phil- 
osophical problems,  towards  which  he  turned  more 
and  more  in  later  years,  his  attitude  was  rather  that  of 
a  neo-scholastic  as  against  the  post-Cartesian  philoso* 
phies ;  and  he  opposS  with  success  a  critical,  or  mod- 
erate realist,  system  of  knowledge  to  the  widely  preva- 
lent agnosticism  of  his  time.  Towards  the  close  of  his 
life  Mivart's  philosophical  speculations  began  to  verge 
on  an  " interpretation"  of  theol(^ical  dogina  that  was 
incompatible  with  the  Faith.    The  crisis,  however, 


408 


did  not  beeome  acute  before  hk  artioles  in  the  ''Nine* 
teenth  Gentuiy"  ("Modem  Catholics  and  Scientific 
Freedom"  in  July,  1885;  "The  Catholic  Chureh  and 
Biblical  Critidsm''  in  July,  1887;  "Catholicity  and 
Reason"  in  December,  1887;  "Sins  of  Belief  and  Dia- 
beUef"  in  October,  1888;  "Happiness  in  Hell"  in 
December,  1892)  were  placed  on  tne  Index. 

His  orthodoxy  was  finally  brought  into  the  mvest 
suspicion  by  the  articles  "The  Continuity  of  Cathol- 
icism" ("Nineteenth  Century",  Januaiy,  1900)  and 
"Some  Recent  Apolomts"  ("Fortnightly  Review", 
January.  1900).  In  the  same  month  (18  January, 
1900),  alter  admonition  and  three  formal  notifications 
requiring  him  in  vain  to  sim  a  profession  of  faith  that 
was  sent  him,  he  was  inhibitea  from  the  sacraments 
by  Cardinal  Vaughan  "until  he  shall  have  proved  his 
orthodoxy  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  ordinanr."  The 
letters  tliat  passed  between  Archbishop's  Blouse  and 
Dr.  Mivart  were  published  by  him  in  the  columns  of 
the  "Times"  newspaper  (27  Januaiy,  1900) ;  and  in 
March  a  last  article — "Scripture  and  Roman  Cathol- 
icism " — ^repudiating  ecclesiastical  authority,  appeared 
in  the  "Nineteenth  Century". 

Dr.  liivart  died  of  diabetes  1  April,  1900,  at  77 
Inverness  Terrace,  Bayswater,  London,  W.,  and  was 
buried  without  ecclesiastical  rites.  After  hjs  decease 
his  friends,  persuaded  that  the  gravity  and  nature  of 
the  illness  from  which  he  suffered  offered  a  complete 
explanation  of  the  amaaring  inconsistency  of  Dr. 
Mivart's  final  position  with  that  which  he  had  main- 
tained during  the  s;eater  part  of  his  life,  approached 
the  authorities  with  a  view  to  securing  for  nun  burial 
in  consecrated  ground.  Sir  William  Broadbent  gave 
medical  testimony  as  to  the  nature  of  his  mamdy 
ampl^  sufficient  to  free  his  late  patient  from  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  heterodox  opmions  which  he  had 
put  forward  and  the  attitude  he  had  taken  with  re- 
gard to  his  superiors.  His  disease,  not  his  will,  was 
tne  cause  of  his  aberration.  But  there  were  difficulties 
in  the  way.  Cardinal  Vaughan  was  ill  and  could  not 
deal  directly  with  the  representations  made.  Mm- 
understandingB  arose  about  the  publication  of  Sir 
William  Broadbent's  certificate;  and  the  cardinal 
counselled  a  little  patience  and  left  the  matter  to  the 
decision  of  his  successor.  So  it  was  that,  on  the  ap- 
pointment of  Archbishop  Bourne,  the  case  was  re- 
opened; and  now  the  condition  of  the  publication  of 
the  facts,  at  the  arehbishop's  discretion,  was  accepted 
by  the  friends  of  Dr.  Mivart.  The  burial  took  place 
in  Kensal  Green  Catholic  cemetery  18  Januaiy,  1904. 
The  text  of  the  certificate  has  not  been  published; 
but  an  account  of  the  matter  is  to  be  found  in  the 
second  volume  of  "Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan". 

Dr.  Mivart's  chief  works  are  the  following: — 
"One  Point  of  Controversy  with  the  Amostics  in 
Manning:  "Essays  on  Religion  and  Literature" 
a868);  "On  the  Genesis  of  Species"  (London,  1871); 
"  An  examination  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  Psychol- 
ogy"; "Lessons  in  Elementary  Anatomy"  (London, 
1873) ;"  The  Common  Froc  "  iQ '^  Nature  series  "  (1873) ; 
"Man  and  Apes"  (London,  1873);  "Lessons  from 
Nature  "  (London,  1876) ; "  Contemporary  Evolution  " 
(London,  1876) ;  "  Address  to  the  Biological  Section 
of  the  British  Association"  (1879)  ;"TheCat"  (London, 
1881);  "Nature  and  Thought'^  (London,  1882);  "A 
Philosophical  Catechism"  (London,  1884);  "On 
Truth"  (London,  1889) ;  "The  Origin  of  Human  Rea- 
son" (London,  1889);  "Dogs,  Jackals,  Wolves  and 
Foxes,  Monograph  of  the  Canidse"  (London,  1890); 
"Introduction  G^n^rale  k  TEtude  de  la  Nature:  Cours 
profess^  k  PUniversit^  de  Louvain"  (Louvain  and 
Paris,  1891);  "Biids"  (London,  1892);  "Essays  and 
Criticisms"  (London,  1892);  "iVpes  o^  Animal  Life" 
(London,  1893);  "Introduction  to  the  Elements  of 
Science"  (London,  1894);  "Castle  and  Manor"  (Lon- 
don, 1900):  "A  monograph  of  the  Lories"  (London, 
1896);  "The  Groundwork  of  Science:  a  study  of 


Epistemolosy''  (Tioodon,  1898);  "The  Helpful 
Science"  (London,  1898):  Article  "Ape"  in  "fii. 
cyclopredia  Britannica'' ;  besides  many  notes  and 
memoirs  not  collected,  Transactions  and  Pix>oeedingi 
of  the  Zoological  Society,  of  the  Linnean  Society, 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  and  articles  in  the 
"Popular  Science  Review/'  the  "Contempoiary  Re- 
view", the  "Fortnightly  Review",  the  "Nineteenth 
Century  ",  the  "  DuWin  Review  ",  etc. 

See  GetUUman^B  Maoasme  (1856  and  1900);  AomI  SocMte 
Year  Book  (1001);  Men  and  Women  of  the  Time  (1&5);  Dab- 
win,  The  Life  and  LetUra  of  CharUe  Darwin  (London.  1S87); 
8KrBAD-Ck>x.  The  Life  of  Cardinal  Vaughan  (London.  1910); 
Oeeotian,  Jubilee  Number  (1888);  The  Timee  (Januaiy  12,  13. 
16.  22.  27,  29,  and  April  2,  3,  4.  1900);  The  TabiH  (April  7. 
1900);  JVirtiiw  (April  12, 1900). 

FRANCia  AVEUNG. 

ICize  Tndiftim  (also  Mub,  Latin,  Mi-she),  a  moun- 
tain tribe  in  southern  Mexico,  noted  for  their  extreme 
conservatism,  oonstitutinp  tc^ther  with  the  neig^> 
bourin^  Zoque,  a  distinct  linguistic  stock,  the  Zoquean. 
The  Mixe  occupy  a  number  of  towns  and  villages  in 
the  district  of  Yautepec,  Villa  Alta,  and  Tehuantepee 
in  southern  Oaxaca  and  number  altogether  about  25,- 
000.  They  maintained  their  independence  against 
both  the  Aztec  Empire  and  the  powerful  Zapotec  with 
whom  they  are  still  at  enmity  and  even  yet  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  been  subdued  by  the  Spaniards,  as 
they  hold  themselves  aloof  from  the  whites,  retaining 
their  own  language  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  Span- 
ish, keeping  tneir  old  custons  and  adhering  to  many 
of  their  ancient  rites  and  superstitions  even  while  giv- 
ing ostensible  obedience  to  the  Churdi  and  manifest- 
ing a  docile  attachment  to  their  resident  priests.  With 
the  other  tribes  of  Oaxaca,  the  Mixe  were  brought 
under  subjection  by  the  Spuiiards  in  1521-4.  In 
1526  the  work  of  evangelization  was  begun  by  the 
Dominicans  under  Father  Gonsalo  Lucero  and  contin- 
ued with  them,  shared  after  1575  by  the  Jesuits  until 
turned  over  to  secular  priests  xmder  later  settled  con- 
ditions. The  work  of  oonveision  was  slow  and  uncer- 
tain for  many  years,  in  consequence  of  the  exceptional 
attachment  of  these  tribes  to  their  ancient  religion. 
Idols  were  frequently  discovered  buried  under  the 
cross  erected  in  front  of  the  chapel,  so  that  they  mi^t 
be  worshipped  in  secret  under  pretense  of  devotion  to 
the  Christian  symbol,  and  heathen  sacrifices  were  eyea 
offered  up  secretly  from  the  very  altars,  under  an  im- 
pression, intelligible  enough  to  the  Indian,  that  the 
sacredness  attaching  to  the  Christian  environment  en- 
hanced the  efficacy  of  the  pagan  rite.  This  prevails 
to  a  great  extent  to-day. 

Physically  the  Mixe  are  of  good  height  and  strongly 
built,  not  handsome  in  features,  but  hardy  and  active, 
and  notable  burden  carriers.  Many  wear  beards.  Al- 
though described  in  ancient  times  as  savage  and  war- 
like and  addicted  to  cannibalism,  they  are  commonly 
regarded  to-day  as  timid,  stupid,  and  suspicious,  al- 
though industrious.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
apparent  stiipidity  is  rather  indifference  and  studied 
reserve,  and  Starr,  their  most  recent  visitor,  expresses 
his  surprise  at  their  industry,  neatness,  and  general 
prosperity,  in  view  of  what  he  had  previously  been 
told .  It  is  characteristic  of  their  stubtx^m  dispositioc 
that  their  roads  almost  invariably  nm  straight  up  and 
down  the  mountain  instead  of  zigzagging  to  lessen  the 
difficulties  of  the  ascent.  In  the  same  way  they  still 
keep  their  villages  upon  the  heights,  whUe  the  other 
tribes,  under  Spanish  influence,  have  generally  moved 
their  settlements  down  into  the  valleys.  Their  houses 
vary  from  light  thatched  structures  in  the  country 
districts  to  well-built  log  or  adobe,  roofed  with  tile,  in 
the  towns.  They  are  good  fanners,  producing  com, 
sugar,  coffee,  and  bananas,  and  the  women  are  noted 
for  their  pottery  and  weaving  arts,  producing  beautiful 
fabrics  in  silk  and  cotton,  with  interwoven  animal  and 
bird  designs  and  dyed  in  fadeless  colours.  From 
Starr  we  have  an  interesting  account  of  their  present 


•  »/«  HI 


409  MOAB 


day  cuBtoms  and  beliefs,  including  many  pagan  sur-  that  he  has  prepared  a  catechism  and  Christian  doty 

vivals,  particulariv  bird  and  other  animal  sacrifices,  trine  in  the  moaem  Mixtec,  which  has  been  printed/' 

Food  is  still  buriea  with  the  dead  and  libations  made  The  Mixteca  languaj^  is  spoken  in  a  number  of  dia- 

to  the  earth,  while  offerings  are  still  made  secretly  at  lects  and  in  spite  otits  peculiarly  difficult  character, 

heathen  shrines  and  before  idols  hidden  away  in  secret  has  been  mucti  studied  on  account  of  the  importance 

caves.    One  of  these  was  discovered  by  the  parish  of  the  tribe.    The  standard  authority  is  the  "  Arte  en 

priest  of  their  principal  town  a  few  years  ago,  and  ac-  lengua  Mixteca"  of  Fr.  Antonio  de  los  Reyes  (Mexico, 

cording  to  reliable  testimony  instances  of  cannibal  1593.  and  reprinted  at  Mexico  in  1750).    The  Indian 

sacrifice  have  occurred  within  living  memory.   Among  priest  author  noted  by  Starr  is  Fr.  Casiano  Palacios, 

their  numerous  dances  is  a  dramatic  performance  whose  "Catecismo"  was  published  in  Oaxaca  in  1896. 

founded  upon  the  story  of  the  Conquest,  with  charac-  Pimentel  also  devotes  a  chapter  to  the  language.    (See 

ters  representing  Montezuma,  Cort^,  and  Malinche.  also  Zapotbc.) 

The  Mixe  language  is  peculiarly  harsh  in  sound  and  ^Bancboft,  NoUm  Racu,  I-III  (Saa  Pr»nd«»,  1882);  lone, 

»  8ppken  m  «ve^  djafcis.    Its  chief  monument  is  £J  ^^Jff^ <^,)f?SSS^i'S2;«i. SS^'d^SSSS! 

the  "InstltUClOn  Cnstiana,  que  COntiene  el  Arte  de  la  I  (Mexioo.  1802);    ^abb.  Bthnooraphv  of  Southern  Mexico  in 

lengua  Mije"  of  the  Dominican  Father  AgUStin  Quin-  Aw.  Da^mpoH  Acad.  Science*,  VIII  (Davenport,  lOOl);  Iobm.- 

tana  (c  1660-17MJ.     It  w«i  i.ubl«hed  at  Pucbla  in  ^JS^.^SII^rA'SlSiXi.'SSS: I^tP^^^T^^ 

1729  and  repnnted  at  Oaxaca  m  1891.  Indian  Mexico  (Chiomgo.  1908). 

BANCBorr,  Naiive  Racee,  I-III  (San  Franciaoo.  1882);    Idbm,  JamEB  MoonET. 
Hist,  of  Mexico  (San  Franoiaoo,  1886-8);   Babnabd,  lethmua  of 

TehuarUepec  (New  York.  1862);  BBiNTOif,  Ameriean  IZoos  (New  BCiztecafl.    See  HuAJuXpAM  DB  Le6n,  DiOCESB  OP. 
York,  1891);  Phibbtbl,  Lenffutu  tndigenae  de  Mixieo,  II  (Mex- 
ico, 1866);  &TAti^  Bthn(mnhvof  SotohernMexiDo  in  /Voc.  Moab,  MoabitM.-— In  the  Old  Testament,  the 

S?^r-lS;';;/^na^'£i!bT^iS^^    "SSLSn^.  ^onl  Mo«b  OWO)  dedgnatei  (1)  a  eon  of  Ixrt  by  his 

Devi.  Anthropokgy,  Uni9.  of  Chicago  (Chicago,  1900) ;  lont.  In  elder  daughter  (Gen.,  XIX,  37) ;  (2)  the  people  of  whom 

Indian  Mexico  (Chioaco.  1908).  this  son  oT  Lot  is  represented  as  the  ancestor  (Ex.,  xv, 

James  Mooney.  ik  etc.),  and  who  are  also  called  "the  Moabites'* 
Mixad  Maniagei.  See  Marmaoe,  Mixed.  (<^'»  »?i  37) ;  and  possibly  (3)  the  teiritoiy  occupied 
--_^  ...  ,  ,  ,,  T  ^-  xM'x.  ^y  ^^  Moabites  (Num.,  xxi,  11).  Its  etymology: 
ICzteca  Indiaiia  (also  Misteca,  Latm,  Mish-  "from  my  father",  which  is  added  by  the  Septuamt 
t^ka),  one  of  the  most  important  civilised  tribes  of  to  the  Hebrew  text  in  Gen.,  xix,  37,  is  more  probable 
southern  Mexico,  occupymg  an  extensive  territory  m  than  any  derivation  suggested  by  modem  scholara. 
western  and  northern  Oaxaca  and  extending  mto  xhe  origin  and  race  of  the  Moabites  need  not  be  di&- 
Guerrero  and  Puebla.  They  number  in  all  about  250,-  cussed  here,  since  according  to  Gen.,  xix  they  are  the 
000  souls,  or  somewhat  more  than  the  whole  Indian  game  as  those  of  the  Ammonites,  which  have  been  ex- 
population  of  the  United  States  together.  -Their  east-  amined  in  the  article  AMMONrrBS. 
em  and  southern  neighbours  are  the  rude  Mixe  and  From  the  mountainous  district  above  Segor  (Zoar), 
the  cultured  and  powerful  Zapotec,  with  the  last  a  town  which  lay  in  the  plain  near  the  south-eastern 
named  of  whom  they  constitute  a  distinct  linguistic  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (cf.  Gen.,  xix,  30),  Lot's  children 
stock,  designated  as  the  Zapotecan.  The  ancient  cul-  foreibly  extended  themselves  in  the  region  of  eastern 
ture  and  governmental  forms  of  the  Mixteca  were  Palestine.  Ammon  settled  in  the  more  distant  north- 
practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  Zapotec.  They  east  country,  Moab  in  the  districts  nearer  to  the  Dead 
are  now  industrious  farmers,  weavers,  and  potters,  the  gea.  These  were  inhabited  by  the  Emims,  a  gigantic 
pottery           '-              -        .-  .i.- ▼_  •           .  _       .        .                .    _      ..                 ... 

fBl 
i^  _  _ 

blc  disposition,  Hospitality  and  love  of  liberty.    They    thirty  broad.    It  comprised  the  highfai 

were  brought  under  Spanish  dominion  about  the  same  Dead  Sea  and  the  JoMan  as  far  as  the  mountains  of 

time  as  the  Zapotec  and  Mixe,  in  1521-4,  shortly  after  Galaad,  together  with  the  level  stretch  between  the 

which  the  work  of  then-  conversion  was  begun  by  the  highlands  and  the  river,  and  the  well-watered  and  fer- 

Dominicans  and  prosecuted  with  such  success  that  the  tile  land  at  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.    On  three 

whole  nation  may  now  be  considered  as  Christian,  sides,  it  had  natural  boundaries:  on  the  west,  the  Dead 

notwithstanding  some  survivals  from  pagan  times,  gea  and  the  southern  section  of  the  Jordan:  on  the 

They  are  active  and  enterprising,  and  have  taken  south,  the  Wady  el-Hasy,  separating  the  uplands  of 

Srominent  part  in  Mexk^an  politics,  being  particularly  Moab  from  those  of  Edom;  on  the  east,  the  Arabian 
evoted  to  the  Revolutionary  cause  in  18 1 1 .  Presi-  desert.  Only  on  the  north,  were  there  no  natural  feat- 
dent  Dfaa  of  Mexico  is  of  one-fourth  Mixteca  blood.  ures  conspicuous  enough  to  form  a  fixed  boundary, 
San  Bartolo,  one  of  their  towns,  is  described  by  and  hence  Moab's  northern  frontier  fluctuated  at  differ- 
Starr  as  a  delightful  place,  large  and  strung  along  two  ent  periods  between  the  Amon,  and  a  diagonal  running 
or  three  long  straight  streets.  The  houses  were  of  south-east  from  the  torrent  now  called  Wady  Nimrin 
poles  set  upright,  with  thick  thatchings  of  palms,  in  to  the  Arabian  desert. 

yards  completely  filled  with  fruit  trees,  and  garden  The  highlands  are  the  great  bulk  of  this  territoiy. 
beds  of  spinach,  lettuce,  and  onions.  Beehives  in  quan-  They  form  a  table-land  about  3000  feet  above  the 
tity  were  seen  at  nearly  every  house.  Almost  every  Mecbteranean,  or  4300  feet  above  the  Dead  Sea,  ris- 
woman  was  clad  in  native  garments,  many  of  which  ing  slowly  from  north  to  south,  having  steep  western 
were  beautifully  decorated.  The  men  wore  brilliant  slopes,  and  separated  eastward  from  the  desert  by 
sashes,  woven  in  the  town.  At  Teposcolula,  "the  low,  rolling  hills.  The  geology  of  this  ahnost  treeless 
^reat  convent  chureh  historicallyinteresting,  is  strik-  plateau  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  range  of  western 
ing  in  siae  and  architecture.  The  priest,  an  excel-  Palestine;  but  its  climate  is  decidedly  colder.  In 
lent  man,  is  a  pure-blooded  Mixteca  Indian,  talk-  spring,  its  limestone  hills  are  covered  with  grass  and 
ing  the  language  as  his  mother  tongue.  With  great  wild  flowers,  and  parts  of  the  plateau  are  now  sown 
pride  he  showed  us  about  the  building,  which  was  with  com.  It  is  traversed  by  three  deep  valleys,  the 
once  a  grand  Dominican  monastery.  .  .  .  The  cura  middle  of  which,  the  Amon,  is  the  deepest,  and  it 
had  ten  churches  in  his  chaige.  He  seemed  a  devout  abounds  in  streams.  It  is  dotted  with  dolmens,  men- 
man,  and  emphasised  the  importance  of  his  preaching  hirs,  and  stone  circles,  and  also  with  ruins  of  villages 
to  his  congregation  in  their  native  tongue  and  his.  So  and  towns,  mostly  of  the  Roman  and  Byzantine  peri- 
convincea  is  ne  that  the  native  idiom  of  the  people  is  ods.  In  Old  Testament  times,  Moab  was  an  excellent 
the  9bor(^  VQ94  t9  tbeir  be^rt  mi  md^rsU^din^,  pasture  \mi  (IV  Kings,  iii,  4),  and  it0  population  ^^ 


MOABXTE 


410 


MOBZU 


much  more  considerable  than  at  the  present  dav,  as  is 
proved  by  the  numerous  cities,  such  as  Ar  Moao,  Gal- 
lim,  Kir  Moab,  Luith,  Nemrim,  S^r/Nophe,  Oro- 
nainiy  Qiriat  Hussot  (A.V.  firjath-husoth).  Aroer, 
Baahneon,  Beer  Elim,  BetbeamuL  Bethsimotn,  Beth- 
phogor,  Bosor,  Cariatk  Dibon,  £leale,  Helon,  Hese- 
bon,  Jasa,  Medaba,  Mephaath,  Sabama  etc.,  which 
the  jBible  mentions  as  at  one  time  or  another  Moabite. 
Shortly  before  Israel's  final  advance  towards  Pales- 
tine, Uie  Moabites  had  been  deprived  of  their  terri- 
tory north  of  the  Amon  by  the  Amorrhites,  coming 
Srobably  from  the  west  of  the  Jordan  (Num.,  xxi,  13, 
6).  Moab's  king  at  the  time  was  Balaac  who,  in  his 
unfriendliness  towards  the  Hebrew  tribes^  hired  Ba- 
laam to  curse  them,  but  who  failed  in  this  attempt, 
the  expected  curses  oeing  divinely  changed  into  bless- 
iniEB  (see  Balaam).  Another  fiendish  attempt  in  a 
different  direction  was  onlv  too  successful;  the  daugh- 
ters of  Moab  enticed  the  Israelites  into  their  idolatry 
and  immorality,  and  thereby  brought  upon  them  a 
heavy  retribution  (Num.,  xxv).  Moab's  subsequent 
relations  with  the  Hebrew  tribes  (Ruben.  Gad)  who 
had  settled  in  its  ancient  territory  north  ot  the  Amon, 
were  probably  those  of  a  hostile  neighbour  anxious  to 
recover  this  lost  territoi^.  In  fact,  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  Judges,  the  Nloabites  haa  not  only  regained 
control  of  at  least  a  part  of  that  land,  but  also  extended 
their  power  into  western  Palestine  so  as  to  oppress  the 
Benjamites.  The  Moabite  yoke  over  Benjamin  was 
finally  put  an  end  to  by  Aod,  the  son  of  Gera,  who  as- 
sassinated Eglon,  Moab's  king,  slaughtered  the  Moab- 
ites,  and  recovered  the  territory  of  Jericho  to  Israel 
(Judges,  iii,  12-30).  To  this  succeeded  a  period  of 
friendly  intercourse,  during  which  Moab  was  a  refuge 
for  the  family  of  Emnelecn,  and  the  Moabitess  Ruth 
was  introduced  into  the  line  from  which  David  was 
descended  (Ruth,  i,  1;  iv,  10-22).  Saul  a^ain  fought 
against  Moab  (I  Kings,  xiv,  47),  and  David,  who^  for 
a  while  confided  his  parents  to  a  Moabite  king  (xxii,  3, 
4),  ultimately  invaded  the  countryand  made  it  tribu- 
tary to  Israel  (II  Kings.  viiL  2).  The  subjugation  ap- 
parently continued  under  Solomon,  who  had  Moabite 
women  in  his  harem  and  ''built  a  temple  for  Chamoe 
the  idol  of  Moab''  (III  Kings,  xi,  1,  7).  After  the  dis- 
ruption, the  Moabites  were  vassals  of  the  northern 
kingdom;  but  on  the  death  of  Achab,  they  broke  into 
an  open  revolt  the  final  result  of  which  was  their  inde- 
pendence, and  the  full  circumstances  of  which  are  best 
understood  by  combining  the  data  in  IV  Kings,  i,  1 
and  iii,  4-27,  with  those  of  the  "Moabite  Stone",  an 
inscription  of  Mesa,  King  of  Moab,  found  in  1868  at 
the  ancient  Dibon,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Louvre. 
It  seems  that  after  this,  they  made  frequent  incur- 
sions into  Israel's  territory  (cf.  IV  Kings,  xiii,  20),  and 
that  after  the  captivity  of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes, 
they  gradually  occupied  all  the  land  anciently  lost  to 
the  Amorrhites.  Tneir  great  prosperity  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  the  prophetical  writings,  while  their  ex- 
ceeding pride  and  corruption  are  made  the  object  of 
threatenmg  oracles  (Is.,  xv-xvi;  xxv,  10;  Jer.,  xlviii; 
Esech.,  xxv,  8-11;  Amos,  ii,  1-3;  Soph.,  ii,  8-11;  etc.). 
In  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  their  rulers  are  re- 
peatedly mentioned  as  tribute-payers  to  Asi^ria. 
This  was  indeed  the  condition  of  their  continuous 
prosperity.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted,  however,  that 
they  sided  at  times  with  other  Western  countries 
against  the  Ass3rrian  monarchs  (Fragment  of  Sargon 
II;  opening  chapters  of  Judith).  In  the  last  days  of 
the  kingdom  of  Juda.  they  transferred  their  alle- 
giance to  Babylon,  ana  fought  for  Nabuchodonosor 
against  Joakim  (IV  Kings,  xxi  v.  2).  Even  after  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  Moab  enjoyea  a  considerable  pros- 
perity under  Nabuchodonosor's  rule;  but  its  utter 
ruin  as  a  state  was  at  hand.  In  fact,  when  the  Jews 
returned  from  Babylon,  the  Nabathean  Arabs  occu- 
pied the  territory  of  Moab,  and  the  Arabians  instead 
of  t|ie  Moabites  were  the  aUies  of  the  Ammonites  (cf . 


II  Esd.^  iv,  7;  I  Mach.,  ix,  32-42;  Joeephus,  "An* 
tiq.",  xui.  13,  5.  xiv.  1,  4). 

As  is  snown  by  tne  Moabite  Stone,  the  language  of 
Moab  was  "simply  a  dialect  of  Hd>rew".  Its  use  of 
the  waw  consecutive  connects  most  intimately  the  two 
languages,  and  almost  all  the  words,  inflections,  and 
idioms  of  this  inscription  occur  in  the  original  text  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  same  monument  bears  wit- 
ness to  the  fact  that  while  the  Moabites  adored  Cba- 
mos  as  their  national  god.  thev  also  worshipped  Ash- 
tar  as  his  consort.  Besides  tnese  two  divimties,  the 
Old  Testament  mentions  another  local  deity  of  the 
Moabites,  vis.  Baal  of  Mount  Phegor  (Peor:  Beelpbe- 
gor)  (Num.,  xxv,  3;  Deut.,  iv,  3:  Osee,  ix,  10;  etc.)- 
The  Moabites  were  therefore  polytheists.  Aiid  al- 
though their  relif^on  is  not  fully  Imown^  it  is  certun 
that  numan  sacrifices  and  also  impure  ntes  formed  a 
part  of  their  worship  (IV  Kings,  iii,  27;  Num.,  xxv; 
Osee,  ix,  10). 

Tbxstbam.  Land  of  Moab  (London,  1874) ;  CoKonu  Htik  and 
Moab  (London,  1884);  BjBTHonN.  Be^rOge  m,  aemtitioduM  lU^- 
KoionoQMdiiehU  (Berlin.  1888):  W.  R.  Smxtb.  RtU^iom  of  tkt 
SotnitM  (London,  1894) :  Bum,  fiamUiwe  ofan  oxpedUion  to  Moab 
and  Oiload  (London,  1896);  Q.  A.  Sioth,  HUlorieal  Ooogmpkv  of 
the  Holy  Land  (New  York,  1897);  La.oramob,  Btudo*  our  U»  R*- 
Uoiono  S4mitiquoo  (Pnria,  1903). 

Francis  £.  Gioor. 
Moabite  8toii«.    See  Mbba. 

Mobile  (Ft.  Mobile,  Sp.  Maubila),  Diocbse  of 
(Mobilddnbib),  suffragan  of  New  Orleans,  comprises 
the  State  of  Alabama  (51.640  sq.  miles)  and  western 
Florida  (7281  square  miles),  and  derives  its  name 
from  Mauvila,  the  fort  and  chief  city  of  the  Gulf  In- 
dians, who  with  their  ''emperor",  Tuscaloosa,  ''black 
warrior",  were  conquered  by  the  Spanish  soldier  and 
explorer,  Hernando  de  Soto,  in  1540. 

Early  Histort. — ^De  Soto's  expedition  was  accom- 
panied bv  "twelve  priests,  eight  ecclesiastics  and  four 
religious  '.  Mass  was  certainly  offered  near  the  pres- 
ent dtv  of  Mobile  as  eariy  as  1540.  From  1540  to 
1703  Dominican,  Capuchin,  and  Jesuit  missionaries 
went  from  post  to  post  along  the  Mississippi  Vfdiev, 
ministering  to  the  wants  of  the  scattered  Spanish, 
French,  and  English  settlers  and  to  the  native  In- 
dian converts.  The  published  records  of  their  hero- 
ism, sealed  at  times  with  the  mart3rrB'  blood,  are  very 
meagre,  their  names  even,  in  sreat  part,  being  lost  in 
the  obscurity  of  that  long  andtroublous  period.  Not 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  have 
we  anything  like  a  historical  account  of  this  diocese. 
"Fort  St.  Louis  de  la  Mobile"  was  founded  by  Iber- 
ville, the  illustrious  French-Canadian  explorer  (1702), 
at  some  distance  from  the  present  city  of  Mobile, 
the  site  of  which  was  selected  (1710)  by  Iberville'd 
brother.  Bienville.  Mobile  was  formsJly  erected  into 
a  parisn  (20  Juiy^  1703),  subject  to  the  Seminary  of 
Foreign  Missions  m  Paris  and  Quebec. 

The  Rev.  Henry  Roulleaux  de  la  Vente  was  the  first 
parish  priest  (July,  1704),  his  curate^  the  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Huv4.  The  first  entry  found  m  the  records  of 
the  new  parish  is  that  of  the  b^ism  of  an  Apalache 
flirl  (6  September.  1703),  by  the  Rev.  A.  Davion.  The 
Rev.  J.  B.  de  St.  Cosme  was  murdered  by  savages  on 
his  way  to  Mobile  from  Natchez  late  in  1706.  The 
last  record  of  the  secular  clergy  (13  January,  1721), 
that  of  the  Rev.  Alexander  Huv^.  Appears  in  the  an- 
cient register  of  Mobile.  The  work  was  then  resumed 
by  the  religious  orders.  The  Quebec  Act  of  1774  con- 
ferred on  the  parish  priest  of  Mobile  among  others,  a 
legal  title  to  his  tithes.  With  the  surrender  of  Mo- 
bile to  Spain  (12  March,  1780),  the  records  are  kept  in 
Spanish,  and  the  chureh  in  Mobile  is  definitely  known 
as  the  chureh  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  Pius 
VII  erected  the  diocese  of  St.  Louis  of  New  Orleans 
(25  April,  1793),  usually  styled  Louisiana  and  the 
Floridas.  The  jurisdiction,  therefore,  of  the  ordi- 
naries of  Quebec  and  Santiago  de  Cuba  over  that  im- 
mense territory  ceased  with  the  selection  of  ita  first 


ll6filLI  411  M6fittl 

bishop,  the  Right  Rev.  Luis  Pefialver  y  Cardenas,  the  priests  who  came  to  Bishop  Quinlan  at  tlus  time 

who  arrived  in  New  Orieans  17  July,  1795.    From  are  zealous  workers  in  the  diocese  to-day,  the  Very 

1792  to  1800  the  parish  priest  of  Mobile  was  the  Rev.  Rev.  C.  T.  O'CallagJian,  D.D.,  V.G.,  paator  of  St.  Vin- 

Constantine  McKenna,  and  its  last  incumbent  imder  cent's  church.  Mobile,  several  times  administrator  of 

Spanish  rule,  the  Rev.  Vincent  Genin.  the  diocese,  and  the  Very  Rev.  D.  Savage,  D.D.,  pas- 

BiSHOPS. — (1)    Michael  Pohtier.   b.    at   Mont-  tor  of  St.  Peter's  churchy  Montgomery,  a  member  of 

brison,  France,  1795 :  d.  at  Mobile,  4  May,  1859.    He  the  bishop's  council.    Bishop  Quinlan's  administra- 

came  to  the  United  States  4  September,  1817.    Com-  tion  feU  upon  the  stormv  days  of  internecine  strife. 

Sleting  his  studies  at  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  Baltimore,  After  the  oattle  of  Shilon,  he  hastened  on  a  special 
Id.,  he  was  ordained  priest  by  Bishop  Dubourg  at  train  to  the  blood-stained  battle-ground  and  minia- 
St.  Louis  (1818),  and  eight  3^ears  later,  in  the  same  tered  to  the  temporal  and  spiritual  wants  of  North 
city  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Oleno  by  Bishop  and  South.  After  the  war  diocesan  activities  were 
Rosati,  and  became  first  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  new  crippled.  Nevertheless,  besides  repairing  ruined 
Vicariate  of  Alabama  and  the  Floridas.  At  the  time  churches.  Bishop  Quinlan  built  the  portico  of  the  Mo- 
of  his  accession  he  was  the  only  clergyman  in  the  vica-  bile  cathedral,  totmded  St.  Fatrick^s  and  St.  Mary's 
riate  and  had  practically  only  three  congregations  churches  in  the  same  city,  and  established  churches  in 
with  churches^  Mobile,  Ala.,  and  the  old  Spanish  cities  Huntsville,  Decatur,  Tuiscumbia,  Florence,  Cullman, 
of  St.  Augustine,  Fla.  (founded  1565),  ana  Pensacola,  Birmingham.  Eufaula,  Whistler,  and  ToulminviUe. 
Fla.  (founded  1696).  The  first  priest  who  came  to  his  April,  1876,  Bishop  Ouinlan  invited  the  Benedictines 
assistance  was  the  Rev.  Edwara  T.  Ma3me,  a  student  from  St.  Vincent's  Abbey,  Pa.,  to  the  diocese,  and  they 
of  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  sent  by  settled  at  Cullman.  The  first  abbot  of  the  new  settle- 
Bishop  England  of  Charleston,  to  take  charge  of  the  ment  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Benedict  Menges,  O.S.B.,  sue- 
deserted  church  of  St.  Augustine.  Bishop  Portier  be-  ceeded  (1905)  by  Rt.  Rev.  Bernard  Menges,  O.S.B.. 
gan  his  administration  by  riding  through  his  vicariate  under  whose  capable  management  the  monastery  ana 
and  visited  Pensacola,  Tallahassee,  and  St.  Angus-  coll^  are  progressing  and  extending  their  influence 
tine,  offering  the  Holy  Sacrifice,  preaching,  and  admin-  considerably. 

istering  the  Sacraments  as  he  went.  He  sailed  for  (3)  DoiaNic  Manuct. third  Bishopof  Mobile^  b. in 
Europe  (1829)  in  quest  of  assistants,  and  returning  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  20  December,  1823;  d.  at  Mobile 
with  two  priests  and  four  ecclesiastics,  found  the  vicar  4  December,  1885.  He  was  educated  at  Spring  Hil 
riate  raised  to  the  Diocese  of  Mobile.  His  cathedral  College,  and  ordtuned  ri850)  bv  Bishop  Portier,  anc 
was  a  little  church  twenty  feet  wide  by  fifty  feet  for  twenty-four  years  laboinred  in  Montgomeiy  anc 
deep,  his  residence  a  still  smaller  two-roomed  frame  Mobile.  He  was  consecrated  at  Mobile  (8  Dec.,  1874). 
structure.  By  1850  there  were  churches  and  congre-  Bishop  of  Dulma,  and  appointed  "sacar  Apostolic  or 
eations  in  Mobile,  Spring  Hill,  Summerville,  Mount  Brownsville,  Tex.,  and  was  transferred  to  tne  Diocese 
Vernon,  Fish  River,  Pensacola,  Tuscaloosa,  and  Mont-  of  Mobile  (9  March,  1884),  without  being  relieved, 
gomery.  however,  from  his  duties  as  vicar  Apostolic,  but  find- 
He  was  somewhat  relieved  in  the  same  ^rear  by  the  in^  the  burden  too  great  he  resigned  and  was  ap- 
detachment  of  the  eastern  portion  of  Florida  and  its  pomted  to  the  titular  see  of  Maronea. 
annexation  to  the  newly-created  See  of  Savannah,  Ga.  (4)  Jeremiah  O'Sullivan,  fourth  Bishop  of  Mo- 
To  add  to  his  relief  the  new  cathedral  of  the  Immacu-  bile,  b.  in  County  Cork,  Ireland,  1844;  d.  at  Mobile, 
late  Conception,  built  mainly  through  the  untiring  10  August,  1896.  He  came  to  the  United  States, 
efforts  of  tne  Rev.  J.  McGarahan,  was  finished  at  a  1863,  entered  St.  Charles  College,  Ellicott  City,  Md., 
cost  of  over  eighty  thousand  dollars,  and  consecrated  whence  he  proceeded  to  St.  Marv's  Seminarv,  Balti- 
8  December,  1850.  About  1830  Bishop  Portier  estab-  more,  Md.,  was  ordained  priest  (June,  1868)  by  Arch- 
lished  Spring  Hill  College  and  Seminary^  at  the  head  of  bishop  Spalding,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mobile 
which  was  the  Rev.  Mathias  Loras  until  he  was  con-  (20  Sept^  1885),  by  Cardinal,  then  ArchDishop,  Gib- 
secrated  Bishop  of  Dubuque  (10  December,  1837)  b^  Sons.  The  present  towers  of  the  Mobile  catnedral 
Bishop  Portier,  who  also  consecrated  another  prcsi-  were  built  by  Bishop  O'Sullivan,  who  successfully 
dent  of  Spring  HiU,  the  Rev.  John  S.  Bazin,  third  strove  to  restore  the  ruined  financial  status  of  the  dio- 
Bishop  of  Vincennes,  24  October,  1847.  Spring  Hill  cese.  A  gifted  administrator,  an  admired  orator,  an 
College,  for  a  time  in  char^^e  of  the  Eudist  Fathers,  extremely  zealous  and  holy  bishop,  Bishop  O'Sullivan 
was  t^en  over  by  the  Jesmt  Fathers  (1846)  and  has  travelled  and  laboured  unceasingly  in  the  diocese, 
since  been  managed  successfully  by  them.  Bishop  and  left  to  posterity  a  monument  of  noble  results, 
Portier  held  there  a  diocesan  s3mod  (19  January,  temporal  and  spiritual,  quietly  and  tmostentatiously 
1835).    In  1833  he  secured  from  the  Visitation  con-  achieved. 

vent.  Georgetown,  a  colony  of  nuns  who  established        (5)  Edward  Patrick  Allen,  fifth  and  present 

in  Mobile  a  house  and  academy,  which  is  in  a  very  Bishop  of  Mobile,  was  bom  in  Lowell,  Mass..   17 

flourishing  condition.     He  brought  the  Brothers  of  March,  1853,  and  educated  at  Mt.  St.  Miuy^s  College, 

the  Sacred  Heart  from  France  (about  1847),  and  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  by 

the  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  to  Bishop  Becker,  17  Dec,  1881.     He  was  appointed 

manage  orphan  asylums  for  boys  and  girls  respect-  presiaent  of  Mt.  St.  Maiy's  (1884),  and  filled  that 

ivety.    One  of  his  last  acts  was  the  foundation  of  office  most  acceptably  until  his  consecration  as  Bishop 

an  mfirmary  at  Mobile  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  of  Mobile,  by  Cardinal  Gibbons,  in  the  cathedral. 

Charity.  Baltimore,  Md.  (16  May,  1897).    tinder  the  able  and 

(2)  John  Quinlan,  second  Bishop  of  Mobile,  b.  in  prudent  management  of  Bishop  Allen^  the  diocese  has 

County  Cork,  Ireland,  19  October,  1826;  d.  at  Mo-  advanced  with  great  strides,  and  is  still  developing  at 

bile,  9  March,  1883.    He  came  to  the  United  States,  a  rapid  growth.    Many  churches  and  missions  have 

1844,  studied  for  the  priesthood  in  Mt.  St.  Mary's  been  erected,  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  schools  estab- 

CoUegei   Emmitsburg,   Md.^   and  was  ordcdned  by  lished.  the  number  of  priests  more  than  doubled,  and 

ArchbidiopPurcell  (1853),  with  a  fellow  student.  Rich-  consiaerable  property  acqjuired  with  a  view  to  the 

ard  Gihnour,  afterwards  second  Bishop  of  Cleveland,  further  development  of  his  rapidly  increasing  charge. 

He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mobile,  4  Dec.,  1859,  by  The  diocese  was  sorely  tried  by  a  fearful  storm  and 

Archbishop  Blanc  in  St.  Louis'  cathedral.  New  Or-  tidal   wave  (Sept.,  1906).     Many    churches  either 

leans.  La.    In  his  diocese  he  found  twelve  churches  totally   or   partially   destroyed   have    been   rebuilt 

and  fourteen  schools  for  which  he  had  only  eight  secu-  or  repaired.     But  the  complete  results  of  Bishop 

lar  priests,  and  he  therefore  brought  from  Ireland  Allen's  prosperous  admimstration  are  best  noticed 

eleven  young  candidates  for  the  priesthood.    Two  of  by  a  oompanaon  between  the  standing  of  the  diooeee 


MOCISKOfi 


412 


MOCOVf 


when  he  assumed  control  and  its  existing  admirable 
state. 

Statibticb. — 1897  (year  of  Bishop  Allen's  arrival). 
— Churches  with  resident  priests.  22:  parishes  with 
parochial  schools,  15;  childi^  under  Catholic  care  in 
colleges,  academies,  and  schools,  2526;  hospitals,  2; 
orphanages,  2;  baptisms,  infants,  820,  converts^  60; 
marria^,  163;  Catholic  population,  17,000;  priests, 
secular  and  religious,  48. 

1910. — ^Priests,  secular,  49^  religious,  52,  total,  101; 
churches  with  resident  pnosts,  43;  missions  with 
churches,  31;  total  churches, 74;  stations,  149;  chapels, 
25;  brothers,  41;  religious  women,  274;  children  under 
Catholic  care,  5039;  coUeces,  3;  high  school,  1; 
academies;  7,  schools,  31,  and  orphanages,  3;  hospitals, 
4;  home  for  aged  poor,  1;  bi^tisms,  infants,  1478, 
converts,  552;  marriages,  302;  Catholic  population, 
38^. 

bishop  Allen  takes  a  lively  interest  in  the  Negro 
Missions,  and  is  largely  responsible  for  the  good  work 
bein^  done  by  the  Joeephite  Fathers  in  MobUe  and 
vicimty,  Birmingham,  and  Montgomerv.  Near  the 
latter  city  is  St.  Joseph's  College,  founded  (1901)  b^ 
the  Very  Rev.  T.  B.  Donovan,  lately  deceased,  the  pri- 
mary object  of  which  " is  to  educateyoung  colored  men 
to  be  catechbts  and  teachers.''  With  Bishop  Allen's 
sanction  a  colored  fraternal  organization  was  insti- 
tuted in  Mobile,  1909,  by  the  Rev.  C.  Rebescher,  which 
gives  promise  of  universal  good. 

Benefactan. — The  chief  benefactors  of  the  diocese 
were  Messrs.  Felix  and  Arthur  McGUl — the  McGill  In- 
stitute, a  high  school  for  boys,  bears  their  name.  The 
Hannan  Home  for  the  aged  poor  is  a  tribute  to  the 
generosity  of  Major  P.  C.  Hannan,  who  built  it  along 
the  lines  of  Bishop  Allen's  choosing. 

Rdiffious  Orders, — In  the  Diocese  of  Mobile  are  the 
Jesuits,  Benedictines,  Josephite  Fathers,  and  Broth- 
ers of  the  Sacred  Heart.  Also  the  Sisters  of  the 
Visitation^  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sis- 
ters of  Loretto,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of 
St.  Benedict,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  and  Sisters 
of  Perpetual  Adoration.  There  are  three  Catholic 
cemeteries,  one  in  Mobile,  one  in  Birmingham,  and 
one  in  Montgomery.  The  intrepid  Admiral  Semmes 
and  Father  Ryan,  the  poet-priest,  are  buried  in  the 
Catholic  Cemetery,  Mobile.  By  a  singular  coin- 
cidence the  first  priest  who  came  to  labour  in  the 
new  Diocese  of  Mobile  and  the  last  and  ruling  Bishop 
of  Mobile  were  students  of  Mt.  St.  Mary's  College, 
Emmitsburg,  Md.,  while  the  first  Bishop  of  San  ^- 
tonio,  Tex.,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  D.  Peilicer,  and  its 
present  coadjutor,  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  W.  Shaw,  were 
native  priests  of  the  diocese,  both  having  been  con- 
secrated in  its  cathedral  (the  former,  8  Dec.,  1874, 
the  latter,  14  April,  1910),  of  which  each  in  turn  was 
pastor. 

Hamilton,  CoUmial  Mobile  (Boston  and  New  York,  1897); 
Shba,  Hiatory  of  the  Catholie  Church  in  the  United  Statee  (Akron, 
O..  New  York,  Chicago.  1886,  1892);  Idem,  Defendere  of  Our 
Faith  (New  York,  Chicago,  1886.  1893) ;  Mothxb  Austix,  A 
Catholic  Hiatory  of  Alabama  and  the  Floridaa,  I  (New  York,  1908) ; 
Metropolitan  Catholic  Almanac  and  Laity* 9  Directory  (Baltimore, 
1850  Boq.);  Official  Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee,  New  York, 
1910);  Hegbr,  Die  Benedictiner  im  Staate  Alabama  (Baltimore, 


1898). 


Thomas  J.  Eaton. 


Moci88ii8,  a  titular  metroix)litan  see  of  Cappado- 
cia.  Procopius  (De  sedif.,  V,  iv)  informs  us  that  this 
fortified  site,  in  north-western  Cappadocia,  was  con- 
stituted metropolis  of  Cappadocia  Tertia  by  Justin- 
ian, when  he  divided  that  province  into  three  parts. 
The  emperor  gave  it  the  name  of  Justinianopolis. 
Nothing  is  knpwn  of  its  history,  and  its  name  should 
perhaps  be  written  Mooessus,  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  site  of  Mocissus,  or  Mocessus,  is  that  occu- 
pied by  the  modem  town  of  Kir-Sheir,  chief  town  of  a 
sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of  Angora,  which  possesses  8(XX) 
inhabitants,  most  of  them  MuasijdmaDs.     In  the 


nei^bourhood  of  IGr-Sheir  there  are  some  important 
ancient  ruins.  This  metropolis  figures  in  the  ''Noti- 
tiffi  episcopatuum''  until  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  cen- 
tuiy.  Only  a  few  of  its  titulars  are  known:  the  earii- 
est,  Peter,  attended  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
(53i6);  the  last,  whose  name  is  not  known,  was  a 
Catholic,  and  was  consecrated  after  the  Coundl  of 
Florence  by  Patriarch  Metrophanes  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

Lb  Quinr,  Oriene  ekriai.,  I,  407;  Smith,  IKef.  of  Oreek  and 
Roman  Qeog.,  i.  v.;  Ramsat,  Aeia  Mtnor,  300. 

S.  FtTBXDka. 

Moeorf  Indians. — The  name  is  also  written  Ma- 
coBio,  Mbocobi,  Mocobio.  They  are  a  warlike  and 
predatory  tribe  of  Guaycuran  stock,  and  are  closely 
related  linguistically  to  the  Toba^  Mbaya,  and  Abi- 
pon,  their  usual  allies,  settled  pnncipafiy  along  the 
middle  and  upper  Vermejo  River,  in  the  Chaoo  region 
of  northern  Argentina,  although  they  formerly  ex- 
tended their  forays  as  far  south  as  Santa  F^  and  even 
to  the  gates  of  Buenos  Air^.  In  habit  of  life  and 
general  characteristics  they  resembled  the  rest  of  the 
tribes  iust  mentioned,  but  were  distinguished  even 
beyond  them,  as  Dobrishoffer  says,  'Sn  atrocity  and 
steiady  hatred  to  the  Spaniards.  They  seemed  to 
conspire  to  ruin  Tucuman,  proving  themselves  for- 
midable, not  to  solitary  estates  merely,  but  to  whole 
cities".  They  entirely  destroyed  the  town  of  Concep- 
cion  and  massacred  its  inhabitants. 

This  special  hostility  to  the  people  of  Tucuman 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  years  before  a  large  number 
of  Mocovi,  who  had  been  induced  through  the  efforts 
of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Altamirano  and  Diai  to  come  in 
from  the  war-path  and  had  been  organised  into  the 
mission  of  San  Xavier,  had  been  treacherously  seized 
and  distributed  as  slaves  by  the  governor  of  that  prov- 
ince. They  received  a  temporary  check  in  1710  from 
Governor  tJrizar,  who  led  a  great  expedition  of  over 
three  thousand  men  ai^ainst  the  Chaco  tribes,  with  the 
result  that  several  tribes  made  peace,  while  the  Mo- 
covf  retired  to  the  south-west  and  continued  their 
raids  in  that  quarter.  Tliirty  years  later,  during  a 
period  of  truce,  some  of  the  Mocovi  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  Jesuits  of  the  College  of  Santa  F^ 
through  whose  influence  they  were  won  to  friendship 
with  the  Spaniards,  and  the  chiefs  Aletin  and  Chitalin 
consented  to  receive  Christian  instruction  together 
with  their  people.  As  a  result  the  Mocovf  mission 
colony  of  San  Aavier  was  established  in  1743  by  Fa- 
ther Francisco  Burges  Navarro,  thirty  leagues  from 
the  city,  and  from  a  small  beginning  increased  rapidly 
by  accessions  from  the  roving  bands  of  the  tribe,  who 
were,  from  time  to  time,  won  over  by  the  persuasions 
of  the  new  converts.  Prisoners  captured  in  the 
various  exp^editions  were  also  brought  into  the  new 
mission,  while  many  voluntarily  took  refuge  there  to 
escape  pursuit. 

The  Mocovf  proved  devout,  tractable,  and  willing 
workers,  and  particularly  competent  musicians  under 
the  instruction  of  the  German  Father  Florian  Pauke, 
who  organized  a  band  and  chorus  whose  services  were 
in  demand  on  church  occasions  even  in  Buenos  Aires. 
With  bell  in  hand,  the  chief  himself,  Aletin,  acted  as 
crier  every  morning  to  call  his  people  to  Mass,  and 
took  the  lead  in  every  task  of  dimculty.  A  third 
chief,  who  had  long  held  out  against  the  Spaniards  and 
made  war  upon  his  mission  kinsmen  in  revenge  for 
their  abandonment  of  the  old  life,  finally  came  in  vol- 
untarily. In  1765  a  second  Mocovi  mission,  San 
Pedro  y  Pablo,  was  established  by  Father  Pauke  with 
another  portion  of  the  tribe  which  had  until  then  con- 
tinued hostile. 

At  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767 
the  two  missions  contained  about  12(X)  Mocovi,  of 
whom  all  but  a  few  were  Christians.  Deprived  of 
their  accustomed  teachers,  most  of  them  finally  re* 
joined  their  wild  kinsmen  in  the  forests  of  the  Chaoo. 


HOCALISII  413  SIOfiXNA 

In  1800  the  ttibe  was  still  loosely  estimiited  at  2000  K'e  between  the  popes  and  Frederick  II  Modena  WM 

wairiors  or  over  6000  souls.     '1  hey  are  now  reduced  (Jhibelliue,   and  in  conflict  with  the  Guelph  cities; 

for  below  that  number,  but  retain  their  tribal  or-  nevertheless,   it  harimured   a  strong  Guelph   party, 

ganiaation   and    habits,   though    no   longer   boetile,  under  the  leadership  of  the  Aigoni  family,  while  ths 

and  range  generally  along  the  western  banks  of  the  Ghibelltnea  were  led  by  the  Grasolfi.     In  I288j  to  put 

Par&na.    The  best  study  of  their  languase  is  Father  an  end  to  internal  dissensiona,  Modena  gave  its  alle- 

TBvolini's"Introduccii3nalArteMocovl   .     (Seealao  donee  to  Obizzo  11  of  Este,  Lord  of  Ferrara,  who  also 

ToBA.)  became  master  of  Reggio  in  1291.    After  the  death  of 

BuNTOH.  dmTiam  Ratt  (Nbw  York,  IS01):   Chabletoii,  his  BOD  Azm  VlII  (1308),  Modena  became  free  ag^n, 

"^"'^f5ErX'''''''(l"k:'i^d^'f^i''aSf^c23^£  ''"''  '•**  *  P*^  "^  '^  territory.    On  the  arrival  of 

tol-SflJii.  I  fSSdrSdJSOO);  d>oS'b.<.n.Vi.'H<«™  A<»M^i„  Henry_  VII    the  town  received  an  imperial  vicar;  in 

gi  vqIs.,  Pvit,  iS3fl);  Tivolihi,  introdiicain  at  Aru  itoaM  in  1317,  it  welcomed  a  pontifical  legate,  choosing  later 

MMaa  lAnfuutiea  da  Mvho  d,  la  Plala:  Staiim  M  Chaoe.  1  fo,  its  lord   John  of  Bohemia,  while,  in  1336,  itjvaB 

Jaubs  Moonet. 
See  MoNARcHiAvisw.  Among  hk  sucoeesoiB  were"  Niool6  III,  who  reoov- 

Modoiu,  Archdiocese  or  (Mutinensis),  in  cen- 
tral Italy,  between  the  rivers  Secchia  and  Panara. 
The  city  contains  many  fine  buildings.  The  Roman- 
esque cathedral,  begun  in  1009,  consecrated  by  Lucius 
111  in  1184,  bears  on  its  interior  facade  scenes  from 
the  Old  and  from  the  New  Testament  sculptured  in 
white  marble,  and  the  high  altar  posseaseB  a  Purifica- 
tion by  Guido  Reni;  the  aileid  work  of  the  choir,  by 
the  Lendinara  brothers  {146£),  is  very  beautiful;  in 
the  belfry,  called  the  Ghirlandina,  is  kept  the  famous 
wooden  pail  taken  from  the  Bolognese  after  the  battle 
of  Zappolino  (1325);  this  pail  is  the  subject  of  the 
heroic-comic  epic  of  TasBODi,"  La  Secchia  Rapita";  the 
pulpit  is  a  noteworthy  woric  of  Arrigo  del  Campione. 
Notable  churches  ofModena  are  San  Agostino,  which 
contains  the  tombs  of  the  historians  Sigonius  and 
Muratori;  San  Pietro,  with  its  beautiful  specimens  of 
the  art  of  Giambelliui,  Dosei,  and  Francia;  San  Ste- 
fano  della  Pomposa,  of  which  Muratori  was  provost, 
and  others,  all  rich  m  works  of  art.  The  magnificent 
Ducal  Palace,  built  in  1635  by  Duke  Francesco  I,  ao- 
cording  to  the  plans  of  Avaiuini,  besides  a  valuable 
gallery  (rf  pictures,  contains  frescos  by  Franceschini, 
Tintoretto,  Dostd,  and  others,  and  a  library  with  more 
than  three  thousand  manuscripts.  The  Royal,  Com- 
muntd,  and  Capitular  archives  possess  many  impor- 
tant documents.  The  university  was  founded  by 
Duke  Francesco  III  in  1738,  but  Modena,  as  early  as 
1182,  bad  a  stadium  genernle  which  rivalled  that  of 
Bologna.  The  citadel,  pentagonal  in  shape,  dates 
from  1635;  its  walls  and  bastions  were  traiisformed 
into  a  public  promenade  In  1816.  There  has  been  a 
nulitaiy  school  for  infantry  and  for  cavalry  in  the 

royal  palace  of   Modena  smce  1859:   it  was  estab-  Facad.  (XII  C«»rnBT),  ■to  Cath.^b*.,  Mookka 

liabed   by  the  last  duke,  Francesco  V.     The  vanouB 

beneficent  institutions  of  this  city  are  united  in  the    ered  Regno  and  the  Garfacnana  for  Modena.    Bono, 
Opera  Pia  Genfraie.  a  naturaTson  of  NicoW  III,  received  the  title  of  Duke 

At  the  time  of  the  Gallic  War,  Mutina,  the  I^tin  of  Modetia  from  the  emperor  in  1452,  and  later  that 
name  of  Modena,  was  already  in  the  power  of  the  Ro-  of  Duke  of  Ferrara,  from  Paul  II.  In  the  sixteenth 
mans,  who  were  besieged  there  in  223  b.  c.  A  Roman  centurv,  in  the  palace  of  the  Griilenzoni  family,  there 
colony  was  taken  from  Modena,  234  b.  c,  and  a  dec-  flouriafied  an  academy  of  letters.  The  city  submitted 
ade  later,  the  town  was  in  the  power  of  the  Ligurians  to  Julius  II  in  1510,  but  was  restored  to  the  Dtdie  d 
for  a  year.  It  was  there,  also,  that  Spartacus  de-  Parma  in  1630  by  Charles  V  at  the  death  of  Alfonso 
feated  the  consul  Ca^us  in  71  a.  c.  The  Famous  bel-  II;  however,  in  1597  Ferrara  returned  to  immediate 
lum  Mutinaut  (42  h.  C.)  decided  the  fate  of  the  repub-  dependency  upon  the  Holy  See,  but  Modena,  with 
lie  at  Rome.  During  the  Empire  Modena  was  one  of  Reggio  and  its  other  lands,  as  a  fief  of  the  Empire, 
the  most  prosperous  cities  in  Italy,  but  in  the  war  passed  to  Cesare,  cousin  of  Alfonso  II. 
between  Constantine  and  Maxentius,  the  city  was  be-  From  that  time  a  new  era  began  for  Modena,  hence- 
sieged,  and  fell  into  great  decadence  until  698,  when  it  forth  the  home  of  a  court  devo(«d  to  the  arts  anJd  let- 
was  revived  by  King  Cunibert.  ters,  and  solicitous  for  the  pubfic  weal.     The  son  of 

Charlemagne  madeit  tbecapitalof  alineof  counts,  Cesare,  Alfonso  111,  after  a  reign  of  only  one  year 
whose  authority,  however,  was  before  long  eclipsed  (1529),  became  a  CapuclUn  modi  in  tie  convent  of 
by  thst  of  the  bishops,  one  of  whom,  St.  Lodomus,  Cast^nuovo  di  Garfagnana,  founded  by  him,  and 
in  807  muTOunded  the  city  with  walls,  to  protect  it  died  in  1614.  Alfonso  IV,  in  1662,  was  succeeded  by 
agtunat  Hungarian  incursions,  while  Bishop  Ineone  the  young  Francesco  II,  whose  regents  were  his 
was  formally  invested  with  the  title  of  count  by  Em-  mother  Laura  and  his  great-UHcle  Cardinal  Rinaldo. 
peror  Conrad  I.  Later,  Modena  was  a  oossession  of  He  built  the  Ducal  Palace  and  the  citadel  and  added 
the  Countess  Matilda,  after  whose  deaui  (1 115)  the  Coreggio  to  his  territory.  As  Francesco  II  died  with- 
city  became  a  free  commune,  and  in  time  joined  the  out  progeny  (1658),  Modena  came  into  the  possession 
Lombard  League  against  Barbaioasa.    In  Haa  strug-    of  his  uncle  Rinaldo,  a  cardinal  also,  who  married 


U61MSk                           414  MODBNA 

Carlotta  of  Brunswick,  and  after  a  reign  frequently  with  Carpi,  GuastaOa,  Massa,  and  Reggio  Emilia  tor 

troubled  by  French  incursions,  left  the  ducal  throne  its  suffragans.    The  Abbey  of  Nonantola  was  famous, 

to  his  son  Francesco  III  in  1737,  when  the  latter  was  once,  as  a  center  of  discipline  and  ecclesiastical  leam- 

fighting  against  the  Turks  in  Hunmry.     Francesco  ing,  and  through  it  a  great  impetus  was  raven  to 

III  also  Rovemed  Milan  for  Maria  Theresa.    Erooie  aiqiculture  in  the  surrounding  country.     Potitically, 

III.  who  by  his  marriage  acquired  the  duchy  of  Massa  Nonantola  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Bologna  to 

ana  Cajrara,  succeeded  to  that  of  Modena  in  1780,  and  preserve  its  independence,  especially  against  Modeoa, 

at  the  approach  of  Napoleon,  sought  refuge  at  Venice,  but  like  the  latter  it  became  a  possession  of  the  bouse 

Modena  oecame  the  capital  of  the  Cispadan,  united  of  Este  in  1411.    Until  1449  the  administration  of 

later  to  the  Cisalpine  republic,  and  eventually  was  Nonantola  was  confided  to  commendatory  abbots, 

incorporated  into  the  Kmgdom  of  Italy.     In  1803  one  of  whom  was  St.  Charles  Borromeo.     The  liter- 

Erooie  received,  as  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Mo-  ary  treasures  of  the  abbey  gradually  found  their  way 

dena,  Breisgau  and  Ortenau.    His  daughter  and  onty  into  the  various  libraries  of  Italy, 

child,  Maria  Beatrice,  married  the  Archduke  Ferdi-  The  Archdiocese  of  Modena,  with  Nonantola,  con- 

nand  of  Austria,  and  their  son  Francesco  IV,  in  1814  tains  179  parishes,  in  which  there  are  220,400  faithful, 

received  the  Duchy  of  Modena,  while  Maria  Beatrice  with  455  secular  and  50  regular  priests;  8  religious 

governed  Massa  and  Carrara  until  her  death.    In  houses  of  men.  and  13  of  women;  5  schools  for  bo}-s 

1831  occurred  the  famous  conspiracy  of  Ciro  Menotti  and  7  for  girls;  60  seminarians;  450  churches  or 

on  the  night  of  the  third  and  fourth  of  February;  it  chapels, 

was  discovered,  and  Menotti  was  imprisoned,  taken  to  Cappbixbtti,  U  ChUae  d'ltaUa,  XV:  TraABoocHt,  M*marU 

Milan  DVtne  dUJCe,  wno  naa  Oeen  OOnstrainea  lO  noj  Nonantola  (Modena.  1784).  also  BiblicUea  modentMt  (1781-861; 

to  that  city  by  the  revolt  of  Bologna,  and  was  hanged  Baraldi.   Compendia    Mtaria    detta    dOA    di    Modena  (Modena. 

on  16  May,  after  the  duke's  return  to  Modena.      In  1946);  Schabtbnbbbo.  GeUkichte  der  HerxogtOmer  Modena  und 

1846  Francesco  V  succeeded  to  the  duchy,  and  in  the  ^!^r?,i5*'^ul?f5®^Lr®^"'^'*/?'!j!f*^~  J?*  ^  P***^  *^ 

.^^^r         y^vftri  a\A\>sy%f%^%^  vv  wuv  uuvuj,  cmau  »**  t.^*'  p^p^  (ModeDB,  1879);  Monumentx  dx  tiona  jtatna  per  U  pronnat 

troubles  of  1848  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  m  modeneai  (Parma,  isei— ). 

Austria,  but  returned  in  the  following  year.    In  1859, 

however,  having  declared  for  Austna,  he  was  again  Universitt  of  Modena. — At  the  end  of  the  twelfth 

obliged  to  leave  his  states^  and  the  provisional  govern-  century  there  existed  at  Modena  in  Italy,  a  flourishing 

ment,  under  Carlo  Farim,  decreed  the  annexation  of  school  of  jurisprudence.    Pilius,  who  established  him- 

Modena  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  self  there  as  a  teacher  in  1182,  compares  its  renown  to 

Among  the  famous  men  of  Modena  are  the  astrono-  that  of  Bologna.  During  the  whole  of  the  thirteenth 
mer  Geminiano  Montanari,  the  anatomist  Gabriele  century  professors  of  great  repute  taught  there,  with 
Falloppio,  the  great  Austrian  general  Montecucoli,  only  a  brief  interruption  between  1222  and  1232, 
Cardinal  Savoleto,  Sigonius,  Muratori,  Tiraboschi,  though  even  during  that  intervaJ  Albertus  Papiensis 
and  the  poet  Tassoni.  According  to  local  tradition,  and  Hubertus  de  Bonaccursis  still  lectured.  Other 
the  first  Bishop  of  Modena  was  St.  Cletus — ^probably  famous  professors  of  this  period  were  Martinus  de 
sent  there  by  Pope  Dionysius  about  270.  Alter  him,  Fano,  Guilelmus  Durantis,  Albertus  Galeottus.  Guido 
there  is  mention  of  another  bishop,  Antonius  or  An-  de  Suzaria,  Nicolaus  Matarellus,  and,  probably,  Boni- 
toninus,  to  whom  reference  is  made  in  the  life  of  St.  facius  a  Mutina,  who  afterwards  became  Bishop  of 
Geminianus  his  predecessor;  this  great  bishop  and  pro-  Modena  (1337)  and  of  Bergamo  (1340).  In  the  four- 
tector  of  the  city  sheltered  in  334  St.  Atfaanasius  and  teenth  century  the  Studium  fell  into  decay,  in  spite  of 
died  in  349.  Other  bishops  of  Modena  were  St.  Theo-  the  efforts  which  the  commune  of  Modena  put  forth 
dulus  (about  398),  formerly  a  notariua  or  secretary  of  to  maintain  it.  A  communal  enactment  provided, 
St.  Ambrose;  St.  Geminianus  II  (III  according  to  Cap-  in  1328,  that  three  professors — one  each  for  law,  medi- 
pelletti)  who  is  said  to  have  induced  Attila  to  spare  cine,  and  the  training  of  notaries — were  to  be  engaged 
Modena  (452) ;  St.  Lupicinus  (749),  in  whose  time  the  by  contract  every  year;  this  statute  is  the  only  extant 
famous  abbey  of  Nonantola  was  founded  by  Duke  documentary  evidence  that  medicine  as  well  as  law 
Anselm  of  Fnuli:  and  iEgidlus  (1097),  who  began  the  was  tau^t  at  Modena,  and  the  Modenese  School 
construction  of  the  cathedral.  In  1148  the  Diocese  of  was  never  called  a  Studium  Generate.  Its  decay  was 
Modena  was  suppressed  for  a  time  on  account  of  dis-  hastened,  not  only  by  political  vicissitudes,  but  by  the 
cord  with  the  Abbots  of  Nonantola.  William,  bishop  creation  of  other  universities  in  the  neighbouring 
in  1221,  frequently  served  the  popes,  Honorius  III  and  states.  With  the  restitution  of  Ferrara  to  the  Papu 
Gregory  IX,  as  legate,  especially  among  the  Prus-  States  (1597),  Modena  became  the  capital  of  the 
sians,  the  Livonians,  the  Esthonians,  etc. ;  eventually  House  of  Este,  and  once  more  there  was  a  possibility  <^ 
he  resigned  his  see  to  devote  himself  to  the  conversion  re\aving  the  extinct  Studium.  This  was  not  realised, 
of  those  peoples  (cf.  Balan,  "Sulle  legazioni  compiute  however,  until  a  century  later  (1678). 
nei  palsi  nordici  da  Guglielmo  vescovo  di  Modena,''  This  new  university,  which  owed  much  to  the 
ibid.,  1872).  Bonadaneo  Boechetti,  bishop  in  1311,  priest  Cristoforo  Borghi,  was  joined  to  the  college  (con- 
was  driven  from  his  diocese  by  the  Cfhibellines:  vitto)  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Charles.  It  was  in- 
Niool6  Boiardo  (1401)  did  much  for  ecclesiastical  augurated  in  l(]i83  oy  Duke  Francis  II.  In  1772, 
discipline:  Nicol6  Sandonnino  (1479)  was  pontifical  Francis  III  increased  the  number  of  chairs^  took  steps 
legate  in  Spain;  Giovanni  Morone  (1529)  founded  the  to  secure  able  professors,  and  endowed  it  with  tne 
seminary,  and  is  famous  for  missions  on  which  he  was  property  of  the  suppressed  Society  of  Jesus.  His 
sent  to  Germany  in  the  beginnings  of  Lutheranism.  most  important  service  was  the  drafting  of  a  oonstitu- 
Under  him,  through  the  '' Accademia'',  Protestantism  tion  for  the  university.  With  the  French  invasion  of 
obtained  a  footing  in  Modena,  and  was  eradicated  1796  the  University  of  Modena  was  reduced  to  the 
with  difficulty;  iEgidio  Foscarari  (1550),  to  whom  the  rank  of  a  lyceum,  and  in  1809  nothing  remained  of  it 
Council  of  Trent  entrusted  the  correction  of  the  Ro-  but  the  faculty  of  philosophy.  When  Francis  IV  re- 
man Missal  aad  the  preparation  of  its  Catechism  for  covered  his  throne  (1815)  he  restored  the  university, 
Parish  Priests;  Roberto  Fontana  (1646)  and  Giuseppe  but  the  disturbances  of  1821  caused  him  to  modify  its 
M.  Folignano  (1757)  both  restorers  of  the  episcopal  organization  by  distributing  the  students  in  various 
palace,  while  the  second  did  much  for  the  endowment  comntii  Bcattered  tjirough  his  states.  In  1848,  how- 
of  the  seminary.  ever,  the  earlier  organization  was  revived.     In  1859 

In    1821    the  Abbey   of   Nonantola^  a   proelatura  the  provisional  Government  suppressed  the  theologi- 

nuUius  dioeceseoSj  was  united  to  the  Diocese  of  Mo-  cal  faculty,  and  in  1862  the  courses  in  philosophy 

dena;  and  the  latter,  a  suffragan  of  Milan  until  1852,  and  literature  disappeared.    The  univeraty  now  naa 

was  then  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan  see.  faculties  of  juiisprudencei  medicine,  surgery,  science 


MODERNISM 


415 


MODERNISM 


^'mathwnatics,  natural  sciences,  and  chemistry), 
nshools  of  pharmacy,  of  veterinary  medicine,  and  oi 
obstetrics. 

It  numbers  51  instructors  with  12  assistants,  who 
treat  95  different  subjects;  the  attendance  in  1908, 
was  431 ;  in  1909,  422.  Annexed  to  the  univerraty  are 
the  museum  of  experimental  phvsics,  founded,  in 
1760,  by  Fra  Mario  Morini:  the  chemical  laboratory 
and  cabmet  founded  bv  Micnele  Rosa;  the  museum  of 
natural  history  founded,  in  1786,  by  a  bequest  of 
Giuseppe  M.  Fogliani,  Bishop  of  Modena;  the  mu- 
seum of  anatomy  founded  by  Torti  in  1698,  and 
Ant.  Scarpa  in  1774;  the  cabmet  of  materia  medica 
founded  in  1773  by  Gius.  M.  Savanti;  the  laborato- 
ries of  pathological  anatomy,  experimental  physics, 
and  pharmaceutical  chemistry;  the  botanical  garden 
founded  by  Francis  III  in  1765;  an  observatory,  a 
veterinary  institute  and  museum,  clinics,  and  a  li- 
brary. Besides  those  already  mentioned,  the  follow- 
ing professors  of  this  university  have  attained  high 
distinction:  Virginio  Natta,  O.P.,  O.  Gherli^  O.F., 
Scoasia  (afterwaras  minister  to  Francis  IV),  Girolamo 
Tlraboschi  (kustorian  of  Italian  letters),  Agostino 
Paradisi,  GuiHano  Cassiani.  Padre  Pompilio  Pozzetti, 
the  Abbate  Spallanzani,  Bonaventura  Curti,  G.  B. 
Ventuii.  Bernardino  Ramazzini  (seventeenth  cen- 
tury), Gio.  Cinelli,  Luigi  Emiliani,  Paolo  Gaddi,  and 
the  later  deceased  Galvagni. 

Yacca,  Ceitno  atorioa  ddla  R.  UniversUA  di  Modena  (ModenA, 
1872) ;  Annvario  delta  R.  Univ.  di  Modena  (Modena.  1865);  Cam- 
PORi,  Infarmaxioni  delta  R.  Univ.  di  Modena  (Modena,  1861); 
NatiHe  ttoriehe  eirea  V  Univ.  di  M.  in  Omucali  religioeit  letterari  e 
monU  (July,  August,  1863) ;  Dbniplb,  Die  UnivertitOten  dea  Mi^ 
telaUere  hi$  tJ^OOTl  (Berlin,  1885).  296  sqq. 

IJ.  BSNIONI. 

Modarniflm. — Oriotn  of  the  Word. — ^Etymologi- 
cally,  modernism  means  an  exaggerated  love  of  what 
is  modem,  an  infatuation  for  modem  ideas,  ''the 
abuse  of  what  is  modem",  as  the  Abb6  Gaudaud 
explains  (La  Foi  catholique,  I.  1908,  p.  248).  The 
modem  ideas  of  which  we  speak  are  not  as  old  as  the 
period  called  "modem  times".  Though  Protestant- 
ism has  generated  them  little  by  little,  it  did  not 
understand  from  the  be^nning  that  such  would  be  its 
sequel.  There  even  exists  a  conservative  Protestant 
party  which  is  one  with  the  Church  in  combating 
modernism.  In  general  we  ma^  say  that  modernism 
aims  at  that  radi^  transformation  of  human  thought 
in  relation  to  God,  man,  the  world,  and  life,  here  and 
hereafter,  which  was  prepared  bv  Humanism  and 
eighteenth-century  philosophy,  and  solemnly  promul- 
gated at  the  French  Revolution.  J.  J.  Rousseau,  who 
treated  an  atheistical  philosopher  of  his  time  as  a 
modernist,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  the 
word  in  this  sense  C'Correspondance  k  M.  D.",  15 
Jan..  1769).  Littr^  (Dictionnaire),  who  cites  the  pas- 
sage, explains:  "  Modernist,  one  who  esteems  modem 
times  aJrove  antiquity".  After  that,  the  word  seems  to 
have  been  forgotten,  till  the  time  of  the  Catholic  pub- 
licist P6rin  (1815-1905),  professor  at  the  Universitjr  of 
Louvain,  1844-1889.  This  writer,  whilst  apologizing 
for  the  coinage,  describes  "the  humanitarian  tenden- 
cies of  contemporary  society"  as  modernism.  The 
term  itself  he  defines  as  "the  ambition  to  eliminate 
God  from  all  social  life".  With  this  absolute  modem- 
ism  he  associates  a  more  temperate  form,  which  he 
declares  to  be  nothing  less  than  "liberalism  of  every 
degree  and  shade"  ("I^  Modemisme  dans  TEglise 
d'aprds  les   lettres  incites  de  Lamennais",  Paris, 

1881). 

During  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  espe- 
cially about  1905  and  1906,  the  tendency  to  innovation 
which  troubled  the  Italian  dioceses,  and  especially  the 
ranka  of  the  ^oung  clergy,  waa  taxed  with  modernism. 
Thus  at  Christmas,  1905,  the  bishops  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical provinces  of  Tunn  and  Vercelli^  in  a  circular  let- 
ter 91 1^  dftte^  Uttered  ^ve  wanungs  against  what 


they  called  "Modemismo  nel  clero"  (Modernism 
among  the  clergy) .  Several  pastoral  letters  of  the  year 
1906  made  use  of  the  same  term ;  among  others  we 
may  mention  the  Lenten  charge  of  Cardinal  Nava, 
Archbishop  of  Catania,  to  his  clergy,  a  letter  of  Cardi- 
nal Bacilieri,  Bishop  of  Verona,  dated  22  July,  1906. 
and  a  letter  of  Mgr  Rossi,  Archbishop  of  Acerenza  and 
Matera.  "Modemismo  e  Modemisti",  a  work  by 
Abbate  Cavallanti  which  was  published  towards  the 
end  of  1906,  gives  long  extracts  from  these  letters. 
The  name  "modernism"'  was  not  to  the  liking  of  the 
reformers.  The  propriety  of  the  new  term  was  dis- 
cussed even  amon^pst  good  Catholics.  When  the  De- 
cree "Lamentabili"  appeared,  Msr  Baudrillart  ex- 
pressed his  pleasure  at  not  finding  the  word  "modern- 
ism" mentioned  in  it  (Revue  pratique  d'apolog^tique, 
IV,  p.  578).  He  considered  the  term  "too  vague". 
Besides  it  seemed  to  insinuate  "that  the  Church  con- 
demns everything  modem".  The  Encyclical  "Pas- 
cendi"  (8  ^pt.,  1907)  put  an  end  to  the  discussion. 
It  bore  the  official  title,  "De  Modemistarum  doc- 
trinis".  The  introduction  declared  that  the  name 
commonly  given  to  the  upholders  of  the  new  errors 
was  not  inapt.  Since  then  the  modernists  themselves 
have  acquiesced  in  the  use  of  the  name,  thoueh  they 
have  not  admitted  its  propriety  (Loisy,  "Simples 
reflexions  sur  le  d^cret  'Lamentabili'  et  sur  I'ency- 
clique  'Pascendi'  du  8  Sept.,  1907",*  p.  14;  "II  pro- 
grainma  dei  modemisti":  note  at  the  beginning). 

Theory  op  Thbolooical  Modernism. — (1)  The 
essential  error  of  Modernism, — A  full  definition  of 
modemism  would  be  rather  difficult.  First  it  stands 
for  certain  tendencies,  and  secondly  for  a  body  of 
doctrine  which,  if  it  hais  not  given  birth  to  these  ten- 
dencies (practice  often  precedes  theory),  serves  at  any 
rate  as  their  explanation  and  support.  Such  tenden- 
cies manifest  themselves  in  different  domains.  They 
are  not  united  in  each  individual,  nor  are  they  always 
and  everywhere  found  together.  Modernist  doctrine, 
too.  may  be  more  or  less  radical,  and  it  is  swallowed 
in  doses  that  vary  with  each  one's  likes  and  dislikes. 
In  the  Encyclical  "Pascendi",  Pius  X  says  that 
modemism  embraces  every  heresy.  M.  Loisy  makes 
practically  the  same  statement  when  he  writes  that 
"in  reality  all  Catholic  theology,  even  in  its  funda- 
mental prmciples,  the  general  philosophy  of  religion, 
Divine  law,  and  the  laws  that  govem  our  knowledge  of 
Czod,  come  up  for  judgment  before  this  new  court  of 
assize"  (Simples  inflexions,  p.  24).  Modemism  is  a 
compMosite  sjrstem:  its  assertions  and  claims  lack  that 

Principle  which  unites  the  natural  faculties  in  a  living 
eing.  The  Encyclical  "Paflcendi"  was  the  first  Catho- 
;  lie  synthesis  of  the  subject.  Out  of  scattered  materials 
it  built  up  what  looked  like  a  logical  system.  Indeed 
friends  and  foes  alike  could  not  but  admire  the  patient 
skill  that  must  have  been  needed  to  fashion  something 
like  a  co-ordinated  whole.  In  their  answer  to  the  En- 
cyclical, "  n  programma  dei  Modemisti"^  the  Modem- 
bts  tried  to  retouch  this  synthesis.  Previous  to  idl  this, 
some  of  the  Italian  bishops,  in  their  pastoral  letters, 
had  attempted  such  a  synthesis.  We  would  partic- 
yularly  mention  that  of  Mgr  Rossi,  Bishop  of  Acerenza 
/and  Matera.  In  this  respect,  too,  Abbate  Cavallanti's 
book,  already  referred  to,  deserves  mention.  Even 
earlier  still,  German  and  French  Protestants  had  done 
some  synthetical  work  in  the  same  direction.  Promi- 
nent among  them  are  Kant,  "Die  Religion  innerhalb 
der  Grenzen  der  reinen  Vemunft"  (1803);  Schleier- 
macher,  "Der  christliche  Glaube"  (1821-1822):  and 
A.  Sabatier,  "Esouisse  d'une  philosophic  de  la  religion 
d'apr^  la  psychologic  et  I'histoire"  (1897). 

The  general  idea  of  modemism  may  be  best  ex- 
pressed in  the  words  of  Abbate  Cavallanti,  thoug^ 
even  here  there  is  a  little  vagueness:  "Modemism  is 
modem  in  a  false  sense  of  ^e  word;  it  is  a  morbid 
state  of  conscience  among  Catholics,  and  especially 
young  CathoUcSi  that  professes  manifold  ideals,  opin- 


416 


M0DSBNI8M 


tons,  and  tendencies.  From  time  to  time  these  tenden- 
cies work  out  into  systems,  that  are  to  renew  the  basis 
and  superatnicture  of  society,  politics,  philosophy, 
Uieologv,  of  the  Church  herself  and  of  the  Christian 
rdigio?'.  A  remodelling,  a  renewal  according  to  ihe 
ideas  of  the  twentieth  century — such  is  the  longing 
that  possesses  the  modernists.  "  The  avowed  modern- 
ists", says  M.  Loisy.  ''form  a  fairly  definite  group  of 
thinking  men  united  in  the  common  desire  to  adapt 
Catholicism  to  the  intellectual,  moral  and  socied  needs 
of  to-day"  (op.  cit.,  p.  13).  "Our  religious  attitude", 
as  "Ilprogramma  dei  modemisti"  states  (p,  5,  note  1), 
"is  ruled  by  the  single  wish  to  be  one  with  Christians 
and  Catholics  who  five  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of 
the  age".  The  spirit  of  this  plan  of  r^orm  may  be 
summarised  under  the  following  heads:  (a)  A  spirit  of 
complete  emancipation,  tending  to  weaken  ecclesias- 
tical authority;  the  emancipation  of  science,  which 
must  traverse  every  field  of  investigation  without  fear 
of  conflict  with  the  Church:  the  emancipation  of  the 
State,  which  should  never  be  hampered  by  religious 
authority;  the  emancipation  of  the  private  conscience, 
whose  inspirations  must  not  be  overridden  by  papal 
definitions  or  anathemas:  the  emancipation  of  the 
universal  conscience,  with  which  the  Church  should 
be  ever  in  agreement;  (b)  A  spirit  of  movement  and 
change,  with  an  inclination  to  a  sweeping  form  of  evo- 
lution such  as  abhors  an^rthing  fixed  and  stationary; 
(c)  A  spirit  of  reconciliation  among  all  men  through 
the  fecuings  of  the  heart.  Many  and  varied  also  are 
the  modernist  dreams  of  an  understanding  between 
the  different  Christian  religions,  nav,  even  between 
religion  and  a  species  of  atheism,  and  all  on  a  basis  of 
ap'eement  that  must  be  superior  to  mere  doctrinal 
differences. 

Such  are  the  fundamental  tendencies.  As  such, 
they  seek  to  explain,  justify,  and  strengthen  them- 
selves in  an  error,  to  which  therefore  one  might  give 
the  name  of  "essential"  modernism.  What  is  this 
error?  It  is  nothing  less  than  the  perversion  of 
dog^a.  Manifold  are  the  degrees  and  shades  of  mod- 
ernist doctrine  on  the  question  of  our  relations  with 
God.  But  no  real  modernist  keeps  the  Catholic  notions 
of  dogma  intact.  Are  you  doubtful  as  to  whether  a 
writer  or  a  book  is  modernist  in  the  formal  sense  of  the 
word  ?  Verify  every  statement  about  dogma;  examine 
his  treatment  of  its  origin,  its  nature,  its  sense,  its 
authority.  You  will  know  whether  you  are  deiding 
with  a  veritable  modernist  or  not,  according  to  the  way 
in  which  the  Catholic  conception  of  dogma  is  traves^ 
tied  or  respected.  Dogma  and  supernatural  knowl-* 
edge  are  correlative  terms;  one  implies  the  other  aa 
the  action  implies  its  object.  In  this  way  then  we  may 
define  modernism  as  "  the  critique  of  our  supernatural 
knowledge  according  to  the  false  postulates  of  oon- 
temporarv  philosophy". 

It  will  be  advisable  for  us  to  quote  a  full  critique 
of  such  supernatural  knowledge  as  an  example  of  the 
mode  of  procedure.  (In  the  mieantime  however  we 
must  not  forget  that  there  are  partial  and  less  ad- 
vanced modernists  who  do  not  go  so  far).  For  them, 
external  intuition  furnishes  man  with  but  phenomenal, 
contingent,  sensible  knowledge.  He  sees,  he  feels,  he 
hears,  he  tastes,  he  touches  this  something,  this 
phenomenon  that  comes  and  goes  without  telling  him 
aught  of  the  existence  of  a  suprasensible,  absolute  and 
unchanrang  reality  outside  all  environing  space  and 
time.  But  deep  within  himsdf  man  feels  the  need  of 
a  higher  hope.  He  aspires  to  perfection  in  a  being  on 
whom  he  feels  his  destiny  de]}ends.  And  so  he  has  an 
instinctive,  an  affective  yearning  for  God.  This  neces- 
sary impulse  is  at  first  obscure  and  hidden  in  the 
subconsciousness.  Once  consciously  understood,  it 
reveals  to  the  soul  the  intimate  presence  of  God. 
This  manifestation,  in  which  God  and  man  collabo- 
rate, is  nothing  else  than  revelation.  Under  the  influ- 
^ce  9f  i\d  yearning,  tliat  is  pf  its  religions  feelings,  the 


soul  tries  to  reach  God,  to  adopt  towards  Him  an  atti- 
tude that  will  satisfy  its  yearning.  It  gropes,  it 
searches.  These  gropings  form  the  soul's  reliKious 
experience.  They  are  more  easy,  successful  and  far- 
reachingj  or  less  so,  according  as  it  is  now  one,  now 
another  individual  soul  that  sets  out  in  quest  of  God. 
Anon  there  areprivileged  ones  who  reach  extraordi- 
nary results.  They  communicate  their  discoveries  to 
their  fellow  men,  and  forthwiUi  become  foimders  of  a 
new  religion,  which  is  more  or  less  tnie  in  the  proportion 
in  which  it  gives  peace  to  the  religious  feelmgs. 

The  attitude  Christ  adopted,  reaching  up  to  God  as 
to  a  father  and  then  returning  to  men  as  to  brothers — 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  precept,  "Love  God  and 
thy  neighbour  " — brings  full  rest  to  the  soul.  It  makea 
the  relidoa  of  Christ  the  refigjon  par  exceUenee,  the 
true  and  definitive  religion.  The  act  by  which  the 
soul  adopts  this  attitude  and  abandons  itself  to  God 
as  a  father  and  then  to  men  as  to  brothers,  constitutes 
the  Christian  Futh.  Plainly  such  an  act  is  an  act  of 
the  will  rather  than  of  the  intellect.  But  religious 
sentiment  tries  to  express  itself  in  intellectual  con- 
cepts, which  in  their  turn  serve  to  preserve  this  senti- 
ment. Hence  the  origin  of  those  formufae  concerning 
God  and  Divine  things,  of  those  theoretical  proposi- 
tions that  are  the  outcome  of  the  successive  religious 
experiences  of  souls  gifted  with  the  same  faith.  These 
formuliB  become  dogmas,  when  religious  authority  ap- 
proves of  them  for  the  life  of  the  community.  For 
community  life  is  a  spontaneous  growth  among  per- 
sons of  the  same  faith,  and  with  it  comes  authority. 
Dogmas  promulnited  in  this  way  teach  us  nothing  of 
the  unknowable,  out  only  symbolise  it.  They  contain 
no  truth.  Their  usefulness  in  preserving  the  faith  is 
their  only  raison  fTitre,  They  survive  as  long  as  they 
exert  their  influence.  Being  the  work  of  man  in  time, 
and  adapted  to  lus  varying  needs,  they  are  at  best  but 
contingent  and  transient.  Religious  authority  too, 
naturally  conservative,  may  lag  behind  the  times.  It 
may  mistake  the  best  methods  of  meeting  needs  of  the 
community,  and  try  to  keep  up  worn-out  formuls. 
Through  respect  for  the  community,  the  individual 
Christian  who  sees  the  mistake  continues  in  an  atti- 
tude of  outward  submission.  But  he  does  not  fed 
himself  inwardly  bound  by  the  decisions  of  higher 
powers;  rather  he  makes  praiseworthy  efforts  to  bring 
nis  Church  into  harmony  with  the  times.  He  may 
con&ie  himself,  too,  if  he  cares,  to  the  older  and  sinn 
pier  religious  forms;  he  may  live  his  life  in  conformitv 
with  the  dogmas  accepted  from  the  beginning.  Such 
is  Tyrrell's  advice  in  his  letter  to  Fogassaro,  and  such 
was  his  own  private  practice.  (2)  Catnolic  and  Modern^ 
ist  Notions  of  Doffma  Compared, — ^The  tradition  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  dogmas 
as  in  part  supernatural  and  mysterious,  proposed  to 
our  faith  by  a  Divinely  instituted  authority  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  part  of  the  general  revelation 
which  the  Apostles  preached  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ.  This  faith  is  an  act  of  the  intellect  made  imder 
the  sway  of  the  will.  By  it  we  hold  firmly  what  God 
has  revealed  and  what  the  Church  proposes  to  us  to 
believe.  For  believing  is  holding  something  firmJy  on 
the  authority  of  God's  word,  when  such  authority  may 
be  recognized  by  signs  that  are  sufficient,  at  least  with 
the  help  of  grace,  to  create  certitude. 

Comparing  these  notions,  the  Catholic  and  the 
modernist,  we  shidl  see  that  modernism  alters  the 
source,  the  manner  of  promulgation,  the  object,  the 
stability,  and  the  truth  of  dogma.  For  the  moaem- 
ist,  the  only  and  the  necessary  source  is  the  pri- 
vate consciousness.  And  logicafly  so,  since  he  rejects 
miracles  and  prophecy  as  signs  of  God's  word  (U 
programma,  p.  96).  For  the  Catholic,  dogma  is  a  free 
communication  of  God  to  the  believer  made  through 
the  preaching  of  the  Word.  Of  course  the  truth  from 
without,  which  is  f^x>ve  and  beyond  any  natural  want, 
10  prece4ed  by  a  certaip  inUsfiQf  finality  or  p^ecti- 


MOniBinSK  417 

biBty  whioh  enablee  the  believer  to  aaaimOate  and  live    ing  the  action  of  thinking;;  (2)  dogm&  itself  imi ^ 

the  truth  revealed.  ^  It  enters  a  soul  well-dispoeed  to  affirms  that  reaJity  contains  in  one  form  or  anotner  ^e 
reoave  it,  as  a  principle  of  happiness  which^  though  an  justification  of  such  prescriptions  as  are  either  reason- 
unmerited  gift  to  which  we  have  no  right,  is  still  such  able  or  salutary". 

as  the  soul  can  enjoy  with  unmeasured  gratitude.    In  Vabioub  Dbobbbs  of  MonaBNisM  and  its  Cri-* 

the  modernist  conception,  the  Church  can  no  loxiger  tbbion. — Modernist  attacks  on  dogma,  as  we  have 

define  dogma  in  God's  name  and  with  His  infaJlible  already  remarked,  vary  according  to  the  degree  in 

help;  the  ecclesiastical  authority  is  now  but  a  seoon-  which  its  doctrines  are  embraced.    Thus,  in  virtue 

dary  interpreter,  subject  to  the  collective  conscioua-  of  the  leading  idea  of  their  systems.  Father  Tyrrell  was 

neas  which  she  has  to  express.    To  this  collective  an  aeiostic  modernist,  and  Campbell  (a  Congrega- 

consciousnesB  the  individual  need  conform  only  exter-  tionsJist  minister)  is  a  symbolic  mcxlemist.   Agam  Uie 

naUy;  as  for  the  rest  he  may  embark  on  any  private  tendency  to  innovation  is  at  times  not  at  all  general, 

leli^^ous  adventures  he  cares  for.   The  modernist  pro-  but  linuted  to  some  particular  domain.    Along  with 

S:>rtions  do^a  to  his  intellect  or  rather  to  his  heart,  modernism  in  the  stnct  sense,  which  is  directly  theo- 
[ysteries  like  the  Trinity  or  the  Incarnation  are  logical,  we  find  other  kinds  of  modernism  in  philos- 
either  unthinkable  (a  modernist  Kantian  tendency),  o^y,  politics,  and  social  science.  In  such  cases  a 
or  are  within  the  reach  of  the  unaided  reason  (a  mo-  wider  meaning  must  be  given  to  Uie  term, 
demist  Hegelian  tendency).  "The  truth  of  religion  is  Here,  however,  it  is  needful  to  speak  a  word  of  warn- 
in  him  (man)  imjiUcitly,  as  surely  as  the  truth  of  the  ing  against  unreasonable  attacks.  Not  every  novelty 
whole  physical  universe,  is  involved  in  evei]y  part  of  it.  is  to  be  condemned,  nor  is  evexy  project  of  reform  to  be 
Could  he  read  the  needs  of  his  own  spirit  and  con-  dubbed  modemistbecause  it  is  untimely  or  exaggerated, 
science,  he  would  need  no  teacher"  (Tyrrell,  "Scylla  In  the  same  way,  the  attempt  fully  to  understand 
and  Chaiybdis " ,  p.  277) .  modem  philosophic  thought  so  as  to  grasp  what  is  true 
Assuredly  Catholic  truth  is  not  a  lifeless  thing,  in  such  systems,  and  to  discover  the  points  of  contact 
Rather  is  it  a  living  tree  that  breaks  forth  into  green  with  the  old  philosophy,  is  very  far  m>m  being  mod- 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits.  There  is  a  development,  or  emism.  On  the  contrary,  that  is  the  very  best  way 
gradual  unfolding,  and  a  clearer  statement  of  its  dog-  to  refute  modernism.  Every  error  contains  an  ele- 
mas.  Besides  the  primary  truths,  such  as  the  Divin-  ment  of  truth.  Isolate  that  element  and  accept  it. 
ity  of  Christ  and  His  mission  as  Messias,  there  are  The  structure  which  it  helps  to  siipport,  having  lost 
others  which,  one  by  one,  become  better  understood  its  foundation,  will  soon  crumble.  The  name  modem- 
and  defined,  e.  g.  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Con-  ist  then  will  be  appropriate  only  when  there  is  question 
CQ>tion  and  that  of  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope.  Such  of  opposition  to  the  certain  teaching  of/ ecclesiastical 
umolding  takes  place  not  only  m  the  study  of  the  authority  through  a  spirit  of  innovation.  The  words 
tradition  of  the  dogma  but  also  in  showing  its  origin  of  Cardinal  Ferrari,  Axchbishop  of  Milan,  as  cited  in 
in  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Apc^tles,  in  the  understand-  "La  Revue  Pratique  d'Apolo^6tique"  (Vl,  1906,  p. 
ing  of  the  terms  expressing  it  and  in  the  historical  or  134),  will  help  to  show  the  pomt  of  our  last  remark. 
rational  proofs  adduced  in  support  of  it.  Thus  the  "  We  are  deeplv  pained  '^  he  says,  "  to  find  that  certain 
historical  proof  of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conr  persons,  in  public  controversy  against  modernism,  in 
ception  has  certainly  been  strengthened  since  the  defi-  Brochures,  newspapers  and  other  periodicals,  go  to  the 
nition  in  1854.  The  rational  conception  of  the  dogma  len^h  of  detecting  the  evil  everywhere,  or  at  any  rate 
of  Divine  Providence  is  a  continual  object  of  study;  of  unputing  it  to  those  who  are  very  far  from  bein^ 
the  dogma  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  allows  the  reason  infected  with  it ".  In  the  same  year.  Cardinal  Maffei 
to  inquire  into  the  idea  of  sacrifice.  It  has  alwavs  had  to  condemn"  La  Pentaaziu'ea"^  an  anti-modernist 
been  believed  that  there  is  no  salvation  outside  the  organ,  on  account  of  its  exaggeration  in  this  respect. 
Church,  but  as  this  belief  has  gradual!]^  come  to  be  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  regrettable  that  certain  avowed 
better  understood,  many  are  now  considered  within  leaders  of  modernism^  carried  away  perhaps  by  the 
the  soul  of  the  Church  who  would  have  been  placed  desire  to  remain  withm  the  Church  at  all  costs-— an- 
without^  in  a  day  when  the  distinction  between  tne  soul  other  characteristic  of  modernism — ^have  taken  refuge 
and  the  body  of  the  Church  had  not  generally  obtaiued.  in  equivocation,  reticence,  or  quibbles.  Such  a  line  of 
In  another  sense,  too.  dogma  is  instmct  with  life.  For  action  merits  no  sympathy :  while  it  exphdns,  if  it  does 
its  truth  is  not  sterile,  but  always  serves  to  nourish  not  altogether  justify,  the  custrust  of  sincere  Catholics. 
devotion.  But  whilst  holding  with  life,  progress,  and  Proofs  of  the  Fobbooino  Views. — But  does  the 
development,  the  Church  rejects  transitory  dogmas  principle  and  the  quasi-essential  error  of  modernism 
that  in  the  modernist  theory  would  be  forgotten  imless  fie  in  its  corruption  of  dogma?  Let  us  consult  the  En- 
r^laced  by  contrary  formube.    She  caimot  adrnit  that  cydical ''  Pascendi ".    The  official  Latin  text  calls  the 

[lis  also  authen* 

content  with  "the  identity  of  religious  spirit"  which  tic.  speaks  thus:  "Dogma,  its  origin  and  nature,  such 

is  the  only  pm:ianenc3r  that  moaemism  admits  (£L  Is  the  groimd  princip^<>f  modernism."    The  fimda- 

proflpramma  dd  Modermsti).  mental  principle  of  modernism  is,  according  to  M. 

Imith  consists  in  the  conformity  of  the  idea  with  its  Loisy,  'Miie  possibility,  the  necessity  and  the  l^ti- 

object.    Now,  in  the  Catholic  concept,  a  dogmatic  for-  macy  of  evolution  in  understanding  the  dogmas  of 

mula  suppUes  us  with  at  least  an  analogical  knowledge  the  Church,  including  that  of  papal  infallibility  and 

of  a  given  object.    For  the  modernist,  the  essential  authority,  as  weU  as  in  the  maimer  of  exercising 

nature  of  do^ma  consists  in  its  correspondence  with  this  authority"  (op.  cit.,  p.  124).    The  character  and 

and  its  caiMunty  to  satisfy  a  certain  momentary  need  leaning  of  our  epoch  coiinnn  our  diagnosis.     It  likes 

of  the  reiiipous  f eefine.   It  is  an  arbitrary  i^mbol  that  to  sul^itute  leading  and  fundamental  questions  in 

tells  nothing  of  the  object  it  represents.    At  most,  as  the  place  of  side  issues.    The  problem  of  natural 

M.  Leroy,  one  of  the  least  radical  of  modernists,  sug-  knowledge  is  the  burning  question  in   present-day 


5fip< 
as  if  Christ  had  the  local  presence,  the  idea  of  which  is    X  has  said  that  modernism  embraces  all  the  heresies. 

80  familiar  to  you".    But,  to  avoid  exaggeration,  we  (The  same  opinion  is  expressed  in  another  way  in  the 

add  this  other  statement  of  the  same  writer  Ooc.  cit.),  ei^cyclical  "Edits"  of  16  May,  1910.)    And  what 

"Hub  however  does  not  mean  that  dogma  bears  no  error,  we  ask,  more  fully  justifies  the  pope's  state- 

nBlAtkm  to  thought;  for  (P  there  are  dutJi«!s  concern-  ;i)ent  than  that  which  alters  dogma  in  its  root  and  e^ 


M0DSBNI8M  418 

sence?    It  is  furthermore  clear — ^to  use  a  direct  argu-  all  r^sious  truth  from  the  natural  force  of  reason ;  the 

ment — ^that  modernism  fails  in  its  attempt  at  religious  fifth,  ^niich  afiirms  that  revelation,  if  it  joins  in  the  on- 

reform,  if  it  makes  no  change  in  the  Catholic  notion  of  ward  march  of  reason,  is  cwable  of  unlimited  progress; 

dogma.    Moreover,  does  not  its  own  conception  of  the  seventh,  which  treats  tne  prophecies  and  miracles 

dogma  explun  botn  a  large  number  of  its  propod-  of  Holy  Scnptiue  as  poetical  imaginings;  iHopositioiis 

tions  and  its  leanings  towards  independence,  evolu-  sixteen  to  eighteen  on  the  equal  value  of  all  religions 

tion.  and  conciliation?  from  the  point  of  view  of  salvation;  proposition  fifty- 

MoDERNiBT  Aims  Explained  bt  its  Essentiai*  five  on  the  separation  of  Church  and  State;  propoei- 
Errob. — ^The  definition  of  an  unchangeable  do^na  tions  seventy-five  and  seventy-six,  wh^ch  oppose  the 
imposes  itself  on  every  Catholic,  learned  or  otherwise,  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  The  inodemist  tend- 
and  it  necessarily  sui)poses  a  Church  legislating  for  all  enc^  is  still  more  apparent  in  the  last  proposition, 
the  fidthful,  passing  judgment  on  State  action — ^from  which  was  condemned  on  18  March,  1861:  "The  Bo- 
lts own  point  of  view  of  course — and  that  even  seeks  man  Pontiff  can  and  ought  to  conform  with  oonteok- 
alliance  with  the  civil  power  to  carry  on  the  work  of  porary  progress,  liberalism,  and  civilisation." 
the  Apostolate.  On  the  other  hand,  once  dogma  is  Taking  only  the  great  lines  of  the  modernist  move- 
held  to  be  a  mere  symbol  of  the  unknowable,  a  science^  ment  wiuiin  Uie  Church  itself,  we  may  sav  that  unda 
which  merely  deals  with  the  facts  of  nature  or  history  '  Pius  IX  its  tendency  was  politico-liberal,  under  Leo 
could  neither  oppose  it  nor  even  enter  into  controversy  XIII  and  Pius  X  social;  with  the  latter  pontiff'  still 
with  it.  If  it  IS  true  only  in  so  far  as  it  excites  and  reigning,  its  tendency  has  become  avowedly  theologicsL 
nourishes  religious  sentiment,  the  private  individual  is  It  is  m  France  and  Italy  above  all  that  modernism 
at  full  liberty  to  throw  it  aside  when  its  influence  on  him  properly  so-called,  that  is,  the  form  which  attacks  the 
has  ceased;  nay,  even  the  Church  herself,  whose  exist-  very  concept  of  religion  and  dogma,  has  spread  its 
ence  depends  on  a  dogma  not  different  from  the  others  ravages  among  Catholics.  Indeed,  some  time  after  the 
in  nature  and  origin,  has  ho  right  to  legislate  for  a  sdf-  pubhcation  ofthe  Encyclical  of  8th  September,  1907. 
sufficing  State.  And  thus  independence  is  fully  real-  the  German,  English,  and  Belgian  bishops  congratulated 
ized.  There  is  no  need  to  prove  that  the  modernist  themselves  that  their  respective  countries  had  been 
spirit  of  movement  and  evolution  is  in  perfect  har-  spared  the  epidemic  in  its  more  contagious  form.  Of 
mony  with  its  concept  of  ever-changing  dogma  and  is  course,  individual  upholders  of  the  new  error  are  to  be 
unintelligible  without  it;  the  matter  is  sdf-evident.  found  everywhere,  and  even  England  as  well  as  Ger^ 
Finally,  as  regards  the  conciliation  of  the  different  many  has  produced  modernists  of  note.  In  Italy,  on  the 
religions^  we  must  necessarily  distingiush  between  what  contrary,  even  before  the  Encyclical  appeared,  the 
is  essential  to  faith  regarded  as  a  sentiment,  and  beliefs  bishops  nave  raised  the  cry  of  alarm  in  their  pastoral 
which  areaccessory,  mutable,  and  practically  negli^ble.  letters  of  1906  and  1907.  Newspapers  and  reviews, 
If  therefore  you  go  as  far  as  making  the  Divinity  a  openly  modernist  in  their  opinions,  bear  witness  to  the 
belief,  that  is  to  say,  a  symbolical  expression  of  faith,  gravityof  the  danser  which  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  sought 
then  docility  in  foflowins  generous  impulses  may  be  to  avert.  After  Italy  it  is  France  that  has  furnished 
religious,  and  the  atheist^  religion  would  not  seem  to  the  largest  number  of  adherents  to  this  religious  reform 
differ  essentially  from  yours.  or  ultra-^progrefflive  party.    In  spite  of  the  notoriety 

Modernist  Propositionb  Explained  bt  itb  of  certain  individuals,  comparatively  few  laymen  have 
Essential  Error. — We  make  a  selection  of  the  fol-  joined  the  movement;  so  far  it  has  found  adherents 
lowing  propositions  from  the  Encyclical  for  discus-  chiefly  among  the  rankis  of  the  younger  dernr.  France 
sion:  (a)  the  Christ  of  faith  is  not  the  Christ  of  possesses  a  modernist  publishing  house  (La  librairie 
history.  Faith  portrays  Christ  according  to  the  re-  Nourry).  A  modernist  review  founded  by  the  late 
ligious  needs  of  the  faithful;  history  represents  Him  Father  TvrrelL  ''Nova  et  Vetera",  is  published  at 
as  He  really  was,  that  is,  in  so  far  as  His  appearance  Rome.  "La  Revue  Modemiste  Internationale"  was 
on  earth  was  a  concrete  phenomenon.  In  this  way  started  this  year  (1910)  at  Geneva.  This  monthly 
it  is  easy  to  understand  now  a  believer  may,  with-  periodical  calls  itself  "the  organ  of  the  international 
out  contradiction,  attribute  certain  things  to  Christ,  modernist  society".  It  is  open  to  every  shade  of 
and  at  the  same  time  deny  them  in  the  quality  of  modernist  opinions^and  claims  to  have  co-workers  and 
historian.  In  the  "Hibbert  Journal"  for  Jan.,  1909,  correspondents  in  France,  Italy,  Germany,  England, 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Robert  wished  to  call  the  Christ  of  Austria,  Hunganr,  Spain,  Belgium,  Russia,  Rumania, 
history  "Jesus"  and  reserve  "Christ"  for  the  same  and  America.  The  Encyclical  "Pascendi"  notes  ana 
person  as  idealized  by  faith;  (b)  Christ's  work  in  deplores  the  ardour  of  the  modernist  propaganda.  A 
founding  the  Church  and  instituting  the  sacraments  strong  current  of  modernism  is  ruiming  throu^  the 
was  mediate,  not  immediate.  The  main  point  is  to  Russian  Schismatic  Church.  The  Anglican  ^urch 
find  supports  for  the  faith.  Now,  as  religious  experi-  has  xiot  escaped.  And  indeed  liberal  Protestantism  is 
ence  succeeds  so  well  in  creating  useful  dogmas,  why  nothing  but  a  radical  form  of  modernism  that  ie  win- 
may  it  not  do  likewise  in  the  matter  of  institutions  ning  the  neater  number  of  the  theolofpans  of  the 
suited  to  the  age?  (c)  The  sacraments  act  as  eloquent  Reformed  Church.  Others  who  oppose  the  iimovation 
formulae  which  touch  the  soul  and  carry  it  away.  F^  find  refuge  in  the  authority  of  the  CathoKc  Church, 
cisdy;  for  if  dogmas  exist  onlv  in  so  far  as  they  preserve  The  Philosophical  Origin  and  Consbquenccs 
religious  sentiment,  what  other  service  can  one  expect  of  Modernism. — ( 1)  The  Origin, — Philosophy  renders 
of  the  sacraments?  (d)  The  Sacred  Books  are  in  every  great  service  to  the  cause  of  truth ;  but  error  calls  for  its 
religion  a  collection  of  religious  experiences  of  an  ex-  assistance  too.  Many  consider  the  philosophic  ground- 
traordinary  nature.  For  if  there  is  no  external  reve-  work  of  modernism  to  be  Kantian.  This  is  true,  if  by 
lation,  the  only  substitute  possible  is  the  subjective  re-  Kantian  philoeophv  is  meant  every  ^stem  that  has  a 
ligious  experience  of  men  of  particular  gifts,  experiences  root  connexion  with  the  philosophy  oi  the  Konigsberg 
such  as  are  worthy  of  being  preserved  for  the  community,  sage.    In  other  words,  the  basis  of  modernist  phDoeo- 

The  Modernist  Movement. — ^The  late  M.  P^rm  phy  is  Kantian  if,  because  Kant  is  its  father  and  most 

dated  the  modernist  movement  from  the  French  Revo-  illustrious  moderate  representative,  all  agnosticism 

lution.    And  rightly  so,  for  it  was  then  that  many  of  be  called  Kantism    (by   agnosticism  is  meant  the 

those  modem  liberties  which  the  Church  has  reproved  philosophy  which  denies  that  reason,  used  at  any 

as  unrestrained  and  ungovemed,  first  found  sanction,  rate  in  a  speculative  and  theoretical  way,  can  gain 

Several  of  the  propositions  collected  in  the  Syllabus  of  true  knowledge  of  suprasensible  things).     It  is  not 

Pius  IX,  although  enunciated  from  a  rationalist  point  our  business   here  to  oppose  the  appBcation  of  the 

of  view,  nave  been  appropriated  by  modernism.   Such,  name  Kantian  to  modernist  philoeophv.    Indeed  if  we 

for  example,  are  the  fourth  proposition,  which  derives  compare  the  two  ssrstems,  we  shall  find  that  th^  have 


MODXftNtStt                           419  MODEBNISM 

two  elements  in  common,  the  negative  part  of  the  with  an  activity  of  its  own,  and  tending  towards  its 
"Critique  of  Pure  Reason"  (which  reduces  pure  or  own  object.  However,  as  it  is  not  in  continual  activ- 
speculative  knowledge  to  phenomenal  or  experiential  ity,  it  is  not  self-sufficient;  it  has  not  in  itself  the  full 
intuition),  and  a  certain  argumentative  method  in  dis-  i>rinciple  of  its  operations,  but  is  forced  to  utilize  sen- 
tinguishing  do^ma  from  the  real  basis  of  religion.  On  sible  experience  m  order  to  arrive  at  knowledge.  This 
the  |)Ositive  side,  however,  modernism  diners  from  incompleteness  and  falling  short  of  perfect  autonomv 
Kantism  in  some  essential  points.  For  Kant,  faith  is  is  due  to  man's  very  nature.  As  a  consequence,  in  all 
a  really  rational  adhesion  of  the  mind  to  the  postulates  human  knowled|^  and  activitv,  account  must  be  taken 
of  practical  reason.  The  will  is  free  to  accept  or  reject  both  of  the  intnnsic  and  of  the  extrinsic  side.  Urged 
the  moral  law;  and  it  is  on  account  of  this  option  mat  on  by  the  finiditv  that  inspires  him,  man  tends  towuds 
he  calls  its  acceptance  ''belief".  Once  it  is  accepted,  those  objects  which  suit  nim^  while  at  the  same  time 
the  reason  cannot  but  admit  the  existence  of  God,  objects  offer  themselves  to  him.  In  the  supernatural 
liberty ,  and  immortality .  Modernist  faith,  on  the  other  hfe,  man  acquires  new  principles  of  action  and,  as  it 
hand,  is  a  matter  of  sentiment,  a  flinging  of  oneself  were,  a  new  nature.  He  is  now  capable  of  acts  of 
towards  the  Unknowable,  and  cannot  be  scientifically  whicn  God  is  the  formal  object.  These  acts^  however, 
justified  by  reason.  In  Kant's  system,  dogmas  and  must  be  proposed  to  man,  whether  God  deigns  to  do 
the  whole  positive  framework  of  religion  are  necessary  so  by  direct  revelation  to  man's  soul,  or  whether,  in 
only  for  the  childhood  of  humanity  or  for  the  common  conformity  with  man's  social  nature,  God  makes  use 
people.  They  are  symbols  that  bear  a  certain  analogy  of  intermediaries  who  communicate  exteriorly  with 
to  images  and  comparisons.  They  serve  to  inculcate  man.  Hence  the  necessity  of  preaching,  of  motives  of 
those  moral  precepts  that  for  Kant  constitute  religion,  credibility,  and  of  external  teaching  authority.  Cath- 
Modemist  symbols,  though  changeable  and  fleeting,  olic  philosoph}^  does  not  deny  the  soul's  spontaneous 
correspond  to  a  law  of  human  nature.  Generaliy  .  Ufe,  the  sublimity  of  its  suprasensible  and  supernatural 
speaking,  the^  help  to  excite  and  nourish  the  effective  operations,  and  the  inaaequacy  of  words  to  tran»- 
religious  sentiment  which  Kant  (who  knew  it  from  his  late  its  yearnings.  Scholastic  doctors  give  expre&- 
reading  of  the  pietists)  calls  schwdrmerei,  Kant,  as  a  sion  to  m3rstical  transports  far  superior  to  those  of  the 
rationalist,  rejects  supernatural  religion  and  prayer,  modernists.  But  in  their  philoeophv  they  never  forget 
The  modernists  consider  natural  religion  a  useless  the  lowliness  of  human  nature,  which  is  not  purely 
abstraction;  for  them  it  is  prayer  rather  that  consti-  spiritual.  The  modernist  remembers  only  the  internal 
tutes  the  very  essence  of  religion.  It  would  be  more  element  of  our  higher  activity.  This  absolute  and  ex- 
correct  to  say  that  modernism  is  an  offshoot  of  Schlei-  elusive  intrinsecism  constitutes  what  the  Encyclical 
ermacher  (1768-1834),  who  though  he  owed  some-  calls  "vital  immanence".  When  deprived  of  tne  ex- 
thing  to  Kant's  philosophy,  nevertheless  built  up  his  temal  support  which  is  indispensable  to  them,  the  acta 
own  theological  system.  Ritschl  called  him  the  "legiB-  of  the  higner  intellectual  faculties  can  only  consist  in 
lator  of  theology"  (Rechtf.  und  Vers.,  Ill,  p.  4^).  vague  sentiments  which  are  as  indetermmed  as  are 
Schleiermacher  conceives  the  modernist  plan  of  re-  those  faculties  themselves.  Hence  it  is  that  modernist 
forming  religion  with  the  view  of  conciliating  it  with  doctrines,  necessarily  expressed  in  terms  of  this  senti- 
Bcience.  Thus  would  he  establish  an  entente  cordiale  ment,  are  so  intangible.  Furthermore,  by  admitting 
among  the  various  cults,  and  even  between  religion  l^e  necessity  of  symbols,  modernism  makes  to  extrin- 
and  a  kind  of  religious  sentimentality  which,  without  secism  a  concession  which  is  its  own  refutation, 
recognizing  God.  yet  tends  towards  the  Good  and  the  (2)  The  Consequences. — ^The  fact  that  this  radi- 
Infinite.  Like  the  modernists,  he  has  dreams  of  new  cally  intrinsic  conception  of  the  spiritual  or  religious 
religious  apologetics;  he  wants  to  be  a  Christian;  he  activity  of  man  (this  perfect  autonomy  of  the  reason 
declares  himself  independent  of  all  philosophy;  he  re-  vis-drvis  of  what  is  exterior)  is  the  fundamental  philo- 
jects  natural  religion  as  a  pure  abstraction,  and  derives  sophical  conception  of  the  modernists,  as  the  altera- 
dogma  from  reli^ous  experience.  His  principal  writ-  tion  of  dogma  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  thdr 
ings  on  this  subject  are  ''Ueber  die  Religion''  (1799:  heresy,  can  be  shown  without  difficulty  by  deducting 
note  the  difference  between  the  first  and  the  later  from  it  their  entire  system  of  philosophy.  First  of  all, 
editions)  and  ''Der  Christliche  Glaube"  (1821-22).  of  their  agnosticism:  the  vague  nature  which  they 
Ritschl,  one  of  Kant's  disciples,  recognizes  the  New  attribute  to  our  faculties  does  not  permit  them,  with- 
Testament  as  the  historical  basis  of  religion.  He  sees  out  scientific  observation,  to  arrive  at  any  aefinito 
in  Christ  the  consciousness  of  an  intimate  union  with  intellectual  result.  Next,  of  their  evolutionism:  there 
God,  and  considers  the  institution  of  the  Christian  is  no  determined  object  to  assure  to  dogmatic  formulas 
religion,  which  for  him  is  inconceivable  without  faith  a  permanent  and  essential  meaning  compatible  with 
in  Christ,  as  a  special  act  of  God's  providence.  Thus  the  life  of  faith  and  progress.  Now,  from  the  moment 
has  be  prepared  the  way  for  a  form  of  modernism  more  that  these  formulse  simply  serve  to  nourish  the  vague 
temperate  than  that  of  Schleiermacher.  Though  he  sentiment  which  for  modernism  b  the  only  common 
predicted  a  continual  development  of  religion,  Schlei-  and  stable  foimdation  of  religion,  they  must  change 
ermacher  admitted  a  certain  fixity  of  dogma.  For  this  indefinitely  with  the  subjective  needs  of  the  behever. 
reason  it  seems  to  us  that  modernists  owe  their  radical  It  is  a  right  and  even  a  duty  for  the  latter  freely  to 
evolutionary  theory  to  Herbert  Spencer  (1820-1903).  interpret,  as  he  sees  fit,  religious  facts  and  doctnnes. 
It  was  through  the  writings  of  A.  Sabatier  (1839-  We  meet  here  with  the  a  7>ru>ris7n«  to  which  the  Encyc- 
1901),  a  French  Protestant  of  the  Broad  Church  t3rpe.  lical  "  Pascendi"  drew  attention. 
that  the  religious  theories  we  have  spoken  of,  spread  We  wish  to  insist  a  little  on  the  grave  consequence 
among  the  Latin  races,  in  France  and  in  Italy.  It  is  in  that  this  Encyclical  puts  especially  before  our  eyes, 
these  countries,  too,  that  modernism  has  done  greatest  In  many  ways,  modernism  seems  to  be  on  the  swift 
harm  among  the  Catholics.  Sabatier  is  a  radical  incline  which  leads  to  pantheism.  It  seems  to  be 
modernist.  He  has  especially  drawn  upon  Schleier-  there  on  account  of  ite  symbolism.  After  all,  is  not 
macher  for  the  composition  of  his  two  works  on  reli-  the  affirmation  of  a  personal  God  one  of  these  dog- 
^ous  S3mthesis  (''Esquisse  d'une  philosophic  de  la  matic  formulae  which  serve  only  as  symbolic  expressions 
religion  d'apr^  la  psychologic  et  I'histoire",  Paris,  of  the  religious  sentiment?  Does  not  the  Divine  Per- 
1897;  ''Les  religions  d'autorit^  et  la  religion  de  sonality  then  become  something  uncertain?  Hence 
r^prit",  Paris,  1902).  radical  modernism  preaches  union  and  friendship. 
The  fundamental  error  of  the  modernist  philosophy  even  with  mystical  atheism.  Modernism  is  inclined 
is  its  misunderstanding  of  the  scholastic  formula  wnich  to  pantheism  also  by  its  doctrine  of  Divine  Iinma- 
takes  account  of  the  two  aspects  of  human  knowledge,  nence,  that  is,  of  the  intimate  presence  of  God  within 
Doubtless,  the  human  mind  is  a  vital  faculty  endowed  us.    Does  this  God  declare  Himself  as  distinot  from 


M0DEBNZ8M                           420  M0DEBNI8M 

OS?  If  80y  one  must  not  then  oppoae  the  position  of  explanation  oi  the  origin  of  modernist  errors.  Both 
modernism  to  the  Catholic  position  and  reject  exterior  have  too  long  confined  themselves  to  answers  which, 
revelation.  But  if  God  declares  Himself  as  not  dis-  though  fundamentally  correct,  are  but  little  suited  to 
tinct  from  us,  the  position  of  modernism  becomes  the  mentality  of  our  adversaries,  and  are  formulatoi 
openly  pantheistic.  Such  is  the  dilemma  proposed  in  a  language  which  they  do  not  understand  and  which 
in  the  Encyclical.  Modernism  is  pantheistic  also  is  no  longer  to  the  point.  Instead  of  utilizing  what  is 
by  its  doctrine  of  science  and  faith.  Faith  having  quite  legitimate  in  their  positive  and  critical  tenden- 
for  object  the  Unknowable  cannot  make  up  for  the  cies,  thev  have  only  considered  them  as  so  many  ab- 
want  of  proportion  that  modernists  put  between  the  normal  leanings  that  must  be  opposed  .  .  ."  (Gau- 
intellect  and  its  object.  Henoe,  for  the  believer  as  deau,  '^La  Foi  Catholique'\  I,  pp.  62-65).  Another 
well  as  for  the  philosopher,  this  object  remains  un-  point  is  that  the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  movement  of 
known.  Why  should  not  this  "Unknowable"  be  the  contemporaryphiloeophy  has  been  too  much  despi^ 
very  soul  of  the  world?  It  is  pantheistic  also  in  its  or  isnored  in  Catholic  schools.  They  have  not  given 
wa^  of  reasoning.  Indep^dent  of  and  superior  to  it  that  partial  recognition  which  b  quite  consonant 
religious  formuke,  the  religious  sentiment  on  the  one  with  the  best  scholastic  tradition:  "In  this  way,  we 
hand  orixinates  them  and  gives  them  their  entire  have  failed  to  secure  a  real  point  of  contact  between 
value,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  neglect  them.  Catholic  and  modem  thought''  (Gaudeau,  ibid.).  For 
it  must  expresB  itself  in  them  and  by  them;  they  are  lack  of  professors  who  knew  how  to  mark  out  the  act- 
its  reality.  But  we  have  here  the  ontology  of  panthe-  ual  patn  of  religious  science,  many  cultured  minds, 
ism,  which  teaches  that  the  principle  does  not  exist  especially  among  the  young  cleivy,  found  themselves 
outside  of  the  expression  that  it  nves  itself.  In  the  defenceless  against  an  error  whicnseduced  them  by  its 
pantheist  philosophy.  Being  or  the  Idea,  God,  is  before  speciousness  and  by  any  element  of  truth  contained 
the  world  and  superior  to  it,  He  creates  it.  and  yet  He  in  its  reproaches  against  the  Catholic  schools.  It  is 
has  no  reality  outside  the  world;  the  world  is  the  reali-  scholasticism  ill-understood  and  calumniated  that  has 
zation  of  God.  incurred  this  disdain.  And  for  the  pope,  this  is  one 
Thb  Pstcholoqical  Causes  of  Modernism. —  of  the  immediate  causes  of  modernism:  ^'Modem- 
Curiosity  and  pride  are,  according  to  the  Encyclical  ism",  he  says,  ''is  nothing  but  the  union  of  the  faith 
"Pascendi'',  two  remote  causes.  Nothing  is  truer:  with  false  philosophy".  Cardinal  Mercier,  on  the 
but,  apart  from  offering  an  explanation  common  to  sdi  occasion  of  nis  first  solemn  visit  to  the  Catholic  Uni- 
ho^tical  obstinacy,  we  ask  ourselves  here  why  this  versity  of  Louvain  (8  December,  1907),  addreas>ed  the 


vigorously 

ity  of  the  present  generation.    Inclined  to  doubt,  and  calm  examination  oi  facts,  you  have  both  preserved 

distrustful  of  what  is  affirmed,  men's  minds  t^id  of  our  Alma  Mater  from  the  strayings  of  modernism  and 

their  own  accord  to  minimize  the  value  of  dogmatic  have  secured  for  her  the  advanta^  of  modem  scien- 

definitions.    Men  are  struck  by  the  diversity  of  the  tific  methods."     ^''Annuaire  de  I  Univerat^  Catholi- 

relisions  which  exist  on  tJiie  face  of  the  earth.    The  que  de  Louvwn'%   1908,  p.  XXV,  XXVI.)     Saint 

Catholic  religion  is  no  longer,  in  their  eyes,  as  it  was  in  Augustine  (De  Genesi  contra  Manicheos,  I,  Bk.  Li) 

the  eyes  of  our  ancestors^e  morally  universal  religion  in  a  text  that  has  passed  into  the  Corpus  Juris  Ca- 

of  cultured  humanity.    They  have  been  shown  the  in-  nonici  (c.  40,  c.  xxiv,  q.  3)  had  already  spoken  as  fol- 

fluence  of  race  on  the  diffusion  of  the  Gospel.    They  lows:  "Divme  Providence  suffers  many  heretics  of  one 

have  been  shown  the  good  sides  of  other  cults  and  be-  kind  or  another,  so  that  their  challenges  and  thdr 

liefs.    Our  pontemporaries  find  it  hard  to  believe  that  questions  on  doctrines  that  we  are  ignorant  of,  may 

the  greater  part  or  humanity  is  plunged  in  error,  es-  force  us  to  arise  from  our  indolence  and  stir  us  with  the 

peciaily  if  they  are  ignorant  that  the  Catholic  religion  desire  to  know  Holy  Scripture. "    From  another  point 

teaches  that  the  means  of  salvation  are  at  the  dis-  of  view,  modernism  marks  a  religious  reaction  against 

posal  of  those  who  err  in  ^ood  faith.    Hence  they  are  materialism  and  positivism,  both  of  which  fail  to  satisfy 

mclined  to  overlook  doctrinal  divergencies  in  order  to  the  soul's  longing.    This  reaction  however,  for  reasons 

insist  on  a  certain  fundamental  conformity  of  tenden-  that  have  just  been  given,  strays  from  the  right  path, 

cies  and  of  aspirations.  Pontifical  Documents  concbrnino  Modernism. 

Then  again  they   are  moved  by  sentiments  of  — ^The  semi-rationalism  of  several  modernists,  such  as 

liberaUsm  and  moderation,  which  reduce  the  impor-  Loisy  for  instance,  had  already  been  condemned  in  the 

tance  of  formal  religion,  as  they  see  in  the  various  cults  Syllabus;  several  canons  of  the  Vatican  Council  on  the 

only  private  opinions  which  chsmge  with  time  and  possibility  of  knowing  God  through  his  creatures,  on 

place,  and  whicn  merit  an  equal  respect  from  all.    In  the  distinction  between  faith  and  science,  on  the  sub- 

the  West,  where  people  are  of  a  more  practical  turn,  a  ordination  of  human  science  to  Divine  revelation,  on 

non-intellectual  interest  explains  the  success  of  here-  the  unchangeableness  of  dogma.^  deal  in  a  siniilar 

sies  which  win  a  certain  popularity.    Consider  the  strain  with  the  tenets  of  moofemism.    The  following 

countries  in  which  modernism  is  chiefly  promulgated:  are  the  principal  decrees  or  documents  express! v  di- 

Franoe  and  Italy.    In  these  two  countries,  and  espe-  rected  against  modernism.     (1)  The  pope  s  address 

cially  in  Italy,  ecclesiastical  authority  has  imposed  on  17  April.  1907,  to  the  newly-created  cardinals.     It 

social  and  political  directions  which  call  for  the  sacri-  is  a  rdsume  which  anticipates  the  Encyclical  '*  Pas- 

fice  of  humanitarian  and  patriotic  ideas  or  dreams.  cendi'\     (2)  A  letter  from  the  Congregation  of  the 

That  there  are  important  reasons  for  such  commands  Index  of  29  April,  1907.  to  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 

does  not  prevent  discontent.    The  majority  of  men  Milan  with  regard  to  toe  review  "II  Rinnovamento''. 

have  not  enough  virtue  or  nobility  to  sacrifice  for  long.  In  it  we  find  more  concrete  notions  of  the  tendencies 

to  higher  duties,  a  cause  which  touches  their  interest  or  which  the  popes  condemn.    The  letter  even  goes  so 

whi(£  engages  their  S3rmpathy.    Hence  it  is  that  some  far  as  to  mention  the  names  of  Fogazzaro,  Father  Tyr- 

Catholics,  who  are  not  quite  steady  in  their  faith  and  rell,  von  HUgeL  and  the  Abbate  Murri.     (3)  Letters 

religion,  attempt  to  revolt,  and  count  themselves  fortu-  from  Pius  X,  6  May,  1907,  to  the  archbishops  and 

nate  in  having  some  doctrinal  pretexts  to  cover  their  bishops  and  to  the  patrons  of  the  Catholic  Institute  of 

secession.  Paris.    It  shows  forth  clearly  the  great  and  twofold 

The  founder  of  the  periodical  "La  Foi  Catholique",  care  of  Pius  X  for  the  restoration  of  sacred  studies 

a  review  started  for  the  purpose  of  combating  modem-  and  Scholastic  philosophy,  and  for  the  safeguarding 

isin,  adds  this  explanation  :'^The  insufficient  cultivation  of  the  clergy.     (4)  The  decree  "Lamentabiii"'  of  the 

of  Catholic  philosophy  and  science  is  the  second  deep  Holy  Office,  3-4  July,  1907,  condemmng  65  distinct 


MODiaUANA 


421 


MODiaUANA 


pn^tofiitioQs.  (5)  The  injunction  of  the  Hdy  Office, 
'^Recentisaimo'^;  of  28  August,  1907,  which  with  a 
view  to  remedying  the  evil,  enjoins  certain  prescrip- 
tions  upon  biwops  and  superiors  of  religious  orders. 
(6)  The  Encyclical  "Pascendi",  of  8  Sept..  1907,  of 
which  we  shall  speak  later  on.  (7)  Three  letters  of 
the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State,  of  2  and  10  Octo- 
ber, and  of  5  November,  1907,  on  the  attendance  of 
the  clergy  at  secular  universities,  urging  the  execu- 
tion of  a  general  regulation  of  1896  on  this  subject. 
The  Encyclical  had  extended  this  regulation  to  the 
whole  Church.  (8)  The  condemnation  by  the  Car- 
dinal-Vicar of  Rome  of  the  pamphlet  '^11  programma 
dei  modemisti'^  and  a  decree  of  29  October,  1907, 
declaring  the  excommunication  of  its  authors,  with 
special  reservations.  (9)  The  decree  Motu  Proprio 
or  18  Nov.,  1907,  on  the  value  of  the  decisions  of  the 
Biblical  Commission,  on  the  decree  ''Lamentabili", 
and  on  the  Encyclical  **  Pascendi ".  These  two  docu- 
ments are  a^ain  confirmed  and  upheld  by  ecclesi- 
astical penalties.  (10)  The  address  at  the  Consistory 
of  16  Dec,  1907.  (11)  The  decree  of  the  Holy  Office 
of  13  Feb.,  1908,  in  condemnation  of  the  two  news- 

Eapers,  ''La  Justice  sociale''  and  "La  Vie  Catho- 
que '' .  Since  then  several  condemnations  of  the  books 
have  appeared.  (12)  The  Encyclical ''  Editce ' '  of  26 
M  av,  1910,  renewed  the  previous  condemnations.  (13) 
Still  stronger  is  the  tone  of  the  Motu  Proprio  ''Sacro- 
rum  Antistitum",  of  1  September,  1910,  aeclared  (14) 
by  a  decree  of  the  Consistorial  Congregations  of  25 
September,  1910.  Tliis  Motu  Proprio  inveighs  against 
modernist  obstinacy  and  specious  cunning.  After 
having  quoted  the  practical  measures  prescribed  in  the 
Encyclical  ''Pascendi",  the  pope  urges  their  execu- 
tion, and,  at  the  same  time,  makes  new  directions 
concerning  the  formation  of  the  clergy  in  the  semina- 
ries and  religious  houses.  Candidates  for  higher 
orders,  newly  appointed  confessors,  preachers,  parish 
priests,  canons,  the  beneficed  clergy,  the  bishop's  staff, 
Lenten  preachers,  the  officials  of  the  Roman  con- 
gregations, or  triounals,  superiors  and  professors  in 
religious  congregations,  all  are  obliged  to  swear  accord- 
ing to  a  formula  which  reprobates  the  principal  modern- 
ist tenets.  (15)  The  pope's  letter  to  Prof.  Decurtins 
on  literary  modernism.  (All  these  documents  are 
contained  in  Vermeersch,  op.  cit.  infra.) 

These  acts  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  disciplinaiy 
character  (the  Motu  Proprio  of  September,  1910,  is 
clearly  of  the  same  nature);  the  decree  "Lamenta^ 
bili"  IS  entirely  doctrinal;  the  Encyclical  "Pascendi" 
and  the  Motu  Proprio  of  18  March,  1907,  axe  both 
doctrinal  and  disciplinary  in  character.  Writers  do 
not  agree  as  to  the  authority  of  the  two  principal 
documents;  the  decree  "  Lamentabili "  and  the  Encyc- 
Ucal  "Pascendi".  In  the  present  writer's  opinion, 
since  the  new  confirmation  accorded  to  these  decrees 
by  the  Motu  Proprio,  they  contain  in  their  doc- 
trinal conclusions  the  infallible  teaching  of  the  Vicar 
of  Jesus  Christ.  (For  a  more  moderate  opinion  cf. 
Choupin  m  "Etudes",  Paris,  CXIV,  p.  119-120.) 
The  aecree  "Lamentabili"  has  been  called  the  new 
SyUabuSj  because  it  contains  the  proscription  by  the 
Holy  Office  of  65  propositions,  which  may  be  grouped 
under  the  followmg  heads:  Prop.  1-8,  errors  con- 
cerning the  teaching  of  the  Church;  Prop.  9-19, 
errors  concerning  the  inspiration,  truth,  and  study  of 
Holy  Writ,  especiaUy  the  Gospels;  Prop-  20-36, 
errors  oonoeming  revelation  and  dogma;  Prop.  27- 
28j  Christological  errors;  Prop.  39^51,  errors  rel- 
ative to  the  sacraments;  Prop.  52-57,  errors  con- 
cerning the  institution  ana  organization  of  the  Church ; 
I^p.  58-65,  errors  on  doctrinal  evolution.  The 
Encyclical  "Pascendi"  in  the  introduction  laid  bare 
the  gravity  of  the  dan^r,  pointed  out  the  necessity  of 
firm  and  decisive  action,  and  approved  of  the  title 
"Modernism"  for  the  new  errors.  It  gives  us  first  a 
very    methodical    exposition    of    modenuam;  next 


follows  its  general  condemnation  with  a  word  as  to 
corollaries  that  may  be  drawn  from  the  heresy.  The 
pope  then  goes  on  to  examine  the  causes  and  the 
effects  of  modernism,  and  finally  seeks  the  necessary 
remedies.  Their  application  he  endeavours  to  put 
into  practice  by  a  series  of  energetic  measures.  An 
urgent  appeal  to  the  bishops  fittingly  closes  this  strik- 
ing document. 

FBOTsaTANT  SouBCBB. — Kant,  Die  Rdioion  innerhaBt  der  Grer^ 
ten.  der  reinen  Vemunfl  (2nd  ed.,  1794) ;  Fichte,  Vertueh  einer 
KriUik  aUer  Offenbaruna  (1792);  Schlbikrhacbcb,  Uther  die 
Religion,  Reden  an  die  Qdnldeten  unter  ihren  VerOehtem  (4th  ed., 
1831);  IDBM,  Der  dirietliehe  Olaube  nach  den  QrundedUen  der 
eeangdiechen  Kirche,  im  Zuaammenhang  dargeetelU  (1811-22; 
6th  ed..  1884);  Schkluno,  VorUeungen  liber  die  Methode  dee 
akademieehen  Studiume  (3rd  ed.,  1830);  Hbqel,  Vorlesungen 
Hber  die  Philoeophie  der  Retigion  (1832),  in  vols.  XI  and  XII  of  hia 
complete  worka;  Ritbchl,  Albrbcht,  Die  cKriatliehe  Lehre  von  der 
RedUfertigung  und  Veredhnung  (3  vols..  1870-1874) ;  lone,  Theo- 
logie  und  Metaf^yeik  (1881) ;  Hericann,  Die  Oetoiaeheit  dee  Olaur 
bene  und  die  Freiheit  der  Theologie  (2nd  ed.,  1889);  LxpsruB, 
DogmatieeKe  BeitrOge  (1878);  Ioem,  Pkiloaoj^ne  wtd  Religion 
(1885) ;  Lanqe,  Oeaehichte  dee  Materialiemue  (4th  part,  3rd  ed., 
1876) ;  ScBWARZ,  Zur  OeechiefUe  der  neueaten  Theologie  (3rd  ed., 
1864) ;  Euckbn:  from  among  hia  numeroua  works  on  the  subject 
we  may  mention  Der  WahrheitegehaU  der  Rdigion  (1901);  Prxxx- 
DBRER,  Die  Religion^  ihr  Weeen  und  ihre  Qeeehichte  (2nd  vol.,  1869) ; 
Idem,  Qrundriee  der  chriaUichen  Glaubena-  und  SiUenlehere  (1880) 
Idem,  Bnitnckelung  der  proleetantieehen  The<Uogie  aeit  Kant  (18921 
Sabatibr,  Baouisae  dkune  phihaophie  de  la  religion  aprie  I 
phihaophie  H  Vhietoire  (1897) ;  Idem,  Lee  religione  d'aulonU  H  la 
religion  de  Veeprit  [poathumousj  (1902) ;  Hamilton.  Diaetueion  on 
Philoeophu  and  Ltterature  (3rd  ed.,  1866) ;  Campbell,  The  New 
Theology  (London.  1907) ;  Habnacx,  Dae  Weeen  dee  Chrietenlume 
fenlargod  ed..  Jena,  19()6);  Gore  (anti-modemiBt),  The  New 
Theciogy  and  the  Old  Religion  (London,  1907)  ;  Haklutt 
(anti-modernist).  Liberal  Theology  and  the  Qround  of  Pailh  (Lon- 
don, 1908);  Pother  TyrreWe  Modemiem:  an  expoeUory  critieiem 
of  "  Through  Scylla  and  Charybdia"  in  an  open  letter  to  Mr.  Athel- 
etan  Riley  (London,  1909). 

MoDERNiBT  Sources. — Mxtrri,  Peieologia  della  rdigione,  ruda 
ed  appunti,  published  under  the  pseudonym  of  Sostene  Gelli 
(Rome,  1905) ;  Idem,  Democraeia  e  christianeeimo:^  Idem.  /  prin^ 
dpi  eomuni  in  Programma  della  aocietA  regionale  di'euUitra  (Rome, 
1906) ;  Idem,  La  Vita  religioea  ne<  eriatianeeimo:  Diaeorei  (Rome, 
1907) ;  Idem,  La  filoaofia  nuova  e  Venciclica  eontro  il  modemiema 
(Rome,  1908) ;  Fooazzaro,  Tl  Santo  (Milan,  1905) ;  Tl  Programma 
dei  Modemidi.  Riapoela  alV  Bneicliea  di  Pio  X,  "  Paaeendi  Domi" 
niei  gregia*'  (Rome.  1908);  VoaRXNBC.  Noatra  maxima  eulpaf 
Die  bedrdngte  Lage  der  katholiaehen  Kirehe,  deren  Uraaehen  und 
VoraehlOge  eur  Beaaerung  (Vienna  and  Leipsig,  1904);  LoisTp 
VEvangile  et  VSgliae  (Paris.  1902) ;  Idem,  Autour  d'un  petit  livra 
(Paris,  1903) ;  Idem,  SimpUa  riflexione  aur  le  dicrel  du  SaintrOffiee 
**  Lamentabili  eane  exitu  ",  et  eur  VBneydique  "Paeeendi  Dominid 
gregia"  (Ceffonds,  1908);  Lerot,  Dogma  et  critique  (Paris)  [la 
referring  to  this  book,  which  has  been  condemned,.we  ao  not  wish 
to  make  any  reflexion  on  the  Catholicity  of  the  author] ;  Ttbrell* 
Lex  orandi  (London,  New  York,  Bomoay.  1906) ;  Idem.  A  eonflr- 
dential  letter  to  a  friend  who  ia  a  profeaaor  of  anthropology.  It.  tr. 
(inaccurate)  in  II  Corriere  deOa  Sera  (1  Jan.,  1906);  Lettere  to  Hi9 
Holineaa  Pope  Piua  X  bya  Modernist  (Chicago.  1910). 

Cathouc  Sources.— -PoRTAui,  Dogme  et  Hiatoire  in  BuUeHn 
de  Utttrature  ecdlaiaatique  (Feb.  to  March,  1904);  Catallantx, 
Modemiemo  e  Modemieti  (Brescia,  1907) ;  Mercibr,  Le  moder* 
niame,  «a  poaition  via^-^tia  de  la  eeience,  ea  eondamnation  par  U  Pape 
Pie  X  (Brussels,  1908) ;  de  Tonquedec,  La  notion  de  vMU  done 
la  philoeophie  nouvelle  (Paris,  1908);  Lepin,  Chriatologie:  Comr- 
mentaire  dee  propoaitiona  S7-S8  du  dieret  du  S.  Office  "  LamentabiW* 
(Paris,  1908);  Lebrbton,  Vencydique  d  la  tMologie  modemiata 
(Paris,  1908);  Gaudaud,  Lee  erreura  du  Modemieme  in  La  foi 
catholtque  (1908,  1909) ;  Pesch,  Theologiaehe  ZeUfragen,  Glaube^ 
Dogmen  und  geachichtliehen  Tataaehen.  Bine  Unterauehung  Uber  def^ 
Modemiemua,  4th  series  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1908) ;  Heinbr, 
Der  neue  Syllabua  Piua  X  (Mains.  1908) ;  Micheutscr,  Der  neua 
SyUabua  (Gras  and  Vienna.  1008);  Kneib,  Weeen  undBedevtung 
der  Eneydika  gegen  den  Modemiemua  (Mains.  1908) ;  Qodrtes, 
The  dodrine  of  Modemiem  ajid  Ua  refutation  (Philadelphia,  1906) ; 
RicKABY,  The  Modernist  (London,  190S);  Maumus.  Lea  moder- 
nidee  (Paris,  1909);  Vermeersch.  De  modemiemo  tradalue  et 
nota  eanoniea  cum  Adia  S.  Sedia  a  17  April,  1907  ad  £6  Sept.,  1910 
(Bruges,  1910). 

A.  Vermeersch. 

Modigliana,  Diocese  of  (Mutilianensis),  in  the 
Province  of  Florence,  in  Tuscany.  The  city  is  situated 
on«the  banks  of  the  Tramazzo,  and  is  the  Castrum 
Mutilum  of  Livy.  In  the  ninth  century  it  was  owned 
by  the  counts  of  Ravenna;  later  it  was  ruled  by  the 
Guidi  until  1377,  when  it  owed  allegiance  to  the  Flor- 
entines. The  academy  of  the  Incamminati  flourished 
there  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  episcopal  see 
dates  only  from  1850  and  was  at  first  sufTrasan  of 
Faenza.  The  cathedral,  originally  a  collegiate  cnurch. 
was  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  was  dedicated 
by  Julius  II.  The  first  bishop  was  Mario  MeUni.  Tho 


MODBA                              422  MOHAMffKDAH 

diocese  is  now  suffragan  of  Florence;  has  84  parishes,  bers  the  total  membership  at  170,000,000.      Leaving 

46,200  parishioners;  two  religious  houses  of  men,  ana  aside  the  excellent  administrative  and  financial  oipui- 

seven  of  women;  one  school  for  boys,  and  three  for  ization  of  the  confraternities,  we  will  here  discuss  only 

gills.  their  religious  side. 

Cappblubtti,  Le  ChieM  d'ltaluh  X^^I  (Venice,  1857).  As  is  well  known,  at  the  call  of  the  muezzins  every 

U.  Benioni.  Mohammedan    is    bound    to    recite    dadly    certain 

prayers  at  stated  hours.    The  khouans   are  also 

Modra,  a  titular  see  of  Bithynia  Secunda,  suffragan  tx)und  to  follow  these  prayers  with  others,  peculiar 

of  Nic»a.    The  city  of  Modra  figures  only  m  Strabo  to  their  association.    Among  the  chief  of  these  is  a 

(XII,  543),  who  places  it  in  Phrypa  Epicteta,  at  the  kind   of  litany,    called   dikr   (repeated   utterance), 

sources  of  the  GsJlus.    It  was  probably  situated  at  or  for  which  a  chaplet  is  used.    Fundamentally,  it  is 

near  Aine  Gueul,  in  the  vilay^et  of  Broussa.    The  the  same  for  all  the  orders,  but  with  slight  variations, 

region  is  called  Medrena  by  Theophanee  the  Chro-  by  which  the  initiated  are  enabled  to  reooenize  each 

nographer  and  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (De  the-  other  easily.    In  genenJ,  it  contains  the  Blohamme- 

mat.,  vi).    Several  "Notitiae  episcopatuum"  mention  dan  symbol  or  Credo:  "There  is  no  God  but  the  true 

the  See  of  Medrenaj  or  Mela,    The  name  of  this  sec-  God'*^  (La  ilaha  HV  Allah,  literally,  "No  god  except 

ond  place  is  also  wntten  Melina,  and  was  called  for  a  God*Oi   which  is  repeated,  say  a  hundred  times, 

time  Justinianopolis  Nova  in  honour  of  Justinian.   As  Other  terse  phrases  or  invocations  are  added,  such 

from  the  twelfth  century  we  find  only  Meladina,  Me-  as  "God  sees  me",  "God  pardon",  part  of  a  verse 

langeia.  or  Melania,  it  is  evident  that  the  earlier  Mela  of  the  Koran,  or  names  of  the  Divine  attributes,  as 

is  the  Malagina  often  mentioned  by  Byzantine  his-  "O  Living  One",  a  hundred  times,  or  simply  the 

torians  as  the  first  large  station  of  the  imperial  armies  syllable  Houa  (Him).    When  the  recitation  in  chonu 

in  Asia  Minor  on  the  road  from  Constantinople  to  liieoomes  accelerated,  the  svUables  of  La  Uaha  iU* 

Dorylsum,  and  an  important  strategic  point.    This  AUah  are  gradually  reduced  to  la  hou,  la  ha,  la  hiy 

city  must  have  been  located  between  Lefke  and  Vezir-  or  even  hou,  ha,  hi,  or  Aou-Aou.    The  phrase  La  ilaha, 

khan,  two  railway  stations  on  the  Constantinople-  etc.,  must  be  repeated  by  the  Kadriya  one  hundred 

Bagdad  line.    The  bishops  recorded  are:  Macedonius  and  sbcty-five  times  after  each  of  the  five  daily 

of  Justinianopolis  Nova,  present  at  the  Council  of  prayers;  by  the  Kersazya,  five  hundred  times;  for 

Constantinople  (555);  Theodorus  of  Justinianopolis  the  Aissaoua,  the  daily  total  of  repetitions  is  thirteen 

Nova  or  Mela,  present  at  Constantinople  (680) ;  Neo-  thousand  and  six  hundred.    Many  of  the  conf  rster- 

tariuB,  or  Nioetas  of  Mela,  present  at  Nicsea  (787);  Con-  nities  have  m^ical  tendencies,  and  make  it  their 

stantius  of  Mela,  present  at  Constantinople  (869):  object  to  attam,  on  certain  days  and  during  certain 

Paulof  Mela,  present  at  Constantinople  (879)  J  John  of  moments,  a  profound  union  with  God.    This  union 

Malagina  (1256);  Constantine  of  Melangeia  (thi>  (Otisdi),  which  is  described  by  the  Persian  and  Hindu 

teentn  century) ;  N.  of  Melaneia  (1401).  sufi  of  the  ninth  century,  resembles  the  Nirvana  of  the 

Ramjay,  A»ia  MincTj.  202  sq.    See  «1bo  Xaiithopoux/»  in  fiuddhists.    It  is  the  annihilation  of  the  personaUty 

IPdU»iiron«FK,V  (1901-2).  161  eq.                     P£rami»  bytheidentification(cOomortttiAdd)of  the  subject  with 

God.     Sidi-abd-el-Kader-d-Djilani  prodwoned  that 

ModrosB.    See  Zenoq,  Diocese  of.  "happiness  is  in  unconsciousness  of  existence".  Sheikh 

..       ^             «      r^                    A  Senoussi  defined  ecstasy  as  "the  annihilation  of  a 

MoeUer,  Henrt.    See  Cincinnati,  Archdiocebb  ^^^^^g  individualit3r  in  the  Divine  Essence",  and  Abd- 

OF.  el-Kerim  summed  it  up  in  two  words,  "unconscious- 
Mohammedan  Confratemltlas.— The  countries  ness  and  insensibibty'\  Such  teaching  cannot  shock 
where  Mohammedanism  prevails  are  fuU  of  reUgious  Mussulmans,  for  they  venerate  madmen  as  samts 
associations,  more  or  less  wrapped  in  secrecy,  which  and  beheve  that  God  dwells  m  empty  brains,  which 
are  also  political,  and  which  may  prove  troublesome  explams  why  they  allow  demented  persons  a  bbcrty 
at  some  future  time.  The  oldest  of  them,  the  Kadriya,  wWch,  to  us,  seems  excessive.  Sometimes  the  im- 
dates  from  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era,  havmg  tiated  person  endeavours  to  obtam  umon  with  the 
been  called  into  existence  by  the  necessity  of  united  founder  of  his  order,  whom  he  r^ards  as  a  superwr 
counsels  in  order  to  make  head  against  the  Crusades,  emanation  of  the  Godhead  and  His  all-poweiful 
The  name  given  to  it  was  that  of  its  founder,  the  intermediary.  In  this  wajr  Refaya  are  made. 
Persian  Sidi-abd-eUKader-el-Djilani,  who  died  at  As  to  the  method  of  amvinp  at  this  pseudo-ecstatic 
Bagdad  in  1166.  His  disciples  speak  of  him  as  "The  union:  Sufism,  which  preceded  the  confraternities, 
Sultan  of  the  Saints".  One  of  the  more  recent  asso-  and  from  which  many  of  them  are  derived,  was  con- 
ciation,  and  a  verv  aggressive  one,  is  that  of  the  tent  to  teach  the    moral  method  of  renunciation- 


them  allowing  them  to  keep  their  own  names,  matic  system  or  an  orgamsation.  The  oonfratei^ 
doctiines,  usages,  and  privileges.  The  rallying  nities  added  special  exercises,  and  in  this  lies  the 
•     •-*-••  ••     ..      .    i^_.__j  _*  i-«-_;-x: great  difference  from  Christian  mysticLsm.    Thelatt^ 

confesses  the  impossibility  of  attaining  a  true  mysti- 
cal state  b}[  ones  own  efforts;  God  must  produce  it, 
and  then  it  comes  unexpectedly,  whether  during 
irayer  or  in  the  midst  of  some  indifferent  occupation. 

^^^^^^  w„w .    ..-.-   ,.    ^he  Mussulman  thinlcs  otherwise:  there  is  a  pnyacal 

Christiansri  wiff  break' thein  all  with  one  blow",  process  which  consists  in  the  manner  of  reciting  the 
Those  affiliated  to  the  confraternities  are  called  dikr  in  common  and  which  takes  effect  eaijecially  on 
khouans  (brethren)  in  North  Africa;  dervishes  (poor  Friday,  the  weekly  holy  day  of  Idam. ,  There  are 
men)  in  Turkey  and  Central  Asia;  fo^^^  (b^ars)  in  various  prescriptions  as  to  how  the  breath  shouki  be 
India;  mourids  (disciples)  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  held  and  its  respiration  prolonged.  A  more  important 
Syria.  Since  the  conquest  of  Algeria  by  the  French  detail  is  the  exhausting  bodily  exercise  which  is 
(1830)  the  reaction  has  resulted  in  an  immense  devel-  enjoined  to  produce  a  kmd  of  vertigo  or  hystencal 
opment  of  confraternities  in  all  Mohammedan  intoxication,  followed  either  by  convulsions  or  by 
countries.  Except  among  the  wealthy  and  sceptical  extreme  weakness.  Thus,  among  the  Kadriya,  says 
of  the  great  cities,  very  few  Mussulmans  escape  the  Le  Chatelier,  "the  khouans  give  themselves  up  to » 
infection  of  this  movement,  and  M.  Pommeroi  num-    rl^hmical  and  gradually  acedonted  swajying  of  the 


■OHAHUDAN                        423  KOHABIK]a>AN 

iniper  part  of  the  body  which  m 

of  the  cerebro-epinal  system. ,  „  .  , 

fluence  <rf  thia  purely  phvmcal  cause  and  the  con-  preaidinK  aheikh,  the  khouans,  at  a  given  signal, 

centiatioD  of  all  the  iatdlectual  fscultiea  upon  the  pierce   their  hands,   arms,   and   cheeks   with   darts. 

same  idea,  that  of  the  majesty  of  Oodj  the  phenomena  Otheia  slash  their  throats  or  bellies  with  eabrea. 

of  religious  hystena  are  produced  m  many  of  the  Some  crunch  pieofs  of  glass  between  their  teeth, 

adepts.  .  .  .  They  are  much  in  evidence  in  the  eon-  eat   venomoua    creatures,    or    chew   cactus    leaves 

Tents  of  the  order"  (p.  29).    The  founder  had  pre-  bristling  with  thorns.    All,  one  after  another,  fall 

scribed  that  the  faithlul  should  confine  their  recito-  exhausted,  into  a  torpor  which  a  touch  from  the 

tion  to  "ha,  turning  the  head  to  the  right,  hou,  moqaddem  (presidinK  initiator)  transfonns,  in  certain 

turning  it  to  the  left,  A»,  bowing  it,  and  proloneing  oases,  into  nypnosis"  (ibid.,  101). 

each  sound  as  much  as  the  breath  permits.    It  is  In   another  confraternity,   that   of  the  Refaya, 

easy  to  imagine  the  effect  that  may  be  produced  on  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  bv  Refai,  a  nephew 

tbe  most  soundly  constituted  temperament  by  the  re-  of  Sidi-abd-el-Koder,    most  (U   tne  devotees  faint 

petition  of  these  ^llablee  accompanied  with  violent  when  the  hysterical  intoxication  Bupcrvenes;  others 

movements  of  the  head"  (ibid.,  p.  33).  At  the  pres-  "eat  serpents  and  live  coals,  or  roll  tWnaelvee  about 
eot  time  the  Zaheriya  go  through  the  same  moTa> 
ments  with  the  formula,  La  Haha  HI'  Allah,  spoken 
in  one  breath,  and  sometimes  as  often  as  twenty-one 
times  without  a  respiration.  The  SarehouoJiya, 
founded  in  the  thirteenth  century,  repeat  an  in- 
definite number  of  times  without  mtemiption  tbe 
pbrase  La  ilaha,  etc.,  while  raising  the  head  from  the 
navel  to  the  right  shoulder^  and  thus  they  fall  into 
a  dumb  state  of  unconsoousncM.  The  Zaheriys 
add  the  left  shoulder.  The  Nakechabendiva  soma- 
times  help  the  process  with  ooium  and  similar  dnigB. 
Among  tne  Beioumiya  the  Dody  is  bent,  at  each 
invocation,  down  to  the  wust,  while  the  arms  ore 
cToased;  thev  are  uncrossed  while  the  body  is  raised 
again,  and  then  the  hands  are  clapped  together  at  the 
level  of  the  face. 

Some  confraternities  deserve  special  mention  for 

the   intense   nervous   paroxysms   attained   by   their  DincB  or  Wronuifo  Dirtisheb 

members.     First,  among  the  Kheluoatiya,  founded  in  _              Ooartsntinoplfl 

the  fourteenth  century,  the  members  from  time  to  among  burning  braziers.     They  accustom  themselvee 

bme  retire  into  deep  soUtude  (whence  thejr  name,  moreover,  to  casting  themselves  down  on  the  pointe 

from  JtAffoua,  retreat);  thus  separated  from  the  world,  of  darts,  to  piercing  their  arms  and  cheeks,  and  to 

the  disciple  can  communirjite  with  others  only  by  being  trodden  under  foot  by  their  sheikh     (ibid., 

eif;ns  or  m  writing;  ho  fasts  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  204,  206).     The  howling  and  tbe  whirling  dervishes, 

and  takes  only  such  nourishment  as  is  strictly  neces-  who  give  public  exhibitions  at  Constantinople  and 

sary.     By  the  use  of  coffee,  he  reduces  lus  sleep  to  at  Cairo,   belong  to   the  Refaya.     Their  ceremony 

two  or  three  hours.    He  recites  certain  sacred  words,  begins  with  shouting  accompamed  by  oscillations  and 

such  aa  Houa  (Him),  Qayyovm  (Immutable),  Hogg  leaps  keepine  time  to  the  beating  of  drums.    "Form- 

(Truth),  which  have  to  be  repeated  from  10,000  to  ing  a  chain   ,  writes  Thfiophile  Gautier,  "they  pro- 

30,000  times  a  day,  according  to  tbe  directions  of  the  duce,  from  deep  down  in  their  chests,  a  hoarse  and 

initiator.  "Tbeuppereyelidisbriskiypresed  downon  prolonged  howling:  Allah  haul  which  seems  to  have 

the  lower,  to  produce  a  titillation  in  the  organ  of  nght  nothing  of  the  human  voice  in  it.    The  whole  band, 

which  acts  on  the  optic  nerve  and,  through  it,  on  the  acting    under    a    sin^e    impulse,    springs    forward 

cerebri  system.  .  .  .  The  word  Qajfycrum  is  recited,  Bmultaneouely,  uttering  a  hoarse,  muffled  sound, 

say,  20,000  times,  while  tlie  disciple  sways  and  bo^  like  the  growling  of  an  angry  menagerie,  when  the 

the  head,  with  closed  eyes.    The  rapidity  of  repeti-  hons,  tt^rs,  panthers,  and  hyenas  think  that  their 

tion   cannot  exceed  once  in  every  second,  and  the  feeding-time  is  being   delayed.     Then,   by  degrees, 

dunitjon  of  such  a  prayer  is  from  five  to  dx  hours,  the  inspiration  comes,  their  eyes  shine  like  those  of 

Supposinfj  that  the  candidate  is  given  three  names  wild  beasts  in  the  depths  of  a  cave;  on  epileptic 

to  repeat  m  this  way,  it  must  take  Him  eighteen  houis  froth  comes  at  the  comers  of  their  mouths;  their 

a  diO'-  -  ■  -  The  teachers  of  the  order  compare  the  faces  become  distorted  and  hvid,  shining  throuKh  the 

Kheloua  initiation  to  a  deadly;  poison  when  taken  sweat;  the  whole  line  lies  down  and  rises  up  under  an 

in  too  lai^  doses  at  first,  and  which  can  be  assimilated  invisible  breath,  Uke  blades  of  wheat  under  a  storm, 

by  progressive  use.  ...  All  the  members  who  make  and  still,  with  every  movement,  that  terrible  AUah- 

frequent  retreats,  even  if  the  duration  is  not  pro-  Aouisrepeatedwithmcressingenergy.    Howcansuch 

longed,  are  seriously  affected  in  mind.    Emaciated,  bellowings  be  kept  up  for  more  than  an  hour  without 

hagf^ard-eyed,  they  return  to  ordinary  hfe  still  re-  buisting  the  osseous  frame  of  the  breast  and  spilling 

«jii fling  the  traces  of  their  haish  trials.  ...  An  ex-  theUoodout  of  the  broken  vessels?"  (Constantinople, 

treme  exaltation,  then,  is  the  characteristic  of  this  xii).    The  whirling  dervishes,  founded  in  the  tliir- 

□rder,  and  it,  more  than  any  other,  must  be  regarded  tecntli  century,  are  Maoulaniya,  also  called  Mevlevis. 

as  th«  focus  of  an  intense  fanaticism"  (ibid..  62  sqq.}.  "They  waltz  with  arms  extended,  head  inclined  on  the 

Another  very  remark^le  confraternity  is  that  of  the  shoulder,  eyes  halt-closed,  mouth  haif-opencd,  like 

Alaaaoua,  founded  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Sidi-  confident  swimmers  who  are  letting  themselvee  be 

Mohammed-ben-AIssa.     The  dt^  takes  the  shape  of  borne  away  on  the  stream  of  ecstasy.  .  .  .  Sometimes 

raucous  cries,  "to  the  cadence  of  a  muffled  musio  the  head  is  thrown  back,  showing  the  whites  of  their 

in  rai>id  time.     Inclinations  of  the  body  down  to  the  eyes,  and  lips  flecked  with  a  light  foam"  {Constonti- 

hips,  increasing  in  rapidity,  accompany  each  of  these  nople,  xi).     Atlast  they  fall  on  their  knees,  exhausted, 

cnee,  or  circular  movements  of  the  head,  which  are  face  to  the  earth,  until  the  chief  touches  them,  eomc- 

alao  calculated  to  shake  the  nervous  system.     The  timeshaving torubiheir armsandlega.    Nobeholder, 

nervous  crises  thus  superinduced  are  soon  expressed  without   previous   information,    would   suspect   the 

in  cerebml  i^)t^M^cftti9^  »nd  ftnceathe^  Tviously  lo-  j«ligiouB  aipuficiiiice  <tt  t^flse  physic^  ewTcises  of  the 


MOBAMHBD  424  MOl 


i'l  ^• 


howling  and  the  whirling  derviflhes,  or  that  they  con-  for  the  leading  events  in  his  career.    His  earliest  and 

Btitute  a  process  for  arriving  at  union  with  God.  chidf  biographers  are  Ibn  Ishaa  (a.  h.  151 »  a.  d.  768), 

This  union  does  not  consist,  as  with  the  saints  of  Wakidi   (207=a=822),  Ibn    Hisham    (213=828),  Ibn 

Christianity,  in  a  higher  knowledge  and  love  of  God,  Sa'd  (230=845),  Tirmidhi  (279=892).  Tabari  (310= 

attained  in  silence  and  repose.    In  the  orders  which  929),  the  ''Lives  of  the  Ck)nipanions  of  Mohammed", 

afiFect  ecstasy,  the  khouan,  on  the  contrary,  is  satis-  the  numerous  Koranic  commentators  [especially  Ta- 

fied  with  the  preposterous  notion  of  usin^  violent  ban.  quoted  above,  Zamakhshari  (538=1144),  and 

means  to' produce  physiological  effects  which  bring  Baiaawi  (691=1292)],  the ''Musnad",  or  collection  of 

on  intoxication  to  the  point  of  unconsciousness.  traditions  of  Ahmad  ibn  Hanbal  (241=855),  the  col- 

Rira,Afaro6o«(«««K^n(AJ»er8.^  lections  of  Bokhari  (256=870),  the  "Isabah",  or 

22^.;rteS«i^m"S5^i^^^  5f,p^ri^^^?S22Jru  "Pictionary  of  Persons  who  knew  Mohammed  "I  by 

CheM  ceux  qui  oueturd  (Paris,  1902) ;  Pbtit,  Lea  corkfririea  muaul-  Ibn  Hajar,  etc.    All  these  collections  and  biographies 

mafm,  an ezoeUent summary  (Pans,  1902).  are  based  on  the  so-called  Hadiths,  or  ''traditions", 

Aug.  Poulain.  the  historical  value  of  which  is  more  than  doubtful. 

These  traditions,  in  fact,  represent  a  gradual,  and 

Mohammed  and   Mohammedaniam .  —  I.    Thb  more  or  less  artificial,  legendivry  development,  rather 

FoxjNDEB.  —  Mohammed,  "the   Praised   One",  the  than  supplementary  historical  information.  According 

prophet  of  Islam  and  the  founder  of  Mohammedan-  to  them,  Mohammed  was  simple  in  his  habits,  but 

ism,  was  bom  at  Mecca  (20  August  ?)  a.  d.  570.   Arsr  most  careful  of  his  personal  appearance.    He  loved 

bia  was  then  torn  by  warring  factions.    The  tribe  of  perfumes  and  hated  strong  drink.    Of  a  hi^y  nerv- 

Fihr,  or  Quraish.  to  which  Mohammed  belonged,  had  ous   tem]>erament,    he   shrank    from   booQly    pain, 

establish^  itseli  in  the  south  of  Hij&s  (Hedjaz),  near  Though  gifted  with  great  powers  of  imagination,  he 

Mecca,  which  was,  even  then,  the  principal  rehgious  was  taciturn.    He  was  affectionate  and  magnanimous, 

and  commercial  centre  of  Arabia.    The  power  oi  the  pious  and  austere  in  the  practice  of  his  religion,  brave, 

tribe  was  continually  increasing;  they  had  be<x)me  the  zealous,  and  above  reproach  in  his  personal  ana  family 

masters  and  the  acknowledged  guanuans  of  the  sacred  conduct.    Palgrave,  however,  wisely  remarks  that 

Kaaba^  within  the  town  of  Mecca — then  visited  in  an-  "the  ideals  of  Arab  virtue  were  first  ooncdved  and 

nual  pdgrimage  by  the  heathen  Arabs  with  their  offer-  then  attributed  to  him".    Nevertheless,  with  every 

ings  and    tributes — and  had    thereby  gained  such  allowance  for  exaggeration,  Mohammed  is  shown  by 

Ereeminence  that  it  was  comparatively  easy  for  Mo-  his  life  and  deeds  to  have  been  a  man  of  dauntless 
ammed  to  inaugurate  his  religious  reform  and  his  courage,  great  generalship,  strong  patriotism,  merci- 
poUtical  campaign,  which  ended  with  the  conquest  of  ful  by  nature,  and  quick  to  forgive.  And  yet  he  was 
all  Arabia  and  the  fusion  of  the  numerous  Arab  tribes  ruthless  in  his  dealings  with  the  Jews,  when  once  he 
into  one  nation,  with  one  religion,  one  code,  and  one  had  ceased  to  hope  for  their  submission.  He  ap- 
sanctuary.  (See  Arabia,  Christianity  in  Arabia.)  proved  of  assassination,  when  it  furthered  his  cause: 
Mohammed's  father  was  Abdallah,  of  the  family  of  however  barbarous  or  treacherous  the  means,  the  ena 
Hashim^  who  died  soon  after  his  son's  birth.  At  the  justified  it  in  his  eyes;  and  in  more  than  one  case  he 
age  of  BIX  the  boy  lost  his  mother  and  was  thereafter  not  only  approved,  but  also  instigated  the  crime. 
iSkea  care  of  by  his  uncle  Abu-Talib.  He  spent  his  Concenun^  his  moral  character  and  sincerity  con- 
early  life  as  a  shepherd  and  an  attendant  of  caravans,  tradictory  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  sdiolars  in 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  married  a  rich  widow,  the  last  three  centuries.  Many  of  these  opinions  are 
Khadeejah,  fifteen  years  his  senior.  She  bore  him  six  biased  either  by  an  extreme  hatred  of  Islam  and  its 
children,  all  of  whom  died  very  young  except  Fatima,  founder  or  by  an  exaggerated  admiration,  coupled 
his  beloved  daughter.  with  a  hatred  of  Christianity.  Luther  look«l  upon 
On  his  commercial  ioumeys  to  Syria  and  Palestine  him  as  ''a  devil  and  first-bom  child  of  Satan".  Ma- 
he  became  acquainted  with  Jews  and  Christians,  and  racci  held  that  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism 
acquired  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  their  religion  and  were  not  very  dissimilar  to  Luther  and  Protestantism, 
traditions.  He  was  a  man  of  retiring  disposition,  ad-  Spanheim  and  D'Herbelot  characterise  him  as  a 
dieted  to  prayer  and  fasting,  and  was  subject  to  epi-  ''wicked  impostor",  and  a  ''dastardly  liar",  while 
leptic  fits.  In  his  fortieth  year  (a.  d.  610),  he  claimed  Prideaux  stamps  him  as  a  wilful  deceiver.  Such  in- 
to have  received  a  call  from  the  Angel  Gabriel,  and  discriminate  abuse  is  unsupported  by  facts.  Modem 
thus  began  his  active  career  as  the  prophet  of  Allan  and  scholars,  such  as  Sprenger,  Noldeke,  Weil,  Muir,  Ko- 
the  apostle  of  Arabia.  His  first  converts  were  about  elle,  Grimme,  MargoUouth,  give  us  a  more  correct  and 
forty  in  all,  incIudinjB^  his  wife,  his  daughter,  his  father-  unbiased  estimate  of  Mohammed's  life  and  character, 
in-law  Abu  Bakr,  his  adopted  son  AJi  Omar,  and  his  and  substantially  agree  as  to  his  motives,  prophetic 
slave  Zayd.  By  his  preaching  and  his  attack  on  call,  personal  qualifications,  and  sincerity.  Tneva- 
heathenism.  Monammed  provoked  persecution  which  rious  estimates  of  several  recent  critics  have  been 
drove  him  from  Mecca  to  Medina  in  622,  the  year  of  ably  collected  and  summarized  by  Zwemer,  in  his 
the  Hejira  (Flight)  and  the  beginning  of  the  Moham-  "Islam,  A  Challenge  to  Faith"  (New  York,  1907). 
medan  Era.  At  Medina  he  was  recognized  as  the  According  to  Sir  William  Muir,  Marcus  Dods,  and 
prophet  of  God,  and  his  followers  increased.  He  took  some  others,  Mohammed  was  at  first  sincere,  but  later, 
the  field  against  his  enemies,  conquered  several  Ara-  carried  away  by  success,  he  practised  deception  wher^ 
bian,  Jewish,  and  Christian  tribes,  entered  Mecca  in  ever  it  would  gain  his  end.  Koelle  "finds  the  key  to 
triumph  in  630.  demolished  the  idols  of  the  Kaaba,  be-  the  first  period  of  Mohammed's  hfe  in  Khadija,  his 
came  master  or  Arabia,  and  finally  united  all  the  tribes  first  wife",  after  whose  death  he  became  a  prey  to  his 
under  one  emblem  ana  one  religion.  In  632  he  made  evil  passions.  Sprenger  attributes  the  alleged  revela- 
his  last  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  at  the  head  of  forty  thou-  tions  to  epileptic  fits,  or  to  "a  paroxysm  of  cataleptic 
sand  followers,  and  soon  after  his  return  died  of  a  vio-  insanity ' .  Zwemer  himself  goes  on  to  criticize  the  life 
lent  fever  in  the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age,  the  elev-  of  Mohammed  by  the  standards,  first,  of  the  Old  and 
enth  of  the  Hejira,  and  the  year  633  of  the  Christian  New  Testaments,  both  of  which  Mohammed  acknowl- 
era.  edged  as  Divine  revelation;  second,  by  the  pagan 
The  sources  of  Mohammed's  biography  are  numer^  morality  of  his  Arabian  compatriots;  lastly^  by  the 
ous,  but  on  the  whole  untrustworthy,  being  crowded  new  law  of  which  he  pretended  to  be  the  "divmely  ap- 
witn  fictitious  details,  legends,  and  stories.  None  of  pointed  medium  ana  custodian".  According^  to  tms 
his  biographies  was  compiled  during  his  lifetime,  and  author,  the  prophet  was  false  even  to  the  ethical  tra- 
the  earnest  were  written  a  century  and  a  half  after  his  ditions  of  tne  idolatrous  brigands  among  whom  he 
^paffi     The  Koran  is  perhaps  the  only  reliable  source  lived,  and  grossly  violated  the  easy  sexual  morality  of 


i 


MO] 


•;irii 


425 


MOl 


t:  tA% 


his  own  syBtem.  After  this,  it  is  hardly  neceseary  to 
Bay  that,  in  Zwemer's  opinion,  Mohammed  fell  very 
far  short  of  the  most  elementary  requirements  of 
Scriptural  morality.  Quoting  Johnstone,  Zwemer 
concludes  by  remarking  that  the  judgment  of  these 
modem  scholars,  however  harsh,  rests  on  evidence 
which  "comes  all  from  the  lips  ana  the  pens  of  his  own 
devoted  adherents.  .  .  .  And  the  followers  of  the 
prophet  can  scarcely  complain  if,  even  on  such  evi- 
aenoe,  the  verdict  of  history  goes  against  him  ", 

II.  Th^  System. — ^A.  Geographiau  Extent,  Diviniona, 
and  Distribution  of  Mohammedans, — ^After  Moham- 
med's death  Mohammedanism  aspired  to  become  a 
•world  power  and  a  imiversal  religion.  The  weakness 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the  unfortunate 
rivalry  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
the  schisms  of  Nestorius  and  Eutyches,  the 
failing  power  of  the  Sassanian  ^nasty  of 
Persia,  the  lax  moral  code  of  the  new  religion, 
the  power  of  the  sword  and  of  fanaticism,  the  hope 
of  plunder  and  the  love  of  oonquest--all  these 
.  factors  combined  with  the  genius  of  the  caliphs,  the 
successors  of  Mohanmied,  to  effect  the  conquest,  in 
considerably  less  than  a  century,  of  Palestine,  Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  North  Africa,  and  the  South  of 
Spain.  The  Moslems  even  crossed  the  Pyrenees, 
threatening  to  stable  their  horses  in  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  but  were  at  last  defeated  by  Charles  Martel  at 
Tours,  in  732,  just  one  hundred  years  from  the  death 
of  Mohammed.  This  defeat  arrested  their  western 
oonauests  and  saved  Europe.  In  the  eighth  and 
Dinui  centuries  they  conquered  Persia,  Afghanistan, 
and  a  large  part  of  India,  and  in  the  twelfth  century 
they  had  already  become  the  absolute  masters  of  all 
Western  Asia,  Spain  and  North  Africa,  Sicily,  etc. 
Th^  were  finally  conquered  by  the  Mongols  and 
Turxs,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  new  con- 
guerors  adopted  Mohammed's  religion  and,  in  the 
nfteenth  century,  overthrew  the  tottering  Byzantine 
Empire  (1453).  From  that  stronghold  (Constanti- 
nople) they  even  threatened  the  German  Empire,  but 
were  successfully  defeated  at  the  gates  of  Vienna,  and 
driven  back  across  the  Danube,  in  1683. 

Mohammedanism  now  comprises  various  theologi- 
cal schools  and  political  factions.  The  Orthodox 
(Sunni)  uphold  the  legitimacy  of  the  succession  of  the 
first  three  caliphs,  Abu  Bakr,  Omar,  and  Uthman, 
while  the  Schismatics  (Shiah)  champion  the  Divine 
right  of  Ali  as  against  the  succession  of  these  caliphs 
whom  they  call  ''usurpers",  and  whose  names,  tombs, 
and  memorials  they  insult  and  detest.  The  Shiah 
number  at  present  about  twelve  million  adherents, 
or  about  one-twentieth  of  the  whole  Mohammedan 
world,  and  are  scattered  over  Persia  and  India.  The 
Sunni  are  subdivided  into  four  principal  theologicid 
schools,  or  sects,  viz.,  the  Hanifites,  found  mostly  in 
Turkey,  Central  Asia,  and  Northern  India;  the  sha- 
fiites  in  Southern  India  and  Egypt:  the  Malikites,  in 
Morocco,  Barbary,  and  parts  ot  Arabia;  and  the  Han- 
balites  in  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia  and  in  some 
parts  of  Africa.  The  Shiah  are  also  subdivided  into 
various,  but  less  important,  sects.  Of  the  proverbial 
seventy-three  sects  of  Islam,  thirty-two  are  assigned 
to  the  Shiah.  The  principal  differences  between  the 
two  are:  (1)  as  to  the  legitimate  successors  of  Mo- 
hammed; (2)  the  Shiah  observe  the  ceremonies  of  the 
month  of  fasting,  Muharram,  in  commemoration  of 
Ali,  Hasan,  Husain.  and  Bibi  Fatimah,  whilst  the 
Sunnites  ordy  regard  the  tenth  day  of  that  month  as 
sacred,  and  as  l^ing  the  day  on  which  God  created 
Adam  and  Eve;  (3)  the  Shiah  permit  temporary  mar- 
riages, oontractea  for  a  certain  sum  of  money,  whilst 
the  Sunnites  maintain  that  Mohammed  forbsde  them; 
(4)  the  Shi'ites  include  the  Fire- Worshippers  among 
the  "People  of  the  Book",  whilst  the  Suimltes  ac- 
knowledge only  Jews,  Christians,  and  Moslems  as 
such;  (5)  several  minor  differences  in  the  ceremonies  of 


prayer  and  ablution;  (6)  the  Shiah  admit  a  principle 
of  religious  compromise  in  order  to  escape  persecution 
and  death,  whilst  the  Sunni  regard  this  as  apostasy. 

There  are  also  minor  sects,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Aliites,  or  Fatimites,  the  Asharians,  Azaragites, 
Babakites,  Babis,  Idrisites,  Ismailians  and  Assassins, 
Jabrians,  Kaissanites,  Karmathians,  Kharijites,  fol- 
lowers of  the  Mahdi,  Mu'tazilites,  Qadrians,  Safrians, 
Sifatians,  Sufis,  Wahabis,  and  Zaidites.  The  dis- 
tinctive features  of  these  various  sects  are  political 
as  well  as  religious;  only  three  or  fotu'  of  them  now 

Eoesess  any  influence.    In  spite  of  these  divisions, 
owever,  the  principal  articles  of  faith  and  morality, 
and  the  ritual,  are  substantially  uniform. 


Page  op  Koran  MS..  Sura  (Chapter)  lv 
From  a  manuscript  in  the  Royal  Library,  Berlin 

According  to  the  latest  and  most  reliable  accounts 
(1907),  the  number  of  Mohammedans  in  the  world 
is  about  233  millions,  although  some  estimate  the  num- 
ber as  high  as  300  millions,  others,  a^dn,  as  low  as 
176  millions.  Nearly  60  millions  are  in  Africa,  170 
millions  in  Asia,  and  about  6  millions  in  Europe.  Their 
total  number  amounts  to  about  one-fourth  of  the 
population  of  Asia,  and  one-seventh  that  of  the  whole 
world.    Thdr  geographical  distribution  is  as  follows: 

Asia. — India,  62  millions;  other  British  possessions 
(such  as  Aden,  Bahrein,  Ceylon,  and  Cyprus),  about 
one  million  ana  a  half;  Russia  (Asiatic  ana  European), 
the  Caucasus,  Russian  Turkestan,  and  the  Amur 
region,  about  13  millions;  Philippine  Islands,  350,000; 
Dutch  East  Indies  (including  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  etc.)  about  30  milfions;  French  possessions 
in  Asia  (Pondicherry,  Annam,  Cambodia,  Cochin- 
China,  Tongking,  Laos),  about  one  million  and  a 
half;  Bokhara,  1.200,000;  Khiva,  800,000:  Persia, 
8,800,000;  Afghamstan,  4,000,000;  China  and  Chinese 
Turkestan,  30,000,000;  Japan  and  Formosa,  30,000; 
Korea,  10,000;  Siam,  1,000,000;  Asia  Minor.  7,179,- 
000;  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  1,795,000;  Mesopo- 
tamia, 1,200,000;  Syria,  1,100,000;  Arabia,  4,500,000. 

Total,  170,000,000 

Africa.  — Erorpt,  9,000,000;  Tripoli,  1,250,000; 
Tunis,  1,700^^;  Algeria,  4,000,000;  Morocco, 
5,600,000;  Eritrea,  150,000;  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan, 
1,000,000;  Senegambia-Niger,  18,000,000;  Abyssinia, 
350,000;  Kamerun,  2,000,000;  Nigeria,   6,000,000; 


M01 


I'Hi 


m 


MOHAMMID 


Dahomey,  350,000;  Ivory  Coast,  800,000;  Liberia, 
600,000;  Sierra  Leone^  333,000:  French  Guinea, 
1,5()0,0CK);  French,  British,  and  Italian  Somaliland, 
British  East  African  Protectorate,  Uganda,  Togoland, 
Gambia  and  Senegal,  about  2,000,000;  Zanzibar, 
German  East  Africa,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  Rho- 
desia, Congo  Free  State,  and  French  Congo,  about 
4,000,000;  South  Africa  and  adjacent  islands,  about 
235,000.— Approximate  total,  60,000,000. 

Europe. — -Turkey  in  Europe,  2,100,000;  Greece, 
Servia,  Kumania,  and  Bulgaria,  about  1,369,000. 

Total;  about  3,500,000. 

Amenca  and  Australia,  about  70,000. 

About  7,000,000  (i.  e.,  four-fifths)  of  the  Persian 
Mohammedans  and  about  5,000,000  of  the  Indian 
Mohanunedans  are  Shiahs;  the  rest  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan world — about  221,000,000 — ^are  almost  all  Sun- 
nites. 

B.  Tenets. — ^The  principal  tenets  of  Mohamme- 
danism are  laid  down  in  the  Koran  (q.  v.).  As  aids 
in  interpreting  the  religious  eystem  of  the  Koran 
we  have:  first,  the  so-called  ''Traditions'',  which  are 
supposed  to  contain  supplementary  teachings  and 
doctrine  of  Mohammed,  a.  very  considerable  part  of 
which,  however,  is  decidedly  spurious;  second,  the 
consensus  of  the  doctors  of  Islam  represented  by  the 
most  celebrated  imftms,  the  founders  of  the  various 
Islamic  sects,  the  Koranic  commentators  and  the 
masters  of  Mohammedan  jurisprudence;  third,  the 
analogy,  or  deduction,  from  recognizea  principles 
admitted  in  the  Koran  and  in  the  Traditions.  Mo- 
hammed's religion,  known  among  its  adherents  as 
Islam,  contains  practically  nothing  original;  it  is  a 
confused  combination  of  native  Arabian  heathenism, 
Judabm,  Christianity,  Sabiism  (Mandceanism),  Ha- 
nifism,  and  Zoroastrianism. 

The  system  may  be  divided  into  two  parts:  dogma, 
or  theory;  and  morals,  or  practice.  The  whole 
fabric  is  built  on  five  fundamental  points,  one  be- 
longing to  faith,  or  theory,  and  the  other  four  to 
morals,  or  practice.  All  Mohammedan  dogma  is 
supposed  to  be  expressed  in  the  one  formula:  There 
is  no  God  but  the  triie  God;  and  Mohammed  is  His 
prophet."  But  this  one  confesaon  implies  for  Mo- 
nammedans  six  distinct  articles:  (a)  oelief  in  the 
unity  of  God;  (b)  in  His  angels;  (c)  in  His  Scripture: 
(d)  m  His  prophets;  (e)  in  the  Resurrection  ana 
Day  of  Judgment;  and  (f)  in  God's  absolute  and  irre- 
vocable decree  and  predetermination  both  of  good 
and  of  evil.  The  fodf  points  relating'to  morals,  or 
practice,  are:  (a)  prayer,  ablutions,  and  purifications; 
(b)  alms;  (c)  fastmg;  and  (d)  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

(1)  Dogma. — ^The  doctrines  of  Islam  concerning 
God — His  unity  and  Divine  attributes — are  essen- 
tially those  of  the  Bible;  but  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity  and  of  the  Divine  Sonship  of  Christ  Moham- 
med had  the  strongest  antipathy.  As  Noldeke  re- 
marks, Mohammed  s  acquaintance  with  those  two 
dogmas  was  superficial;  even  the  clauses  of  the  Creed 
that  referred  to  them  were  not  properly  known  to 
him,  and  thus  he  felt  that  it  was  quite  impossible 
to  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the  simple  Semitic 
Monotheism;  probably,  too,  it  was  this  consideration 
alone  that  hindered  hun  from  embracing  Christianity 
(Sketches  from  Eastern  History,  62).  The  number 
of  prophets  sent  by  God  is  said  to  have  been  about 
124,000,  and  of  apostles,  315.  Of  the  former,  22  are 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  Koran — such  as  Adam, 
Noe,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus.  According  to  the 
Sunni,  the  Prophets  and  Apostles  were  sinless  and 
superior  to  the  angels,  and  they  had  the  power 
of  performing  miracles.  Mohammedan  angelology 
and  demonology  are  almost  wholly  based  on  later 
Jewish  and  early  Christian  traditions.  The  angels 
are  believed  to  be  free  from  all  sin;  they  neither 
eat  nor  drink;  there  is  no  distinction  of  sex  among 
them.    They  are,  as  a  rule,  invisible,  save  to  animals, 


although,  at  times,  th^  appear  in  human  form.  The 
principal  angels  are:  Uabriel,  the  guardian  and  com- 
municator of  God's  revelation  to  man;  Michad, 
the  guardian  of  men;  Asrail,  the  angel  of  death,  whoee 
duty  is  to  receive  men's  souls  when  they  die;  and 
Israiil,  the  angel  of  the  Resurrection.  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  the  Seraphim,  who  suiround  the 
throne  of  God,  constantly  chanting  His  praises;  the 
Secretaries,  who  record  the  actions  of  men;  the  Ob- 
servers, who  spy  on  every  word  and  deed  of  mankind; 
the  Travellers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  traverse  the  whole 
earth  in  order  to  know  whether,  and  when,  men  utter 
the  name  of  God;  the  Angds  of  the  Seven  Planets; 
the  Angels  who  have  charge  of  hell ;  and  a  counties 
multitude  of  heavenly  beings  who  fill  all  space.  The 
chief  devil  is  Iblts,  who,  like  nis  numerous  companions, 
was  once  the  nearest  to  God,  but  was  cast  out  for 
refusingto  pay  homage  to  Adam  at  the  command  of 
God.  These  devils  are  harmful  both  to  the  souk 
and  to  the  bodies  of  men,  although  their  evil  influence 
is  constantly  checked  by  Divine  interfermce.  Beades 
angels  and  devib,  there  are  also  jinns,  or  genii, 
creatures  of  fire,  able  to  eat,  drink,  propagate,  and 
die;  some  good,  others  bad,  but  all  capable  of  future 
salvation  and  aamnation. 

God  rewards  pood  and  punishes  evil  deeds.  He 
is  merciful  and  iff  easily  propitiated  by  repentance. 
The  punishment  of  the  unpenitent  wicked  will  be 
fearful,  and  the  reward  of  the  faithful  great.  All  men 
will  have  to  rise  from  the  dead  and  submit  to  the 
universal  judgment.  The  Day  of  Resurrection  and 
of  Judgment  will  be  preceded  and  accompanied  by 
seventeen  fearful,  or  greater,  signs  in  heaven  and  on 
earth,  and  eight  lesser  ones,  some  of  which  are  iden- 
tical  with  those  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  Resurrection  will  be  general  and  extend  to  all 
creatures — angels,  jinns,  men,  and  brutes.  The 
torments  of  hell  and  the  pleasures  of  Paradise,  but 
especially  the  latter,  are  proverbially  crass  and  sen- 
sual. Hell  is  divided  into  seven  regions:  Jahannam, 
reserved  for  faithless  Mohammedans;  Laxa,  for  the 
Jews;  Al-Hutama,  for  the  Christians;  Al-8air,  for 
the  Sabians;  Al-Saqar,  for  the  Mayans;  Al-Jahtm, 
for  idolaters;  Al-IIAwiyat,  for  hypocrites.  As  to  the 
torments  of  hell^  it  is  believed  that  the  damned  will 
dwell  amid  pestdential  winds  and  in  scalding  watef , 
and  in  the  shadow  of  a  black  smoke.  Drausiits  of 
boiling  water  will  be  fwced  down  their  throats. 
They  will  be  dragged  by  the  scalp,  flung  into  the 
fire,  wrapped  in  garments  of  flame,  and  beaten 
with  iron  maces.  When  their  skins  are  well  burned, 
other  skins  will  be  given  them  for  their  greater 
torture.  While  the  damnation  of  all  infidds  will 
be  hopeless  and  eternal,  the  Moslems,  who,  thou^ 
holding  the  true  religion,  have  been  guilty  of  heinous 
sins,  will  be  deUvered  from  hell  after  expiating  their 
crimes. 

The  joys  and  glories  of  Paradise  are  as  fantastic 
and  sensual  as  the  lascivious  Arabian  mind  could 
possibly  imagine.  ''As  plenty  of  water  is  one  of  the 
greatest  additions  to  the  delights  of  the  Baiouin 
Arab,  the  Koran  often  speaks  of  the  rivers  of  Para^ 
disc  as  a  principal  ornament  thereof;  some  of  these 
streams  flow  with  water,  some  with  milk,  some  with 
wine  and  others  with  honey,  besides  many  other 
lesser  springs  and  fountains,  whose  pebbles  are  rubies 
and  emeralds,  while  their  earth  consists  of  camphor, 
their  beds  of  musk,  and  their  sides  of  saffron.  But 
all  these  glories  will  be  eclipsed  by  the  resplendent 
and  ravishing  girls,  or  houris,  of  Paradise,  the  en- 
joyment of  whose  company  will  be  the  principal 
fcficity  of  the  faithful.  These  maidens  are  created 
not  of  clav,  as  in  the  case  of  mortal  women,  but  of 
pure  musk,  and  free  from  all  natural  impurities, 
defects,  and  inconveniences.  They  will  be  TCautiful 
and  modest  and  secluded  from  public  view  in  pavil- 
ions of  hollow  pearls.    The  pleasures  of  Paracto  will 


MOHAMffKD  427  MOHAMMED 

De  80  overwhelininp  that  God  will  ^ve  to  everyone  Syrian  and  Egyptian  Christians,  which  was  In  a  stag* 
the  potentialities  ofa  hundred  individuals.  To  each  natin^  condition,  and  steadily  sinking  lower  and 
individual  a  large  mansion  will  be  assigned,  and  the  lower  into  the  depths  of  barbarism  (op.cit.,  Wollaston, 
very  meanest  will  have  at  his  disposal  at  least  80,000  71,  72).  The  history  and  the  development,  as  well  as 
servants  and  seventy-two  wives  of  the  mrls  of  Para-  the  past  and  present  religious,  social,  and  ethical  con- 
dise.  While  eating  they  will  be  waited  on  by  300  diUon  of  all  the  Christian  nations  and  countries,  no 
attendants,  the  food  being  served  in  dishes  of  gold,  matter  of  what  sect  or  school  they  may  be,  as  corn- 
whereof  300  shall  be  set  before  him  at  once,  contain-  pared  with  these  of  the  various  Mohammedan  conn- 
ing each  a  diff ^"ent  kind  of  food,  and  an  incxhausti-  tries,  in  all  aees,  is  a  sufficient  refutation  of  NOldeke*s 
ble  supply  of  wine  and  liquors.  The  magnificence  of  assertion.  Tnat  in  the  ethics  of  Islam  there  is  a  great 
the  gannents  and  gems  is  conformable  to  the  deli-  deal  to  admire  and  to  approve,  is  beyond  dispute:  biit 
cacy  of  their  diet.  For  they  will  be  clothed  in  of  ozifpnaiity  or  superiority,  there  is  none  V.hat  is 
the  richest  silks  and  brocades,  and  adorned  with  really  good  m  Mohammedan  ethics  is  pither  common- 
bracelets  of  ^old  and  silver,  and  crowns  set  with  place  or  borrowed  from  some  other  religions,  whereas 


pearls,  and  will  make  use  of  silken  carpets,  couches. 


what  is  characteristic  is  nearly  always  imperfect  or 


piUows,  etc.,  and  in  order  that  they  may  enjoy  all  wicked, 

these   pleasures,    God    will    grant   them    perpetual  The  principal  sins  forbidden  by  Mohammed  are 

youth,  Deauty,  and  vigour.    Music  and  singing  will  idolatrv  and  apostasy,  adultery,  false  witness  a^nst 

also    be    ravishing    and    everlasting"    (Wollaston,  a  brother  Moslem,  ^pimes  of  chance,  the  drinking  of 

"Muhammed,  His  Life  and  Doctrines").  ^      ^       ^  wine  or  other  intoxicants,  usury,  and  divination  by 

The  Mohammedan  doctrine  of  predestination  is  arrows.  Brotherly  love  is  confined  in  Islam  to  Mo- 
equivalent  to  fatalism.  They  believe  in  God's  ab-  hammedans.  Any  form  of  idolatry  or  apostasy  is 
solute  decree  and  predetermination  both  of  good  and  severely  punished  in  Islam,  but  the  violation  of  any 
of  evil;  vis.,  whatever  has  been  or  shall  be  in  the  of  the  other  ordinances  is  generally  allowed  to  go  un- 
world,  whether  good  or  bad,  proceeds  entirely  .from  punished,  unless  it  seriously  conflicts  with  the  social 
the  Divine  will,  and  is  irrevocably  fixed  and  recorded  welfare  or  the  pohtical  order  of  the  State.  Among 
from  all  eternity.  The  possession  and  the  exercise  other  prohibitions  mention  must  be  made  of  the  eat- 
of  our  own  free  wiU  is,  accordingly,  futile  and  useless,  ing  of  blood,  of  swine's  flesh,  of  whatever  dies  of  itself, 
The  absurdity  of  this  doctrine  was  felt  by  later  or  is  slain  in  honour  of  any  idol,  or  is  strangled,  or 
Mohammedan  theologians,  who  sought  in  vain  by  killed  by  a  blow,  or  a  fall,  or  by  another  beast.  In 
various  subtile  distinctions  to  minimize  it.  case  of  dire  necessity,  however,  these  restrictions  may 

(2)  Practice. — The  five  pillars  of  the  practical  and  be  dispensed  with.    Infanticide,   extensively  prac- 

of  the  ritualistic  side  of  Islam  are  the  recital  of  the  tised  by  the  pre-Islamic  Arabs,  is  strictly  forbidden  by 

Creed  and  prayers,  fasting^  alms^ving,  and  the  pil-  Mohammed,  as  is  also  the  sacrificing  of  children  to 

grimage  to  Mecca.    The  formula  of  the  Creed  nas  idols  in  fulfilment  of  vows,  etc.    The  crime  of  infanti- 


been  given  above,  and  its  recital  is  necessary  for  salva-  cide  commonly  took  the  form  of  burying  newborn 

tion.    The  daily  prayers  are  five  in  number:  before  females,  lest  the  parents  should  be  reduced  to  poverty 

sunrise,  at  midday,  at  four  in  the  afternoon^  at  sun-  by  providing  for  them,  or  else  that  they  might  avoid 

set,    and  shortly   before  midnight.    The  forms  of  the  sorrow  and  disgrace  which  would  follow,  if  their 

prayer  and  the  postures  are  prescribed  in  a  very  lim-  daughters  should  be  made  captives  or  become  scanda- 

itea  Koranic  liturgy.    All  prayers  must  be  made  lous  by  their  behaviour. 

looking  towards  Mecca,  and  must  be  preceded  by  Religion  and  the  State  are  not  separated  in  Islam, 

washing,  neaject  of  which  renders  the  prayers  of  no  Hence  Mohammedan  jurisprudence,  civil  and  <;rim- 

effect.    Pubuc  prayer  is  made  on  Friday  in  the  inal,  is  Q^&inly  based  on  the  Koran  and  on  the  ''Tra- 

mosque,  and  is  led  by  an  im&m.    Only  men  attend  ditions'^    Thousands  of  judicial  decisions  are  at- 

the  public  prayers,  as  women  seldom  pray  even  at  tributed  to  Mohammed  and  incorporated  in  the  va- 

home.    Prayers  for  the  dead  are  meritorious  and  rious  collections  of  Hadith.    Mohammed  commanded 

commended.     Fasting  is  commended  at  all  seasons,  reverence  and  obedience  to  parents,  and  kindness  to 

but  prescribed  only  m  the  month  of  Ramadan.    It  wives    and    slaves.    Slander    and    backbiting    are 

begins  at  sunrise  and  ends  at  sunset,  and  is  very  rig-  strongly  denounced,  althou^  false  evidence  is  al- 

orous,  especially  when  the  fasting  season  fails  in  sum-  lowed  to  hide  a  Moslem's  cnme  and  to  save  his  repu- 

zner.     At  the  end  of  Ramadan  comes  the  great  feast-  tation  or  life.    As  regards  marriajge,  polygamy,  and 

day,  generally  called  Bairam,  or  Fitr,  i.  e.,  '^Breaking  divorce,  the  Koran  explicitly  (sura  iv,  v.  3)  allows  four 

of  the  Fast  .    The  other  great  festival  is  that  of  lawful  wives  at  a  time,  whom  the  husband  may  divorce 

Azha,  borrowed  with  modifications  from  the  Jewish  whenever  he  pleases.    Slave-mistresses  ana  concu- 

Day    of    Atonement.    Almsgiving   is   hi^y    com-  bines  are  permitted  in  any  number.     At  present, 

mended:  on  the  feast-day  after  Ramadan  it  is  oblig-  however,  owing  to  economic  reasons,  concubmage  is 

atory,  and  is  to  be  directed  to  the  '^faithful''  (Mo-  not  as  commonly  practised  as  Western  popular  opin- 

hammedans)  only.    Pilgrimage  to  Mecca  once  in  a  ion  seems  to  hold.    Seclusion  of  wivee  is  commanded, 

Efetime  is  a  duty  incumbent  on  every  free  Moslem  of  and  in  case  of  unfaithfulness,  the  wife's  evidence, 

sufficient  means  and  bodily  strength;  the  merit  of  it  either  in  her  own  defence  or  against  her  husband,  is 

cannot  be  obtained  by  deputy,  and  the  ceremonies  not  admitted,  while  that  of  the  husband  invariably  is. 

are  strictly  similar  to  those  performed  by  the  Prophet  In  this,  as  in  other  judicial  cases,  the  evidence  of  two 

himself  (see  Mecca).    Pilgrimages  to  the  tombs  of  women,  if  admitted,  is  sometimes  allowed  to  be  worth 

saints   are  very   common  nowadays,   especially  in  that  of  one  man.    The  man  is  allowed  to  repudiate 

Persia  and  India,  although  they  were  absolutely  for-  his  wife  on  the  slightest  pretext,  but  the  woman  is 

bidden  by  MohamnSed.  not  permitted  even  to  separate  herself  from  her  hus- 

(2)  Morals. — It  is  haroly  necessary  here  to  em-  bana  unless  it  be  for  ill-usage,  want  of  proper  mainte- 

phafioxe  the  fact  that  the  ethics  of  Islam  are  far  in-  nance,  or  neglect  of  conjugal  duty;  and  even  then  she 

ferior  to  those  of  Judaism  and  even  more  inferior  to  generally  loses  her  dowry,  which  she  does  not  if  di- 

those  of  the  New  Testament.    Furthermore,  we  can-  vorced  by  her  husband,  unless  she  has  been  Ruilty  of 

not  agree  with  Ndldeke  when  he  maintains  that,  al-  immodesty  or  notorious  disobedience.     Both  husband 

though  in  many  respects  the  ethics  of  Islam  are  not  and  wife  are  explicitly  forbidden  by  Mohammed  to 

to  be  compared  even  with  such  Christianity  as  pre-  seek  divorce  on  any  slight  occasion  or  the  prompting 

vailed,  and  still  prevails,  in  the  East,  nevertheless,  in  of  a  whim,  but  this  warning  was  not  heedcci  cither  by 

other  pCHnts,  the  new  taith — simple,  robust,  in  the  Mohammed  himself  or  by  his  followers.    A  divorrod 

vigour  of  its  youth— -far  surpassed  the  rdigion  of  the  wife,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  paternity  of  a  possible 


MOHiLxrr 


428 


MOHIUIT 


or  probable  offspring,  must  wait  three  months  before 
she  marries  again.  A  widow,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  wait  four  months  and  ten  da3r8.  Immorality  in 
genonl  is  severely  condemned  and  punished  by  the 
Koran,  but  the  moral  laxity  and  depraved  sensualism 
of  the  Mohammedans  at  large  have  practically  nulli- 
fied Koranic  ethics. 

Slavery  is  not  only  tolerated  in  the  Koran,  but  is 
looked  upon  as  a  practical  necessity,  while  the  manu- 
mission of  slaves  is  regarded  as  a  meritorious  deed. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  among  Moham- 
medans, the  children  of  slaves  and  of  concubines  are 
generally  considered  equally  legitimate  with  those 
of  legal  wives,  none  b^ng  accounted  bastards  ex- 
cept such  as  are  bom  of  public  prostitutes,  and  whose 
fathers  are  unknown.  The  accusation  often  brought 
against  the  Koran  that  it  teaches  that  women  have 
no  souls  is  without  foundation.  Tlie  Koranic  law 
concerning  inheritance  insists  that  women  and  or- 
phans be  treated  with  justice  and  kindness.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  however,  males  are  entitled  to  twice  as 
much  as  females.  Contracts  are  to  be  conscientiously 
drawn  ud  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  Murder, 
manslaughter,  and  suicide  are  explicitly  forbidden, 
although  blood  revenge  is  allowed.  In  case  of  per- 
sonal injury,  the  law  of  retaliation  is  approved. 

In  conclusion,  reference  must  be  made  here  to  the 
sacred  months,  and  to  the  weekly  holy  day.  The  Arabs 
had  a  year  of  twelve  lunar  months,  and  this,  as  often  as 
seemed  necessary,  they  brought  roughly  into  accordance 
with  the  solar  year  by  the  intercalation  of  a  thirteenth 
month.  The  Mohammedan  year,  however,  has  a 
mean  duration  of  354  days,  and  is  ten  or  eleven 
days  shorter  than  the  solar  year,  and  Mohammedan 
festivals,  accordingly,  move  m  succession  throush  all 
the  seasons.  The  Mohammedan  Era  begins  with  the 
Hesira,  which  is  assumed  to  have  taken  place  on  the 
16tn  day  of  July,  a.  d.  622.  To  find  what  year  of  the 
Christian  Era  (a.  d.)  is  represented  by  a  ^ven  year  of 
the  Mohammedan  Era  (a.  h.),  the  rule  is:  Subtract 
from  the  Mohanmiedan  date  the  product  of  three 
times  the  last  completed  number  of  centuries,  and  add 
621  to  the  remainder.  (This  rule,  however,  gives  an 
exact  result  only  for  the  first  day  of  a  Mohanmiedan 
century.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the  first  day  of  the  fourteenth 
fientury  came  in  the  course  of  the  year  of  Our  Lord 
1883.)  The  first,  seventh,  eleventh  and  twelfth 
months  of  the  Mohammedan  year  are  sacred;  during 
these  months  it  is  not  lawful  to  wage  war.  The 
twelfth  month  is  consecrated  to  the  annual  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  and,  in  order  to  protect  pil^rims^  the  pre- 
ceding (eleventh)  month  and  the  foUowmg  (first  of  the 
new  year)  are  also  inviolable.  The  seventh  month  is 
reserved  for  the  fast  which  Mohammed  substituted  for 
a  month  (the  ninth)  devoted  by  the  Arabs  in  pre- 
Islamic  times  to  excessive  eating  and  drinking.  Mo- 
hammed selected  Friday  as  the  sacred  day  of  the 
week,  and  several  fanciful  reasons  are  adduced  by  the 
Prophet  himself  and  by  his  followers  for  the  selection; 
the  most  probable  motive  was  the  desire  to  have  a 
holy  day  oifferent  from  that  of  the  Jews  and  that  of 
the  Christians.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  Friday 
was  a  day  of  solemn  gatherings  and  public  festivities 
among  the  pre-Islamic  Arabs.  Abstinence  from  work 
is  not  enjomed  on  Friday,  but  it  is  commanded  that 
public  prayers  and  worship  must  be  performed  on  that 
day.  Another  custom  dating  from  antiquity  and 
stiU  universally  observed  by  all  Mohammedans,  al- 
though not  explicitly  enjoined  in  the  Koran,  is  cir- 
cimicision.  It  is  looked  upon  as  a  semi-religious  prac- 
tice, and  its  performance  is  preceded  and  accompanied 
by  great  festivities. 

In  matters  political  Islam  is  a  system  of  despotism 
at  home  and  ot  aggression  abroad.  The  Prophet  com- 
manded absolute  submission  to  the  imAm.  In  no 
case  was  the  sword  to  be  raised  against  him.  The 
rif^ts  of  non-Moslem  subjects  are  oi  the  vaeuest  and 


most  limited  kind,  and  a  reU^ous  war  is  a  aacred 
duty  whenever  there  is  a  chance  of  suooeas  against 
the  "  Infidel ".  Medieval  and  modem  Mohammedan, 
especially  Turkish,  persecutions  of  both  Jews  ana 
Christians  are  perhaps  the  best  illustration  of  this  fa- 
natical religious  and  political  spirit. 

SPBWfOBii,  Dm  Leb€n  und  die  Ltkn  dn  Mohamwud  (Berlin, 
1865);  Wbil,  Lku  lAhm%  Mohammed  (Stuttsart,  ISCM);  Mcib. 
W  of  Mohammed  (London,  1858,  1897);  Idkh.  Mohamm<ed  and 
Ulam  (London.  1887);  Stxo  Amxbb  Au.  A  CriHeal  Bxaminatum 
of  the  Life  and  TeaehinM  of  Mohammed  (London,  1873) ;  Idem, 
The  Spirit  ofletam;  or.  The  Life  and  Teaching  ef  Mohammed  (Cal- 
eutta,  1902);  Kobllb.  Mohammad  and  Mohammtdaniem  CnM- 
eally  ConeuUred  (London,  1888) :  NAldbsb,  Dae  Leben  Muhaw^ 
mede  (Hanoyer.  1883):  Idbm,  lelam  in  SkeUMee  from  Eaelem 
Hittory  (London,  1892).  61-100;  Wbllhaubbn,  JfttAamnMrf  tn 
Medina  (Berlin,  1882);  Kbbhl,  Mohammed  (Leipxic  1884); 
Grxmicb,  Mohammied  (2  toIs.,  MOnster,  1892-94);  MAXOOUoirrB. 
Mohammed  and  the  Riee  of  luam  (London,  1905) ;  Zwbmkb,  /«lam 
a  Chattenoe  to  Faith  (New  Yoric,  1907);  Cabtani,  AnnaH  ddT 
Itiam  (Milan,  1905—) ;  Mabacci.  Prodromi  ad  refyioHanem  Alee- 
rani  (4  parts,  Padua,  1698);  Abnold.  lelam,  ite  Bitiory,  Charac 
ter,  and  Rehtion  to  Chrietianity  (London,  1874);    Kbbotb.  Ge- 


echichte  der  herrechenden  Ideen  dee  lelame  (Leipiig.  1868) ;  Iobm 
Ctdturgeeehiehte  dee  Oriente  unler  den  ChaKfen  (2  toIs..  Yienna, 
1875-77) ;  HnaHBS,  Dictionary  of  Idam  (London,  1895) ;  Idkm. 
Notee  on  Mohammedaniem  (3id  ed.,  I^ondon,  1894) ;  Munu  The 
Coran,  ite  Compoeition  and  TeadiinQ  (London,  1878);  Pbbron, 
L*I»lamiemet  eon  inetitution,  eon  ttal  aetud  et  eon  atenir  (Paris. 
1877) ;  Gabcin  db  Tabbt,  VTdamieme  d^aprU  te  Coran,  FeneeiffM- 
merU  doctrinal  et  la  pratique  (2nd  ed.,  Paxia,  1874);  M0lleb.  Der 
lelam  im  Morgen-  und  Abendland  (2  Tola.,  B«a1in.  1885-87); 
Golouhbb,  Muhammedanieehe  Studien  (2  toIs.,  Halle,  1889-98) ; 
Idem  in  Die  Orientalieehen  ReHgionen  (Leipsig,  190S),  87-135; 
Lbbbbttx,  Etude  eur  rielamieme  (Geneva,  1904) ;  BneyOopedia  ef 
lelam  (Leyden  and  London,  1908 — );  Bictth,  Mohammed  and 
Mohammedaniem  (London.  1876) ;  Kbehu  Beitrdge  ntr  Jf  iJkam- 
medanieehen  Dogtnatik  (Leipng.  1885) ;  Tool,  Siudiee  tn  Mohaw^ 
medaniem,  Hietorical  and  Doctrinal  (London.  1892);  Selx,  The 
Faith  of  lelam  (London,  1886);  Woixavton,  Muhamw%ed,  Hie 
Life  and  Doctrinee  (London,  1904) ;  Idem,  The  Sword  of  lelam 
(New  York.  1905) ;  JoHNtroNB,  Muhammed  and  Hie  Power  (New 
York,  1901) ;  Literary  Remaine  of  the  LaU  Emanuel  Deuteeh  (Lon- 
don. 1874),  59-135;  Fuu,L*Ielamiemo  (Milan.  1905);  Abxold. 
The  Preaching  of  I  dam,  A  Hietory  of  the  Propagation  of  the  MvMim 
Faith  (London,  1896);  MacDonald.  Develonment  o/  Muehm 
Theology,  Jurieprudenee,  and  Conetitutiomd  Thaery  (New  York, 
1903) ;  Idbm.  The  Religioue  Attitude  and  Life  in  Idam  (Chicago. 
1908);  ZwBMBB.  The  Mohammedan  World  To-day  (New  York. 
1906);  Cabra  db  Vattx.  La  doctrine  de  F lelam  (Paris,  1900); 
Lammbms,  a  travere  rielam  in  Btudee  (Paris,  20  Oct.,  1910): 
Mab^b,  Lee  Mueulmane  done  TInde,  ibid,  (Jan.  5  and  20). 

Gabriel  Oitbsanl 

Mohll0fl,  Archdiocbbb  of  (Mobtioviensis), 
Latin  Catholic  archdiocese  and  ecclesiastical  province 
in  Russia.  For  the  few  Catholics  in  Russia  before  the 
partition  of  Poland,  some  mission  stations  sufficed. 
The  Jesuits,  who  came  in  ambassadorial  suites,  la- 
boured in  Moscow  from  1648.  and  in  1691  built  ^e  fiist 
Catholic  church  there.  Tne  free  exercise  of  the 
Catholic  religion,  gnmted  in  1706  by  Peter  the  Great, 
was  also  allowed  D}r  his  immediate  successors,  on  condi- 
tion that  the  missionaries  did  not  attempt  to  secure 
converts.  The  Capuchins,  Franciscans,  and  Domini- 
cans also  laboured  among  the  immigrant  Catholics  with 
fruitful  results.  When  the  Jesuits  were  suppressed  in 
1773,  many  of  them  found  a  refuge  in  Russia.  How- 
ever, no  special  diocese  for  Catholics  was  erected. 
The  partitions  of  Poland  brought  under  Russian  sway 
many  hundred  thousand  Catholics,  whose  treatment 
was  in  striking  contrast  to  that  meted  out  to  the 
Uniats.  While  Uniate  churches  and  monasteries 
were  confiscated  and  delivered  to  the  Orthodox,  and 
such  Uniats  as  refused  to  join  the  Orthodox  Chunsh 
were  subjected  to  flogging,  miprisonment,  and  oon&»> 
cation  of  property,  poucy  and  shrewdness  led  the  em- 
press to  treat  the  Latm  ^hurch  very  differently. 
Wishing  to  attach  it  to  herself,  she  entrusted  the 
Franciscans  with  the  parishes  of  St.  Petersburg  and  the 
neighbourhood,  permitted  the  foundation  of  schools, 
and  released  churches  and  schools  from  all  taxes. 

As  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland  none  of  the  old  Pol- 
ish sees  fell  to  Russia,the  empress  decided  to  found  a 
diocese  for  her  Latin  Catholic  subjects,  and  to  exclude 
all  foreign  priests  from  Russia.  Without  consulting  the 
pope^  she  erected  the  Diocese  of  White  Russia  with  Mo* 
hilefif  as  its  see  (1772),  and  appointed  as  first  bishop 


MOHILEIT  429  MOHZLETT 

Staniabus  Siestnencewics  Bohuss,  Ausliary  Bishc^  vented  him  £1001  doing  much  in  face  of  the  oadsB  6i 
of  ^^fam  (1773).  At  first  Pius  VI  refused  to  lecogniEe  oppressive  messures  of  Nicholas  I,  a  fanatical  adher- 
this  see,  mainly  on  account  of  the  empress's  arbitrary  ent  of  the  Orthodox  Church.  These  measures  which 
action  and  her  persecution  of  the  tJniats,  but  finally  were  intended  to  reduce  the  Catholic  Church  to  a  con- 
appointed  the  bi^op  vicar  Apostolic  of  the  new  dio-  dition  of  servitude,  and  if  possible  to  exterminate  it 
oese.  In  1782  Catharine  arbitrarily  raised  the  bish-  completely  in  Russia,  were  furthered  by  the  practice 
opric  to  an  arohdiocese.  After  some  negotiations,  the  of  leaving  the  archdiocese  vacant  for  long  periods — 
pope  recognized  the  new  Arehdiocese  of  Mohilefif  by  e.  g.  after  the  death  of  Cieciszewski  and  of  his  succes- 
the  Bull  "Onerosa  pastoralis  officii"  of  15  April,  1783,  sor.  Ignaz  Ludwig  Pawlowski  (1841-42;  b.  1775). 
which  reserved  to  the  pope  the  foundation  of  other  An  expostulatory  address  presented  by  Pope  Greg- 
dioceses  in  the  territory  01  the  arehdiocese,  extending  ory  XVI  to  the  tsar  during  his  visit  to  Rome  in  1845 
from  the  Baltic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  At  the  second  led  to  a  Concordat,  ratified  by  Russia  in  1848  and 
partition  of  Poland  (1793)  five  Latin  sees  fell  to  Rus-  promulgated  by  Pius  IX,  in  accordance  with  which 
sia,  Kamenetz,  Kieff,  Idvonia,  Lutzk.  and  Vilna.  the  Diocese  of  Tiraspol,  with  Saratoff  as  its  see,  was 
Although  Catharine  had  promised  in  the  Treaty  of  founded  for  the  Catholic  colonists  in  Southern  Russia 
Grodno  (1793)  to  maintain  the  atcUus  qiM  as  regards  and  made  a  suffragan  of  Mohileff.  In  December, 
the  Catholic  Chureh,  she  arbitrarily  suppressed  these  1848.  Casimir  Dmochowski  (b.  1772;  d.  11  January, 
dioceses  and  founded  two  new  ones  in  places  with  1851)  was  appointed  arehbishop.  He  was  succeed^ 
hajdly  anv  Catholics.  Part  of  the  propertv  of  the  by  Ifosa  Holowiiiski  (1851-5)  and  Wenoeslaus  Zy- 
euppressea  bishoprics  was  confiscated  by  the  State  linski  (1855-63),  a  tool  of  the  government.  Persecu* 
and  the  rest  given  to  favourites  of  the  empress.  tion,  suppression,  and  confiscation  continued  even 

Catharine^  son  and  successor,  Paul  I,  b^an,  di-  after  the  Concordat,  especially  under  Alexander  II. 

rectly  after  his  accession,  negotiations  with  Pius  VI,  The  Diocese  of  Kamenetz  was  arbitrarily  suppressed 

with  a  view  to  reorganizing  the  Latin  and  Uniat  in  1866,  and  Minsk  has  been  vacant  since  1869. 

Churches.    Four  of   the  five   suppressed   dioceses  Under  Nicholas  II   free  exeroise  of  reli^on  was 

(Kamenetz,  Vilna,  Lutzk,  and  Livoma,  the  last  under  granted  in  1905,  while  the  edicts  of  toleration  of  17 

the  title  of  Samogitia)  were  restored,  and  the  new  Dio-  April  and  17  October,  1905,  weakened  in  some  meas- 

cese  of  Minsk  was  founded  to  replace  Kieff.    Part  of  ure  the  privileged  position  of  the  Orthodox  Church, 

the  confiscated  property  was  restored  to  the  Church.  These  alleviations  have,  however,  been  since  whittled 

The  four  old  dioceses,  with  the  new  Diocese  of  Minsk,  down  by  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  subordinate  officials, 

were  made  suffragans  of  Mohileff,  which  now  became  acting  with  the  tacit  approval  of  the  government, 

a  proper  ecclesiastical  province.    Pius  VI  confirmed  Tlie  recent  arehbishops  are:  Antonius  Fialkowski 

this  arrangement  on  15  November,  1798,  by  the  Bull  (1871-83) ;  Alexander  Casimir  Dziewaltowski  Gintowt 

"Maximis  undique  pressi",  which  forms  the  substan-  (1883-9);  Simon  Martin  Kozlowski  (1891-9);  Boles- 

tial  basis  of  the  constitution  of  the  Latin  Church  in  law  Hieronymous  Klopotowski   (1901-03);  George 

Russia  to-day.    The  Arehdiocese  of  Mohileff  did  not  Joseph  Eles&us  a  SIup6n  Szembek  (1903-5):  Appolin- 

escape  the  persecutions  to  which  both  the  Latin  and  aris  Wnukowski  (1^).  and  Vincentius  ICluczliski 

Uniat  Churches  were  almost  constantly  exposed,  es-  (appointed  5  Jime,  1910). 

pecially  during  the  reigns  of  Nicholas  I  and  Alexander       II.  Statistics. — ^The  suffragans  of  Mohileff  are: 

II  (see  Russia).    In  the  hope  of  weakening  the  Catho-  Samogitia,    Lutzk-Zhitomir,   Vilna,    and    Tiraspol, 

lie  religion,  which  it  hated  and  barely  tolerated,  the  From  1866  Kamenetz  has  been  administered  by  the 

Government  regularly  selected  aged  or  compliant  men  Bishop  of  Lutzk,  and  from  1869  Minsk  by  the  areh- 

for  Mohileff,  leaving  the  pope  no  option  but  to  con-  bishop.    The  ecclesiastictd  province  is  the  largest  in 

firm  its  choice.    The  first  arehbishop,  Siestrzencewicz  the  world,  including  three-fourths  of  European  (the 

(b.  1730:  d.  1  Dec.,  1826),  was  one  of  its  most  pliable  ecclesiastical  province  of  Warsaw  is  excluded)  and  the 

tools.    Sprung  from  a  noble  but  impoverished  family  whole  of  Asiatic  Russia  (5,450,400  sq.  miles).    Ao- 

of  Lithuanian  Calvinists,  Siestrzencewicz,  after  serv-  cording  to  the  diocesan  statistics  for  1910  the  arehdio- 

ing  in  the  army,  became  acquainted  with  Bishop  Mas-  cese  contains  28  deaneries,  245pari8h  churehes,  399 

saDd  of  Vilna,  and  through  his  influence  entered  the  priests,  1,023,347  Catholics.    The  administrators  of 

Catholic  Chureh  and  became  a  priest.    Massalki,  thirty-four  other  parishes  and  chapels  are  immedi- 

who  never  recognized  Siestrzencewicz's  lack  of  charao-  ately  imder  the  jurisdiction  of  the  arehbishop.  Among 

ter.  made  him  a  canon  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Vilna.  these  the  most  important  are:  Chemigoff  (10,600), 

Ambitious,  uninfluenced  by  motives  of  nonour  or  Tashkent  (15,000);  and  in  Siberia:  Krasnoyarsk  (13,- 
conscientious  scruples,  and  greedy  for  power,  Siestr-  000),  Tomsk  (10,000),  Vladivostok  (10,500),  etc.  The 
sencewicz's  sole  aim  was  to  currv  favour  with  the  secu-  see  of  the  archdiocese  is  St.  Petersbura-  The  arch- 
lar  authorities  and  thus  secure  aespotic  power  over  the  bishop  presides  over  the  Roman  Catholic  Collegium, 
CathoUc  Church  in  Russia.  To  umit  as  far  as  possi-  which  regulates  the  relations  between  the  respective 
ble  the  power  of  his  clergy,  he  persuaded  Tsar  Faul  I  dioceses  and  the  Department  of  Public  Worship,  and 
to  estaolish  the^  "Collie  of  the  Roman  Catholic  administers  the  property  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
Chureh",  to  decide,  as  final  court  of  appeal,  all  im-  Metropolitan  Curia  consists  of  a  secretary  and  four 
portant  matters  concerning  the  Catholic  dioceses.  Its  other  members;  the  archdiocesan  chapter  of  a  provost, 
decisions  had  to  receive  the  approval  of  the  ruling  dean,  arehdeacon,  and  six  canons;  tne  General  Con- 
senate,  and  it  was  furthermore  declared  the  duty  of  fflstory  of  an  official  (secular  administrator  for  the 
the  clergy  to  submit  unconditionally  to  the  will  of  the  bishop),  vice-official,  three  assessors,  visitor  of  mona»* 
emperor  in  all  matters,  secular  or  ecclesiastical.  The  teries.  Defensor  mainnumiorumj  and  twelve  lav  mem- 
presiding  officer  of  the  college  was  Siestrzencewicz,  bers.  The  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  academy  at 
who  now  established  an  absolute  ecclesiastical  despo-  St.  Petersburg  has  a  rector,  spiritual  director,  sixteen 
tiam,  appointing  to  the  council  only  unworthy  and  clerical  and  seven  secular  professors,  and  58  students, 
subservient  men.  He  granted  unlawful  divorces  for  The  seminary  has  2  provisors.  a  rector,  spiritual  direc- 
money,  induced  Alexander  I,  Paul's  successor,  to  ex-  tor,  inspector,  14  clerical  ana  5  secular  professors,  33 
pel  the  nuncio  (who  had  reported  to  Rome  the  areh-  theological  students,  59  philosophical,  and  31  in  the 
bishop's  unscrupulous  conduct),  and  did  not  enter  the  preparatory  course.  There  are  no  statistics  as  to  the 
feeblest  protest  against  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  monasteries  of  the  diocese.  From  1908  a  Catholic 
from  the  capital  m  1815,  and  from  Russia  in  1820.  monthly  has  been  published  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Casper  Casimir  Kolmnna  Cieciszewski   (b.   1745),  .  '^nxt(mAj>Un€utfimZutidnd^ 

Biai^  of  Lutzk  succeeded  S^^^^  (28  Feb-  S^IJiSi^SS'ir'^c;^^^^'?^!!;  \??S^e''i^:  ?^: 

ruary,  1827;  d.  16  April,  1831).    His  great  age  pre-  PisKuafo,  La  Biusie  et  u  Saint-Si^e  (4  vols..  Fans,  1899-1907/; 


MOHLEB                              430  MOHLIB 

OODUBWSKI,  ifonumerUa  eedesiastica  Petropolitana  (3  rob.,  St.  on  him  the  Doctorate  of  TheologV.    Not  long  befofe, 

S2n:S3J^^.*KS.jr.Si;;i^^^^^  ^e  had  published  hia8e«x.nd  wojt:  '.'Athaw«rius  d« 

(St.  Petenbttii,  1910).  Grosse  und  die  Kirche  seiner  Zeit  im  Kampfe  mit 

Joseph  LiNS.  dem  ArianismuB"  (Mains,  1827).    It  is  a  pleaang  and 

lively  portrait  of  the  great  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  the 

M51iler,  Johann  Adam,  theologian,  b.  at  Igers-  champion  of  orthodoxy  amid  the  great  ecclesiastical 

heim  (Wtirtemberg),  6  April,  179d;  a.  at  Munich,  conflicts  of  the  fourth  century.     He  portrays  him  as 

12  April,  1838.    Tne  giifted  ^outh  first  studied  in  the  hero  of  his  time,  with  a  character  that  contrasta 

the  gymnasium  at  Mergentheim,  and  then  attended  favourably  with  the  gloomy  attitude  of  Arius  and  the 

the  lyceum  at  Ellwangen,  where  he  applied  hinaself  vacillating  weakness  of  Eusebius  of  Oesarea.    About 

primarily  to  philosophical  studies.     In  1815  he  turned  the  same  time  (Ttibingen  theolo^sche  Quartalschrift. 

to  the  study  of  theology,  and,  after  leaving  the  theolog-  1827-8)  he  depicted  in  a  similar  masterly  way  one  of 

ical  college  at  Ellwangen,  went  to  Tubingen  to  con-  the  great  figures  of  the  Middle  Ages,  St.  Anselm  of 

tinue  his  studies  in  the  university  there  under  the  Canterbury,  as  monk,  scholar,  and  defender  of  eccleai- 

leamed   professors   Drey   and   Ilirscher.    In    1818  astical  liberty. 

he  entered  the  seminary  at  Rottenburs  on  the  Neckar.  His  study  of  ecclesiastical  life  in  early  and  me- 
was  ordained  priest  on  18  September.  1819,  ana  dieval  times  led  naturally  to  an  examination  of  the 
was  sent  as  curate  in  charge  to  Weilaerstadt  and  distinctive  differences  between  Catholicism  and 
then  to  Riedlingen.  In  1821  he  became  Repetent  Protestantism.  The  results  of  his  investigation 
(tutor)  in  the  Wilhelmstift  at  Tubingen,  and  for  more  he  published  in  "  Betrachtungen  Uber  den  Zustand 
than  a  year  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  der  Kirche  im  fUnfzehnten  und  zu  Anfang  des 
classical  literature,  particularl3r  to  earlier  Greek  sechzehnten  Jahrhundert«"  (Gesammelte  Schriften, 
history  and  philosophy.  In  this  way  he  acauired  II,  1-34).  He  concludes  that  the  Reformation,  really 
the  keenness  and  cleamess  of  judgment,  delicacy  necessary  in  the  sixteenth  century,  did  not  take  place 
of  dictiou,  skill  in  exposition,  and  nne  sense  of  the  in  the  right  way,  but  took  on  rather  the  character  of 
sesthetic  which  distinguish  all  his  writings  and  dis-  an  entirely  revolutionary  movement,  by  which  the 
courses.  Soon,  the  theological  faculty  at  Tubingen  tranquil  development  of  the  medieval  (Church,  with 
offered  him  a  place  as  tutor  (Privatdozent)  in  church  all  its  good  elements,  was  disturbed  and  an  end  put  to 
history,  to  prepare  for  which  he  visited  the  leading  ecclesiastical  unity.  In  connexion  with  these  in- 
German  ana  Austrian  universities,  meeting  there  the  vestigations  he  began — as  he  had  seen  done  in  the 
best-known  dJatholic  and  Protestant  theologians  and  North  German  universities  and  as  his  Protestant  col- 
pedagogues — Niemeyer,  Gesenius,  Planck,  Schleier-  league  at  Tubingen,  Professor  Baur,  had  done — lec- 
macher,  Marheineke,  and  in  particular  Neander,  who  turcs  on  the  antithesis  between  Protestantism  and 
made  a  powerful  impression  on  the  young  man.  Catholicism,  or,  as  is  usually  said,  on  symbolism.    By 

Thus  eouipped,  he  began  his  lectures,  and  soon  this  term  are  meant,  in  this  connexion,  the  distinctive 
published  nis  first  book  under  the  title  ''  Die  Einheit  notes  of  a  given  ecclesiastical  communion,  also  cer^ 
m  der  Kirche  oder  das  Prinzip  des  Katholizismus,  tain  set  formuke,  legally  consecrated,  and  in  a  general 
dargestellt  im  Geiste  der  Kirchenv&ter  der  drei  ersten  way  expressive  of  (Jhristian  faith  or  of  certain  fundar 
Jahrhunderte"  (Tubingen,  1825).  It  was  hailed  mental  dogmatic  ideas;  or  again,  especially  since  the 
with  enthusiasm,  and  gave  brilliant  evidence  of  the  Reformation  (or  rather  since  the  seventeenth  or  eigh- 
profound  knowledge  and  the  remarkable  penetration  teenth  centuries),  the  confessions  of  faith  that  consti- 
of  the  young  scholar.  He  was  indeed  a  child  of  his  tute  the  form  or  rule  of  belief  for  the  faithful  of  any  re- 
time, and  betrayed  certain  Febronian  views  and  some  ligious  denomination.  In  this  way  symbolism,  being 
sympathy  with  the  pseudo  -reformism  of  the  day,  the  science  of  creeds,  is  a  theological  science  that  com- 
which  the  Hermesians  later  cast  up  to  him,  and  which  pares  one  religious  system  with  another  on  the  basis  of 
he  often  regretted.  His  book,  nevertheless,  was  not  their  creeds,  and  thus  demonstrates  the  truth  or  falsitpr 
merely  a  highly  intellectual,  but  also  a  hi^v  moral  of  a  particular  creed.  While  symbolism — or,  as  it  is 
act,  and  that  for  man}r  readers,  like  Chateaubriand's  now  usually  called,  comparative  symbolism — has  not 
"G^nie  du  christianisme".  Through  the  whole  long  been  recognized  as  a  special  theological  science, 
work  there  breathes,  as  it  were,  a  new  spirit,  "which  there  are  traces  of  it  even  in  earliest  Christian  times, 
seems  to  herald  a  rejuvenescence  of  the  Church  and  The  Reformation  created  the  conditions  amid  which  it 
of  theological  science  * ' .  There  is  here  no  sh^lowness  grew  to  maturi  ty ;  and  its  first  representative  wsi£  prob- 
or  special  pleading:  one  hears  the  accents  of  fresh,  ably  the  Protestant  prof essor.  Leonhard  Rechtenbach, 
living,  full  Christianity,  such  as  the  author's  profound  in  h^  '*  Encyclopedia  s^bolica ''  (Leipzig,  16 12) .  It 
study  of  the  church  f'athers  had  revealed  to  him.  is  true  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  office  of  symbolism 
For  him  the  church  unity  is  twofold  in  charac-  was  merely  to  make  one  accjuainted  with  one's  own 
ter:  a  unity  of  spirit  and  a  unity  of  body.    The  fo>  symbolic  books,  without  paying  any  attention  to  those 


expression  of  the  Christian  mind  in  opposition  to  the  vergleichenden    Darstellung  der  dogmatischen    Sy- 

manifold  forms  of  heresy,  and  finally  unity  in  multiplic-  steme  uns;;rer  verschiedcnen  christlichen  Hauptpar- 

:*„  :  ^    *u *: 1  :^j:-.tj..-i:i..  _:.!.:_  .i..    *u-.:.«  »  //^;v**: i^or.N    the  first  effort  at  a  real 

in  their  dis- 
went  farther 

visible  the  unity  of  the  diocese;  to  this  correspond  the  in  his  "Christliche  Symbolik  oder  historisch-kritische 

wider  circles  of  the  metropolitan  system  and  the  coun-  und  dogmatische  komparative  Darstellung  des  kath- 

cil  of  the  entire  episcopate,  and  finally  the  Roman  olischen,   lutherischen,   reformierten,   una  socinian- 

primacv,  whose  gradual  development  Mohler  illus-  ischen  Lehrbegriffes"  (Heidelberg,  1810-13).    Planck 

trates  from  the  history  of  Christian  antiquity  and  of  and  Marheineke  have  found  imitators,  though  of  less 

the  Middle  Ages.    Immediately  after  the  appearance  importance,  who  continue  down  to  the  most  recent 

of  his  book  Mohler  was  offered  a  place  in  the  Univer-  times  to  treat  this  from  the  Protestant  standpoint, 

sity  of  Freiburg;  he  refused  it,  and  as  a  result  waa  For  Catholics  such  studies  had  naturally  had  leas 

appointed  extraordinary  professor  at  Tubingen  in  attraction.    When  a  student  at  Tubingen.  M6hler 

1826.    After  he  had.  two  years  later,  declined  another  had  heard  lectures  on  sjnnbolism,  and  had  later  met 

offer  from  Breslau,  he  became  at  Tubingen  ordinary  many  Protestant  theologians.     He  was  the  first  Cath- 

profeeaor  in  the  theological  faculty,  which  conferred  olio  writer  to  develop  this  idea,  and  became  the 


M5hLEB                             431  MOHLEB 

faunder  of  this  science  among  Catholics  through  his  Mdhlcr  was  appointed  to  the  Catholic  theolo^ca] 

classical  work,  **  Symbolik  oder  Darstellung  der  dog-  faculty  at  that  university  to  lecture  on  the  exegesis  of 

inatischen  Gegensatze  dor  Kathuliken  und  Prote-  the  New  Testament. 

Stan  ten  nach  inren  ofifentlichen  liekcrmtnisschriften  "  He  began  at  Munich  with  lectures  on  the  Epistle  to 

(Munzy  1832;  13th  ed.,  1904).    He  demonstrated  the  Romans,  but  in  the  next  term  he  added  lectures  on 

that  there  could  be  no  incompatibility  between  what  Church  history  and  patrolo^.    His  intercourse  with 

was  truly  rational  and  what  was  truly  Christian,  both  professors  of  like  mind  raised  his  spirits,  and  his 

finding  thdr  sole,  direct,  and  entirely  adequate  ex-  health,  which  had  failed  at  Tubingen,  improved.    He 

pression  in  Catholic  dogma.    He  showed  also  how  devoted  himself  with  fervour  t«  the  preparation  of  a 

Catholic  doctrine  held  the  middle  course  between  the  history  of  monasticism,  with  the  intention  of  setting 

extremes  of  Protestantism,  e.  g.,  between  a  super-  forth  the  immeasurable  influence  of  the  Benedictine 

naturalism  and  pietism  tha>t  denied  the  rights  of  rea-  Order  on  Western  civilization.    While  he  cherished  a 

son,  and  a  naturalism  and  rationalism  that  rejected  warm  attachment  for  the  sons  of  St.  Benedict,  he  was 

absolutely  the  supernatural.    With  great  clearness  he  of  opinion  that  the  suspension  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 

exhibited  the  contradiction  between  Catholic  and  was  not,  historically  speaking^  to  be  regretted.    His 

Protestant  principles;  for  instance,  in  the  doctrine  of  plan,  however,  was  never  reauzed.    After  a  mild  at- 

Christian  anthropology.    On  this  basis  he  proved  that  tack  of  cholera  in  1S36,  he  was  stricken  with  a  pul- 

other  differences  of  cloctrine  regarding  the  Fall  of  monary  ulment  which  compelled  him  to  cease  lectur- 

Man,  the  Redemption,  the  sacraments,  and  even  the  ing  and  seek  health  or  aUeviation  at  Meran  in  the 

Church,  were  only  logical  consequences  of  the  anthro-  T}^!.    After  the  condemnation  of  Hermesianism  by 

pological  views  of  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation.  Gregory  XVI,  the  Prussian  Government  sought  agsun 

Contradictoiy  as  it  may^  seem,  it  was  M5hler's  irenic  to  secure  Mohler  for  Bonn,  hoping  perhaps  that  this 

nature  that  impelled  him  to  publish  this  work.    He  would  help  to  allav  the  controversies  that  had  arisen 

was  persuaded  that  a  knowledge  of  the  real  character  at  Cologne.    His  love  of  peace,  however,  and  his  deli- 

of  the  ^reat  religious  conflict,  based  on  the  ^nuine  cate  health  caused  him  to  refuse.    Early  in  1838  the 

and  oriranal  documents,  was  a  necossa^  prehminanr  King  of  Bavaria  bestowed  on  him  the  Order  of  St. 

to  any  definite  appeal  to  the  tribunal  or  truth.    Such  Michael,  and  on  22  March  made  him  dean  of  the  ca- 

investigations  seemed  to  him  important,  not  only  for  thedral  of  Wiirzburg.    Mohler  never  took  up  tbis 

theologians,  but  also  for  every  true  scholar,  the  truth  office,  however,  for  he  died  a  few  weeks  later  in  ^e 

being  nowhere  so  important  as  in  matters  of  faith.  The  prime  of  life,  not  yet  forty-two  years  of  age,  deeply 

work  was  enthusiastically  recdved,  and  went  through  uwiented  by  king  and  people,  r^retted  by  his  friends 

five  editions  in  six  years.    An  English  translation  by  and  by  all  who  knew  him.    A  monument,  subscribed 

James  Burton  Robertson  appeared  in  London  in  1843  for  by  stoost  all  Catholic  Germany,  adorns  his  grave 

under  the  title  '' Symbolism;  or  Exposition  of  Doc-  in  the  cemetery  at  Munich,  with  the  inscription :De- 

trinal  Differences  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  fensor    fidci,    literarum    decus,    ecclesise    solamen" 

as  evidenced  by  their  Symbolical  Writings"  (reprint,  (Defender  of  the  faith,  ornament  of  letters,  consolation 

London  and  New  York,  1894),  and  the  work  was  also  of  the  Church).  Theclergy  of  Wurtemberg erected an- 

translated  into  French  and  Italian.    ''What  many  other  monument  to  his  memory  at  his  birthplace,  at 

had  thought  and  felt,  but  could  not  clearly  under-  the  d^cation  of  which  in  1880  his  disciple  and  suo- 

stand,  much  less  adequately  express,  was  broudit  out  cessor  in  Tubingen,  Bishop  Hefele  of  Rottenburg,  paid 

by  Mohler  with  marvellous  insight  and  in  the  dearest  a  noble  tribute  to  his  fame. 

w^"  (Kihn).    His  German  diction  was  also  perfect.  Mohler,  as  Kihn  has  well  shown,  had  an  uncom- 

The  "Symbolik"  acted  like  an  electric  spark,  and  monly  attractive  personality.    He  was  an  ideal  priest, 

stirred  iip  numy  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church.   Nat-  almost  perfect  in  stature  and  comeliness,  deeply  pious 

urally,  Protestant  theologians  took  up  the  ^untlet.  and  of  diildlike  modesty,  with  a  heart  fiill  of  diection 

Marheineke  replied  with  moderation  in  his  work,  and  gentleness,  penetrated  with  the  deedre  for  peace  in 

"Ueber  Dr.  J.  A.  M5hlers  Symbolik"  (Berlin,  1833),  personal  intercourse  and  for  the  restoration  of  har- 

and  Nitzsch  in  his  "Eine  protestantische  Beantwort-  mony  between  the  different  creeds.    He  exercised  a 

ung  der  Sjrmbolik  Dr.  Mohlers''  (Hamburg,  1835).  peculiar  fascination  over  all  who  approached  him,  and 

On  the  other  hand  his  Tubingen  colleague.  Professor  men  of  every  belief  and  party  confidently  turned  to 

Baur, abusedMdhlerinaprolix rejoinder, "Der Gegen-  him  on  all  manner  of  questions.    He  cnanned  fais 

satz  des  Katholicismus  und  Protestantismus,  nach  hearers  by  his  dignified  bearing,  his  kindly,  intelligent 

den  Principien  und  Hauptdogmen  der  beiden  Lehr-  eye,  his  classic  auction,  and  his  ripe  knowledge.    It 

begriffe.    Mit  besondercr  Riicksicht  auf  Dr.  Mohlers  may  be  said  that  he  pave  new  life  to  the  science  of  the- 


Kung  meiner  Symbolik  gegcn  die  Kritik  des  Herm  prot.  TheoL,  2nd  ed.,  IX,  662  sqq.),  an  epoch-making 

Prof.  D.  Baur"  (Tubingen,  1834;  5th  ed.,  with  intro-  mind  and  a  brilliant  li^t  of  toe  Catholic  Church: 

duction  and  notes  by  Schanz,  Ratisbon,  1900),  to  while,  according  to  the  same  writer,  the  Evangelical 

which  Baur  agiun  replied  in  the  same  year.    In  his  Church,  to  whidi  he  owed  much,  had  to  thank  him  for 

reply  Mohler  was  able  to  state  with  greater  clearness  fresh  stimulus  and  for  what  it  learned  from  his  fine, 

certain  points  of  diiTerence,  and  to  deal  more  pro-  keen  exposition  of  ecclesiastical  development.    After 

foundly  with  certain  doubts  and  criticisms.    These  his  death  Dollinger  edited  most  of  his  minor  writings 

additions  were  edited  anew  by  Riuch  in  "Ergan-  in  "Gesammelte  Schriften  und  Aufsatze^'  (2  vols., 

zimgen  zu  Mohlers  oymbolik  aus  dessenSchrift:  Neue  Ratisbon.  1889-^).    They  are  numerous,  the  most 

Unterschungen"  (?  Ijunz,  1889;  latest  ed.,  1906).  This  noteworthy  being  "Beleuchtung  der  Denkschrift  fttr 

controversy  with  Haur  made  Tubingen  disagreeable  to  die  Aufhebung  des  den  katholischen  Gcistlichen  vor^e- 

Mohler,  and  he  decided  to  seek  some  other  academic  schriebenen  Cdlibates",  in   which   he  refutes  with 

centre.    The  Prussian  Government  sought  to  attract  great  earnestness  the  opponents  of  priestly  celibacy, 

the  celebrated  theologian  to  the  Catholic  theological  and  proves  the  sublimity  of  the  virginal  life  from  the 

faculty  at  one  of  its  universities.    Negotiations  were  idea  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  from  reason,  and 

begun  and  Mdhler  was  not  unwilling  to  go  to  Bonn,  from  the  New  TestAment.    Other  important  studies 

But  Professor  Hermes,  who  had  Archbishop  Spiegel  are:  "Hieronymus  und  Augustin  ira  Streit  tiber  Gala- 

on  his  side,  prevented  the  execution  of  this  desi^.  t«r2, 14"  (I,  Isqq.);  "  Ueber  den  Brief  an  Diogpetus" 

Ddllinger,  his  intimate  friend,  was  meanwhile  active  (I,  19  sqq.),  "Fragmente  aus  und  Uber  Pseudoisidor" 

in  his  Dehalf  at  Munich,  and  through  his  influence  (I,  283  sqq.),  ripe  fruits  of  his  studies  of  the  Fathwi 


MOHB 


432 


MOIOKO 


tind  Church  history.  He  was  always  greatly  devoted 
to  such  studies,  and  in  his  lectures  often  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  lite  iry  treasures  of  Christian  antiquity. 
To  him  they  stood  as  the  unbroken  series  of  witnesses 
to  the  doctrine,  worship,  and  constitution  of  the 
Church — the  successive  evidences  of  her  many  vic- 
tories, as  he  puts  it  in  the  introduction  to  his  ''ratro- 
loeie  oder  cnristlichen  Literargeschichte'',  the  first 
volume  of  which,  dealing  with  the  first  three  centu- 
ries, was  edited  by  Reithmayr  with  additions  of  his  own 
(Ratisbon,  1840).  Less  important  is  the  ''Kommen- 
tar  Uber  den  Romerbrief^'  (Ratisbon,  1845},  also 
edited  by  Reithmayr  after  Mohler's  death;  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say.  how  much  of  it  is  M6hler*s  own  work.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  "  Kirchengeschichte  von  J.  A. 
M6hler"  (3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1867-8;  index  vol.,  1870), 
laboriously  compiled  from  class  notes  by  the  Benedic- 
tine Pius  Gams,  and  later  translated  into  French. 

Rbithuatr,  Biographical  sketch  in  the  fifth  edition  of  the  Synf 
holik;  Idkm  in  Kirchenlex.  (1893),  b.  v.;  Kihn  in  Raich,  Brgan>- 
Bunaen  (latest  ed.,  1906),  i-kz;  FbibdbicHj  /.  A,  MdfUer,  der  Sym." 
boltker  (Munich,  1894);  KnOpfler  (Munich,  1896);  Monatsieb 
(Lausanne,  1897) ;  WAaENMANN-HAUCic  in  Realencykl.  fUr  prci, 
Theol.t  8.  v.:  Gotau  (Paris,  1905);  Schmid,  Der  geitUge  Snttriek" 
hmgtoang  MdhUra  in  Hist.  Jahrb.  (Munich,  1897).  322-56,  572-99. 

Patricius  Schlageb. 

Mohr,  Christian,  b.  at  Andemach,  1823:  d.  at 
GoloKne,  1888.  He  practised  his  profession  of  sculp- 
tor cnieny  at  Cologne  imder  the  cathedral  architect 
Zwimer.  After  some  early  ornamental  work  at 
Mdnz  and  Coblenz,  Mohr  settled  in  Cologne  in 
1845.  He  first  executed  the  statuettes  on  the  tomb 
of  Archbishop  Conrad  of  Hochstaden,  the  foimder  of 
the  cathedral.  Of  importance  are  his  figures  of 
Christ,  the  Evangelists,  and  fif tv-nine  angels  on  the 
south  portal  of  the  cathedral,  where  the  nch  variety 
of  the  added  symbols  excites  admiration.  On  the 
commission  of  Emperor  William  I  the  eieht  statues 
in  the  middle  hall  were  executed.  The  *  St.  Peter" 
for  the  middle  portal  won  Mohr  the  first-class  medal 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855.  He  also  carved  the 
statue  of  the  first  Cologne  cathedral  architect, 
Gerhard  Riele.  and  that  of  the  veteran  painter  of 
the  Cologne  school,  Stephan  Lochner.  He  imdertook 
many  commissions  outside  of  Cologne:  the  panoramic 
figures  for  the  assembly-hall  at  Diia^eldorf,  the  thirty- 
four  figures  of  the  emperors  for  the  Rathaus  at  Aachen, 
the  equestrian  statues  for  the  FUrstenbergische 
Schloss  at  Herdringen,  the  portrait  effigies  of  the 
Princes  of  Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen,  the  figiu-es  for 
the  fountain  on  the  market-place  at  Liibeck.  etc. 
For  more  than  forty  years  he  was  thus  engaged  at 
Cologne,  executing  commissions  for  that  city  and 
other  places.  The  cathedral  is  indebted  to  him  for 
the  best  of  its  sculptural  decoration;  the  Rathhaus 
for  the  statues  of  the  emperors,  and  the  Museum  for 
the  bust  of  Michelangelo,  which  in  1873  secured  for 
Mohr  the  honour  of  beine  made  a  regular  member  of 
the  K.  K.  Akademie  of  Vienna.  Mohr  was  equally 
esteemed  as  an  art-collector  and  connoisseur  of  classi- 
cal and  German  antiquities.  His  household  furni- 
ture represented  the  art  of  the  Dtirer  period.  That 
he  was  not  opposed  to  the  Renaissance  is  proved  by  a 
beautiful  silver  epergne  in  that  style.  Finally,  he 
ai)pears  as  a  writer  on  art  in  the  works  ''Koln  in 
seiner  Glanzzeit"  and  "Kolner  Torburgen".  For 
his  knowledge  and  his  achievements  he  was  indebted 
for  the  most  part  to  his  personal  exertions,  since  he 
was  practically  self-educated'  and,  even  though  in 
many  cases  he  only  executed  the  plans  of  Schwan- 
thaler,  still  numerous  independent  works  display 
both  talent  and  taste. 

ZwiUchr.  far  InlderuU  Kurut,  XXIV,  100  sqq.;  lUu^rierte  Zei- 
iung,  no.  866  (1860). 

G.  GlETBIANN. 

Mohr,  Joseph,  b.  at  Siegbuig,  Rhine  Province, 
11  Jan.,  1834;  d.  at  Mumch,  7  Febniaiy,  1892. 
Father  Mohr  did  more  than  any  other  within  the 


last  century  towards  restoring  to  ^neral  use,  es- 
pecially in  German-speaking  countries,  those  virile 
melodies  and  texts  sung  in  the  vernacular  by  the 
people  prior  to  the  Reformation — some  dating  from  the 
twelfth  century — which  had  been  displaced  by  a  senti- 
mental class  of  hymns  more  in  keeping  with  modem 
taste.  While  at  first  Father  Mohr  stood  practi- 
cally alone  in  the  pioneer  work  of  research,  he  later 
found  powerful  assistance  in  the  labours  of  Rev.  Dr. 
Wm.  B&umker  and  Rev.  Guido  Maria  Dreves,  at 
that  time  a  Jesuit,  both  of  whom  became  famous 
specialists  in  this  field.  Among  his  many  works  may 
be  mentioned:  ''Lasset  uns  beten";  "Treatise  on 
Psalmody";  "C&cilia",  a  hymn-book  and  prayer 
book;  "Cantate",  a  hymn  and  prayer-book;  "Psalmi 
Officii  hebdomads  sanct^B";  "Vesperbtlchlein"; 
I'Laudate  Dominum",  a  hymn-book  and  prayer-book 
intended  more  especially  for  institutions  of  higher 
education;  "Manuale  Cantorum",  and  "PsfiJter- 
lein",  a  hymn-book  and  prayer-book.  Most  of  these 
collections — model  hynm-books  as  well  as  prayer- 
books— have  had  large  circulations;  the  "Cantate" 
has  had  forty-two  editions,  and  the  thirty-third 
edition  of  the  collection,  "Cacilia",  has  recently 
appeared.  Several  of  Father  Mohr's  collections 
became  the  official  hymn-books  of  certain  dioceses: 
others  served  as  the  basis  for  the  compilation  oi 
official  diocesan  hymn-books.  Mohr  haa  the  gift, 
rare  at  the  present  time,  of  writing  genuine  hymn- 
tunes,  some  of  which  are  in  his  coUections. 

COeilianvertint-Catalog  (Ratisbon,  1870);  KornmOllxb,  Lai' 
kon  der  kirchlichen  Tonkunat  (Ratifibon,  1895). 

JOSBPH  OtTEN. 

Moigno,  FRANrom-NAPOL-'oN- Marie,  physicist 
and  author,  b.  at  Gu6men6  (Morbihan),  15  April,  1804' 
d.  at  SaiDty-Denis  (Seine),  14  July,  1884.  He  received 
his  early  education 
at  the  Jesuit  col- 
lege at  Sainte- 
Anne  d'Auray  and 
entered  the  novi- 
tiate of  the  order 
2  Sept.,  1822.  He 
made  ms  theologi- 
cal studies  nt  Mont- 
rouge,  devoting 
his  leisure  to 
mathematics   and 

ghysics  in  which 
e  achieved  much 
success.  Upon  the 
outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  of 
1830,  he  fled  with 
his  brethren  to 
Brieg  in  Switzer- 
land. Herehecori-     »' » ANcoia.NARoi.ftoN-MAiOT  Moiowo 

tinned  his  studies  and,  being  endowed  with  a  remarka- 
ble memor>^,  acquired  at  the  same  time  several  foreign 
languages^  including  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  In  1836  he 
was  appomted  professor  of  mathematics  at  the  well- 
known  college  of  Ste-Genevi6ve,  Rue  des  Postes,  in 
Paris.  Here  he'  became  widely  known  not  onlv  as  a 
scholar,  but  also  as  a  preacher  and  writer  of  ability. 
He  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  press  and  was 
much  esteemed  by  the  scientific  men  of  the  time,  in- 
cluding Cauchy,  AragOj  Dumas,  Ampere,  etc.  He 
was  engaged  on  one  of  his  best  known  works.  "  Leyons 
de  calcul  diff^rentiel  et  de  calcul  integral",  based 
chieflv  on  Cauchy's  methods,  and  had  already  pub- 
lished the  first  volume,  when  he  left  the  Societj^  in  1843. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  undertook  a  tour  of  Europe, 
contributing  numerous  letters  to  the  journal  "L^- 
poque".  He  acted  as  chaplain  of  the  Lyc^  Louis- 
te-urand  from  1848  to  I80I.  He  became  scientific 
editor  of  the  "Presse^'  in  1860  and  of  the  "Pa^s"  in 
1851  and  in  1852  founded  the  well-known  scientifio 


MOLAl 


433 


MOUSSMS 


ioumal  *'  (kxmw  ".  In  1862  he  founded  "  Les  Mondes  " 
and  became  associated  with  the  clergy  of  8t-Germain 
des  Prte.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  canons 
of  the  chapter  of  Saint-Denis.  Moinio  was  a  man  of 
great  industry  and  throughout  his  Tons  career  was  a 
prolific  writer,  beine  distmguished  raUier  as  an  ex- 

gment  of  science  than  as  an  original  investigator, 
e  not  onlv  wrote  a  lar^e  number  of  scientific  and 
apologetical  works  of  merit  but  also  translated  numer- 
ous English  and  Italian  memoirs  on  science  into 
French.  He  also  edited  the  "  Actuality  scientifiques  '*. 
Among  his  more  important  works  may  be  mentioned 
"Repertoire  d'optique  modeme"  (Paris,  1847-60); 
"Traits  de  telegraphic  eiectri^ue"  (Paris,  1849); 
"Le9ons  de  mecanique  analytique''  (Paris,  1868); 
"Saccharimetrie"  (Paris,  1860);  "Optique  mol^cu- 
laire"  (Paris,  1873);  "Lessplendeursdelafoi"  (Paris, 
1879-83);  "Les  livres  saints  et  la  science"  (Paris, 
1884),  etc.,  and  numerous  articles  in  the  "Comptes 
Rendus",  "Revue  Scientifique",  "Cosmos",  etc. 
Cotmot,  3rd  aeries,  VIII,  443.         Hbnrt  M.  BrocK. 

Molai  (Molat),  Jacques  de.  b.  at  Rahon,  Jura, 
about  1244;  d.  at  Paris,  18  March,  1314.  A  Templar 
at  Beaune  since  1265,  Molai  is  mentioned  as  Grand 
Master  of  the  Templars  as  early  as  1208.  He  was. 
as  he  described  himself  at  his  trial,  an  unlettered 
soldier  (mUes  iUeUeratus) ;  profitmg,  however,  by  the 
collective  experience  of  his  order,  he  presided  in 
1306  or  1307  at  the  dra^ng  up  of  a  verv  important 
plan  of  crusade  and  went  to  Poitiers  to  lay  it  before 
Clement  V,  who  had  summoned  him  from  the  East. 
This  crusading  project,  based  upon  personal  knowl- 
edge of  the  Orient  and  the  Italian  cities,  is  considered 
by  Renan  superior  to  any  other  scheme  of  its  kind 
formulated  during  that  epoch.  In  it  Molai  shows  his 
implicit  confidence  in  the  King  of  France,  whose 
victim  he  was  soon  to  become.  At  the  same  time 
Molai  presented  to  the  pope  a  memorial  against  the 
amalgamation  bf  the  Hospitallers  and  the  Templars 
under  discussion  since  the  Council  of  Lyons  ana  ac- 
cepted in  principle  by  Gregory  X.  On  learning  from 
Clement  V  the  accusations  brought  against  his 
order,  Molai  begged  the  pope  to  do  justice  and  re- 
turned to  Paris.  On  13  October,  1307,  he  was 
arrested  there,  together  with  all  the  Templars  of 
the  central  house  of  Paris,  by  the  lawyer  Noparet. 
Nogaret's  captious  interrogatories  necessarily  discon- 
certed Molai,  who,  knowing  neither  law  nor  theology, 
was  unable  to  defend  himself. 

On  24  October,  1307,  on  his  first  appearance  before 
the  inquisitor  general  of  the  kingdom,  Molai  pleaded 
guilty  to  some  of  the  imputed  crimes,  notably  the 
alleged  obligation  of  the  Templars  on  joining  the 
order  to  deny  Christ  and  to  spit  upon  the  crucifix; 
but  he  refused  to  admit  the  cnmes  against  chastity. 
On  25  October,  1307^  he  repeated  these  same  admis- 
sioDS  and  denials.  It  is  supposed  that  his  object  in 
mflJdng  these  partial  admissions  was  to  save  his  com- 
rades horn  the  extreme  penalty.  In  1308  a  commis- 
sion of  in()uiry  of  eight  cardinals  was  appointed  by 
the  pope;  it  was  a  new  form  of  procedure,  and  torture 
was  excluded  from  it.  Molai  caused  to  be  surrepti- 
tiously circulated  in  some  of  the  dungeons  a  wax 
tablet  calling  upon  his  brethren  to  retract  their  con- 
fessions, and  in  August,  1308,  appeared  before  this 
commission.  What  then  took  place  is  a  most  obscure 
point  of  histor^r.  According  to  the  record  of  his  trial 
as  it  appears  in  the  Bull  of  Clement  V,  "Faciens 
miserioordiam",  Molai  would  seem  to  have  repeated 
his  admissions  of  guilt,  but,  when  the  Bull  was  read 
to  him  on  his  appearance  before  another  commission 
in  November,  1309,  he  was  stupefied,  made  the  sign 
of  the  Cross  twice,  and  exclaimed:  "Would  to  God 
that  audi  scoundrels  might  receive  the  treatment 
they  receive  from  the  Saracens  and  Tartars! "  From 
this  VioUet  concludes  that  the  cardinals  of  the  com- 
X.— 28 


mission  of  1308  attributed  to  Molai  admissions  which 
he  had  not  made.  But  did  they  intend  to  injure  him? 
Quite  the  contrary,  M.  Viollet  thinks:  had  they  re- 
ported that  Molai  would  not  repeat  the  admissions 
made  in  1307,  Philip  IV  the  Fair  would  have  had  a  rea- 
son for  sending  him  to  the  stake  as  "  relapsed  '^  so,  from 
motives  of  humanity,  they  perpetrated  a  falsehood 
to  save  him.  Before  this  commission  of  1309  Molai 
displayed  true  courage.  When  they  spoke  to  him  of 
the  sodomy  of  the  Templars,  and  of  tneir  transgres- 
sions against  religious  law,  he  answered  that  he  had 
never  heard  of  anything  of  the  kind,  and  asked  per- 
mission to  hear  Mass.  The  trial  dragged  on.  In 
March,  1313,  he,  with  three  other  high  dietaries 
of  the  order,  underwent  a  last  interrogatorv  in  Paris 
before  a  new  commission  of  cardinals,  prelates,  and 
theologians,  authorized  to  pronounce  sentence.  He 
was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life,  proudly 
denying  the  crimes  with  which  the  Temple  had  beea 
charged.  Philip  the  Fair  sent  him  to  die  at  the  stake 
as  ''relapsed",  and  he  continued  unflinching  until  the 
last  (see  Templars,  Kniqhts). 

Hut.  m.  d€  la  France,  XXVII.  292-^.  382-6,  two  chaps,  written 
by  Rbnan;  Violubt,  Lea  Inlerrogatoirea  de  Jacques  de  Molav 
(Paris,  1010);  Bbsson,  Etude  aur  Jaeqtiea  de  Malay  (Besancon, 
1877):  ScHorniCLUBB,  Der  Unteroang  tie*  TempUrordme  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1887);  Layocat,  Proote  dee  Priree  de  Vordre  du  TempU 
(Paria,  1888);  Rabtoul,  Lea  Templiera  (Paris,  1005). 

Georqeb  Gotau. 

Molssme,  Notre-Dame  de,  a  celebrated  Benedic- 
tine monasterv  in  a  village  of  the  same  name.  Canton 
of  Laignes  (Cote  d'Or),  ancient  Burgundy,  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  Dioceses  of  Langres  and  Troyes.  St.  Rob- 
ert, Abbot  of  St-Michael  de  Tonnerre.  not  finding  his 
monks  disposed  to  observe  the  Rule  ot  St.  Benedict  in 
its  original  simplicity,  left  them,  accompanied  by  a 
few  monks  and  hermits,  and  selected  a  spot  on  the  de- 
clivity of  a  hill,  to  the  right  of  the  River  Leignes, 
where,  having  obtained  a  pant  of  land  from  Hugo  de 
Merlennac,  they  built  a  house  and  oratory  from  the 
boughs  of  trees.  Here  they  lived  in  extreme  poverty 
untu  a  certain  bishop  visited  them,  and,  seeing  their 
need,  sent  them  a  supply  of  food  and  clothing.  Mem- 
bers of  the  noblest  famines,  hearing  of  the  saintly  lives 
of  these  reli^ous,  soon  hastened  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  join  them,  bringine  in  many  cases  their 
worldly  possessions,  which,  added  to  numerous  other 
benefactions,  enabled  them  to  erect  a  church,  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  country  around,  and  suitable  monas- 
tic buildings.  The  increase  in  numbers  and  possessions 
caused  a  temporary  relaxation  in  fervour,  in  so  far  that 
the  monks  ceased  to  relish  the  work  of  the  fields,  being 
willing  to  live  on  the  alms  given  them.  Matters  hav- 
ing gone  even  so  far  as  open  rebelUon,  St.  Robert  and 
the  most  fervent  religious  left  Molesme  (1098)  and 
founded  Ctteaux,  which,  though  intended  as  a  Bene- 
dictine monasterjr.  became  the  first  and  mother-house 
of  the  Cistercian  Order.  The  monks  of  Molesme,  re- 
penting of  their  faults,  begged  Urban  II  to  oblige  St. 
Robert  to  return  to  them,  and  this  request  was  ac- 
ceded to  (1099);  Robert  continued  to  govern  them 
until  his  death  (1110).  Besides  Ctteaux,  Molesme 
founded  seven  or  eight  other  monasteries,  and  had 
about  as  many  monasteries  of  Benedictine  nuns  under 
its  jurisdiction.  The  church  and  monastery  were  de- 
stroyed and  their  possessions  confiscated  in  1472  dur- 
ing the  war  between  France  and  Burgundy.  The 
buildings  were  again  burned  by  the  heretics  towaids 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  fervour  of  the  monastery  was  re- 
newed on  the  introduction  of  the  reform  of  St.  Maur 
(1648).  All  the  glory  of  Molesme  has  now  vanished. 
The  ma^ficent  church  is  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the 
monastic  buildings  are  used,  a  small  part  as  a  school, 
and  the  rest  as  common  dwellings. 

Mabillon,  Annalea  O.S.B.  (Lucoa,  1740);  OaUia  ckriat.,  IV 
(Paris.  1876);  Obbiiain,  Monaatieon  gaUioanum  (Paris,  1882); 
Voyaoe  littirairedt  deux  religieux  bfnidietina  (Paris,  1717) ;  JAXAXh 


MOinTTA 


434 


MOUIBI 


•OfeaK,  OnlffAitftM  eUUrcUiuium.  I  QTwaa^  1876);  Manbiqvb, 
AnnaUB  eiH^rc,,  I  (Lyons.  1042);  MastAnb,  TAManriM  an«ai»- 
torvm.  III  (Paris,  1717);  Lauumt,  Coffwlotrv  dt  MoUamt  (Paris, 
1907). 

Edmund  M.  Obrbcht. 
Mollotta,   TarUiily   and   Oiorinauo,   Diocsbb 

OF    (MELPHICfTBNSIS,    TBRUmBNBIB   BT  JUVENACEN- 

bis). — Molfetta  is  a  dty  of  the  province  of  Ban.  in 
Apulia,  southern  Italy,  on  the  Acuiatio  Seaj  its  ongin 
is  unknown,  but  many  objects  of  the  neolithic,  bronse, 
and  the  Myoensan  epoch  have  been  found  at  a  place 
called  Pulo,  which  shows  that  the  site  of  Molfetta  was 
inhabited  in  prehistoric  times.  The  town  has  a  beau- 
tiful cathedral,  and  beyond  its  limits  is  the  sanctuaiy 
of  the  Vir|^  of  the  Martyrs  containing  an  image 
brought  to  it  b;^  some  Cruraders  in  1188.  The  first 
bishop  of  this  city  of  whom  there  is  anv  record  was 
John,  whose  incumbency  is  referred  to  the  ^fear  1130. 
The  see  was  at  first  suffragan  of  Ban,  but  in  1484  it 
became  immediately  dependent  upon  Rome.  In 
1818,  it  was  enlarged  with  the  territoiy  of  the  sup- 
pressed sees  of  Giovinasso  and  Terlissi,  which  were 
re-established  in  1835,  remaining  united,  ceque  princi' 
politer,  ^  In  the  opinion  of  some  people,  Giovinasso  is 
the  ancient  E^iatia;  it  has  been  an  ^iscopal  see  since 
1071.  Terliszi  was  a  city  in  the  Diocese  of  Giovi- 
nasso, and  in  1731,  to  put  an  end  to  certain  questions 
of  its  indenendence,  it  was  declared  an  episcopal  see, 
but  unitea  with  Giovinasso.  The  city  was  a  for- 
tress of  the  Hohenstaufens  and  of  the  Aragonese. 

The  Diocese  of  Molfetta  contains  4  parishes:  80 
secular  and  6  regular  priests;  42,000  Catholics.  Tei^ 
lissi  contains  3  parishes;  40  secular  and  6  regular 
priests:  24,100  Catholics.  Giovinasso  contains  2  par- 
ishes; 37  secular  and  3  regular  priests;  12,150  Catho- 
lics. In  the  united  dioceses  there  are  6  convents  for 
women,  4  for  men.  2  schools  for  boys,  and  4  for  girls. 

CAPraLURTi,  Ls  CAmm  d'ltalia,  XXI. 

U.  BXNIONI. 

Molltee  (properly,  Jban-Baptistb  Poqubun,  the 
name  by  which  ne  became  known  to  fame  having  heesa 
assumed  when  he  went  on  the  stage,  to  avoid  embar- 
rassing his  family),  French  comic  poet:  b.  at  Paris,  15 
Jan.,  1622;  d.  there  17  Feb.,  1673.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Paris  furniture  dealer  who  was  also  a  valet-de- 
chambre  to  the  king,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
latter  of  these  two  capacities.  After  making  his 
studies  with  the  Jesuits  at  the  College  de  Clermont,  he 
seems  to  have  studied  law  in  some  provincial  town — 
perhaps  Orleans.  It  is  not  known,  however,  if  he  ever 
took  his  licentiate.  The  stage  very  soon  attracted  him 
and  absort>ed  him.  At  twenty-one  he  entered  the 
theatrical  company,  organised  under  the  name  of 
"  L'lllustre  TheAtre^  in  which  were  Madeleine  B^iart 
and  her  brothers.  Ine  troupe  engaged  a  band  of  four 
musicians  at  the  cost  of  one  Iwre  per  day,  and  a  dancer, 
who  was  to  receive  thirty-five  9ol8  per  day  and  five 
sols  extra  for  every  day  when  there  was  a  Derformance. 
The  business  started  with  a  deficit,  and  Moli^re,  who 
appears  to  have  then  been  chosenpresident  by  his  asso- 
ciates, was  arrested  for  debt.  He  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Ch&telet,  but  released  on  his  own  recognisances. 

In  the  course  of  the  subsequent  wanderings  through 
different  parts  of  France,  Moli^re  composed  some 
small  comic  pieces  of  no  importance,  of  which  two 
have  been  preserved — ''La  Jalousie  de  Barbouill^" 
and  '•  Le  Medecin  Volant".  Afterwards,  about  1653 
or  1655,  he  staged,  at  L3ron8,  ''L'Etourdi".  In  this 
he  be^an  to  use  the  language  of  fine  comedy  which 
Comeille  had  created  ten  or  twelve  years  before.  ''Le 
D6pit  Amoureux",  produced  at  B^siers  in  1656, 
should  also  be  mentioned  here.  Before  long  the 
"Illustre  Th^tre"  regiuned  confidence  to  face  the 
Parisian  public;  we  find  it  in  Paris  in  1658.  Next 
year  the  troupe,  now  authorised  to  call  itself  "Troupe 
de  Monsieur,  Fr^re  du  Roi"  performed  "I>es  Pr6- 
oieusQB  Ridicules".    In  this  comedy  Molidre  declared 


MoLikam 
Fftintinc  by  Pinre  Micnard 


war  agunst  the  spirit  of  refined  humbu^ery  (Vesprii 
pr4cieux)f  and  he  never  ceased  to  be  its  enemy,  &s 
witness  "Les  Femmes  Savantee"  (1672),  one  of  his 
last  pieces.    The  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  saw  the 

groduction  of  his  most  famous  works.  ^'L'Ecoledes 
faris"  (1661)  shows  the  beauty  of  a  confiding  tnd 
fentle  character  in  a  man;  "Les  F&oheux''  (ab<o 
661)  was  written  in  fifteen  days;  ''L'Ecole  des 
Femmes"  (1662)  gives  another  lesson  to  husbands— 
which  was  very  creditable  to  the  playwright,  for  he 
himself,  at  the  age  of  forty,  had  just  married  a  girl  of 
twenty,  Madeleine  B^jart's  sister,  the  volatile  Ar- 
mando who  was 
to  give  him  so 
much  trouble.  The 
"Critique  de 
L'EcoIe  des  Fem- 
mes''and  the '^Im- 
promptu de  Vei^ 
sailles"  (1663)  are 
two  little  prose 
pieces  in  whicn  the 
writer  defends  his 
comedy  of  the  pre- 
ceding vear  and 
attacks  his  critics. 
"Tartufe"(1664), 
the  famous  com- 
edy, at  first  in 
three  acts,  after^ 
wards  in  five,  detds 
trenchant  blows 
at  hypocrisy,  un- 
fortunately, however,  often  strikin||  true  virtue  at  the 
same  time.  After  its  first  production  the  public  per- 
formance of  this  piece  was  forbidden,  and  the  oan 
was  not  removed  tor  five  years. 

In  the  interval  Moli^re  wrote: " Don  Juan  "  (or  "  Le 
Festin  de  Pierre'')  (1665),  apparently  intended  as  a 
revenge  for  the  suppression  of '  Tartufe  " ; ''  Le  Misain- 
thrope"  (1669)  a  great  comedy  of  character;  "  Amphi- 
ti^n  "  (1668),  three  acts  in  verse  of  various  measures, 
where  Jupiter  assumes  the  form  of  the  Theban  general, 
Amphitryon,  in  order  to  betray  his  wife,  Alemena; 
lastly,  "L'Avare"  (1668).  Excepting  "Les  Femmes 
Savantes  ",  already  mentioned,  the  comedies  of  his  last 
four  years  exhibit  a  great  deal  of  gaiety,  but  not  so 
much  breadth — "Monsieur  de  Pourceaugnac "  and 
"Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme".  in  1669,  "Les  Foui^ 
beries  de  Scapin'\  in  1671  ana  "Le  Malade  Imagi- 
naire"  (1673).  While  on  the  stage  pia3ring  in  *'Le 
Malade  Imaginture",  the  author  was  seised  with  a 
violent  haemorrhage;  he  was  carried  home,  and  died. 

In  him  France  lost  the  greatest  of  the  comic  writers 
whom  her  history  has  produced.  Judging  Moliere 
exclusively  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  he  doss  not  owe  his  reputation  to  the 
quantity  of  dramatic  entanglement  in  his  pla>*s; 
he  owes  it  above  all  to  the  truth  of  his  portraiture. 
His  friend  Boileau  called  him  "the  looker-on  "  (le  am- 
templateur).  He  knew  how  to  look  at  the  world, 
to  note  its  vices  and  its  failings,  and  his  genius  bad 
the  power  of  combining  what  ne  saw,  melting  all 
his  observations  together,  adding  to  them,  and 
thus  creating  beings  who  are  no  longer  particular 
individuals^  out  are  recognizable  as  men  of  their 
whole  penod — often  of  all  periods  of  humanity. 
Moreover,  the  characters  are  his  chief  concern:  with 
him,  as  with  Racine,  the  characters  carry  the  whole 
piece,  they  are  its  soul.  His  art  may  at  times  fail 
m  other  points — as  in  his  dhumemerUs,  which  are 
often  ill  contrived — ^but  in  that  one  respect  he  is 
always  admirable.  His  plays,  then,  present  a  poi^ 
trait  of  the  heart  of  man,  out  a  profile  portrait  drawn 
by  a  satirist,  whose  business  is  to  see  onl^  the  defec- 
tive side  of  it,  and  a  dramatic  writer,  who  is  obliged  bv 
the  laws  of  stage  optics  to  emphasise  certain  lines.  This 


MOLINA                               435  mOLaA 

yeriaimilitude — or,  as  his  friend  La  Fontaine  ezproBsed  tached  to  the  fathers  that  he  never  left  them.  When 

it,  carefukieas  "not  to  go  one  step  away  from  nature"  he  reached  the  required  age  he  joined  the  Francia- 

— is  found  in  all  Molilre's  worlis.    It  is  particularly  can  order,  and  for  fifty  years  was  indefatigable  in 

visible  in  his  style.    Grood  critics,  it  is  true,  have  his  work  among  the  Indians,  devoting  also  some  time 

found  fault  with  Molidre's  style,  particularly  in  his  to  the  numerous  works  which  he  left.    In  order  to  allow 

verse;  Boileau,  F^nelon,  and  La  Bruydre  did  so  in  the  him  to  follow  uninterruptedly  his  chosen  work,  his 

seventeenth  centunr;    Vauvenargues,  in  the  eigh-  superiors  relieved  him  of  all  cares  of  office,  although 

teenth;  Th6ophile  Uautier  and  others,  in  the  nine-  there  is  record  of  his  having  been  superior  of  the  con* 

teenth.    On  the  other  hand,  a  whole  school  has  arisen  vent  of  Texcoco^  in  1555.     Although  no  great  ae- 

in  the  last  fiftv  years  to  extol  this  writer:  for  the  tions  mark  the  life  of  Molina,  he  is  nevertheless  re- 

Molidrists,  as  they  have  been  called,  Molidre  is  above  markable  for  his  untiring  aeal,  and  for  the  wonderful 

all  criticism;  they  preach  a  sort  of  cultus  of  Moli^re.  constancy  wiUi  which,  for  half  a  century,  he  oontin- 

To  be  more  judicious,  we  must  be  more  moderate,  ued  his  work,  resiisting  its  monotony,  overcoming  all 

Admitting  that  the  language  of  comedy,  which  is  hardships  and  the  opoosition  he  often  encountered, 

that  of  familiar  conversation,  permits  mm  certain  He  left  numerous  works,  the  following  unpublished: 

liberties,  which  he  cannot  be  fairly  blamed  for  usin^,  ''Traduccion  mexicana  de  las  Epistolas  y  Evangdios 

still,  making  all  due  allowance  for  the  nature  of  his  de  todo  el  afio";  '^Horas  de  Ntra.  Sra.  en  mexicano"; 

medium^  there  is  no  denying  that  his  style  Buffers  from  many  prayers  and  devotions  for  the  Indians;  "De 

real  carelessness — ^useless  repetitions,  incoherent  met-  Contemptu  Mundi";  also  a  treatise  on  thesacra- 


style.  Frank  and  natural,  he  excels  in  making  reason  Cristiana"  (1578);  "Arte  mexicano"  (1571);  and 
and  good  sense  talk.  It  is  the  style  of  a  poet,  too —  "  Vocabulario  castdlano  mexicano  y  mexicano  caste- 
warm,  highly  coloured,  brilliant.  Lastly,  one  finds  llano"  (1571,  reprinted,  Leipzig,  1880),  the  most  im- 
in  him  striking  words  and  striking  touches,  which  portant  of  his  works. 

come  spontaneously,  and  add  to  his  charm.  I>ice,  meUiojMieo  hitparuhamtrieattOt  III  (Baroelona,  1803); 

As  for  moraUty,  it  ow«,  Moli6«  much  le»  thaa  ^SSSS' if rtSJ^c^^SSS  ±SSi  f»JiiiooW«: 

literature  does.     Altnou^  he  gave  out,  m  his  pref-  Sdc^n,  Didionnaire  de  la  lan^ut  Nahuaa  rPani,  1885);  05rM 

aces,    that  it  was  his  wish  and  duty  as  a  dramatic  de  D.  /.  Gordo  leaabakela  (Memoop  1896).  III. 

poet,  to  be  of  service  to  morality,  he  has  been  severely  Camillus  Criveuj. 

censured  in  tWs. regard,  from  Boesuet  to  Jean^acgues  moBm,  Antonio  db,  a  Spaniah  Carthuaan  and 
Rousseau.    While  he  never  put  on  the  stage — as  is  so       i  u  T!5'       V^.i  __:*«-  tfTiI™*  ie«}\   ^vrnT^ 

often  done  in  these  days-a  ^man  guilty  of  violating  «Iebrated  ascetical  wntw,  b.  about  156a  at  Vm». 

her  marriage  vows,  or  about  to  viofete  them,  yet  hi  ?"f  J»  deloe  I^anJ*  = // J^  M^fl»'«^21  Sq^^ 

has  been  reproachiil  with  the  preaenUtion  if  other  "12  or  1619.    In  1576  he  watered  the  Ordw  of  Augu*. 

dangerous  pictuies.    Furthermore,  he  is  always  on  J""""  Hemiita,  was  dected  ««P«^»'»*°?«  »'*!«• 

the  Mde  of  the  young  people,  who  Purely  need  no  en-  ^^.  ^.  ^Pf^!  P<^  ^°'J°™%*^*„ML^«S^: 

courtigement  in  the5  wTp^penaitiM.    AU  his  ser-  ^  wjshmg  to  lom  an  ordw  of  stnctw  dwciplme,^ 

monsTall  his  satires,  are  for  parrate;  all  the  unpleasant  became  a  Carthusian  at  Miraflores,  where  le  died 

failing  depicted  by  his  coidedies  i^de  in  the  fathers  P«or  of  the  monastei3r.    He  wrote  m  Spanuli  a  few 

and  tie  oid  people;  the  laugh  is  always  at  thar  ex-  woetical  works,  especwUyadapted  for  pnMts,  wbdi 

pense,  exceptwKen  their  eSsm  excites  honor.    It  bewme  the  most  popuhx  books  of  their  kind  m  Spam, 

must  be  confessed  that,  wKle  the  passiona  of  the  fS^  "e^!  translated  mto  vanous  foreygn  l<u>SuageB. 

young  king,  Louis  XIV,  had  only  tiomuch  reason  The  most  famous  of  these  is  a  nwnud  for  priests  and 

to  hi  pleSed  with  the  author  of  "Amphitiyon",  beats  the  title:  "Instruccion  de  Sacerdotes,  en  que  se 

religion  had  no  cause  to  approve  the  author  of  ''Tarl  ^,  doctnna  muy  unpOTtante  para  conocw  la  ^teza 

tufe".    MoliSre's  Christiwiity  was  not  as  profound  ^1  aa^o  oficio  Sacwdotal,  y  Mra  exercitarle  debi- 

as  that  of  ComMlle,  Racine,  Boileau,  and  nearly  aU  damente".    Twenty  ^itions  of  Uiis  woric  are  known 

the  Ulustrious  writeiB  of  his  time.    And  yet,  when  *?  baye  been  published,  among  them  a  Latm  traMla- 

there  was  question  of  his  being  given  Christian  burial,  *»»?  by  the  Belmn  Domimcan  Nicolas  JaMwsn  Boy, 

and  the  euri  hesitated,  on  the  ground  that  the  priest  J'b'ch  received  five  editioM  (Antwerp,  1618,  1644, 

ha<l  arrived  too  late  to  give  absolution  to  the  come-  Colome,  1626, 1711,  and  1712),  and  an  Italian  trenria- 

dian,  who,  it  may  ahnost  be  said,  passed  from  the  V""*  (^"^'  }^K   ^*  ^^verely  attacked  by  the 

8tage  to  the  tribunal  of  God,  his  widow  proved  that  JanseiMt  Antoine  Airiauld  (De  la  fr^uente  Commu- 

helad  received  the  sacraments  in  the  1^  previous  »«»,  1643)  but  ably  defended  agamst  him  by  Petavius 

paschal  season.  ("Dopnata  theolo^ca,    De  Poenitentia",  Lb.  Ill, 

See  th.  ediUoa'of  MolUra  by  Dwpou  AMD  MssicABo  in  the  cap.vijnewed., Pans,  1865-7,  VIII,  286-8).  Heisalao 

cMtctum.  dtt  grand*  ieritaitu  p>aria,  1873-1900),  lOso  an  Ei«-  the  author  of  two  asoetical  works  adapted  for  laymen. 

!Tl^5SS!*?^?)^*^I^'i|^^^^^  The  one,  "Exerdcios  e«P}riti«Jes,  Pam  persor^^^ 

Bohn'M  Library  (3  voU.,  London.  1876-77);  Lacboix,  Bibliog,  padas  de  cosas  de  su  salvacion  ,  was  published  at 

moii^etque  (Pari*.  1875);  Vcuillot,  AfoiOre «« Botirdolaue  (Paris,  BuTgos  in  1613;  the  Other,  "Exercicios  espuituales  de 

1S77);  t>)NOHAT]B.HM{.djtoWM./^  j^  excelencias.  provecho  y  necesidad  de  la  oracion 

(London,  1900),  317;  MATrmEws.  MUihe  (NowYork.  1910).  mental",  etc.,  was  first  pubhshed  at  Burgos  in  1015, 

Georqeb  Bertbin.  and  was  translated  into  Latin. 

AmoNio.  Bihlioiheoa  hiemifM  now  (Madrid,  1783-8).  1. 145; 
iusm.  ^ommelator,  8rd  ed..  Ill,  608-9.    MiCHAEL  Ott. 


Molina,  Alonso  de,  Franciscan  friar,  b.  prob- 
ably 1511  or  1512,  at  Escalona,  province  of  Toledo, 
Spain;  d.  1584,  in  the  city  of  Mexico.  In  1523  his  Molina  (Mol.  or  Molin),  Juan  Ignacio,  natural- 
parents  came  to  New  Spam,  where  he  learned  Uie  Na-  ist  and  scientist;  b.  20  July,  1740,  at  Guaraculen  near 
huatl,  or  Mexican  language.  The  first  twelve  Fran-  Talca  (Chile);  d.  23  Oct.  (12  Sept.?).  1829,  at  Imola 
OLsoan  missionaries  who  arrived  in  1524,  seeing  how  or  Bologna  (Italy).  Molina  first  studied  in  Santiago 
thoroughly  verswi  he  was  in  the  language  of  the  na-  and  became  a  Jesuit  when  only  fifteen.  The  young 
tives,  befQ^  Cort^  to  use  his  influence  with  the  scholastic  excelled  in  languages  (he  composed  a  num- 
child'8  mother  that  he  might  be  allowed  to  help  them  ber  of  poems),  and  in  the  natural  sciences.  In  1767 
in  their  preaching  and  catechizing.  The  mother  he  was  sent  to  Italy  which  grew  to  be  his  second  home; 
readily  consented,  and  young  Alonao  became  so  at-  he  was  ordained  at  Imola  soon  after,  and  then  lived  as 


MOLINA 


436 


MOLINA 


a  tutor  in  Bologna.  In  his  Idmire  time  he  devoted 
himself  especially  to  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences, 
although  nis  chief  distinction  lies  in  having  become 
the  most  prominent  historian  and  geographer  of  his 
native  American  home.  Molina  publishea  his  works 
in  Italian;  they  all  appeared  at  Bologna,  the  first 
one  anonymously.  He  treats  of  Chile  in:  (1)  "Com- 
pendio  della  storia  gcografica,  natunde  e  civile  del 
regno  del  Chile"  (1776),  8vOj  245  pp.,  1  map,  10 
tables;  (2)  "Saggio  sulla  stona  naturaie  del  Cnile" 
1782),  8vo,  368  pp.,  1  map,  2nd  enlarged  edition 
1810),  4to;  (3)  "Saggio  deUa  storia  civile  del  Chile'' 
[1787),  8vo,  333  pp.,  2nd  enlarged  edition  (1810), 
4to,  306  pp.  These  three  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German  (Leipzig,  1786-91);  French  (Paris); 
Spanish  (2  vols.,  Madrid,  1788-95),  the  most  complete 
edition;  English  (Middletown,  Conn.,  1808;  London, 
1809,  1825).  The  original  and  several  of  the  trans- 
lations contain  Molina's  portrait.  As  an  expression 
of  her  gratitude  Chile  named  the  town  of  Molina 
after  him.  If  these  works  evidence  his  learning  as 
a  student  of  natural  history,  this  is  equally  true  of  his 
''Memorie  di  storia  naturaie  lette  in  Bologna" 
'  (Bologna,  1821,  8vo,  2  vols,  with  16  essays), 
which  Molina  as  a  member  laid  before  the  InsHtvia 
PorUifido,  Another  work,  ''Analogia  de  los  tres 
reinos  de  la  naturalezza",  is  of  considerable  interest, 
as  it  was  written  by  Molina  in  Spanish,  and  because  it 
was  not  published,  although  Mezzofanti  procured  the 
imprimatur  in  1820.  Molina  was  highly  esteemed 
by  the  botanists;  Schrank  in  1789  named  after  him  a 

fenus  of  the  OramineoBj  well  known  throughout 
jurope,  Molinia;  and  Jussieu  in  the  same  year  classi- 
fied tne  genus  Mcdincea;  other  generic  names  (as  Mo- 
lina) are  no  longer  used. 

SoiiUKRVOOBL,  SiMiolh.  de  la  Comp,  de  Jiaua,  V  (1894);  Sac- 
CABDO.  La  Botanioa  in  lUUia  (Venice,  1895,  1901). 

Joseph  Rompel. 

Moli]ia»  Luis  de,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  re- 
nowned theologians  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  b.  of 
noble  parentage  at  Cuenca,  New  Castile,  Spain,  in 
1535;  d.  at  Madrid,  12  October,  1600.  At  the  age  of 
ei|^teen,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Alcald, 
and,  on  finishing  his  novitiate,  was  sent  to  take  up 
his  philosophical  and  theological  studies  at  Coimbra 
in  Portugal.  So  successful  was  he  in  his  studies  that, 
at  the  close  of  his  course,  he  was  installed  as  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Coimbra,  and  promoted  a  few  years 
later  to  the  chair  of  theology  at  the  flourishing  Univer- 
sity of  Evora.  For  twenty  years,  marked  by  untiring 
labour  and  devotion,  he  expounded  with  great  success 
the  "Summa"  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  to  eager  stu- 
dents. In  1590  he  retired  to  nis  native  city  of 
Cuenca  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  writing  and 
preparing  for  print  the  results  of  his  long  contmued 
studies.  Two  years  later,  however,  the  Society  of 
Jesus  opened  a  special  school  for  the  science  of  moral 
philosophy  at  Madrid,  and  the  renowned  professor 
was  called  from  his  solitude  and  appointed  to  the 
newly  established  chair.  Here  death  overtook  him 
before  he  had  held  his  new  post  for  half  a  year.  By  a 
strange  coincidence  on  the  same  day  (12  Oct.,  1600) 
the  "Congregatio  de  auxiliis",  which  had  been  insti- 
tuted at  Rome  to  investigate  Molina's  new  system  of 
grace,  after  a  second  examination  of  his  ''Concordia", 
reported  adversely  on  its  contents  to  Clement  VIII. 
Molina  was  not  only  a  tireless  student,  but  also  a 
profound  and  original  thinker.  To  him  we  are  in- 
debted for  important  contributions  in  speculative, 
dogmatic  and  moral  theology  as  well  as  in  jurispru- 
dence. The  originality  of  his  mind  is  shown  quite  as 
much  by  his  novel  treatment  of  the  old  scholastic 
subjects  as  by  his  labours  along  new  lines  of  theologi- 
cal mc[uirv. 

Molma  s  chief  contribution  to  the  science  of  theol- 
ogy is  the  ''Concordia",  on  which  he  spent  thirty 
years  of  the  most  assiduous  labour.    Tlie  publication 


of  this  work  was  facilitated  by  the  valuable  aaostanee 
of  Cardinal  Albert,  Grand  Inquisitor  of  Portugal  and 
brother  of  Emperor  Rudolf  II.    The  full  title  of  the 
now  famous  work  reads : "  Concordia  liberi  arbitrii  cum 
^ti£e  donis,  divma  pnescientia,  providentia,  prsdes- 
tinatione  et  reprobatione"  (Lisbon,  1588).    As  the 
title  indicates,  the  work  is  primarily  concerned  with 
the  difficult  problem  of  reconciling  grace  and  free  will. 
In  view  of  its  purpose  and  principal  contents,  the  book 
may  also  be  regarded  as  a  scientific  vindication  of  the 
Tridentine  doctrine  on  the  permanence  of  man's  free 
will  under  the  influence  of  efficacious  grace  (Sess.  VI, 
cap.  v-vi;  can.,  iv-v).    It  is  also  the  first  attempt  to 
offer  a  strictly  logical  explanation  of  the  great  prob- 
lems of  grace  and  free  will,  foreknowledge  and  pro\> 
dence,  and  predestination  to  ^ory  or  reprobation, 
upon  an  entirely  new  basis,  while  meeting  fairly  all 
possible  objections.    This  new  basis,  on  which  the 
entire  Molinistic  system  rests,  is  the  Divine  ^denlia 
media.    To  make  clear  its  intrinsic  connexion  with 
the  traditional  teachings,  the  work  takes  the  form  of 
a  commentary  upon  several  portions  of  the  "Summa" 
of  St.  Thomas  (I,  Q.  xiv,  a.  13;  Q.  xix,  a.  16;  QQ.  xxii- 
iii).    Thus  Molina  is  the  first  Jesuit  to  write  a  com- 
mentary upon  the  "Summa".    As  to  style,  the  work 
has  little  to  recommend  it.    The  Latinity  is  hea\7, 
the  sentences  are  long  and  involved,  andi  the  prolix 
exposition  and  freouent  repetition  of  the  same-  ideas 
are  fatiguing;  in  snort,  the  "Concordia"  is  neither 
easy  nor  agreeable  reac^g.    Even  though  much  of  the 
obscurity  of  the  book  may  be  attributed  to  the  subject- 
matter  itself,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the  dispute 
concerning  Molina's  doctrine  would  never  have  at- 
tained  such  violence  and  bitterness,  had  the  style  been 
more  simple  and  the  expressions  less  ambiguous. 
And  yet  Molina  was  of  opinion  that  the  older  heresies 
concerning  grace  would  never  have  arisen  or  would 
have  soon  passed  away,  if  the  Catholic  doctrine  of 
grace  had  before  been  treated  according  to  the  princi- 
ples which  he  followed  for  the  first  time  in  his  "Con- 
cordia" and  with  the  minuteness  and  accuracy  which 
characterized  that  work.    But  he  was  greatly  mis- 
taJcen.    For  not  only  was  his  doctrine  powerless  to 
check  the  teachings  of  Baius.  which  began  to  spread 
soon  after  the  publication  of  nis  work,  and  to  prevent 
the  rise  of  Jansenism,  which  sprang  from  early  Prot- 
estant ideas,  but  it  was  itself  the  cause  of  that  his- 
toric controversy  which  has  raged  for  centuries  be- 
tween Thomists  and  Molinists,  and  which  has  not 
wholly  subsided  even  to  this  day.    Thus,  the  "(Con- 
cordia "  became  a  bone  of  contention  in  the  schools,  and 
brought  on  a  deplorable  discord  among  the  theologians, 
especially  those  of  the  Dominican  and  Jesuit  orders. 
The  "Concordia"  had  scarcely  left  the  press,  and 
had  not  yet  appeared  on  the  market,  when  tliere  arose 
against  it  a  violent  opposition.    Some  theologians, 
having  got  a  knowled^  of  its  contents,  endeavoured 
by  every  means  in  their  power  to  prevent  its  publica- 
tion.   Molina  himself  withheld  the  edition  for  a  year. 
In  1589  he  placed  it  on  the  market  together  with  a 
defence  of  it,  which  he  had  in  the  meantime  prepared 
and  which  was  to  answer  the  chief  objections  made 
against  his  work  even  before  it  appeared.    The  de- 
fence was  publLshed  separately  under  the  title:  "Ap- 
pendix ad  Concordiam,  continens  responsiones  ad  tres 
objectiones  et  satisfactiones  ad  17  animadversiones" 
(Lisbon,  1589).    This  precaution,  however,  was  of 
Uttle  avail,  and  the  controversy  grew  apace.    Not 
only  his  principal  adversaries  among  the  Dominicans, 
Bafiez  and  de  Lemos,  but  even  his  own  brothers  in 
religion,  Henriquez  and  Mariana,  opposed  his  doc- 
trine most  bitterly.    Soon  the  whole  of  Spain  rang 
with  the  clamour  of  this  controversy,  and  Molina 
was  even  denounced  to   the   Spanish   Inquisition. 
When  the  dispute  was  growing  too  bitter,  Rome  iniet- 
vened  and  took  the  matter  into  its  own  hands.    In 
1594  Clement  VIII  imposed  silence  upon  the  contend- 


M0UNI8M 


437 


MOLimSM 


ing  partieSi  and  in  1596  demanded  that  the  docu- 
ments be  sent  to  the  Vatican.  To  settle  the  con- 
troversy he  instituted  in  1598  a  special  ''Con^regatio 
de  auxuiis",  which  at  the  early  stages  of  its  mvesti- 
gation  showed  a  decided  opposition  to  Molina's  doc- 
trine. Doubtless  Molina  took  to  the  grave  the  im- 
pression that  Molinism  was  doomed  to  incur  the 
censure  of  the  Holy  See,  for  he  did  not  live  to  see  his 
new  system  exonerated  by  Paul  V  in  1607.  (For  fur- 
ther cfetails  see  the  article  Conqrboatio  db  Auxilus.) 

Undisturbed  by  the  heat  and  bitterness  of  the  at- 
tack, Molina  published  a  complete  commentary  ujyon 
the  first  part  of  the  Summa  of  St.  Thomas,  which 
he  had  prepared  at  Evora  during  the  years  1570-73 
("Commentaria  in  primam  partem  £).  Thomse". 
2  vols.,  Cuenca,  1592).  The  chief  characteristic  ot 
this  work,  which  has  been  repeatedlv  re-edited,  is  the 
insertion  where  opportunity  offered  of  most  of  the 
dissertations  of  the  '^  Concordia'',  which  thus  became 
an  integral  part  of  the  commentary.  The  increasing 
bitterness  and  confusion  of  ideas  occasioned  by  the 
controversy  induced  Molina  to  publish  a  new  edition 
of  the  ^'Concordia"  with  numerous  additions,  in 
which  he  endeavoured  to  correct  the  misconceptions 
and  misrepresentations  of  his  doctrine^  and  at  the 
same  time  to  dispel  the  important  misgivings  and 
accusations  of  hb  adversaries.  This  edition  bears 
the  title: ''  Liberi  arbitrii  cum  gratise  donis  etc.  Concor- 
dia, altera  sui  parte  auctior"  (Antwerp,  1595,  1609, 
1705;  new  edition,  Paris,  1876).  To-aay  this  is  the 
only  standard  edition.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  a 
century  the  Dominican  Fr.  Hyacinth  Serry,  in  his 
"Historia  Congregationis  de  auxiliis"  (Louvain, 
1700;  Antwerp,  1709)  accused  Molina  of  having 
onoitted  many  assertions  from  his  Antwerp  edition  m 
the  ''Concordia",  which  were  parts  of  the  Lisbon 
edition.  But  Father  lavinus  ae  Meyer,  S.J.,  sub- 
jected the  two  editions  to  a  critical  comparison,  and 
succeeded  in  showing  that  the  omissions  in  question 
were  only  of  secondary  moment,  and  that  Senys  ac- 
cusation was  thus  groundless.  Meyer's  work  bears 
the  title,  ''Historia  controversiarum  de  auxiliis" 
(Antwerp,  1708).  De  Molina  was  not  less  eminent  as 
a  oioralist  and  jurist  than  as  a  speculative  theologian. 
A  proof  of  this  is  his  work  "X>e  Justitia  et  jure" 
(Cuenca.  1593)^  which  appeared  complete  only  after 
his  death.  This  work  is  a  classic,  referred  to  fre- 
quently even  at  the  present  time  (7  vols.,  Venice, 
1614;  5  vols.,  Cologne,  1733).  On  broad  lines  Molina 
not  only  develops  therein  the  theory  of  law  in  general 
and  the  special  juridical  questions  arising  out  of  the 
political  economics  of  his  time  (e.  g.,  the  law  of  ex- 
chan^),  but  also  enters  very  extensively  into  the 
questions  concerning  the  juridical  relations  between 
Church  and  State,  pope  and  prince^  and  the  like.  It 
is  a  sad  fact,  that^  m  order  to  justify  the  brutal  per- 
secution of  the  Jesuits  in  France,  the  Benedictine 
d^mencet  ("Extracts  des  assertions  pemicieuses" 
etc.,  Paris,  1672)  ransacked  even  this  solid  work 
and  fancied  he  foimd  therein  lost  principles  of  moral- 
ity. This  is  but  one  of  the  many  misfortunes  which 
at  that  time  of  unrest  fell  so  heavily,  and  as  a  rule  so 
undeservedly,  on  the  Society  of  Jesus  (cf .  Dollinger, 
'^Moralstreitigkeiten",  I,  Munich^  1889,  p.  337). 
The  work  ''De  Hispanorum  prinugeniorum  origine 
et  natura"  (Alcald,  1573;  Colore,  1588)  is  often  at- 
tributed to  Molina;  in  reality  it  is  the  work  of  another 
jurist  of  the  same  name,  who  was  bom  at  Ursaon  in 
Andaluoa. 

Alb  a  man,  priest,  and  religious.  Molina  commanded 
the  respect  and  esteem  of  his  oitterest  adversaries. 
During  his  whole  life  his  virtues  were  a  source  of  edi- 
fication to  all  who  knew  him.  To  prompt  obedience  he 
joined  true  and  sincere  humility.  On  hb  death-bed, 
having  been  asked  what  he  wished  done  with  his  writ- 
ings, he  answered  in  all  simplicity:  "The  Society  of 
Jesus  may  do  with  them  what  it  wishes '\   His  love  for 


evangelical  poverty  was  most  remarkable;  in  spite  of 
his  bodily  infirmity,  brought  on  by  overwork,  he  never 
sought  anymitigation  in  the  matter  of  either  clothing 
or  food.  He  was  a  man  of  great  mortification  to  the 
very  end  of  his  life. 

A  biography  and  bibliography  together  with  a  portrait  of  Mo- 
lina may  be  found  in  the  Cologne  edition  of  his  De  jutOtia  et  juret 
I  (1733).  It  bears  the  title  L.  MoUiub,  S.J.  vita  morumqtie  brevit 
adumhratio  afoue  operum  Catalogtu.  There  is  no  modem  critical 
biography.  See  Moboott  in  Kireherdex,^  a.  v.;  SoMMSBVoaELi, 
BiM.  dea  icrivains  dela  C.de  /.,  V,  1167-79;  Hubteb,  Nomenda- 
lor,  I  (2nd  ed.),  47  sqq.  J,  PqhLE. 

MoliniBin,  the  name  used  to  denote  one  of  the 
S3rstems  which  purpose  to  reconcile  grace  and  free 
will.  This  system  was  first  developed  by  Luis  de 
Molina,  and  was  adopted  in  its  essential  points  by  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  It  is  opposed  by  the  Thomistic 
doctrine  of  ^ce — the  term  Thomism  has  a  somewhat 
wider  meamng — ^whose  chief  exponent  is  the  Domini- 
can BafLez.  Along  lines  totally  different  from  those 
of  Molina,  this  subtile  theologian  endeavours  to  ha> 
monise  grace  and  free  will  on  principles  derived  from 
St.  Thomas.  Whereas  Molinism  tnes  to  clear  up  the 
mysterious  relation  between  grace  and  free  will  by 
starting  from  the  rather  clear  concept  of  freedom, 
the  Thomists,  in  their  attempt  to  explain  the  atti- 
tude of  the  will  towards  grace,  begin  with  the  obscure 
idea  of  efBcacious  grace.  The  question  which  both 
schools  set  themselves  to  answer  is  this:  Whence  does 
efficacious  grace  (gratia  efficax),  which  includes. in  its 
very  concept  the  actual  free  consent  of  the  will,  derive 
its  infallible  effect;  and  how  is  it  that,  in  spite  of  the 
infallible  efficacy  of  grace,  the  freedom  of  the  will  is 
not  impaired?  It  is  evident  that,  in  every  attempt  to 
solve  this  difficult  problem,  Catholic  theologians  must 
safeguard  two  principles :  first,  the  supremacy  and  cau- 
sality of  grace  (against  Pelagianism  and  Semipela- 
giamsm),  and  second,  the  unimpaired  freedom  of  con- 
sent in  the  will  (against  early  Protestantism  and 
Jansenism).  For  both  these  principles  are  dogmas 
of  the  Church,  clearly  and  emphatically  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Now,  whilst  Thomism  lays  chief 
stress  on  the  infallible  efficacy  of  grace,  without  de- 
nying the  existence  and  necessity  of  the  free  co- 
operation of  the  will.  Molinism  emphasizes  the  unre- 
strained freedom  of  tne  will,  without  detracting  in  any 
way  from  the  efficacy,  priority,  and  dignity  of  grace. 
As  in  the  tunnelling  of  a  mountain^  galleries  started 
by  skilful  engineers  from  opposite  sides  meet  to  form 
but  one  tunnel,  thus  it  might  have  been  expected  that, 
in  spite  of  different  and  opposite  starting-points,  the 
two  schools  would  finally  meet  and  reach  one  ana  the 
same  scientific  solution  of  the  important  problem. 
If  we  find,  however,  that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that 
they  passed  each  other  along  parallel  lines,  we  are 
inclined  to  attribute  this  failure  to  the  intricate  nature 
of  the  subject  in  question,  rather  than  to  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  scholars.  The  problem  seems  to  lie 
so  far  beyond  the  horizon  of  the  human  mind,  that 
man  will  never  be  able  fully  to  penetrate  its  mystery. 
In  the  following;  we  shall  first  consider  MoUnism  as 
it  came  from  its  author's  hands^  and  then  briefly 
review  the  phases  of  its  later  histoncal  development. 

I.  Molinism  in  Its  Original  Form. — Molinism 
combats  the  heresy  of  the  Reformers,  according  to 
which  both  sinners  and  just  have  lost  freedom  of  will. 
It  maintains  and  strenuously  defends  the  Tridentine 
dogma  which  teaches:  (1)  that  freedom  of  will  has  not 
been  destroyed  by  original  sin,  and  (2)  that  this  free- 
dom remains  unimpaired  under  the  influence  of  Divine 
grace  (cf.  Sess.  VI,  can.  iv-v.  in  Denzinger,  "Enchiri- 
dion", ed.  Bannwart,  Freiburg,  1908,  nn.  814-15). 
Freedom  is  the  power  of  the  will  to  act  or  not  to  act, 
to  act  this  or  that  way;  whereas  it  is  the  characteristic 
of  necessary  causes,  as  animals  and  inanimate  beings, 
to  produce  their  effects  by  an  intrinsic  necessity. 
Freedom  of  the  will  is  a  consequence  of  intelligence, 
and  as  such  the  most  precious  gift  of  man,  an  endow- 


MOLXHI8M                            438  M0LXHI8M 

ment  which  he  can  never  lose  without  annihilating  concomitant  supernatural  concursus  (eoneurnu  nnttdr 
his  own  nature.  Man  must  of  necessity  be  free  in  taneu8,  gratia  cooperatu).  The  act,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
every  state  of  life,  actual  or  possible,  whether  that  free,  must  come  from  the  will;  but  Uie  eoncur^us  piw- 
state  be  the  purely  natural  (status  pura  natiara),  or  vius  of  theThomists,  which  is  ultimately  identical  with 
the  state  of  orifldnai  justice  in  paradise  (status  justitus  God's  predestination  of  the  free  act,  makes  illusory 
originalis),  or  the  state  of  fallen  nature  (status  naturce  the  free  self-determination  of  the  will,  whether  in 
lapses),  or  the  state  of  regeneration  (status  natures  giving  or  withholding  its  consent  to  the  grace.  The 
reparatcs).  Were  man  to  be  deprived  of  freedom  of  second  characteristic  difference  between  the  two  ^'s- 
will,  he  would  necessarily  degenerate  in  his  nature  and  tems  of  grace  lies  in  the  radically  different  conception 
8&nk  to  the  level  of  the  animal.  Since  the  purely  of  the  nature  of  merely  sufficient  grace  (gratia  suffi- 
natural  state,  devoid  of  supernatural  grace  ana  lack-  dens)  and  of  efficacious  grace  (ffraiia  efficasc).  Whereas 
ing  a  supernatural  justice,  never  existed,  and  since  the  Thomism  derives  the  infallible  success  of  efficacious 
state  of  original  justice  has  not  been  re-established  b^  grace  from  the  very  nature  of  this  grace,  and  assumes 
Christ's  Redemption^  man's  present  state  alone  is  consequently  the  grace  to  be  efficacious  intrinsically 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  solving  the  problem  (gratia  efficax  ab  intrinseco),  Molinism  ascribes  the 
of  the  relation  between  grace  and  free  will.  In  spite  ^cacy  of  grace  to  the  free  co-operation  of  the  will  and 
of  original  sin  and  concupiscence  man  is  still  free,  not  consequently  admits  a  grace  which  is  merely  extrinsi- 
only  with  reference  to  ethical  good  and  evil  in  his  cally  efficacious  (gratia  efficax  ab  extrinseco).  It  is  the 
natural  actions,  but  also  in  his  supernatural  salutarv  free  will  that  by  the  extrinsic  circumstance  of  its  con- 
works  in  which  Divine  grace  co-operates  with  his  will,  sent  makes  efficacious  the  grace  offered  by  €iod.  If 
Molinism  escaped  every  suspicion  of  Pelagianism  bv  the  will  gives  its  consent^  the  |;race  which  in  itself  is 
layine  down  at  the  outset  that  the  soul  with  its  facul-  sufficient  becomes  efficacious;  if  it  withholds  its  con- 
ties  (uie  intellect  and  will)  must  be  first  constituted  by  sent,  the  grace  remains  inefficacious  (gratia  ineffioax), 
prevenient  grace  a  supernatural  principle  of  operation  and  it  is  due — not  to  God,  but— solely  to  the  will  that 
in  actu  prima,  before  it  can,  in  conjunction  with  the  the  grace  it  reduced  to  one  which  is  merely  sufficient 
help  of  the  supernatural  concursus  of  God,  elicit  a  (gratia  mere  svfficiens), 

salutary  act  in  actu  secundo.  Thus,  the  salutary  act  is  This  explanation  gave  the  Molinists  an  advantage 
itself  an  act  of  grace  rather  than  of  the  will;  it  is  the  over  the  Thomists,  not  only  in  that  they  safeguarded 
common  work  of  God  and  man,  because  and  in  so  far  thereby  the  freedom  of  the  will  under  the  influence  of 
as  the  supernatural  element  of  the  act  is  due  to  God  grace,  but  especially  because  they  offered  a  clearer  ac- 
and  its  vitality  and  freedom  to  man.  It  must  not  be  count  of  the  important  truth  that  the  ^ce,  which  is 
imagined,  however,  that  the  will  has  such  an  influence  merely  sufficient  and  therefore  remains  mefficacious,  is 
on  grace  that  its  consent  conditions  or  strengthens  the  nevertheless  always  really  sufficient  (gratia  vers  suffi- 
power  of  grace;  the  fact  is  rather  that  the  supernatural  ciens),  so  that  it  would  undoubtedly  produce  the  salu- 
power  of  Erace  is  first  transformed  into  the  vital  energy  tary  act  for  which  it  was  given,  if  ozuy  the  will  would 
of  the  wiu,  and  then,  as  a  supernatural  concursus,  ex-  dve  its  consent.  Thomism^  on  the  other  hand,  is  con- 
cites  and  accompanies  the  free  and  salutary  act.  In  fronted  by  the  following  dilemma:  Either  the  grace 
other  words,  as  a  helping  or  co-operating  grace  (gratia  which  is  merely  sufficient  (gratia  mere  sufficient)  ia 
adiuvans  seu  cooperans).  it  produces  the  act  conjointly  able  by  its  own  nature  and  without  the  help  of  an  en- 
with  the  will.  According  to  this  explanation,  not  tirely  different  and  new  grace  to  produce  the  salutary 
only  does  Divine  grace  make  a  supernatural  act  pos-  act  for  which  it  was  given,  or  it  is  not:  if  it  is  not  able, 
sible,  but  the  act  itself,  though  free,  is  wholly  de-  then  this  sufficient  grace  is  in  reality  insufficient 
pendent  on  grace,  because  it  is  grace  which  makes  the  (gratia  insufficiens),  since  it  must  be  supplemented  by 
salutary  act  possible  and  which  stimulates  and  assists  another;  if  it  is  able  to  produce  the  act  by  itself,  then 
in  producing  it.  Thus  the  act  is  produced  entirely  sufficient  and  efficacious  grace  do  not  differ  in  nature, 
by  God  as  First  Cause  (Causa  prima),  and  also  entirely  but  by  reason  of  something  extrinsic,  namely  in  that 
by  the  will  as  second  cause  (causa  eecunda).  The  im-  the  will  gives  its  consent  in  one  case  and  withholds  it 
prejudiced  mind  must  acknowledge  that  this  exposi-  in  the  other.  If  then,  when  possessed  of  absolutely 
tion  is  far  from  incurring  the  suspicion  of  Pelagianism  the  same  grace,  one  sinner  is  converted  and  another 
or  Semipelagianism.  can  remain  obdurate,  the  inefficacy  of  the  grace  in  the 
When  the  Thomists  propound  the  subtler  question,  case  of  the  obdurate  sinner  is  due,  not  to  the  nature  of 
through  what  agency  does  the  will,  under  the  influence  the  grace  given,  but  to  the  sinful  resistance  of  his  free 
and  impulse  of  grace,  cease  to  be  a  mere  natural  will,  which  refuses  to  avail  itself  of  God's  assistance, 
faculty  (actus  mimus)  and  produce  a  salutary  act  But  for  Thomism,  which  assumes  an  intrinsic  and  es- 
(actus  secundus),  or  (according  to  Aristotelean  tcrmi-  sential  difference  between  sufficient  and  efficacious 
nology)  pass  from  potency  mto  act,  the  Molinists  grace,  so  that  sufficient  grace  to  become  efficacious 
answer  without  hesitation  that  it  is  no  way  due  to  must  be  supplemented  by  a  new  grace,  the  explana- 
the  Thomistic  predetermination  (prcsdeterminatio  sive  tion  is  by  no  means  so  easy  and  simple.  It  cannot  free 
prcsmotio  physica)  of  the  will  of  God.  For  such  a  itself  from  the  difficulty,  as  is  possible  for  Molinism, 
causal  predetermination,  comine  from  a  will  other  by  sayins  that,  but  for  the  refractory  attitude  of  the 
than  our  own,  is  a  denial  of  self-determination  on  the  will,  God  would  have  bestowed  this  supplementary 
part  of  our  own  will  and  destroys  its  freedom.  It  is  grace.  For,  since  the  sinful  resistance  of  the  will, 
rather  the  will  itself  which  by  its  consent,  under  the  viewed  as  an  act,  is  to  be  referred  to  a  physical  premo- 
restrictions  mentioned  above,  renders  the  prevenient  tion  on  the  part  of  God,  as  well  as  the  free  co-operation 
grace  (gratia  prcsveniens)  co-operative  and  the  com-  with  grace,  the  will,  which  is  predetermined  cui  unum^ 
pletely  sufficient  grace  (gratia  vers  sufficiens)  effica-  is  placed  in  a  hopeless  predicament.  On  the  one  hand 
cious;  for,  to  produce  ^^~'"          "  ^^ "        '"       ^  ''       i--  ----i            -!—  -—  -l-  *         -#  —    «• 

only  consent  to  the 
which  it  has  received 

forthwith  two  characteristic  features  of  Molinism,  the  sinful  act  of  resistance  is  irrevocably  predeter- 

which  stand  in  direct  opposition  to  the  principles  of  mined  by  God  as  the  Prime  Mover  (Motor  primus) . 

Thomism.    The  first  consists  in  this,  that  the  actus  Whence  then  is  the  will  to  derive  the  impulse  to  accept 

primus  (i.  e.  the  power  to  elicit  a  supernatural  act)  is,  or  to  reject  the  one  premotion  rather  than  the  other? 

according  to  Molinism,  due  to  a  aetermining  influx  Therefore,  the  Molinists  conclude  that  the  Thomists 

of  grace  previous  to  the  salutary  act  (inftuxus  vrcevius,  cannot  lay  down  the  sinful  resistance  of  the  will  as  the 

gratia  prcsveniens),  but  that  God  enters  into  the  salu-  cause  of  the  inefficacy  of  the  grace^  which  is  merely 

tary  act  itself  (actus  secundus)  only  by  means  of  a  sufficient. 


tfOUNZSM 


439 


MOUNISM 


At  this  stage  of  the  controversy  the  Thomists  uiKe 
with  ^reat  emphasis  the  grave  accusation  that  the 
Molinists,  by  their  undue  exaltation  of  man's  freedom 
of  will,  seriously  circumscribe  and  diminish  the  suprem- 
acy ot  the  Creator  over  His  creatures,  so  that  they 
destroy  the  efficacy  and  predominance  of  gra^M  and 
make  unpossible  in  the  hands  of  God  the  infallible  re- 
sult of  efficacious  grace.  For,  they  argue,  if  the  de- 
cision ultimately  depends  on  the  free  will,  whether 
a  given  grace  shall  be  efficacious  or  not,  the  result  of 
the  salutary  act  must  be  attributed  to  man  and  not  to 
God.  But  this  is  contrary  to  the  warning  of  St.  Paul, 
that  we  must  not  glory  in  the  work  of  our  salvation  as 
though  it  were  our  own  (I  Cor.,  iv,  7),  and  to  his  teach- 
ing that  it  is  Divine  grace  which  does  not  only  give  us 
the  power  to  act,  but  '^worketh"  also  in  us  "to  will 
and  to  accompli^''  (PhiL,  ii,  13);  it  is  contrary  also  to 
the  constant  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine,  according  to 
whom  our  free  salutary  acts  are  not  our  own  work,  out 
the  work  of  grace. 

The  consideration  of  these  serious  difficulties  leads 
us  to  the  very  heart  of  Molina's  system,  and  reveals 
the  real  Gordian  knot  of  the  whole  controversy.    For 
Molinism  attempts  to  meet  the  objections  just  men- 
tioned by  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine  scierUia  media. 
Even  Molinism  must  and  does  admit  that  the  very 
idea  of  efficacious  grace  includes  the  free  consent  of 
the  will,  and  also  tmit  the  decree  of  God  to  bestow  an 
efficacious  grace  upon  a  man  involves  with  metaphysi- 
cal certainty  the  free  co-operation  of  the  will.    From 
this  it  follows  that  God  must  possess  some  infallible 
source  of  knowledge  by  means  of  which  he  knows  from 
ail  eternity,  with  metaphysical  certainty,  whether  in 
the  future  the  will  is  f^^^  to  co-operate  with  a  given 
grace  or  to  resist  it.     When  the  question  has  assumed 
this  form,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  whole  controversy 
resolves  itself  into  a  discussion  on  the  foreknowledge 
which  God  has  of  the  free  future  acts;  and  thus  the 
two  opposing  systems  on  grace  are  ultimately  founded 
upon  the  general  doctrine  on  God  and  His  attributes. 
Both  systems  are  confronted  with  the  wider  and 
deeper  question:  What  is  the  medium  of  knowledge 
(m&iium  in  quo)  in  which  God  foresees  the  (absolute  or 
conditioned)  free  operations  of  His  rational  creatures? 
That  there  must  be  such  a  medium  of  Divine  fore- 
knowledge is  evident.    The  Thomists  answer:  God 
foresees  the  (absolute  and  conditioned)  free  acts  of 
man  in  the  eternal  decrees  of  His  own  will,  which  with 
absolute  certainty  produce  prcemovendo  as  definite 
prwedeterminaiumea  ad  unum,  all  (absolute  and  condi- 
tional) free  operations.    With  the  same  absolute  cer- 
tainty with  which  He  knows  His  own  will,-  He  also 
foresees  clearly  and  distinctly  in  the  decrees  of  His 
will  all  future  acts  qf  man.    However,  the  Molinists 
maintain  that,  since,  as  we  remarked  above,  the  pre- 
determining decrees  of  the  Divine  \^11  must  logically 
and  necess^y  destrov  freedom  and  lead  to  Determin- 
ism, they  cannot  possibly  be  the  medium  in  which  God 
infallibly  foresees  future  free  acts.    Rather  these  de- 
crees must  presuppose  a  special  knowledge  (scientia 
media),  in  the  light  of  which  God  infallibly  foresees 
from  all  eternity  what  attitude  man's  will  would  in 
any  conceivable  combination  of  circumstances  assume 
if  this  or  that  particular  grace  were  offered  it.    And  it 
10  only  when  guided  by  His  infallible  foreknowledge 
that  uod  determines  the  kind  of  grace  He  shall  give  to 
man.     If,  for  example.  He  foresees  by  means  of  the 
seienHa  media  that  St.  Peter,  after  his  aenial  of  Christ, 
shall  freely  co-operate  with  a  certain  grace,  He  de- 
crees to  give  him  this  particular  grace  and  none  other; 
the  g^raoe  thus  conferred  becomes  efficacious  in  bring- 
ing about  his  repentance.     In  the  case  of  Judas,  on 
the  other  hand,  God,  foreseeing  the  future  resistance 
of  this  Apostle  to  a  certain  grace  of  conversion,  de- 
creed to  allow  it^  and  consequently  bestowed  upon  him 
a  gnuse  which  m  itself  was  really  sufficient,  but  re- 
mained in^cadous  solely  on  account  of  the  refrac- 


tory disposition  of  the  Apostle's  will.  Guided  by  this 
acierUia  media  God  is  left  entirely  f reb  in  the  disposi- 
tion and  distribution  of  grace.  On  His  good  pleasure 
alone  it  depends  to  whom  He  will  give  the  supreme 
grace  of  final  perseverance,  to  whom  He  will  refuse  it; 
whom  He  will  receive  into  Heaven,  whom  He  will  ex- 
clude from  His  sight  for  ever.  This  doctrine  is  in  per- 
fect harmony  with  the  dogmas  of  the  gratuity  of  grace, 
the  unequal  distribution  of  efficacious  grace,  the  wise 
and  inscrutable  operations  of  Divine  Providence,  the 
absolute  impossibility  to  merit  final  perseverance,  and 
lastly  the  immutable  predestination  to  glory  or  rejec- 
tion; nay  more,  it  brings  these  verv  dogmas  into  har- 
mony, not  only  with  the  infallible  foreknowledge  of 
God,  out  also  with  the  freedom  of  the  created  will. 
The  scientia  media  is  thus  in  reality  the  cardinal  point 
of  Molinism :  with  it  Molinism  stands  or  falls.  This 
doctrine  of  tne  scientia  mMia  is  the  battle-field  of  the 
two  theological  schools;  the  Jesuits  were  striving  to 
maintain  and  fortify  it,  while  the  Dominicans  are  ever 
putting  forth  their  Dest  efforts  to  capture  or  turn  the 
position.  The  theologians  who  have  come  after  them, 
unhampered  by  the  traditions  of  either  order,  have  fol- 
lowed some  the  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits,  some  the  Do- 
minican system. 

The  chief  objection  directed  against  Molinism  at  its 
rise  was,  that  its  shibboleth,  the  scientia  media,  was  a 
sheer  invention  of  Molina  and  therefore  a  suspicious 
innovation.  The  Molinists  on  the  other  hand  did  not 
hesitate  to  hurl  back  at  the  Thomists  this  same  objec- 
tion with  regard  to  their  prcemotio  physica.  In  reality 
both  accusations  were  equally  unfounded.  As  long  as 
there  is  an  historical  development  of  dogma,  it  is  nat- 
ural that,  in  the  course  of  time  and  under  the  super- 
natural guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  new  ideas  and 
new  terms  should  gain  currency.  The  deposit  of 
faith,  which  is  unchtmgeable  in  substance  but  admits 
of  development,  contains  these  ideas  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  they  are  brought  to  their  full  development  by 
the  tireless  labours  of  the  theological  schools.  The 
idea  of  the  scientia  media  Molina  had  borrowed  from 
his  celebrated  professor,  Pedro  da  Fonseca,  S.J. 
C'Commentar.  m  Metaphys.  Aristotelis",  Cologne, 
1615,  III),  who  called  it  scientia  mixta.  The  justifica- 
tion for  liiis  name  Molina  found  in  the  consideration 
that,  in  addition  to  the  Divine  knowledge  of  the 

Eurely  possible  (scieniia  simplids  intelligentice)  and  the 
nowledge  of  the  actually  existing  {scientia  visianis), 
there  must  be  a  third  kind  of  "intermediate  knowl- 
edge", which  embraces  all  objects  that  are  found 
neither  in  the  region  of  pure  possibility  nor  strictly  in 
that  of  actuslity,  but  putake  equally  of  both  extremes 
and  in  some  sort  belong  to  both  kinds  of  knowledge. 
In  this  class  are  numbered  especially  those  free  ac- 
tions, which,  though  never  destined  to  be  realized  in 
historical  fact,  would  come  into  existence  if  certain 
conditions  were  fulfilled.  A  hypothetical  occurrence 
of  this  kind  the  theologians  call  a  conditional  future 
occurrence  (actus  liber  conditionate  futurua  sen  futuribi' 
lis) .  In  virtue  of  this  particular  kind  of  Divine  knowl- 
edge, Christ,  for  example,  was  able  to  declare  with  cer- 
tainty to  His  obstinate  hearers  that  the  inhabitants  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon  would  have  done  penance  in  sackcloth 
and  ashes,  if  they  had  witnessed  the  signs  and  mirap 
cles  which  were  wrought  in  Corozain  and  Bethsaida 
(cf.  Matt.,  xi,  21  sq.).  We  know,  however,  that  such 
signs  and  miracles  were  not  wrought  and  that  the  in- 
habitants of  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  not  converted.  Yet 
God  had  infalhblv  foreseen  from  all  eternity  that  this 
conversion  would  have  taken  place  if  the  condition 
(which  never  was  realized)  of  Chnst's  mission  to 
these  cities  had  been  fulfilled.  Who  will  doubt  that 
God  in  His  omniscience  foresees  distinctly  what  any 
inhabitant  of  New  York  would  do  throughout  the  day. 
if  he  were  now  in  London  or  Paris  instead  of  Americar 
It  is  true  that  a  number  of  Thomists,  for  example 
Ledesma  ("De  div.  gratia  auxil.",  Salamanca,  1611« 


M0UNI8M                            440  MOLZNISM 

pp.  574  Bti^X  denied,  if  not  the  existence,  at  least  of  which  God  foresaw  from  all  eternity.  Though  Mo 
the  infallioility  of  God's  knowledge  concerning  the  Una  himself  had  taught  this  doctrine  f' Concordia *', 
conditioned  free  future,  and  attributed  to  it  only  great  Paris,  1876,  pp.  450,  466,  522,  etc.),  it  seeoos  that 
probabihty.  But,  from  the  time  that  such  eminent  among  his  followers  some  extreme  Molinists  unduly  em- 
theologians  as  Alvarez,  Gonet,  Gottij  and  Billuart  sue-  phasised  the  power  of  the  will  over  iTace,  thus  draw- 
ceeded  in  harmonising  the  inf aUibihty  of  this  Divine  mg  upon  themselves  the  suspicion  of  Semipelasianism. 
knowledge  with  the  fundamental  tenets  of  Thomism  At  least  Cardinal  Bellarmine  attacks  some  who  prop- 
by  the  subtle  theoiy  of  hypothetical  Divine  decrees,  agated  such  one-sided  Molinistic  views,  and  who 
there  has  been  no  Thomist  who  does  not  uphold  the  cannot  have  been  mere  imaginary  adversaries;  against 
omniscience  of  God  also  with  regard  to  conditioned  them  he  skilfully  strengthened  the  tenets  of  Congruion 
events.  But  have  they  not  then  become  supporters  by  numerous  quotations  from  St.  Augustine, 
of  the  scienUa  media?  By  no  means.  For  it  is  pre-  As  was  natural  the  later  Molinism  underwent  con- 
cisely the  Molinists  who  most  sternly  repudiate  these  siderable  changes,  and  was  improved  by  the  unweary- 
Divine  predetermining  decrees,  be  thev  absolute  or  ing  labours  of  those  who  sought  to  establiidi  the  soen- 
conditioned,  as  the  deathknell  of  man's  freedom.  For  Ha  media — the  most  important  factor  in  the  whole 
the  very  purpose  of  securing  the  freedom  of  the  will  system — on  a  deeper  pniloeophical  and  theological 
and  in  no  way  to  do  violence  to  it  by  a  phvsical  pre-  basis,  and  to  demonstrate  its  worth  from  a  dogmstie 
motion  of  any  sort,  the  Molinists  insisted  all  along  point  of  view.  The  task  was  a  very  difficult  one.  The 
that  the  knowledge  of  God  precedes  the  decrees  of  His  theory  of  the  Thomistic  decrees  of  the  Divine  will  hav- 
will.  They  thus  kept  this  knowledge  free  and  unin-  ing  been  eliminated  as  the  infalUble  source  of  God's 
fluenced  by  any  antcSsedent  absolute  or  conditioned  de-  knowledge  of  free  acts  belonging  to  the  conditional 
cree  of  God's  will.  Molinism  is  pledged  to  the  following  future,  some  other  theory  had  to  be  substituted, 
principle:  The  knowledge  of  God  precedes  as  a  guiding  Molina's  doctrine,  which  Bellarmine  and  Becanus  had 
light  the  decree  of  His  wiU,  and  His  will  is  in  no  way  made  their  own,  was  soon  abandoned  as  savouring  of 
the  source  of  His  knowledge.  It  was  because  by  Determinism.  Molina  (Concordia,  pp.  290,  303) 
their  scUntia  media  they  understood  a  knowledge  in-  transferred  the  medium  of  God's  infalhble  knowledge 
dependent  of  any  decrees,  that  they  were  most  sharply  to  the  supercomprehenaio  cordis  (KapitaywtfalOj  the 
assailed  by  the  Thomists.  searching  of  hearts).    In  virtue  of  this  superoompre- 

II.  Lateb  DEVELOPmBNT  OF  MouNiSM. — ^Thus  far  hension,  God  knows  the  most  secret  inclinations  and 

we  have  learned  that  the  central  idea  of  Molinism  lies  penetrates  the  most  hidden  recesses  of  man's  heart, 

in  the  principle  that  the  infallible  success  of  efficacious  and  is  thus  enabled  to  foresee  with  mathematical  cer- 

srace  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  its  own  intrinsic  nature,  tainty  the  free  resolves  latent  in  man's  will.     This 

but  to  the  Divine  acien/ia  media.   The  Society  of  Jesus  unsatisfactozy  explanation,  however,  met  with  the 

has  ever  since  clung  tenaciously  to  this  principle,  but  natural  objection  that  the  mathematically  certain 

without  considering  itself  bound  to  mamtain  all  the  foreknowledge  of  an  effect  from  its  cause  is  nothing 

assertions  and  arguments  of  Molina's  '^ Concordia";  more  or  leas  than  the  knowledge  of  a  necessaiy  effect; 

on  many  points  of  secondary  importance  its  teachers  consequently  the  will  would  no  longer  be  free  (cf . 

are  allowed  perfect  freedom  of  opinion.  Kleutgen,  '^De  Deo  Uno",  Rome,  1881,  pp.  322  sqq.). 

First  of  all  it  was  clear  to  the  Jesuits  from  the  begin-  Therefore,  the  opinion,  gradually  adopted  since  the 
ning  and  the  disputations  before  the  Con^rc^atio  de  time  of  Suarez  (but  repudiated  in  Molina's  work), 
Awoliis  (q.  v.)  did  but  strengthen  the  conviction,  that  maintains  that,  by  the  aeierUia  media^  God  sees  the 
a  more  perfect,  more  fully  developed,  and  more  accu-  conditioned  future  acts  in  themselves,  i.  e.  in  their  own 
rate  exposition  of  the  Molinistic  system  on  grace  was  (formal  or  objective)  truth.  For,  since  every  free  act 
both  possible  and  de8irdi>le.  As  a  modification  of  must  be  absolutely  determined  in  its  being,  even  be- 
Molinism  we  are  usually  referred  in  the  first  place  to  fore  it  becomes  actual  or  at  least  conditionally  possi- 
that  expansion  and  development,  which  afterwards  ble,  it  is  from  all  eternity  a  definite  truth  (dei^minata 
took  the  name  of  Con^^ruism  (q.  v.),  and  which  owes  Veritas)^  and  must  consequently  be  knowable  as  such 
its  final  form  to  the  jomt  labours  of  Bellarmine,  Sua-  by  the  onmiscient  God  with  metaphysical  certainty, 
res,  Vasquez,  and  Leasius.  As  the  article  on  Congru-  Ruiz  (*'  De  scientia  Dei",  Paris,  1629),  with  a  subtlety 
ism  shows  in  detail,  the  system  received  its  name  from  beyond  his  fellows,  laid  a  deeper  foundation  for  this' 
the  grcUia  congrua,  i.  e.  a  grace  acoonunodated  to  cir-  theory,  and  succeeded  in  getting  it  permanently 
cimistances.  By  such  is  understood  a  grace  which,  adopted  by  the  Molinists.  Further  proofs  for  the 
owing  to  its  internal  relationship  and  adaptation  to  scierUia  media  may  be  found  in  Pohle's  "Dogmatik", 
the  state  of  the  recipient  (his  character,  disposition,  I  (4th  ed.,  1008),  pp.  206  sq.  However,  when  further 
education,  place,  time,  etc.),  produces  its  effect  in  the  investigations  were  made,  so  great  and  well-nigh  in- 
light  of  tne  scientia  media  with  infallible  certainty,  surmountable  were  the  dimculties  which  arose  against 
and  thus  is  objectively  identical  with  efficacious  grace,  the  establishing;  of  the  absolute  independence  of  the 
The  expression  is  borrowed  from  St.  Augustine,  as  scientia  media  m  regard  to  the  Divine  Will,  that  the 
when  he  says :  **  Cujus  autem  miseretur,  sic  eum  vocat.  greater  number  of  the  modem  Molinists  either  gi\'e  up 
quomodo  scit  ei  congruere,  ut  vocantem  non  respuat ''  the  attempt  to  indicate  a  medium  of  Divine  knowledge 
(Ad  SimpUcianum,  I,  Q.  ii,  n.  13).  Consistently  then  (medium  in  quo),  or  positively  declare  it  to  be  super- 
with  this  terminology,  the  grace  which  is  merely  suffi-  fluous:  nevertheless,  there  are  a  few  (e.  g.  Kleutgen, 
cient  must  be  called  gratia  incongrua,  i.  e.  a  grace  Comoldi,  IK^gnon)  who  make  a  sharp  distinction  be- 
whidi  has  not  a  con^piuty  with  the  circumstances,  and  tween  the  question  of  the  actual  existence  of  the 
is  therefore  inefficacious.  This  term  also  is  sanctioned  scientia  media  and  that  of  its  process.  While  vigor- 
by  St.  Augustine  (1.  c),  for  he  says:  ^'Illi  enim  electi,  ously  maintaining  the  existence  of  the  scientia  media, 
qui  congruenter  vocati;  illi  autem,  qui  non  congrue-  they  frankly  acknowledge  their  ignorance  with  regard 
bant  neque  contemperabantur  vocations  non  electi,  to  its  process  of  operation.  Thus,  the  sdeniia  media, 
quia  non  secuti,  quamvis  vocati".  Tnis  doctrine  which  was  meant  to  solve  all  the  mvsteries  concerning 
seems  to  have  advanced  beyond  '^ extreme  Molinism"  grace,  seems  to  have  become  itself  the  great^t  mys- 
to  this  extent,  that  inefficacious  grace  and  merely  suffi-  tery  of  all.  The  most  favourable  statement  that  niay 
dent  grace  are  made  to  differ  even  in  actu  primo— not  be  made  in  its  favour  is  that  it  is  a  necessaiy  postulate 
indeed  in  their  internal  nature  and  physical  entity,  but  in  any  doctrine  of  grace  in  which  the  freedom  of  the 
in  their  moral  worth  and  ethical  nature — ^inasmuch  as  will  is  to  be  safegua^ed;  in  itself  it  is  but  a  iheoloffou' 
the  bestowal  of  an  ever  so  weak  gratia  congrua  is  an  menon.  If  we  then  consider  that  the  Thomists  also, 
incomparably  greater  benefit  of  God  than  that  of  an  with  Billuart  (De  Deo  dissert.,  VIII,  art.  iv,  §2  ad  6) 
ever  so  powerf  m  gratia  incongrua,  the  actual  inefficacy  at  their  head,  call  the  reconciliation  of  their  prtjemotio 


M0UN08 


441 


MOLZNOS 


physioa  with  the  freedom  of  the  will  a  "mystery",  it 
would  seem  that  man  is  not  capable  of  solving  the 
problem  of  tHe  harmony  between  grace  and  free  will. 
Another  phase  in  the  development  of  this  system  is 
the  fact  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  some  of  the  Molin- 
ists  have  made  concessions  to  tne  Thomisto  in  the 

auestion  regarding  predestination,  without  however 
bandoning  the  essentials  of  Molinism.  The  theory 
of  the  pntmoiio  physica  agrees  admirably  with  the  idea 
of  an  absolute  predestination  to  glory  irrespective  of 
foreseen  merits  (prcedestinatio  ante  prcanaa  merita). 
This  is  the  reason  why  this  theory  appears,  except  in 
the  case  of  a  few  theologians,  as  a  characteristic  feat- 
ure of  the  Thomistic  doctrine  on  grace.  Now,  abso- 
lute predestination  to  glory  necessarily  involves  the 
rather  harsh  doctrine  of  reprobation,  which,  though 
only  negative,  is  nevertheless  eauall3r  absolute.  For, 
if  God  determines  to  bestow  efficacious  graces  only 
upon  those  whom  He  has  from  all  eternity  predestinea 
to  glory,  then  those  not  contained  in  his  decree  of  pre- 
destination are  a  priori  and  necessarily  damned. 

Some  leading  Molinists  like  Bellarmine  and  Suarez 
may  possibly  have  been  tempted  to  show  the  practical 
possibility  of  reconciling  Molinism  with  the  eternal 
and  unchangeable  decree  of  predestination  by  siding 
with  the  Thomists  in  this  question  of  secondary  con- 
sideration, without,  however,  sacrificing  their  alle- 
S'ance  to  the  adeniia  media.  But  the  majority  of 
[olina's  followers,  under  the  lead  of  Leesius  and 
Vaaquez,  most  consistently  held  to  the  opposite  view. 
For  they  admitted  only  a  conditioned  predestination 
to  glory  which  becomes  absolute  only  consequent  upon 
the  foreseen  merits  of  man  {pro^lesHnaiio  post — et 
propter — pran'iaa  merUa),  and  roundly  condenmed 
negative  reprobation  on  the  groimd  that  it  not  only 
limited  but  even  ran  counter  to  the  salvific  will  of 
God.  To-day  there  is  scarcely  a  convinced  Molinist 
who  does  not  take  alone  this  reasonable  standpoint. 
A  modification  of  Molinism  of  minor  importance  arose 
with  re^BLrd  to  the  so-called  predefimtion  of  good 
works  (prcBdefinitio  bonorum  operum).  By  predefini- 
tion,  in  contradistinction  to  predestination  to  glory, 
theolo^ans  understand  the  absolute,  positive,  and 
efficacious  decree  of  God  from  all  etermty,  that  cer- 
tain persons  shall  at  some  time  in  the  future  perform 
certam  good  works  (cf.  Franzelin,  "De  Deo  Uno". 
Rome,  1883,  pp.  444  sqq.).  This  predefinition  to  good 
works  is  either  formal  or  virtual,  according  as  God's 
decree  governing  these  works  and  the  bestowal  of 
efficaciou»  grace  is  either  formal  or  merely  virtual: 
Molina,  Vasquez,  and  Gregory  de  Valentia  defended 
virtual,  while  Suarez,  Tanner,  Silvester  Maurus,  and 
others  upheld  formal  predefinition.  (See  Conqbuism; 
Grace,  Controvbr8ie»  on.) 

Wbbkbb,  Thomtu  ton  Aquin,  III  (Ratisbon,  1869),  380  aqq.; 
Idem,  Frana  Suarez  u.  die  SchoUutik  der  leUten  Jahrh.,  I  (Vienna, 
1861),  244  sqq.;  Schnxbiian,  S.J.,  CorUroveretarum  de  divina 
gratia  Uberique  arhitrii  eoneordia  initia  el  prooreaette  (Freiburg, 
ISSi);  DC  KBGNON,  S.J.,  Bannee  et  Molina.  Histoiret  Doetrinett 
Critique  mHaphyeique  (Paris,  1883) ;  Pesch,  S.J.,  Bin  Dominikaner- 
bieehnf  IDidaeue  DeMol  ale  Molinist  vor  Molina  in  Zeitechr.  fOr 
katk.  Theol,  (Innsbruok,  1885),  171  sqq.;  Reubch,  Index  der  xer- 
batenen  BUeher,  II  (Bonn,  1885),  208  sqq.;  DdLUKOER-RxuacH, 
BeOarmin'e  Selbethiognphie  (MOnich.  1887) ;  Schwanb,  Dogmen- 
peeek.,  IV  (Freiburg,  1890);  Qatraud.  Thomieme  el  Molinieme 
[Pwia,  1890) ;  Udb,  Dodrina  Capreoli  de  inJluxu  Dei  in  aetua  oo- 
iuntatie  Humana  eeeundum  principia  Thomiami  el  Moliniami 
(Qras.  1906);  Paouier,  Le  Janainiatne,  i  (Paris,  1909);  Moboott 
in  Kirehenlex,,  s.  ▼.  Molina* — Concerning  the  eonciwaua  divinua 
■ee  SuAXBf ,  Ovuac  de  eoncurau.  motione  et  auzilio  Dei  (new  ed., 
Paris,  1856);  Jxilbb,  O.S.F.,  3.  Bonaventuroe  principia  de  can' 
cunu  Dei  generali  ad  actionea  cauaarum  eeeundarum  eoUeeta  el  8, 
TKoma  doetrina  eoy|/lrmo(a  (Quaraechi,  1897).  Consult  also  text- 
books on  natural  theology  (Honthbiii,  Gutberust.  Lebuen, 
etc.)  and  on  dogma.^-Conceming  the  aeientia  media  see  Hericb, 
De  acieniia  Dei  (Pampil,  1623) ;  Sorull.,  S. J.,  Ditina  aeientia  fu- 
turorum  contingentium,  prcBcipue  media  (Lyons.  1650);  Platel, 
BJ.,  Auetcritaa  contra  pradelerminationem  phyaieam  pro  aeientia 
media  (Douai,  1669;  2nd  ed.,  1673) ;  Henao,  S.J.,  Scientia  media 
hiatoriee  propugnata  (Lyons,  1655;  Saiamanoa,  1665) ;  Idem,  Seien- 
Ha  mmiia  tkeologiee  defenaa  (2  vols.,  Lyons,  1674-6);  Hamxbes, 
aj..  De  aeioMa  Dei  (Madrid,  1708);  de  Aranda.  S.J..  De  Deo 
eeiente,  pradeaHnante  et  auxiliantej  aeu  Sekola  aeientia  media  (Sara- 
10O8) ;  9TSB9IMOKR,  Scient%a  m^dia  plene  ^onciliata  cum  doc- 


irina  8,  Thoma  (Innsbruok,  1728).  Of  more  reoent  works  see 
Hbnie,-Z>m  Lehre  torn  odtUiehen  Vorherwiaaen  der  eukHn/ligen 
freien  Handlungen  in  K<aholik  (Mains,  1872-3) ;  Cornoldi,  S.J., 
Delia  Hbertd  umana  (Rome.  1884) ;  Pecci,  8enlenaa  di  8.  Tommaao 
circa  Finfiuaao  di  Die  auUe  aaioni  delle  creature  ragioneaoU  e  atdla 
aeienaa  inedia  (Rome,  1885) ;  Schwane,  Daa  oMliehe  Vorherwiaaen 
(Monster,  1885);  Schneider,  Daa  Wiaaen  Oottea  nach  der  Lehre 
dee  hi,  Thomaa  von  Aauin  (4  yoIs.,  Ratisbon,  1884-6);  Feldner, 
O.P.,  Die  Lehre  dee  St,  Thmnaa  aher  die  WillenafreiheU  der  fcr- 
nUnJtigen  Weaen  (Gras,  1890);  Idem,  Thomaa  oder  Molina  in 
Commeb's  Jahrbueh  fUr  Philoa,  u.  apehdative  Theol.  (1891—); 
Frxns,  S.J.,  De  eooperatume  Dei  cum  omni  natura  prteaertim  libera 
(Paris,  1892),  answered  by  DxTMMERMirrH,  O.P.,  Defenaio  doc 
trina  3,  Thoma  depraemotione  phyaica  (Paris,  1896):  Hontheim, 
S.J.,  Inatitutionea  Theodicaa  (Freiburg.  1893);  De  San,  S.J..  De 
Deo  Una,  I:  De  mente  S.  Thoma  circa  pradeterminationea  phyaicaa 
(LouTain,  1894) ;  Kolb,  Menachliehe  Freiheit  u,  glMtL  Vorherwiaeen 
naeh  Auguatin  (Freiburg,  1908).  Of  text-books  we  may  mention 
JAN88ENB,  />«  Doo  Uno^  II  (FreibuTg,  1900) ;  Pesch,  S.J.,  Pralee- 
tionea  dogmatica,  V  (3rd  ed.,  1908).  140  sqq.;  Pohle,  Dogmatik,  I 
(4th  ed.,  1908).  191-210;  II  (4th  ed.,  1909).  474-«2. 

J.  POHLB. 

Molinos,  Miguel  de,  founder  of  Quietisni.  b.  at  Mu- 
niesa,  Spain,  21  Dec.,  1040;  d.  at  Rome,  28  Dec.,  1696. 
In  his  youth  he  went  to  Valencia,  where,  having  been 
ordained  priest  and  received  the  degree  of  doctor,  he 
held  a  benefice  in  the  church  of  Santo  Tom^  and  was 
confessor  to  a  communit^r  of  nuns.  He  pretended  to 
be  a  disciple  of  the  Jesuits  and  quoted  them  as  his 
authority  in  lus  (Terences  with  the  university.  In 
1662  he  went  to  Rome  as  procurator  in  the  cause  of 
the  beatification  of  Venerable  Jer6nimo  Sim6n.  Here, 
after  residing  in  various  other  places,  he  finally  took 
up  his  abode  at  the  church  of  Sant'  Alfonso  which  be- 
longed to  the  Spanish  Discalced  Augustinians.  The 
Jesuits  and  Dominicans  having  accused  him  of  perni- 
cious teachings,  the  Inquisition  ordered  his  books  to  be 
examined.  He  defended  himself  well  and  was  acquit- 
ted: but  again  Cudinal  d'E^tr^,  French  ambassador 
at  Rome,  acting  on  instructions  from  Paris,  denounced 
him  to  the  authorities.  In  May,  1685,  the  Holy  Office 
formulated  chanes  against  him  and  ordered  his  arrest. 
The  report  of  tne  i)rocess  was  read  on  3  September, 
1687,  in  the  Dominican  church  of  Santa  Maria  sopra 
Minerva,  in  the  presence  of  an  immense  concourse  of 
people  gathered  for  the  occasion  by  means  of  grants  of 
indulgences;  he  was  declared  a  dogmatic  heretic,  sen- 
tenced to  life  imprisonment,  to  be  perpetually  clothed 
in  the  penitential  garb,  to  recite  tne  Credo  and  one- 
third  of  the  Rosary,  ana  to  make  confession  four  times 
every  year.  He  received  the  sacraments  on  his  death- 
bed. Me  taught  interior  annihilation,  asserting  that 
this  is  the  means  of  attaining  purity  of  soul,  perfect 
contemplation,  and  the  rich  treasure  of  interior  peace: 
hence  follows  the  licitness  of  impure  carnal  acts,  inas- 
much as  only  Uie  lower,  sensual  man.  instigated  by  the 
demon,  is  concerned  in  them.  In  tne  cases  of  seven- 
teen penitents  he  excused  their  lascivious  acts,  and 
claimed  that  those  committed  by  himself  were  not 
blameworthy,  as  free  will  had  had  no  part  in  them. 

Innocent  Xl,  in  the  Bull  "Ccelestis  Pastor'*  (2 
November,  1687),  condenmed  as  heretical,  suspect, 
erroneous,  scandalous,  etc.,  sixty-ei^t  propositions 
which  Molinos  admitted  to  be  his,  b^ng  convicted  of 
having  asserted  them  in  speech  and  in  writing,  com- 
mimicated  them  to  others,  and  believed  them — propo- 
sitions which  are  not  those  of  the  ''Guia  Espintual" 
idone.  Moreover,  the  pope  prohibited  and  condenmed 
all  his  works,  printed  or  m  manuscript.  Mohnos  had 
followers  in  abundance;  when  he  was  arrested,  it  is 
said  that  twelve  thousand  letters  from  persons  who 
consisted  him  were  found  in  his  possession.  More 
than  two  himdred  persons  at  Rome  found  themselves 


proceeding  m  Italy 

tury.    In  Spain,  the  Bishop  of  Oviedo,  taken  to  Rome 

andf  imprisonea  in  the  Cfastle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  the 

Eriest  Juan  de  Causadas,   and  the  Carmelite  lay 
rother  Juan  de  Longas,  who  corrupted  a  convent  of 
i^^ous  women,  were  all  punifiheid  as  disciples  of 


MOUTOB 


442 


MOLLOT 


Molinifixn.  In  France^  the  flemiquietism  of  F^nelon 
and  Jeanne  Guyon  (q.  y.)  took  from  Molinos  only  the 
teaching  of  ''pure  love".  Among  the  writings  of 
Molinos  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (1)  "La 
deyoci6n  de  la  buena  muerte"  (published  at  Valencia, 
1662,  under  the  name  of  Juan  Bautista  Catald);  (2; 
"La  Guia  espiritual"  (published  first  in  Italian,  at 
Rome,  1675,  then,  in  Spanish,  at  Madrid,  1676),  ap- 
proyed  by  various  theolo^pans  and  by  ecclesiastical 
authority,  so  much  so  that  twenty  editions  appeared 
in  twelve  years,  in  Latin  (1687;,  French,  English 
(1685),  German  (1699).  etc.;  (3)  "Tratado  ^  la 
Comuni6n  cuotidiana"  (1687). 

MxitAnobs  PBLA.TO.  HHtTodoxot  MpnAoUt^  II  (Madrid,  1880), 
650;  BuB^^BT,  Reeueil  den  diverw  pucf  concemant  le  QuiMim€ 
(Axnaterdam,  1688) ;  Schabuno,  ZeiUchrifi  fnrtpudi.  ihe^ogutehet 
XXIV,  XXV  (Hamburs  and  Gotha,  1855);  Rafakl  Urbano, 
Ouia  Btpiritual  (Barcelona,  a.  d.);  Rboio,  Ctant  owrea  qua 
ajteriunhtr  trram  MicKaelia  Molinoa  (Meeaina,  1687) ;  G6iaGa, 
BibUoUoa  aniiqua  i(  nueva  de  etcritorM  oragcnetM  de  LaJaeaa  .  .  . 
en  forma  de  Diononario  lriblioffrdjleo4iiogrdfico,  II   (Sarasoflia, 

1886),  328.  AirroNio  Perez  Gotena. 

MoHtor,  WiLHELM  (pseudonyms.  Ulric  Riesubb 
and  Benno  Bronner),  poet,  novelist,  canonist  and 
publicist,  b.  at  Zweibruecken  in  the  Rhine  Palatinate, 
24  Aupst,  1819;  d. at  Speyer,  1 1  Januai;y,  1880.  After 
studying  philosophy  and  jurisprudence  in  Munich  and 
Helaelbeig  (1836-40),  he  held  various  juridical  posi- 
tions in  we  service  of  the  State  from  1843-9.  But 
feeling  himself  called  to  the  priesthood,  the  pious 
young  lurist  studied  theology  at  Bonn  (lo49-51)  and 
was  oraained  priest  on  15  March,  1851.  In  the  same 
year  he  became  secretary  to  Bishop  Weis  of  Speyer; 
on  11  November,  1857,  ne  was  elected  canon  of  the 
cathedral  chapter  and,  soon  after,  appointed  cuatoa  of 
the  cathedral,  and  professor  of  archieology  and  homi- 
letics  at  the  episcopal  seminary.  He  took  part  in  the 
consultations  of  the  German  bishops  at  Bamberg 
(1867),  WOrsburg  (1868),  and  Fulda  (1869).  In  1868 
Pius  DC  summoned  him  to  Rome  as  a  consultor  in  the 
labours  preparatozy  to  the  Vatican  Council.  From 
1875-7  he  was  a  member  of  the  Bavarian  Landtag. 
He  was  the  chief  promoter  of  the  Catholic  movement 
in  the  Palatinate,  and  advanced  the  Catholic  cause  es- 
pecially by  founding  the  ''Pfalcicher  Pressverein", 
the  dady  paper  ''Rheinpfals"  and  the  "Katholische 
Vereinsdruckerei".  His  pronounced  ultramontane 
principles  made  him  unacceptable  to  the  Bavarian  Gov- 
ernment^ which  in  consequence  repeatedly  prevented 
his  election  to  the  See  of  Speyer.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  poems,  dramas,  novels^  sketches  on  the 
questions  of  the  aay,  and  a  few  juridical  treatises.  A 
collection  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1884;  his 
"Domlieder"  in  1846.  His  dramas  are;  "Kynast" 
(1844):  "Maria  Magdalena"  (1863,  1874);  ''Das  alte 
deutscne  Handwerk"  (1864);  ''Die  Frctgelassene 
Neros"  (1865);  "Claudia  Procula"  (1867);  "Julian 
der  Apostat"  (1867);  "Des  Kaisers  Guenstling"  a 
tragedy  of  the  times  of  the  martyrs  (1874);  "Die 
Blume  von  Sicilien"  (1880,  1897);  "Dramatische 
Spiele",  containing  the  dramatic  legend  "Sankt 
Ursulas  Rheinfahrt",  the  comedy  "Die  ViUa  bei 
Amalfi'',  and  the  dramatic  tale  "Schdn  GundeP' 
(1878):  and  his  three  festive  plays, — "Weihnachts- 
baum'*  (1867),  "Das  Haus  zu  Nazareth"  (1872),  and 
"Die  Weisen  des  Morgenlands"  (1877).  His  novels 
are:  "Die  schone  Zweibruckerin",  2  vols.  (1844); 
"Der  Jesuit"  (1873);  "Herr  von  Syllabus"  (1873); 
"MemoireneinesTodtenkopfs",  2  vols.  (1875);  "Der 
Caplan  von  Friedlingen"  (1877);  "Der  Cast  im  Kvff- 
h&user"  (1880).  His  juridical  works  are:  "Ueber 
kanonisches  Gerichtsverfaliren  gegen  Cleriker" 
(1856);  "Die  Immunitat  des  Domes  zu  Speyer" 
(1859);  "Die  Decretale  Per  Venerahilem'*  (1876).  He 
also  wrote  three  volumes  of  sermons  (1880-2);  "Das 
Theater  in  seiner  Bedeutung  und  in  seiner  gegenwar- 
tigen  Stellung"  (1866);  "Ueber  Goethes  Faust" 
(1869);  "Brwnend^  Fragen"  (1874);  "Die  Gn»- 


macht  der  Presse"  and  "Die  Organisation  der  Katho- 
lischen  Presse  "  (1866) ;  and  a  few  other  works  of  minor 
importance.  In  collaboration  with  Huelskamp  he 
wrote  "  Papst  Pius  IX  in  seinem  Leben  imd  Wirken", 
4th  ed.  (1875)  and  in  collaboration  with  Wittmer  "  Rom, 
Wegweiser  durch  die  ewige  Stadt"  (1866,  1870). 

Bbxtmmbb  in  Attoemeine  Deuteeke  BioompKie^  LII  (LeqMdg. 
1006),  438-10 ;  Kkhhszic,  B%offnphi»ch-4iUenfi9dut  Lexikan  der 
kalholitehen  Diehter,  Tod  ed.,  I  (WOnburg,  1872).  26<MS8;  AUe  und 
Neue  WeU,  XV  (New  York.  1880),  408-11. 

MlCBASL  OtT. 

Moliov  (0'Moixot)i  FRANas,  theologian,  gram- 
mariaiK  b.  in  King's  County,  Ireland,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  centuiv;  d.  at  St.  Isidore's, 
Rome,  about  1684.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  \he 
Franciscan  Order,  and  in  the  year  1642  he  was  ap- 
pointed lecturer  in  philosophy  at  the  college  of  Kk«- 
terneuberg,  near  Vienna,  and  in  1645  passed  to  the 
chair  of  theologv  at  Grata.  Here  he  publi^ed  a 
Scotist  work  on  the  Incarnation. 

About  1650  he  was  called  to  Rome  and  appointed 

frimary  professor  of  theology  in  the  College  of  St. 
sidore.  During  his  residence  in  Rome  he  wrote  sev- 
eral works  on  theological  subjects  and  a  long  Latin 
poem  on  Prince  Prosper  Philip  of  Spain.  In  1676  he 
published  an  Irish  catechism  under  the  title  of  "Lucema 
Fidelium  seu  Fasciculus  deceiptus  de  Doctrina  Chris- 
tiana". This  work,  in  the  lush  language  and  charac- 
ters, was  printed  at  the  office  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Propaganda,  and  was  dedicated  to  ^xdinal  Al- 
tieri.  Protector  of  Ireland.  Father  MoUov  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  the  first  Latin-Irish  printed 
grammar  (Grammatica  Latino-Hibemica).  This 
book  also  came  from  the  press  of  the  Propaganda 
(1677),  and  is  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Masmmi,  a  great 
friend  of  the  Irish.  It  is  hi^ly  esteemed  by  writers 
on  the  Celtic  languages,  and  is  largely  drawn  upon  by 
modem  writers  on  Irish  gnunmar. 

Waddxno-Sbasalea..  Scriptoree  Ord.  Min,  (Rome,  1806): 
O'Rkxllt,  IrUh  Writere  (Dublin,  1820) ;  Bbsknam,  EteL  Hietary 
of  Irdand;  Rtam,  Worthiee  of  Ireland  (London,  1821);  Akdks- 
aON,  Hialoncal  Sketehee  <4  <^  Votiee  Iriek  (London.  1846); 
DouoLAB  Htob,  Literary  Hittory  of  Irdand  (London.  IMS); 
O'MoLLOT,  Irteh  Proaody,  tr.  OTlamkohaixje  (Dublin,  1908). 

Gregory  Cleabt. 

Molloy,  Gerald,  theolooan  and  scientist,  b.  at 
Moimt  Tallant  House,  near  Dublin,  10  Sept..  1834;  d. 
at  Aberdeen,  1  Oct.,  1906.  Monsignor  Molloy  was  a 
distinguished  Irish  priest  and  for  many  years  a  very 
popular  and  much  admired  figure  in  the  intellectual 
ufe  of  Ireland.  He  was  educated  at  CasUeknock 
College,  where  he  was  very  successful  in  his  studies, 
and  subsequently  went  to  Maynooth  College.  Here 
he  applied  himself  with  enthusiasm  to  the  study  of 
theology  and  the  physical  sciences.  In  both  depart* 
ments  his  record  was  a  brilliant  one.  He  was  hardy 
twenty-three  years  of  a«e  when  in  1857  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Maynooth,  and  continued  to 
hold  that  chair  until  1874^  when  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Catholic 
University  of  Ireland.  In  1883  he  succeeded  Dean 
Neville  of  Cork  as  Rector  of  the  Catholic  Univer^ 
sity,  which  office  he  occupied  tip  to  the  day  of  his 
death.  The  varied  nature  of  Monsignor  MoUoy's 
work  in  connexion  with  Irish  education  is  very  strik- 
ing. He  acted  on  the  commission  on  manual  train- 
ing in  primary  schools,  and  filled  the  post  of  assis- 
tant commiesioner  under  the  Educational  Endowments 
Act.  As  early  as  1880  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Senate  of  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  and  re- 
mained so  till  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  to  a 
fellowship  in  the  same  univerwty.  In  1890  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  governing  board  of  that 
institution  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  its 
vice-chancellor.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Intermediate  Education.  As  a  lecturer  and  skilled 
experimentalist,  Molloy  was  very  successful  in  dealing 
with  di^cuH  scientific  subjects  and  rendering  them 


MOLO                              443  MOtOCB 

eaoly  intelliipble  and  interesting  to  his  hearers,  medal  of  Pope  Innocent  VII);  he  is  also  excellent  in 
Under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  of  figure  compositions.  The  dragon-killer  St.  George. 
whose  council  he  was  a  member,  he  delivered  a  series  as  Kenner  remarks,  by  ita  natural  and  beautm;! 
of  lectures  on  natural  science,  and  in  particular  on  filling  in  of  space,  reminds  us  of  classical  coins.  As 
electricity,  in  which  he  was  an  acknowledged  expert,  long  as  cast  medal?  were  generally  used,  public 
On  one  occasion  he  joined  issue  on  the  subject  of  interest  in  the  portrait  predominatea,  and  the  re- 
lightning  conductors  with  no  less  an  adversary  than  verse  was  usually  negleeted;  this  changed  with  the 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge.  Among  his  works  are:  ''Gfeology  introduction  of  the  stamping  technique.  We  know 
and  RevelatioiT'  (1870),  a  fuller  and  matiurer  treat-  only  a  few  cast  medals  of  Molo;  he  preferred  the 
ment  of  a  series  of  papers  on  geology  in  its  relation  stamped  medal,  and  his  works  of  this  kind  are  among 
with  revealed  rdinon,  which  appeared  from  time  the  best  of  that  time.  It  may  be  stated  that  he  was 
to  time  in  the  ''Irish  Ecclesiajstical  Record",  and  directly  responsible  for  the  new  ideas  in  stamping 
dealt  with  the  supposed  conflict  between  geology  technique.    Molo's  biography  is  still  very  obscure. 

and  revelation,  solving  the  problem  of  reconcilement:  ^  Kbunm  in  JaAr5.  derkunMhi^.Sammlungen  des  Ah.  Kattwr- 

;;0utline8  of  a  «,u«e  of  Nattjal  Philoeophy"  (1880);  S?33S^'i«.^S''X  iiS}i.\=^&)?'°"""-  *'^-  '^^  ^ 

''Gleamngs  m  Science"  (1888),  an  interesting  senes  K.  Domanio. 
of  popular  lectures  on  scientific  subjects;  ''The  Irie^ 

Difficulty,  Shall  and  Will"  (1897).  He  also  tran»-  Moloch  (Heb.  M6Uch,  king).— >A  divinity  wor- 
lated  a  number  of  passages  from  Dante's  "Purga-  shipped  by  the  idolatrous  Israelites.  The  Hebrapr 
torio",  wrote  of  the  Passion  Play  at  Oberammex]gau,  pointing  MdUch  does  not  represent  the  original  pro- 
and  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  several  magazines,  nunciation  of  the  name,  any  more  than  tne  Gredc 
At  the  time  of^his  sudden  death,  due  to  heart  failure,  vocalization  MoX6x  found  in  the  LXX  and  in  the  Acts 
Father  Molloy  was  representing  the  Catholic  Uni-  (vii.  43).  The  primitive  title  of  this  god  was  very 
versitvatbhecelcbrationof  the  fourth  centenary  of  the  probably  M&kh,  "king",  the  consonants  of  whicn 
Aberdeen  University,  and  was  one  of  those  on  whom  came  to  be  combined  through  derision  with  the  vow- 
the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  was  conferred  els  of  the  word  Bosh^thj  "shame".  As  the  word  Mo- 
by the  latter  university  a  few  days  before.  His  loch  (A.  V.  Molech)  means  king,  it  is  difficult  in  sev- 
career  b  another  striking  contradiction  of  the  theory  eral  places  of  the  Old  Testament*  to  determine 
that  a  Catholic  clergyman  must  necessarily  be  an  whether  it  should  be  considered  as  the  proper  name  of 
opponent  of  scientific  progress.  a  deity  or  as  a  simple  appellative.  The  passages  of  the 
A'e^ri'«/<nir»w/(Dubhn.2pot..i9()6):^^^  orig'mal  text  in  which  the  name  stands  probably  for 

Rnelatum;  iDUf,  Gleamngt  tn  Setenee;  Dubltn  Renew  (IS72)  and  4k«1  «f  »  «.,^  «««  T  ««    ^r'.::   oi .  or*,   o   k.  ttt  f  a   \r   t\ 

irUk  BeoUe.  Record  (1866-9).  that  of  a  god  are  Lev.,  xviii,  21;^  XX,  2-5;  III  (A.  V.  I) 

Peteb  F.  Cusick.  Kings,  xi,  7;  IV  (II)  Kings,  xxui,  10;  Is.,  xxx,  33;  Ivu, 

9;  Jer.,  xxxii,  35.    The  chief  feature  of  Moloch's  wor- 

Molo»  Gasparo  (he  wrote  his  name  also  Mola  and  ^P  among  the  Jews  seems  to  have  been  the  sacrifice 

Mou),    skilful    Italian    goldsmith    and    planisher,  of  children,  and  the  usual  expression  for  describing 

chieflv  known  as  a  medalist,  b.  (according  to  Forrer)  that  sacrifice  was  "to  pass  throudi  the  fire",  a  rite 

in  Breglio  near  Como  or  (according  to  older  records)  carried  out  after  the  victims  had  been  put  to  death, 

in  Lugano;  date  of  death  ux^own.    He  was  first  The  special  centre  of  such  atrocities  was  just  outside 

active  at  Milan,   then  at   Mantua,   from   1608  at  ^  Jerusalem,  at  a  place  called  Tophet  (probably 

Florence,  from  which  latter  period  we  possess  his  "place  of  abommation"),  in  the  valley  of  Geennom. 

first  signed  medal.    Here  he  was  maestro  ddle  atampe  According  to  III  (I)  Kings,  xi,  7,  Solomon  erected  "a 

ddla  manele.    In  1609  he  became  well  known  by  temple'*  for  Moloch  "on  the  hill  over  against  Jerusa- 

his  msdals  commemorating  the  marriage  and  the  ^^^  %  and  on  this  account  he  is  at  times  considered  as 

accession  of  Cosmo  II.    In  1609  and  1610  he  cut  the  monarch  who  introduced  the  impious  cult  into 

the  dies  for  the  talers  and  the  "medals  of  merit"  Israel.    After  the  disruption,  traces  of  Moloch  wor- 

conferred  by  the  grand  duke.    According  to  Kenner,  ship  appear  in  both  Juda  and  Israel.    The  custom  of 

it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  he  gave  up  his  causing  one's  children  to  pass  through  the  fire  seems 

connexion  with  the  Florentine  court  at  this  time,  to  have  been  ^neral  in  the  Northern  Kingdom  [IV 

because,  in  the  following  years,  he  struck  medals  for  (H)  Kings,  xvii,  17;  Ezech.  xxiii,  37],  and  it  gradually 

the  court  in  Mantua,  as  well  as  coins  for  Guastalla  grew  in  the  Southern,  encouraged  by  the  royal  exam- 

and  CastiKlione.  especially  as  he  was  again  working  ple  of  Achaz  (IV  Kings,  xvi,  3)  and  Manasses  [IV 

in  Florence  in  16U  (certainly  in  1615).    The  medals  (H)  Kings,  xvi,  6]  till  it  became  prevalent  in  the  time 

also,  which  he  made  after  1620  for  Prince  Vincenzo  of  the  prophet  Jeremias  (Jerem.  xxxii,  35),  when  Kins 

II  of  Mantua,  may  very  well  have  been  struck  at  Josias  suppressed  the  worship  of  Moloch  and  defiled 

Florence.    His  further  sojourn  in  Tuscany  seems  to  Tophet  [IV  (II)  Kings,  xxiii,  13  (10)].    It  is  not  im- 

have  been  rendered  distasteful  to  him  by  intrigues,  probable  that  this  worship  was  revived  under  Joakim 

About  1623  he  moved  to  Rome,  where  he  became  and  continued  until  the  Babylonian  Captivity, 

die-cutter  at  ths  papal  mint  in  place  of  J.  A.  Moro,  .  On  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew  reading  of  III  (I)  Kings, 

who  died  in  1623.    Here  he  made  a  great  many  coins  xi,  7,  Moloch  has  often  been  identified  with  Milcom, 

and  medals  for  Urban  VIII  (1623-44),  Innocent  X  the  national  god  of  the  Ammonites,  but  this  identifi- 

(1644-55),  and  Alexander  VII  (1655-57).    His  last  cation  cannot  be  considered  as  probable:  as  shown  by 

works  date  from  1634.     As  it  seems  strange  that  the  Greek  Versions,  the  original  reading  of  III  (t) 

Molo  should,  at  the  age  of  eighty-four,  still  continue  Kings,  xi,  7,  was  not  Molech  but  Milchom  [cf .  also 

working  with  unabated  strength,  it  is  thought  that  III  (I)  Kings,  xi,  5,  33] ;  and  according  to  Deut.,  xtl, 

another  artist  of  his  name-rperhaps  his  son — con-  29-31;  xviii,  9-14,  the  passing  of  childrea  through  fire 

tinued  Gasparo's  work.    Indeed,  we  find  in  1639  was  of  Chanaanite  origin  [cf.  IV  (II)  Kings,  xvi,  3]. 

a  G.  D.  Molo,  who  mi^t  have  been  a  son  of  Gasparo  Of  late,  numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  prove 

and  who  apparently  died  young*  but  it  is  more  lixdy  that  in  sacrificing  their  children  to  Moloch  the  Israel- 

that  Gasparo  founded  a  school  in  Rome,  and  that  ites  simply  thought  that  they  were  offering  them  in 

his  engravers  worked  according  to  his  instructions  holocaust  to  Yahweh.    In  other  words,  the  Melech  to 

and  in  his  style,  but  passed  off  their  works  under  his  whom  child-sacrifices  were  offered  was  Yahwdi  under 

name  and  with  his  signature.    One  of  his  numerous  another  name.    To  uphold  this  view  appeal  is  made 

pupils  is  his  successor  at  the  Zecca,   the  famous  in  particular  to  Jer.,  vii,  31 ;  xix,  5,  and  to  Ezech.,  xx, 

Hamerani   (Hameran,  a  German),   the  founder  of  25-31.    But  this  position  is  to  say  the  least  improb- 

that  long-lived  family  of  artists,  Hamerani.    Molo  able.    The  texts  appealed  to  may  well  be  understood 

is  a  good  and  futhful  delineator  of  character  (of.  Uie  otherwise,  and  the  prophets  expressly  treat  the  cult  of 


IIOLOKAI 


444 


HOLOKAI 


Moloch  SB  foreifm  and  aa  an  apostasy  From  the  wor-  juat  about  in  the  central  part  o{  Oie  coast,  where  thr 

ahip  ot  the  true  God.     The  offerinea  by  fire,  the  prob-  clift  u  2200  feet,  there  isat  ltd  base  the  Leper  .'.cltle- 

able  identity  of  Moloch  with  Ba^  and  the  fact  that  ment  Peninsula  (52  miles  from  Honolulu),  somcnhii 

in  Assyria  and   Babylonia   Malik,   and  at   Palmyra  of  a  horseshoe  shape,  about  two  miles  wide  near  tbc 

Malach-bel.  were  sun-gods,  have  suggested  to  atany  cliff  (pali),  and  projecting  about  two  miles  intu  tlie 

that  Moloch  was  a  fire-  or  sun-god.  ocean.     Around  the  extreme  point  this  new  coast  line 

Baddihun.  JoAm  «(  UUock  (Leipii*.  187*1 ;  Bur™,  Raimm  of  ig  from  100  to  150  feet  high :  nearer  the  pali  it  Is  nol  so 

Kguu  (Puii.  1903).  Only ;  and  at  Kalaupapa,  the  western  aide,  it  is  even  teas. 

Francis  E.  Gioot.         An  old  and  very  dilhcult  trail  over  the  jxili  has  beoi 

improved  so  that  earryine  the  mails  twice  a  week  to 

BKolokai,   an  interesting  island,  one  of  the  North     and  from  the  steamer  landinp  of  Kaunakakai,  on  the 

Pacific  group  formerly  known  as  the  Sandwich  Is-     southern  side  of  the  island,  is  pmctirable,  and  orct- 

landa,  or  as  the  Kinsoom  ai  Hawaii,  then  as  the  Re-    sionally  a  passenger  (usually  an  official]  comea  or  eoee 

Sublic  of  Hawaii,  and  since  annexation  by  the  United  that  way.  The  steamer  cornea  around  to  the  tandmg 
tates  of  America  as  the  Territory  of  Hawaii.  This  at  Kalaupapa  once  a  week.  Thia  peninsula  has  been 
annexation  wasdetennined  by  joint  resolution  of  Con-  formed  by  the  action  of  a  local  volcano  long  si' 
giess,  signed  by  the  — -■-     ^  _  >  _  _ 

Preaident  7  July, 
IS98,  the  completed 
organ  JEation  taking 
tSect  U  June,  1900. 
Of  the  eight  principal 
ialanda,  Molokai  ia 
fifth  in  siie,  261  st). 
milea;  also  fifth  in 
population  (2504, 
Census  of  1900).  Ita 
location  ia  between 
the  islands  of  Oahu 
and  Maui,  separated 
from  the  latter  by  a 
channel  only  eight 
miles  in  width,  and 
having  no  great 
depth.  Molokai  ia 
about  thirty-eight 
miles  in  lengtn  from 
east  to  west,  and  its 
average  width  ia 
about  seven  miles. 
The  island,  however, 
was  laiyer  in  its  origi- 
nal volcanic  forma- 
tiiHt.    The  mountain 


sland  «a.< 
formed.  The  dead 
crater,  Kauhako.  oc- 
cupies a  central  part 
of  the  peninsula.  -umI 
has  a  wpU  of  brack- 
bh  water,  tJie  sur- 
face keeping  od  b 
level  with  the  ocean, 
its  greatest  depth  hr- 
mg750teet.  The  en- 
tile formatioa  is  \'ery 
porous,  with  many 
caverns  snd  crevices. 
Just  off  Kalawao, 
and  fronting  the 
mouth  of  Waikalo 
Valley,  are  two 
masses  of  rock  pro- 
jecting from  the  sea, 
one  known    as    Mo- 


I   Islai 


1853.  In  1864  its 
spread  had  become 
so  alarming  that   ." 


BAUIWtl)  HOUB.  KaLIWAO,    MOLOEII 

iua«  tomrd  the  na  na  deAroyod  aad  thn  lita 

ccuiHed  by  lt»  Uniled  Stala  Leprovnum 
backbonewasspUtordisplaced,  the  northern  part  be-  Jan.,  1S65,  in  the  reign  of  Kamehameha  V,  the  Lut- 
ing submeived  in  the  ocean;  and  there  now  remains  a  islature  passed  "An  act  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
line  of  majestic  cliffs  and  noble  headlands  that  for  leprosy",  the  execution  of  the  law  being  in  uie  hands 
unique  grandeur  can  hardly  be  surpassed,  the  great  of  the  Board  of  Health.  In  1865-6.  there  were  274 
ocean  beating  at  their  base  except  where  the  few  val-  persons  on  the  islands  reported  to  be  lepcis.  I'nder 
leys  or  gjlches  form  open  places  and  where  the  cliffs  the  act  of  3  Jan.,  1865,  segregation  was  begun,  and 
recede.  This  somewhat  irregular  line  of  bold  mountain  plans  were  made  for  a  separate  hospital.  Land  was 
facevariesinhciglitfrom2iSofeetinthecentrali>artof  purchased  for  thia  in  Palolo  Valley,  Island  of  Oahu, 
the  ialand  to  3500  feet  towards  the  east.  Some  higher  but  when  it  became  known  in  the  neighbourhood,  ol>- 
peaks  lie  farther  back  in  the  eastern  part,  the  highest  jections  were  so  strong  that  the  effort  was  abandoned. 
being  almost  5000  feet.  All  of  these  highlands  are  A  site  was  then  secured  at  Kalihi,  near  Honolulu,  well 
stru^ly  seamed  by  erosion;  verdure  h^  crept  in,  separated  Irom  the  other  habitations,  and  in  Noiem- 
covering  the  protected  parts,  and  in  some  places  good-  ber,  1S65,  the  hospital  was  establL^hed  there.  This 
sized  trees  are  growing.  Except  in  the  very  dry  times,  was  for  retention,  examination,  and  to  some  extent 
manyrivuletsappear.disappear,  come  again  to  the  sur-  medical  treatment  of  the  Sepera  or  suspects,  Thia  w 
f;>ceorin  the  open  plac™  ■"■''" '"'"     r'  ■    '     • 


in  kaleidoscopic  variety.   Af-     indeed  good;  but  the  need  was  felt  of  a  larger  and 


?r  heavy  rains  these  little  streams  become  tortentaand 
from  overhanging  places  leap  into  the  open,  and  are 
caught  and  carried  away  by  the  winds.  In  the  moun- 
tains back  of  the  open-faced  northern  coast,  many 
wild  deer  are  found.  A  coral  reef,  about  half  a  mile  in 
width,  fringes  the  southern  coast.  The  slopes  to  the 
Bouth  and  lower-lying  parts  are  used  for  graimg.  Ow- 
ing to  the  uncertainty  of  the  supply  of  water,  the 
islitnd  is  not  well  adapted  to  agriculture.    Honey  is 


permanent  settlement,  iaolated  for  those  de- 
clared to  be  lepers,  to  be  operated  in  connexion  with 
the  Kalihi  Hospital,  where  efTorte  would  continue  tor 
the  cure  of  cases  in  the  early  stages.  In  locating  a 
leper  settlement  the  search  was  soon  directed  to  the 
Molokai  Peninsula,  so  well  protected  by  the  sea  in 
front  and  by  the  towering  cliff  behind.  Favoured  as 
it  is  by  the  wholesome  trade-winds  from  the  north- 
east, a  place  better  adapted  could  hatdiv  have  beien 


n  important  export.     Some  attempt  has  been  made  found.     The  Board  of  Health  established  its  authoi^ 

at  sugar  planting,  without  much  success.     This  pic-  it}'  here  on  6  Jan.,  1866.     Waikaio  Valley,  connected 

tureaqne  group  of  islands  is  favoured  in  being  out  of  with  the  peninsula  on  the  eastern  side,  ann  not  acce»- 

the  cyclone  belt,  and  in  having  no  snakes.  sible  from  other  directions,  was  firat  selected,  as  the 

Lkper  Settlement. — The  entire  northern  coast  of  richlandtherecouldbecultivated.and  the  little  colony 

Molokai  has  but  one  projection  ot  land.     The  gnkhes  might  become  self-supporting.     Thia  attemnt  did  ntrt 

Me  merely  open  places,  like  the  mouth  of  a  pocnt,  but  succeed,  the  deep  vall^  being  rather  moist  for  habil»- 


IIOLOKAX  445  MOLOKAI 

tion.  Therefore,  a  good  part  of  the  holdings  upon  the  1873.  Good  order  in  the  settlement  was  aomewhAt 
eastern  and  middle  portions  of  the  peninsula  were  se-  precarious.  Damien'a  determined  character  proved 
cured,  and  improvemente  were  begun,  Waikalo  Val-  to  be  of  great  value.  Besides  hia  priestly  offices,  there 
'oy  has  not  been  useless,  however,  but  has  been  used  was  opportunity  for  his  efforts  at  every  turn.  With  a 
lor  cultivation  of  taro.  The  non-leper  residents  still  hunny  zeal  for  work,  he  accompliehed  many  things 
remained  at  Kalaupapa,  the  steamer  landing.  In  the  for  Uie  good  of  the  place;  he  helped  the  authorities, 
time  of  theae  beginnings  (1865-68)  Dr,  F.  W.  Hutchin-  and  brought  about  a  good  spirit  among  the  people. 
Bon  was  President  of  the  Boand  of  Health,  and  was  Ten  years  later  (iSSii)  the  Fmnciacan  Sisters  came  to 
Minister  of  the  Interior  from  26  April,  1865,  until  11  Honolulu  from  Syracuse,  N.  Y,,  having  been  engaged 
Dec.,  1872.  Mr.  R.  W.  Meyer,  a  resident  of  the  moun-  by  the  Hawaiian  Government.  They  expected  com- 
tain-top  above  the  settlement,  was  Boatd  of  Health  ing  to  the  settlement  at  once,  but  the  authoritiea  con- 
Agent  and  attended  to  the  business.  He  continued  as  eluded  that  conditions  there  were  unsuitable,  that 
agent,  the  practical  and  very  efficient  business  mana-  better  order  must  be  secured,  and  some  improvements 
ger  of  the  Leper  Settlement  until  his  death,  12  June,  made  in  buildings,  etc.  So  the  siHtera  remained  at 
1897,  Kakaako  Branch  Hospital,  near  Honolulu,  for  about 

The  physician  at  Kalihi  Hospit^  reported  2  Mareb,  six  years,  a  certain  number  of  newly  gathered  lepers 

ISee.havingreoeived  1581epers,57otwhomweresent  being  retained  there.  This  hospital  was  given  up 
to  Molokai  Asylum,  101  remaining  at  Kalihi  Hospital 
for  treatment.  In  sending  to  Molokai,  some  difficulty 
attended  the  separating  of  relatives.  Therefore,  & 
few  non-leper  relatives  were  allowed  to  go  along  as 
helpers  or  Kohwu.  Some  cattle  and  sheep  were  also 
sent  to  Molokai.  For  Kalihi  Hospital,  and  Molokai 
Asylum  (or  Settlement,  aa  it  generally  became  knowD 
later),  the  total  amount  of  expenses  in  1866  was  SIO,- 
012.48. 

Matters  went  on  pretty  well  at  first,  but  after  some 
time  an  ugly  spirit  developed  at  Molokai.  Drunken 
and  lewd  conduct  prevailed.  The  easy-going,  good- 
natured  people  seemed  wholly  changed,  l^ua  th« 
President  of  the  Board  of  Health  reported  at  some 
length  in  186S;  but  he  was  able  to  state  that  a  change 
for  the  better  had  come.  Improvements  had  been 
made  at  Molokai,  including  the  building  of  an  hospital. 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Walsh  had  been  employed  to  take  charge 
in  February,  1867,  relieving  Mr.  Leparat,  who  had  re- 
signed, Mr.  Walah  to  act  as  schoolmaster  and  magis- 
trate, Mre.  Walsh  as  nurse.    This  1868  report  gives 

the  number  of  lepers  received  at  Molokai  as  179,  the  ^ ^  -^         ,  ,^ 

number  remaining  at  the  Kalihi  Hospital  as  43,  the  Ex™b«.  Br,  E^urcu'  Ctoara.  K*L*m*f*,  Mouuu 

total  amount  of  expenses  for  Kalihi  Hospital  and  BuutmiBoa 

Molokai  Settlement  since  1866  amounting  4«  124,803.-  when  the  sisters  came  to  Molokai.  At  the  settlement 
OO.  From  this  time  on,  efforts  were  continually  made  in  1883  conditions  would  indeed  have  been  intolerable 
to  render  the  s^regation  and  treatment  of  lepers  more  for  the  sisters,  and  the  same  was  true  in  1886  when  the 
effective.  Many  chfficulties  were  met  and  overcome,  writer  joined  Father  Damien;  but  matte  re  were  being 
To  keep  good  order  in  these  early  years  was  always  gradually  improved.  At  last  three  sisters  came  to 
difficult.  The  lepere  were  increasing  in  number.  Kalaupapa  15 Nov.,  I8S8.  BishopHomeforgirlsand 
Kearly  all  who  came  to  the  settlement  were  located  at  women  had  been  built.  Two  more  sistern  came  6 
Kalawao,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  peninsula,  the  May,  1889,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  coming  by  the 
leper  settlement  practically  continuing  there  for  many  same  boat  for  a  visit.  Father  Damjen  died  15  April, 
years.  In  1890  a  better  supply  of  water  was  brought  1889.  His  death,  after  such  a  Ufe,  arrested  the  world's 
from  Waikalo  Valley;  the  pipe  wassoon  extended  to  attention.  A  spontaneous  outburst  of  applause  from 
Kalaupapa.  the  atramer  landing.  A  reservoir  was  everywhere  at  once  followed.  Ilie  sixteen  years  of 
constructed  midway  on  the  ridge  between  Kalawao  labouronMolokaimadearecordthatseemeduniqueto 
and  Kalaupapa.  Previous  to  wat  time  a  pipe  was  the  world  at  large.  The  world  knew  very  little  about 
tkid  from  a  small  reservoir  in  Waialela  Valley,  between  lepers,  and  Father  Damien'a  life  carae  as  a  startling 
Waikalo  and  Kalawao,  and  extended  only  partly  revelation  of  heroic  self-sacrifice.  He  is  acknowledged 
through  Kalawao.  At  Kalaupapa,  two  miles  distant,  the  Apostle  of  the  lepers,  and  whatever  others  may  do 
the  people  brought  their  water  from  Waihanau  Valley  in  the  same  field  will  help  to  perpetuate  his  fame  and 
in  containers  upon  horses  and  donkeys.  The  people  honour.  A  monument  was  offered  by  the  people  of 
Bt  Kalaupapa  were  chiefly  non-lepers  who  lived  there  England,  and  accepted  by  the  Hawaiian  Board  of 
before  settlement  times.  Their  holdings  (kuleanas)  Health.  It  was  given  a  place  at  Kalaupapa,  not  far 
had  not  yet  been  secured  for  the  lepers  as  those  at  from  the  steamer  landing,  near  the  pubhc  road  now 
Kalawao  had  been.  This  was  done,  however,  in  called  "Damien  Road",  adjoining  thesisters' placeat 
1894,  since,  after  the  waterpipe  was  laid  to  Kalaupapa,  Bishop  Home.  The  monument  in  itself  is  interesting, 
the  people  had  begun  to  dnft  that  way,  and  the  puoUc  being  an  antique  cross,  fashioned  and  adapted  from 
buildings  also,  the  shops,  etc.,  hod  gradually  been  stone  cutting  of  about  the  sixth  century,  such  as  was 
moved  to  that  place.  Therefore  it  was  wisely  deter-  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Clonmao- 
miried  that,  in  the  interest  of  good  order,  as  well  aa  for  noise  on  the  river  Shannon,  Ireland.  It  was  trans- 
convenience,  the  Government  should  own  and  control  ferred  by  the  Board  of  Health  to  the  Catholic  Mission 
the  entire  peninsula  and  all  of  its  approaches,  the  on  11  Sept,,  1893,  the  Bishop  coming  to  receive  and 
non-lepers  being  sent  away.  This  was  quite  thor-  bless  it.  Two  miles  away,  at  the  other  end  of  the 
oughly  accomplished  in  1864,  Damien  Road,  in  Kalawao,  the  body  of  Father  Do- 
Fathbb  Dauien  and  the  Franciscan  Sistbhs. — -  mien  lies,  close  by  the  church,  where  the  Fandanua 
It  is  the  name  of  Father  Damien,  however,  that  has  tree  stood  that  sheltered  him  on  his  arrival  in  1873. 
made  Molokai  known  throughout  the  whole  world.  Over  this  grave  stands  a  simple  cross  with  the  in- 
He  cune  to  the  Molokai  Settlement  to  remain,  1 1  May,  scription  on  one  side,  "Father  Damien  ",  on  the  other, 


MOLTOSUZ 


446 


MOlSBRinUS 


**  Damien  De  veuBter  " .  The  strong  wooden  coffin  was 
placed  in  an  excavation,  and  imbedded  in  a  solid  block 
of  concrete.  Since  Fatner  Damien 's  time,  two  priests 
have  usually  been  on  dutv  at  the  settlement,  one  at 
Kalawao,  the  other  at  Kalaupapa.  Father  Pamphile 
Deveuster,  Damien's  brother,  was  here  in  1895-7; 
he  returned  to  Belgium,  and  died  there  29  July, 
1909. 

GovEBNMENT  AND  THE  Lepers. — PubUc  Senti- 
ment over  the  islands  has  always  supported  the 
Government  in  carrying  out  the  law  concerning 
lepers;  official  activity,  although  somewhat  \ury- 
ingf  has  on  the  whole  made  fair  progress;  at  times 
political  interests  have  not  been  entirely  favourable. 
The  first  home  at  Kalawao,  for  orphan  bo3rs  and  help- 
less men,  was  be^un  in  1886  unaer  Father  Damien, 
with  a  few  old  cabins  at  first,  two  large  buildings  being 
added  in  1887-8,  all  irregular  and  provisional.  The 
Government,  however,  recognised  it  as  a  home  1  Janu- 
ary, 1889.  Three  Franciscan  Sisters  came  to  this 
Kalawao  Home^  15  May,  1890,  and  the  mother-superior 
visited  it  occasionally.  In  1892-4  the  present  Bald- 
win Home  was  constructed,  and  put  into  use  in  May 
and  June,  1894.  The  sisters  were  replaced  1  Decem- 
ber, 1895,  by  four  Brothers  of  the  Picpus  Order.  Up 
to  the  present  time  (1910)  the  home  has  had,  including 
those  still  living,  976  inmates.  The  Board  of  Health 
has  always  employed  an  experienced  physician  and 
other  officials  tor  the  settlement.  For  many  years 
the  Hawaiians  had  strange  ideas  about  regular  physi- 
cians. Very  few  would  can  for  one,  and  this  continued 
at  the  settlement  up  to  about  1902.  They  would, 
however,  always  take  medicine  from  the  brothers  or 
sisters,  and  have  had  a  friendly  feeling  for  the  Japan- 
ese treatment.  It  has  been  put  in  use,  dropped,  and 
revived  man^  times.  The  elder  Dr.  Goto  introduced  it 
at  Kakaako  m  1886.  Good  order  and  favourable  con- 
ditions in  general  were  specially  noteworthy  from 
1893.  A  glance  over  the  records  of  the  next  ten  years 
shows  continued  improvements  in  the  water  supply, 
enlarging  of  medical  service,  etc.  Total  expenses  for 
segregation,  support,  and  treatment  of  lepers  for  six 
years,  ending  31  December,  1903,  were  $876,888.86. 
In  1906  the  buildings  owned  oy  the  Government  num- 
bered 298;  those  owned  by  private  parties  numbered 
150.  In  1908  the  lepers  at  Molokai  numbered  791 :  of 
these,  693  were  Hawaiians,  42  Chinese,  26  Portuguese, 
6  Americans,  5  Japanese,  6  Germans,  2  Soutn  Sea 
Islanders,  1  Dane,  1  French  Canadian,  1  Swede, 
2  Porto  Bicans,  1  Filipino,  1  Tahitian,  1  Russian, 
1  Corean,  1  British  Negro,  1  Hollander.  In  1866 
the  total  number  of  lepers  at  the  settlement  on  31 
December  was  115;  it  kept  increasing  until  in  1890  the 
number  reached  1213.  Since  then  there  has  been  a 
decrease  until,  31  December,  1908,  the  number  was 
771.  In  1908  the  plan  adopted  in  the  earliest  days 
(1865-69),  of  attempting  to  cure  new  cases,  or  an^ 
that  seemed  promising.  Before  being  sent  to  Molokai, 
has  been  revived.  The  renewal  should  be  more  effect- 
ive than  in  the  early  time  because  of  the  great  advances 
science  has  made  in  the  past  forty  years.  This  new  work 
is  now  carried  on  at  Kalihi  as  it  was  over  forty  years  ago, 
but  in  better  buildings  and  under  far  greater  advan- 
tages. The  general  outfit  at  the  Molokai  Settlement 
is  about  complete:  establishments  for  the  medical  de- 
partment, hospital,  dispensary,  nursery,  etc.  There 
are  bath  houses  and  drug  departments  at  the  homes, 
and  special  houses  for  the  sick.  At  ICalaupapa  there 
are  the  pai  factory,  the  shops,  and  warehouses,  and  the 
residences  of  the  officials  pleasantly  located  and  well 
supplied  with  conveniences.  A  large  building  is 
under  construction  for  white  lepers,  the  funds  being 
furnished  by  generous  friends  throughout  the  islands. 
There  are  two  Catholic  churches,  and  several  of  other 
denominations.  At  Kalawao  the  most  prominent 
features  are  Baldwin  Home  and  the  U.  S.  Leprosarium. 
This  leprosarium  is  probably  the  greatest  institution 


of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  appropriation  by  Con- 
gress was  generous.  The  buildings  are  extensive,  aud 
supplied  with  a  very  elaborate  outfit  of  the  best  qual- 
ity and  latest  invention,  and  everything  in  fact  that 
present-day  science  can  provide.  Another  new  addi- 
tion recently  added  by  the  U.  S.  Government  is  a  fine 
lighthouse,  a  pyramidal  concrete  structure,  the  light 
of  which  is  visible  for  about  twenty-four  miles. 

QniNLAN,  Damien  of  Molokai  (New  York,  1009);  Ldtdgren. 
The  Water  Retourcee  of  Molokai  (Govt.  Printing  Office.  Wash., 
D.  C.  1903);  Malo.  Hawaiian  Antiquitiee  (Honolulu.  19a3): 
DtnroN,  Earthquake  Science  Seriea  (New  York  and  London. 
1904);  Idbm,  Hawaiian  Voloanoee  (London,  1904);  Alexander, 
A  Brief  Hitiori  of  the  Hawaiian  PeopU  (New  York,  1891-1899); 
Thrum,  Hawaiian  Annual  (Honolulu,  1906-10);  Hitchodck. 
Hawaii  and  Ite  Voleanoea  (Honolulu,  1910):  Blackman.  The 
Making  of  Hawaii  (London.  1906);  Senn,  Around  the  World 
ina  India  (Chicago,  1905) ;  Carter,  Report  to  Secretary  of  In- 
terior (Honolulu,  1904);  Frear,  Report  to  Sec.  of  Int.  (Honolulu, 
1909);  OJj^cial  RepoHe  of  the  HauKttian  Board  of  Health  (Hono- 
lulu. 1866, 1868,  1894.  1902-1909) ;  Bobtnaeil),  art.  Damien 
in  TsE  CATnouc  EnctcltOpedla. 

Joseph  Dutton. 

Molynonz,  Sib  Cartll.  Baronet  of  Sefton,  and 
third  viscount  Molyneux  of  Maryborough  in  Ireland, 
b.  1624;  d.  1699.  He  joined  the  Kovalist  armv  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  and  served  with  his  brother, 
the  second  viscount,  in  the  Lancashire  Regiment, 
which  was  mostly  Catholic,  through  almost  all  the 
fighting  from  Manchester  (1642)  to  Worcester  (1651). 
After  succeeding  to  the  title  he,  as  a  well-known 
Catholic  cavalier,  experienced  very  harsh  treatment 
from  the  victors;  ana  the  family  estates  suffered  se- 
verely. It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  James  II  that  his 
fortunes  improved.  He  was  then  made  Lord  Lieu- 
tenant of  Lancashire,  and  was  one  of  the  few  who 
fought  with  any  success  on  James's  side  against  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  for  he  seized  and  held  the  town  of 
Chester,  until  all  further  resistance  was  in  vain.  Some 
years  later  he  was  arrested  on  a  fictitious  charge  of 
treason,  called  ''The  Lancashire  plot",  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  with  other  Catholics,  but  upon 
trial  was  victoriouslv  acquitted  (1694). 

Many  other  members  of  this  notable  and  conspicu- 
ously Catholic  family  deserve  mention.  John  Moly- 
neux, of  Melling,  was  a  constant  confessor  for  the 
Faitn  under  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  his  son  and  grand- 
son both  died  in  arms  fighting  for  King  Charles  at 
Newbuiy.  Father  Thomas  Molyneux,  S.J.,  probably 
of  Alt  Grange,  Ince  Blundell,  was  a  confessor  of  the 
Faith  at  the  time  of  Oates's  Plot,  meeting  death  from 
ill-treatment  in  Morpeth  ^aol,  12  January,  1681.  The 
family  is  of  itself  exceedindy  interesting.  It  came 
from  Moulineaux  in  Seine  Inferieure  about  the  time 
of  the  Conquest,  and  can  be  shown  to  have  held  the 
manor  of  Set  ton  without  interruption  from  about  1 100 
to  the  present  day,  while  other  branches  of  the  family 
(of  which  those  of  Haughton  in  Nottinghamshire  and 
Uastle  Dillon  in  Ireland  are  the  most  conspicuous) 
have  spread  all  over  the  world.  The  main  stem  re- 
mained staunch  through  the  worst  times.  William, 
seventh  viscount,  was  a  Jesuit,  and  there  were  in  his 
time  not  less  than  seven  Molyneux  in  the  Society  of 
Jesus  alone.    Arms:  azure,  a  cross  moline,  or. 

Victoria  County  Hieloriea,  Lancaehire,  III  (London,  1907).  67— 
73;  FoLBT,  Recorde  S.J.,  VII  (London.  1832),  513-516;  Catholic 
Record  Society,  V  (London,  1909).  109,  131,  218.  etc.;  PmLUpra. 
The  family  of  Sir  Thomas  Molyneux  (Middlehill,  1820) ;  Mouneux, 
Memoir  i^  the  Molineux  Family  (London.  1882). 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

MombritiaB,  Bonino,  philologist,  humanist,  and 
editor  of  ancient  writings,  b.  1424;  d.  between  1482 
and  1502.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble  but  not 
verv  wealthy  family  of  Milan,  and  studied  the  Latin 
and  Greek  classics  at  Ferrara,  with  zeal  and  success. 
Later  he  became  a  teacher  of  Latin  at  Milan,  and  was 
hif|^3^  esteemed,  not  only  for  his  extensive  knowledge 
and  ms  literary  works,  but  also  for  his  earnest  religious 
life,  as  may  be  gleaned  from  the  letters  of  his  contem- 
poraries.   He  suffered  many  misfortunes,  which,  how- 


MONACO                              447  MONAD 

ever,  did  not  affect  his  industry.    His  literaiy  im-  immediatelv  dependent  upon  the  Holy  See,  making 

portancelies  especisJIy  in  his  editions  of  ancient  writ-  the  abbot,  Mgr  Bonaventure  Theuret,  its  first  bishop, 

mgs.    The  following  may  be  mentioned:  '* Chronica  Ds  Rotkb  db  8azmt»-Sdsanns,  La  PrineipavU  de  Monaco 

Eusebii,  Hieron3rmi,  Prosperi  et  Matthaei  Palmerii"  CParw.  1884). 

(Milan,    1475);   "Scriptores  rei   Augustee"    (1476):  U.  Benigni. 
"Papi«  Glossarium"  (1476):  "Mirabilia  mundi"  of 

Solinus  (s.  1.  a.).    A  very  notable  contribution  to  Monad    (from  the  Greek  iMvi^t,  fwvdSot),  in  the 

hagiography  is  his  collection  of  records  of  the  martyr-  sense  of  ultimate,  indivisible  unit,  appears  very  early 

dom  ana  hves  of  saints,,  which  appeared  under  the  in  the  history  of  Greek  philosophy.    In  the  ancient 

title:  "Sanctuarium"  (2  folio  vols.,  s.  1.  a.)i  probably  accounts  of  the  doctrines  of  Pjnbhagoras,  it  occurs  as 

printed  in  1480,  and  recently  edited  (Paris,  1910)  by  the  name  of  the  unity  from  which,  as  from  a  principle 

the  Benedictines  of  Solesmes  (Boninus  Mombritius,  (4^x4) » &U  number  and  multiplicity  are  derived.    In 

Sanctuarium  seu  vitro  Sanctorum.    Novam  editionem  the  Platonic  ''Dialogues''  it  is  used  in  the  plural 

cur.  monachi  Solesmenses.  2  tomi).    He  also  coni-  (/uoMldct)  as  a  synonym  for  the  Ideas.    In  Aristotle's 

posed  poems,  some  of  which  were  published  in  his  edi-  ''Metaphysics     it  occurs  as  the  principle  (d^Xji)  of 

tions  of  the  ancient  writings,  and  some  printed  sepa-  number,  itself  being  devoid  of  quantity,  indivisible 

rately.    Of  the  latter  may  oe  particularly  mentioned  and  unchangeable.    The  word  mimad  is  used  by  the 

"De  passione  Domini"  (reprinted,  Leipzig,  1499).  neo-Platonists  to  si^fy  the  One;  for  instance,  in  the 

De  vita  et  operibue  Bonini  Mombritii  testimonia  eeUcta  in  the  letters  of  the  Christian  Platonist  Synesius,  God  is  de- 

t^nr™-*^**°?**'l''*''.o?il^*°iSw^  *#*'^7^TTf*^!^TwU^^^9^:  B^nbed  as  the  Monad  of  Monads.    It  occurs  both  in 

1910),  xxu-xxix;  Fabriciub,  mW.  tol.,  V  (liamburg,  17oo),  zo7;  •      i.         j          j*        i      i^-i     ^   i_      ^                ^            f^« 

Bibi.-cript,  Mediolan.,  I  (Milan.  1764).  oxlvi-cGli;  Hubtbb,  ancient  and  medieval  philosophy  as  a  synonym  for 

Nomendaior,  II  (3rd  ed.,  Innsbruck.  1906),  1055.  atom,  and  is  a  favourite  term  With  such  wnters  as  Gior- 

J.  p.  KiRSCH.  dano  Bruno,  who  speak  in  a  rather  indefinite  manner 

of  the  minima,  or  minutely  small  substances  which 

Monaco,  Principalitt  and  Diocese  of,  situated  constitute  all  reality.    In  general,  it  may  be  affirmed 

on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  skirts  of  the  Turbie  that  while  the  term  atom,  not  only  in  its  physical,  but 

and  the  T^te  de  Chien  mountains,  is  surrounded  on  also  in  its  metaphyseal  meaning,  implies  merely  cor- 

all  sides  by  the  French  department  of  the  Maritime  poreal,  or  materisl  attributes,  the  monad,  as  a  rule, 

Afps,  and  has  an  area  of  5337  acres.    On  account  of  implies  something  incori>oreai,  spiritual,  or.  at  least, 

its  beautiful  climate,  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular  win-  vital.    The  term  monad  is,  however,  generally  under- 

ter  resorts  in  Europe.    Its  principal  resources  are  the  stood  in  reference  to  the  philosophy  of  Leibnis,  in 

fishery  of  the  gulf,  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees  (olive,  which  the  doctrine  of  monadism  occupies  a  position  of 

orange,  lemon) »  and  the  Casino  of  Monte  Carlo,  es-  paramount  importance.    In  order  to  understand  his 

tablished  in  1856,  whose  revenues  are  sufficient  to  free  doctrine  (see  Leibniz)  on  this  point,  it  is  necessary  to 

the  inhabitants  of  the  principality  from  the  burden  of  recall  that  he  was  actuated  by  a  twofold  motive  in  his 

taxation.    The  capital  consists  of  three  large  bor-  attempt  to  define  substance.    He  wished,  in  accord- 

oughs:  the  old  Monaco,  which  is  built  on  a  promon-  ance  with  his  general  irenic  plan,  to  reconcile  the  doc- 

tory  that  extends  875  yards  into  the  sea  and  encloses  trine  of  the  atomists  with  the  scholastic  theory  of 

the  harbour;  the  other  two  are  Condamine  and  Monte  matter  and  form,  and  besides  he  wished  to  avoia  on 

Carlo.    From  ancient  times  until  the  nineteenth  cen-  the  one  hand  the  extreme  mechanism  of  Descartes, 

tury  the  port  of  Monaco  was  among  the  most  im-  who  tau^t  that  all  matter  is  inert,  and  on  the  other 

portant  of  the  French  Mediterranean  coast,  but  now  the  monism  of  Spinoza,  who  taught  that  there  is  but 
it  has  lost  all  commercial  significance.    Among  the  ,  one  substance,  God.    AH  this  he  hoped  to  accomplish 

notable  constructions  of  the  principality  are  the  an-  by  means  of  his  doctrine  of  monads.    Descartes  had 

cient  fortifications,  the  old  ducal  palace  which  contains  defined  substance  in  terms  of  independent  existence, 

beautiful  frescoes  by  Annibale  Carracci.  Orazio  Fer-  and  Spinoza  was  merely  inferring  what  was  implicitly 

ran.  and  Carlone,  the  cathedral,  built  (1884-87)  in  the  contamed  in  Descartes's  definition  when  he  concluded 


square. 

JPhcDnicians,  who,  on  the  promontory  upon  which  the  tion,  and  thus  escapes  Descartes's  doctrine  that  matter 

old  town  is  built,  erected  a  temple  to  the  god  Mel-  is  by  nature  inert.    At  the  same  time,  since  the 

karth,  called  Monoicos,  solitary,  that  is,  not  con-  sources  of  independent  action  may  be  manifold,  he  es- 

nccted  with  the  cult  of  Ashtoreth;  whence  the  town  capes  Spinoza  s  pantheistic  monism.    The  atomists 

derived  its  name,  which  is  Moneque,  in  Provencal.   In  had  maintained  the  existence  of  a  multiplicity  of  mi- 

the  early  Middle  Ages  the  neighbouring  lords  often  nute  substances,  but  had  invariably  drifted  into  a 

cont4?nded  with  each  other  for  the  possession  of  this  materialistic  denial  of  the  existence  of  spirits  and  spii> 

important  port,  which  later  was  occupied  by  the  Sara-  itual  forces.    The  scholastics  had  reiected  this  mate- 

cens;  it  was  taken  from  them  in  the  tenth  century  by  rialistic  consequence  of  atomism  and,  by  so  doing,  had 

Count  Grimaldi,  in  whose  family  the  principality  re-  seemed  to  put  themselves  in  opposition  to  the  current 

mains  to  this  day.    Formerly,  it  comprised  Mentone  of  modem  scientific  thought.    Leibniz  thinks  he  sees 

and  Roqucbrune.    The  Grimaldis  often  had  to  defend  a  way  to  reconcile  the  atomists  with  the  scholastics, 

themselves  aeainst  Spanish  or  Genoese  fleets;  the  He  teaches  that  all  substances  are  composed  of  minute 

most  famous  blockade  of  the  town  was  that  of  1506,  particles  which,  in  every  case,  in  the  lowest  minerals 

which  failed.    In  1619  Prince  Honoratus  II,  with  the  as  well  as  in  the  highest  spiritual  beings,  are  partly 

assistance  of  the  French,  drove  the  Spaniards  from  material  and  partly  immaterial.    Thus,  he  imaicines. 

Monaco,  and  since  that  time  the  principality  has  been  the  sharp  contrast  between  atomistic  materialism  and 

under  the  protection  of  France.    During  the  Revolu-  scholastic  spiritualism  disappears  in  presence  of  the 

tion,  Monaco  was  annexed  to  France,  but  the  prin-  doctrine  that  all  differences  are  merely  differences  of 

cipality  was  re-established  in  1814.    A  revolution  degree. 

broke  out  in  1848  against  the  misgovemment  of  The  monads  are,  therefore,  simple,  unextended  sub- 
Prince  Honoratus  V,  who  lost  Mentone  and  Koque-  stances,  if  by  substance  we  understand  a  centre  of. 
brune.  these  cities  declaring  themselves  free  republics,  force.  They  cannot  begin  or  end  except  by  creation 
and  (1860)  voting  for  their  annexation  to  France.  or  annihilation.  They  are  capable  of  internal  artiv- 
Monaco  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Nic4i,  but,  in  ity,  but  cannot  be  influenced  in  a  physical  manner  by 
1868,  it  became  an  abbey  miUiits,  and  at  the  instance  anything  outside  themselves.  In  this  sense  the"**  are 
of  Prince  Cbpxle^  XII,  J^eo  XIII  raiped  it  to  ^  dipoese,  independept.    Moreover,  each  mPPPd  ta  unique;  tb»t 


MONAOHAH 


448 


MONARCHIAIIB 


la,  there  are  no  two  monads  alike.  At  the  aame  time 
the  monads  must  have  qualities;  "otherwise",  savs 
Leibniz  (Monadol.,  n.  8)»  "they  would  not  even  be 
entities".  There  must,  therefore,  be  in  each  monad 
the  power  of  representation,  by  which  it  reflects  aU 
other  monads  in  such  a  manner  that  an  all-seeing  eye 
could,  by  looking  into  one  monad,  observe  the  whole 
universe  mirrored  therein.  This  power  of  represen- 
tation is  different  in  different  monads.  In  the  lowest 
kind  of  substances  it  is  unconscious — Leibniz  finds 
fault  with  the  Cartesians  because  they  overlooked  the 
existence  of  unconscious  perception.  In  the  hi|;hest 
kind  it  is  fully  conscious.  We  may,  in  fact,  distin- 
guish in  every  monad  a  zone  of  obscure  representar 
tion  and  a  zone  of  clear  representation.  In  the  monad 
of  the  grain  of  dust,  for  example,  the  zone  of  clear 
representation  is  very  restricted,  the  monad  mani- 
festing no  higher  activity  than  that  of  attraction  and 
repulsion.  In  the  monad  of  the  human  soul  the 
region  of  clear  representation  is  at  its  maximum,  this 
kind  of  monad,  the  "c^ueen  monad",  being  character- 
ized by  the  power  of  mtellectual  thought.  Between 
these  two  extremes  range  all  the  monads,  mineral, 
vegetable,  and  animal,  each  being  differentiated  from 
the  monad  below  it  by  possessing  a  larger  area  of  clear 
representation,  and  each  being  separated  from  the 
monad  above  it  by  having  a  larger  area  of  obscure 
representation.  There  is  then  in  every  created 
monad  a  material  element,  the  region  of  obscure  rep- 
resentation, and  an  immaterial  element,  the  area  of 
clear  representation.  Evervthing  in  the  created 
world  is  partly  material  and,  partly  inm^aterial,  and 
there  are  no  abrupt  differences  among  thinp.  but  only 
differences  in  the  extent  of  the  immaterial  as  com- 

gared  with  l^e  material.  Minerals  shade  off  insensi- 
\y  (in  the  case  of  crystals)  into  living  things,  plant 
life  into  animal  life,  and  animal  sensation  into  human 
thought.  "All  created  monads  may  be  called  souls. 
But,  as  feeling  is  sometimes  more  than  simple  percep- 
tion, I  am  wiuing  that  the  general  name  moxmds,  or 
entelechies,  shall  suffice  for  those  simple  substances 
which  have  perception  only,  and  that  the  term  souls 
shall  be  connncd  to  those  in  which  perceptions  are  dis- 
tinct, and  accompanied  by  memory"  (MonadoL,  n. 
19).  "We  ascribe  action  to  the  monad  in  so  far  as  it 
has  distinct  perceptions,  and  passivity,  in  so  far  as  its 
perceptions  are  confused"  (ibid.,  n.  49).  If  this  is 
the  only  kind  of  activity  that  the  monad  possesses, 
how  are  we  to  account  for  the  order  and  harmony 
everywhere  in  the  universe?  Leibniz  answers  by  in- 
troducing the  principle  of  Pre-established  Harmony. 
There  is  no  real  action  or  reaction.  No  monad  can 
influence  another  physically.  At  the  beginning, 
however,  God  so  pre-arranged  the  evolution  of 
the  activity  of  the  myriads  of  monads  that  accord- 
ing as  the  body  evolves  its  own  activity,  the 
soul  evolves  its  activity  in  such  a  way  as  to  corre- 
spond to  the  evolution  of  the  activity  of  the 
body.  "Bodies  act  as  if  there  were  no  souJs,  and 
souls  act  as  if  there  were  no  bodies:  and  yet  both  act 
as  if  one  influenced  the  other"  (ibid.,  n.  81).  This 
pre-established  harmony  makes  the  world  to  be  a  cos- 
mos, not  a  chaos.  The  principle  extends,  however, 
beyond  the  physical  universe,  and  applies  in  a  special 
manner  to  rational  souls,  or  spirits.  In  the  realm  of 
spirits  there  is  a  subordination  of  souls  to  the  benefi- 
cent rule  of  Divine  Providence,  and  from  this  subordi- 
nation results  the  "system  of  souls",  which  consti- 
tutes the  City  of  God.  There  is,  therefore,  a  moral 
world  within  the  natural  world.  In  the  former  God 
is  ruler  and  legislator,  in  the  latter  He  is  merely  archi- 
tect. "God  as  architect  satisfies  God  as  legislator" 
(ibid.,  n.  89),  because  even  in  the  natural  world  no 
good  deed  goes  without  its  recompense,  and  no  evil 
deed  escapes  its  punishment.  Order  among  monads  is 
thus  ultimately  moral. 
§ince  Leibniz'  time  the  term  monad  has  been  used 


by  various  philosophers  to  designate  indivisible  cen- 
tres of  force,  but  as  a  general  riue  these  units  are  not 
understood  to  possess  the  power  of  representation  or 
perceptiozi^  which  is  the  distinguishing  chcuracteristic 
of  the  Leibnizian  monad.  Exception  should,  how- 
ever, be  made  in  the  case  of  Renouvier,  who,  in  his 
"Nouvelle  monadolo^e",  teaches  that  the  monad  has 
not  only  internal  activity  but  also  the  power  of  per> 
ception. 

Leibniz,  Monadolooy,  tr.,  in  Journal  of  Spec.  PhiL  (1867).  I. 
129  aq. ;  Idem.  tr.  by  Dukcan  in  LeibnW  Philo9ophical  Works  (Nev 
Haven,  1890);  Idbm.  tr.  Latta  (Oxford,  1S08);  ori«iiiAl  in  Ojwra 
Philo$.^  ed.  Ebomamn  (Berlin,  1840);  Idem,  with  notes,  ed.  PiiT 
(Paris,  1900):  Jasper.  LeibnU  u.  die  SeHoUuiik  CL^t^n  18^»: 
Mere.  Leibnis  in  BiackwootTB  PhiL  Cluoiet  (Edinbursb  and 
London,  1884);  Rxnoutibb  and  Pbat,  La  nowteUe  monadolotu 
(Paris,  1899). 

William  Tubncb. 

Monaghan,  John  Jambs.  See  Wilmingtok, 
Diocese  op. 

Monarchiaas,  heretics  of  the  second  and  third  cen- 
turies. The  word,  Monarchianif  was  first  used  by 
Tertullian  as  a  nickname  for  the  Patripaasian  group 
(adv.  Prax.,  x).  and  was  seldom  usea  by  the  an- 
cients. In  modem  times  it  has  been  extended  to  an 
earUer  ^roup  of  heretics,  who  are  distinguished  S8 
Dvnamistic^  or  Adoptionist,  Monarchians  from  the 
Modahst  Monarchians,  or  Patripassians. 

I.  Dtnamistb,  or  Adoptionistb. — All  Christians 
hold  the  unitv  {futvapx^a)  of  God  as  a  fundameDtai  doo- 
trine.  By  the  Patripassians  this  first  principle  was 
used  to  deny  the  Trinity,  and  they  are  with  some  rea- 
son called  Monarchians.  But  the  Adoptionists,  or 
Dynamists,  have  no  claim  to  the  title,  for  they  did  not 
start  from  the  monarchy  of  God,  and  their  error  is 
strictly  Christological.  An  account  of  them  must, 
however,  be  given  here  simply  because  the  name  Mo- 
narchian  has  adhered  to  them  in  spite  of  the  repeated 
protests  of  historians  of  dogma.  But  their  ancient 
and  accurate  name  was  Theodotians.  The  founder 
of  the  sect  was  a  leather'-seller  of  Byiantium  named 
Theodotus.  He  came  to  Rome  under  Pope  \'ictor 
(c.  190-2(X)}  or  earlier.  He  taught  (Philosophumena, 
VII.  xxxv)  that  Jesus  was  a  man  bom  of  a  virgin  ac- 
cording to  the  counsel  of  the  Father,  that  He  lived 
like  other  men,  and  was  most  pious:  that  at  His  bap- 
tism in  the  Jordan  the  Christ  came  down  upon  Him  m 
the  likeness  of  a  dove,  and  therefore  wonders  (di/vd^ct) 
were  not  wrought  in  Him  until  the  Spirit  (which  The- 
odotus called  Christ)  came  down  and  was  manifested 
in  Him.  They  did  not  admit  that  this  made  Him 
God;  but  some  of  them  said  He  was  God  after  His 
resurrection.  It  was  reported  that  Theodotus  had 
been  seized,  with  others,  at  Byzantium  as  a  Christian, 
and  that  he  had  denied  Christ,  whereas  his  compan- 
ions had  been  martyred ;  he  had  fled  to  Rome,  and  had 
invented  his  heresy  in  order  to  excuse  his  fall,  saving 
that  it  was  but  a  man  and  not  God  that  he  had 
denied.  Pope  Victor  excommunicated  him,  and  he 
gathered  together  a  sect  in  which  we  are  told  much 
secular  studv  was  carried  on.  Hippolytus  says  that 
they  argued  on  Holy  Scripture  m  syllogistic  form. 
Euclid,  Aristotle,  and  Theophrastus  were  their  ad- 
miration, and  Galen  they  even  adored.  We  should 
probably  assume,  with  Hamack,  that  Hippolytus 
would  have  had  less  objection  to  the  study  of  rlato  or 
the  Stoics,  and  that  he  disliked  their  purely  literal  exe- 
gesis, which  neglected  the  allegorical  sense.  They 
also  emended  the  text  of  Scripture,  but  their  versions 
diflFered»  that  of  Asclepiodotus  was  different  from  that 
of  Theodotus,  and  again  from  that  of  Hermophilus; 
and  the  copies  of  Apolloniades  did  not  even  tally  with 
one  another.  Some  of  them  'denied  the  law  and  the 
Prophets",  that  is  to  say,  they  followed  Marcion  in  re- 
jecting the  Old  Testament. 

The  only  disciple  of  the  leather-seller  of  whom  we 
know  anything  definite  is  his  namesake  Theodotus  the 
banker  (^  Tpawt^rris),    He  added  to  his  master's  doc- 


M0NABCBXAN8                         449  MONASCHIAira 

irine  the  view  that  Melchisedech  was  a  oelestial  power,  to  visit  Rome  was  probably  Praxeas,  who  went  on  to 
who  was  the  advocate  for  the  angels  in  heaven,  as  Carthage  some  time  before  206-08;  but  he  was  appar- 
Jesus  Christ  was  for  men  upon  earth  (a  view  found  ently  not  in  reality  a  heresiarch,  and  the  arguments 
among  later  sects. — See  Melchisedschianb).  This  refuted  by  Tertullian  somewhat  later  in  his  book  "  Ad- 
teaching  was  of  course  grounded  on  Hebrews,  vii,  3,  versus  Praxean"  are  doubtless  those  of  the  Roman 
and  it  is  refuted  at  length  by  St.  Epiphanius  as  Heresy  Monarchians  (see  Praxeas). 

55,  ''Melchisedechians'',  after  he  has  attacked  the  A,  History. — Noetus  (from  whom  the  Noetians)  was 
leathei^«eller  under  Heresy  54,  "Theodotians".  Ashe  a  SmymsBan  (Epiphanius,  by  a  slip,  says  an  Ephe- 
meets  a  series  of  ar^ments  of  both  heretics,  it  is  prob-  sian).  He  callea  himself  Moses,  and  his  brother 
able  that  some  wntings  of  the  sect  had  been  before  Aaron.  When  accused  before  the  presb^rate  of 
Hippolytus,  whose  lost  ''Syntagma  against  all  here-  teaching  that  the  Father  suffered,  he  demed  it;  but 
sies^'  supplied  St.  Epiphanius  with  all  ms  information,  after  having  made  a  few  disciples  he  was  again  inter- 
After  the  death  of  Pope  Victor,  Theodotus,  the  rogated,  and  expelled  from  the  Church.  He  died  soon 
banker,  and  Asclepiodotus  designed  to  raise  their  sect  after,  and  did  not  receive  Christain  burial.  Hippoly- 
f rem  the  position  of  a  mere  school  like  those  of  the  tus  mockingly  declares  him  to  have  been  a  follower 
Gnostics  to  the  rank  of  a  Church  like  that  of  Marcion.  of  Heraclitus,  on  account  of  the  union  of  opposites 
They  got  hold  of  a  certain  confessor  named  Natalius,  which  he  taught  when  he  called  God  both  visible 
and  persuaded  him  to  be  called  their  bishop  at  a  salary  and  invisible,  passible  and  impassible.  His  pupil 
of  150  denarii  (24  dollars)  a  month.  Natalius  thus  Epigonus  came  to  Rome.  As  he  was  not  mentioned 
became  the  first  antipope.  But  after  he  had  joined  in  the  ''Syntagma''  of  Hippolytus,  which  was  written 
them,  he  was  frequently  warned  in  visions  by  the  in  one  of  the  first  five  years  of  the  third  century,  he 
Lord,  Who  did  not  wish  His  martyr  to  be  lost  outside  was  not  then  well  known  in  Rome,  or  had  not  yet  ar- 
the  Church.  He  neglected  the  visions,  for  the  sake  of  rived.  According  to  Hippolytus  (Philos.,  IX,  7),  Clo- 
the honour  and  gain,  but  finally  was  scourged  all  night  omenes,  a  follower  of  Epigonus,  was  allowed  by  Pope 
by  the  holy  angels,  so  that  in  the  morning  with  haste  Zephynnus  to  establisn  a  school,  which  flourished 
and  tears  he  betook  himself  in  sackcloth  and  ashes  to  under  his  approbation  and  that  ot  Callistus.  Hage- 
Pope  Zephyrinus  and  cast  himself  at  the  feet  of  the  mann  urges  that  we  should  conclude  that  Cleomenes 
clergy,  and  even  of  the  laity,  showing  the  weals  of  the  was  not  a  Noetian  at  all,  and  that  he  was  an  orthodox 
blows,  and  was  after  some  difficulty  restored  to  com-  opponent  of  the  incorrect  theology  of  Hippolytus. 
munion.  This  story  is  quoted  by  Eusebius  II  (VI,  The  same  writer  gives  most  ingenious  and  interesting 
xxviii)  from  the  "Little  Labyrinth"  of  the  con  tempo-  (though  hardly  convincing)  reasons  for  identifying 
rary  Hippolytus,  a  work  composed  against  Artemon,  a  Praxeas  with  Cdlistus;  he  proves  that  the  Monar- 
late  leader  of  the  sect  (perhaps  c.  225-30),  whom  he  chians  attacked  in  TertuUian's  "  Contra  Praxean''  and 
did  not  mention  in  the  ''Syntagma"  or  the  "Philoso-  in  the  "Philosophumena"  had  identical  tenets  which 
phumena".  Our  knowledge  of  Artemon,  or  Artemas.  were  not  necessarily  heretical;  he  denies  that  Tertul- 
is  limited  to  the  reference  to  him  made  at  the  end  ot  lian  means  us  to  understand  that  Praxeas  came  to 
the  Council  of  Antioch  against  Paul  of  Samosata  (about  Carthage,  and  he  explains  the  nameless  refuter  of 
266-268),  where  that  heretic  was  said  to  have  followed  Praxeas  to  be,  not  Tertullian  himself,  but  Hippolytus. 
Artemon,  and  in  fact  the  teaching  of  Paul  is  but  a  It  is  true  that  it  is  easy  to  suppose  Tertullian  and  Hip- 
more  learned  and  theological  development  of  Theodo-  polytus  to  have  misrepresented  the  opinions  of  their 
tianism  (see  Paul  of  Samosata).  opponents,  but  it  cannot  be  proved  that  Cleomenes 

The  sect  probably  died  out  about  the  middle  of  the  was  not  a  follower  of  the  heretical  Noetus,  and  that 

third  centurv,  and  can  never  have  been  numerous.  All  Sabellius  did  not  issue  from  his  school;  further,  it  is 

our  knowledge  of  it  ^oes  back  to  Hippolytus.    His  not  obvious  that  Tertullian  would  attack  Callistus 

"Syntagma''  (c.  205)  is  epitomized  in  Pseudo-Tertul-  under  a  nickname. 

lian  (Praescript..  lii)  and  Philastrius,  and  is  developed  Sabellius  soon  became  the  leader  of  the  Monarchians 

by  Epiphanius  (Hser.,  liv.  Iv) ;  his  "Little  Labsrrinth"  in  Rome,  perhaps  even  before  the  death  of  Zephy- 

(written  13^5,  cited  by  Eusebius,  V,  28)  and  his  rinus  (c.  218).    He  is  said  by  Epiphanius  to  have 

^'Philoeophumena"  are  still  extant.    See  also  his  founded  his  views  on  the  Gospel  according  to  the 

' 'Contra  Noetum  "  3,  and  a  fragment  "On  the  Melchis-  Eg3rptians,  and  the  fragments  of  that  apocrypnon  sup- 

edechians  and  Theodotians  and  Athingani",  pub-  port  this  statement.    Hippolytus  hoped  to  convert 

lished  by  Caspari  (Tidskr.  f Qr  der  Evangel.  Luth.  Sabellius  to  his  own  views,  and  attributed  his  failure 

Kirke,  Ny  Raekke,  VIII,  3,  p.  307).    But  the  Athin-  in  this  to  the  influence  of  Cidlistus.    That  pope,  how- 

gani  are  a  later  sect,  for  which  see  Melchisedech-  ever,  exconmiunicated  Sabellius  c.  220  ("fearing  me", 

lANS.    The  Monarchianism  of  Photinus  (q.  v.)  seems  says  Hippolytus).    Hippolytus  accuses  Callistus  of 

to  have  been  akin  to  that  of  the  Theodotians.    All  now  inventing  a  new  heresy  ov  combining  the  views  of 

speculations  as  to  the  origin  of  the  theories  of  Theodo-  Theodotus  with  those  of  Sabellius,  although  he  excom- 

tus  are  fanciful.    At  any  rate  he  is  not  connected  municated  them  both  (see  Calustus  I,  Pope).     Sa- 

with  the  Ebionites.    The  Alogi  have  sometimes  been  bellius  was  apparently  still  in  Rome  when  Hippolytus 

classed  with  the  Monarchians.  .  lApsius  in  his  "Quel-  wrote  the  Pnilosophim:iena  (between  230  and  235). 

lenkritik  des  Epiphanius"  supposed  them  to  be  even  Of  his  earlier  and  later  history  nothing  is  known.    St. 

Philanthropists,  on  account  of  their  denial  of  the  Basil  and  others  call  him  a  Libyan  from  Pentapolis, 

Logos,  ana  Epiphanius  in  fact  calls  Theodotus  an  but  this  seems  to  rest  on  the  fact  that  Pentapolis  was 

dw6ffwairfia  of  tne  Alogi;  but  this  is  only  a  guess,  and  is  foimd  to  be  full  of  Sabellianism  by  Dionysius  of  Alex- 

not  derived  by  him  from  Hippolytus.    As  a  fact,  andria,  c.  260.    A  number  of  Montanists  led  by  JEa- 

£piphanius  assures  us  (Haer.,  51)  that  the  Alogi  (that  chines  became  Medalists  (unless  Hamack  is  right  in 

isy  Gains  and  his  party)  were  ortliodox  in  their  Christ-  making  Modalism  the  original  belief  of  the  Monta- 

ology  (see  Montanists).  nists  and  in  regarding  .^Ischines  as  a  conservative). 

IL  MoDALisTS. — ^The  Monarchians  properly  so-  Sabellius  (or  at  least  his  followers)  may  have  oonsider- 
caUed  (Modalists)  exaggerated  the  oneness  of  the  Fa-  ablv  amplified  the  original  Noetianism.  There  was 
ther  and  the  Son  so  as  to  make  them  but  one  Person;  still  Sabellianism  to  be  found  in  the  fourth  century. 
thus  the  distinctions  in  the  Holy  Trinity  are  energies  Marcellus  of  Ancyra  developed  a  Monarchianism  of 
or  modes,  not  Persons:  God  the  Father  appears  on  his  own,  which  was  carried  much  further  by  his  disci- 
earth  as  »Son ;  hence  it  seemed  to  their  opponents  that  pie.  Photinus.  Priscillian  was  an  extreme  Monarchian 
Monarchians  made  the  Father  suffer  and  die.  In  and  so  was  Commodian  ("Carmen  Apol.",  89,  277^ 
the  West  they  were  called  Patnpassians,  whereas  in  771).  The  "Monarchian  Prologues"  to  the  Cxospels 
the  East  they  are  usually  called  Sabelliaos.  The  first  fmmd  in  most  old  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate/  were  attrib- 
X.— 29 


MONARCHIAira  450  MGNlBOHUm 

uted  by  von  DobschQtz  and  P.  CoiBsen  to  a  Roman  ically  identifying  Christ  with  the  one  God.    ''What 

author  of  the  time  of  Callistus,  but  they  are  almost  harm  am  I  doing",  was  the  replv  made  by  Noetus  to 

certainly  the  work  of  Priscillian.     Beryllus,  Bishop  of  the  presbyters  who  interrogated  him,  "in  glorifying 

Bostra,  is  vaguely  said  by  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  VI,  33)  to  Christ?"    They  replied:  "We  too  know  in  truth  one 

have  taught  that  the  Saviour  had  no  distinct  pre-ex-  God;  we  know  Chnst;  we  know  that  the  Son  suffered 

istence  bdore  the  Incarnation,  and  had  no  Divmity  of  even  as  He  suffered,  and  died  even  as  He  died,  and 

His  own.  but  that  the  Divinity  of  the  Father  dwelt  in  rose  a^n  on  the  tnird  day,  and  is  at  the  right  hand 

Him.    Origen  disputed  with  him  in  a  council  and  con-  of  the  Father,  and  cometh  to  judge  the  living  and  the 

vinced  him  of  his  error.    The  minutes  of  the  disputa-  dead;  and  what  we  have  learned  we  declare"  (HippoL, 

tion  were  known  to  Eusebius.    It  is  not  clear  whether  "Contra  Noetum",  1).    Thus  they  refuted  Noetua 

Beryllus  was  a  Modalist  or  a  D3mamist.  with  tradition — the  Apostles'  Creed  is  enoush;  for  the 

B.  Theology. — ^There  was  much  that  was  unsatisfao-  Creed  and  the  New  Testament  indeed  maae  the  dis- 
tory  in  the  theology  of  the  Trinity  and  in  the  Christol-  tinction  of  Persons  clear,  and  the  traditional  formulas 
ogy  of  orthodox  writers  of  the  Ante-Nicene  period,  and  pravers  were  equally  unmistakable.  Once  the 
The  simple  teaching  of  tradition  was  explained  by  Monarchian  system  was  put  into  philosophical  Ian- 
philosophical  ideas,  which  tended  to  obscure  as  well  as  gUA^)  it  was  seen  to  be  no  longer  the  old  Cnristianity. 
to  elucidate  it.  The  distinction  of  the  Son  from  the  Ridicule  was  used;  the  heretics  were  told  that  if  the 
Father  was  so  spoken  of  that  the  Son  appeared  to  have  Father  and  the  Son  were  really  identified,  then  no 
functions  of  His  own,  apart  from  the  Father,  with  re-  denial  on  their  part  could  prevent  the  conclusion  that 
gard  to  the  creation  and  preservation  of  tne  world,  the  Father  suffered  and  died,  and  sat  at  His  own 
and  thus  to  be  a  derivative  and  secondary  God.  The  right  hand.  Hippolytus  tells  us  that  Pope  Zephy- 
unity  of  the  Divinity  was  commonly  guarded  by  a  rinus,  whom  he  represents  as  a  stupid  old  man,  d^ 
reference  to  the  unity  of  origin.  It  was  said  that  God  clared  at  the  instance  of  Callistus:  I  know  one  God 
from  eternity  was  alone,  with  His  Word,  one  with  Him  Christ  Jesus,  and  besides  Him  no  other  Who  was  born 
(as  Reason,  in  mdca  cordis^  Xhyot  ipdideerot)^  before  and  Who  suffered";  but  he  added:  "Not  the  Father 
the  Word  was  spoken  (ex  ore  Pairia,  X^ot  wpw^opucif)  died,  but  the  Son".  The  reporter  is  an  unsympa- 
or  was  generated  and  became  Son  tor  the  purpose  ot  thetic  adversary ;  but  we  can  see  why  the  aged  pope  was 
creation.  The  Alexandrians  alone  insist^l  rigntly  on  viewing  the  simple  assertions  of  Sabellius  in  a  favour- 
the  generation  of  the  Son  from  all  eternity;  but  thus  able  light.  Hippolytus  declares  that  Callistus  said 
the  Unity  of  God  was  even  less  manifest.  The  writ-  that  the  Father  suffered  with  ihe  Son,  and  TertulUan 
ers  who  thus  theologize  may  often  expreasW  teach  the  says  the  same  of  the  Monarchians  whom  he  attacks, 
traditional  Unity  in  Trinity,  but  it  hardly  squares  Hagemann  thinks  Callistus-Praxeas  especially  at* 
with  the  Platonism  of  their  philosophy.  The  theo-  tacked  the  doctrine  of  the  Apologists  and  of  Hippoly- 
logians  were  thus  defending  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  tus  and  Tertullian,  which  assi^ed  all  such  attributes 
at  the  expense  of  the  two  fundamental  doctrines  of  as  impassibility  and  invisibility  to  the  Father  and 
Christianity,  the  Unity  of  God  and  the  Divinity  of  made  the  Son  alone  capable  of  becoming  passible  and 
Christ.  They  seemed  to  make  the  Unity  of  the  God-  visible^  ascribing  to  Him  the  work  of  creation,  and  all 
head  split  into  two  or  even  three,  and  to  make  Jesus  operations  ad  extra.  It  is  true  that  the  Monarchians 
Christ  something  less  than  the  supreme  God  the  Fa-  opposed  this  Platonizing  in  general,  but  it  is  not  evi- 
ther.  This  is  eminently  true  of  tne  chief  opponents  dent  that  they  had  grasped  the  principle  that  all  the 
of  the  Monarchians,  Tertullian.  Hippolytus,  and  No-  works  of  God  ad  extra  are  common  to  the  Three  Per- 
vatian.  (See  Newman.  ''The  Causes  of  Arianism",  in  sons  as  proceding  from  the  Divine  Nature;  and  th^ 
"Tracts  theol.  and  eccles.")  Monarchianism  was  the  seem  to  nave  said  simply  that  Grod  as  Father  is  invisi- 
protest  against  this  learned  philosophizing,  which  to  ble  and  impassible,  but  becomes  visible  and  passible 
the  simpHcity  of  the  faithful  looked  too  much  like  as  Son.  Tnis  eimlanation  brings  them  curiously  into 
a  mythology  or  a  Gnostic  emanationism.  The  Mo-  line  with  their  adversaries.  Both  parties  represent^ 
narchians  emphatically  declared  that  God  is  one,  God  as  one  and  alone  in  His  eternity.  Both  made 
wholly  and  perfectly  one,  and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  God,  the  generation  of  the  Son  a  subsequent  development; 
wholly  and  perfectly  God.  This  was  right,  and  even  only  Tertullian  and  Hippolytus  date  it  before  the  cre- 
most  necessaiy,  and  whilst  it  is  eosy  to  see  why  the  ation,  and  the  Monarchians  perhaps  not  until  the 
theologians  like  Tertullian  and  Hippolytus  opposed  Incarnation.  Further,  their  identification  of  the  Fa- 
them  (for  their  protest  was  precisely  ap^ainst  the  Pla-  ther  and  the  Son  was  not  favourable  to  a  true  view  of 
tonism  which  tnese  theolo^ans  had  inherited  from  the  Incarnation.  The  very  insistence  on  the  unity  of 
Justin  and  the  Apologists),  it  is  equally  comprehensi-  God  emphasized  also  the  distance  of  God  from  man, 
ble  that  guardians  of  the  Faith  should  have  welcomed  and  was  likely  to  end  in  making  the  union  of  God  with 
at  first  the  return  of  the  Monarchians  to  the  simplicity  man  a  mere  indwelling  or  external  union,  after  the 
of  the  Faith, ''nevideantur  deosdicere,  nequerursum  fashion  of  that  which  was  attributed  to  Nestorius. 
negare  salvatoris  deitatem"  ("Lest  thev  seem  to  be  They  spoke  of  the  Father  as  ''Spirit"  and  the  Son  as 
asserting  two  Gods  or,  on  the  other  hand,  denying  the  "fiesh  ,  and  it  is  scarcely  surpnslne  that  the  similar 
Saviours  Godhead". — Origen,  "On  Titus",  frag.  II).  Monarchianism  of  Marcellus  should  nave  issued  in  the 
Tertullian  in  opposing  them  acknowledges  that  the  Theodotianism  of  Photinus. 

uninstructed  were  against  him;  they  could  not  under-        It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  the  philosophical  views 

stand  the  magic  word  oUoj/ofila  with  which  he  con-  of  Sabellius.     Hagemann  thought  that  he  started 

ceived  he  had  saved  the  situation;  they  declared  that  from  the  Stoic  ^stem  as  surely  as  his  adversaries  did 

he  taught  two  or  three  Gods,  and  cried  "  Monarchiam  from  the  Platonic.     Domer  has  drawn  too  much  upon 

tenemus."    So  Callistus  reproached  Hippolytus,  and  his  imagination  for  thb  doctrine  of  Sabellius;  Hamack 

not  without  reason,  with  teaching  two  Gods.  is  too  fanciful  with  regard  to  its  oriran.     In  fact  we 

Already  St.  Justin  knew  of  Christians  who  taught  know  little  of  him  but  that  he  said  the  Son  was  the 

the  identity  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  ("Apol.",I,63;  Father  (so  Novatian,  "De  Trin."  12,  and  Pope  Dio- 

"Dial.",  cxxviii).     In  Hermas,  as  in  Theodotus,  the  nysius  relate).    St.  Athanasius  tells  us  that  he  said 

Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  confused.     But  it  was  re-  the  Father  is  the  Son  and  the  Son  is  the  Father,  one  in 

served  for  Noetus  and  his  school  to  deny  categorically  hypostasis,  but  two  in  name  (so  Epiphanius) :  "As 

that  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  is  compatible  with  a  di.s-  there  are  divisions  of  gifts,  but  the  same  Spirit,  so  the 

tinction  of  Persons.     They  seem  to  have  regarded  the  Father  is  the  same,  but  is  developed  [wXar^ptrai]  into 

A6yoff  as  a  mere  name,  or  faculty,  or  attribute,  and  to  Son  and  Spirit"  (Orat.,  IV,  c.  Ar.,  xxv).    Theodoret 

have  made  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  merely  as-  says  he  spoke  of  one  hypostasis  and  a  threefold  vpAo'ctfro^, 

poctsormodespf  existence  of  the  Father,  thus  emphat-  whereas  St.  Basil  says  he  williQgly  admitted  three 


MONABCHIA                           451  MONABCHIA 

fp69tnra  in  one  hypostasiB.  This  is,  so  far  as  words  go,  Sicily  (Jaff^,  Ipc.  cit.,  6562),  confirmed  this  privilege 

exactly  the  famous  formula  of  Tertullian,  "tres  per-  and  defined  it  more  clearly.    He  bestowed  upon 

some,  una  substantia"  (three  persons,  one  substance),  Roger  II  the  same  power,  ''in  the  sense  that  if  a  papal 

but  Sabdlius  seems  to  have  meant  "  three  modes  or  legate  be  sent  thither,  that  is  a  representative  of  the 

characters  of  one  person".    The  Father  is  the  Monad  pope,  you  in  your  zeal  shall  secure  the  execution  of 

of  whom  the  Son  is  a  kind  of  manifestation;  for  the  what  the  legate  is  to  perform"  (ea  videlicet  ratione,  ut 

Father  is  in  Himself  silent,  inactive  (aruairQVf  dp€v4pyri'  si  quando  ifluc  ex  latere  nostro  legatus  dirigitur,  quern 

rot),  and  speaks,  creates,  works,  as  Son  (Athan.,  1.  c,  prof ec to  vicarium  intelligimus,  quse  ab  eo  gerenda 

11).  Here  again  we  have  a  parallel  to  the  teaching  of  the  sunt,  per  tuam  industriam  effectui   mancipentur). 

Apologists  about  the  Word  as  Reason  and  the  Word  Urban  II  had  thus  granted  Apostolic  legatine  power 

spoken,  the  latter  idone  being  called  Son.    It  would  to  the  secular  rulers;  according  to  the  Bull  of  Paschal 

seem  that  the  difference  between  Sabellius  and  his  op-  II  this  meant  that,  when  a  papal  legate  was  sent  to 

Eonents  lay  mainly  in  his  insisting  on  the  imity  of  Sicily  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  certain  ecclesiastical 

ypostasis  after  the  emission  of  the  Word  as  Son.   It  matters  as  the  pope's  representative,  he  must  com- 

does  not  seem  clear  that  he  regarded  the  Son  as  be^-  municate  the  nature  of  his  commission  to  the  secular 

ning  at  the  Incarnation;  according  to  the  passage  of  ruler,  who  would  then  execute  in  person  the  pope's 

St.  Athanasius  just  referred  to,  he  may  have  a^^eed  order  in  place  of  the  legate  {kgati  vice).    In  both  in- 

with  the  Apologists  to  date  Sonship  from  the  creative  stances  it  was  a  q^uestion  not  of  a  jurisdiction  of  the 

action  of  God.    But  we  have  few  texts  to  go  upon,  princes  of  Sicil}r  mdependent  of  tne  Holy  See,  but 

and  it  is  quite  uncertain  whether  Sabellius  left  any  only  of  the  privilege  of  the  secular  rulers  to  execute 

writings.    Monarchianism  is   frecjuently   combated  the  precepts  of  the  supreme  Church  authorities;  in 

by  Origen.    Dionysius  of  Alexandria  fought  Sabellian-  other  words,  the  sovereign  of  Sicily  was  privileged, 

ism  with  some  imprudence.   In  the  fourth  century  the  but  also  bound,  to  carry  out  papal  regulations  in  his 

Arians  and  Semiarians  professed  to  be  much  afjraid  of  land. 

it,  and  indeed  the  alliance  of  Pope  Julius  and  Arhan&-  As  a  result  of  the  feudal  relationship  between  the 

sius  witii  Marcellus  gave  some  colour  to  accusations  princes  of  Sicily  and  the  pope,  ecclesiastical  matters 

against  the  Nicene  formulas  as  opening  the  way  to  here  took  on  a  more  pronouncedly  politicsd  character 

Sabelhanism.    The  Fathers  of  the  fourth  century  (as,  than  elsewhere,  and  tne  Church  in  Sicily  was  reduo^ 

for  instance.  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  "Contra  Sabel-  to  the  greatest  dependence  upon  the  secular  power, 

lium";  ed.  rdaj)  seem  to  contemplate  a  more  devel-  However,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteen tn  cen- 

op^  form  than  that  known  to  Hjppolytus  ("Contra  tuiy.  the  pnvilege  bestowed  byUrban  II  was  never 

Noetum  "  and  "Philosophumena")  and  through  him,  invoked  or  even  mentioned.    When  Ferdinand  H  of 

to  Epiphanius:  the  consummation  of  creation  is  to  con-  Aragon  became  King  of  Sicily,  his  secretary,  Luca  Bar- 

snst  m  the  retiim  of  the  A^yos  from  the  humanitv  of  beri  of  Noto  in  Sicily,  undertook  to  collect  the  official 

Christ  to  the  Father,  so  that  the  ori^nal  unity  of  the  documents  by  which  the  rights  of  the  kings  of  Sicily, 

Divine  Nature  is  after  all  held  to  have  been  tempo-  both  in  ecclesiastical  and  in  secular  matters,  were 

raUy  compromised,  and  onlv  in  the  end  will  it  be  re-  clearly  determined.    To  this  collection  (Capufrevio) 

stored,  that  God  may  be  all  in  all.  was  joined  a  collection  of  documents  under  the  title 

Our  chief  ori^al  authorities  for  early  Monarchian-  "Liber  Monarchic",  meant  to  prove  that  the  secular 

ism  of  the  Medalist  type  are  Tertullian,  "Adversus  rulers  of  Sicily  had  always  exercised  the  spiritual 

Praxean",  and  Hippolytus," Contra  Noetum"  (frag-  power.    In  this  "Liber   Monarchiffi"   the  privilege 

xnent)     and    " PhUosophumena ".     The     "Contra  conferred  by  Urban  II  in  regard  to  the  legatine  power 

Noetum"  and  the  lost  "Syntagma"  were  used  by  was  first  published.    The  kings  urged  it  to  give  a  legal 

Epiphanius.  Haer.  67  (Noetians),  but  the  sources  of  basis  to  the  authority  they  had  long  exercised  over  the 

Epiphaniurs  Hser.  62  (Sabellians)  are  less  certain,  local  Church.    They  also  used  it  to  extend  their  pre- 

Tne  references  by  Origen,  Novatian,  and  later  Fathers  tensions  that,  by  virtue  of  an  old  papal  privilege,  tney 

are  somewhat  indefinite.  possessed  ecclesiastical  authority  in  spiritual  matters 

The  best  Catholic  expoation  of  MoMrchianjnn  fa  ^f^»-  to  be  exercised  independently  of  the  pope.    Despite 

MAiCN.  x>M  rtbitwcM  AtrdM  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1864) ;  the  best  Prot-  j|^„w*«  ^.^•<v««.»^  ^^Z^^^^^iw^^  *u^  ,^«.r:.w.««.»«<.  ^f  ^v.^ 

estant  Moount,  Harnack  m  ReaUneydovddis  «.  v.  Mtnuirchiaf^  doubts  expressed  cpncemmg  the  genumeneffl  of  the 


Chruftiin  dm'  dogmaiucKm  BetirtheUung  der  net  erttm  Jahrk,  CMC  the  supervision  of  spintual 

Lemsis,  1896);  dolunobr,  Hippolyhu  und  KaUistu*  (Ratiabon,  affairs,  we  have  made  sure  that  we  do  so  legitimately  . 

lS^^''}^i^'*F^^'^ '*~'  ^"^ii^  qBdinburrii.  1876);  gA"fo«  in  j^  consequence  of  such  exorbitant  demands,  disputes 

in  KirehenUx,,  b.  w.  8ab«luu»;  Duchmnb,  HUUnre  aneienne  de  ^^  betw^  the  pOpes  and  the  ruIers  Of  the  island. 

PSgUM€,  I  (Paris.  1906);  \x„  Early  History  of  the  ChritUan  Church  Clement   Vll  negotiated  With  Charles  V  COncemmg 

(London.  1909);  Ti^nom  HiHoire  de$  ^ymea,  I  (Paria.  1905);  the  Monarchia  SlCUla,  but  without  SUCCesS.     In  1578 

and  the  H«torta.  of  Dogma  by  Schwak..  ^^^'^aI'^^^^  Philip  II  tried  vainly  to  obtain  a  formal  confirmation 

JOHN  CHAPMAN.  ^^  ^j^^  ^.^  ^^^  p.^  y     j^  ^gg^  ^^^  j^   appointed 

Monarchia  ffienla,  a  right  exercised  from  the  be-  a  special  permanent  judge  (Judex  MonarchicB  SicuUB), 

^nning  of  the  sixteenth  centuiv  by  the  secular  rulers  who  was  to  give  final  decisions  in  the  highest  eccledi- 

of  Sicily,  according  to  which  thesr  had  final  jurisdic-  astical  causes,  an  appeal  from  his  judgment  to  the 

tion  in  purely  religious  matters,  independent  of  the  •  pope's  being  forbidden.    The  Judex  MonarchioB  Sicur 

Holy  See.    This  right  they  claimed  on  the  ground  of  a  la  claimed  the  general  right  to  visit  the  convents,  su- 

papal  privilege.    The  oldest  document  advanced  in  preme  jurisdiction  over  the  bishops  and  the  clergy, 

support  of  their  claim  is  a  Bull  of  5  July^  1098,  ad-  and  the  exercise  of  a  number  of  ecclesiastical  rights 

dressed  by  Urban  II  to  Count  Roger  I  of  Sicily  (Jaff^,  belonging  to  the  bishops,  so  that  papal  jurisdiction 

"Regista  Rom.  Pont.".  I,  2nd  ed.,  n.  5706;  latest  edi-  was  almost  whoUy  excluded. 

tionofthetextin''9^elienundForschimgenau8italien.  When  Baronius,  in  an  excursus  on  the  year  1097  in 

Archiven  und  Bibliotheken",  VII,  1904,  pp.  214-9).  the  eleventh  volume  of  his  "Annales  ecclesiastici" 

The  pope  agreed  not  to  appoint  a  papal  legate  for  (Rome,   1605),  produced  solid  reasons  agsdnst  the 

Sicily  against  the  count's  will,  and  declared  his  inten-  genuineness  of  Urban  II's  Bull  and  especiaJly  against 

tion  of  setting  executed  by  the  coimt  the  ecclesiastical  the  legality  of  the  Monarchia  Sicula,  a  violent  feud 

acts,  usually  performed  oy  a  legate  (quinimmo  quae  arose,  and  the  Court  of  Madrid  prohibited  the  elev- 

per  legatum  acturi  sumus,  per  vestram  industnam  enth  volume  from  idl  countries  of  the  Spanish  Em- 

legati  vice  exhiberi  volumus).    Paschal  II  in  a  Bull  of  pire.    Baronius  omitted  the  excursus  in  the  second 

1  October,  1117,  addressed  to  Count  Roger  II  of  edition  of  the  "Annales"  (Antwerp,  1608),  but  pub- 


MONA8TXRIB8  452  MONAtnOtttS 

lished  instead  a  special  "Tractatus  de  Monarchia  Columbanus  and  his  followers.    Remiremont,  Jou- 

Sicula".    During  tne  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  arre,  Brie,  Chelles,  Andelys,  and  Soissons  were  other 

another  serious  conflict   arose  between  the  Papal  well-known  examples  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  oen- 

Curia  and  the  Spanish  court  in  regard  to  this  alleged  turies.    From  Gaul  the  idea  spread  to  Belmum  and 

legatine  power.    The  occasion  of  the  dispute  was  a  Germany  and  also  to  Spain,  where  it  is  said  to  have 

question  of  eccleaastical  immunity,  and  the  differ-  been  introduced  by  St.  Fhictuoeus  in  the  middle  of 

ences  continued  after  Count  Victor  Ainadeus  had  been  the  seventh  century.    According  to  Yepea  there  were 

made  King  of  Sicily  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  and  had  in  Spain  altogether  over  two  hundred  aouble  monas- 

been  crowned  at  Palermo  (1713).    On  20  February,  teries. 

1715,  Clement  XI  declared  the  Monarchia  Sicula  nmi  Ireland  presents  only  one  known  example — ^Elldaie 
and  void,  and  revoked  the  privileges  attached  to  it.  — but  probably  there  were  others  besides,  of  which  aH 
This  edict  was  not  recognized  by  the  monarchs  of  traces  have  since  been  lost.  In  Englana  most  of  the 
Sicily,  and,  when  a  few  years  later  the  island  came  early  foundations  were  double;  this  has  been  wrongly 
under  the  rule  of  Charles  VI,  Benedict  XIII  entered  attributed  by  some  writers  to  the  fact  that  manv  of 
into  negotiations  with  him  with  the  result  that  the  the  Anglo-Saxon  nuns  were  educated  in  Gaul,  where 
Decree  of  Clement  XI  was  withdrawn,  and  the  Mon-  the  system  was  then  in  vo^e,  but  it  seems  more  coi^ 
archia  Sicula  restored,  but  in  an  altered  form.  The  lect  to  ascribe  it  to  the  relisious  influence  of  the  mis- 
king,  through  the  concession  of  the  pope  could  now  sionaries  from  lona,  since  the  first  double  monastery 
appoint  the  Jvdex  MonarchioB  Sicuks,  who  was  at  the  in  England  was  that  of  St.  Hilda  at  Whitby,  estab- 
same  time  to  be  the  delegate  of  the  Holy  See  and  em-  lished  under  the  guidance  of  St.  Aidan,  and  there  is  no 
powered  to  decide  in  the  last  instance  upon  reli^ous  evidence  to  show  that  either  St.  Aldan  or  St.  Hilda 
matters.  On  the  basis  of  this  concession  the  kings  of  was  acquidnted  with  the  double  organization  in  use 
Sicily  demanded  more  and  more  far  reaching  rights  in  elsewhere.  Whitby  was  founded  in  the  seventh  cen- 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  so  that  fresh  struggles  with  the  tury,  and  in  a  short  time  England  became  covered 
Holy  See  constantly  arose.  The  situation  grew  ever  with  similar  dual  establi^ments,  of  which  Coldingham, 
more  imbetu^ble.  Pius  IX  tried  in  vain  by  amicable  Ely,  Sheppey,  Minster,  Wimbome,  and  Bartdng  are 
adjustments  to  enforce  the  essential  rights  of  the  Holy  prominent  examples.  In  Itidy,  the  only  other  coun- 
See  in  Sicily.  Garibaldi,  as  ''Dictator''  of  Sicily,  try  besides  those  already  mentioned  where  double 
claimed  the  rights  of  the  papal  legate,  and,  during  the  monasteries  are  known  to  have  existed,  they  were  not 
service  in  the  cathedral  at  Palermo,  caused  legatine  numerous,  but  St.  Gregory  speaks  of  them  aa  being 
honours  to  be  shown  him.  In  the  Bull  ''Suprema''  found  in  Sardinia  (Ep.  xi),  and  St.  B^e  mentions  one 
of  28  January,  1864,  which  was  not  published  with  the  at  Rome  (Hist.  Eccf..  iV,  i).  Tlie  Danish  invasions 
prescriptions  for  its  execution  until  10  October,  1867,  of  the  ninth  and  tentn  centuries  destroyed  the  double 
Pius  IX  revoked  the  Monarchia  Sicula  finally  and  foi^  monasteries  of  England,  and,  when  th<^  were  re- 
ever.  The  government  of  Victor  Emanuel  protested,  stored,  it  was  for  one  sex  only,  instead  of  for  a  dual 
and  the  Judex  MonarchuB  SictdcBy  Rinaldi,  refused  to  community.  The  system  seems  to  have  died  out  also 
submit,  for  which  he  was  excommunicated  in  1868.  in  other  countries  at  about  the  same  time,  and  it  was 
Article  15  of  the  Italian  law  of  guarantees  (13  May.  not  revived  until  the  end  of  the  eleventh  oentuzy 
1871)  explicitly  revoked  the  Monarchia  Sicula,  and  when  Robert  of  Arbrissel  inaugurated  his  reform  at 
the  question  was  thus  finally  disposed  of.  Fontevrault  and  gave  the  idea  a  freeii  lease  of  life.  It 
Sbotm.  Die  Monorchia  Sieuta,    Btne  hiatorit^ir^oMmiHUdis  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  such  a  system  was  some- 

£r^^:"F^tSi.jrii«:!?Ar.nS^  tim«,  abuBed  and  hence  it  was  alwava  «>  <*ject  of 

corona  di  Sieilia  (2nd  ed.,  Palermo.  1860) ;  Scadhto,  Stato  0  chieaa  SOhcitude  and  stnct  Icf^ation  at  the  hands  fji  ecclesi- 

tn  Sjciiio  (Palermo,  1887)  ;Giakkokk«, /I  <nfeunaZ«  deUo  Jf<>-  astical  authority.    Many  synodal  and  oonciliar  de- 

Z^.nf;S£^^S^H'Jr^°iri^jS::.  XlSiri^Ft.  «««  reoogni.ed  iU  dangers.. «.dorfered  the  atricUrt 

schunoenatuitaiien,  Archivenu. Biblioiiukm,  y  11  ii90i),isi!^2i9,  suTveiUance  of  all  commumcations  passins  between 

J.  p.  K1B8CH.  monks  and  nuns.    Too  close  proximity  of  buildings 

was  frequently  forbidden,  and  every  precaution  was 
MonaaterieSy  Double,  religious  houses  oompris-  taken  to  prevent  any  occasion  of  scandal.    Veiy  prob- 
ing communities  of  both  men  and  women,  dwelling  in  ably  it  was  this  scant  favour  shown  by  the  Church 
contiguous  establishments,  united  under  the  rule  of  towards  it  that  caused  the  gradual  dechne  of  the  83^8- 
one  superior,  and  using  one  church  in  common  for  tem  about  the  tenth  century. 

their  hturgical  offices.    The  reason  for  such  an  ar-        In  many  double  monasteries  the  supreme  rule  was 

rangement  was  that  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  nuns  in  the  hands  of  the  abbess,  and  monks  as  well  as  nuns 

mi^t  be  attended  to  by  the  priests  of  the  male  com-  were  subject  to  her  authority.-    This  was  especially 

munity,  who  were  associated  with  them  more  closely  the  case  in  England,  e.  g.  in  St.  Hilda's  at  Whitby  and 

than  would  have  been  possible  in  the  case  of  entirely  St.  Etheldreda's  at  Elv,  though  elsewhere,  but  more 

separate  and  independent  monasteries.    The  system  rarely,  it  was  the  abbot  who  ruled  both  men  and 

came  into  existence  almost  contemi>oraneou8lY  with  women,  and  sometimes,  more  rarely  still,  each  com- 

monasticism  itself,  and  like  it  had  its  origin  in  the  munity  had  its  own  superior  independent  of  the  other. 

East.    Communities  of  women  gathered  around  re-  The  justification  for  the  anomialous  position  of  a 

ligious  founders  in  Egypt  and  elsewhere,  and  from  the  woman  acting  as  the  superior  of  a  community  of  men 

li^  of  St.  Pachomius  we  learn  many  details  as  to  the  i^  usually  held  to  orinnate  from  Christ's  words  from 

nuns  under  his  rule  and  their  relation  to  the  male  com-  the  Cross,  **  Woman,  behold  thy  son;  Son,  behold  thy 

muni  ties  foimded  by  him.    Double  monasteries,  of  mother" :  and  it  is  still  further  urged  that  maternity  is 

which  those  of  St.  Basil  and  his  sister,  Macrina,  may  a  form  of  authority  derived  from  nature,  whilst  that 

be  cited  as  examples,   were  apparently  numerous  which  ispatemal  is  merely  legal.    But)  whatever  may 

throughout  the  East  during  the  early  centuries  of  be  its  on^,  the  supreme  rule  of  an  abbess  over  both 

monasticism.    It  cannot  be  stated  with  any  certainty  men  and  women  was  deliberately  revived,  and  sanc- 

when  the  system  foimd  its  way  into  the  West,  but  it  tioned  by  the  Church,  in  two  out  of  the  three  medie- 

seems  proba.ble  that  its  introduction  into  Gaul  may  be  val  orders  that  consisted  of  double  monasteries.    At 

roughly  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  Cassian,  who  did  Fontevrault  (foimded  1099)  and  with  the  Bridget- 

so  much  towards  reconciling  Eastern  monasticism  tines  (1346),  the  abbess  was  the  superior  of  monks  as 

with  Western  ideas.    St.  Csesarius  of  Aries,  St.  Aure-  well  as  of  nuns,  though  with  the  Gilbolinee  (1146)  it 

lian,  his  successor,  and  St.  Radegundis,  of  Poitiers,  was  the  prior  who  ruled  over  both.    In  the  earlier 

founded  double  monasteries  in  the  sixth  centuiy,  and  double  monasteries  both  monks  and  nuns  observed 

later  on  the  system  was  propagated  widdy  by  St.  the  same  rule  muiaUe  muUmdis;  this  example  was  fol- 


MONASTSftISS                         453  MOKAStEKiEfi 

lowed  by  Fonteyranit  and  the  Bridgettines.  the  rule  The  Elector  MaximUian  (Joseph)  III  (1745-77)  began 

of  the  former  being  Benedictine,  while  the  latter  ob-  in  Bavaria  a  work  of  destruction  which  waa  carried  on 

served  the  Rule  of  St.  Bridget.    But  with  the  Gilber-  by  his  successors  down  to  the  Elector  Maximilian 

tines,  whilst  the  rule  of  the  nuns  was  substantially  Joseph  IV,  Napoleon's  ally,  who  became  King  Maxi- 

Benedictine,  the  monks  adopted  that  of  the  Angus-  milian  I  of  Bavaria  in  1805  (d.  1825).    Measures  were 

tinian  Canons.    (See  Briqittinibb;   FoNTEVRAxnvr:  taken  first  against  the  mendicant  orders;  the  secular 

GrLBERTiNXS.)     Little  is  known  as  to  the  buildings  ot  power  began  to  meddle  in  the  government  of  the  mon- 

the  earlier  double  monasteries  except  that  the  church  asteries,  a  conunission  being  appointed  by  the  civil 

usually  stood  between  the  two  conventual  establish-  authorities  for  that  purpose.    In  the  meantime  (1773) 

ments,  so  as  to  be  accessible  from  both.    From  excsir  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  was  decreed.    About 

vations  made  on  the  site  of  Watton  Priory,  a  Gilb«r^  the  year  1782  the  Elector  Charles  Theodore  (1778-99) 

tine  house  in  Yorkshire,  it  appears  that  the  separation  obtained  the  assent  of  Pius  VI  to  a  project  for  the 

of  nuns  from  canons  was  effected  by  means  of  a  sub-  extinction    of    several    reli^ous    foundations.    The 

stantial  wall,  several  feet  high,  which  traversed  the  Elector  Maximilian  Joseph  IV  (King  Maximilian  I) 

church  lengthways,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  simi-  of  Bavaria  completed  the  work  of  destruction,  in- 

lar  arrangement  was  adopted  in  other  double  monas-  fluenced  by  the  policv  of  his  aUy,  Napoleon  I,  and 

teries.    No  such  communities  exist  at  the  present  assisted  by  the  Count  de  Montgelas,  his  chief  minister, 

day  in  the  Western  Church.  A  rescript  of  9  September.  1800,  deprived  the  reli- 

Batksow.  Oriffin  and  Early  HiHory  of  Double  Monasteries  in  gious  Orders  in  Bavaria  of  all   property    rights   and 

^'iZ'^^^'^^t^f^^J'^'^^^'T^^  prohibited  them  to  receive  novices.    The  convents 

EcKEXBTSiN,    Woman  under   Monastteiem   (Cambndge.    1896);        r  xi-  j*        a.       j  /-n* -r*       •    • 

TuKEB  AND  Mallhsok.  Handbook  to  Christian  and  BecUsiastictd  <>*  ^"6  mendicant  Orders  (i<Yanciscans,  Dommicans, 

Rome,iii(London,i900)',BTjTiJSR,  Lausie  History  of  Palladius  in  Augustinians,  Carmelites)  and  the  religious  houses 

na/«  o.  5.  B.(Paria,  1703-3^;  ritoS.PacfcomMmP.L.,LXXlII;  t^^™  Of  the  Canons  Kegular  and  the  Benedictmes. 

Fkrb  in  Diet.  Thiol,  Cath,  (Pans,  1859). .  The  cathedral  monasteries  were  not  spared.    Among 

G.  Cypbian  Alston.  the  abbeys  that  disappeared  in  1803  mav  be  men- 
tioned: St.  Blasien  of  the  Black  Forest  (the  commu- 

Monasteries,  Suppression  of. — ^Under  this  title  nity,  however,  being  admitted,  in  1809,  to  the  monas- 

will   be  treated  only  the  suppressions  of  religious  tery  of  St.  Paul),  St.  Emmeran  of  Ratisbon,  Andechs, 

houses  (whether  monastic  in  the  strict  sense  or  houses  St.  Ulrich  of  Augsburg,  Michelsberg,  Benedictbeum, 

of  the  mendicant  orders)  dnce  the  Reformation.    The  Ertal,   Kempten,   Metten,   Oberaltaich,  Ottobeum, 

somewhat  more  general  subject  of  state  encroachments  Scheyem,  Tegemsee,  WessobrQnn. 

on  Chureh  property  will  be  found  treated  under  such  The  monasteries  in  other  parts  of  North  Germany 

titles  as  Laicization;  Commendatory  Abbot;  In-  met  with  the  common  fate  of  all  church  property. 

^'ESTITURESJ  Conflict  of.    The  economic  motives  of  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  they  were  suppressed 

state  opposition  to  the  tenure  of  lands  by  relisious  when  that  territory  was  annexed  to  France  oy  the 

corporations  (dating  from  the  thirteenth  century;  are  Peace  of  Lun^ville.  9  February,  1801.    Their  prop- 

explsuned  under  Mortmain.    The  countries  dealt  with  erty  was  disposed  or  by  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (3\iarcn, 

in  the  present  article  are:  I.  Germany,  the  Iberian  1801 — February,  1803)^  the  deplorable  business  having 

Peninsula,  and  Italy;  II.  England.    (For  French  sup-  been  negotiated  in  Pans  with  Bonaparte  and  Talley- 

pressions,  see  France,  especially  sub-title,  The  Third  rand.    Besides  her  twenty-five  ecclesiastical  princi- 

Repuhlic  and  the  Church  in  France,)  palities  and  her  eighteen  universities.  Catholic  Ger- 

I.  Germany,  Spain  and  Portugal,  Italy. — A.  many  lost  all  her  abbeys  and  her  religious  houses  for 
Germany  (includinp  all  Austrian  Dominions), — ^The  men:  their  property  was  given  to  Bavaria,  Prussia, 
confiscation  of  relidous  property  following  upon  the  and  Austria.  As  to  the  religious  houses  for  women. 
Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648)  had  been  for  tne  ben-  the  princes  were  to  consult  with  the  bishops  before 
efit  of  Protestant  princes  only.  More  tlum  a  hundred  proceeding  to  expel  their  inmates.  The  future  re- 
monasteries  and  innumerable  pious  foundations  dis-  ception  of  novices  was  forbidden.  In  the  Nether- 
appeared  at  this  time.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  lands,  the  Principality  of  Li^e,  and  the  portions  of 
eif^teenth  century  a  new  movement  tending  to  the  Switzerland  annexed  by  France,  the  religious  houses 
destruction  of  monastic  institutions  swept  over  those  disappeared  completely. 

portions  of  the  German  Empire  which  had  remained  In  the  territories  immediately  subject  to  the  House 
attached  to  the  Catholic  Faith.  "Josephinism'',  as  of  Hapsburg,  the  secularization  of  monastic  houses  had 
this  poUtical  and  religious  movement  was  afterwards  begun  more  than  thirty  years  before  this.  In  pur- 
called,  taking  its  name  from  its  foster-father,  the  suance  of  the  policy  with  which  his  name  has  been 
Emperor  Joseph  II,  made  the  Church  subservient  to  especially  associated,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  (d.  1790) 
the  State.  Tne  supernatural  character  of  the  reli-  forbade  the  teaching  of  theology  in  monasteries,  even 
gious  Ufe  was  i^pored;  abbeys  and  convents  could  be  to  the  young  religious,  and  also  the  reception  of  nov- 
permitt<Mi  to  exist  only  on  giving  proof  of  their  mate-  ices.  Intercourse  with  the  Holy  See  was  placed  un- 
rial  utility.  A  plan  was  formed  at  this  period  for  der  imperial  control.  It  was  forbidden  to  receive 
the  general  secularization  of  monastic  and  other  foreign  religious.  The  civil  authorities  interfered  in 
ecclesiastical  property  for  the  profit  of  the  Catholic  the  regular  discipline  of  communities.  Commenda- 
Govemments  in  Germany.  This  was  part  of  a  gen-  toiy  abbots  were  appointed.  Monasteries  were  de- 
eral  plan  for  a  redistribution  of  territo^.  Frederick  prived  of  the  parishes  belonging  to  them.  Superiors 
II  (tne  Great)  of  Prussia  had  taken  the  initiative  and  had  to  account  to  the  emperors  ri^resentatives  for 
had  won  over  England  and  France  to  his  idea.  The  the  disposition  of  their  incomes.  Theological  works 
opposition  of  Mana  Theresa,  of  the  Prince  Bishop  of  printed  outside  the  Empire  could  not  be  used. — 
Mainx,  and  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV  caused  the  project  ouch  were  the  principal  lines  of  action  of  this  adminis- 
to  fail.  The  Holy  See  kept  the  diplomacy  of  Prussia  tration,  of  which  Kaunitz  was  the  minister.  All  this, 
in  check  for  some  years.  To  counteract  the  action  of  however,  was  but  the  prelude  to  a  decree  of  suppres- 
Rome  on  public  sentiment,  the  partisans  of  seculari-  sion  which  was  issued  on  17  March,  1783. 
zation  encouraged  in  Germany  the  spread  of  those  This  decree  applied  to  all  monasteries,  whether  of 
philosophical  errors-j-Materialism  and  Rationalism —  women  or  of  men,  judged  useless  bv  the  standards  of 
which  were  then  gaining  ground  in  France  (see  En-  Josephinism:  their  revenues  were  taken  to  increase  the 
CTCLOPKDisTs).  With  this  view  they  succeeded  in  salaries  of  the  secular  priests  or  for  pious  establish- 
withdrawing  the  universities  from  Roman  influence,  ments  useful  to  reli^on  and  humanity.    The  dioceses 

MeanwhOe  the  princes  approached  the  task  directly,  of  tiie  Low  Countries  (then  subject  to  the  House  of 


M0NASTKBZI8 


454 


MONA8TEBII8 


Hapsburg)  lost  one  hundred  and  sixt^-eight  convents, 
abbeys,  or  priories.  In  all,  738  religious  houses  were 
suppressed  m  the  Empire  during  the  reign  of  Joseph  U. 

In  anticipation  of  this  disaster^  Pius  VI  had  con- 
ferred on  the  bishops  extensive  pnvileges.  They  had 
power  to  dispense  expelled  religious,  both  men  and 
women,  from  wearing  their  habit,  and,  in  case  of  ne- 
cessity, to  dispense  them  from  the  simple  vows.  They 
were  to  secure  for  them  a  pension — ^out,  as  this  was 
generally  insufficient,  many  were  reduced  to  poverty. 
The  Government  transformed  the  monasteries  mto  hos- 
pitals, colleges,  or  barracks.  The  victims  of  the  perse- 
cution remained  faithful  to  their  religious  obligations. 
Their  ordinaries  took  great  care  of  them^  Cardinal  de 
Frankenbeijg,  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  affording  a  par- 
ticularly bright  example  in  this  respect.  The  Abbey 
of  Melk  (q.  v.)  was  spared;  some  of  the  suppressed 
houses  were  even  affiliated  to  it;  but  on  the  death  of 
Abbot  Urban  I  (1783),  the  emperor  placed  over  the 
monks  a  religious  of  the  Pious  Schools  as  commenda- 
tory abbot.  The  monasteries  of  Styria  were  soon 
closed,  though  some  houses — e.  g.,  ICremsmttnster. 
Lambaoh.  Admont — escaped  the  devastation.  All 
those  in  Carinthia  and  the  Tyrol  were  sacrifice.  The 
religious  in  Bohemia  had  not  yet  recovered  from  the 
ravages  caused  by  the  wars  of  Frederick  II  and  Maria 
Theresa,  when  th^  had  to  encounter  this  fresh  tem- 
pest. Breunau,  Emmaus  of  Pra^e,  and  Rugem, 
with  a  few  monasteries  of  Cistercians  and  Premon- 
Btratensians,  escaped  complete  ruin.  The  emperor 
showed  no  consideration  towards  the  venerable  Abbey 
of  St.  Martin  of  Pannonia  and  its  dependencies.  In 
Hungaiv  the  Benedictines  were  entirely  wiped  out. 

The  death  of  Joseph  II  put  an  end  to  this  violence, 
without^  however,  stopping  the  spread  of  those  opin- 
ions which  had  incited  it.  His  brother,  Leopold  II 
(d.  1702)  allowed  thin^  to  remain  as  he  found  them, 
but  Francis  II  (Francis  I  of  Austria,  son  of  Leopold 
II)  imdertook  to  repair  some  of  the  nun,  permitting 
religious  to  pronounce  solemn  vows  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one.  The  Hungarian  Abbey  of  St.  Martin  of 
Pannonia  was  the  first  to  profit  by  this  benevolence, 
but  its  monks  had  to  open  the  gymnasia  in  it  and  its 
dependencies.  The  monasteries  of  the  Tyrol  and 
Salzburg  had  escaped  the  ruin.  These  countries  were 
attached  to  Austna  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (Sept., 
1814— June,  1815).  The  monks  were  allowed  to  re- 
enter. The  celebrated  Abbey  of  Reichenau  alone  did 
not  arise  from  its  ruins.  The  princely  Abbey  of  St. 
Gall,  too,  had  been  dissolved  during  tne  Wars  of  the 
Revolution  and  the  Empire,  and  there  was  a  proposal, 
at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  to  re-establish  it,  out  with- 
out giving  it  back  its  lands:  the  abbot  would  not  ac- 
cept the  conditions  thus  imposed,  and  the  matter 
went  no  further.  The  Swiss  monasteries  were  ex- 
posed to  pillage  and  ruin  during  the  wars  of  the  Revo- 
lution. The  government  of  the  Helvetian  Republic 
was  hostile  to  them,  they  recovered  a  little  hberty 
after  the  Act  of  Mediation,  in  1803.  But  the  situ- 
ation changed  after  1832.  The  Federal  Constitution, 
revised  at  that  time,  suppressed  the  guarantees 
granted  to  convents  and  rehgious  foundations.  Dur- 
ing the  long  period  of  persecution  and  confiscation  in 
Switzerland,  from  1838  to  1848  (for  which  see  Lu- 
cerne), the  monks  of  Mariostein  sought  refuge  in 
Germany,  and  then  in  France  and  Austria;  those  of 
Mury  were  sheltered  at  Griess  (Tyrol),  others,  like 
Disentis,  fell  into  utter  ruin.  The  Swiss  Benedic- 
tines then  went  to  the  United  States,  where  they 
founded  the  Swiss- American  congregation. 

B.  The  Iberian  Peninsula. — ^Thc  constitution  of 
1812  given  to  the  Kingdom  of  Spain  by  the  Govern- 
ment which  Napoleon  imposed  on  it  suppressed  all  re- 
ligious congregations  ana  confiscated  their  property, 
in  accordance  with  the  conqueror's  general  policy. 
They  were  re-established  in  1814  by  King  Feroinand, 
whom  the  War  of  Independence  had  restored  to  the 


Throne.  Their  existence  was  again  threatened  by 
the  Revolution  of  1820^  when  the  Cortes  decreod  the 
suppression  of  the  religious  orders,  leaving  only  a  few 
houses  to  shelter  the  aged  and  infirm.  It  must  be 
said  that,  in  this  case,  the  effect  of  the  generally  anti- 
religious  principles  actuating  the  revmutionists  waa 
reimorcea  by  tho  impoverishment  of  the  nation  by  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  by  the  revolt  of  its  American  colo- 
nies, and  by  changed  economic  conditions.  FerdiDand 
III,  who  was  restored  to  the  throne  by  the  French 
Army,  hastened  to  annul  the  decrees  of  the  Cortes 
(1823).  The  monasteries  and  their  property  were 
given  back  to  the  religious,  who  were  enabled  once 
more  to  live  in  community.  But  in  October,  1835,  a 
decree  of  the  Government,  inspired  by  Juan  de  Mendi- 
sabal,  minister  of  finance,  ^ain  suppressed  all  the 
monasteries  in  Spain  and  its  possessions.  The  Cortes, 
which  had  not  been  consulted,  approved  of  this  meas- 
ure next  year,  and  promulgated  a  law  abolishing  vows 
of  religion.  All  the  movable  and  immovable  property 
was  confiscated  and  the  income  assigned  to  the  sink- 
ing fund.  Objects  of  art  and  books  were,  in  general, 
reserved  for  the  museums  and  public  Ubraries,  though 
many  of  them  were  left  untouched,  and  many  others 
dispersed.  Large  Quantities  of  furniture  and  other 
objects  were  sold,  tne  lands  and  rights  of  each  house 
alienated,  while  speculators  realised  large  fortunes. 
Certain  monasteries  were  transformed  into  barracks 
or  devoted  to  public  purposes.  Others  were  sold  or 
abandoned  to  pillage. 

In  1859  the  Government  gave  to  the  bishops  those 
religious  houses  which  had  not  already  been  aisposed 
of.  Numerous  conventual  churches  were  turned  over 
for  parish  use.  The  religious  were  promised  a  pen- 
sion not  to  exceed  one  franc  a  day,  out  it  was  never 
p^d.  No  mercy  was  shown  even  to  the  aged  and  the 
mfirm,  who  were  not  allowed  to  wait  for  death  in  their 
cells.  Almost  all  hoped  for  an  approaching  political 
change  that  would  restore  them  their  religious  liberty, 
as  hi^i  happened  twice  before,  but  the  event  proved 
otherwise.  The  destruction  was  irrevocable,  some 
religious  sought  a  refuge  in  Italy  and  in  France.  The 
greater  number  either  petitioned  the  bishops  to  incor- 
porate them  in  their  dioceses  or  went  to  live  with  their 
families.  The  people  of  the  Northern  provinces,  who 
are  very  devoted  to  Catholicism,  did  not  associate 
themselves  directly  with  the  measures  taken  against 
the  religious:  so  much  cannot  be  said  for  those  of  the 
South  and  ot  the  large  towns,  where  the  expulsion  of 
religious  sometimes  took  the  appearance  of  a  popular 
insurrection:  convents  were  pillaged  and  bumea,  re- 
ligious were  massacred.  Monasteries  of  women  were 
treated  less  inhmnanly :  here  the  authorities  contented 
themselves  with  confiscating  property  and  suppresaijig 
privileges;  but  the  nuns  contmued  to  live  in  conunu- 
nity.  With  time  the  passion  and  hatred  of  the  perse- 
cutors diminished  somewhat.  The  monks  of  the  Ab- 
bey of  Montserrat  in  Catalonia  were  able  to  come 
together  again.  The  religious  orders  which  supplied 
the  clergy  for  the  Spanish  colonies,  such  as  the  Do- 
minicans, Augustinians,  and  Franciscans,  were  author- 
ized to  retain  some  houses. 

The  monasteries  in  Portugal  met  the  same  fate  as 
those  in  Spain,  and  at  about  the  same  time  (1833). 
Only  the  Franciscans  charged  with  religious  duties  in 
the  Portuguese  colonies  were  spared. 

C.  Italy. — During  the  eighteenth  centuzy,  while 
Josephiniam  was  rampant  in  Catholic  Germany^  Leo- 
pold, afterwards  the  Emperor  Leopold  II,  tried  to 
emulate  in  some  degree  the  emperor's  anti-monastio 
policy.  But  the  general  persecution  of  relifldous 
orders  in  Italv  did  not  begin  until  the  wars  of  the  rev- 
olution and  the  Empire  had  effected  a  complete  trans- 
formation in  that  country.  France  inspired  with  her 
anti-religious  tendencies  the  new  governments  estab- 
lished by  Napoleon,  Church  property  was  confis- 
cated; monasteries  and  convents  were  suppressed, 


MONA8TEBZI8                         455  MONASTEBIU 

thou^  oongregations  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  mok  of  these  commissioiiB  of  visitationi  the  project  of  sup- 
and  to  the  instruction  of  poor  children  were  tolerated  pressing  some,  if  indeed  not  all,  of  the  monastic  estao- 
here  and  there  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Kingdom'  of  ishments  in  the  country,  had  been  not  only  broached, 
Italy,  founded  in  1805.  The  repressive  measures  but  had  become  part  of  Heniy's  practical  politics.  It 
could  not  be  enforced  in  all  localities  with  equal  sever-  is  wdl  to  remember  this,  as  it  throws  an  interesting 
ity.  Napoleon  extended  them  to  the  city  of  Rome  in  and  somewhat  unexpected  light  upon  the  first  disso- 
1810.  The  authorities  then  closed  the  rehgious  houses  lutions:  the  monasteries  were  doomed  prior  to  these 
of  both  sexes.  At  Naples  the  authorities  proceeded  visitations,  and  not  in  consequence  of  them,  as  we 
to  suppress  all  the  orders  and  confiscate  their  property  have  been  asked  to  believe  according  to  the  traditional 
(1806-13).  When  the  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  story.  Parliament  was  to  meet  earl}r  in  the  following 
these  states  to  their  esdled  rulers,  the  latter  hastened  year,  1536,  and,  with  the  twofold  object  of  replenish- 
to  make  the  Church  free  once  more.  In  Tuscany  the  in^  an  exhaustea  exchequer  and  of  anticipating  oppo- 
duke  made  a  grant  to  the  monasteries,  in  exchange  for  sition  on  the  part  of  the  religious  to  the  proposea  eo- 
the  lands  that  they  had  lost.  In  the  Pontifical  States  clesiastical  changes,  according  to  the  royal  design,  the 
things  reverted  to  the  ancient  order:  1824  houses  for  Commons  were  to  be  asked  to  grant  Heniy  the  pos- 
oaen  and  612  for  women  were  re-established.  In  Naples  sessions  of  at  least  the  smaller  monasteries.  It  must 
the  religious  had  diminished  by  at  least  one-half.  have  been  felt,  however,  by  the  astute  Cromwell,  who 

The  period  of  peace,  however,  was  not  destined  to  is  credited  with  the  first  conception  of  the  desi^,  that 

endure:  the  establishment  of  Italian  unity  was  fatsl  to  succeed,  a  project  such  as  this  must  be  sustamed  by 

to  the  religious  orders.    The  persecution  was  resumed  strong  yet  simple  reasons  calculated  to  appeal  to  the 

in  the  constitutional  Kingdom  of  Sardinia,  which  was  popular  mind.    Some  decent  pretext  had  to  be  found 

about  to  become  the  agent  and  the  type  of   united  for  presenting  the  proposed  measure  .of  suppression 

Italy.     Cavour  imposea  this  anti-reHgious  policy  on  and  confiscation  to  the  nation,  and  it  can  hwily  now 

King  Victor  Emmanuel.    He  proposed  first  to  secu-  bedoubted  that  the  device  of  blackening  the  characters 

tarize  the  monastic  property:  the  money  thus  ob-  of  the  monks  and  nuns  was  deliberatelv  resorted  to. 

tained  was  to  serve  as  a  church  fund  to  e<)ualize  the  The  visitation  opened  apparently  in  the  sunmier  of 

payment  of  the  diocesan  clergy.    The  king  finally  1535,  although  the  visitatorial  powers  of  the  bishops 

gave  his  sanction  to  a  law  which  suppressed,  in  his  own  were  not  suspended  until  the  eighteenth  of  the  following 

states  alone,  334  convents  and  monasteries,  contain-  September.    Preachers  were  moreover  commissioned 

ing  4280  religious  men  and  1200  nuns.    This  ruin  and  to  go  over  the  country  in  the  earlv  autumn,  in  order, 

depredation  proceeded  uniformly  with  the  cause  of  by  their  invectives,  to  educate  puolic  opinion  against 

Italian  unity,  since  the  Piedmontese  constitution  and  the  monks.    These  pulpit  orators  wtre  of  three  sorts, 

legislation  were  imposed  on  the  whole  peninsula.   The  (1)  "ndlers",  who  declaimed  against  the  religious  as 

r^gious  orders  and  benefices  not  charged  with  cures  ''hypocrites,  sorcerers,  and  idle  drones,  etc.";   (2) 

of  souls  were  declared  useless,  and  suppressed;  the  ''preachers  ,  who  said  the  monks ''made  the  land  un- 

buildings  and  lands  were  confiscated  and  sold  (1866).  profitable";  and  (3)  those  who  told  the  people  that, 

The  Government  paid  allowances  to  the  surviving  re-  if  the  abbeys  went  down,  the  king  would  never  want 

ligious.    In  some  abbeys — as  at  Monte  Cassino — ^the  any  taxes  again".    This  last  was  a  favourite  argu- 

members  of  the  community^  were  allowed  to  remain  as  ment  of  Cranmer,  in  his  sermons  at  St.  Paul's  Cross. 

care-takers.    The  Papal  States  were  subjected  to  the  The  men  employed  by  Cromwell — the  agents  en^ 

same  policy  after  1870.    The  Italian  authorities  con-  trusted  with  tne  task  of  getting  up  the  required  evi- 

tentea  themselves  with  depriving  the  religious  of  their  dence — ^were  chiefly  four.  Layton,  Leigh,  Aprice,  and 

legal  existence  and  all  they  possessed,  without  raising  London.    They  were  well  fitted  for  their  work;  and 

any  obstacles  to  a  possible  reconstruction  of  r^rular  the  charges  brought  a^^unst  the  good  name  of  some 

communities.    A  certain  number  of  monasteries  have  at  least  of  the  monasteries,  by  these  chosen  emissaries 

thus  been  able  to  exist  and  carry  on  their  work,  owing  of  Cromwell  are,  it  must  be  confessed,  sufficiently 

solely  to  the  guarantee  of  individual  liberty;  tneir  ex-  dreadful,  althouui  even  their  reports  certainly  do  not 

istence  is  precarious,  and  an  arbitrary  measure  of  the  bear  out  the  modem  notion  of  wholesale  corruption. 

Government  mi^t  at  any  time  suppress  them.   After  The  visitation  seems  to  have  been  conducted  sys- 

the  general  dissolution,  some  Italian  religious — ^for  in-  tematically,  and  to  have  passed  throuo^  three  clearly 

stance,  the  Olivetans  and  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  defined  stages.    During  the  summer  the  houses  in  the 

JohnLateran — crossed  the  Alps  and  establi^ed  houses  west  of  England  were  subjected  to  examination;  and 

of  their  respective  orders  in  France.     J.  M.  Bssss.  this  portion  of  the  work  came  to  an  end  in  September, 

when  Layton  and  Lei^  arrived  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 

SxTFPRBSBiON  OF  MoNAfiTBRiBB  IN  ENGLAND  tTNnisR  bridge  respectivelv.    In  October  and  November  the 

HsiniT  VIII. — ^From  any  point  of  view  the  destruc-  visitors  changed  the  field  of  their  labours  to  the  east- 

tion  of  the  English  monasteries  by  Henry  VIII  must  em  and  souUieastem  districts;  and  in  December  we 

be  reg^urded  as  one  of  the  great  events  of  the  sixteenth  find  Layton  advancing  throu^  the  midland  counties 

century.    They  were  looked  upon,  in  England,  at  the  to  Lichfield,  where  he  met  Leigh,  who  had  finished 

time  of  Henry's  breach  with  Rome,  as  one  of  the  great  his  work  in  the  religious  houses  of  Huntingdon  and 

bulwarks  of  the  papal  system.    The  monks  had  been  Lincolnshire.    Thence  they  proceeded  together  to  the 

called  "the  great  standmg  army  of  Rome".    One  of  north,  and  the  city  of  York  was  reached  on  11  Janu- 

the  fiist  practical  results  of  the  assumption  of  the  ary,  1536.    But  with  all  their  haste,  to  which  they 

highest  spiritual  powers  by  the  king  was  the  super-  were  urged  by  Cromwell,  they  had  not  proceeded  very 

yision  by  royal  decree  of  the  ordinary  episcopal  visi-  far  in  the  work  of  their  northern  inspection  before  the 

tations,  and  the  appointment  of  a  layman — ^Thomas  meeting  of  Parliament. 

Cromwell — as  the  king's  vicar-general  in  spirituals.  From  time  to  time,  whilst  on  their  work  of  inspeo- 

with  special  authority  to  visit  the  monastic  houses,  tion,  the  visitors,  ana  principally  London  and  Leigh, 

and  to  bring  them  into  line  with  the  new  order  of  sent  brief  written  reports  to  their  employers.    Practi- 

things.    This  was  in  1534;  and,  some  time  prior  to  the  cally  all  the  accusations  made  against  the  good  name 

December  of  that  year,  arrangements  were  already  of  the  monks  and  nuns  are  contained  in  the  letters 

being  made  for  a  systematic  visitation.    A  document,  sent  in  this  way  by  the  visitors,  and  in  the  document, 

dated  21  January,  1535,  allows  Cromwell  to  conduct  or  documents,  known  as  the  ''Comperta  Monastica", 

the  viidt  through  ''commissaries'' — ^rather  than  per-  which  were  drawn  up  at  the  time  by  the  same  visitors 

Bonally — as  the  minister  b  said  to  be  at  that  time  too  and  forwarded  to  tneir  chief,  Cromwell.    No  other 

busy  with  "the  ^airs  of  the  whole  kingdom".     It  is  evidence  as  to  the  state  of  the  monasteries  at  this  time 

pow  practically  admitted  that,  even  prior  to  the  issue  is  forthcoming,  and  the  inquirer  into  the  truth  of 


MONASTERIES 


456 


MONA8T1BIE8 


iheBe  accusations  is  driven  back  ultimately  upcm  the 
worth  of  these  visitors'  words.  It  is  eagy,  of  course, 
to  dismiss  inconvenient  witnesses  as  beins  unworthy 
of  credit,  but  in  this  case  a  mere  study  of  these  letters 
and  documents  is  quite  sufficient  to  cast  considerable 
doubt  upon  their  testimony,  whilst  an  examination 
into  the  subsequent  careers  of  these  roval  inquisitors 
will  more  than  justify  the  reiection  of  their  testimony 
as  wholly  unworthv  of  belief.  (Gasquet,  ''Heniy 
VIII  and  the  English  Monasteries",  I,  xi.) 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  enter  into  the  details  of 
the  visitation.  We  must^  therefore,  pass  to  the  sec- 
ond step  in  the  dissolution.  Parliament  met  on  4 
February,  1536,  and  the  chief  business  it  was  called 
upon  to  transact  was  the  consideration  and  passing  of 
the  act  suppressing  the  smaller  religious  houses.  It 
may  be  well  to  state  exactly  what  is  known  about  this 
matter.  We  know  for  certain  that  the  king's  pro- 
posal to  suppress  the  smaller  religious  houses  gave 
rise  to  a  long  debate  in  the  Lower  House,  and  that 
Parliament  passed  the  measure  with  great  reluctance. 
It  is  more  than  remarkable,  moreover,  that  in  the 
preamble  of  tiie  Act  itself  Parliament  is  careful  to 
throw  the  entire  responsibihty  for  the  measure  upon 
the  king,  and  to  declare,  if  words  mean  anything  at 
all,  that  they  took  the  truth  of  the  charges  against  the 
good  name  of  the  religious,  solely  upon  the  king's 
''declaration"  that  he  knew  the  charges  to  be  true. 
It  must  be  remembered,  too^  that  one  simple  fact 
proves  that  the  actual  accusations,  or  "Comperta" — 
whether  in  the  form  of  the  visitors'  notes,  or  of 
the  mythical  "Black-book" — could  never  have  been 
placed  before  Parliament  for  its  consideration  in  de- 
tail, still  less  for  its  critical  examination  and  judg- 
ment. We  have  the  "Comperta"  documents — ^the 
findings  of  the  visitors,  whatcrsrer  they  may  be  worth, 
whilst  on  their  rounds,  among  the  State  papers — and 
it  may  be  easilv  seen  that  no  distinction  whatever  is 
made  in  them  between  the  greater  and  lesser  houses. 
AH  are,  to  use  a  common  expression,  "tarred  with  the 
same  brush";  all,  that  is,  are  eaually  smirched  by  the 
filthy  suggestions  of  Layton  ana  Leigh,  of  London  and 
Aprice.  ^'The  idea  that  the  smaller  monasteries 
rather  than  the  larger  were  particular  abodes  of  vice", 
writes  Dr.  Gairdner,  the  editor  of  the  State  papers  oi 
this  period,  "is  not  borne  out  by  the  *Ck)mperta'". 
Yet  the  preamble  of  the  very  Act,  which  suppressed 
the  smaller  monasteries  because  of  their  vicious  Uv- 
ing,  declares  positively  that  "in  the  great  and  solemn 
Monasteries  of  the  realm"  religion  was  well  observed 
and  God  well  served.  Can  it  be  imagined  for  a  mo- 
ment that  this  assertion  could  have  found  its  way  into 
the  Act  of  Parliament,  had  the  reports,  or  "Com- 

S^rta",  of  the  visitors  been  laid  upon  the  table  of  the 
ouse  of  Commons  for  the  inspection  of  the  memb^v? 
We  are  consequently  compelled  by  this  fact  to  accept 
as  history  the  accoimt  of  the  matter  given  in  the  pre- 
amble of  the  first  Act  of  dissolution:  namely  that  the 
measure  was  passed  on  the  strength  of  the  king's 
"declaration"  that  the  charges  against  the  smaller 
houses  were  true,  and  on  that  alone. 

In  its  final  shape  the  first  measure  of  suppression 
merely  enacted  that  all  religious  houses  not  poss^sed 
of  an  mcome  of  more  than  £200  a  vear  should  be  given 
to  the  Crown.  The  heads  of  such  houses  were  to  re- 
ceive p|ensions,  and  the  religious,  despite  the  alleged 
depravity  of  some,  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  larger 
and  more  observant  monasteries,  or  to  be  licensed 
to  act  as  secular  priests.  The  measure  of  turpitude 
fixed  by  the  Act  was  thus  a  pecuniary  one.  All  mo- 
nastic establishments  which  fell  below  the  £200  a  year 
standard  of  "good  living"  were  to  be  given  to  the 
king  to  be  dealt  with  at  his  "pleasure,  to  the  honour  of 
God  and  the  wealth  of  the  realm". 

This  money  limit  at  once  rendered  it  necessary,  as  a 
first  step  in  the  direction  of  dissolution,  to  ascertain 
which  bouses  came  within  the  operation  of  the  Act. 


As  early  as  April,  1536  Qess  than  a  month  from  the 
passing  of  the  measure),  we  find  mixed  commifisions  oi 
officials  and  country  gentlemen  appointed  in  confip- 
(]uence  to  make  surveys  of  the  reugiouB  houses,  and 
instructions  issued  for  their  guidance.  The  returns 
made  by  these  commissioners  are  of  the  highest  im- 
portance in  determining  the  moral  state  of  the  reli- 
gious houses  at  the  time  of  their  dissolution.  It  is 
now  beyond  dispute  that  the  accusations  of  Crom- 
well's visitors  were  made  prior  to  the  passing  of  the 
Act  of  Suppression  of  1536,  and  therefore  prior  to,  not 
after  (as  most  writers  have  erroneously  supposed) ,  the 
constitution  of  these  mixed  oommisffions  of  gentry  and 
officials.  The  main  purpose  for  which  the  commi^^ 
sioners  were  nominated  was  of  course  to  find  out  what 
houses  possessed  an  income  of  less  than  £200  a  year; 
and  to  take  over  such  in  the  Idn^s  name,  as  now  bj*^  the 
late  Act  legally  belonging  to  His  Majesty.  The  gen- 
try and  officials  were  however  instructedi  to  find  out 
and  report  upon  "  the  conversation  of  the  lives"  of  the 
religious;  or  in  other  words  they  were  specially  di- 
rected to  examine  into  the  moral  state  of  the  houses 
visited.  Unfortunately,  comparatively  few  of  the 
returns  of  these  mixed  commissions  are  now  known  to 
exist;  although  some  have  been  discovered,  which 
were  unknown  to  Dr.  Gairdner  when  he  made  his 
"Calendar"  of  the  documents  of  1536.  Fortimately. 
however,  the  extant  reports  deal  expressly  with  some 
of  the  very  houses  against  which  Layton  and  Leigh 
had  made  their  pestilential  suggestions.  Now  that 
the  suppression  was  resolved  upon  and  made  legal,  it 
did  not  matter  to  Henry  or  Cromwell  that  the  inmates 
should  be  described  as  "evil  livers";  and  so  the  new 
commissioners  returned  the  religious  of  these  same 
houses  as  being  really  "of  good  and  virtuous  conver- 
sation", and  tlos,  not  in  the  case  of  one  house  or  dis- 
trict only,  but,  as  Gairdner  says, "  the  characters  given 
of  the  inmates  are  almost  imiformly  good". 

To  prepare  for  the  reception  of  the  expected  spoils 
what  was  known  as  the  Augmentation  Office  was  es- 
tablished, and  Sir  Thomas  Pope  was  made  its  first 
treasurer,  24  April,  1536.  On  this  same  day  instruc- 
tions were  issued  for  the  giudance  of  the  mixed  com- 
missions in  the  work  of  dissolving  the  mo 
According  to  these  directions,  the  co] 
having  interviewed  the  superior  and  shown 
"Act  of  Dissolution",  were  to  make  all  the 
the  house  swear  to  answer  truthfully  any 
put  to  them.  They  were  then  to  examin 
moral  and  financial  state  of  the  establishme^..  «^^  ^^ 
report  upon  it.  as  well  as  upon  the  number^>f  the  re- 
ligious and  "tne  conversation  of  thdr  lives".  After 
that,  an  inventory  of  all  the  goods,  chattels,  and  plate 
was  to  be  taken,  and  an  "indenture"  or  counterpart 
of  the  same  was  to  be  left  with  the  superior,  dating 
from  1  March,  1536,  because  from  that  date  all  had 
passed  into  the  possesmon  of  the  king.  Thencefor- 
ward the  superior  was  to  be  held  responsible  for  the 
safe  custody  of  the  king's  property.  At  the  same 
time  the  commissioners  were  to  issue  their  commands  to 
the  heads  of  the  houses  not  to  receive  any  more  rents  in 
the  name  of  the  convent,  nor  to  ^nd  any  money,  ex- 
cept for  necessary  expenses,  imtu  the  king's  pleasure 
should  be  known.  Tney  were,  however,  to  be  strictly 
enjoined  to  continue  their  care  over  the  lands,  and  ''to 
sow  and  cultivate"  as  before,  until  such  time  as  some 
king's  farmer  should  be  appointed  and  relieve  them  of 
this  duty.  As  for  the  monks,  the  officer  was  told  "to 
send  those  that  will  remain  in  religion  to  other  houses 
with  lettera  to  the  governors,  and  those  that  wish  to 
go  to  the  world  to  my  lord  of  Canterbury  and  the  lord 
chancellor  for"  their  letters  to  receive  some  benefices 
or  livings  when  such  could  be  found  for  them. 

One  curious  fact  about  the  dissolution  of  the  smaller 
monasteries  deserves  special  notice.  No  sooner  had 
the  king  obtained  possession  of  these  houses  under  the 
money  value  of  £200  a  year,  than  he  oonunenc«d  to 


ynes, 

oners, 

the 

ciaLs  of 

estions 

the 

and  to 


into 


MGNISTKBISS                         457  MONASTSRIBS 

refound  some  "in  peipetuity''  under  a  new  charter,  cess,  sinee  the  work  was  not  all  done  in  a  day.  The 
In  this  way  no  fewer  than  fifty-two  reli^ous  houses  in  rolls  of  accounts,  sent  into  the  Augmentation  Office 
various  parts  of  England  gained  a  temporary  respite  by  the  commissioners,  show  that  it  was  frequently  a 
from  extinction.  The  cost,  however,  was  consider-  matter  of  six  to  ten  weeks  before  any  house  was  finally 
fi^le,  not  alone  to  the  religious,  but  to  their  friends.  The  dismantled  and  its  inmates  had  all  been  turned  out 
property  was  again  coiri^ated  and  the  religious  were  of  doors.  The  chief  commissioners  paid  two  official 
finally  swept  away,  b^ore  they  had  been  able  to  repay  visits  to  the  scene  of  operations  during  the  progress  of 
the  sums  boROwea  in  order  to  purchase  this  very  slen-  the  work.  On  the  first  they  assembled  the  superior 
der  favour  at  the  hands  of  the  roval  legal  possessor,  and  his  subjects  in  the  Chapter  House,  announced  to 
In  hard  cash  the  treasurer  of  the  Court  of  Augments-  the  community  and  its  dependents  their  impending 
tion  acknowledges  to  have  received,  as  merely  ''part  doom;  called  for  and  defaced  the  convent  seal,  the 
payment  of  the  various  sums  of  money,  due  to  the  symbol  of  corporate  existence,  without  which  no  ousi- 
King  for  fines  or  compomtions  for  the  toleration  and  ness  could  be  transacted;  desecrated  the  church;  took 
continuance"  of  only  thirty-three  of  these  refounded  possession  of  the  best  plate  and  vestments  ''unto  the 
monasteries,  some  £5948  6s.  8d.  or  hardly  less,  prob-  king's  use" ;  measured  the  lead  upon  the  roof  and  cal- 
ably,  than  £60,000  of  present-day  money.  Sir  culated  its  value  when  melted;  counted  the  bells;  and 
Thomas  Pope,  the  treasurer  of  the  Court  of  Augmen-  appraised  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  community, 
tation,  ingenuously  adds  that  he  has  not  counts  the  Then  they  passed  on  to  the  scene  of  their  next  opera- 
arrears  due  to  the  office  under  this  head,  "since  all  tions,  leaving  behind  them  certain  subordinate  offi- 
and  each  of  the  said  monasteries,  before  the  close  of  cers  and  wor£nen  to  carry  out  the  designed  destruction 
the  account,  have  come  into  the  King's  hands  by  sur-  by  stripping  the  roofs  and  pulling  down  the  gutters 
render,  or  by  the  authority  of  Parliament  have  been  and  rain  pipes;  melting  the  lead  into  pigs  and  fodders, 
added  to  the  augmentation  of  the  royal  revenues",  throwing  down  the  bells,  breaking  tnem  with  sledge- 
"  For  this  reason,  therefore,"  he  adds,  "the  King  has  hammers  and  packing  the  metal  into  barrels  ready  for 
remitted  all  sums  of  mone^  still  due  to  him,  as  the  the  visit  of  the  speculator  and  his  bid  for  the  spoils, 
residue  of  their  fines  for  his  royal  toleration."  The  This  was  followed  by  the  work  of  collecting  the  fumi- 
sums  pfud  for  the  fresh  foundations  "in  perpetuity",  ture  and  selling  it,  together  with  the  window  frames, 
which  in  reality  as  the  event  showed  meant  only  the  shutters,  and  doors  by  public  auction  or  private  tender, 
respite  of  a  couple  of  years  or  so,  varied  considerably.  When  all  this  had  been  done,  the  commissioners  re- 
As  a  rule  they  represented  about  three  times  the  an-  turned  to  audit  the  accounts  and  to  satisfy  them- 
nual  revenue  of  the  house;  but  sometimes^  as  in  the  selves  generally  that  the  work  of  devastation  had  been 
case  of  St.  Mary's,  Winchester,  which  was  nned  £333  accomplished  to  the  king's  contentment — that  the 
68.  8d.  for  leave  to  continue,  it  was  re-established  nest  had  been  destroyed  and  the  birds  scattered — 
with  the  loss  of  some  of  its  richest  possessions.  that  what  had  been  a  monument  of  architectural 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  estimate  correctly  the  beauty  in  the  past  was  now  a  "bare  roofless  choir, 

number  of  religious  houses  which  passed  into  the  where  late  the  sweet  birds  sang", 

king's  possession  in  virtue  of  the  Act  of  Parliament  of  No  sooner  had  the  process   of  destruction   begun 

1536.    Stowe's  estimate  is  generally  deemed  suffi-  simultaneously  all  over  the  coimtry  than  the  people 

cientlynear  the  mark,  and  he  says:  "the  number  of  the  began  at  last  to  realize  that  the  benefits  likely  to  ao- 

houses  then  suppressed  was  376".    In  respect  to  the  crue  to  them  out  of  the  plunder  were  most  illusory, 

value  of  the  property,  Stowe's  estimate  would  also  ap-  When  this  was  understood,  it  waa  first  proposed  to 

pear  to  be  substantially  correct  when  he  gives  £30,-  present  a  petition  to  the  king  from  the  Lords  and 

000,  or  some  £300^000  of  present-day  money,  as  the  Commons,  pointing  out  the  evident  damage  which 

vearly  income  derived  from  the  confiscate  lands,  must  be  done  to  the  country  at  large  if  the  measure 

'tliere  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  subsequently  were  carried  out  fully;  and  asking  that  the  process 

the  promises  of  large  aimual  receipts  from  the  old  re-  of  suppression  should  be  at  once  stopped,  and  that  the 

li^ous  estates  proved  illusory,  and  that,  in  spite  of  the  lesser  nouses,  which  had  not  yet  been  dissolved  under 

rack-renting  of  the  Crown  farmers,   the  monastic  the  authority  of  the  Act  of  1536,  should  be  allowed  to 

acres  furnished  far  less  money  for  the  royal  purse  than  stand.    Nothing,  of  course,  came  of  this  attempt, 

they  had  previously  done  under  the  thrifty  manage-  Hemys  appetite  was  but  whetted  by  what  had  come 
ment  and  personal  supervision  of  their  former  owners.  ,  to  him,  and  he  only  hungered  for  more  of  the  spoils  of 

As  to  the  value  of  the  spoils  which  came  from  th9  the  Church  and  the  pocH*.  The  action  of  the  rarlia- 
wrecked  and  dismantled  houses,  where  the  waste  was  ment  in  1536  in  permitting  the  first  measure  to  be- 
everywhere  so  great,  it  is  naturally  difficult  to  appraise  come  law  made  it  in  reality  much  more  difficult  for 
the  value  of  the  money,  plate,  and  jewels  which  were  Henry  to  draw  back;  and  in  more  senses  than  one  it 
sent  in  kind  into  the  king's  treasury,  and  the  proceeds  paved  the  way  for  the  general  dissolution.  Here  and 
from  the  sales  of  the  lead,  bells,  stock,  furniture,  and  there  in  the  country  active  resistance  to  the  work  of 
even  the  conventual  buildings.  It  is,  however,  reason-  destruction  was  organized,  and  in  the  case  of  Lincoln* 
ably  certain  that  Lord  Herbert,  following  Stowe,  has  shire,  Yorkshire,  and  the  North  generally,  the  popu- 
placed  the  amount  actually  received  at  too  high  a  lar  rising  of  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  was  caused  in 
figure.  Not,  of  course,  that  these  goods  were  not  worth  the  main,  or  at  least  in  great  measure,  by  the  desire  of 
va^ly  more  than  the  round  £100,000,  at  which  he  esti-  the  people  at  large  to  save  the  relipous  houses  from 
mates  them;  but  nothing  like  that  sum  was  actually  ruthless  destruction.  The  failure  of  the  insurrection 
received  or  acknowledged  by  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  as  of  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace"  was  celebrated  by  the 
treasurer  of  the  Court  of  Augmentation.    Corrup-  execution  of  twelve  abbots  and,  to  use  Henry's  own 


less  ways  in  whibh  the  monastic  possessions  could  be  the  royal  advisers  to  fall  into  the  king's  hands  by  the 

pltmdered  in  thd  process  of  transference  to  their  new  supposed  or  constructive  treason  of  its  superior.    In 

poesessor,  it  ma^  be  not  much  beyond  the  mark  to  put  this  way  several  of  the  larger  abbeys,  with  all  their 

these  "Robin  Hood's  pennjrworths",  as  Stowe  calls  revenues  and  possessions,  came  into  Henry's  hands  as 

tbem,  at  about  £1,000,000  of  present-day  money.  a  consequence  of  the  "Pilgrimage  of  Grace". 

Something  must  necessarily  be  said  of  the  actual  The  Parliament  of  1636,  it  will  be  remembered,  had 

process  which  Was  followed  by  the  Crown  agents  in  granted  Henry  the  possession  only  of  the  houses  the 

dissolving  these  lesser  monasteries.    It  was  much  the  annual  value  of  which  was  less  than  £200.    What 

same  in  every  case,  and  it  was  a  somewhat  long  pro-  happened  in  the  three  years  that  followed  tiie  passing 


MONASTIBY                         458  MONASTIEY 

of  the  Act  was  briefly  this:  the  king  was  ill  satisfied  ter  of  1540  had  set  in,  the  last  of  the  abbeys  had  been 

with  the  actual  results  of  what  he  haid  thought  would  added  to  the  ruins  with  which  the  land  was  strewn 

Erove  a  veritable  gold  mine.    Personally,  perhaps,  he  from  one  end  to  the  other", 

ad  not  gained  as  much  as  he  had  hoped  for  from  the  It  is  difficult,  of  course,  to  estimate  the  exact  number 

dissolutions  which  had  taken  place.    The  property  of  of  religious  ana  religious  houses  suppressed  at  this  time 

the  monks  somehow  seemed  cursed  by  its  origin;  it  in  England.  Putting  allsourcesof  information  together, 

passed  from  his  control  by  a  thousand-and-one  chan-  it  seems  that  the  monks  and  regular  canons  expellea 

nels,  and  he  was  soon  thirsting  for  a  greater  prise,  from  the  greater  monasteries  were  about  3200  in  num- 

which,  as  the  event  showed,  he  was  equaJly  unable  to  ber;  the  friars,  1800;  and  the  nuns,  1560.    If  to  these 

guard  for  his  own  uses.    By  his  instructions,  visitors  should  be  added  the  number  of  those  i^ected  by  the 

were  once  more  set  in  motion  against  the  larger  ab-  first  Act  of  Parliament,  it  is  probably  not  far  from  the 

beys,  in  which,  according  to  the  Act  of  1536,  religion  was  truth  to  say  that  the  number  of  relidous  men  and 

"  ngnt  well  kept  and  observed  *\    Not  having  received  women  expelled  from  their  homes  by  the  suppression 

any  mandate  from  Parliament  to  authorize  the  exten-  were,  in  round  niunbers,  about  8000.     Besiaes  these, 

sion  of  their  proceedings,  the  royal  agents,  eager  to  of  course,  there  were  probably  more  than  ten  times 

win  a  place  in  his  favour,  were  busy  up  and  down  the  that  nimiber  of  people  turned  adrift  who  were  their 

country,  cajoling,  coercing,  commandmg,  and  threat-  dependents,  or  otherwise  obtained  a  living  in  their 

ening  the  meml>ers  of  the  religious  houses  in  order  to  service. 

force  them  to  give  up  their  monasteries  imto  the  If  it  is  difficult  to  determine,  with  any  certainty,  the 

King's  Majesty.    As  Dr.  Gairdner  puts  it:  "by  vari-  number  of  the  reli^ous  in  monastic  England  at  the 

ous  arts  and  means  the  heads  of  these  establishments  time  of  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  it  is  still 

were  induced  to  surrender,  and  occasionally  when  an  more  so  to  sive  any  accurate  estimate  of  the  property 

abbot  was  found,  as  in  the  case  of  Wobum,  to  have  involved.    Speed  calculated  the  annual  value  of  the 

committed  treason  in  the  sense  of  the  recent  statutes,  entire  property,  which  passed  into  Henry's  hands  at 

the  house  (by  a  stretch  of  the  tyrannical  laws)  was  some   £171,312   4s.   3^d.    Other  valuations   have 

forfeited  to  the  king  by  his  attainder.    But  attain-  placed  it  at  a  higher  figure,  so  that  a  modem  calcula- 

ders  were  certainly  the  exception,  surrenders  being  the  tion  of  the  annuid  value  at  £200,000.  or  some  £2,000,- 

general  rule".  000  of  present-day  money,  is  probably  not  excessive. 

The  autumn  of  1537  saw  the  beginning  of  the  fall  of  Hence,  as  a  rough  calculation,  it  may  oe  taken  that  at 

the  friaries  in  En^and.    For  some  reason,  possibly  the  fall  of  the  monasteries  an  mcome  of  about  two  mil- 

because  of  th^  poverty,  they  had  not  been  Drouidit  Hon  pounds  sterling  a  year,  of  the  present  money 

under  the  Act  of  1536.    For  a  year  after  the  "Pil-  value,  was  taken  from  the  Church  and  the  poor  and 

grimace  of  Grace"  few  dissolutions  of  houses,  other  transferred  to  the  royal  purse. 

than  £oee  which  came  to  the  king  by  the  attainder  of  It  may,  however,  be  at  once  stated  that  Heniy  evi- 

their  superiors,  are  recorded.    With  the  feast  of  St.  dently  never  derived  anything  like  such  a  sum  from 

Michael,  1537,  however,  besides  the  convents  of  friars  the  transaction.    The  capital  value  was  so  dimin- 

the  work  of  securing,  by  some  means  or  other,  the  sur-  ished  by  gratuitous  grants,  sales  of  lands  at  nominal 

render  of  the  greater  houses  went  on  rapidly.    The  in-  values,  and  in  numerous  other  ways,  that  in  fact,  for 

structions  raven  to  the  royal  agents  are  clear.    They  the  eleven  years  from  1536  to  1547,  the  Augmentation 

were,  by  aU  methqf^  known  to  them,  to  get  the  re-  Office  accounts  show  that  the  king  only  drew  an 

ligious  '^willingly  to  consent  and  agree"  to  their  own  average  yearly  income  of  £37,000.  or  £370,000  of 

extinction.    It  was  only  when  they  found  "any  of  the  present-day  money,  from  property  which,  in  the  hands 


said  heads  and  convents,  9o  appointed  to  he  dissolved,    of  the  monks,  had  proSab 
so  wilful  and  obstinate  -ihat  tney  would  in  no  wise       the  amount.    As  far  as  can 


y   produced  five   times 
3e  gathered  from  the  ao- 


agree  to  sign  and  dRll  their  own  death-warrant,  that  counts  still  extant,  the  total  receipts  of  the  king  from 

the  commissioners  were  authorized  by  Henry's  in-  the  monastic  confiscations  from  April,  1536,  to  Mich- 

structions  to  "take  posscssidH  of  the  house"  ana  prop-  aelmas,  1547,  was  about  thirteen  million  and  a  half  of 

erty  by  force.    And,  whilst  thus  engaged^  the  royal  presentrday  money,  to  which  must  be  added  about  a 

agents  were  ordered  to  declare  that  the- king  had  no  million  sterling,  the  melting  value  of  the  monastic 

design  whatsoever  upon  the  monastic  property  oQpys-  plate.    Of  this  sum,  leaving  out  of  calculation  the 

tem  as  such,  or  any  desire  to  secure  the  total  suppres-  blate  and  jewels,  not  quite  three  millions  were  spent 
sion  of  the  religious  houses.    They  were  instructed  a^iAy  the  king  personally;  £600,000  was  spent  upon  the 

all  costs  to  put  a  stop  to  such  rumours,  which  were  roVal  palaces,  and  nearly  half  a  million  on  the  house- 

natiu^lly  rife  all  over  the  country  at  this  time.    This  -iiold  oif  the  Prince  of  Wales.     More  than  five  millions 

they  did;  and  the  unscrupulous  Dr.  Layton  declared  sterling  are  accounted  for  unc*er  the  head  of  war  ex- 

that  he  had  told  the  people  everywhere  that  ''in  this  penses,  and  nearly  £700^000  were  spent  on  coast  de- 

they  utterly  slandered  the  King  their  natural  lord",  fence.    Pensions  to  rehgious    persons  account    for 

He  bade  them  not  to  believe  such  reports;  and  he  £330,000;  and  one  curious  item  of  £6000  is  entered  as 

'  *  commanded  the  abbots  and  priors  to  set  in  the  stocks  "  spent  "  to  secure  the  surrender  of  the  Abbey  of  Abing- 

Buch  as  related  such  untrue  things.    It  was,  however,  don." 

as  may  be  imagined,  hard  enouj^  to  suppress  the  ru-  .oSi^f^""'  ?.^7  YUl  ^?^  ***•  ^7^V'^^¥*''*'^f^sJH^^ 

"Lu:!-*  ♦iw^  ««*.,«!  41.:....  ™r  ,^\^^  X.>       T«  1 KQQ  1899);  Idem,  Oterlooked  Teattmontea  to  the  ChanuUr  of  the  BngHth 

mour  whilst  the  actual  thing  was  gomg  on.    In  1538  AfonoWmet  in  Dublin  ffmVw  (April.  1894) ;  Dixok.  kiMtcnf^thi 

and   1539    some    150    monastenes  of   men  appear  to  Church  of  Bnoland,  l,  U;  QAiaDfrEM,  The  Church  in  ths  Sixt^nA 

have  signed  away  their  corporate  existence  and  their  ^^fY^  ^P''!?'*^vJJS^]A^°"J'%^f!!;*'2J^.?u^^^ 

•.«^«*.-*?r  ««J  u,.  -  fr..»,«l  aLsA  l^^^A^^  -r»,,««  oil  «;»k4o  VIII.  vols,  for  lSf7~40  and  Jntrodudiong:  Idem,  LoOardy  and 

property,  and  by  a  formal  deed  banded  over  aU  nghtS  ,^^  Refomuxtion  in  EnQland   (London.  1908);  LHtererekUinc  to 

to  the  king.  the  SuppreeHtm  of  the  Monaeteriea,  ed   Weight  (CMnd«  Society, 

When  the  work  had  progressed  sufficiently  the  new  J^ool^nj  ^f^)]  Aechbold.  The  5ofif«rjrt  fi^vj^ 

Parliament,  which  met>  April,  1539,  after  observing  Sr'jTot%ii'SZ7ih  S'^^SS^er^Trn^'l^Ui^^i^^  igS! 

that  divers  abbots  and  others  had  Vielded  up  their  Idfm,  Htnru  VIII  arul  l*#  ffuwreenon  of  the  Oreater   Mon^ 

houses  to- the  king,  "without  constraint,  coercion,  or  ^'^;f*^°£^i;~,^*S^/Apnl.l8^):  P^^            mSHHofSl 

«.Mi»n..l<,:^.«  M    ^^Jg^^^a  4\.^^  ^*^,m^w>A^^  ^mxA  ,,<»<rfa/4  MoTtk  ID  Ouofifrly  HeTxew  (July,  1896V  roBBETT,  "<«^  0/ W« 

compulsion    ,  confirmed  these  surrenders  and  vested  ntformaHtm,  ed.  Gaiqitet  (London.  1896):  Jemwpp,  Before  the 

all  monastic  property  thus  obtained  in  the  Crown.  Gtwi  puiaoe  (London.  i90i);  Waeeman.  introdudion  to  the 

Finallv,  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  Henry's  triumph  S^.«*;e*  nifjru  of  England  (Ix>ndon.  l«W^  \^)5  ftg"«^'  ^*« 

««,r.M.  *!»«  »«^«-««:^  ^.^^^  -.««  ^^...Ji^4.,wi  ♦L,..  *l»-«.  *.«*_  Htetory  and  Pate  ctf  SaertUffe  (London.  1698.  1848, 1853). 

°If  ^A^  monastic  orders  was  completed  by  the  hor-  "^             ^        ^    Francis  Aidan  GASQumr. 
nble  deaths  for  constructive   treason  of   the  three 

peat  Abbots  of  Glastonbury,  Colchester,  and  Read-  MonafliMTi  Canonical  Erection  of  A.r— A  re- 

ing.    And  so,  as  one  writer  has  said,  ^'b^ore  t^  win-  ligious  house  (monastery  or  convent)  is  a  fixed  reei> 


M0NASTICI8M                         459  M0NA8TICISK 

ience  of  reBgloiis  persons.    It  supposes,  therefore,  see  Rbugious  Osdbbs^  and  the  article  on  the  portfe' 
Bontinuoua  habitation  of  a  community  strictly  so  ular  order  or  congregation  required. 
called,  governed  by  a  superior  and  following  the  rule  I.  Itb  Growth  and  Mbthod.— Ori(7in. — Any  di»* 
prescribed  bv  the  respective  order.    Such  a  reUgioua  cussion  of  pre-Christian  asceticism  is  outside  the  scope 
DOuse  ia  to  be  distinguished  from  a  grange  or  mrm,  of  this  article,  but  readers  who  wish  to  study  this  por- 
from  a  villa  or  place  of  recreation,  and  from  a  hospice  tion  of  Hie  subject  may  be  referred  to  Part  I,  of  Dr. 
or  place  for  the  reception  of  travelhng  religious.    The  Zockl^s    "  Askese    uni    Mdnjhtum"    (Frankfort, 
conditions  for  the  legitimate  erection  of  a  monast^y  1897),  which  deals  with  the  prevalence  of  the  ascetic 
are:  (1)  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See.    This  is  cer-  idea  among  races  of  the  most  diverse  characto'.    So 
tain  for  countries  subject  to  th    Decree  ''Romanes  too,  any  question  of  Jewisli  asceticism  r.3  exemplified  in 
Pontifices"  (i.  e.  the  United  States,  England,  etc.);  it  is  the  Essenes  or  Thcrapeutce  of  Philo's  "De  Vita  Con- 
also  required  for  Italy.    Outside  of  Italy  and  mission-  templativa"  is  excluded,  but  for  this  reference  may  be 
ary  countries  generaUy,  the  question  is  much  disputed  given  to  Mr.  F.  C.  Conybeare's  volume  "Philo  about 
by  canonists;  (2)  the  assent  of  the  ordinanr.    This  the  Contemplative  Life"  (Oxford,  1895),  by  which 
condition  was  approved  by  the  Council  of  Cnalcedon  the  authenticity  of  the  work  has  been  reinstated  after 
in  451,  and  was  m  force  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century,  the  attacks  of  Dr.  Lucius  and  other  scholars.    It  has 
In  the  thirteenth,  the  pri^ilep^ee  of  the  mendicant  already  been  pointed  out  that  th?  monastic  ideal  is  an 
orders  caused  freauent  derogations  from  the  law,  but  ascetic  one,  Dut  it  would  be  wrong  to  say  that  the 
the  ancient  discipline  wat  restored  bv  the  Council  of  earliest  Christian  asceticism  was  monastic.    Any  such 
Trent  (Sess.  XxV,  de  Reg.,  cap.  iii).    This  permis-  thing  was  rendered  impossible  by  the  circumstances  in 
sion  cannot  be  given  by  the  vicar-general  nor  by  the  whidi  the  early  Christians  were  placed,  for  in  the  first 
vicar-capitular.    Before  the  bishop  gives  his  assent,  century  or  so  of  the  Church's  existence  the  idea  of  liv- 
he  should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  opinions  ing  apart  from  the  congregation  of  the  faithful,  or  of 
of  thoee  to  whom  such  a  monastery  might  prove  a  det-  forming  within  it  associations  to  practise  special  re- 
riment,  as  the  superiors  of  other  religious  orders  al-  nundations  in  common  was  out  of  question.    While 
ready  established  there,  or  the  people  of  the  place,  admitting  this  however  it  is  eoually  certain  that  mo- 
The  parish  priest  cannot  object,  unless  it  is  intended  nasticism,  when  it  came,  washttle  more  than  a  precipi- 
to  confer  parochial  rights  on  the  new  religious  house;  tation  of  ideas  previously  in  solution  among  Chns^ 
(3)  there  must  be  a  proper  provision  for  the  sustenance  tians.    For  asceticism  is  the  struggle  against  worldly 
of  twelve  reli^ous,  otherwise  they  must  tive  under  the  principles,  even  with  such  as  are  merely  worldly  with- 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary.    This  last  condition  does  out  being  sinful.    The  world  desires  and  honours 
not,  however,  apply  to  countries  where  the  ''Romanes  wealth,  so  the  ascetic  loves  and  honours  poverty.    If 
Pontifices''  is  in  force.    For  the  transfer  of  a  monas-  he  must  have  something  in  the  nature  of  property 
t«ry  from  one  site  to  another  in  tl^e  same  locality,  no  then  he  and  his  fellows  snail  hold  it  in  common,  just 

Eermission  of  the  Holy  See  is  required,  as  this  is  trans-  because  the  world  respects  and  safeguards  private 

ition,  not  erection.    There  was  an  ancient  law  that  a  owner^p.    In  like  manner  he  practises  fastmg  and 

new  monaatery  could  not  be  erected  within  a  certain  virginity  that  thereby  he  may  repudiate  the  licence  of 

distance  from  an  older  one,  but  it  has  gone  into  desue-  the  world. 

tude.    As  regards  convents  of  religious  women,  the  a»-  Hereafter  the  various  items  of  this  renundation 

sent  of  the  ordinary  is  required,  out  not  that  of  the  will  be  dealt  with  in  detail,  they  are  mentioned  at  this 

Holy  See.    The  same  holds  for  the  erection  of  houses  stage  merely  to  show  how  the  monastic  ideal  was  fore- 

of  pious  congregations  and  institutes.  shiSow^  in  the  asceticism  of  the  Gospel  and  its  first 

Bachofbij,  Compendium  JurU  Ae^rtum  (New  York.  1903) ;  followers.    Such  passages  as  I  John,  ii,  15-17 1  "  Love 

Taunton,  Tht  Lav  qftk§  Church  (St.  Loiui.  1906),  8.  v.  Mono*"  _-,f  xi,-  --.-v-ij    -.jT,  Tk^  fVtinm*  ♦lio*  <iw>  \r%  fl*A  vmrM 

urv:  VxBMUBflCH.  Da  Rdioio^u  liutitutit,  I  (Brugea,  1902).  1}^^  ^^  woTid,  nor  the  things  that  are  in  tlie  world. 

William  H.  W.  Fankwq,  **  ^'^y  ™mi  love  the  world ^  the  chanty  of  the  Father  is 

not  in  him.    For  all  that  is  in  the  world  is  the  ooncu- 
Monasticiaiii. — ^Monasticism  or  monachism,  liter-  piscence  of  the  flesh,  and  the  concupiscence  of  the 
ally  the  act  of  "dwelling  alone"  (Greek,  M^rot,  /Mpd^iw^  eyes,  and  the  pride  or  Ufe,  which  is  not  of  the  Father 
f»pax^i),  has  come  to  denote  the  mode  of  life  pertain-  but  is  of  the  world.    And  the  world  passeth  away  and 
ing  to  persons  hving  in  seclusion  from  the  world,  the  concupiscence  thereof .    But  he  tnat  doeth  the  will 
under  religious  vows  and  subject  to  a  fixed  rule,  as  of  God  aoideth  for  ever" — ^passages  which  might  be 
monks,  friars,  nuns,  or  in  general  as  reli^ous.    The  multiplied,  and  can  bear  but  one  meaning  if  taken  liter- 
basic  idea  of  monasticism  in  all  its  varieties  is  seclu-  ally.    Ana  this  is  preciselv  what  the  early  ascetics  did. 
sion  or  withdrawal  from  the  world  or  societv.    Theob-  We  read  of  some  who,  driven  by  the  spirit  of  God. 
iect  of  this  is  to  achieve  a  life  whose  ideal  is  different  dedicated  their  energies  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel 
from  and  lai^ely  at  variance  with  that  pursued  bv  the  and,  giving  up  all  their  possesaons  passed  from  city  to 
majority  of  mankind;  and  the  method  adopted,  no  city  in  voluntary  poverty  as  apostles  and  evangelists, 
matter  what  its  precise  details  may  be,  is  always  self-  Of  others  we  hear  that  thev  renounced  property  and 
abnegation  or  organized  asceticism.    Taken  m  this  marriage  so  as  to  devote  their  lives  to  the  poor  and 
broad  sense  monacnism  may  be  found  in  every  religious  needy  of  their  particular  church.    If  these  were  not 
svstem  which  has  attained  to  a  high  degree  of  emical  strictly  speaking  monks  and  nuns,  at  least  the  monks 
clevelopment,  such  as  the  Brahmin,  Buddhist,  Jewish,  and  nuns  were  such  as  these;  and,  when  the  monastic 
Christian,  and  Moslem  religions^  and  even  in  the  sys-  life  took  definite  shape  in  the  fourth  century,  these 
tem  of  thoee  modem  communistic  societies,  often  anti-  forerunners  were  naturally  looked  up  to  as  the  first 
theolo^cal  in  theory,  which  are  a  special  feature  of  exponents  of  monachism.    For  the  truth  is  that  the 
recent  social  development    especially  in    America.  Christian  ideal  is  frankly  an  ascetic  one  and  mona« 
Hence  it  is  didmed  that  a  form  of  life  which  flourishes  chism  is  simply  the  endeavour  to  effect  a  material  reali- 
in  environments  so  diverse  must  be  the  expression  of  zation  of  that  ideal^  or  organization  in  accordance 
a  principle  inherent  in  human  nature  and  rooted  withit,  when  taken  hterally  as  regards  its ''Counsels'' 
therein  no  less  deeply  than  the  principle  of  domestic-  as  well  as  its  "Precepts''  (see  Asceticism;  OouNSBLSy 
ity,  thou^  obviously  limited  to  a  far  smaller  portion  Evangelical). 

of  mankmd.  This  article  and  its  two  ensuing  sec-  Besides  a  desire  of  observing  the  evangelical  coun- 
tioDB,  ^Eastern  Monasticism  and  Western  Monas-  sels,  and  a  horror  of  the  vice  and  disorder  that  pre- 
Ticisu,  deal  with  the  monastic  order  strictly  so  called  vaUed  in  a  pagan  age,  two  contributory  causes  in  par- 
as distinct  from  the  "religious  orders"  such  as  the  ticular  are  of  ten  incucated  as  leading  to  a  renunciation 
friars,  oanons  rejplar,  clerks  r^ular,  and  the  more  of  the  world  among  the  early  Christians.  The  first  of 
nemt  congregations.    For  ioformation  as  to  these  these  was  the  expectation  of  an  immediate  Second 


MONASTICISM                         460  M0NA8TICIBM 

Advent  of  Christ  (cf.  I  Cor.,  vii,  29-31;  I  Pet.,  IV,  7.  (a)  Poverty.— There  are  few  subjects,  if  any,  opoo 

etc.).  That  this  belief  was  widespread  is  admitted  on  all  which  more  sayings  of  Jesus  have  been  preserved  than 

hands,  and  obviously  it  would  afford  a  strong  motive  upon  the  superiority  of  poverty  over  wealth  in  His 

for  renunciation  since  a  man  who  expects  this  present  kmgdom  (cf.  Matt.,  v,  3;  xiii,  22;  xix,  21  sq.;  Mark, 

Older  of  things  to  end  at  any  moment,  will  lose  keen  x.  23  sq.;  Luke,  vi,  20;  xviii,  24  sq.,  etc.),  and  the  fact 

interest  in  many  r".atters  commonly  held  to  be  im-  of  their  preservation  would  indicate  that  such  words 

portant.    This  belief  however  had  ceased  to  be  of  any  were  frequently  quoted  and  presumably  freouently 

great  influence  by  the  fourth  century,  so  that  it  can-  acted  upon.    The  argument  based  upon  sucn  pa^ 


not  be  regarded  as  a  determining  factor  in  the  origin  of  sages  as'Matt.,  xix,  21  sq.,  may  be  put  briefly  thus. 

monasticism  which  then  too!:  visible  shape.     A  seo-  If  a  man  wish  to  attain  eternal  fife  it  is  better  for  him 

ond  cause  more  operative  in  leading  men  to  renounce  to  renounce  his  possessions  than  to  retidn  them.  Jesus 

the  world  was  the  vividness  of  their  belief  in  evil  said,  "How  hardly  shall  th^y  that  have  riches  enter 

spirits.    The  first  Christians  saw  the  kingdom  of  into  the  kingdom  of  God",  the  reason  being  no  doubt 

Siatan  actually  realised  in  the  political  and  social  life  that  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  affections  from  be- 

of  heathendom  around  them,    in  their  eyes  the  gods  coming  attached  to  riches,  and  t^t  such  attachment 

whose  temples  shone  in  evei^r  city  were  simpl}r  devils,  makes  admission  into  Christ's  kingdom  impossible, 

and  to  participate  in  their  rites  was  to  jom  in  devil  As  St.  Augustine  points  out,  the  iUBciples  evidently 

worship.    When  Christianitv  first  came  in  touch  with  understood  Jesus  to  include  all  who  covet  riches  in  the 

the  Gentiles  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  by  its  decree  number  of  "theiich",  otherwise,  considering  the 

about  meat  offered  to  idols  (Acts,  xv,  20)  made  clear  small  number  of  the  woilthy  compared  with  the  va^ct 

the  line  to  be  followed.    Consequently  certain  profe»-  multitude  of  the  poor,  they  would  not  have  asked, 

sions  were  practically  closed  to  believers  since  a  sol-  ''Who  then  ^all  be  saved''?    "You  cannot  serve 

dier,  schoolmaster,  or  state  official  of  any  kind  might  be  God  and  Mammon  "  is  an  obvious  truth  to  a  man  who 

called  upon  at  a  moment's  notice  to  participate  in  knows  by  experience  the  difficulty  of  a  whole-hearted 

some  act  of  the  state  religion.    But  the  difficulty  ex-  service  of  God;  for  the  spiritual  and  material  good  are 

isted  for  private  individuals  also.    There  were  gods  in  immediate  antithesb,  and  where  one  is  the  other 

who  presided  over  evenr  moment  of  a  man's  life,  gods  cannot  be.    Man  cannot  sate  his  nature  with  the  tem- 

of  house  and  garden,  of  food  and  drink,  of  health  and  poral  and  yet  retain  an  appetite  for  the  eternal;  and 

sickness.    To  honour  these  was  idolatry,  to  ignore  so,  if  he  would  live  the  life  of  the  spirit,  he  must  flee 

them  would  attract  inquiry  and  possibly  persecution. "  the  lust  of  the  earth  and  keep  his  heart  aetached  from 

And  so  when,  to  men  placed  in  this  dilemma,  St.  John  what  is  of  its  very  nature  unspiritual.   The  extent  to 

wrote^  "Keep  yourselves  from  idols"  (I  John,  v,  21)  which  this  voluntary  poverty  is  practised  has  varied 

he  said  in  effect  "Keep  yourselves  from  public  life,  Kreatly  in  the  monachism  of  different  ages  and  lands, 

from  society,  from  pohtics,  from  intercourse  of  any  In  Egypt  the  first  teachers  of  monks  taught  that  the 

kind  with  the  heathen",  in  short  "renounce  the  renunciation  should  be  made  as  absolute  as  poc^ble. 

world".                                         ^    ^  Abbot  Agathon  used  to  say,  "Own  nothing  which  it 

By  certain  writers  the  communistic  element  seen  in  would  grieve  you  to  give  to  another".    St.  Macanus 

the  Church  of  Jerusalem  during  the  first  years  of  its  once,  on  returning  to  nis  cell,  found  a  robber  carr^nng 

existence  (Acts,  iv,  32)  has  sometimes  been  pointed  to  off  his  scanty  furniture.    He  thereupon  pretended  to 

as  indicatmg  a  monastic  element  in  its  constitution,  be  a  stranger,  harnessed  the  robber's  norse  for  him  and 

but  no  such  conclusion  is  justified.    I^babl}r  the  helped  him  to  get  his  spoil  away.    Another  monk  had 

community  of  goods  was  simply  a  natural  continua-  so  stripped  himself  oi  all  things  that  he  possuessed 

tion  of  the  practice,  begun  by  Jesus  and  the  Apostles,  nothing  save  a  copy  of  the  Gospels.    After  a  while  he 

where  one  of  the  bandf  kept  the  common  purse  and  sold  this  also  and  gave  the  price  away  saying,  "  I  have 

acted  as  steward.    There  is  no  indication  that  such  a  sold  the  very  book  that  baae  me  sell  aU  I  had", 

custom  was  ever  instituted  elsewhere  and  even  at  As  the  monastic  institute  became  more  organized 

Jerusalem  it  seems  to  have  collapsed  at  an  early  pe-  le^slation  appeared  in  the  various  codes  to  resulate 

riod.  It  must  be  recognized  also  that  influences  such  as  this  point  among  others.    That  the  principle  re^ 

the  above  were  merely  contributory  and  of  cqip^Darap  mained  the  same  however  is  clear  from  the  strong  way 

tively  small  importance    The  main  cause  w^K  Jbe-  in  which  St.  Benedict  speaks  of  the  matter  while  mak- 

got  monachism  was  simply  the  desire  to  fulfil ^Ouist's  ing  special  allowance  for  the  needs  of  the  infirm,  etc. 

law  literally,  to  imitate  Him  in  all  simplicity ,  following  (l^y  Ben.,  xxxiii).    "Above  everything  the  x-ice  of 

in  His  footsteps  whose  "  kingdom  is   not  of  this  private  ownership  is  to  be  cut  off  by  the  roots  from  the 

world".    So  we  find  monachism  at  first  instinctive,  monastery.    Let  no  one  presume  either  to  give  or  to 

informal,  unorganized,  sporadic;  the  expression  of  the  receive  anything  without  leave  of  the  abbot,  nor  to 

same  force  working  differently  in  different  places,  per-  keep  anything  as  his  own.  neither  book,  nor  •writing 

sons,  and  circumstances;  developing  with  the  natural  tablets,  nor  pen,  nor  anything  whatsoever,  since  it  i< 

growth  of  a  plant  according  to  the  environment  in  unlawful  for  them  to  have  their  bodies  or  wills  in  their 

which  it  finds  itself  and  the  character  of  the  individual  own  power".    The  princi[)le  here  laid  down,  vix.,  that 

listener  who  heard  in  his  soul  the  call  of  "Follow  Me",  the  monk's  renunciation  of  private  property  is  abso- 

(2)  Means  to  the  End. — It  must  be  clearly  under-  lute,  remains  as  much  in  force  to-day  as  m  the  dawn  of 
stood  that,  in  the  case  of  the  monk,  asceticism  is  not  monasticism.  No  matter  to  what  extent  any  Indi- 
an end  in  itself.  For  him,  as  for  all  men,  the  end  of  vidual  monk  may  be  allowed  the  use  of  clothing, 
life  is  to  love  God.  Monastic  ascetism  then  means  books,  or  even  money,  the  ultimate  proprietorship  in 
the  removal  of  obstacles  to  loving  God,  and  what  such  things  can  never  be  permitted  to  him.  (See 
these  obstacles  are  is  clear  from  the  nature  of  love  Poverty;  Mendicant  Friars;  Vow.) 
itself.    Love  is  the  union  of  wills.    If  the  creature  is  (b)  Chastity. — If  the  things  to  be  given  up  be 


No  one  understands  better  than  the  mon?:  those  words  his  nature.     Next  in  difficulty  will  come  the  thing*^ 

of  the  beloved  disciple,  "Greater  love  hath  no  man  that  are  united  to  man's  nature  by  a  kind  of  neces&in- 

than  this  that  a  man  lay  down  his  life",  for  in  his  case  affinity.     Hence  in  the  ascending  order  chastity  is  the 

life  has  come  to  mean  renunciation.     Broadly  speak-  second  of  the  evangelical  counsels,  and  as  such  it  is  bastni 

ing  this  renunciation  has  three  great  branches  corre-  upon  the  words  of  Jesus,  "  If  any  man  come  to  me  and 

iroonding  to  the  three  evangelical  counsels  of  poverty,  hate  not  his  father  and  mother  and  wife  and  children 

chastity,  and  obedience.  and  brethren  and  sisters  yea  and  his  own  eoul  also,  ho 


MONA8TICI8M                          461  M0NA8TICISM 

cannot  be  my  disciple"  (Luke,  xiv.  26).  It  is  obvious  coldly,  nor  with  murmuring,  nor  with  an  answer  show- 
that  of  all  the  ties  which  bind  the  numan  heart  to  this  ing  unwlllin^ess,  for  the  obedience  which  is  given  to 
world  the  possession  of  wife  and  children  is  the  strong-  superiors  is  given  to  God,  since  He  Himself  hath  said, 
est.  Moreover  the  renunciation  of  the  monk  includes  He  that  heareth'you,  heareth  Me''  (Reg.  Ben.,  v). 
not  pnly  these  but  in  accorduice  with  the  strictest  It  is  not  hard  to  see  why  so  much  emphasis  is  laid  on 
teaching  of  Jesus  ail  sexual  relations  or  emotion  aria-  thb  point.  The  object  of  monasticism  is  to  love  God 
ing  therefrom.  The  monastic  idea  of  chastity  is  a  life  in  the  highest  degree  possible  in  this  life.  In  true 
like  that  of  the  angels.  Hence  the  phrases,  "  angelicus  obedience  the  will  of  the  servant  is  one  with  that  of  his 
oxdo",  "angelica  converaatio",  which  have  been  master,  and  the  union  of  wills  is  love.  Wherefore, 
adopted  from  Origen  to  describe  the  life  of  the  monk,  that  the  obedience  of  the  monk's  will  to  that  of  Goa 
no  doubt  in  reference  to  Mark,  xii,  25.  It  is  pri-  may  be  as  simple  and  direct  as  possible,  St.  Benedict 
marily  as  a  means  to  this  end  tnat  fasting  takes  so  writes  (ch.  ii)  the  abbot  is  considered  to  hold  in  the 
important  a  place  in  the  monastic  life.  Among  the  monastery  the  place  of  Christ  Himself,  since  he  is 
eany  Egyptian  and  Syrian  monks  in  particular  fast-  called  by  His  name"  (see  Obedience;  Vow).  St. 
ing[  was  carried  to  such  lengths  that  some  modem  Thomas,  in  chapter  xi  of  his  Opusculum"  On  the  Per- 
wnters  have  been  led  to  regard  it  almost  as  an  end  in  fection  of  the  Spiritual  Lif e  ,  points  out  that  the 
itself,  instead  of  being  merdy  a  means  and  a  subordi-  three  means  of  perfection,  poverty,  chastity,  and 
nate  one  at  that.  This  error  of  course  is  confined  obedience,  belong  peculiarly  to  the  religious  state. 
to  writers  about  monasticism,  it  has  never  been  For  religion  means  the  worship  of  God  alone,  which 
coimtenanced  by  any  monastic  teacher.  (See  Ceu-  consists  in  offering  sacrifice,  and  of  sacrifices  the  holo- 
B ACT  OF  THE  Cubrqt;  Ch^tity;  Continence;  Fast;  caust  Is  the  most  perfect.  Consequently,  when  a  man 
Vow.)  ^  dedicates  to  Goa  all  that  he  has,  al\  that  he  takes 
(c)  Obedience. — **  The  first  step  in  humility  is  obe-  pleasure  in,  and  all  that  he  is,  he  offers  a  holocaust ;  and 
dience  without  delay.  This  bents  those  who  count  this  he  does  pre-eminently  by  the  three  religious  vows, 
nothing  dearer  to  them  than  Christ  on  account  of  the  (3)  The  Different  Kinds  of  Monks, — U  must  be 
holy  service  which  they  have  undertaken  .  .  .  with-  clearly  understood  that  the  monastic  order  properly 
out  doubt  such  as  these  follow  that  thought  of  the  so-called  differs  from  the  friars,  clerks  regular,  and 
Lord  when  He  said,  I  came  Hot  to  do  my  own  will  but  other  later  developments  of  the  reli^ous  life  in  one 
the  will  of  Him  that  sent  me"  (Beg,-  Ben.,  v).  Of  all  fimdamental  point.  The  latter  have  essentially  some 
the  steps  in  the  process  of  renunciation,  the  denial  of  a  special  work  or  aim,  such  as  preaching,  teachi{ig,  lib- 
man's  own  will  is  clearly  the  most  difficult.  At  the  erating  captives,  etc.,  which  occupies  a  large  place  in 
same  time  it  is  the  most  essential  of  all  as  Jesus  said  their  activities  and  to  which  many  of  the  observances 
(Matt.,  xvi,  24),  "If  any  man  will  come  after  me,  let  )of  the  monastic  life  have  to  give  way.  This  is  not  so  / 
him  deny  himself  and  take  up  his  cross  and  follow  in  the  case  of  the  monk.  He  lives  a  special  kind  of  I 
me",  llie  most  difficult  because  self-interest,  self-  lif e  for  the  sake  of  the  lif e  and  its  consequences  to  him-  . 
protection,  self-regard  of  all  kinds  are  absolutely  a  self.  In  a  later  section  we  shall  see  that  monks  have 
part  of  man's  nature,  so  that  to  master  such  instincts  actually  undertaken  external  labours  of  the  most 
reauioes  a  supernatural  strength.  The  most  essen-  varied  character,  but  in  every  case  this  work  is  extrin- 
tiai  also  because  by  this  means  the  monk  achieves  that  sic  to  the  essence  of  the  monastic  state.    Christian 

gerfect  liberty  which  is  only  to  be  foimd  where  is  the  monasticism  has  varied  greatly  in  its  external  forms, 
pint  of  the  Lord.  It  was  seneca  who  wrote,  "parere  but,  broadly  speaking,  it  has  two  main  species  (a)  the 
deo  libertas  est",  and  the  pagan  philosophers  dictum  eremitical  or  potitary.  (b)  the  cenobitical  or  family 
la  confirmed  and  testified  to  on  every  p^e  of  the  Gos-  types.  St.  Anthony  (q.  v.)  mav  be  called  the  foimder 
pel.  In  Egypt  at  the  dawn  of  monasticism  the  cus-  of  the  first  and  St.  Pachomius  (q.  v.)  of  the  second, 
torn  was  for  a  young  monk  to  put  himself  under  the  (a)  The  Eremitical  Type  of  Monasticism. — ^This 
guidance  of  a  senior  whom  he  obeyed  in  all  things,  way  of  life  took  its  rise  among  the  monks  who  settled 
Although  the  bond  betwee^  them  was  wholly  volun-  around  St.  Anthony's  mountain  at  Fispir  and  whom 
taiy  the  system  seems  toAve  worked  perfectly  and  he  organized  and  guided.  In  consequence  it  prevailed 
the  commands  of  the^s^^iw'were  obeyed  without  hesi-  chieflv  in  northern  Egypt  from  LycopoHs  (Asyut)  to 
tation.  "  Obedience  is  tiie  mother  of  all  the  virtues  " :  the  Mediterranean,  but  most  of  our  information  about 
"  obedience  is  that  which  openeth  heaven  and  raiseth  '  it  deals  with  Nitria  and  Scete.  Cassian  (q.  v.)  and  Pal- 
man  from  the  earth  " :  "  obedience  is  the  food  of  all  the  ladius  (q.  v.)  give  us  full  details  of  its  working  and  from 
saints,  by  her  they  are  nourished,  through  her  they  them  we  learn  that  the  strictest  hermits  lived  out  of  ear- 
come  to  perfection":  such  sayings  illustrate  suffi-  shot  of  each  other  and  only  met  together  for  Divine  wor- 
ciently  the  view  held  on  this  point  by  the  fathers  of  the  ship  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  while  others  would 
desert.  As  the  monastic  life  came  to  be  organized  by  meet  daily  and  recite  their  psalms  and  hymns  together 
rule,  the  insistence  on  obedience  remained  the  same,  in  little  companies  of  three  or  four.  There  was  no  Rule 
but  its  practice  was  legislated  for.  Thus  St.  Bene-  of  life  among  them  but,  as  Palladius  says,  'Hhey  have 
diet  at  tne  very  outset,  in  the  Prologue  to  his  Rule,  re-  different  practices,  each  as  he  is  able  and  as  he 
minds  Uie  monk  of  the  prime  purpose  of  his  life,  viz.,  wishes".  The  elders  exercised  an  authority,  but 
'Hhat  thou  mayest  return  by  the  labour  of  obeoience  chiefly  of  a  personal  kind,  their  position  and  influence 
to  Him  from  whom  thou  hadst  departed  by  the  sloth  being  in  proportion  to  their  reputation  for  greater 
of  disobedience".  Later  he  devotes  the  wnole  of  his  wisdom,  llie  monks  would  visit  each  other  often  and 
fifth  chapter  to  this  subject  and  again,  in  detailing  the  discourse,  several  together,  on  Holy  Scripture  and  on 
vows  his  monks  must  take,  while  poverty  and  chas-  the  spiritual  Ufe.  General  conferences  in  which  a 
tity  are  presumed  as  implicitly  included,  obedience  is  large  number  took  part  were  not  uncommon.  Gradu- 
one  of  the  three  things  explicitly  promised.  ally  the  purely  eremitical  life  tended  to  die  out  (Caa- 
Indeed  the  saint  even  legislates  for  the  circumstance  sian,  "Conf .",  xix)  but  a  semi-eremitical  form  contin- 
of  a  monk  being  ordered  to  do  something  impossible,  ued  to  be  common  for  a  long  period,  and  has  never 
''Let  him  seasonably  and  with  patience  lay  before  his  ceased  entirely  either  in  East  or  West  where  the  Ca> 
superior  the  reasons  of  his  incapacity  to  obey,  without  thusians  and  Camaldulese  still  practise  it.  It  is  need- 
showing  pride,  resistance  or  contradiction.  If,  how-  less  here  to  trace  its  developments  in  detail  as  all  its 
ever,  alter  this  the  superior  still  persist  in  his  com-  varieties  are  dealt  with  in  special  articles  (see  Anchor- 
mand,  let  the  younger  Know  that  it  is  expedient  for  itbs;  Anthony,  St.;  Anthony,  Orders  of  St.;  Cam- 
him,  and  let  him  obey  for  the  love  of  God  trusting  in  A^olese;  Carthusians;  Hermits;  Laura;  Mo- 
His  assistance"  (Res.  Ben.,  Ixviii).  '  Moreover ''what  nabticibm,  Eastern;  Stylttes  ob  Pillar  Saintb^' 
is  commanded  is  to  be  done  not  fearfully,  tardilyi  nor  Paul  the  Hermit,  St.)« 


M0NA8TICISK  462  MONASTZCISM 

(b)  Hie  Cenobitical  T^pe  of  Monasticism. — ^This  among  Eastern  monkaL  while  in  the  west  no  changes 
tvpe  began  m  Egypt  at  a  somewhat  later  date  than  of  importance  have  taken  place  since  St.  Benedict's 
the  eremitical  form.  It  was  about  the  year  318  that  rule  gradually  eliminated  afi  local  customs.  For  the 
St.  Pachomius,  still  a  young  man,  founded  his  first  development  of  the  Divine  office  into  its  present  form 
monastery  at  Tabennia  near  Denderah.  The  insti-  see  the  articles,  Breviary;  Hours,  Canonical;  and 
tute  spread  with  surprising  rapidity,  and  by  the  date  also  the  various  "horns",  e.  g.  Matins;  Laudb,  etc.: 
of  St.  Pachomius's  death  (c.  345)  it  counted  eight  LmmGT,  etc.  In  the  east  this  solemn  liturgical 
monasteries  and  several  hundred  monks.  Most  re-  prayer  remains  to-day  almost  the  sole  active  wow  of 
markable  of  all  is  the  fact  that  it  immediately  took  the  monks,  and,  though  in  the  west  many  other  forms 
shape  as  a  fully  organized  congregation  or  order,  with  of  activity  have  flourished,  the  Opu8  Dei  or  Divine 
a  superior  general,  a  system  of  visitations  and  general  Office  has  always  been  and  still  is  regaided  as  the  pre- 
chapters,  and  all  the  machin^  of  a  centralised  gov-  eminent  duty  and  occupation  of  the  monk  to  wmch 
emment  such  as  does  not  again  appear  in  the  monas-  all  other  works,  no  matter  how  excellent  in  them- 
tic  world  until  the  rise  of  the  Cistercians  and  Mendi-  selves,  mustj^ve  way,  according  to  St.  Benedict's  prin- 
cant  Orders  some  eight  or  nine  centuries  later.  As  ciple  (R^.  l^n..  xliii)  "Nihil  operi  Dei  preponatur" 
regards  internal  organization  the  Pachomian  monas-  (Let  notmng  take  precedence  of  the  work  of  God), 
teries  had  nothing  of  the  family  ideal.  The  numbers  Alongside  the  official  Uturgy,  private  praver,  espe- 
were  too  great  for  this  and  everything  was  done  on  a  cially  mental  prayer,  has  uways  held  an  important 
military  or  barrack  system.  In  each  monastery  there  place;  see  Prater:  Contemplative  Life. 
were  numerous  separate  houses,  each  with  its  own  pro'  (b)  Monastic  Labours. — ^Ilie  first  monks  did  oom- 
positus,  cellarer,  and  other  officials,  the  monks  being  paratively  little  in  the  way  of  external  labour.  We 
grouped  in  these  according  to  the  particular  trade  near  of  them  weaving  mats,  Tn^kipg  baskets  and  dmng 
they  followed.  Thus  the  fullers  were  gathered  in  one  other  work  of  a  simple  character  which,  while  serving 
house,  the  carpenters  in  another,  and  so  on;  an  ar-  for  their  support,  would  not  distract  them  from  the 
rangement  the  more  desirable  because  in  the  Pacho-  continual  contemplation  of  God.  Under  St.  Pacho- 
mian monasteries  regular  organized  work  was  an  in-  mius  manual  labour  was  oii{;anized  as  an  essential  part 
tegral  part  of  the  system,  a  feature  in  which  it  differed  of  the  monastic  fife:  and,  smce  it  is  a  principle  of  the 
from  tne  Antonian  way  of  life.  In  point  of  austerity  monks  as  distinguisned  frdm  the  mendicants,  that  the 
however  the  Antonian  monks  far  surpassed  the  Pacho-  body  shall  be  self-supporting,  external  work  of  one 
mian,  and  so  we  find  Bgoul  and  Schenut^  endeavour-  sort  or  another  has  been  an  inevitable  part  of  the  life 
ing,  in  their  great  monastery  at  Athribis,  to  combine  ever  since. 

the  cenobitical  life  of  Tabeoinisi  with  the  austerities  of        (i)  Agriculture,  of  course,  naturally  ranked  firat 

Nitria.  among  the  various  forms  of  external  labour.    The 

In  the  Pachomian  monasteries  it  was  left  very  sites  chosen  by  the  monks  for  their  retreat  were  usu- 
much  to  the  individual  taste  of  each  monk  to  fix  ally  in  wild  and  inaccessible  places,  which  were  left  to 
the  order  of  life  for  himself.  Thus  the  hours  for  them  precisely  because  they  were  uncultivated,  and 
meals  and  the  extent  of  his  fasting  were  settled  by  him  no  one  else  cared  to  undertake  the  task  of  clearing 
alone,  he  might  eat  with  the  others  in  common  or  have  them.  The  rugged  valley  of  Subiaco,  or  the  fens  ana 
br»Eul  and  salt  provided  in  his  own  cell  every  da^r  or  marshes  of  Glastonbury  may  be  cited  as  examples, 
every  second  day.  The  conception  of  the  cenobitical  but  nearly  all  the  most  ancient  monasteries  are  to  be 
Ufe  was  modified  considerably  by  St.  Basil.  In  his  found  in  places  then  coneddered  uninhabitable  by  all 
monasteries  a  true  community  life  was  followed.  It  except  the  monks.  Gradually  forests  were  cleared 
was  no  longer  possible  for  each  one  to  choose  his  own  and  marshes  drained^  rivers  were  bridged  and  roads 
dinner  hour.  On  the  contrary,  meals  were  in  com-  made;  until,  almost  imperceptibly,  the  desert  place 
mon,  work  was  in  common,  prayer  was  in  common  became  a  farm  or  a  garden.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
seven  times  a  day.  In  the  matter  of  asceticism  too  when  the  Black  Monks  were  raving  less  time  to  agri- 
all  the  monks  were  under  the  control  of  the  superior  culture,  tlie  Cistercians  re-established  the  old  order  of 
whose  sanction  was  required  for  all  the  austerities  they  things;  and  even  to-day  such  monasteries  as  La 
might  undertake.  It  was  from  these  sources  that  Trappe  de  Staoueli  in  N.  Africa,  or  New  Nursia  in  W. 
western  monachism  took  its  rise;  further  information  Australia  do  identically  the  same  work  as  was  done  b^ 
on  them  will  be  found  in  the  articles  Basil  the  the  monks  a  thousand  years  ago.  "  We  owe  the  agn- 
Grsat,  Saint;  Basil,  Rule  of  Saint;  Benedict  op  cultural  restoration  of  a  sreat  part  of  Europe  to  the 


and  renunciation.    In  the  way  of  occupations  there-  every  creed,  is  enough  for  the  purpose  here  (see  Cia- 

fore  prayer  must  always  take  the  first  place.  tbrcians). 

(a)  Monastic  Prayer.— From  the  very  outset  it  has        (ii)  Copying  of  MSS.— Even  more  important  than 

been  regard^  as  the  monk's  first  duty  to  keep  up  the  their  services  to  agriculture  has  been  the  work  of  the 

official  prayer  of  the  Church.    To  what  extent  the  monastic  orders  in  the  preservation  of  ancient  litera- 

Divine  office  was  stereotypy  in  St.  Anthony's  day  ture.    In  this  respect  too  the  results  achieved  went 

need  not  be  discussed  here,  but  Palladius  and  Cassian  far  bevond  what  was  actually  aimed  at.    The  monks 

both  make  it  clear  that  the  monks  were  in  no  way  be-  copied  the  Scriptures  for  their  own  use  in  the  Church 

hind  the  rest  of  the  world  as  regards  their  liturgical  services  and,   when  their  cloisters  developed  into 

customs.    The  practice  of  celebrating  the  office  apart,  schools,  as  the  march  of  events  made  it  inevitable  they 

or  in  twos  and  threes,  *haB  been  referred  to  above  as  should,  they  copied  also  such  monuments  of  classical 

common  in  the  Antonian  system,  while  the  Pacho-  literature  as  were  preserved.    At  first  no  doubt  such 

mian  monks  performed  many  of  the  services  in  their  work  was  solely  utilitarian^  even  in  St.  Benedict's  rule 

separate  houses,  the  whole  community  only  assem-  the  instructions  as  to  readmg  and  study  make  it  clear 

blmg  in  the  church  for  the  more  solemn  offices,  while  that  these  filled  a  very  subordinate  place  in  the  di^so- 

the  Antonian  monks  only  met  together  on  Saturdays  sition  of  the  monastic  life.     Cassioaorus  was  the  nrst 

and  Sundays.    Among  the  monks  of  Syria  the  ni^t  to  make  the  transcription  of  MSS.  and  themultipU- 

office  was  much  longer  than  in  Egypt  (Cassian,  ''In-  cation  of  books  an  organized  and  important  branch  of 

stit.",  II,  ii;  III,  i,  iv,  viii)  and  new  offices  at  different  monastic  labour,  but  his  insistence  in  this  direction  in- 

houiB  of  the  day  were  instituted.    In  prayer  as  in  fluenced  western  monachism  enormously  and  is  in 

other  mattere  St.  Basil's  le^usdation  became  the  norm  fact  his  chief  claim  to  recognition  as  a  legpslator  for 


MOttASTIClSM 


463 


MONASTtCiSM 


monks.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  to-da>  are 
faidebted  to  the  labours  of  the  monastic  copyists  for 
the  preservation,  not  only  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  but 
of  practically  all  that  survives  to  us  of  the  secular  lit- 
erature of  antiquity  (see  Manuscript;  Cloister; 
Scriftgrium). 

(iii)  Education. — ^At  first  no  one  became  a  monk  be- 
fore he  was  an  adult,  but  very  soon  the  custom  began 
of  receiving  the  young.  Even  infants  in  arms  were 
dedicated  to  the  monastic  state  by  their  parents  (see 
Reg.  Ben.,  lix)  and  in  providing  for  the  education  of 
these  child-monks  the  cloister  inevitably  developed 
into  a  schoolroom  (see  Oblati).  Nor  was  it  long  be- 
fore the  schools  thus  established  began  to  include  chil- 
dren not  intended  for  the  monastic  state.  Some  writ- 
ers have  maintained  that  this  step  was  not  taken  until 
the  time  of  Charlema^e,  but  there  is  sufficient  indi- 
cation that  such  pupils  existed  at  an  earlier  date, 
though  the  proportion  of  external  scholars  certainly 
increased  largely  at  this  time.  The  system  of  educa- 
tion followed  was  that  known  as  the  '*Trivlum''  and 
''Quadrivium"  (see  Arts,  The  Seven  Liberal), 
which  was  merely  a  development  of  that  used  during 
classical  times. 

The  greater  number  of  the  larger  monasteries  in 
western  Europe  had  a  claustral  school  and  not  a  few, 
of  which  St.  Uall  in  Switzerland  may  be  cited  as  an  ex- 
ample, acouired  a  reputation  which  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  call  European.  With  the  rise  of  the  univer- 
sities and  the  spread  of  the  mendicant  orders  the 
monastic  control  of  education  came  to  an  end,  but  the 
sdiools  attached  to  the  monasteries  continued,  and 
still  continue  to-day,  to  do  no  insignificant  amount  of 
educational  work  (see  Arts,  The  Seven  Liberal; 
Cloister;  Education;  Schools). 

(iv)  Architecture,  painting,  sculpture  and  metal 
work. — Of  the  first  hermits  many  lived  in  caves, 
tombs,  and  deserted  ruins,  but  from  the  outset  the 
monk  has  been  forced  to  be  a  builder.  We  have  seen 
that  the  Pachomian  system  required  buildines  of  elab- 
orate plan  and  large  accommodation,  and  the  organ- 
ized development  of  monastic  life  did  not  tend  to  sim- 
plify- the  buildings  which  enshrined  it.  Consequentl}'^ 
skill  in  architecture  was  called  for  and  so  monastic 
architects  were  produced  to  meet  the  need  in  the  same 
almost  unconscious  manner  as  were  the  monastic 
schoolmasters.  During  the  medieval  period  the  arts 
of  painting,  illuminatinjs,  sculpture,  and  goldsmiths' 
work  were  practised  in  the  monasteries  all  over 
Europe  and  the  output  must  have  been  simply  enor- 
mou8.J|C 

We  nave  in  the  museums,  churches,  and  elsewhere 
fuch  countless  examples  of  monastic  skill  in  these  arts 
that  it  is  really  difficult  to  realize  that  all  this  wealth  of 
beautiful  thinjgs  forms  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total 
of  artistic  creation  turned  out  century  after  century 
b^  these  skilful  and  untiring  craftsmen.  Yet  it  is  cer- 
tainly true  that  what  has  perished'  b^r  destruction, 
loss  and  decay  would  outweigh  many  times  over  the 
entire  mass  of  medieval  art  work  now  in  enstence,  and 
of  this  the  laiiger  portion  was  produced  in  the  work- 
shop of  the  cloister  (see  Architecture;  Ecclesias- 
tical Art;  Painting;  Illumination;  Reliquary; 
Shi^ne;  Sculpture). 

(v)  Historical  and  patristic  work. — ^As  years  passed 
by  the  great  monastic  corporations  accumulated 
archives  of  the  highest  value  for  the  history  of  the 
countries  wherein  uiey  were  situated.  It  was  the  cus- 
tom too  in  many  of  the  larger  abbeys  for  an  official 
chronicler  to  record  the  events  of  contemporary  his- 
tory. In  more  recent  times  the  seed  thus  planted 
bore  fniit  in  the  many  great  works  of  erudition  which 
have  won  for  the  monks  such  high  praise  from  scholars 
of  all  claraes.  The  Maurist  Congregation  of  Bene- 
dictines (q.  v.)  which  flourished  in  France  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  was  the  su- 
preme example  of  this  type  of  monastic  industiy,  but 


similar  works  on  a  less  extensive  scale  have  been  un- 
dertaken in  every  country  of  western  Europe  by 
monks  of  all  orders  and  congregations,  and  at  the 
present  time  (1910)  this  output  of  solid  scholarly  work 
shows  no  signs  whatever  of  diminution  either  in  qual- 
ity or  Quantity. 

(vi)  Missionary  work. — ^Perhaps  the  mission  field 
would  seem  a  spnere  little  suitea  for  monastic  ener- 
gies, but  no  idea  could  be  more  false.  Mankind  is 
proverbially  imitative  and  so,  to  establish  a  Chris- 
tianity where  paganism  once  ruled,  it  is  necessary  to 
present  not  simply  a  code  of  morals,  not  the  mere  laws 
and  regulations,  nor  even  the  theology  of  the  Church, 
but  an  actual  pattern  of  Christian  society.  Such  a 
"working  model"  is  found  pre-eminently  in  the  mon- 
astery, and  so  it  is  tlie  monastic  order  which  has 
provea  itself  the  apostle  of  the  nations  in  western 
Europe. 

To  mention  a  few  instances  of  this — Saints  Co- 
lumba  in  Scotland,  Augustine  in  England,  Boniface  in 
Germany,  Ansgar  in  Scandinavia,  Swithbcrt  and  Wil- 
librord  m  the  Netherlands.  Eut)ert  and  Emmeran  in 
what  is  now  Austria,  Adalbert  in  Bohamia,  GaJl  and 
Columban  in  Switzerland,  were  monks  who,  by  the 
example  of  a  Christian  society  which  they  and  their 
companions  displayed,  led  the  nations  among  whom 
they  lived  from  paganism  to  Christianity  and  civiliza- 
tion. Nor  did  the  monastic  apostles  stop  at  this 
point  but,  by  remaining  as  a  community  and  training 
their  converts  in  the  arts  of  peace,  they  established  a 
society  based  on  Gospel  principles  and  firm  with  the 
stability  of  the  Christian  faith,  in  a  way  that  no  indi- 
vidual missionary,  even  the  most  devoted  and  saintly, 
has  ever  succeeded  in  doing. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood  however,  that  mo- 
nasticism  has  never  become  stereot>'p€d  in  practice, 
and  that  it  would  be  quite  false  to  hold  up  any  single 
example  as  a  supreme  and  perfect  model.  Monasti- 
cism  is  a  living  thing  and  consequently  it  must  be 
informed  with  a  principle  of  self  motion  and  adaptabil- 
ity to  its  environment.  Only  one  thing  must  al- 
ways remain  the  same  and  that  is  the  motive  power 
which  brought  it  into  existence  and  has  maintained  it 
throughout  the  centuries,  viz.,  the  love  of  God  and  the 
desire  to  serve  Him  as  perfectly  as  this  life  permits, 
leaving  all  things  to  follow  after  Christ. 

Didumnaire  d'AaeHicisme;  Mionv,  Bneydopidie  Thiologigue, 
XLV,  XLVI;  A  Kempis.  De  Imitatume  Christi;  Alum,  The  Mo-' 
nasiie  Life, vol.  Ylll  of  "The  Formation  of  ChriBtendom "  (Lon- 
don, 1896):  Ambrose.  St.,  De  Virginibue:  De  Viduie:  Bpiatola,  in 
P.  L..  XIV-XVII;  AifiuNEAir,  Vie  de  Scknoudi  (Pans,  1888); 
Idem,  Voyage  c/'un  moine  (gyptien  done  le  dieert  (Vienna,  1883) ; 
Idem,  Eeeax  eur  VivoltUion  kiat.  et  pAtTos.  dee  idSee  moraUe  dane 
VEgypte  ancienne  (Paris,  1895) ;  Apophtheotnaia  Patrum,  in  Verba 
Seniorum,  P.  L.,  LXV;  Aqxtinab,  St,  Thomab,  tr.  Pboctkr,  The 
Relioioua  State  (London.  1902) ;  Idem,  tr.  xdbm.  Apology  for  the 
Religioua  Ordera  (London,  1902);  Atuenaoorab,  Legatio  pro 
Chriatiania  in  P.  O.,  VI;  Athakabiub,  St.,  VitaArUonii:  Bpiatola, 
P.  (7.,  XXV-XXVIir.  AuGUBTiNE.  St.,  De  moribua  Eeelee. 
Cathol.,  Bpiatola:  Bnchiridion  in  P.  L.,  XXXIV-XXXVII; 
Baker,  Sancta  Sophia  (London,  1876);  Basil,  St.,  Bpiatola: 
Begula  fuaiva  traetala,  Regula  breviiu  traetata,  De  renuntiaiione 
aaeuli,  Hexatneron  (proamium),  De  Judicio;  ConatituUonea  a*- 
ceiica  (N.B.  The  last  named  probably  by  Eustatbiua  of  So- 
baate),  P.  O.,  XXIX-XXXII;  Bedb.  Ven.,  Vilat  SS.  Abbatum  in 
P.  L.,  LXLV;  Benedict,  St.,  Regxda,  P.  L.,  LXVI;  Bernard, 
St.,  De  diligendo  Deo:  Bpiatola,  P.  L.,  CLXXXII-V;  Bingham. 
Anfiquitiea  (Ix>ndon,  1865)  ;Blo8IUS,  OperaOmnia  (Antwerp,  1632) ; 
Bornemann,  In  inveatiganda  numaehntua  origine  quibua  de  cauaie 
ratio  habenda  ait  Originia  (Gottingen,  1885) ;  Briobt,  ^oiim  Aapeeta 
(^f  primitive  church  life  (London,  1893) ;  Budoe,  Book  of  the  Ootemora 
rLondon,  1893);  Idem,  Paradiae  of  the  Holy  Fathera  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don. 1907) ;  Butler,  Lauaiac  Hiatory  of  Palladiua  (Cambridgs, 
1898) ;  CJBSARins  or  Arles,  St.,  RigiJa  ad  Virginea  in  Hoi#- 
btbin;  Calmet.  Comment,  in  Reg.  S.  Benedieti  (Pans,  1734);  Ca»- 
BiAN  (tr.  Gibson),  InatituUa:  Conferencea  (Oxford,  1894);  critical 
text  ed..  Petscrenio  (Vienna,  1886,  1888);  Cassiodorus,  Opera 
m  P.L.,  LXX;  Clemsnt  of  Alexandria,  St.,  Paidagogua:  Stro- 
mate.;  quia  divea  aalvetur  in  P.  G.,  VIII,  IX;  Columbanub,  St., 
Regula  :  Panitentiale  in  Holotbin  ;  Contbearb.  Philo  about  the 
contemplative  life  (Oxford.  1895);  Idem,  Apology  and  Acta  of  Apol- 
loniua,  etc..  (London,  1894);  Ctfhian.  St..  de  habitu  Virginum  in 
P.  L.,TV',  Diognetua,  BpiatU  to,  in  P.  Q.,  II;  Doyle,  Prineiplea  of 
the  Monaatie  Life  (London.  1883);  Feaset.  Afonaaticiam  (Lon- 
don, 1898);  Gabqttbt.  Sngliah  monaatie  life  (London.  1904); 
OuKaonT,8rr^Di^oguea:Ejriatlea,UiP.  L. ,  LXVI  ;GRKOORr  Nazi- 
ANiwc.  9^QrtHM  gn  Atkamuiua  in  P.  (?.,  XXXV-XXXVIII; 


U^^  4.  i'" 


U    . 


; 


HOttASTlCttM                        464  HOKASTIOXnt 

^^Sr^^H^J^TsZ/i^Ll'?^^  "**<^^  ^^^  *^«  *^8  ^^  <1«°«-    ^  f^  practice  of  the 

?LSidS?i9^TioE5rr*rtF23r  %''uTd:.^'^^oZ  ^^^  Evangelical  counsel  (obedience)  could  only  be  nv 

\WA)\YLAKs\c%.tDa9Mimehium,aeiM  ldeaUund»eiMGc8ckichu,  auzed  after  the  monastic  ideal  Lad  taken  root  and 

(Gieawn,  1895) ;  UuMraET,  iffe»^  passed  beyond  the  purely  eremitical  stajre.     The 

don,  1895);  Holbtbin,  Codex  Regydanim  (2  voU.,  Rome,  1661);     r„4^\r;«««A  «a^^4^:«  «,^..i^  V->  -.  —.-. u^  i^TT        •      i 

Jerome,  St.,  Vila  PavH:  Vita  Hiiarumi:'  Vita  Maiehi:  Adv,  jX  ante-Nicene  aswtic  would  be  a  man  who  led  a  Single 

Jena.:  Adv.  Jonnian :  De  Virie  iUutirib.:  Bptitola  in  P.  L„  1116,  practised  long  and  frequent  fasts,  abstained 

}^^^\:^J^''.^^^<^*^  ^•^•JV^  *v»»jgj*=*«*  ^'^  from  flesh  and  wine,  and  supported  himself,  if  he  were 

lage  b«%   Banluu  dem   Groasen    (Paderbom.   1896):    KnttaER,  -.ui.    v,__  -,-._-^  o«^«ii  u^^^iJilc*    u.^^:^^  it  —u   «  l 

Ge»ehiehtederaltehr%eUiehenLitenUta'(Jjeipzig,lS08);  Lkjkt.^/w-  *^'«»  py  «>°^«  "»»^J  handicraft,  keepmg  of  what  he 

tory  qf  European  MoraU  (2 vols..  London,  1869);  l'Hcilusb,  £«-  earned  omy  80  much  as  was  absolutely  niKiessarv  for 

^iaitim  delaR^iede  s.  BeruAti2  vola..  Paris.  1901) :  Luciijs,  his  own  sustenance,  and  giving  the  Pest  to  the  poor. 

a.  Benedidi  (Paris,  1701)7  Idem.  UnmOw  Orrfini,  3.  Benedidi  i^  ^?  ^©J®  an  educated  man,  he  might  be  employed 

(Paris,  1703):  Mktbodigs,  Sympoeium  decern  virginutn  in  P.  O.,  DV  the  ChUTCh  in  some  SUch  capacity  as  that  of  cate- 

?oYif^^  M9?J^,"?»»™»  ^  ^'^'»**/T^^i*^*?i.iZv^i?-  ^•™'  c^iflt.    Very  often  he  would  don  the  kind  of  dress 

1860).  tr.  with  introd.  by  QASQurr  (London,  1896);  Nkwmah,     --,Vi;«k  *«a-i^A^  u.  nr^..^.  *v«  —  «  -»i.:iw ^-^u e 

HiMtoriad  SketduM  (3  vbls..  London^  1873)7  Oianaii,  HieUni  ^^^^  marked  its  wearer  off  as  a  philosopher  of  an 

of    Citilization   in   the  Fifth  century   (London,   1868);    Preu-  aUStere  Bchool. 

jcBEK,  Palladiu»undRufinuaOGie»en^  1897^;  Paxxadiob,  //»-  In  Egypt,  at  the  time  when  St.  Anthony  first 

torw  Lauetaea^  ed.  Butlbb  (Carnhndge.  1904) ;  Rambat,  The     «-«u-o/»^   ♦u*.    „„««♦;*    i:/«     4.i>^«-v   »«-^   -. m/  c 

Church  in  the  Roman  Empire  (London7i895) ;  Riubt,  Athoe  the  embraced  the  ascctic  life,  there  wcne  numbers  of 

mountain  of  the  Monke  (London.  1887);   Robwetd,  Vita  Patrum  aSCetlCS  iivmg  m  hutS  m  the  neighbourhood   of  the 

(Antwerp,  1628),  mostly  reprinted^  in  P.  L.,  IJCXIII-LXXIV;  towns  and  Villages.    When  St.  Anthony  died  (356 

RunNDS,   Htetorta  Monachorum  in   JP.  Z#.,   XXI;   Idbm,  Verba     ^^    qk7\      *-,«    ♦,»•>««    ^t    .««xv«»«4:^:«»    a*L..^  i. i    - 

Seniarum  in   Roswutd;    Idku.  Rrgula  8.  Baeilii  Ep.  ik  Hoi^  gf    ^^7^' J^®    *^>P^    9^    monsflticism    flounshed    in 

dtein;  SpRBmKNBorKit.  Die  Entwicklung  dee  alten  M6nehtuma  in  iiigypt.      1  here  were  Villages  Or  OOlomes  of  henmts — 

Jja/isa  (Vienna.  18JM) :  Idem.  Di^Hie^rieehen  Vomueeetxuno  drr  the  eremitical  type;  and  monasteries  in  which  a  com- 

Regel  dee  HI.  Benedict  (yietmA,  1895):  SvKKBZ,tr.auuTniiT,  The  •«„«;*« -i;f«   nroo   iJL^      4U^   «w»»<^k;4:«    4^,»^        a    u-:  .- 

Reliffioue  State  (3  voU.,  London.  1884);  Smith.  Rise  of  Chrietian  mumty   Me   WBS   led—the   cenobltiC    type,      A    bne! 

Monaaticiem  (London.  1892);  Idem.  Charaderietice  of  Christian  SUrvey  of  the  Openmg  chapters  Of  PalladlUS  8  "  Lausiar 

AforaZt/v  (l^ndon,  ^75);  Sui^cius  Sbvkbds.  iXaio^  History"  will  scTve  as  a  description  of  the  former 

0f.  Martin  in  P.  L.,  XX;  Weinqabten,  Der  Uraprung  dee  Mdneh'  f  vtia 

<umc  (Gotha,  1877);  Wbusacker,  tr.  Ml  LUBR,  7A«i4po«io2icA0«  ^w\i    j.                             ,    .          «,       .           ,        . 

of  the  ChrUtian  Church;  Wolteb,  Elementa  Monaattea  (Bruges,  FalladlUS  was  a  monk  from  Palestine  who,  in  388, 

}?52^  J^°^'*°°^5"i.^*'^i^f***v?'*^*^'  '*'*?'*  •^f^iv^°^°°*  ^^^^  ^  Egypt  to  drink  in  the  spirit  of  monasticism 

1896);  ZocKL«i.  Aakeee  und  Monchtum  (FranWort,  1897).  ^^  ^^e  fountainhead.    On  landing  at  Alexandria  he 

G.  ROGEB  HUDDLBSTON.  put  himself  in  the  hands  of  a  priest  named  Isidore, 

who  in  early  life  had  been  a  hermit  at  Nitria  and  now 
II.  Eastern  Monasticism  Before  Chalcedon  apparently  presided  over  a  hospice  at  Alexandria 
(a.  d.  451). — Egypt  was  the  Motherland  of  Christian  without  in  any  way  abating  the  austeritv  of  his  life, 
monasticism.  It  sprang  into  existence  there  at  the  By  the  advice  of  Isidore,  Palladius  placecf  himself  un- 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century  and  in  a  very  few  der  the  direction  of  a  hermit  named  Dorotheas  who 
years  spread  over  the  whole  Christian  world.  The  lived  six  miles  outside  Alexandria,  with  whom  he  was 
rapidity  of  the  movement  was  only  eoualled  by  the  to  pass  three  years  learning  to  subdue  his  passions 
durability  of  its  results.  Within  the  lifetime  of  St.  and  then  to  return  to  Isidore  to  receive  higher  spirit- 
Anthony  the  religious  state  had  become  what  it  has  ual  knowledge.  This  Dorotheus  spent  the  whole  day 
been  ever  since,  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  collecting  stones  to  build  cells  for  other  hermits,  and 
the  Catholic  Church,  with  its  ideals,  and  what  may  the  whole  night  weaving  ropes  out  of  palm  leaves, 
be  termed  the  groundwork  of  its  organization,  deter-  He  never  lay  down  to  sleep,  though  slumber  sometimes 
mined.  But  this  was  not  all.  The  simple  teaching  overtook  him  while  working  or  eating.  Palladium, 
of  the  first  Eg>'ptian  monks  and  hermits  fixed  once  who  seems  to  have  lived  in  his  cell,  ascertained  from 
and  forever  the  broad  outlines  of  the  science  of  the  other  solitaries  that  this  had  been  his  custom  from 
spiritual  life,  or,  in  other  words,  of  ascetic  theology,  his  youth  upwards.  Falladius*s  health  broke  down 
The  study,  therefore,  of  early  monasticism  possesses  a  before  he  completed  his  time  with  Dorotheus.  but 

freat  deal  more  than  a  merely  antiquarian  interest,  he  spent  three  years  in  Alexandria  and  its  neighoour- 

t  is  concerned  with  a  movement  the  force  of  which  hooa  visiting  the  hermitages  and  becoming  acquainted 

is  in  no  way  spent  and  which  has  had  a  very  large  with  about  2Q00  monks.     From  Alexandria  he  went  to 

share  in  creating  the  conditions  which  obtain  at  the  Nitria,  where  there  was  a  monastic  village  containing 

present  day.  a1x>ut  5000  solitaries.    There  was  no  kind  of  monas- 

The  first  chapter  in  the  history  of  monasticism  is  tic  rule.    Some  of  the  solitaries  Uved  alone,  some^ 

the  life  of  St.  Anthony  which  has  already  been  de-  times  two  or  more  lived  together.    They  aasembled 

scribed  (see  Anthony,  Saint).    The  inauguration  of  at  the  church  on  Saturdays  and   Sundavs.    The 

the  monastic  movement  may  be  dated  either  about  church  was  served  by  eight  priests  of  whom  tJhe  oldest 

285,  when  St.  Anthony,  no  longer  content  with  the  life  always  celebrated,  preached,  and  judged,  the  others 

of  the  ordinary  ascetic,  went  into  the  wilderness,  or  only  assisting.    All  worked  at  weaving  flax.     There 

about  305,  when  he  organized  a  kind  of  monastic  life  were  bakeries  where  bread  was  made,  not  only  for 

for  his  disciples.    Ascetic  is  the  term  usually  employed  the  village  itself,  but  for  the  solitaries  who  lived  in  the 

by  writers  on  monasticism  for  those  who  in  pre-mo-  desert  beyond.    There  were  doctors.    Wine  also  was 

nastic  days  forsook  the  world  so  far  as  they  were  able.  sold. 

Of  the  three  Evangelic^  counsels,  chastity  alone  can  Strangers  were  entertained  in  a  guest-house.    If 

be  practised  independently  of  external  circumstances,  able  to  read,  they  were  lent  a  book.    They  might 

Naturally,  therefore  (beginning  with  the  sub-Apos-  stay  as  long  as  they  liked,  but  after  a  week  they  were 

tolic  age),  we  hear  first  of  men  and  women  leading  the  set  to  some  kind  of  work.    If  at  the  ninth  hour  a  man 

virgin  life  (cf.  I  Clem.,  xxxviii:  Ignat.,  ''ad  Poly-  stood  and  listened  to  the  sound  of  psalmody  issuing 

carp.",  c.  v;  Hermas,  "Sim.",  IX,  30).  from  the  different  cells,   he  would  imagine, 


the  complete  renimciation  of  all  worldly  possessions,  three  whips  suspended  from  three  palm  trees,  one  for 

would  be  difficult  till  there  were  monastenes,  for  per-  monks  who  might  be  guilty  of  some  fault,  one  for 

sons  with  wealth  to  renounce  would  not,  generally  thieves  who  might  be  caught  prowling  about,  and  the 

speaking,  have  been  brought  up  so  as  to  be  capable  third  for  strangers  who  misbehaved.     Further  into 

of  earning  their  own  livelihooa.    Still  we  have  the  the  desert  was  a  place  called  Cells,  or  Cellia,  whither 

examples  of  Origen,  St.  Qrprian,  and  Pamphilus  to  the  more  perfect  withdrew.    This  is  described  by  the 


MONASTICISM                         465  M0NA8TICISM 

author  of  the  "Historia  monachorum  in  ^gypto".  Pentecost,  were  fast  days.    Some  only  took  very  little 

Here  the  solitaries  lived  in  cells  so  far  apart  that  they  at  the  second  meal;  some  at  one  or  other  of  the  meals 

were  out  out  of  sight  and  out  of  hearing  of  one  another,  confined  themselves  to  a  sinele  food :  others  took  just 

Like  those  of  Nitria,  they  met  only  on  Saturdays  and  a  morsel  of  bread.    Some  aostainea  altogether  from 

Sundays  at  church,  wmther  some  of  them  had  to  the  community  meal;  for  these  bread,  water,  and 

travel  a  distance  of  three  or  four  miles.    Often  their  salt  were  placed  in  their  cell. 

death  was  only  discovered  by  their  absence  from  Pachomius  appointed  his  successor  a  monk  named 

'^urch.  Petronius,  who  died  within  a  few  months,  having 

In  strong  contrast  with  the  individualism  of  the  likewise  named  his  successor,  Horsiesi.    In  Uorsiesi's 

<vemitical  me  was  the  rigid  discipline  which  prevailed  in  time  the  order  was  threatened  with  a  schism.    The 

the  cenobitical  monasteries  founded  by  St.  Pachomius.  abbot  of  one  of  the  houses,  instead  of  forwarding  the 

W'hen,in313,ConBtantinewa8atwarwithMaxentius,  produce  of  the  work  of  his  monks  to  the  head  house 

Pachomius,  still  a  heathen,  was  forcibly  enlisted  to-  of  the  order,  where  it  would  be  sold  and  the  price 

gether  with  a  number  of  other  young  men,  and  placed  distributed  to   the  different   houses  according  to 

on  board  a  ship  to  be  carried  down  the  Nile  to  Alex-  their  need,  wished  to  have  the  disposal  of  it  for  the 

andria.    At  some  town  at  which  the  tiap  touched,  sole  benefit  of  his  own  monastery.    Horsiesi,  finding 

the  recruits  were  overwhelmed  with  the  kindness  of  himself  unable  to  cope  with  the  situation,  appointed 

the  Christians.    Pachomius  at  once  resolved  to  be  a  Theodore,  a  favourite  disciple  of  Pachomius,   his 

Christian  and  carried  out  his  resolution  as  soon  as  he  coadjutor. 

was  dismissed  from  military  service.    He  began  as  an  When  Theodore  died,  in  the  year  368,  Horsiesi  was 

ascetic  in  a  small  village^  taking  u|>  his  abode  in  a  able  to  resume  the  govenmient  of  the  order.    This 

deserted  temple  of  Serapis  and  cultivating  a  garden  threatened  schism  brings  prominently  before  us  a 

on  the  produce  of  which  he  hved  and  gave  alms,  feature  connected  with  Pachomius's  foundation  which 

The  fact  that  Pachomius  made  an  old  temple  of  is  never  again  met  with  in  the  East,  and  in  the  West 

Serapis  his  abode  was  enough  for  an  ingenious  theoi^  only  man^  centuries  later.    "Like  Ctteaux  in  a  later 

that  he  was  originally  a  pagan  monk.    This  view  is  age",  writes  Abbot  Butler,  "it  almost  at  once  as- 

now  quite  exploded.  sumra  the  shape  of  a  fully-organized  congregation 

Pachomius  next  embraced  the  eremitical  life  and  or  order,  with  a  superior  general  and  a  system  of 

prevailed  upon  an  old  hermit  named  Palemon  to  take  visitation  and  general  chapters — in  short,  all  the 

nim  as  his  disciple  and  share  his  cell  with  him.    It  machinery  of  a  centralizea   government,  such  as 

may  be  noted  tnat  this  kind  of  disciplediip,  which,  does  not  appear  again  in  the  monastic  world  until 

as  we  have  already  seen,  was  attempted  b^  Palladius,  the  Cistercian  and  the  Mendicant  Orders  arose  in 

was  a  recognized  thing  among  the  Egyptian  hermits,  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries"  (op.  cit.,  I, 

Afterwards  he  left  Palemon  and  founded  his  first  235). 

monastery  at  Tabennisi  near  Denderah.  Before  he  A  word  must  be  said  about  Schenoudi,  or  Schnoudi, 
died,  in  346,  he  had  under  him  eight  or  nine  large  or  Senuti.  Shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
monasteries  of  men,  and  two  of  women.  From  a  centurjr,  two  monks,  P^ol  and  Pschais,  changed  their 
secular  point  of  view,  a  Pachomian  monastery  was  an  eremitical  monasteries  into  cenobitical  ones.  Of  the 
industrial  community  in  which  almost  every  kind  of  latter  we  know  scarcely  anything.  Schenoudi,  when 
trade  was  practised.  This,  of  course,  involved  much  a  boy  of  about  nine  years  old,  came  under  the  care 
buying  and  selling,  so  the  monks  had  ships  of  their  of  his  uncle  Pgol.  Both  Pgol  and  Schenoudi  were  re- 
own  on  the  Nile,  which  conveyed  their  agricultural  formers — ^the  Pachomian  Rule  was  not  strict  enough 
produce  and  manufactured  goods  to  the  market  and  for  them. 

Brought  back  what  the  monasteries  required.    From  Schenoudi  succeeded  his  uncle  Pgol  as  head  of 

the  spiritual  point  of  view,  the  Pachomian  monk  was  the  White  Monastery  of  Athribis  and,  till  his  death 

a  religious  livmg  under  a  rule  more  severe,  even  when  (about  453),  was  not  only  the  greatest  monastic 

allowance  has  been  made  for  differences  of  climate  l^uler,  but  one  of  the  most  important  men,  in  E^pt. 

and  race,  than  that  of  the  Trappists.  He  waged  war  against  heretics;  he  took  a  prominent 

A  Pachomian  monastery  was  a  collection  of  build-  part  in  the  rooting  out  of  paganism;  he  championed 

ings  surrounded  by  a  wall.    The  monks  were  dis-  the  cause  of  the  pcx>r  against  the  rich.     He  once 

tributed  in  houses,  each  house  containing  about  forty  went  in  person  to  Constantinople  to  complain  of  the 

monks.    Three  or  four  bouses  constituted  a  tribe,  tyranny  of  government  officials.    On  one  occasion 

There  would  be  from  thirty  to  forty  houses  in  a  mon-  ^000  men,  women,  and  children  took  refuge  in  the 

astery.   There  was  an  abbot  over  each  monastenr,  and  Wnite  Monastery  auring  an  invasion  of  the  savage 

provosts  with  subordinate  officials  over  each  house.  Blemmyes  of  Ethiopia,  and  Schenoudi  maintained 

The  monks  were  divided  into  houses  according  to  all  the  fugitives  for  three  months,  providing  them 

the  work  they  were  employed  in:  thus  there  would  be  with  food  and  medical  aid.    On  another  occasion  he 

a  house  for  carpenters,  a  house  for  agriculturists,  and  ransomed  a  hundred  captives  and  sent  them  home 

BO  forth.    But  other  principles  of  division  seem  to  with  food,  clothing,  and  money  for  their  journey 

have  been  employed,  e.  g.,  we  hear  of  a  house  for  the  (Leipoldt,  "Schenute  von  Atripe",  172.  173).    Sche- 

Greeks.    On  Saturdays  and  Sundays  all  the  monks  noudi's  importance  for  the  histor^r  oi  monasticism 

assembled  in  the  church  for  Mass;  on  other  days  the  is  small,  for  his  influence,  great  as  it  was  in  his  own 

Office  and  other  spiritual  exercises  were  celebrated  country,  did  not  make  itself  felt  elsewhere.    There 

in  the  houses.  were  two  barriers:  Upper  Egypt  was  a  difficult  and 

"The  fundamental  idea  of  St.  Pachomius's  Rule",  dangerous  country  for  travellers,  and  such  as  did 

writiis  Abbot  Butler,  "was  to  establish  a  moderate  penetrate  there  would  not  be  likely  to  visit  a  monas- 

Jevel  of  observance  (moderate  in  comparison  with  the  tery  where  hardly  an3rthing  but  Coptic  was  spoken. 

life  led  by  the  hermits)  which  might  be  obligatory  According  to  Abbot  Butler,   "Schenoudi  is  never 

on  all;  and  then  to  leave  it  open  to  each — and  to  in-  named  ^  any  Greek  or  Latin  writer"  (op.  cit.,  II, 

deed  encourage  each — ^to  go  beyond  the  fixed  mini-  2^).    tie  has  been  rediscovered  in  our  own  time  in 

mum,  according  as  he  was  prompted  by  his  strength,  Coptic  MSS.    A  description  of  the  ruins  of  the  White 

his  courage,  and  his  zeal"  ("Lausiac  History'',  I,  p.  Monastery  will  be  found  in  Curzon's  "Monasteries 

236).    Tms  is  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  rules  con-  of  the  Levant",  ch.  xi.    There  are  photographs  of  the 

ceming  food.    Acooroing  to  St.  Jerome,  in  the  preface  outer  wall  and  the  ruins  of  the  church  in  Milne's 

U9  his  translation  of  the  "Rule  of  Pachomius",  the  "Hist,  of  Egjrpt  under  Roman  Rule". 

tables  were  laid  twice  a  day  except  on  Wednesdays  In  part  IIoi  Butler's  "Lausiac  Histoiy "  is  a  map 

and  Fridays,  which,  outside  the  seasons  of  Easter  and  of  Monastic  Egypt.    A  glance  at  this  map  and 
X,— 30 


MONASnCXSM                        466  HOttASTXCZSM 

the  uotes  accompanying  it  brings  forcibly  before  the  had  better  take  up  their  abode  in  the  cenobium  (Acta 

mind  an  important  fact  in  monastic  history.    With  8S.,  March,  L  386--87). 

the  exception  of  a  single  Pachomian  monastery  at  Antioch,  when  St.  John  Chrysoetom  was  a  young 

Canopus,  near  AlexandSria,  the  cenobitic  monasteries  man,  was  full  of  ascetics  and  the  neighbouring  moun- 

are  in  the  South^  and  confined  to  a  relatively  small  tains  were  peopled  with  hermits.    So  great  was  the 

area.    Ilie  eremitical  monasteries,  on  the  contrary,  impulse  driving  men  to  the  soUtary  life  that  at  one 

are  everywhere,  and  especially  in  the  North.    These  time  there  was  an  outciy,  amounting  almost  to  a  per- 

latter  were  thus  far  more  accessible  to  pilgrims  visit-  secution,  among  Christians  as  well  as  pagans  against 

ing  E^pt  and  so  became  the  patterns  or  models  those  who  embraced  it.    This  was  the  occasion  of 

for  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world.    It  was  the  ere-  St.  Chrysostom's  treatise  against  the  opponents  of 

mitical,  not  the  cenobitical,  type  of  monaaticism  which  monasticiam:  in  the  first  book  he  dwelt  upon  the 

went  forth  from  Egypt.  guilt  incurred  by  them;  the  second  and  third  were 

Monastidsm  at  a  very  early  date  spread  along  addressed  respectively  to  a  pagan  and  a  Christian 

the  route  of  the  Exodus  and  the  desert  of  the  Forty  father  who  were  opposing  the  wish  of  their  sons  to 

Years'  Wandering;.    The  solitaries  had  a  special  pre-  embrace  the  monastic  state.    The  pathetic  scene  be- 

dilection  for  Scriptural  sites.    At  every  place  nal-  tween  the  saint  and  his  mother,  which  he  describes 

lowed  by  tradition,  which  Sylvia  visited  (a.  d.  385),  in  the  beginning  of  the  ''De  sacerdotio'',  must  be 

she  found  monks.    The  attraction  of  Mt.  Sinai  for  typical  of  what  took  place  in  many  Christian  homes, 

the  solitaries  was  irresistible,  in  spite  of  the  danger  He  himself  so  far  yielded  to  his  mother's  entreaties 

of  captivity  or  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  that  he  contented  himself  with  the  ascetic  life  at  home 

In  373  a  number  of  solitaries  inhabited  this  moun-  till  her  death.    Palestine  and  Antioch  must  sufiBce 

tain,  living  on  dates  and  other  fruit,  such  bread  as  as  examples  of  the  rapid  spread  of  monaaticism  out- 

they  had  being  reserved  for  the  Sacred  Mysteries.   All  side  of  Eg3rpt.    There  is  abundant  evidence  of  the 

the  week  they  lived  apart  in  their  cells;  tney  gathered  same  phenomenon  in  all  the  countries  between  the 

together  in  the  church  on  Saturday  evenmg  and,  Mediterranean  and  Mesopotamia;  and  Mesopotamia, 

after  spending  the  night  in  prayer,  received  com-  according  to  St.  Jerome,  whose  testimony  is  amply 

munion  on  Sunday  morning.    Forty  of  them  were  borne  out  by  other  writers,  rivalled  Egypt  itself  in  the 

massacred  in  373,  and  on  the  same  day  another  group  number  and  holiness  of  its  monks  (Comm.  in  I«uam, 

of  solitaries  at  Kaithe  (supposed  to  be  Elim)  were  V,  xix). 

killed  by  a  second  band  of  barbarians.    These  events  We  now  come  to  a  name  second  only  in  impor- 

were  described  by  eye-witnesses  (Tillemont,  ''H.  E.''.  tance  to  St.  Anthony's  for  the  history  of  eastern  mo- 

VIL  573-30).    The  same  kind  of  life  was  being  lea  nasticism.    St.  Basd  the  Great  before  embracing  the 

at  Mt.  Sinai,  and  a  similar  experience  was  under-  monastic  state  made  a  careful  study  of  monasUcism 

gone  some  twenty  years  later  when  St.  Nilus  was  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Coelesyria,  and  Mesopotamia, 

there.  The  result  was  a  decided  preference  for  the  cen^iti- 

St.  Hilarion,  who  for  a  time  had  been  a  disciple  oal  life.    He  founded  several  monasteries  in  Pontua 

of  St.  Anthony,  propagated  monaaticism  of  tiie  er&-  over  one  of  which  he  himself  for  a  time  presided,  ana 

mitical  type  mst  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  native  very  soon  monasteries,  modelled  after  his,  spread  over 

city   Gaza   and   dien  in  Qrprus.     His  friend  St.  the  East.    His  monks  assembled  together  for  "psal- 

Epiphanius,  after  practising  the  monastic   life  in  mody''  and  ''genuflexions''  seven  times  a  day,  in 

Egypt,  founded  a  monastery  near  Eleutheropolis  in  accordance  with  the  Psalmist's ''Septies  in  die  laudem 

Palestme  somewhere  about  330  or  perhaps  a  little  dixi  tibi "  (Ps.  cxviii,  164) :  at  midnight  (**  Media  nocte 

later.  surgebam" — Ibid.,    62),    at   evening,  morning,  and 

In  Jerusalem  and  its  neighbourhood  there  were  midday  (Ps.  Iv,  18),  at  the  third  hour,  the  hour  of 

numerous  monasteries  at  a  very  early  date.    To  name  Pentecost,  and  at  the  ninth,  the  sacrea  hour  of  the 

only  a  few,  there  was  the  monastery  on  the  Mount  of  Passion.    To  complete  the  tale  of  sevezi,  the  midday 

Olives,  from  which  Palladius  went  forth  on  his  tour  prayer  was  divided  into  two  parts  sepiuiited  by  the 

of  the  Egyptian  monasteries;  there  were  two  monas-  community  meal  (Sermo  "AiBceticus  ',  Benedictine 

teries  for  women  in  Jerusalem,  built  by  the  older  and  edition,  II,  321).    St.  Basil's  monastic  ideal  is  set 

younger  Melania  respectively.    At  Bethlehem  St.  forth  in  a  collection  of  his  writings  known  as  the 

Paula  found^  three  monasteries  for  women  and  one  ''Asceticon",  or  "Ascetica",  the  most  important  of 

for  men  about  a.  d.  387.    There  was,  besides,  in  which  are  the  "Regul»  fusius  tractatie",  a  series  of 

Bethlehem  the  monastery  where  Cassian  some  years  answers  to  questions,  fifty-five  in  number,  and  the 

b^ore  began  his  rehKious  life.    The  lauras,  which  ''Regulffi  brevius  tractatse",  in  which  three  hundred 

were  very  numerous,  formed  a  conspicuous  feature  in  and  thirteen  questions  are  briefly  replied  to.    It  must 

Palestinian  monaaticism.    The  first  seems  to  have  not  be  supposed  that  the  ''Reguue"  form  a  rule, 

been  founded  before  334  by  St.  Chariton  at  Pharan,  though  it  would  be  possible  to  go  a  good  way  towards 

a  few  miles  from  Jerusalem;  later  on,  two  more  constituting  one  out  of  them     They  are  answers  to 

were  founded  by  the  same  saint  at  Jericho  and  at  questions  which  would  naturally  arise  among  persoDS 

Suca.  already  in  possession  of  a  framework  of  customs  or 

St.  Euthjrmius  (473)  founded  another  celebrated  one  traditions.    Sometimes  they  treat  of  practical  ques- 

in  the  Valley  of  Cedron.    Near  Jericho  was  the  laura  tions,  but  as  often  as  not  they  deal  with  matf«ers  ood- 

ruled  over  by  St.  Gerasimus  (475).    Some  details  ceming  the  spiritual  life.     What  is  on  the  v^le  a 

concerning  the  rule  of  this  laura  have  fortunately  good  description  of  them  will  be  found  in  Smit.and 

been  preserved  in  a  very  ancient  Life  of  St.  Euthy-  Cheetham,  ''Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiquities",  II,  233 

mius.    It  consisted  of  a  cenobium  where  the  cenobitic  sqq. 

life  was  practised  by  novices  and  others  less  proficient.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  exaggerate  St.  Basirju- 

There  were  also  seventy  cells  for  solitanes.    Five  fluence  upon  eastern  monasticiam:  he  fumlahed^^ 

days  in  the  week  these  latter  lived  and  worked  alone  type  which  ultimately  prevailed.  But  two  points  of^ 

in  their  cells.    On  Saturday  they  brought  their  work  utmost  importance,  as  marking  the  difference  betw^ 


St.  Pachomius,  ever  was.  aI 
might  cook  some  food,  and  to  have  a  lamp  to  read  by,  order,  as  we  understand  the  term,  is  a  purely  West^ 
they  were  told  that  if  they  wished  to  live  thus  they    product.    ''It  is  not  enough'',  says  a  writer  who  ce 


MONA8TICI8M 


467 


MONA8TZCI8M 


tainly  does  not  underrate  St.  Baeil's  influenoe,  "to 
affirm  that  the  Basilian  Order  is  a  myth.    One  must 

§)  f urtiiier  and  give  up  calling  the  Byzantine  monies 
asilians.  Those  most  concerned  have  never  taken 
to  themselves  this  title,  and  no  Eastern  writer  that 
I  know  of  has  ever  bestowed  it  upon  them''  (Pargoire 
in  "Diet.  d'Arcb^ologie  chrfitienne",  s.  v.  "Basile"). 
In  a  word,  every  monastery  is  an  order  of  its  own. 
With  St.  Basil  Eastern  monasticism  reached  its  final 
stage — communities  of  monks  leading  the  contempla- 
tive life  and  devotine  themselves  wholly  to  prayer 
and  work.  The  cenobitical  life  steadily  became  the 
normal  form- of  the  religious  calling,  and  the  eremiti- 
cal one  the  exceptional  form,  requiring  a  long  previous 
training. 

We  must  now  speak  of  the  grounds  upon  which 
St.  Basil  based  his  aecision — a  decision  so  momentous 
for  the  future  history  of  monasticism — in  favour  of 
the  cenobitical  life.  Life  with  others  is  more  ex- 
pedient because,  in  the  first  place,  even  for  the  supply 
of  their  bodily  needs,  men  depend  upon  one  another. 
Further,  there  is  the  law  of  charity.  The  solitary 
has  only  himself  to  regard:  yet  ''charity  seeks  not 
itself". 

Again,  the  solitary  will  not  eaually  discover  his  faults, 
there  being  no  one  to  correct  nim  with  meekness  ana 
mercy.  There  are  precepts  of  charity  which  can  only 
be  fulfilled  in  the  cenobitical  life.  The  gifts  of  the 
Hcly  Spirit  are  not  all  given  to  all  men,  but  one  is 
given  to  one  man  and  another  to  another.  We  can- 
not be  partakers  in  the  gifts  not  bestowed  on  ourselves 
if  we  live  bv  ourselves.  The  great  danger  to  the 
solitary  is  self-complacency;  he  is  not  put  to  the  test, 
80  that  he  is  unable  to  learn  his  faults  or  his  progress. 
How  can  he  learn  humility  when  there  is  no  one  to 
prefer  before  himself?  Or  patience  when  there  is 
no  one  to  yield  to?  Whose  feet  shall  he  wash?  To 
whom  shall  he  be  as  a  servant?  (Reg.  fus.  tract., 
Q.  vii.)  This  condemnation  of  the  eremitical  life 
is  interesting  because  of  what  might  almost  be  called 
its  tameness.  One  would  expect  at  least  a  lurid 
picture  of  the  dangers  which  the  solitary  ran,  delu- 
sions, melancholy  culminating  in  despair,  terrible 
moral  and  spiritual  falls,  the  abandonment  of  the 
religious  calling  for  the  life  of  vice,  and  so  forth.  But 
instead  of  such  things  we  have  little  more  than  what 
amounts  to  disadvantages  and  the  risk  of  somewhat 
flat  and  commonplace  finds  of  failure,  against  which 
the  common  life  afforded  the  best  protection .  Clearly 
St.  Basil  found  very  little  that  was  tra^c  during  the 
two  years  he  was  investigating  monasticism  in  Eg3rpt, 
Mesopotamia,  and  elsewhere. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  so  uncompromising  a 
verdict  against  the  eremitical  life  would  stir  up  a  fierce 
conflict.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  did  nothing  of  the 
kind.  Palestine,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, b^an  to  supersede  Egypt  as  the  centre  of  monas- 
ticism^ and  in  Palestine  the  laura  and  the  cenobium 
were  m  perfect  harmonv.  That  of  St.  Gerasimus, 
with  its  cenobium  already  referred  to,  may  be  taken 
as  a  typical  example.  St.  Basil's  authority  was  equal 
to  St.  Anthony's  among  the  leaders  of  Palestinian 
monasticism;  yet  they  took  it  as  a  matter  of  course 
that  life  in  the  laura  was  the  most  perfect,  though 
under  ordinary  circumstances  it  should  not  be  en- 
^^red  upon  before  an  apprenticeship  had  been  served 
:  n  a  cenobium.  The  paradox  is  not  so  great  as  it  may 
jljt  first  sight  appear.  The  dweller  in  the  laura  was 
.■,)ivler  an  archimandrite  or  abbot  and  so  was  not 
^^^^oeed  to  the  dangers  of  the  purely  eremitical  state. 
^^pt  Xiumber  of  passages  from  tne  Laves  of  St.  Euthy- 
[  f;a^%,  St.  Theodosius,  and  others  bearing  upon  the 
subject  have  been  brought  together  by  HoU, 
lusiasmus  und  Bussgewalt  beim  Griecnischen 


hum",  Leipzig,  pp.  172  sqq.) 

he  Council  of  Cnalcedon,  monasticism  had  so 

a  recognized  part  of  the  life  of  the  Church 


that  it  was  especially  legislated  for.  Monasteries  were 
not  to  be  erected  without  the  leave  of  the  bishop; 
monks  were  to  receive  due  honour,  but  were  not  to 
mix  themselves  up  with  the  affairs  of  Church  or  Stato. 
They  were  to  be  subject  to  the  bishop,  etc.  (can.  iv). 
Clerics  and  monks  were  not  to  serve  in  war  or  embrace 
a  secular  life  (can.  vii).  Monasteries  were  not  to  be 
secularized  (can.  xxiv). 

Solitary  ^ts,  according  to  St.  Basil,  should  be 
chosen  as  sites  for  monasteries.  Nevertheless,  they 
soon  found  their  way  into  cities.  According  to 
Marin  ("Les  Moines  de  Constantinople",  Paris, 
1897,  330-898),  at  least  fifteen  monasteries  were 
founded  at  Constantinople  in  the  time  of  Constantine 
the  Great;  but  Besse  (Les  Moines  d'Orient.  18) 
affirms  that  the  three  most  ancient  ones  only  dated 
back  to  the  time  of  Theodosius  (375-95).  In  518 
there  were  at  least  fifty-four  monasteries  in  Constan- 
tinople. Their  names  and  those  of  their  rulers  are 
given  in  a  petition  addressed  by  the  monks  of  Con- 
stantinople to  Pope  Hormisdas  in  518  (Martin, 
ibid.,  18). 

For  Egyptian  monBatiei«m,  not  only  are  the  original  louroee  far 
superior  to  thoae  for  earlv  Monaatioiam  elsewhere,  but  the  aubjeot 
haa  been  more  thoroumly  inveati^ted.  The  moat  important 
'work  that  haa  appeared  in  recent  timee  ia  Butlbb,  Tht  Lautiae 
History  of  PaUaditu  in  Cambridoe  TexU  and  Studiea,  VI.  (first 

£art,  1808:  aeoond  part,  1004).  Other  important  worka  are 
lADKYTSB,  Etude  mr  U  cinobit%$m€  Pakhamttn  vendant  U  JV* 
n^de  et  la  premihe  moitii  du  V*  (Louvain  ana  Paris,  1808); 
ScBiBWisn,  Da*  mcrgenlandisd^e  MOnchthumt  I  (Mains,  1004); 
LaiPOLDT,  Schenvte  ton  Atripe  (Leipzig,  1003)  in  Ttxte  und  Unief' 
»ueh.  (new  series),  XI  (Leipsig.  1003).  Ladeuse  gives  an  exhauative 
atudy  of  the  documents  upon  which  our  knowledge  of  Pachomiua 
and  Schenoudi  are  baaed.  Schiewiets  treats  of  (1)  Christian 
asceticism  in  the  first  three  centuries  and  (2)  Egyptian  mo- 
naatioiam in  the  fourth;  he  omits  Schenoudi  altogether.  A  very 
important  point  of  difference  between  Ladeuie  and  Schiewiets  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Butler  on  the  other,  is  the  unfavourable  esti- 
mate formed  by  the  first  two  and  the  favourable  one  by  the  last 
of  Palladius'a  account  of  the  Pachomian  monaaticiam.  Classifi- 
cati(»>a  and  appreciations  of  the  original  sources  will  be  found  in 
BuTLEB,  op.  etc.,  pt.  1, 106  sqq. ;  pt.  11,  p.  xii.  The  most  valuable, 
now  that  tn  text  has  been  restored  by  Butler,  is  the  Launae  Hia- 
tory  of  FiUadiua  (see  above).  What  uaed  to  paas  for  Palladiua 
waa  a  text  very  much  interpolated  with  the  HiHoria  monachorum 
in  JBgypto,  an  accotmt  of  Information  gathered  by  seven  monks  of 
Palestme  who  visited  Egypt  in  304-96,  written  by  one  of  them. 
The  Greek  text  was  printed  for  the  first  time  by  pRstjacHSif,  Pat' 
ladius  und  Rufinut  (Giessen,  1807).  Till  1807  it  was  only  known 
in  the  Latin  version  of  Rufinus,  which  was  supposed  to  be  the 
ori|dnal.  As  the«xperiences  narrated  do  not  squarvwith  the  facta 
of  Kufinua's  life,  this  supposition  reduced  it  to  the  level  of  an  his- 
torical romance.  Butler  nas  proved,  or  nearly  proved,  that  the 
Greek  b  the  original  and  thus  restored  the  work  to  its  proper 
place  as  a  genuine  record.  He  has  done  the  same  for  the  Liautiae 
HiM.  by  recovering  the  uninterpolated  text.  Tk»  Jn^itutet 
and  Conferenoea  of  Caasian  are  also  records  baaed  upon  personal 
knowledge  (see  art.  Cabsxam,  John).  For  Pachomian  monaati- 
ciam the  chief  authorities  are  the  Greek  Life  of  Faohomius;  Pacho- 
ifius,  Atcetieum,  known  also  aa  the  Paralipomma;  the  SpiUola 
Ammonia  on  Theodore  (all  to  be  found  in  Acta  SS.,  May,  i);  and 
St.  Jerome's  tranalation  of  the  Rule.  A  number  of  Coptic  and 
Arabic  MSS.  concerning  Egyptian  monasticism  have  been  pub- 
lished of  late  years  chiefly  byAic^uNSAU.  for  which  we  must  refer 
the  reader  to  the  bibliograpny  at  the  end  of  LAnKtrss,  op.  cU.^  and 
to  LxiPOLDT,  op.  eit.  An  English  translation  of  Syriac  versions  of 
the  Lauaiac  History,  the  Aaeetieumt  and  the  Hitt.  Afonaeh.  (there 
attributed  to  St.  Jerome)  will  be  found  in  vol.  I  of  Budob,  Pora- 
diae  of  tha  Fathera  (London,  1007).  For  Palladiua,  references  to 
the  corresponding  Greek  text  of  Butler  will  be  found  on  pp.  xxxiii, 
xxziv. 

For  non-Egsrptian  Eastern  mcma^ticiam,  the  chief  sources  are 
the  lives,  when  authentic,  of  individual  monks  and  hermita;  St. 
Thsodorst,  De  vUia  patrum;  certain  writings  of  St.  Basil,  St. 
JEROira,  Sr.  John  CnBTBoaroif,  St.  Epifhaniub,  St.  Ephbbm 
Stbub,  St.  HiLua,  etc. ;  the  historiana  Socbatbb  and  Soiomen. 
Among  older  books  dealing  with  the  subject  Tillemont's  Mimoirea 
is  perhaps  the  most  mdispensable.  Marin.  Viea  dea  Pkrea  dea 
diaerta  d^Orieni  (0  vols.,  Pans,  1824),  gives  copious  quotations  from 
the  original  sources.  The  only  important  modem  work  upon 
Extern  Monasticism  aa  a  whole  seems  to  be  Besse,  Lea  motnat 
d'Orient  antirieura  au  eoneile  ChaMdoine  (451)  (Louvain,  4001) 

Francis  Joseph  Bacchus. 

III.  Eastern  Monasticism. — (1)  Origin. — ^The  first 
home  of  Christian  monaBticism  is  the  Egyptian  desert. 
Hither  during  persecution  men  fled  the  world  and  the 
danger  of  apoetasy,  to  serve  God  in  solitude.  St.  An- 
thony (270-356)  is  counted  the  father  of  all  monks.  His 
fame  attracted  many  others,  so  that  under  Diocletian 
and  Constantine  there  were  large  colonies  of  monks  in 


MONA8TICI8M 


468 


MONA8TICI8M 


Ep;ypt,  the  fiist  XaOpcu.  St.  Athanasius's  (d.  373} 
fnendly  relations  to  the  Egyptian  monks  and  the 
refuge  he  found  among  them  during  his  second  (356- 
362)  and  third  (362-363)  exiles  are  well  known  inci- 
dents of  his  hfe.  The  monks  lived  each  in  his  own 
hut,  providing  for  their  simple  needs  with  their  own 
hands^  united  by  a  bond  of  willing  submission  to  the 
direction  of  some  older  and  more  experienced  hennit, 
coming  together  on  Saturday  and  Sunday  for  com- 
mon praver,  otherwise  spendmg  their  time  in  private 
contemplation  and  works  of  penance.  Celibacy  was 
from  the  beginning  an  essential  note  of  monasticism. 
A  wife  and  uunily  were  part  of  the  ''world"  they  had 
left. 

^  Poverty  and  obedience  were  to  some  extent  rela- 
tive,  though  the  ideal  of  both  was  developing.  The 
monk  of  the  desert  was  not  necessarily  a  priest;  he 
formed  a  different  class  from  the  clergy  wno  stayed 
in  the  world  and  assisted  the  bishops.  For  a  long 
time  this  difference  between  monks  and  clergy  re- 
mained; the  monk  fled  all  intercourse  with  other 
people  to  save  his  soul  away  from  temptation.  Later 
some  monks  were  ordained  priests  in  order  to  adminis- 
ter sacraments  to  their  brethren.  But  even  now  in 
the  East  the  priest-monk  (Upo/tApaxos)  is  a  special 
person  distinct  from  the  usual  monk  (fdwaxot),  who  is 
a  layman. 

St.  Anthony's  scarcely  less  famous  disciple  Pacho- 
mius  (d.  345)  is  believed  to  have  begun  the  organization 
of  the  hermits  in  groups^  "  folds"  (jiivdpai)  with  stricter 
subjection  to  a  leader  (dpx(A»i^/>/ri7t) ;  but  the  organi- 
sation was  vague.  Monasticism  was  stiU  a  manner  of 
life  rather  than  affiliation  to  an  organised  body;  anv 
one  who  left  wife  and  family  and  the  "world"  to  seek 
peace  away  from  men  was  a  monk.  Two  codified 
''Rules"  are  attributed  to  Pachomius;  of  these  the 
lonper  is  translated  into  Latin  by  St.  Jerome,  a  second 
and:  shorter  one  is  in  Palladius,  "Hist.  Lausiaca" 
XXXVIII.  Sozomenos  gives  a  compendium  of  the 
"Rule  of  Pachomius"  (iT  E.,  Ill,  xiv).  Neither  of 
these  rules  is  authentic,  but  they  may  well  contain 
maxims  and  principles  that  go  back  to  his  time, 
mixed  with  later  ones.  They  are  already  consid- 
erably advanced  towards  a  regulated  monastic  life. 
They  order 'uniformity  in  dressj  obedience  to  a  su- 
perior, prayers  and  meals  at  nxed  times  in  com- 
mon; they  regulate  both  ascetic  practices  and  hand- 
work. 

About  the  same  time  as  St.  Anthonv  in  Egypt,  Hi- 
larion  flourished  at  Gaza  in  Palestine  (see  St.  Jerome, 
"Life  of  St.  Hilarion"  in  P.  L.,  XXIII,  29-^).  He 
stands  at  the  head  of  West  Syrian  monasticism.  In 
the  middle  of  the  fourth  centurv  Aphraates  speaks  of 
monks  in  East  Syria  (Wright,  "The  Homilies  of  Aphra- 
ates", London,  1869, 1,  Horn.  6  and  18).  At  the  same 
time  we  hear  of  them  in  Armenia,  Pontus,  and  Cappa- 
docia.  Epiphanius,  for  instance,  who  in  367  became 
Bishop  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  had  been  for  thirty- 
years  a  monk  in  Palestine.  At  the  time  of  St.  Basd 
(330-379),  therefore,  there  were  already  monks  all 
over  the  East.  As  soon  as  he  was  baptized  (357)  he 
determined  to  be  a  monk  himself;  he  spent  two  years 
travelling  "to  Alexandria,  through  Egypt,  in  Pales- 
tine, Syria,  and  Mesopotamia"  (Ep.  223),  studying  the 
life  of  the  monks.  Then  in  358  he  £ermed  the  com- 
munity at  Annesos  in  Pontus  that  was  to  be  in  some 
sort  a  new  point  of  departure  for  Eastern  monasticism'. 
He  describes  the  life  at  Annesos  in  a  letter  to  St.  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen  (Ep.  2).  Its  principles  are  codified  in 
various  ascetic  works  by  him,  of  which  the  chief  are 
the  two  "Rules",  the  longer  ("Opot  irorA  rXdroj,  P.  G., 
XXXI,  905-1052)  and  the  shorter  ("Opot  xar'  Inron^w, 
ib.,  1051-1306) .     (See  Basil,  Rule  of  Saint.) 

(2)  To  the  great  Schism. — Gradually  nearly  all  East- 
ern monasteries  accepted  the  Rules  of  St.  Basil. 
Th^  inner  organization  evolved  a  hierarchy  of  offi- 
tiate  among  whom  the  various  offices  were  distrib- 


uted; the  prayers,  meals,  woric,  punishments  were 

gsrtioned  out  according  to  the  ascetic  works  of  St 
aal,  and  so  the  whole  monastery  arrived  at  a  woik- 
ingorder. 

That  order  obtains  still.  In  its  inner  life  Eastern 
monasticism  has  been  extraordinarily  stationary. 
There  is  practically  no  development  to  describe,  lu 
history  from  the  fourth  century  down  to  our  own  time 
is  only  a  chronicle  of  the  founding  and  endowment  oi 
new  monasteries,  of  the  part  taken  by  monks  in  the 
great  religious  controversies  and  in  one  or  two  contro- 
versies of  their  own,  of  the  emperors,  empresses,  patri- 
archs, and  other  great  persons  who,  freely  or  under 
compulsion,  ended  their  career  in  the  world  by  retiring 
to  a  monastery.  Two  ideas  that  constantly  recur  in 
Eastern  theology  are  that  the  monastic  state  is  that  of 
Christian  perfection  and  also  a  state  of  penance.  Eu- 
sebius  (d.  c.  340)  in  his  "Demonstratio  evangelic^' 
distinguishes  the  two  kinds  of  life  of  a  Christian, 
the  less  perfect  life  in  the  world  and  the  perfect  life 
of  monks. 

The  idea  recurs  continually.  Monks  lead  the  "an- 
gelic life",  their  dress  is  the  "angelic  habit "j  like  the 
angels  they  neither  marry  nor  give  in  marriage,  and 
like  them  the  chief  object  of  their  existence  is  to  smg 
the  praises  of  God  (in  the  Divine  office).  Not  incom- 
patible with  this  is  the  other  idea,  fotmd  in  St.  Basil 
and  many  others,  that  their  state  is  one  of  penance 
(furdpota),  Symeon  of  Thessalonica  (d.  1429)  counts 
the  monks  simply  as  "penitents"  (jxtrapooOrrtt).  The 
most  perfect  life  on  eiuth,  namely,  is  that  of  a  man 
who  obeys  the  command  to  "do  penance,  for  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  ni|^". 

The  organization  and  life  of  a  Byzantine  monastery 
before  the  schism  is  known  to  us  by  the  decrees  afifect- 
ing  it  made  by  various  ooimcils,  laws  in  the  "Corpus 
iuris"  fm  the  "Codex"  and  the  "Novell®"),  the  Hves 
of  eminent  monks,  of  which  the  "Synaxazion"  has 
preserved  not  a  few,  and  especially  by  the  ascetic 
writings  of  monks,  letters,  sermons,  and  so  on,  in 
which  they  give  advice  to  their  colleagues.  Of  such 
monastic  writers  St.  John  Damascene  (d.  c.  754),  George 
Hamartolos  (ninth  century),  and  especially  St.  Theo- 
dore of  Studion  (d.  826)  are  perhaps  the  most  valuable 
for  this  purpose.  At  the  head  of  each  independent 
monastery  (Kavpa  is  the  common  name  in  Greek)  was 
the  supenor.  At  first  (e.  g.,  by  Justinian :  "  Nov.",  V, 
vii;  CXXIII,  V  and  xxxiv)  he  is  called  indifferently 
dfip&t,  dpxifMpSpiriis,  ^o^Aioof.  Later  the  common 
name  is  ^oj6fuPot  only.  The  archimandrite  has  be- 
come a  person  of  superior  rank  and  takes  precedence 
of  a  hegumenos.  Goar  thinks  that  archimandrite 
meant  the  superior  of  a  patriarchal  monastery,  that 
is,  one  immediately  subject  to  the  patriarch  and  inde- 
pendent of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary.  The  title 
then  would  correspond  to  that  of  the  Western  "Abbas 
nullius". 

Marin  (Les  Moines  de  Constantinople,  pp.  87-90), 
admitting  this,  demonstrates  from  examples  that 
there  was  an  mtermediate  period  (from  about  the 
sbrth  to  the  ninth  centuries)  during  which  the  title 
archunandrite  was  given  as  a  purely  personal  honour 
to  certain  hegumenoi  without  involvmg  any  exemp- 
tion for  the  monastery.  A  further  precedence  be- 
longed to  a  "great  archimandrite ".  The  election  and 
rights  of  the  hegumenos  are  described  by  St.  Basil  in 
his  two  Rules,  by  Justinian  (Novel.,  CXXIII,  xxxiv), 
and  Theodore  of  Studion  (Testamentum,  in  P.  G., 
XCIX,  1817-1818) .  He  was  elected  by  the  monks  by 
a  majority  of  votes:  in  cases  of  dispute  the  patriarch 
or  oidinary  decided;  sometimes  lots  were  cast.  He 
was  to  be  chosen  for  his  merit,  not  according  to  the 
time  he  had  already  spent  in  the  monastery,  and 
should  be  sufficiently  learned  to  know  the  canons. 
The  patriarch  or  bishop  must  confirm  the  election  anii 
institute  the  hegumenos.  But  the  emperor  rereivod 
him  in  audience  and  gave  him  a  pastoral  staff  (the 


HONUTICXSH                            469  HONAfiTICIBH 

^iffSat).    The  ceremony  of  mduction  is  given  in  the  htm  and  clothes  him  in  the  habit,  finally  ce1ebt«t«s  the 

"Eucholopon"    (Goar'a  edition,  Venice,   1730,   395-  holy  Liturgy,  and  ^ves  him  Commuojon.     From  the 

39.1).     He  then  remained  abbot  for  life,  except  in  the  time  of  his  profesaon  the  monk  remains  inseparably 

event  of  his  being  depoeed,  after  trial,  for  some  ca-  attached  to  the  monaatery.    Beeidee  the  vows  of  pov 

noaical  offence.  erty,  chastity,  and  obedience  be  makes  a  vow  of  per- 

The  hegumenoe  had  absolute  authority  over  all  his  severance  in  the  religious  exercises  of  the  particular 
monks,  could  receive  novices  and  inflict  punishments:  laura  he  has  chosen.  Normally  be  can  no  more 
but  he  was  boimd  always  by  the  rule  of  St.  Basil  ana  change  to  another  than  go  back  to  the  world.  He 
the  canooB,  and  he  had  to  consult  a  committee  of  the  should  moreover  never  go  out  at  all.  In  theory  all 
more  experienced  monks  in  all  cases  of  difficulty.  This  monks  are  "enclosed"  (St.  Banl,  F,  G.,  XXXI,  635- 
committee  was  the  irirafa  that  in  many  ways  lim-  636) :  but  this  rule  has  never  been  taken  very  literally. 
ited  the  autocracy  of  the  superior  (St.  Basil's  Rule,  Monks  travelled  about,  with  the  consent  <rf  their  su- 
P.  G.,  XXXI,  1037).  The  hegumenoa  in  the  Byzon-  periora  ajid  with  the  excuse  that  they  were  engaged  in 
tine  time,  after  Justinian,  was  generally,  but  not  quite  Dusiness  of  the  laura  or  of  the  Church  in  general, 
always,  a  priest.  He  receivea  the  confessions  of  his  But  there  still  remained  a  further  step.  After  hav 
monks  [there  are  instances  of  those  who  were  not  ing  proved  their  perseverance  for  some  years  monks 
p^ie.^CM  usurping  this  office  (Marin,  op,  cit.,  96)]  and  were  accustomed  to  ask,  as  a  reward  for  their  advance- 
could  ordain  them  to  minor  Orders,  including  the  sub-  ment  in  the  ascetic  life,  for  tJie  "great  habit"  (ri  //Jya 
(li:iconate.  Under  the  abbot  there  was  a  hierarchy  of  "ol  i-rrt\iii6r  exvi^).  This  was  simply  a  larger  and 
otli:!r  officials,  more  or  less  numerous  acconling  Lo  the  more  dignified  cloak,  suitable  for  the  veterans  of  the 
size  of  the  laura.  The  SurTtfititiii  took  his  place  in  case  monastery.  Gradually  its  reception  became  a  regu- 
of  his  absence  or  sickness,  the  tUmniitct  had  charge  of  lar  ceremony  and  the  wearers  of  the  great  habit  be^n 
all  the  property,  the  to  form  a  superior 
ifWiptot  looked  after  class,  the  aristocracy 
the  food,  the  hticryi-  ofthelaurrf.  St.The- 
iiirafxo'  saw  to  the  odore  of  Studion  ob- 
rcgular  performance  jected  strongly  to 
of  services  in  the  thisdistinction:  "As 
church,  the  «>»-  there  is  only  one 
i^PXV'  Euided  the  baptism",  he  aays, 
singers  during  the  "so  is  there  only  one 
Divineoffice,  These  habit" (P,G.,XCIX, 
ofnciats,  who  usually  1819),  Ilistruethat 
formed  the  synaxia,  there  is  no  real  place 
acted  as  a  restrunt  forsuchahigherrank 
on  Ihe  authority  of  in  the  monastic  sys- 
Ihe  hegumenos.  Nu-  tem.  At  the  rece^ 
merous  lesser  offices,  tion  of  the  first  habit 
as  those  of  infirma-  the  monk  makes 
riau.  guest-master,  his  solemn  vows  for 
porter,  cook,  and  so  life  and  becomes  a 
on,  were,  divided  full  monk  in  every 
among  the  commu-  sense.  Howeverj  in 
nity.Themonkswere  spite  of  opposition, 
divided  into  three  the  custom  grew, 
orders  novices,  those  bi«,«.  Ttorrr  CH*au  T«u,»)  Moh^ct.  M™..a.  T™.*lt  The  imporition  of 
who  bear  the  lesser  the  great  habit  re- 
hahit  and  those  who  have  the  great  habit.  Children  peats  very  much  the  ceremony  of  the  lesser  one  and 
(the  Council  in  Trullo  of  692  admits  profession  as  valid  forms  a  kmd  of  renewal  of  vows  (Goar,  403-414) ;  it  is 
after  the  age  of  ten  years),  married  men  (if  their  wives  from  the  older  monks  who  have  gone  through  this  rite 
are  willing),  even  slaves  who  are  badly  treated  by  and  arehonourablydbtioKuished  by  their  long  cloak? 
theirmaateraorindangcrof  losing  their  faith,  could  be  that  the  dignitaries  of  the  laura  are  chosen.  Another 
received  as  novices.  Justinian  ordered  novices  to  wear  gradual  development  was  the  formation  of  a  class  of 
lay  clothes  (Novel.,  V,  ii),  but  soon  the  custom  was  in-  priest-monks.  At  first  no  monks  received  any  ordi- 
tioduced  that  after  a  probation  of  alx)ut  six  months  nation;  then  one  or  two  were  made  priests  to  admin- 
(whiie  they  were  postulants)  they  should  have  their  ister  sacraments  to  the  others,  then  later  it  became 
hair  out  (tonsure)  and  receive  a  tunic  ix^riir)  and  the  common  to  ordain  a  monk  [meet.  But  it  has  never 
tall  cap  called  *ii\^iaixuir.  The  service  for  this  first  become  the  rule  that  all  choir-monks  should  be  or- 
clothing  is  in  the  "Euchologion"  (Goor,  pp.  378-380).  dained,  as  it  became  in  the  Weat.     On  entering  mon- 

After  three  years'  noviceSiip  the  monk  received  the  asteries  people  changed  their  name.   The  monk  was  to 

lesser  habit  or  moTuJI/ag  {t6  /uKpir  irx^t^i  i^rSiatl.    He  abst^nfrom  flesh-meat  always;  his  food  was  fruit  and 

is  a^in  tonsured  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  receives  a  new  vegetables  and  on  feastrdays  fish,  eggs,  milk,  and 

tumc,   belt,   cap,   sandals,   and    the   monastic   cloak  cheese.    Wine  was  allowed.    The  chief  meal,  the  only 

iliawSfm).     For  the  rite,  see  Goar,  pp.  382-389,     The  full  meal  in  the  day,  was  served  at  the  sixth  hour 

roandyas  is  the  "angeUo  habit"  that  makee  him  a  (midday);  o«  the  frequent  fast-days,  including  every 

true  monk ;  it  is  at  this  service  that  he  makes  his  vows.  Wednesday  and  Friday  and  the  four  fasting-timea,  it 

An  older  form  oF  the  "sacrament  of  monastic  perfec-  was  put  on  till  the  ninth  hour.    Later  in  the  evening, 

tion"  (jivarip'or  tfrax'*^  rcXiiiiircui) ,  that  is,  of  the  after  the  (iirM«i*i«>>  (compline),  the   remains  of  the 

profeenon  and  reception  of  a  monk,  is  (riven  by  Diony-  meal  were  a™n  spread  in  the  refectory  and  any  who 

sius  Areopagita  (c.  500),  "de  Eccles,  Hierarch.",  Vl,  mshed,  chiefly  the  younger  members,  might  partake 

ii  (P.  G.,  Ill,  533).    The  monk  is  "ordained"  by  a  of  a  light  supper  (cf.  Marin,  op.  cit.,  p.  121). 

priest  (Itptit;  he  always  calls  bishops  lipipxa'),  pre-  The  monks  main  occupation  was  the  dauy  cbant- 

sumably  the  abtx)t.     Standing  he  recites  the  "monas-  ing  of  the  long  Byiantine  office  in  church,     lliis  took 

tic  invocation"  (rJip^uiKWTirlJi'WiiXjjirn'),  evidently  a  up  a  great  part  of  the  day  and  the  night.     Therewere 

prayer  for  the  grace  he  needs.    The  priest  then  hsIcb  moreover  Ae  6\arvintiii  offices,  which  on  the  eves  of 

him  if  he  renounces  everything,  expl^ns  to  him  the  great  feasts  lasted  all  night.    The  rest  of  the  time  was 

duties  of  bis  stftte,  signs  him  with  the  crose,  tonsuree  spent  in  manual  work,  digging,  caipenby,  wea^^ng, 


M0NASTICX8M 


470 


M0NA8TICISM 


and  80  on,  portioned  out  to  each  by  the  abbot,  of 
which  the  profit  belonged  to  the  monastery  (St.  Basil, 
P.  G.,  XXXI.  1016, 1017, 1132,  etc.;  Marin,  op.  cit.. 
132-135).  Men  who  already  know  an  innocent  and 
^profitable  eraft  may  continue  to  exercise  it  as  monks. 
V  Some  Dractised  medicine  for  the  good  of  the  commu- 
nity. Nor  were  the  study  of  theology  and  the  arts  of 
calligraphy  and  painting  neglected.  Alonaateries  had 
libraries,  and  monks  wrote  theological  works  and 
hymns.  In  St.  Theodore's  time  the  Studion  mona^- 
ter^  was  famous  for  its  libranr  and  the  beautiful  hand- 
wnting  of  its  monks  (Theodore,  "Orat.",  XI,  16;  in 
P.  G.,  XCIX).  There  was  a  scale  of  punishments 
ranging  from  special  fasts  and  prayers  or  the  dTwXoyla 
— that  is,  privation  of  the  abbot's  blessing — to  the 
6i^purft6t  or  solitary  confinement  and  excommunica- 
tion from  aU  common  pra^rers  and  the  sacraments. 
The  punishment  for  formcation  was  excommunication 
for  fifteen  years  (cf.  the  ^'Epitimia"  ascribed  to  St. 
Basil  in  M.  P.,  XXXI.  1305-1314).  A  monk  who 
had  proved  his  constancy  for  many  years  in  the  com- 
mumty  could  receive  permission  from  the  hegumenos 
to  practise  the  severer  life  of  a  hermit.  He  then  went 
to  occupy  a  solitary  cell  near  the  laura  (St.  Basil's 
Rule.  P.  G.,  XXXI,  1133).  But  he  was  still  counted  a 
member  of  the  monastery  and  could  return  to  it  if  he 
found  solitude  too  hard.  At  the  court  of  Uie  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  was  an  official,  the  Exarch  of 
the  monks,  whose  duty  it  was  to  supervise  the  monas- 
teries. Most  other  bishops  had  a  similar  assistant 
among  their  clergy. 

Celibacy  became  an  ideal  for  the  clergy  in  the  East 
gradually,  as  it  did  in  the  West.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury we  still  find  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen's  father,  who 
was  Bishop  of  Nazianzos,  living  with  his  wife,  without 
scandal.  But  very  soon  after  that  the  present  East- 
ern rule  obtained.  It  is  less  strict  than  in  the  West. 
No  one  may  marry  after  he  has  been  ordained  priest 
(Paphnutius  at  the  first  Coimcil  of  Nicsa  maintains 
this;  see  the  discussion  in  Hefele-Leclercq,  "Histoire 
des  Conciles",  Paris,  1907,  I,  pp.  620-624-  the  first 
Canon  of  the  Synod  of  Neocsesarea  in  314  or  325,  ib.,  p. 
327,  and  Can.  Apost.,  xxvi.  The  Synod  of  Elvira 
fl^ut  300  had  decreed  absolute  celibacv  for  all  clerks 
in  the  West,  Can.  xxxiii,  ib.,  pp.* 238^-239);  priests  al- 
ready married  may  keep  theu*  wives  (the  same  law  ap- 
plied to  deacons  and  subdeacons:  Can.  vi  of  the  Synod 
m  Trullo,  692;  see  "Echoe  d'Orient",  1900-1901,  pp. 
65-71),  but  bishops  must  be  celibate.  As  nearly  all 
secular  priests  were  married  this  meant  that,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  bishops  were  chosen  from  the  monasteries, 
and  so  these  became,  as  thev  still  are,  the  road  through 
which  advancement  may  De  attained.  Besides  t£e 
communities  in  monasteries  there  were  many  extraor- 
dinary developments  of  monasticism.  There  wero 
always  hermits  who  practised  various  extreme  forms 
of  asceticism,  such  as  binding,  tight  ropes  round  their 
bodies,  very  severe  fasting,  and  so  on.  A  singular 
form  of  asceticism  was  that  of  the  Stylites  (rruXfrcu), 
who  lived  on  colunms.  St.  Symeon  Stylites  (q.  v.) 
began  this  practice  in  420. 

From  the  time  of  Constantine  the  building  and  en- 
dowment of  monasteries  became  a  form  of  good  work 
adopted  by  very  many  rich  people.  Constantine  and 
Helen  set  the  example  and  almost  every  emperor 
afterwards  (except  Julian)  followed  it  (Marin,  ''Les 
moines  de  Constantinople",  chap.  i).  So  monasteries 
grew  up  all  over  the  empire.  Constantinople  espe- 
cially was  covered  with  them  (see  the  list,  ib.,  23-25). 
One  of  the  chief  of  these  was  Studion  (Ero^Biow)  in. the 
south-western  angle  of  the  city,  founded  bv  a  Roman. 
Studius,  in  462  or  463.  It  was  occupied  by  so-callea 
"sleepless"  (<Uo//iiyroi)  monks  who.  divided  into  com- 
panies, kept  an  unceasing  round  of  prayer  and  psalm- 
singing  day  and  night  in  their  church.  But  they  were 
not  a  separate  order;  there  was  no  distinction  between 
various  religious  orders.    St.  Theodore,  the  great  de- 


fender of  images  in  the  second  Iconoclast  persecution, 
became  Hegumenos  of  Studion  in  799  (tiU  nis  death  in 
826).  His  letters,  sermons  and  constitutionB  for  the 
Studite  monks  gave  renewed  ideals  and  influenced  aU 
Byzantine  monasticism.  During  this  period  a  great 
number  of  decrees  of  synods,  ordinances  of  patri- 
archs, emperors,  and  abbots,  further  defined  and  ex- 
panded the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  Many  Eastern  synods 
draw  up  among  their  canons  laws  for  monks,  often 
merely  enforcing  the  old  rule  (e.  g.  the  Synod  of  Gan- 
gres  in  the  miodle  of  the  fourth  century,  Can.,  xiz, 
etc.).  St.  John  Chrysostom  (cf.  Montalembert, 
"Histoire  des  Moines  d'Occident",  Paris,  1880,  I, 
124),  the  Patriarch  John  the  Faster  (d.  £95 :  Pitra,  '*  Spi- 
cilegium  Solesmense",  Paris,  1852,  IV,  416-444),  &e 
Patriarch  Nicephoros  (d.  829:  ib.,  381, 415),  and  so  on, 
down  to  Photius  (Hergenrother,  ''Photius",  Ratisbon, 
1867,  II,  222-223),  added  to  these  rules,  which,  col- 
lected and  commented  in  the  various  constitutions  and 
typika  of  the  monasteries,  remain  the  guide  of  a  By- 
zantine monk.  Most  of  all,  St.  Theodore's  ''Consti- 
tutions of  Studion"  (P,  G.,  XCIX,  1703-1720)  and  his 
list  of  punishments  for  monks  (ib.,  1734-1758)  repre^ 
sent  a  classical  and  much  copied  example  of  such  a  col- 
lection of  rules  and  principles  from  approved  sources. 
St.  Basil's  mother  and  sister  had  formed  a  community 
of  women  at  Aimesos  near  the  settlement  of  the  men. 
From  that  time  convents  of  nuns  spread  throughout 
the  Byzantine  Church,  organized  according  to  the 
same  rule  and  following  the  same  life  as  that  of  the 
monks  with  whatever  modifications  were  necessary  for 
their  sex.  The  convents  were  subject  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bishop  or  patriarch.  Their  spiritual  needs 
were  provided  for  by  a  priest,  generally  a  priest-monk, 
who  was  their  "ghostly  father"  (T9WfULriM6s  warijp). 
The  abbess  was  called  nyovftin^ffa. 

Lastly,  during  this  period  the  monks  play  a  very 
important  part  in  theological  controversies.  The 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  for  instance,  in  his  disputes 
with  Constantinople  and  Antioch  could  always  count 
on  the  fanatical  loyalty  of  the  great  crowd  of  monks 
who  swarmed  up  from  the  desert  in  his  defence.  Often 
we  hear  of  monks  fighting,  leading  tumults,  boldly  at- 
tacking the  soldiers.  In  all  the  Monophysite  troubles 
the  monks  of  Egypt.  Syria,  Palestine,  and  the  capital 
were  able  to  throw  tne  great  weight  of  their  united  in- 
fluence on  the  one  side  or  the  other.  During  the 
Acacian  schism  (482-519),  while  the  whole  Byzantine 
Church  broke  eommimion  with  Rome,  only  the  "sleep- 
less" monks  of  Studion  remained  Cfatholic.  On  the 
whole,  the  monks  were  generally  on  the  Catholic  side. 
During  the  Iconoclast  persecution  they  were  so  deter- 
mined against  the  overthrow  of  the  holy  pictures  that 
the  Iconoclast  emperors  made  the  abohtion  of  mo- 
nasticism part  of  their  programme  and  persecuted 
people  for  being  monks  just  as  much  as  for  worship- 
ping images  (see  Iconoclabm).  Especially  the  great 
studion  monastery  at  Constantinople  had  a  tradition 
of  unswerving  orthodoxy  and  loyalty  to  Rome.  They 
alone  kept  communion  with  the  Holy  See  in  the  Aca- 
cian schism,  they  were  the  leaders  of  the  Image-wor- 
shippers in  Iconoclast  times,  and  their  great  aoDot  St. 
Theodore  (d,  826)  was  one  of  the  last  defenders  of  union 
and  the  pope's  rights  before  the  great  schism. 

(3)  From  the  schism  to  modem  times, — ^The  schism 
made  little  difference  to  the  inner  life  of  the  Byzan- 
tine monasteries.  Like  the  lower  clergy  and  the  peo- 
ple they  quietly  followed  their  bishops,  who  followed 
the  patriarchs,  who  followed  the  (Ecumenical  patri- 
arch into  schism.  After  that  their  life  went  on  as  be- 
fore, except  that,  having  lost  the  advantage  of  inter- 
course with  the  West,  they  gradually  drifted  into  the 
same  stagnation  as  the  rest  of  the  Orthodox  Church. 
They  lost  their  tradition  of  scholarship,  they  had 
never  done  any  work  in  parishes,  and  so  they  gradu- 
all^r  arrived  at  the  ideal  tnat  the  ''angelic  life  meant, 
besides  their  immensely  long  prayers,  contemplation 


HONA8TIOX8H                        471  H0NA8TICZSM 

and  fasting,  doing  nothing  at  all.    In  the  eighteenth  The  T^wtml  Kapowtfftiol  of  the  (Ecumenical  patriarch- 

centuiy,^men  an  attempt  was  made  to  found  monas-  ate  contain  a  chapter  about  monasteries  (pp.  67  sq.;. 

tic  schools,  thev  fiercely  resented  sudi  a  desecration  of  They  arc  divided  into  three  classes,  those  with  more 

thdr  ideal.    During  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  Or-  than  twenty,  more  than  ten  or  more  than  five  monks, 

thodox  remained  immeasurably  behind  the  Catholic  Onlv  those  of  the  first  class  (more  than  twenty  monks) 

monks,  who  were  converting    western  Europe  and  are  Dound  to  sing  all  the  Divine  ofiice  and  celebrate 

making  their  monasteries  the  homes  of  schouuship.  the  holy  Liturgy  every  day.     Monasteries  with  less 

The  chief  event  of  this  period  is  the  foundation  of  than  five  monks  are  to  be  suppressed  or  incorporated 

the  Athos  monasteries^  destined  to  become  the  centre  in  larger  ones.    Monastic  property  accumulated  in 

of  Orthodox  monasticism.    When  St.  Athanasius  of  the  East  as  in  the  West.    Many  quarrels  between  the 

Athos  founded  the  great  Laura  there,  there  were  al-  Church  and  State  have  arisen  from  usurped  control  or 

ready  cells  of  hermits  on  the  holy  mountain.    Never-  even  wholesale  confiscation  of  this  property  by  the 

theless  he  is  rightly  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of  various  Orthodox  governments.    The  first  Greek  Par- 

theoommunities  that  made  Atnoe  so  great  a  centre  of  liament  in  1833  (at  Nauplion)  suppressed  all  mon- 

Orthodo]cy(seeATHOB,  Mount;  also  Kyriakos,'£icjcXi70'-  asteries  in  the  new  kingdom  that  nad  less  than  six 

MOTucii  Urropla,   Athens,  1898,  III,  74-78;    ''Echos  monks.    In  1864  Cusa  confiscated  all  monastic  prop- 

d'Orient",  11.  321-31).  erty  in  Rumania,  of  which  much  belonged  to  the  mon- 

In  the  tentn  and  eleventh  centuries  the  famous  mon-  asteries  of  Mount  Sinai,  Jerusalem,  and  Athos.    In 

asteries  called  the  Meteora  (Mer^wpa)  in  Thessaly  were  1875  Russia  confiscated  three-fifths  of  the  property  in 

built  on  their  inaccessible  peaks  to  escape  the  ravages  Bessarabia  belonging  to  the  monastery  of  the  Holy 

of  the  Slavs.    The  Turld^  conquest  made  little  dif-  Sepulchre.    Of  the  rest  it  paid  itself  one-fifth  for  its 

feience  to  the  monks.    Modems  respect  religious,  trouble  and  applied  two-fifths  to  what  it  described 

Thdr  Prophet  had  spoken  well  of  monks  (Koran,  Sura  euphemistically  as  pious  puiposes  in  Russia.    Many 

y,  85)  and  had  given  a  charter  of  protection  to  the  monasteries  have  farms  callea  /ler^xui  in  distant  lands, 

monks  of  Sinai ;  but  they  shured  fully  Uie  degradation  Generally  a  few  monks  are  sent  to  administer  the  meio' 

of  the  Orthodox  Church  under  Moslem  rule.    The  chion  of  which  all  the  revenue  belongs  to  the  mother- 

Turkish  conquest  sealed  their  isolation  from  the  rest .  house.  The  most  famous  monasteries  in  the  southern 

of  Christendom;  the  monasteries  became  the  refuge  of  part  of  the  Orthodox  Church  are  Mount  Sinai  the 

peasants  too  laay  to  work,  and  the  monk  earned  the  Boly  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  the  Meteora  in  Thes- 

flcom  with  which  he  is  regarded  by  educated  people  in  saly,  Sveti  Naum  on  the  Lake  of  Ochrida  and.  most  of 

the  East.    Eugenios Bulgaria  (d.  1800),  one  of  the  chief  all,  Athos.  The  national  quarrels  in  the  Orthodox 

restorers  of  classical  scnolarehip  among  the  Greeks,  Church  have  full  development  at  Athos.    Till  lately 

made  a  futile  attempt  to  found  a  school  at  Athos.  the  Greeks  succeeded  in  crushing  all  foreign  elements. 

The  monks  drove  him  out  with  contumely  as  an  athe-  They  drove  the  Georgians  from  Iviron,  the  Bulgars 

ist  and  a  blasphemer,  and  pidled  his  school  down.    Its  from  Philotheos,  Xenophon,  and  St.  Paul's.    Now 

ruins  still  stand  as  a  warning  that  study  forms  no  part  they  are  rapidly  losing  ground  and  influence;  tiie 

of  the  "angelic''  life.  Slavs  are  building  large  Sketai^  and  Russia  here  as 

(4)  Monasticism  in  the  present  Orthodox  Church, —  everywhere  is  the  great  danger  to  the  Greek  element. 
The  sixteen  independent  Churches  that  make  up  the  The-  Russians  have  only  one  laura  (Panteleimon  or 
Orthodox  communion  are  full  of  monasteries.  There  Russiko)  but  with  its  huge  Sketai  it  contains  more 
are  fewer  convents.  One  great  monastery,  that  of  monks  than  all  the  Greek  lauras  together.  All  the 
Mount  Sinai,  follows  what  professes  to  be  the  old  rule  Athos  monasteries  are  stauropegia;  only  the  Patriarch 
of  St.  Anthony.  All  the  others  have  St.  Basil's  rule  of  Constantinople  has  any  junsdiction.  For  ordinar 
with  the  additions,  expansions^  and  modifications  tions  the  hegumenoi  invite  the  neighbouring  Metro- 
made  by  later  emperors,  patnarchs,  and  synods.  poHtan  of  Heraclea.  The  monasteries  have  also  the 
There  is  no  distinction  of  religious  orders  as  in  the  dignity  of  "Imperial"  lauras,  as  having  been  under 
West,  though  many  lauras  have  customs  of  their  own.  the  protection  of  former  emperors. 
All  monks  are  '^Basilians"  if  one  must  give  them  a  (5)  MonoBticism  in  Russia. — ^The  writer  is  indebted 
special  name.  A  monk  is  iihvaxoSf  a  priest-monk  to  Mr.  C.  Faminsl^  of  the  Russian  Embassy  Church 
UfiOfthvaxot,  A  monastery  is  yMini  or  Xaupa.  The  at  London  for  the  following  account  and  the  Russian 
novice  (d^x^/>^0  wears  a  tunic  called  ^a<rof  with  a  bibliomiphy.  There  have  been  monks  in  Russia 
belt  and  the  kaUmauchion  of  all  the  clexgy^  he  is  often  since  Christianity  was  first  preached  tiiere  in  the  tenth 
called  foffo^pos.  After  two  years  (the  penod  is  some-  century.  Their  great  period  was  the  fourteenth  cen- 
times shortened)  he  makes  ms  (solemn)  vows  and  re-  tury;  their  decline  began  in  the  sixteenth.  Peter  the 
ceives  the  small  habit  (/uLw8^t).  Technically  he  is  Great  (1661-1725)  at  one  time  meant  to  suppress  the 
now  a  fuKp6axvP^h  though  the  word  is  not  oft^  used,  monasteries  altogether.  In  1723  he  forbade  new 
After  an  undefined  time  of  perseverance  he  receives  novices  to  be  received.  Under  Catherine  II  ( 1761- 
the  great  habit  {KovKa6\tov)  and  becomes  fuya\6<rxiiMu>t.  1796)  a  more  prosperous  era  bepan;  since  Alexander 
The  popular  Greek  name  for  monk  is  "good  old  man"  I  (1801-1825)  monasteries  flourish  again  all  over  the 
(icaX^ytpot).  The  election,  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  empire.  The  latest  census  (1896)  counts  495  monas- 
hegunienos  and  other  dignitaries  remain  as  they  were  tenes  and  249  convents  of  nuns.  These  are  divided 
beK>re  the  schism.  The  title  "archimandrite"  ap-  into  4  lauras  (in  Russia  the  name  means  a  certain 
pears  to  be  given  now  to  abbots  of  the  more  important  precedence  and  special  privileges) ;  7  stauropegia 
monasteries  and  also  sometimes  as  a  personal  title  of  (subject  directly  to  the  Holy  S3rnod  and  exempt  from 
distinction  to  others.  It  involves  only  precedence  of  the  ordinary's  jurisdiction),  64  monasteries  attached 
rank.  to  bishops'  palaces.    The  rest  are  divided  into  three 

Most  monasteries  depend  on  the  local  metropolitan,  classes.    There  are  73  of  the  first  class  (which  have  at 

In  the  Orthodox  states  (Russia,  Greece,  etc.)  the  Holy  least  33  monks  or,  if  convents,  52  nuns),  100  of  the 

Synod  has  a  good  deal  to  say  in  their  management,  second  (17  monks  or  nuns)  and  191  of  the  third  (12 

confirms  the  dection  of  the  abbot,  controls,  and  not  monks  or  17  nuns).    There  are  further  350  monas- 

unfrequently  confiscates  their  property.     But  certain  teri'es  not  classified.    Catherine  II  introduced  the 

great  monasteries  are  exempt  from  local  jurisdiction  practice  of  drawing  up  official  lists  of  the  monasteries, 

and  immediately  subject  to  the  patriardi  or  Holy  she  found  1072  monasteries  in  her  empire  of  which 

Synod.    These  are  called  vravporiyta.    One  Ortho-  she  abolished  496  and  classified  the  rest.    In  Russia, 

dox  monastery  (Mount  Sinai)  of  which  the  abbot  is  as  at  Athos,  monasteries  are  either  coenobic  (obsho^ 

also  "Archbiwop  of  Sinai",  is  an   autocephalous  jiieVnvie)  or  idiorhythmic   (neobsfitfjiiel'nyie) :    but 

Chiiroh,  obeying  only  Christ  and  the  Seven  Councils,  these  latter  are  not  in  favour  with  the  Holy  pynod 


HOKASnOtflM 


472 


MOttASnCIBM 


which  restores  the  ccBnobic  rule  wherever  possible. 
Some  monasteries  are  supported  by  govermnent 
(nhUUnyie),  others  have  to  support  themselves.  The 
three  classes  mentioned  above  concern  the  amounts 
received  by  the  supported  monasteries.  The  stauro- 
pegia  are:  Solovetsky,  at  Archangel,  Simonoff,  Don- 
vkovi,  Novospassky,  and  Saikonospassky  at  Moscow, 
Voskresensky  or  New  Jerusalem,  Spaso-Yakovleskj'. 
The  census  of  1896  counts  42,940  monks  and  7464 
nuns  in  the  empire.  The  most  famous  Riissian 
monasteries  are  Kieff  (Kievsky  Laura)  foimded  in 
1062  by  a  St.  Anthony,  the  largest  of  all ;  the  Troitzky 
Laura  near  Moscow,  rounded  by  St.  Sergius  in  1335 
and  now  the  home  of  the  first  ''Ecclesiastical  Acad- 
emy" (Seminary)  in  the  empire;  the  Metropolitan 
of  Moscow  is  its  he^menos.  The  Pochaievdcy  Laura, 
founded  in  the  thirteenth  centurv  and  famous  for 
its  miraculous  eikon  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  Solovetsky, 
founded  in  1429;  Surieff  (in  the  government  of  Nov- 
gorod) founded  in  1030;  Tikhvinsy  (in  Novgorod): 
Volokolamsky  (in  the  Moscow  government)  founded 
by  St.  Joseph  of  Volokolamsk  in  1479,  which  has  an 
important  ubrarv  and  has  often  been  used  as  a  state 
prison,  and  Kyrilla-BileserBky  (in  Novgorod)  founded 
by  St.  CyiH  in  1397. 

(6)  MonaaiicUm  in  the  lesser  Eastern  Churches, — 
Little  need  be  said  of  these  Churches.  All  had  fully 
developed  monasticism  accordine  to  St.  Basil's  idea 
before  they  went  into  schism,  and  all  have  monks  and 
nuns  under  much  the  same  conditions  as  the  Ortho- 
dox, thou^.  naturally,  in  each  case  there  has  been 
some  special  development  of  their  own.  The  Nes- 
iorians  once  had  many  monasteries.  Jos^h  Simon 
Assemani  in  the  eiditeenth  century  counts  31  ("Bibl. 
Orientalis",  III,  Rome,  1725.  xiv,  §2).  Since  the 
fourteenth  century  the  discipline  has  become  so  re- 
laxed that  monks  can  easily  get  diji^nsed  from  their 
vows  and  marry  (Badger,  "The  Nestorians  and  their 
Rituals",  London,  1852,  II,  p.  179).  They  now  have 
neither  monasteries  nor  convents;  but  there  are 
monks  and  nuns  who  live  in  their  own  houses  or  wan- 
der about.  The  Copts  have  many  monasteries  ar- 
raneed  almost  exactly  like  those  of  the  Orthodox 
(SilBemagl,  ''Verfassung  u.  gegenw&rtiger  Bestand 
s&mtl.  Kirchen  des  Orients",  Ratisbon,  1904,  291- 
'  293).  The  il  by Mtniar^  monasteries  are  very  flourish- 
ing (ib.  299-^302) .  There  are  in  Abyssinia  also  people 
caUed  debterats,  regular  canons  who  sav  the  office  in 
common  and  obev  a  superior  called  nebrait,  but  may 
marry.  The  Neorait  of  Aksum  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  members  of  the  Abyssinian  Qiurch  and 
the  leader  of  the  national  party  against  the  foreign 
(Coptic)  metropolitan.  The  Syrian  Jacobites  once 
had  a  great  number  of  monasteries.  Down  to  the 
sixth  century  there  were  still  Stylites  among  them. 
They  now  have  onlv  nine  monasteries  in  the  present 
reduced  state  of  their  Church,  most  of  them  aJso 
residences  of  bishops.  The  Jacobite  monk  fasts  very 
strictly.  To  eat  meat  is  a  crime  punished  as  equal  to 
adultery  (Silbemagl,  op.  cit.,  313-315).  The  Arme^ 
nian  Church,  as  beine  considerably  the  largest  and  most 
flourishing  of  these  lesser  Eastern  Churches,  has  the 
largest  number  of  monks  and  the  most  flouri^ng  mo- 
nastic state.  Armenian  monks  follow  St.  Basil's  rule, 
but  are  much  stricter  in  the  matter  of  fasting.  The 
novitiate  lasts  eight  years.  It  is  a  curious  contrast 
to  this  strictness  that  the  abbot  is  often  not  a  monk  at 
aUj  but  a  married  secular  priest  who  hands  on  1^ 
office  to  his  son  by  hereditary  r^t.  Most  Armenian 
bishops  live  in  monasteries.  Etchmiadzin,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Katholikos,  is  theoretically  the  centre  of 
the  Armenian  Church.  The  Armenians  have  the 
huge  monastery  of  St.  James,  the  centre  of  their  quar- 
ter of  Jerusalem,  whei^  their  Patriarch  of  Jeruiradem 
lives,  and  the  convent  of  Deir  asseituni  on  Mount  Sion 
with  a  hundred  nuns.  Armenian  monks  do  not  as  a 
rule  become  bishops;  the  bishops  are  taken  from  the 


unmarried  Vartabeds,  that  is,  the  higher  class  ol 
secular  priests  (doctors).  In  all  the  other  Eastern 
Churches  bishops  are  monks.  All  use  their  monas- 
teries as  places  of  punishment  for  refractory  clergy. 

(7)  Uniate  Monks. — ^The  only  difference  union  with 
Rome  makes  to  Eastern  moxucs  is  that  there  is  in 
the  Uniate  Churches  a  certain  tendency  to  emulate 
the  Latin  religious  orders.  As  this  generally  means  a 
disposition  to  do  something  more  than  recite  the 
Divine  office,  it  ms^  be  counted  an  unmixed  advan- 
t(u^.  Uniate  monks,  like  all  the  uniate  clergy,  are 
admittedly  better  eaucated  than  the  schismatics; 
some  of  them  at  least  attend  Western  schools  or 
senunaries  of  Latin  religious  in  the  Blast.  It  is  a 
Latinizing  tendency  that  makes  them  often  use  ' 
special  names  for  their  order  and  even  evolve  into 
something  like  separate  religious  orders.  Thus  most 
Uniate  Byzantine  monks  call  themselves  "Basilians", 
as  the  Latins  use  "Benedictine"  or  "Franciscan". 
Among  the  Melchites  the  two  great  congregations  of 
Salvatorians  and  Shuwerites   (see  MELCHrrBs)  are 

EracticaUy  different  orders.  The  Uniate  Armenians 
ave  the  famous  Mechitarist  Congi^^ation,  really  a 
special  religious  order  founded  by  Alechitar  (167&- 
1749).  The  Mechitarists  have  the  monastei^  of  San 
Lazaro  at  Venice,  and  a  branch  separated  from  the 
others  in  1774  have  a  house  at  Vienna.  By  their 
schools,  missions,  and  literary  activity  they  have 
always  done  great  things  in  educating  and  converting 
their  coimtrymen.  The  Catholic  Chaldees  have  three 
monasteries.  Rabban  Hormuzd,  Alkosh,  and  Mar 
Yurgis  in  Mesopotamia.  The  Maronite  Church  from 
the  beginning  has  been  speciaQy  a  monastic  Church. 
It  was  first  formed  by  the  schism  of  the  monks  of  St. 
John  Maro.  in  the  Lebanon,  from  the  Patriarch  of 
Antioch.  Since  their  union  with  Rome  they  have 
formed  separate  orders.  Till  1757  there  were  two 
such  orders,  those  of  St.  Isaias  and  of  St.  Antony. 
The  St.  Antony  monks  then  split  again  into  two  con- 
firmations, the  Aleppians  (monks  of  Aleppo)  and 
Baladites  (baladiyej  country  monks).  Clement  XIV 
sanctioned  this  separation  in  1770.  All  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Antony.  For  the  rest  the  Uniate  monks 
of  each  Church  have  the  same  rule  and  customs  as 
the  oorrespondine  schismatics.  Certain  details  have 
been  revised  andf  abuses  eliminated  by  the  Roman 
authorities.  There  are  Uniate  monasteries  wherever 
there  are  Uniate  Christians.  Uniate  bishops  are  by 
no  means  always  monks  as  there  are  many  of  un- 
married secular  priests.  One  may  note  especially  the 
Uniate  Byzantine  monks  in  southern  Italy  and  in  the 
great  monastery  of  Grottaferrata  outside  Rome. 

Habnaok,  Dot  MdnefUhumt  aetne  IdeaU  u.  wine  QMdvidUe  in 
R0d0n  u.  Au/nUce,  I  (GieBsen.  1Q(H).  83-139;  AiciuMSAU.  Hia- 
toire  de  Saint  PakKome  etdeaea  eommurumU*  in  Anrudea  du  Af  u^/« 
GtitfiMC,  XVII  (Paris,  1889) ;  Majiin.  Lea  Moinet  d«  ConUatUi- 
nopU  (Paris,  1897);  iDSii.  De  Studio  canobio  eonstantinopolitano 
(Paris,  1897) ;  Zinqsblb,  Leben  u.  Wirken  det  hi.  Symeon  Stylite* 
(Innsbruok,  1855);  Dblerats,  Lea  Stylitea:  Comvt4  rendu  du 
troiaihne  canffr^  adentifique  dea  Cathcliquea  d  BruxeUea  (Bniasels, 
1895);  Oabdnxr.  Theodore  of  Studium  (London,  1905);  Lako- 
ix>iB,  Le  Mont  Athoa  (Paris,  1867) ;  Mstsr,  BeitrOoe  aur  Kenntnia 
der  neueren  Oeaehiehte  u.  dea  gegenwdrtioen  Zuatandea  der  Athoa- 
kUtaler  in  Zeitaehrifi  fUr  KirehengeachichU  (1890);  Rilet.  Athoa, 
or  the  Mountain  of  the  Monka  (London,  1887);  Schiqdtkb, 
Daa  Kloaterland  dea  Athoa  (Leipiig,  1903);  Obubb,  Vom  hlgen, 
Berge  u.  aua  Makedonien  (Leipzig,  1904);  Vankxttblu,  Monta 
Athoa  e  le  Meteore  (Rome,  1888)  in  Sguardo  aW  OrienU,  II  and 
XIII;  Kattbnbubch,  Lehrbuch  der  vergleichenden  Con/eaaion*' 
kunde,  I  (Freiburg.  1892),  522-537;  Beth.  Die  orientaliacha 
Chriatenheit  (Berlin,  1902),  322-333;  Silbbbnaql,  Ver/aaaun<f  u, 
gegenwdriiger  Beatand  adTrUlicher  Kirehen  dea  Orienia  (Ratisbon, 
1904) ;  Pavlov,  latoricheaky  ocherk  aeadarimUciyi  urkoivn'Uch  temd 
V.  Roaaiyi  (Odessa,  1871);  C^bchakofp,  Monaatirakitfi  Prikaa 
(St.  Petersburg,  1868) ;  Kaxanskt,  latoria  Prat.  Ruaa.  Monaaheatva 
(Moscow,  1855) ;  Zvibbinsky,  Material  dla  iatorieo-topografiehe^ 
kaQoiealiedo9anivaopr.  monaatiraeh  (3  vols.,  St.  Petersburg,  1890); 
Pavix>V8KT,  Uaeobahiyi  Puiievoditd  (Nijnei-Novgorod,  1907):  a  . 
guide  to  all  Russian  monasteries. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

IV.  Western  Monasticibm. — (1)  Pre-BenedicHns 
Period, — ^The  introduction  of  monasticism  into  the 
West  may  be  dated  from  about  a.  d.  340  when  St. 


M0NA8TICISM                         473  M0NA8TICIBM 

AthanasiuB  visited  Rome  acoompanied  by  the  two  misraonaiy  work,  the  results  of  which  are  to  be  found 
Egyptian  monks  Ammon  and  Isidore,  disciples  of  St.  over  all  northwestern  Europe.  The  observance,  at 
Anthony.  The  publication  of  the  ''Vita  Antonii"  first  so  distinctive,  gradually  lost  its  special  character 
some  years  later  and  its  translation  into  Latin  spread  and  fdl  into  line  with  that  of  other  coimtries;  but, 
the  knowledge  of  Egyptian  monachism  widely  and  by  that  time,  Celtic  monasticism  had  passed  its 
many  were  found  in  Italy  to  imitate  the  example  thus  xenith  and  its  influence  had  declined, 
set  forth.  The  first  Italian  monks  aimed  at  reproduc-  (c)  Italy. — ^Like  the  other  countries  of  western  Su- 
ing exactly  what  was  done  in  Egypt  and  not  a  few —  ropje,  Italy  long  retained  a  purely  Eastern  character 
such  as  St.  Jerome,  Rufinus,  Paula,  Eustochium  and  in  its  monastic  observance.  The  climate  and  otiier 
the  two  Melanias — actually  went  to  live  in  Egypt  or  causes  however  combined  to  render  its  practice  far 
Palestine  as  being  better  suited  to  monastic  life  than  harder  than  in  the  lands  of  its  origin.  In  consequence 
Italy.  As  however  the  records  of  early  Italian  mona»-  the  standard  of  observance  declmed,  and  it  is  dear 
tioism  are  very  scanty,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  from  the  Prologue  to  St.  Benedict's  Rule  that  by  his 
give  first  a  short  account  of  earlv  monastic  life  in  Gaul,  day  the  lives  of  many  monks  left  much  to  be  desired, 
our  knowledge  of  which  is  much  more  complete.  Moreover  there  was  as  yet  no  fixed  code  of  laws  to 

(a)  Gaul. — ^The  first  exponent  of  monasticism  in  regulate  the  life  either  of  the  monastery  or  of  the  indi- 
Gaul  seems  to  have  been  St.  Martin,  who  founded  a  vidual  monk.  Each  house  had  its  own  customs  and 
monastery  at  Ligug6  near  Poitiers,  c.  360  (see  LiGUG^;  practices,  its  own  collection  of  rules  dependent 
Martin  of  Tours,  St.).  Soon  after  he  was  conse-  largely  on  Ihe  choice  of  the  abbot  of  the  moment, 
crated  Bishop  of  Tours;  he  then  formed  a  monastery  There  were  certainly  in  the  West  translations  of  vari- 
outside  that  city,  which  he  made  his  customary  ous  Eastern  codes,  e.  g.  the  Rules  of  Pachomius  and 
residence.  Although  only  some  two  miles  from  the  Basil  and  another  attributed  to  Macarius.  There 
city  the  spot  was  so  retired  that  Martin  found  were  also  St.  Augustine's  famous  letter  (Ep.,  ccxi)  on 
there  the  solitude  of  a  hermit.  His  cell  was  a  the  management  of  convents  of  nuns,  and  also  the 
hut  of  wood,  and  round  it  his  disciples,  who  soon  writingsof  Cassian,  but  the  only  actual  Rules  of  West* 
numbered  eighty,  dwelt  in  caves  imd  huts.  The  em  origin  were  the  two  by  St.  Cssarius  for  monks  and 
type  of  Hfe  was  simply  the  Antonian  monachism  nuns  respectively,  and  that  by  St.  Columbanus,  none 
of  Egypt  (see  above,  Eastern  Monasticism)  and  of  which  could  be  called  a  working  code  for  the  man- 
8o  rapidly  did  it  Epread  that,  at  St.  Martin's  agement  of  a  monastery.  In  a  word  monachism  was 
funeral  two  thousand  monks  were  present.  Even  still  waiting  for  the  man  who  should  adapt  it  to  West- 
more  famous  was  the  monastery  of  L^rins  (q.  v.)  em  needs  and  circumstances  and  ^ve  to  it  a  special 
which  gave  to  the  Church  of  Gaul  some  of  its  most  form  distinct  from  that  of  the  East.  This  man  was 
famous  bishops  and  saints.    In  it  too  the  famous  Ab-  found  in  the  person  of  St.  Benedict  (480^543). 

bot  John  Cassian  (q.  v.)  settled  after  living  for  seven  (2)  The  Spread  of  SL  Benedicts  Rtde, — Full  details 

years  among  the  monks  of  Egypt,  and  from  it  he  of  St.  Bcneaict's  legislation,  which  had  such  immense 

founded  the  great  Abbey  of  St.  Victor  at  Marseilles,  effect  on  the  monasticism  of  Western  Europe,  will  be 

Cassian  was  undoubtedly  the  most  celebrated  teacher  found  in  the  articles  Benedict  of  Nursia,  St.,  and 

that  the  monks  of  Gaul  ever  had,  and  his  influence  was  Benedict,  Rule  of  St.    It  is  sufllicient  here  to  point 

all  on  the  side  of  the  primitive  Egyptian  ideals.   Con-  out  that  St.  Benedict  legislated  for  the  details  of  the 

sequently  we  find  that  the  eremitical  life  was  regarded  monastic  life  in  a  wav  that  had  never  been  done  before 

as  Deing  the  summit  or  goal  of  monastic  ambition  and  either  in  East  or  West.    It  is  clear  that  he  had  ac- 

the  means  of  perfection  recommended  were,  as  in  quainted  himself  thoroughly  with  the  lives  of  the 

!Egypt,  extreme  personal  austerities  with  prolonged  Egyptian  fathers  of  the  desert,  with  the  writings  of 

fasts  and  vigils,  and  the  whole  atmosphere  of  ascetical  St.  Basil,  Cassian,  and  Rufinus;  and  in  the  mainlines 

endeavour  so  dear  to  the  heart  of  the  Antonian  monk  he  has  no  intention  of  departing  from  the  precedents 

(see  Cassian,  John;  France;  CiESARius  of  Arles,  set  by  these  great  authonties.    Still  the  standard  of 

St.:  LtRiNs,  etc).  asceticism  aimed  at  by  him,  as  was  inevitable  in  the 

(b)  Celtic  Monasticism  Ireland,  Wales,  Scotland).  West^  is  less  severe  than  that  of  Egypt  or  Syria.  Thus 
— ^Authorities  are  still  divided  as  to  the  origin  of  Cel-  he  ^ves  his  monks  good  and  ample  food.  Me  permits 
tic  monasticism,  but  the  view  most  commonly  ac-  tiiem  to  drink  wine.  He  secures  a  sufiScient  peiiod  of 
cepted  is  that  of  Mr.  Willis  Bund  which  holds  it  to  imbroken  sleep.  His  idea  was  evidently  to  set  up  a 
have  been  a  purely  indigenous  ^wth  and  rejects  the  standard  that  could  and  should  be  attained  b}r  all  the 
idea  of  any  direct  connexion  with  Gallic  or  Egjnptian  monks  of  a  monastery,  leaving  it  to  individual  inspires 
monasticism.  It  seems  clear  that  the  first  Celtic  tion  to  essay  greater  austerities  if  the  need  of  these 
monasteries  were  merely  settlements  where  the  Chris-  were  felt  by  any  one.  On  the  other  hand,  probably  as 
tians  lived  together — priests  and  laity,  men,  women,  a  safeguard  against  the  relaxations  mentioned  above, 
and  children  alike — as  a  kind  of  religious  clan.  At  a  he  requires  a  greater  degree  of  seclusion  than  St.  Basil 
later  period  actuaJmonasteriesboth  of  monks  and  nuns  had  done.  So  far  as  possible  all  connexion  with  the 
were  formed,  and  later  still  the  eremitical  life  came  world  outside  the  monastery  is  to  be  avoided.  If  any 
into  vogue.  It  seems  highly  probable  that  the  ideas  monk  be  compelled  by  duty  to  go  beyond  the  monaa- 
and  literature  of  E^ptian  or  Gallic  monachism  may  tery  enclosure  he  is  forbidden  on  his  return  to  speak  of 
have  influenced  these  later  developments,  even  if  the  what  he  has  seen  or  heard.  So  too  no  monk  may  re- 
Celtic  monasticism  were  purely  independent  in  origin,  ceive  gifts  or  letters  from  his  friends  or  relatives  with- 
for  the  external  manifestations  are  identical  in  all  out  permission  of  the  abbot.  It  is  tme  that  guests 
three  forms.  Indeed  the  desire  for  austerities  of  an  from  without  are  to  be  received  and  entertained,  but 
extreme  character  has  always  remained  a  special  fea-  only  certain  monks  specially  chosen  for  the  purpose 
ture  of  IrL^  asceticism  down  to  our  own  time.    Want  may  hold  intercourse  with  them. 

of  space  forbids  any  detailed  account  of  Celtic  monas-  Perhaps,  however,  the  chief  point  in  which  St. 
ticism  in  this  place  but  the  following  articles  may  be  Benedict  modified  the  pre-existing  practice  is  his  in- 
referred  to:  (for  Ireland)  Armagh,  Bangor,  Clonard,  sistence  upon  the  stabUitas  loci.  By  this  special  Vow 
Clonfert,  Clonmacnoise,  Lismore,  Bobbio,  Lux-  of  Stability  he  unites  the  monk  for  life  to  the  particu- 
EUiL,  Saints  Patrick,  Carthage,  Columbanus,  lar  monastery  in  which  his  vows  are  made.  ^  ihis  was 
Comoall:  (for  Wales)  Llancarvan,  Bangor,  Saints  really  a  new  development  and  one  of  the  highest  im- 
AsAPH,  David,  Dubric,  Gildas,  Kentigern;  (for  portance.  In  the  first  place  by  this  the  last  vestige  of 
Scotland)  Iona,  School  of,  Lindisfarne,  Abbey  of,  personal  freedom  was  taken  away  from  the  monk. 
Saints  Ninian,  Columba,  Aidan.  Undoubtedly,  Secondly  it  secured  in  each  monastery  that  continuity 
however,  the  chief  {^lory  of  Celtic  monasticism  is  its  of  theoiy  and  practice  which  i3  9P  essential  fpr  tbc 


MONASnCISM  474  MONA8TXCI8M 

family  which  St.  Benedict  desired  above  everything,  quunted  with  the  workinips  of  the  RuTe  at  the  foun- 
The  abbot  was  to  be  a  father  and  the  monk  a  child,  tain  head,  and  in  its  turn  Fulda  became  the  model  for 
Nor  was  he  to  be  more  capable  of  choosing  a  new  fa-  all  German  monasteries.  Thus  by  the  rei^  of  Char- 
ther  or  a  new  home  than  any  other  child  was.  After  lemagne  the  Benedictine  form  of  monasticusm  had  be- 
all  St.  Benedict  was  a  Roman,  and  the  scion  of  a  Ro-  come  the  normal  type  throughout  the  West  with  the 
man  patrician  family,  and  he  was  simply  biingins  into  sole  exception  of  some  few  Spanish  and  Irish  cloisters, 
the  monastic  life  that  absolute  dependence  of  ail  the  So  completely  was  this  the  case  that  even  the  memory 
members  of  a  family  upon  the  father  which  is  so  iyp^"  of  earher  things  had  passed  away  and  it  could  be 
eal  of  Roman  law  and  usage.  Only  at  the  selection  of  gravelv  doubted  whether  monks  of  any  kind  at  all  had 
a  new  abbot  can  the  monks  choose  for  themselves,  existed  before  St.  Benedict  and  whether  there  could 
Once  elected  the  abbot's  power  becomes  absolute;  be  any  other  monks  but  Benedictines.  ^ 
there  is  nothing  to  control  him  except  the  Rule  and  his  At  the  time  of  Charlemagne's  death  in  814  the  most 
own  conscience  which  is  responsible  for  the  salvation  famous  monk  in  western  Europe  was  St.  Benedict  of 
of  every  soul  entrusted  to  his  care.  Aniane,  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  Louis  the  new  em- 
^  The  llule  of  St.  Benedict  was  written  at  Monte  Cas-  peror.  For  him  Louis  built  a  monastery  near  his  im- 
Bino  in  the  ten  or  fifteen  years  preceding  the  saint's  perial  palace  at  Aix,  and  there  Benedict  gathered 
death  in  543,  but  very  little  is  known  of  the  way  in  thirty  monks,  chosen  from  among  his  own  personal 
which  it  began  to  spread  to  other  monasteries.  St.  friends  and  in  full  sympathy  witii  his  ideas.  This 
Gregory  (Dial^  II,  xxii)  speaks  of  a  foundation  made  monastery  was  intended  to  be  a  model  for  all  the  re- 
from  Monte  (jassino  at  Terracina,  but  nothing  is  ligious  houses  of  the  empire,  and  the  famous  Asseir- 
known  of  this  house.  Again  the  traditions  of  Bene-  bly  of  817  passed  a  series  of  resolutions  which  toudied 
dictine  foundations  in  Gaul  and  Sicily  by  St.  Maurus  upon  the  whole  range  of  the  monastic  life.  The  ob- 
and  St.  Placid  are  now  generally  discredited.  Still  ject  of  these  resolutions  was  to  secure,  even  in  the 
the  Rule  must  have  become  known  venr  soon,  for  by  minutest  details,  an  absolute  uniformity  in  all  the 
the  death  of  Simplicius,  the  third  Abbot  of  Monte  monasteries  of  the  empire,  so  that  it  might  seem  as  if 
Cassino,  in  line  from  St.  Benedict,  it  is  referred  to  as  ''all  had  been  taught  by  one  single  master  in  one  sin- 
being  generally  observed  throughout  Italy  (Mabillon,  gle  spot".  As  might  have  been  expected  the  scheme 
''Ann^.  Bened.",  VII,  ii).  In  the  year  580  Monte  failed  to  do  this,  or  even  anything  approaching 
Cassino  was  destroyed  by  the  Lombards  and  the  monks  thereto,  but  the  resolutions  of  the  Assen-bly  are  of 
fled  to  Rome,  taking  with  them  the  autograph  copy  of  high  interest  as  the  first  example  of  what  are  nowa- 
the  Rule.  They  were  installed  by  Pelagius  II  m  a  days  called  ''Constitutions",  i.  e.  a  code,  supplemen- 
monastery  near  the  Lateran  Basilica.  It  is  almost  cer-  tary  to  the  Holy  Rule,  which  shall  regulate  uie  le^er 
tain  that  St.  Gregory  the  Great  who  succeeded  Pela^us  details  of  everyday  life  and  practice.  The  growth  of 
II  introduced  the  Benedictine  Rule  and  observance  mto  the  Benedictine  monasticism  and  its  development  dur- 
the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  which  he  founded  on  the  ins  the  period  known  as  the  ''Benedictine  centuries" 
Coelian  Hill  at  Rome,  and  also  into  the  six  monaster-  will  be  found  treated  of  in  the  article  Benedictikes. 
ies  he  founded  in  Sicily.  Thanks  to  St.  Gregory  the  but  it  may  be  stated  broadly  that,  while  it  had  of 
Rule  was  carried  to  England  by  St.  Augustine  and  his  course  its  periods  of  vigour  and  decline,  no  serious 
fellow  monks;  and  also  to  the  Prankish  and  Lombard  modification  of  St.  Benedict's  system  was  attempted 
monasteries  which  the  pope's  influence  did  much  to  until  the  rise  of  Cluny  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth 
revive.    Indirectly  too,  by  devotins;  the  second  book  century. 

of  his  "Dialogues^'  to  the  story  of  St.  Benedict's  life  (3)  The  Rise  of  Cluny, — ^The  essential  novelty  in 
and  work,  Gregory  ^ve  a  strong  impetus  to  the  the  Cluniac  system  was  its  centralization.  Hitherto 
spread  of  the  Rule.  Thus  the  first  stage  in  the  ad-  everv  monastery  had  been  a  separate  family,  inde- 
vance  of  St.  Benedict's  code  across  Western  Europe  is  pendent  of  all  the  rest.  The  ideal  of  Cluny,  however, 
closely  bound  up  with  the  name  of  the  first  monk*  was  to  set  up  one  great  central  monastery  with  depend- 
pope.  ent  houses,  numbered  even  by  the  hundred,  scattered 
in  the  seventh  century  the  process  continued  stead-  over  many  lands  and  forming  a  vast  hierarcny  or  mo- 
lly. Sometimes  the  Benedictme  code  existed  side  by  nastic  feudal  system  under  the  Abbot  of  Cluny.  The 
side  with  an  older  observance.  This  was  the  case  at  superior  of  every  house  was  nominated  by  the  Abbot 
Bobbio  where  the  monks  Jived  either  under  the  rule  of  of  Cluny,  every  monk  was  professed  in  his  name  and 
St.  Boiedict  or  of  St.  Columbanus,  who  had  founded  with  his  sanction.  It  was  m  fact  more  like  an  anny 
the  monastery  in  609.  In  Gaul  at  the  same  period  a  subject  to  a  general  than  St.  Benedict's  scheme  of  a 
union 'of  two  or  more  rules  was  often  to  be  found,  as  at  family  with  a  father  to  guide  it.  and  for  two  centuries 
Luxeuil,  Solignac,  and  elsewhere.  In  this  there  was  it  dominated  the  Church  in  Western  Europe  with  a 
nothing  surprising,  indeed  the  last  chapter  of  St.  power  second  only  to  that  of  the  papacy  itself.  (See 
Benedict's  rule  seems  almost  to  contemplate  such  an  Cluny;  Berno,  St.;  Odd,  St.;  Hugh  the  Great.) 
arrangement.  In  England,  thanks  to  St.  Wilfrid  of  Anything  indeed  more  unlike  the  primitive  mo- 
York,  St.  Benedict  Biscop  and  others,  the  Benedictine  nasticism  with  its  caves  and  individuansm  than  this 
mode  of  life  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  only  true  type  elaborate  system  with  the  pomp  and  circumstance 
of  monachism.  Its  influence  however  was  still  slight  m  which  soon  attended  it  eould  hardly  be  imagined,  and 
Ireland  where  the  Celtic  monasticism  gave  way  more  the  instinct  which  prompted  men  to  become  monks 
slowly.  In  the  eighth  century  the  advance  of  Bene-  soon  began  to  tell  against  a  type  of  monasticism  so 
dictinism  went  on  with  even  greater  rapidity  owing  dangerously  liable  to  relapse  into  mere  formalism.  It 
principally  to  the  efforts  of  St.  Boniface.  That  saint  must  be  understood  however  that  the  observance  of 
IS  known  as  the  Apostle  of  Germany  although  the  Cluny  was  still  strict  and  the  reaction  against  it  was 
Irish  missionaries  had  preceded  him  there.  His  ener-  not  based  on  any  need  for  a  reform  in  morals  or  disci* 
pes  however  were  divided  between  the  two  tasks  of  pline.  The  abtiots  of  Cluny  during  the  first  two  cen- 
convertin^  the  remaining  heathen  tribes  and  brining  turies  of  its  existence,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Pon- 
the  Christianity  of  the  Irish  converts  into  line  with  the  tius  (1109)  who  was  soon  deposed,  were  men  of  great 
Roman  use  and  obedience.  In  lx)th  these  undertak-  sanctity  and  commanding  anility.  In  practice  Sow- 
ings he  achieved  great  success  and  his  triumph  meant  ever  the  system  had  resulted  in  crushing  all  initiative 
the  destruction  of  the  earlier  Columban  form  of  mo-  out  of  the  su|)eriors  of  the  subordinate  monasteries 
nasticism.  Fulda,  the  great  monastery  of  St.  Boni-  and  so,  when  a  renewal  of  vigour  was  needed  there  was 
face's  institution,  was  modelled  directly  on  Monte  no  one  capable  of  the  effort  required  and  the  life  was 
Cassino  in  which  Sturm  the  abbot  had  resided  for  crushed  out  of  the  body  by  its  own  weight.  That  this 
9oine  titpe  so  that  he  might  b^ome  perfectly  ao-  defect  was  the  real  cause  why  the  system  failed  is  oep* 


HONAHneiSM  475  MONA8TI0ISM 

tain.    Nothing  is  more  remarkable  in  the  history  of  of  many  kinds  but  always  as  a  kind  of  acoidenti 

Benedictine  monastidsm  than  its  power  of  revival  by  or   to   meet  some   immediate   necessity,  not  as  a 

the  springing  up  of  renewed  life  from  within.    Agiun  primary  object  of   their  institute    nor  as  an  end 

and  again,  when  reform  has  been  needed,  the  impetus  m  itself.    Now    however    religious    foundations   of 

has  been  found  to  come  from  within  the  body  instead  an  active  type  began  to  be  instituted,  which  were 

of  from  outside  it.    But  in  the  case  of  Cluny  such  a  dedicated  to  some  particular  active  work  or  works 

thing  had  been  rendered  practically  impossible,  and  as    a   primary    end   of   their   foundation.    Of  this 

on  its  decline  no  recovery  took  place.  class  were    the   Military   Orders,   e.  g.,  the  Tem- 

(4)  Reaction  againai  Cluny, — ^The  reaction  against  plars,  Hospitallers,  and  Teutonic  Knights;  numerous 

Cluny  and  the  system  of  centratization  took  various  Institutes  of  canons,  e.  g.,  Augustinians,  Premonstra- 

forms.    Early  in  the  eleventh  century  (1012)  came  tensians,  and  Gilbertines;  the  many  Orders  of  friars, 

the  foundation  of  the  Camaldolese  by  St.  Romuald.  e.  g.  Carmelites,  Trinitarians^  Servites,  Dominicansi 

This  was  a  hark  back  to  the  ancient  Egyptian  ideal  of  and  Franciscans  or  Friars  Mmor.    Of  thes«  and  the 

a  number  of  hermits  living  in  a  'Maura^'  or  collection  multitudinous  modem  foundations  of  an  active  char- 

of  detached  cells  which  were  situated  some  consider-  aoter,  as  distinct  from  a  contemplative  or  monastic 

able  distance  apart  (see  Camaldolese).    A  few  years  one,  this  article  does  not  profess  to  treat:  they  will  be 

later  (1039)  St.  John  Gualbert  founded  the  Order  of  found  fully  dealt  with  in  tne  general  article  Beligious 

Vallombrosa  which  is  chiefly  important  for  the  institu-  Orders  and  also  individually  in  sep>arate  articles 

tion  of  ''lay  brothers",  as  distinct  from  the  chda  under  the  names  of  the  various  orders  and  congrega- 

monks,  a  novelty  which  assumes  high  importance  in  tions.    It  must  be  recognised  however  that  these  ac- 

later  monastic  history    (see    Lay -brother;   Val-  tive  institutions  attracted  a  vast  number  of  vocations 

lombroba).    In  1074  came  the  Order  of  Grammont  and  to  that  extent  tended  to  check  the  increase  and 

which   however   did  not   move  to  the  place  from  development  of  the  monastic  order  stricUy  so  called, 

which  its  name  is  derived  until  1124  (see  Graicmont;  even  while  their  fervour  and  success  spiured  the  older 

Stephen   of   Muret,   St.).    Far  more  important  institutes  to  a  renewal  of  zeal  in  their  special  observ- 

than  these  was  the  establishment  in  1084  of  the  Car-  ances. 

thusians  by  St.  Bruno,  at  the  Grand  Chartreuse  near  The  Fourth  (>)uncil  of  Lateran  in  1215  passed  cer- 
Grenoble,  which  boasts  that  it  alone  of  the  §?eat  tain  special  canons  to  regulate  monastic  observance 
orders  has  never  required  to  be  reformed  (see  Cab-  and  prevent  any  falling  away  from  the  standard  set 
tritsianb:  Chartreuse,  Le  Grand;  Brttno,  St.).  In  up.  These  directions  tended  to  adapt  the  best  fea- 
all  these  four  institutes  the  tendency  was  towards  a  tures  of  the  Cistercian  system,  e.  g.  tne  general  chap- 
more  eremitical  and  secluded  formof  life  than  that  fol-  ters,  to  Uie  use  of  the  Black  monks,  and  they  were  a 
lowed  by  the  Benedictines,  but  this  was  not  the  case  great  step  in  the  path  which  later  proved  so  successful. 
in  the  greatest  of  all  the  foundations  of  the  period,  At  the  time  however  they  were  practically  ignored  by 
vis.  the  Cistercians.  the  monasteries  on  the  Continent,  and  only  in  Eng- 

The  Cistercians  derived  their  name  from  Ctteaux  land  was  any  serious  effort  made  to  put  them  into 

near  Dijon  where  the  Order  was  founded  about  1098  by  practice.    Tne  consequence  was  that  the  Engli^ 

St.  Robert  of  Molesme.   The  new  development  differed  monasteries  of  Black  monks  soon  formed  themsdves 

from  that  of  Climy  in  this  that,  while  Cluny  estab-  into    one  national  congregation,    the    observance 

liahed  one  scattered  family  of  vast  size,  Ctteaux  pre-  throughout  the  country  became  largely  uniform,  and 

served  the  idea  that  each  monastery  was  an  indiviaual  a  far  higher  standard  of  life  obtained  than  was  com- 

family  but  united  all  these  families  into  one  ''Order''  mon  in  continental  monasteries  at  the  same  period, 

in  the  modem  sense  of  an  organized  congregation.  The  system  of  periodical  general  chapters  ord^^  by 

The  Abbot  and  House  of  Ctteaux  was  to  be  pre-emi-  the  Lateran  Council  was  maintained.    So  too  Was  the 

nent  for  ever  over  all  the  monasteries  of  the  order,  subjection  of  all  monasteries  to  the  diocesan  bishops 

The  abbots  of  all  other  monasteries  were  to  assemble  as  a  normal  state  of  affairs:  indeed  only  five  abbeys  m 

at  Ctteaux  in  general  chapter  every  year.    The  pur-  all  England  were  exempt  from  episcopal  jiurisdiction. 

pose  of  this  was  to  secure  in  every  monasteiy  a  com-  There  were  of  course  individual  failures  here  and  there, 

plete  uniformity  in  the  details  of  observance,  and  this  but  it  is  dear  that^  from  the  date  of  the  Council  ot 

uniformit}r  was  to  be  made  even  more  certain  by  a  Lateran  up  to  the  time  of  thdr  destruction,  the  Eng- 

yearly  visitation  of  each  house.     The  Abbot  of  Ct-  lish  Beneaictine  houses  maintained  on  the  whole  a 

teaux  possessed  the  further  right  of  visiting  any  and  good  standard  of  discipline  and  preserved  the  affeo- 

every  monastery  at  will,  and  though  he  was  not  to  in-  lionate  respect  of  the  great  majority  of  the  laity  in 

terfere  with  the  temporalities  of  any  house  against  the  every  rank  of  life. 

widies  of  the  abbot  and  brethren,  in  all  matters  of  dis-        (5)  Period  of  Monastic  Decline. — On  the  Continent 

cipline  his  power  was  absolute.    This  elaborate  sys-  the  period  succeeding  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  was 

tern  was  set  forth  in  the  famous  document  known  as  one  of  steady  decline.    The  history  of  the  time  tells  of 

the  "Carta  Caritatis''  and  in  it  for  the  first  time  the  civil  disturbance,  intellectual  upheaval,  and  a  contin- 

expression  ''Our  Order''  is  used  in  the  modem  sense,  ual  increase  of  luxury  among  ecclesiastics  as  well  as 

Previously  the  word,  as  used  in  the  phrase  "the  mo-  laymen.    The  wealth  of  the  monasteries  was  tempt- 

nasticoraer"haddenotedthe  modeof  life  conmion  to  inp  and  the  great  ones  both  in  Church  and  State 

every  monastery.    In  the  "Carta  Caritatis"  it  is  seized  upon  them.    Kings,  nobles,  cardinals,  and  pre- 

usedto  exclude  all  monastic  observance  not  exactly  on  lates  obtained  nominations  to  abbeys  "in  commen- 

the  lines  of  the  "new  monastery",  i.  e.,  Ctteaux,  ahd  dam"  and  more  often  than  not  absorbed  the  revenues 

subject  to  it.    The  monasteries  of  the  Cisterdans  of  houses  which  they  left  to  go  to  ruin.    Vocations 

spread  over  Europe  with  surprising  rapidity  and  from  grew  scarce  and  not  imf reouently  the  communities 

tne  colour  of  their  habit  the  monks  were  called  the  were  reduced  to  a  mere  hanoful  of  monks  livine  on  a 

"White  Monks",  the  older  Benedictines  and  (Dluniacs  trifling  allowance  doled  out  to  them  none  too  wiOingl^ 

besng  known  as  the  "Black  Monks   "(see  Cisteb-  by  the  layman  or  ecclesiastic  who  daimed  to  be  their 

ciANB;CtTBAi7x:  Robert  OF  MoLEBME,  St.;  Bernard  commendatory  abbot.    Efforts  to  check  these  evils 

ov  CiJURVATTX,  St.).  were  not  wanting  especially  in  Italy.    The  Sylves- 

The  impetus  given  by  these  new  foundations  helped  trines,  foimded  by  St.  Sylvester  de  (xozzolini  about 

to  revitahze  the  Beneaictine  monasteries  of  the  older  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  were  organized 

tjrpe,  but  at  the  same  time  a  new  influence  was  at  on  a  system  of  peroetual  superiors  under  one  head, 

work  upon  westem  monasticism.    Hitherto  the  mo-  the  Prior  of  Monte  Fano,  who  ruled  the  whole  congre- 

nastlc    ideal    had    been    essentially    contemplative,  gation  as  general  assisted  by  a  chapter  consisting  of 

Certainly  the  monks  had  undertaken  active  work  representatives  from  each  house  (see  Stlvebtrines). 


HONOADA 


476 


MONDmO 


The  Celestines,  founded  about  forty  years  later  by  St. 
Peter  Morone  (Celestine  V),  were  organized  on  much 
the  same  plan  but  the  superiors  were  not  peroetual 
and  the  heicid  of  the  whole  Dody  was  an  Abbot  elected 
by  the  Gencotd  Chaj^ter  for  three  years  and  ineligible 
for  re-election  for  nine  years  after  his  previous  term 
of  office  (see  Cblestineb;  Celestine  V,  St.).  The 
Olivetans,  founded  about  1313  by  Bernardo  Tolomei 
of  Siena,  mark  the  last  stage  of  development.  In 
their  case  the  monks  were  not  professed  for  any  par- 
ticular monastery,  but^  like  friars,  for  the  congregation 
in  general.  The  officials  of  the  various  houses  were 
chosen  by  a  small  committee  appointed  for  this  puiv 
pose  by  the  general  chapter.  The  abbot-general  was 
visitor  of  all  monasteries  and  ''superior  of  superiors", 
but  his  power  was  held  for  a  very  short  penod  only. 
This  system  had  the  very  great  advantage  that  it 
rendered  the  existence  of  oommendatoiy  superiors 
practically  impossible,  but  it  secured  this  at  the  cost 
of  sacrificing  all  family  life  in  the  individual  monas- 
tery which  is  the  central  idea  of  St.  Benedict's  legisla- 
tion. Further,  by  taking  the  right  of  election  away 
from  the  monastic  communities,  it  concentrated  all 
real  power  in  the  hands  of  a  small  committee,  a  course 
obviously  open  to  many  possible  dangers  (see  Oltve- 
tanb). 

(6)  Monasiie  Revival. — In  the  great  wave  of  reform 
and  revival  which  characterised  the  later  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  the  older  institutions  of  Benedic- 
tines once  more  eave  proof  of  their  vitality  and  a  spon- 
taneous renewu  of  vigour  was  shown  throughout 
Europe.  This  revival  tollowed  two  main  lines.  In 
the  Latin  countries  the  movement  pursued  the  path 
marked  out  by  the  Olivetans.  Thus  in  Italy  all  the 
monasteries  of  Black  monks  were  gradually  united 
together  under  the  name  of  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Justina  of  Padua,  afterwards  called  the  Cassinese  Con- 
gregation (see  under  Benedictines).  Similar  meth- 
ods were  adopted  in  the  formation  of  the  Contri- 
tions of  St.  Maur  and  St.  Vannes  in  France,  in  tne 
two  Congregations  of  Spanish  Benedictines,  and  in 
the  revival  of  the  Engush  Congregation.  In  Ger- 
many the  revival  took  a  different  path;  and,  while 
keepmg  closer  to  the  traditions  of  the  past,  united  the 
existing  monasteries  very  much  in  the  manner  or- 
dered by  the  Fourth  Council  of  Lateran  in  1215.  The 
Union  of  Bursfeld  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  this 
method.  An  example  of  reform  in  the  seventeenth 
centuiy  was  the  work  of  Abb6  de  Ranc6  in  instituting 
the  Cistercian  reform  at  La  Trappe.  In  this  his 
object  was  to  get  as  close  as  possible  to  the  primi- 
tive form  of  Benedictine  life.  No  one  can  question 
his  sincerity  or  the  singleness  of  his  intentions,  but  de 
Rano6  was  not  an  antiquary  and  had  not  been  trained 
as  a  monk  but  as  a  courtier.  The  result  was  that  he 
interpreted  St.  Benedict's  rule  with  the  most  absolute 
literalness,  and  thus  succeeded  in  producing  a  cast- 
iron  mode  of  life  far  more  rigid  and  exactmg  than 
Uiere  is  any  reason  to  believe  St.  Benedict  himself 
either  desired  to  or  did  beget.  The  upheaval  of  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  wars  which  followed  it 
seemed  likely  to  give  a  death  blow  to  Western  mon- 
achism  and  in  fact  did  destroy  monasteries  by  the 
hundred.  But  nothing  perhaps  is  more  noteworthy, 
in  all  the  wonderful  revival  ox  Catholicism  which  the 
last  hundred  years  have  seen,  than  the  resuscitation  of 
monastic  life  in  all  its  forms,  not  only  in  Europe,  but 
also  in  America,  Africa,  Australia,  and  other  distant 
lands  whose  very  existence  was  unknown  to  the  found- 
ers of  Western  monachism.  Detaib  of  this  revival 
will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  the  various  orders  and 
congregations  referred  to  above. 

No  mention  has  been  made  in  this  article  of  the 
question  of  women  under  Monasticism.  Broadly 
speaking  the  history  of  contemplative  nuns,  as  distinct 
from  nuns  of  the  more  recent  active  orders,  has  been 
identical  with  that  of  the  monks.    In  almost  every  in- 


stance the  modifications,  refonns,  etc.,  made  by  the 
various  monastic  legislators  have  been  adopted  by 
convents  of  women  as  well  as  by  the  monks.  In 
cases  where  any  special  treatment  has  been  thought 
necessaiy,  e.  f.  the  Carthusian  Nuns,  a  separate  sec- 
tion of  the  article  on  the  order  or  congregation  in  ques- 
tion has  been  dedicated  to  the  subject.  These  sec- 
tions should  be  referred  to  in  all  cases  for  detailed 
information.  (For  practical  details  of  the  monastic  life 
and  the  actual  working  of  a  monastery  see  the  articles 
Monabticibm;  Monastery;  Abbey;  Abbot*  Abbess; 
Obedientiaries:  Benedict,  Rxtle  of  St.;  Benedict 
OF  NuBsiA,  St.;  Nun.) 

G.  Roger  Hudlbston. 

IConcada,  Francisco  de,  Count  of  Osona/  Spanish 
historian,  son  of  the  Governor  of  Sardinia  and  Cata- 
lonia, b.  at  Valencia,  29  December,  1586;  d.  near 
Goch,  Germany,  1635.  He  entered  the  army  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  in  1624,  was  appointed  by  King  Philip 
IV  ambassador  to  the  imperial  court  at  Vienna,  where 
he  soon  succeeded  in  acquiring  the  esteem  o^  Ferdi- 
nand II  and  his  ministers.  In  1629  he  was  recalled 
from  Vienna  and  sent  to  Brussels  in  place  of  Cardinal 
de  la  Cueva,  ambassador  to  the  Infanta  Isabella.  lib 
chief  duty  there  consisted  in  keeping  the  king  posted 
in  regard  to  the  conditions  in  the  Netherlands,  in 
supervising  the  royal  officii,  and  in  watching  over 
the  disbursements  of  Spanish  funds.  He  soon  discov- 
ered the  chief  fault  of  the  preceding  administration 
and  endeavoured  to  concede  to  the  Belgians  a  much 
larger  share  in  the  adminintration  of  their  country's 
affairs,  for  he  realized  that  only  by  such  a  show  of 
confidence  could  they  be  kept  loyal  to  the  empire. 
He  also  proposed,  though  without  success,  to  transfer 
the  general  management  of  Belgian  affairs  from  Mad- 
rid to  Brussels.  In  1 630  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  navy,  in  1632  of  the  entire  army,  and  in 
1634,  after  the  death  of  the  Infanta,  Rovemor  of  Bel- 
mum,  until  relieved  by  the  arrival  of  P*rince  Cardinal 
Ferdinand.  His  crowning  and  final  achievement  as 
military  commander  was  the  liberation  of  Breda,  the 
citizens  of  which  ordered  memorial  coins  struck  in  his 
honour.  The  following  year  he  accompanied  the  car- 
dinal on  an  expedition  into  the  Duchy  of  Cleves,  where 
he  died  after  a  short  illness  at  the  siege  of  Goch.  He 
had  an  amiable  character,  knew  how  to  ^ide  men 
according  to  his  own  desires,  and  combined  great 
shrewdness  and  firmness  with  wise  moderation.  He 
wrote  a  valuable  history  of  the  expedition  of  the  Cata- 
lonians  and  Aragonians  against  the  Turks  and  Greeks 
(Barcelona,  1623;  Madrid,  1777,  1805,  1883;  Paris, 
1841,  in  "Tesoro  de  los  historiadores  espanoles")* 
We  furthermore  possess  from  his  pen  the  **Vida  de 
Anicio  Manlio  Torquato  Severino  Boecio",  which  was 
printed  (Frankfort.  1642)  seven  years  after  his  death. 

Biog,  Nat,,  I  (BniSBeU,  1866).  578-500. 

Patricitts  Schlager. 

Mondino  (a  diminutive  for  Raimondo;  Mundinus) 
DEI  Lucci,  anatomist,  b.  probably  at  Bologna,  about 
1275;  d.  there,  about  1327.  Mondino  performed  a 
series  of  publip  dissections  at  the  University  of  Bo- 
logna in  tne  eafly  part  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  is 
sometimes  said  to  nave  performed  only  two  or  three  dis- 
sections, but  his  own  writings  refute  this.  He  is  often 
proclaimed  the  first  to  have  performed  dissections  in 
modem  timos,  but  Haeser  says  that  many  anatomists 
dissected  betore  his  time,  and  that  we  nave  even  a 
manual  of  dissection  written  before  this,  by  one 
Ricardus.  Mondino  systematized  dissection,  and 
wrote  a  manual  called  "  Anathomia",  which  was  used 
in  nearly  all  medical  schools  for  three  centuries  after 
his  time.  Its  popularity  can  be  judged  from  the  edi- 
tions issued  after  the  invention  of  printing.  There  is 
one  at  Pavia  (1478),  Bologna  (1482),  and  Padua(14S4) ; 
there  are  Venice  editions  of  1494, 1498, 1500,  and  1507; 
Leipzig  (1505),  Strasburg  (1509),  and  Marburg  and 


MONDONSDO 


477 


MOMDONEDO 


Lyons  shortly  ftfterwards.  His  book  was  considered 
such  an  authority  that  an  old  teacher  declared  that 
medical  students  for  centuries  worshipped  him  as  a 
god.  If  something  found  in  a  dissection  were  not  de- 
scribed in  Mondino's  '' Anathomia",  constantly  open 
before  them  while  dissecting,  it  was  considered  an 
anomaly.  The  work  of  course  has  been  superseded  by 
progress  in  the  science  of  anatomy,  but  it  is  easy  to 
understand  from  it  how  much  practical  anatomy  for 
surgical  purposes  the  medieval  pnysicians  were  taught. 

Haeser  in  Biopravhitehes  Lexicon  der  hervorragendm  Aerzte; 
Bibliographie  nUdioaie  (Paris,  1826) ;  for  the  Question  of  dJaseo- 
tioo  before  and  by  Mondino*  see  Pilchbii,  Tm  Mondino  Myth 
in  Medical  Library  and  Historical  Journal  (Brooklyn,  Dec., 
1906);  Waubb,  The  Popes  and  Science  (New  York.  1908). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

Mondofiedo  (Lat.  Mondumetttm,  or  Mindon), 
Diocese  or  ^Mindoniensis,  also  Britoniensis. 
DuMiENSis,  and  Villabriensis),  comprises  the  civil 
Provinces  of  Lugo  and  Corunna,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  east  by  the 
Austiuias,  on  the  south  by  the  Diocese  of  Lugo,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Compostela  (or 
Santiago  de  Galicia),  of  which  it  has  been  a  suffragan 
since  1114.  Some  authorities  have  sought  to  fix  the 
date  of  the  foundation  of  this  diocese  (under  its  prim- 
itive name  of  Britonia)  earlier  than  the  second  half  of 
the  sixth  century,  but  the  later  date  seems  the  more 
probable  when  we  consider  that,  at  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Braga  (572),  Mailoc,  Bishop  of  Britonia,  was 
ranked  lowest  because  of  the  more  recent  origin  of  his 
see.  It  seems  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Sucvian 
king,  Theodomir,  converted  to  Catholicism  bv  St. 
Martin  of  Dumio  (see  Martin  of  Braga,  Saint)  and 
to  have  included  in  its  jurisdiction  the  Churches  of 
the  Britones  (a  territorv  coinciding  with  that  of 
M  ondofiedo)  and  some  of  those  of  the  Asturias.  In  the 
beginning  it  was  a  suffragan  of  Lugo,  until  the  Goths 
placed  Lugo  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Braga.  After 
Mailoc  no  mention  is  found  of  the  bishops  of  Britonia 
for  a  long  time,  doubtless  because  the  great  distance 
from  Toledo  made  it  impossible  for  them  to  assist  at 
the  councils.  In  633  Mctopius,  Bishop  of  Britonia, 
assisted  at  the  Fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  presided  over 
by  St.  Isidore.  Sonna,  his  successor,  was  one  of  the 
bishops  who  signed  at  the  Seventh  Council  of  Toledo 
(646)  and  sent  a  representative  to  the  Eighth  Coimcil 
of  Toledo  (16  December,  653).  When  Britonia  was 
invaded  and  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  the  bishop 
and  priests  took  refuge  in  Asturias.  In  899,  during 
the  reign  of  Alfonso  III,  Theodesimus.  Bishop  of 
Britonia  assisted  with  other  prelates  at  tne  consecra- 
tion of  the  church  of  Santiago.  It  may  also  be  noted 
that,  in  the  repartition  of  the  parishes,  the  church  of 
San  Pedro  de  Nova  was  assigned  as  tne  residence  of 
the  bishops  of  Britonia  and  Orense,  when  they  should 
come  to  assist  at  the  councils  of  Oviedo.  By  that 
time,  however,  the  See  of  Britonia  had  been  trans- 
lated to  the  town  of  Mondumetum  and  the  church  of 
St.  Martin  of  Dumio,  or  Mondofiedo.  The  diocese 
has  since  been  most  generally  known  by  this  name, 
although  the  episcopid  residence  has  again  changed. 
After  the  time  of  St.  Martin  it  was  transferred  to 
ViUamayor  de  Brea,  from  which  it  derived  the  name 
of  Villabriensis,  and  afterwards  to  Ribadeo,  but  it  was 
nevertheless  known  as  Mindoniensc,  as  a  document 
of  the  year  1199  bears  witness.  At  first,  its  patron 
was  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  but  St.  Martin  of  Dumio 
was  afterwards  chosen  patron. 

The  church  of  St.  Martin  of  Mondofiedo,  one  of  the 
best  of  the  ancient  churches  of  this  region,  had  been 
the  cathedral  church  since  866.  The  present  paro- 
chial house  is  a  part  of  the  old  episcopal  palace,  con- 
nected with  the  church  by  a  gallerv  from  what  seems 
to  have  been  one  of  the  episcopal  chambers.  In  1112 
the  queen,  Dofia  Urraca,  transferred  the  episcopal 
residence  to  Brea,  a  valley  about  seven  and  a  half 
miles  from  St.  Martin  of  MondofiedOi  in  the  midst  of 


which  is  Villamayor  de  Brea,  where  the  cathedral 
church  of  Santa  Marfa  Vallibriense  was  built.  The 
Blessed  Virgin,  under  her  title  of  the  Assumption, 
was  the  patroness  of  this  church.  Alfonso  VII  gave 
a  charter  to  the  town,  and  the  bishop  resided  there 
until  Ferdinand  II  of  Le6n  transferred  the  episcopal 
residence  to  ^badeo.  In  1233  Don  Martin,  suc- 
cessor to  Don  Pelayo,  transferred  it  to  its  present 
location,  Mondofiedo,  now  a  town  of  10,590  inhabi- 
tants. To  appease  the  discontent  occasioned  in 
Ribadeo  by  this  change,  Bifihop  Nufio  II  and  his 
chapter  established  a  collegiate  church  in  Ribadeo 
with  a  canon  and  four  prebendaries  {racioneros). 

Many  of  the  bishops  of  Mondofiedo  were  noted  for 
thdr  sanctity  and  learning.  First  amon^  these  is  St. 
Rosendus,  who.  in  consideration  of  his  eminent  virtue, 
was  created  a  bishop  when  he  was  veiy  young,  and 
governed  the  diocese  from  923  to  012.  Ho  founded  the 
monastery  of  Celanova,  to  which  he  afterwards  re- 
tired to  live  the  life  of  a  monk.  Of  another  abbot  of 
Celanova,  Gonzalvo,  a  legend  has  been  preserved 
which  attributes  to  his  prayers  the  repulse  of  the 
Northmen  who  were  devastating  the  coasts  of  Galicia. 
His  sepulchre  is  in  the  church  of  St.  Martin  of  Mon- 
dofiedo, and  on  the  spot  on  the  shore  where  he  prayed 
a  chapel  has  been  erected  to  which  peonle  come  in 
great  numbers,  especially  at  Pentecost.  Don  Martin, 
bishop  from  1219  to  1218,  built  the  present  cathedral 
of  Mondofiedo,  except  for  the  present  fagade  and  four 
chapels,  which  form  an  additional  nave  behind  the 

Erincipal  one.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  resigned 
is  see  and  withdrew  to  St.  Martin  of  Mondofiedo  to 
prepare  for  death.  Don  Pedro  Enrfquez  de  Castro 
(1423-45)  is  credited  with  having  built  the  ancient 
cloister,  where  the  coat  of  arms  of  his  family  was 
emblazoned.  Don  Fadriaue  de  Guzmdn  (14G2-92) 
made  notable  repairs  in  tne  cathedral;  Don  Alfonso 
Sudrez  de  la  Fuente  del  Salce  (1493-96)  was  named 
inquisitor  general  by  Pope  Alexander  VI;  Don  Pedro 
Pacheco,  son  of  the  Conde  de  Montalban  (1533-37) 
was  created  a  cardinal;  Fray  Antonio  de  Guevara,  a 
classical  writer,  preacher  and  chronicler  for  Charles 
V  shed  lustre  on  the  See  of  Mondofiedo.  Don  Diego 
de  Soto  (1546-49)  completely  renovated  the  cathe- 
dral. 

In  the  church  at  Villamayor  de  Brea,  which  was 
formerly  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese,  there  are  some 
notable  frescoes,  entirely  covering  the  walls  of  the  in- 
terior. Those  on  the  Gospel  side  represent,  in  three 
large  panels,  the  slaughter  of  the  Innocents;  those  on 
the  Epistle  side,  four  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Peter. 
Other  paintings,  the  work  of  the  Asturian  painter,  Te- 
rdn,  decorate  the  domes  of  the  transept  and  the  main 
chapel.  The  present  cathedral  of  Mondofiedo,  built 
in  the  thirteenth  century  (see  above),  is  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  ogival  art  in  Galicia.  The  Roman- 
esque portal  is,  as  in  many  of  the  churches  of  that 
period,  the  most  ancient  portion.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  a  ffu^ade  in  the  Baroque  style  was  added. 
The  church  is  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  with  three 
naves;  it  has  fine  altars,  choir  stalls  in  the  Flemish 
style,  mural  paintings  of  the  fifteenth  century,  in- 
teresting for  tne  history  of  art,  and  two  organs  m  the 
over-decorated  style  of  the  eighteenth  century,  while 
the  sacristy  is  richly  decorated  with  pictures  of  the 
Flemish  school.  The  Capilla  de  los  Remedies,  built 
in  1738,  by  Bishop  Sarmiento  de  Sotomavor  also 
deserves  mention.  The  monastery  of  San  Salvador 
de  Lorenzana,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Benedictines, 
and  so  call(^  from  its  proximity  to  the  river  Loren- 
zana, is  one  of  the  most  notable  in  Galicia.  It  was 
founded  on  17  June,  969,  during  the  episcopate  of 
Theodomir,  by  the  saintlv  Conde  Osorio  Gutierrez, 
and  was  richly  endowed .  The  remains  of  the  founder, 
who  became  a  member  of  the  community,  are  interred 
in  the  monastery.  A  very  beautiful  monument  con- 
structed of  rare  marbles,  such  as  are  not  to  be  found 


uovmovi 


478 


uom 


in  any  other  part  of  Spain,  has  been  erected  over  his 
grave.  His  memorv  is  venerated,  and  the  faithful 
visit  his  tomb.  The  convent  of  the  Alcantarines 
(Franciscans  of  the  reform  of  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara), 
founded  in  1731,  is  now  used  as  barracks.  The 
court-house  (1584)  and  the  seminary  are  among  the 
principal  buildings  of  Mondofiedo. 

The  present  seminary  building,  in  the  Huertas  del 
Torrillon,  was  built  by  Bishop  Josil  Francisco  de  Losada 
in  1770-75.  Mondofiedo,  which  imtil  1836,  was  the 
capital  of  the  province,  numbers  among  her  dis- 
tinguished sons  the  teacher  Pacheco  Febrero,  author 
of  ^'Galerfa  de  Escribanos",  Job6  Cayetano  Suaces, 
Bishop  of  Palencia;  Lucas  Miranda,  author  of  the 
"Teatro  de  Prelados  de  la  Iglesia  de  Mondofiedo", 
and  the  sculptor  Castro,  designer  of  the  inspiring 
figure  of  Saint  Francis  in  the  cathedral.  Bishop 
Manuel  Navarrete  wrote  a  long  history  of  Mondofiedo 
and  its  bishops.  The  present  (1910)  Bishop  of  Mon- 
dofiedo, Don  Juan  Jos6  Sol^s  y  Femdnaez,  b.  at 
Ovicdo,  1848,  was  consecrated  on  26  May.  1907. 

FL6Rn.  Stpalla  Sagrada,  XVIII  (2nd  ed..  Madrid.  1780);  Vi- 
LUtMiL,  Cr&niea  de  la  Pnmncia  d«  Lugo  (Madrid.  1867) ;  MuRonf  a, 
£«po#Ui,  9u»  monumtrUon  y  ariet:  Oalicia  (Barcelona,  1888) ;  DS  la 
FuBMTB,  HisUiria  ecUaidMica  de  Bepalla  (Barcelona,  1855). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Mondovi,  Diocese  of  (Montisregaijs),  in  Pied- 
mont, province  of  Cuneo,  northern  Italv.  The  city  is 
built  upon  three  hills,  at  a  height  of  about  1600  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  dates  from  the  year  1000;  but  the 
suburb  of  Breo,  the  name  of  which  recalls  the  Bredo- 
lensis  colony  mentioned  in  a  Roman  inscription  found 
in  that  neighbourhood,  had  a  castle  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne.  The  town,  called  Monsvici,  also  Mon- 
teregale,  was  under  the  bishops  of  Asti  until  1198, 
when  it  established  itself  as  a  commune,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  struggle  against  the  bishops  of  Asti,  the 
marquesses  of  Saluzzo  and  of  Monferrato,  and  the 
counts  of  Savoy,  in  turn  recognizing  and  shaking  off 
the  suzerainty  of  one  or  another  of  those  lords.  The 
commune  mamtain^  a  war  against  the  marquesses  of 
Civa  (1240-50),  and  finally,  Bressano  di  Vico,  a  pow- 
erful lord  in  Mondovi,  attempted  to  make  himself 
master  of  the  city,  which  submitted  to  Charles  of 
Anjou  (1260),  and  from  that  time,  with  some  inter- 
ruptions, remained  under  the  protection  of  the  kings 
of  Naples,  until  1366.  In  1396,  having  again  chang^ 
lords  several  times,  it  came  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Savoyard  lords  of  Achaia^  and  in  1418,  under  that  of 
the  dukes  of  Savoy,  in  whose  possession  it  remained. 
In  1476  and  in  1533,  the  inhabitants  of  Mondovl  at- 
tempted to  give  their  allegiance  either  to  the  Marquess 
of  Monferrato  or  to  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  ana  the 
fVench  contested  for  its  possession  with  the  imperial- 
ists (1536-43),  and  with  the  house  of  Savoy  (1543-59). 
The  city  was  at  war  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  for  the 
salt  monopoly  (1678-99).  Napoleon  defeated  the 
Piedmontese  near  Mondo^  (1796),  thereby  assuring 
his  way  through  the  valley  of  the  ro,  and  in  1799  it 
was  pillaged  by  the  French. 

It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  pious  Cardinal  Bona,  of 
the  celebrated  physicist  Beccaria,  and  of  Marquess 
Ormea,  a  statesman  of  the  ei^teenth  century.  Its 
cathedra]  contains  paintings  by  Giulio  Romano,  Cam- 
biaso,  and  others.  ^  The  residence  of  the  bishop  Is  one 
of  the  noblest  episcopal  palaces  in  Italy.  In  the 
church  of  la  Missione  there  are  frescoes  by  the  Jesuit 
Pozzi.  Outside  the  city  is  the  sanctuary  of  the  Ma- 
donna del  Pilone,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century, 
but  finished  later  (1730-49).  The  palace  of  the  counts 
of  San  Quintino  contained  the  first  printing-office  in 
Piedmont,  and  was  the  seat  of  a  university  (1560- 
1719)  founded  by  Duke  Emmanuel  Philibert,  the  first 
institution  of  its  kind  in  Piedmont.  The  city,  at  first 
part  of  the  Diocese  of  Asti,  became  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  suffragan  of  the  Archbishop  of  Milan,  but, 
mnce  1515,  Timn  has  been  its  metropolitan.   In  1817, 


the  territoiy  of  Cuneo  w.os  detached  from  the  See  of 
Mondovl,  and  made  a  diocese.  The  first  bishop  of 
Mondovl  was  Damiano  Zavaglia,  a  zealous  and  i>eare- 
loving  prelate:  among  his  successors  were  Percivalln 
di  Psuma  (1429),  Amadeo  Romagnano  (1497),  who 
reconstructed  the  cathedral  (1550);  Michele  Ghislierl 
O.P.  (1550),  later  Pope  Pius  V;  Cardinal  Vinceiuo 
Lauro  (1566),  founder  of  the  seminary,  during  whc^e 
incumbency  the  cathedral  and  other  ciiurches  were 
torn  down  to  make  room  for  the  citadel;  Giovanni 
Battista  Isnardi  (1697),  who  restored  the  episcopd 

galace  and  the  church  of  St.  Dalmazio;  Carlo  Fehoe 
anmartino  (1741),  founder  of  the  new  seminary,  and 
Giovanni  Tommaso  Ghilardi,  O.P.  (1842),  a  very 
pious  and  charitable  man.  The  city  contains  145 
parishes,  with  170,000  faithful,  6  relinous  houses  of 
women,  10  educational  establishments  for  boys  and  15 

for  girls;  it  has  three  Catholic  newspapers. 

CAPPBLLvrri,  Le  Chieee  d'llalia  (Venioe.  ISST).  XIV:  Grami. 
Memorie  hiHoriehe  delta  ehiesa  V€»eovile  di  MofUerwgale  (Tuitd, 
1785) ;  Dblla  Rocca,  U  Stcrie  deW  atUioa  dUd  di  MemtereoalA 
oeeia  Mondavi  (2  vols.,  Turin,  1804-99). 

U.   B£NIGNI. 

ICona,  Franz,  historian  and  archawlo^tst,  b.  at 
Mingolsheim  near  Bruchsal,  Baden,  12  May,  1796;  d. 
at  Karlsruhe,  12  March,  1871 .  He  attended  the  Kym- 
nasium  at  Bruchsal  and  in  1814  entered  Heidelberg, 
where  in  1817  he  was  appointed  tutor  {PrivaUiazerU)  in 
history,  in  1818  secretary  of  the  university  library,  in 
1819  extraordinaiy,  and  in  1822  ordinary,  professor, 
and  in  1825  head  of  the  university  library.  From 
1827  to  1831  he  was  professor  at  Louvain.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Baden  he  edited  for  a  period  the  '^'Karlsruher 
Zeitung'';  he  became  in  1835  archivist  and  director  of 
the  General  National  Archives  at  Karlsruhe,  and  re- 
tired in  1868.  By  his  ^reat  diligence  and  tireless  en- 
ergv  he  acquired  extensive  knowledge.  His  works  on 
eaHy  history  ('' Urgeschichte  des  badischen  Landes*', 
2  vols.,  1845;  "Untersuchungen  uber  die  gallische 
Sprache".  1851;  "Celtische  Forschimgen",  1857)  suf- 
fer from  nis  tendency  to  trace  everything  possible  to 
a  Celtic  origin.  More  important  are  his  woriu  on 
literary  historv,  which  include:  '*£inleitung  in  das 
Nibelungenlied''  (1818) :  ''Geschichte  des  Heidentums 
im  ndrdUchen  Europa'*  (2  vob.,  1822-3);  "Otnif* 
tl821):  ^'Quellen  una  Forschungen  xur  Geschichte  der 
deutscnen  Literatur  und  Sprache"  (1830):  "Unter- 
Buchungen  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Heldensage '' 
(1836);  "Uebersicht  der  niederlandischen  Volkslitera- 
tur  alterer  Zeit ''  (1838).  In  the  '' Anseiger  fOr  Kunde 
des  deutschen  Mittelaltera  "  (1835-9),  he  calls  attention 
to  a  great  mass  of  unknown  materials.  Of  great  value 
for  the  history  of  the  drama  are  his  editions  of  '^\lt- 
deutsche  Schauspiele"  (1841)  and  ^'Schauspiele  des 
Mittelalters"  (2  vols.,  1846).  His  works,  ''Lateinische 
und  griechische  Messen"  (1850)  and  ''Lateinische 
Hymnen''  (3  vols.,  1853-5),  advanced  the  knowledge 
of  liturgy  and  ecclesiastical  poetry,  and  offer  impor- 
tant liturgical  documents  not  published  elsewhere.  For 
the  history  of  his  native  coimtry  the  following  are  use- 
ful: "Badisches  Archiv"  (2  vols.,  1826-7)  ;^QueUen- 
sammlung  der  badischen  Landesgeachichte"  (4  vols., 
1848-67);  the  second  volume  of  the  '' Episcopatus 
Constantiensis"  of  Neugart  (1862),  and,  most  particu- 
larly, the  extraordinarily  rich  and  varied  "Zeitschrift 
far  die  Geschichte  des  Oberrheins"  (21  vols.,  1850- 
68),  which  was  founded  by  Mone,  and  in  which  most 
of  the  articles  during  these  early  years  were  from  his 
pen.  It  has  been  continued  since  then  by  the  General 
Archives  and  by  the  Historical  Commission  of  Baden. 
His  industry  and  zeal  in  collating  were  very  praise- 
worthy, although  he  was  sometimes  deficient  in  accu- 
racy and  critical  judgment;  in  his  works  the  econom- 
ico-historical  interest  is  always  in  the  foreground.  He 
was  an  earnest  and  pious  Catholic,  and  took  part  in 
the  Baden  ecclesiastical-political  strife  during  Uie  for- 
ties, publishing  the  two  aggressive  anonymouB  pun- 


MONETA  479  MONGOLIA 

phlettf,  "Die  katholischen  Zust&nde  in  Baden"  (1841-  us  were  frozen  so  hard  that,  in  spite  of  a  preliminary 

3).  thawing,  the  yolks  were  still  solid  lumps  of  ioe  when  the 

VoK  Wbxch.  BMtehf  Bivraphien.ll  mddelberg,  1876) ,  8^  whites  were  perfectly  fried.    Tea  left  in  the  bottom  of 

Znuehr.jar  dis  Oeteh.  de»  Oberrhnnt,  LV  (idOi),  422  aqq..  060  utes.    The  mk  froze  on  one's  pen  as  One  wrote,  and 

■qq. ;  LVII  (i«i3) ,  468  sqq.  one  had  to  blow  on  it  after  writme  every  two  or  three 

Kleicbks  LorrLBB.  words,  while  each  page  had  to  be  thawed  over  the  lamp 

IConoU  (MoNBTUs).  theologian,  b.  at  Cremona,  ^[ore  it  could  be  blotted.    In  the  mormng  we  woke 

Italy,  date  unknown:  d.  at  Bo&gna,  1240.    He  was  ^^°  ^}^  moustaches  frmged  with  lumps  of  ice  and 

one  of  the  fiist  disciples  of  St.  Dominic.    Previous  to  a  coating  of  ice  along  the  edge  of  the  bed-clothea 

his  entrance  into  the  order  in  1220,  he  was  professor  of  ^^^^^.^^^^^  ^^  ^^^    (Kidston,  "Chma",  no. 

philosophy  in  the  university  of  Bologna,  where  his  ^>}SP^K?^^\  -r^*    i       t».        .^       ^  .* 

rare  erudition  and  depth  of  thought  as  well  as  his        Th?  Kerulon,  or  Kh^relon,  River,  thouj^  "an  m 

clearness  of  exposition  won  for  hun  a  wide  reputation,  considerable  nyer,  is  the  longest  of  the  vast  and  Easi 

The  eloquence  of  Bl.  Reginald,  the  superior  of  the  Mongol  upland,  and  the  permanent  of  the  pastures 

local  community,  attracted  to  the  oider  so  many  re-  ~o^g  **»  banks  has  always  attracted  a  large  share  of 

no¥nied  doctors  and  students  that  Moneta  began  to  i^^  nomad  population;  many  of  the  Tsets^  princes 

fear  for  his  own  prestige,  to  insure  which,  he  care-  keep  their  headauwters  on  or  close  to  the  Kerulon" 

fuUy  avoided  the  preacher  and  exhorted  his  pupils,  by  (Campbell,  24)  .This  nver  rises  on  the  southern  slop» 

word  Mid  example,  to  do  likewise.    But  vielding  to  5^  ^^e  Kentai  Mountains,  near  Mount  Burkhan  Kd- 

his  punils'  wishes  one  day  he  accompanied  them  to  a  ^^  *?4,®°^?  **^®JP4f  /^°^^^^®«?^^?  ^^^  ~."^: 

sermon  and  was  so  deeply  moved  by  it  that  he  resolved  y^st  of  the*  Altan  Emjl  (Golden  Saddle),  a  pair  of 

to  become  a  religious.    He  was  later  noted  for  his  ffown  hills,  famousm  Mongol  legend,  between  which 

sanctity  no  leas  than  for  his  eloquent  and  learned  con-  *?©  nyer  flows.    The  Dalai,  or  Kulun  Nor,  is  a  lake  m 

trovernes  with  the  heretics.    His  intense  devotion  to  ^"®  Manchunwi  region,  16  miles  from  north-east  to 

study  caused  him  to  lose  his  sight  in  the  latter  days  of  south-west,  and  about  10  miles  from  east  to  west,  near 

his  me.    He  is  the  author  of^Summa  contra  Catha-  ^^^  Transbaikalian  frontier  of  Russia;  it  was  visited  in 

roe  at  Waldenses",  a  widely  read  work  during  his  ^^^  ^Y  Father  Gert)illon.    This  lake  receives  on  the 

time.     It  was  first  edited  in  1743  by  a  religious  of  his  ^^^rth  the  waters  of  the  Dalai  Gol,  which,  united  to  the 

order,  Thomas  Aug.  Ricchini,  who  suppUed  the  work  Khailw-  River,  form  the  Argdn  River,  and  this  in  turn 

with  copious  notes.    In  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  2oniB  the  Shilka.    The  Argdn  and  Shdka  bemg  umted 

author  with  which  he  prefaced  the  work,  we  are  in-  take  the  name  of  Amtir.  or  He-lung-kiang^he  great 

formed  that  Moneta  wrote  also  a  commentary  on  "^^^  which  runs  into  the  Okhotsk  Sea.    The  Ursun 

Ariatotle'slogicanda"Summa  casuum  conscienti®".  Gol  carries  the  overflow  of  the  Buyr^  or  Bur,  Nor  to 

Qu^i^EcBABo.  S3.  Ord,  Prod.,  I,  122:  ATon.  Ord.  Prctd.  the  Kulun  Nor;  the  Khalka  GoL  which  nses  m  Lake 

Sy^^  '•  ^•?'.r^5^7^'  ^""^r-J^  i^;^.'  ^*i^*^**A'4j[^*J^2'  Galba,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  great  K'ingan 

8,.  d„-.  M/.  ^  «.  R.^.  En*  »'j^;^o^^i^-  «n«7  flo«B  into  the  Buyr  for;  near  ifoL  its  S 

tfvioAra  K^oKHMuma^  bank,  stands  the  Ikhe  Boshan  Sume  (Monastery  of 
IConffolia. — ^The  name  used  to  designate  an  im-  the  Large  Buddha).    The.  Selenga  River  which  runs 
menae  uneven  plateau,  peatt  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  into  Lake  Baikal,  rises  in  the  Ulan  Taiga  and  Khan 
extending,  roughly  sp^siking,  from  the  Tarbagatal  to  '^^f^  Mount^ns;  its  main  tributaries  are  on  the  left, 
the  great  K'ingan  chains.  the  Eke  Gol  flowing  from  the  Kosso  Gol  in  the  middle 
Geographt. — Mongolia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  of  which  is  the  Buddhist  sacred  island  of  Dalai  Kui; 
the  Siberian  provinces  of  Tomsk,  Irkutsk,  Yeniseisk,  on  the  right  the  Orkhon,  which  springs  from  the  Khan- 
and  Transbaucalia,  as  defined  by  the  Russo-Chinese  gai  chain,  receiving  on  the  left  the  waters  of  the  Tamir 
treaties  of  1689  and  1727;  on  the  east,  by  Manchuria,  and  on  the  right  those  of  the  Tola, 
the  frontier  crossing  the  Nonni  River;  on  the  south.        The  People.— Or^aniso/ion. — ^With  r^ard'to  the 
the  frontier,  after  following  the  Shara  Muran,  which  word  Mongol,  Mr.  E.  H.  Parker  (Asiatic  Quart.  Rev., 
sepiarates  it  from  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Chi-li,  Shan-  July,  1910)  writes:  "It  is  usually  believed  that  Jen- 
si.  Shen-si,  and,  crossing  the  bend  of  the  Hwang-ho  ghiz  Khan  gave  the  name  Mung-Ku   (the  present 
(Ordos Country), Kan-su,  includes  Ala-shan, following  Chinese  name  for  'Mongol')  to  ms  people,  and  the 
part  of  the  Great  Wall;  on  the  southwest  and  west  it  word   is   said   to  mean   'silver*,  just  as  the  Liao 
18  bounded  by  the  New  Dominion  (Sin  Kiang)  and  the  (Kitan)  dynasty  is  said  to  mean  'iron',  and  the  Kin 
Siberian  province  of  Semipalatinsk  to  Mount  Kaldar  (Niuchen)  dynasty  to  mean  'gold'  ...  In  the  same 
(Altai).    The  population  of  Mongolia  is  estimated  way,  I  suspect  the  various  forms,  Mungu  or  Mungut, 
variously  at  2,600,000  (Statesman's  Year  Book,  1910),  which  have  an  unbroken  descent  from  A.  D.  600  to  a.  d. 
2,580,000,  or  nearlv  2  to  the  square  mile,  and  5,000^-  1200  (before  Jenghiz  rose  to  power),  must  refer  to  some 
000.     Its  area  of  1,367,953  square  miles  may  be  di-  ancient  stream  or  tsrpographical  peculiarity  in  the 
vided  into  three  regions:  the  central  re^on,  Imown  as  Onon  region,  near  wnere  Jenghiz  arose."     In  the 
the   Mongolian  Sha-mo,  in  contradistmction  to  the  Histoiy  of  the  Ming  Dynasty  (Ming  Shi)  the  Mon- 
Great  Sha-mo,  or  Desert  of  Gobi;  the  north-western  gols  are  styled  Ta-ta  (Tatars)  and  also  Meng-gu. 
region,  a  plateau  connected  with  the  Great  AltaL  in-  The  Mongol  tribes  are  divided  into  Nui  Mung-ku 
eluding  Kobdo  and  Urga,  and  bounded  on  the  S.  £.  by  (Inner  Mongols)  and  Wai  Mung-ku  (Outer  Mongols). 
the  Cktagh  Altai  (or  MongoUan,  or  Southern,  Altai) ;  The  Nui  Mimg-ku,  including  forty-nine  banners  (ho 
the  southwestern  region  of  the  great  K'  ingan,  a  long  ahun),  arose  out  of  the  organization  formed  by  the  de- 
chain  of  mountains,  stretching  from  the  Shara  Muren  scendants  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  which  has  continued  to 
to  the  Argdn  ^ver,  separating  the  plateau  of  Gobi  the  present  time.    Under  the  Yuan  dynasty  they 
from  the  Manchurian  plains.  were  organized  in  six  divisions  {Djirgughan  Tuman,  or 
The  climate  is  extremely  dry,  and  the  temperature  "Six  Ten  Thousands"),  forming  two  wings,  the  ri^ht 
varies  abruptlv  with  the  season  of  the  year  and  even  occupying  the  western  portion  of  the   Mongohan 
the  hour  of  the  day.    An  idea  of  the  severity  of  a  territorv,  the  left  the  eastern  portion.    The  Inner 
Mongolian  winter  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  Mongols  are  now  divided  into  six  menj7(Chine8e),  or  c^ 
description  of  conditions  in  the  month  of  October:  golgdn  (Mongol),  including  twenty-four  ]9u  (Chinese), 


tb^i)  cut;  and  some  ef^gs  which  we  bad  brouc^t  with    Turbet,  1  banner;  (4)  Ghorlos,  2  banners.    II*  Cbo- 


r 

MONoouA                   480  ucxaouk 

• 

sot'u  League:  (5)  Kharach'in,  3  banners;  (6)  Turned,  Mai-noai  ch6n^  the  Chinese  Urga,  the  oomineraal 

2  banners.  III.  Chao  Uda  League :  (7)  Ao-Khan,  1  ban-  town.    There  la  a  population  of  25,000,  half  oi  whom 

ner;  (8)  Naiman,  1  banner;  (9)  Barin.  2  banners;  (10)  are  lamas.    There  is  a  Chinese  commissioner,  sWied 

Djarud,  2  banners;  (II)  Aru  Khorcn'in,  2  banners;  /C'u4un  pan  sAt  to  cA'en  (incumbent  in  1910,  Yen  Chi), 

(12)  Ongniod,  1  banner;  (13)  Kediikhteng,  1  banner:  and  an  assistant  commissioner,  styled  pona  pan  CacA'«n 

(14)  Khalka  of  the  Left^  1  banner.     IV.  Silinghol  (incumbent  in  1910,  Pdng-ch'u-k'o-ch'6-lm).     Urgais 

Leiu^e:  (15)  Uchumuch'm.  2  banners;  (16)  Khao-  also  the  residence  of  the  cheptsundampa  hu^tikht*u, 

chid,  2  banners;  (17)  Sunid.  2  banners;  (18)  Abaga,  or  patriarch  of  the  Khalkha  tribes,  rankin|t,  in  the 

2  banners:  (19)  Abaganur,  2  banners.    V.  Ulan  C^^p  Lamaist  Church,  next  to  the  Dalai  and  tiie  Pjanshen 

League:  (20)  Sze  Tse  Pu  Lo,  or  Durban  Keuked,  1  erdeni  lamas;  this  title  was  conferred  in  the  middle  of 

banner;  (21)  Mou  Mingan,  1  banner;  (22)  Urad,  3  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Dalai  lama  on  a  son  ^ 

banners;  (23)  Khalka  of  the  Right,  1  banner:  VI.  Ikh  the  T'ushet'u  khan,  known  in  Mongol  history  as  Un- 

Chao  League:  (24)  Ordos,  7  banners.    W.  F.  Mayers  durGesen.    When  the  British  troops  entered  Lhasa, 

who  gives  these  particulars  (Chinese  Government)  the  Dalai  lama  fled  to  Urga,  where  he  arrived  on  the  27 

adds  that  with  the  tribes  of  the  Ordos  there  are  ainal-  Nov.,  1904.    Uliasut'ai,  in  the  territory  of  the  Sain 

gamated  certain  fragments  of  the  T'umed    tribe,  Noin  Khalkas,  is  the  seat  of  a  tsiana  kiun,  or  military 

occupying  the  region  adjacent  to  Kwei  Hwa  Ch'dng,  governor  (in  1910  K'un  siu),  and  of  two  ts'an  Uan  ia 

to  the  north-east  of  the  Great  Bend  of  the  Yellow  eh^iUf  or  military  assistant  governors  (in  1910  Ch'^ 

River.  t6ng-so-no-mu   and    K'uei  Huan.    Eobdo,  on  the 

Inner  Mongolia  is  broadly  speaking  ''what  is  to  the  Bayantu,  has,  subject  to  Uliasut'ai,  a  military  assist^ 

south  of  the  Great  Desert";  it  extends  over  the  pla-  ant  governor  (in  1910.  P'u  Jun),  and  a  commissioner, 

teau  beyond  the  K'ingan  Mountains  into  the  upper  or  pan  ahi  to  eh' in  (in  1910  Si  H6ng).    At  Si-ning 

valleys  of  the  Manchurian  rivers,  the  Xiao  and  the  there  is  a  pan  ahi  to  ch*en  (in  1910,  Ch^ing  Shu). 

Sungari;  it  includes  part  of  Outer  Chi-li.    With  the  The  Kalmuks.  or  Western  Mon^pls,  next  in  impor- 

exception  of  the  Ch'ahar  and  the  T'umed.  placed  tance  to  the  Knalkhas,  include  six  tribes:  (1)  Odot 

under  the  government  of  Manchu  generals,  each  (Eleuths),  Kalmuks;   (2)  Turbet;  l^)  Turgut;   (4) 

Mongolian  banner  is  ruled  by  an  herecBtary  chieftain  Khoshoit;  (5)  Khoit;  (6)  Ch'oros.    To  these  should 

or  noble  (Dsassak  or  Jassak).    These  nobles  are  be  added  the  Ts'ing  Hai  Mung-ku,  Mongols  of  Ko- 

classed  in  six  ranks,  from  U'in  wangy  ''prince  of  the  konor,  including  29  banners,  all  Kalmuk,  21  banneis 

first  order'',  to  toicAt,  or  daufji,  ''noble  .    They  are  beins  Khoshoit:  the  Alashan  Mung-ku,  Mongols  of 

controlled  by  the  Li  fan  Yuan,    Campbell  writes  {op*  Alasnan,  of  Kalmuk  descent,  with  Nins  hia  as  thdr 

cit.  supra) :  "The  descent  and  honours  of  every  noble  chief  centre;  the  Yeo  Muh,  nomadic  tribes,  including 

are  registered  in  the  Li  Fan  Yuan,  at  Peking,  and  the  the  Ch'ahar,  near  the  Great  Wall,  the  Bargu  tribe, 

bearers  of  hereditary  titles  indicate  their  successors,  controlled  by  Je-hol  and  Kalgan,  the  Urian^ai,  Min- 

who  must  be  confirmed  in  the  succession  by  decrees  of  gad,  and  Djakch'in  under  the  (jk>vemor  of  Uliasut'ai. 

the  dJhinese  Emperor.    On  succeeding  to  a  title,  a  The  Buriat  are  subject  to  Russia,  and  the  Dam  Mon- 

Jassak  is  summoned  to  Peking  for  audience.    All  the  gols  live  in  Tsaidam  between  Kokonor  and  Tibet. 

nobility  of  the  Inner  Mongol  tribes  pay  visits  to  the  As  a  result  of  the  recent  Russo-Japanese  agreement, 

Chinese  Court  at  New  Year  by  roster,  a  cycle  of  three  the  Chinese  Imperial  Grand  Council  studied   the 

years  completing  the  roster^  and  those  who  do  not  go  means  of  preserving  the  integrity  of  Mongolian  terri- 

to  0)urt  are  required  to  attend  at  the  local  Jassalrs  tory;  it  was  resolved  that  two  divisions  of  modem 

residence  on  New  Year's  Day  in  full  Court  dress,  and  troops  should  be  sent  to  this  countiy .  that  education 

perform  the  proper  obeisances  in  the  direction  of  should  be  established  according  to  Cninese  methods, 

Peking.    A  jaaaak  presents  a  sheep  and  a  bottle  of  and  that  a  railway  should  be  Duilt  across  Mongolia 

milk  spirit  to  the  emperor  on  these  occasions,  and  with  its  terminus  at  Peking. 

a  taichi  gives  a '  scalded  sheep. '    Such  as  visit  Peking  Rdigum, — ^The  religion  of  the  Mongols  is  Buddhism 

are  banqueted  and  receive  Presents  of  silk,  and  they  under  the  Lamaist  form,  introduced  from  Tibet  at  the 

attend  in  the  suite  of  the  (Jhinese  Emperor  when  he  end  of  the  Ming  Dvnasty.    The  lamas  like  the  chepi- 

goes  forth  to  offer  the  seasonable  sacrifices.  **  aundampa  hvi'ukhfu  at  Urga,  have  their  head  clean 

The  Wai  Mung-ku.  or  Outer  Moneob,  comprise  the  shaven.    Large  monasteries  exist  at  Je>hol  and  Do- 

Khalkhas  and  the  Kalmuks,  or  Western  Mongols,  lon-nor  (Laznarmiao),  and  at  Wu  T'ai  shan,  in  the 

The  country  stretches  "along  the  Siberian  frontier  Shan-si  Province.    The  Lamaist  organisation  in  and 

from  near  Lake  Kulun  to  the  Altai,  and  includes  the  near  Peking  is  named  Chu  Kin^  Lama;  the  metropoti- 

four  Aimak,  or  Khantaes,  of  the  Khalkas,  and  the  west  tan,  Chans-chia  Hut'ukht'u  hves  at  Dolon-nor — or 

Monsol  territories  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chi-  rather  at  Yung  Ho  Kung — and  controls  the  Mongols 

nese  Military  Government  at  Uliasut'ai,  Kobdo,  Tar-  of  Ch'ahar.    Lamaism  has  certainly  altered  the  char- 

ba«atai,  and  Uriankhai.    In  the  term  Outer  Mon-  acter  of  the  warlike  followers  of  Jenghiz,  who  are  now 

goua  may  also  be  included  the  Mongols  of  Kokonor  a  peaceful  population  of  herdsmen.     "The  Lamas", 

and  Tsaidam,  who  are  imder  the  control  of  an  Im-  writes  Kidston  (op.  cit.,  p.  19),  "exercise  enormous 

perial  agent  stationed  at  Si-ning  Fu"  (Campbell,  op.  influence;  every  tent  has  its  altar,  every  high  ridge  on 

cit.).    The  Khalkhas  constitute  four  great  pu\  (1)  the  plain  has  its  sacred  caim^  the  repetition  of  prayers 

the  T'ush6t'u   Khanate,   20  banners;  (2)    Tsetsen  and  the  telling  of  beads  is  umversal  and  incessant,  and 

Khanate,  23  banners;  (3)   Dsassakt'u  Khanate,  18  almost  every  collection  of  'soirts'  has  its  prayer  flags, 

banners;   (4)    Sain-noin   Tribe,  22   banners.    Urga  fluttering   conveniently   easy   petitions   with  every 

(Ta-kuren)  is  the  administrative  centre  of  the  East  breeze  that  blows.    Belief  in  the  transmigration  of  the 

Khalkha  Khanates,  within  the  territory  of  the  T'ushdt-  soul  and  in  the  utter  unimportance  of  the  mere  body 

'u  Khan.    Its  name  represents  the  Russian  pronun-  is  so  strong  that  the  bodies  of  laymen  are  not  buried  at 

dation  of  the  Mongol  word  Srgo  (residence).    Ac-  sil,  but  simply  thrown  out  on  the  plain,  where  the  dogs 

cording  to  C.  W.  Campbell,  the  full  native  name  is  make  short  work  of  them.    The  taking  of  life  is  re- 

Bodgo  Tiainain   Khure   (The  God-lama's  Encamp-  garded  with  horror,  though  sheer  necessity  makes  an 

ment);  shorter  names  are  Da  Khure,  or  Ikhe  Khure  exception  and  provides  quibbling  excuses  for  the 

(Great  Encampment),   Bogdo  Khure,   and  simply  slaughter  of  sheep.    On  the  whole  journey  we  only 

IGiure;  the  Chinese  call  the  place  K'u-lun,  or  K'u-  saw  one  fire-arm,  and  that  was  evidently  intended  for 

lien,  or  Ta  K'u-Uen.    Urga  includes  three  towns  lying  show  rather  than  for  use.     It  was  carried  by  one  of  the 

to  the  north  of  the  Tola  River:  Urga  proper,  the  escort  provided  for  us  by  Prince  Ha-la-han,  and,  from 

Mongol  quarters;  the  Russian  consulate  and  settle-  inquiries,  I  believe  that  it  represented  the  entire  arm»- 

p>ent,  a  zaUe  ai^d  a  half  to  the  east;  and  farther  east  nient  of  tb9  Principality." 


MONGOLIA 


481 


MONGOLIA 


CuiUmUf  Languaae,  etc, — The  typical  Mongol  is 
short  and  stumpy;  the  head  is  shaven,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  tuft  of  hair,  a  souvenir  of  the  Manchu  con* 
quest.  Family  ties  are  very  loose;  marriage  being  a 
civil  contract  the  binding  force  of  which  is  the  mere 
will  of  the  parties.  Stock-breeding  is  the  occupation 
of  practicfidly  all  Mongols.  They  are  remarkable 
herosmen,  and  their  ponies  which  are  exceUent,  are 
branded.  They  have  nerds  of  camels,  and  yaks  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  northern  Mongo- 
lia. Mr.  George  J.  Kidston  (China,  No.  3, 1904)  ob- 
serves: "Both  m  features  and  in  character  they  are 
less  foreign  to  the  European  than  the  Chinese.  Thev 
have  often  almost  ruddy  complexions;  they  laup;h 
more  heartily,  have  none  of  the  endless  formalities 
and  (to  us)  crooked  ways  of  thought  that  distinguish 
the  Chinese,  and  th^  have  even  certain  customs  that 
strike  one  as  being  distinctly  Western.  The  women, 
for  instance,  when  they  meet,  embrace  one  another 
and  kiss  on  both  cheeks,  while  the  men  shake  both 
hands.  .  .  .  Perhaps  the  first  thing  that  strikes  a 
stranger  about  the  Mongols,  after  their  exceeding 
filthiness,  is  their  love  of  talking. . . .  Hospitality  is  a 
universal  virtue,  and  one  may  enter  any  'yurt'  on  the 
plain  and  be  sure  of  a  welcome.  .  .  .  They  are  excit- 
able, but  couraee  is  not  their  strong  point,  and  dis- 
putes die  out  in  len^hy  warfare  of  words."  They  are 
also  lazy  and  voracious.  They  live  on  mutton,  milk, 
and  brick  tea;  they  have  neither  flour,  vegetables,  nor 
eggs.  **They  have  one  very  excellent  preparation 
which  the  Cmnese  call '  milk-skin ' ;  it  is  made  by  boil- 
ing milk  until  the  cream  settles  in  a  thick  skin  on  the 
top,  and  it  much  resembles  Devonshire  cream.  The 
only  native  strong  drink  is  made  from  fermented 
mare's  milk.  We  were  told  that  it  is  intoxicating  if  par- 
taken of  in  large  quantities.  The  Mongols,  however, 
have  a  decided  weakness  for  Chinese  wine  and  spirits, 
and  the  Chinese  always  spedc  of  them  as  a  drunken 
race"  (op.  cit.,  19).  The  Mongol  tent  {gher,  or  yuri) 
is  made  of  a  trellis  of  wooden  staves  fastened  neatly  to- 

? aether  with  strings  of  hide,  the  whole  being  covered  with 
dt,  the  best  of  which  comes  from  Russian  Turkestan. 
The  Monsol  language  belongs  to  the  Ural-Altaic 
family,  the  Kalmuk  dialect,  though  containing  a  num- 
ber of  Turkish  words,  being  the  nurer.  The  Ui^tir 
is  the  basis  of  the  modem  Mon^l  and  Manchu  char- 
acters; it  is  of  Syriac  origin,  introduced  into  East- 
em  Turkestan  by  the  early  Nestorian  missionaries. 
There  is  a  dialect  poem  in  Uightir,  the  ''Kudatku 
bibk",  dating  from  a.  d.  1069,  which  was  published  in 
1870  by  Armmius  Vambery,  and  in  1891  by  W.  Radlofif . 
History. — ^When  Jengmz  Khan  died  on  18  Au- 
gust, 1227,  his  dominions  were  divided  among  his  four 
sons.  Juji,  the  eldest  son,  died  before  his  father,  and 
was  replaced  by  his  own  son  Batu,  who  had  for  his 
share  Uie  plains  of  Kipchak,  the  lower  course  of  the 
Syi^Daria,  the  Aral  and  Caspian  Seas,i  the  valleys  of 
the  Don  and  the  Volga,  ana  northwud  beyond  the 
Und  Biv^  Chagatai  had  the  Kingdom  of  Mavard-un- 
Nahr,  or  Transoxiana,  and  also  what  is  now  Chinese 
Turkestan,  Ferghdna,  Badakhshan,  etc.,  and  his  capi- 
tal was  AlmaUk;  Okkodai,  the  third  son,  had  the  Mon- 
gol country  with  the  capital.  Kar^orum;  lastly,  Tu-li 
had  the  territory  between  the  Karikorum  mountains 
and  the  sources  of  the  Onon  River.  Kardkorum 
(ikaro,  black;  kuren^  a  camp),  was  called  by  the  Chi- 
nese Ho-lin  and  was  chosen  tor  his  capital  by  Jenghis 
Khan  in  1206.  Its  full  name,  Ha-la  Ho-lin,  was  taken 
from  a  river  to  the  west.  In  the  spring  of  1235,  Ok- 
kodai had  a  wall  built  round  Ho-lin.  After  the  death 
of  K6bl&i,  Ho-lin  was  altered  to  Ho-Ning,  and  in  1320 
the  name  of  the  province  was  changed  into  Lingpe 
(''mountainous  North",  i.  e.,  the  Ying-ehan  chain, 
separating  China  Proper  from  Mongolia).  Recent 
researches  have  fully  confirmed  the  belief  that  the 
Erdeni  Tso,  or  Erdeni  Chao,  monastery,  founded  in 
1586«  occupies  the  site  of  Kardkorum,  near  the  bank 
X.— 31 


of  the  Orkhon,  between  this  river  and  the  Kokchin 
(old)  Orkhon.  In  1256,  Mangku  Khan  decided  to  trans- 
fer the  seat  of  government  to  Kaiping  fu^  or  Shang-tu, 
near  the  present  Dolon  nor^  north  of  Pekmg.  In  1260. 
Kl!ibl^  transferred  his  capital  to  Ta-tu  (Peking),  and 
it  was  called  Khan-baligh.  The  second  Supreme 
Khan  was  Okkodai  (1229-41),  replaced  by  his  son 
Kuyuk  (third  Great  Khan)  (1246-48),  Turakina  being 
regent  (1241-46);  Ogulgalmish  was  regent  (1248-51). 
The  title  was  then  transferred  to  the  Tu-li  branch  of 
Jenghiz  family,  and  the  fourth  great  Khan  was 
Mangku,  who  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Ho-chou  in 
Sze-ch'uan  (1251-57). 

Kt&bldi,  brother  of  Mangku,  who  succeeded  him  in 
1260,  was  the  fifth  great  Khan  and  the  first  real  Em- 
peror of  China  of  the  Yuan  Dynasty  (1280).  His  an- 
cestors have  the  following  dynastic  titles  or  miao  hao: 


reign-titles  (nien  hao)  of  Chung  T'ung  (1260)  and  Che 
Yuan  (1264).  The  list  of  his  successors  according  to 
their  miao  haOf  with  nien  hao  in  parentheses,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Ch'^ng  Tsung,  1295  (Yuan  Ch^g,  1295;  Ta 
Teh,  1297);  Wu  Tsung,  1308  (Che  Ta,  1308);  Jto 
Tsung,  1312  (Hwang  K'ing,  1312;  Yen  Yew,  1314); 
YingTsung,  1321  (Che  Che,  1321) ;  Tai  Ting  Ti,  1324; 
(Tai  Tmg,  1324;  Che  Ho,  1328);  Ming  Tsung,  1329 
(T'ien  Li,  1329);  Wen  Ti,  1330  (T'ien  Li,  1330,  Che 
Shun,  1330);  Shun  Ti,  1333  (Yuan  Tung,  1333;  Che 
Yuan,  1335:  Che  Chtog,  1341).  The  misconduct  and 
weakness  ot  the  emperors  led  a  Chinese  priest,  Chu 
Yuan-chang,  to  raise  the  standard  of  rebellion  and  ex- 
pel the  Mongols,  in  1368.  This  priest  ascended  the 
throne  under  the  title  of  Hung  Wu,  and  established 
his  dynasty,  the  Ming,  at  Nan-king.  Of  the  Court  of 
KtibL&i  Khan  the  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo  has 
left  us  a  glorious  account.  China  was  then  divided  into 
twelve  sheng,  or  provinces:  Cheng  Tung,  Liao  Yang, 
Chung  Shu,  Shen-si,  Ling  Pe  (Kardkorum),  Kan  Su, 
Sze-ch'wan,  Ho-nan  Kiang-Pe,  Kiang-che,  Kiang-si, 
Hu-Kwang  and  Yun-Nan. 

The  younger  brother  of  Kt&bl&i,  Hulaku,  captured 
Bagdad.,  on  5  Feb.,  1258;  and  the  Khalif  Mostdsim 
Bilmh,  the  last  of  the  Abbasid  sovereigns,  surrendered 
to  the  Mongol  chief  on  10  February.  Hulaku  was 
thus  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Ilkhans  of  Iran, 
which  included  the  following  princes:  Hulaku,  until 
1265;  Abaka  (126&-81);  Nikudar  Ahmed  (1281-84); 
Arghdn  (1284-91);  Gaikhatu  (1291-95);  Baidu 
(1295):  Ghazan  Mahmud  (1295-1304);  Ghiyas  ed- 
din  Oljaitu  Khudabendeh  Mohammed  (1304-16); 
Abusald  Bahadur  (1316-35) ;  Moizs  ed-dunia  we'd-din 
Arpa  (1335-36);  Musa  (1336);  Mohammed  (1336- 
38);  Togha  Timur  (1338-39);  Izz  ed-din  Djehan- 
Timur  (1339);  Satibeg  (1339);  Suleiman  (1339-44): 
Adil  Anudiirwan  (134^53).  After  the  death  oi 
Abusald  all  these  princes  were  but  nominal  80verei|pi8, 
overruled  by  five  small  dynasties:  (1)  Ilkhaman- 
Jelalrid,  at  Bagdad  (1336-1432):  (2)  Beni  Kurt,  m 
Khorasan  and  Herat  (1248-1383);  (3)  Modhaffenan, 
in  Irak,  Fars,  and  Kerman  (1335-92);  (4)  Serbeda- 
rian.  in  Khorasan  (1335-81);  (5)  Jubanian,  in  Azer- 
baiajan  (1337-55) .  They  were  all  destroyed  by  Timur 
or  his  successors.  Among  the  first  nkhans.  Arghdn 
and  Oljaitu  had  relations  with  the  kings  ot  France: 
two  letters  are  preserved  in  the  French  Archives,  one 
from  Arghtin  Khan  (1289),  brought  by  BuscareL  and 
the  other  from  his  son  Oljaitu  (May,  1305)  to  Philip 
the  Fair.  These  letters  are  both  in  the  Mox^l  lan- 
guage, and,  according  to  Abel  R6musat  and  other 
authorities,  in  the  Uigdtir  character,  the  parent  of  the 
present  Mongol  writing;  facsimiles  of  them  are  given 
in  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte's  ''Recueil  des  documents 
de  r^poaue  mongole".  Under  this  dynasty,  in  1318, 
Pope  Jonn  XXfl  had  created  an  archbisnopric  at 
Sulthanydi,  of  which  Franco  of  Perugia,  William 


MONICA  482  MONICA 

Adam  (1  June,  1323),  John  of  Cora  (1320).  and  others  prefeetme  E'u-luan.   The  reddenoe  is  at  Eol  she  sse 

were  the  incumbents,  down  to  Thomas  ae  Abaraner  tingti.  Vicar  Apostolic  AlphonsusBennvn  (b.2  Aug., 

(10  Dec.,  1425).  1853)  was  consecrated  15  April,  1001,  titular  Bishop 

Chagatai  died  in  1241,  and  was  rq>laced  by  his  of  Stratonioea.    He  replaced  Alphonse  de  Vos,  titular 

Sandmi  Kara  Hulaku.    About  1321^  under  Kabak,  Bishop  of  Abdera,  d.  21  Julv,  1888,  and  Ferdinand 

e  realm  of  Chagatai  was  divided  mto  two  parts;  Hamer,  who  was  transferred  from  Kannsu,  30  Auii:ust, 

M4wi-un-Nahr,  or  Tranaoxiana,  and  Moghufistan,  1888,  and  martyred  August,  1000.    There  are  45  £u- 

or  Jatah.    About  fifteen  khans  ruled  Transoxiana,  ropean  and  1  native  priests;   13,806  Christiaiis;   30 

while  confumon  and  discord  were  prevalent,  until  the  churches.     This  vicariate  is  the  Ordos  country, 

great  Timur  conquered  the  land  and  restored  order  in  _  Bmkh.  J©lo  haa  trmaaUted  Monsoliui  lecenda  >»d  t^a  into 

Sto  (a.  h.  T71).  ^IJjfinrt  ruler  of  McyhuKstwi  (1321)  ^TSSi^r^ir^.^!S^ XflU'S.  S%ii!?^^^ 

was  Isan   Bugha  Khan;     after  the  death  of  Sultan  under  the  title.  OnekiehU  der  Ott  Mongolen  und  ikret  FUrtUn- 

Ahmed  Khan  (1504)  a  state  of  anarchy  prevailed  in  *«f*"J8*-  ^^^^^^  ^^V   The  latter  author  haa  abo  pob- 

the  country  until  Sultan  Mansur  the  cgest  son  of  ISS^feSSf^!^^        ^^^J^'  ?s^"^SS»L^i 

Ahmed,  established  his  authont^  at  Aksu,  Turf  an,  etc.,  i835).  J.  E.  Koyalktsxi.  Didumnatre  mongoi-^nuM-frun^is  i3 

and  created  the  Khanate  of  Uighurist&n,  while  the  ▼?*••  quarto.  Kaaan,  1844-49).    Other  MoDgoUan  acbolara  worthy 

ir:.»k:«  ;•«  *u^  a4>A««««Aa   k ««*:•«<*  aI^^^^  irkavta   f^w-wmt^A  <»  mention  are:  vow  on  Qabblbnti,  BoBBovNiKoy.   GoLi>- 

Kir^  m  the  Stepi^  havlM  d^  BTUNarr.  PotDKlBV.     See  abo  Camfbeli;  J*mm€»  in  lfa;»ao/tn  in 

the  Confederation  of  Kazak-UzbegS,  and  Sultan  Satd  China  (1904).  no.  l;  Ktonov^Joumey  in  Mon^ia  in  China  ( 1904\ 

Khan,  third  son  of  Ahmed,  estabfished  a  khanate  in  no.  8— *»<*»  parliamentaiy  papers;  Coboibb.  BiblMOma,  Sinim, 

Ka^igar  and  the  western  provinces  (see  Turkestan).  ^^^^^  Mongoha,  xx,^,  r'^™,.^^ 

From  Juji,  the  eldest  son  ofJenghis  Khan,  descended  nisNRi  vx>RDn:R. 

the  following  dynasties  of  khans:  (1)  Kipchak,  1224-        Monica,  Saint,  widow;  bom  of  Christian  parents 

1502;  (2)  Astrakhan,  1465-1554;  (3)  Great  Bulgaria,  at  Tagaste,  N.  Afnca,  in  333 ;  died  at  Ostia,  near  Rome, 

1224-1438;    (4)   Kazan,    1438-1552;     (5)   Kaomof,  in  387.    We  are  told  but  Utile  of  her  childhood.    She 

1450-1681 ;  (6)  Crimea,  1420-1783;  (7)  Nogals,  1224-  was  married  early  in  life  to  Patritius  who  held  an  ofii- 

1301 ;  (8)  Kazdk-Uzbegs>  1427-1830;   (0)  Turan  and  cial  position  in  Tagaste.    He  was  a  pagan,  though  like 

Tiumen.  1225-1650;    (10)  Tiumen  and  Sibir,  1301-  so  many  at  that  period,  his  religion  was  no  more  than 

1588;    (11)  Kharezen,  1515-1805;   (12)  M^vard-un-  aname;his  temper  was  violent  and  he  appears  to  have 

Nahr,  1500-1706.  been  of  dissolute  habits.    Consequently   Monica's 

Catholic  Missions. — In  1838,  the  Vicariate  Apos-  married  life  was  far  from  being  a  happy  one,  more  e«- 

tolic  of  Liao-tung  was  detached  from  the  Diocese  of  pecially  as  Patritius's  mother  seems  to  have  been  of  a 

Peking.    It  included  both  Manchuria  and  Monn)lia.  like  disposition  with  himself.    There  was  of  course  a 

Einmanuel-Jean-Fran9oi8-Verrolles,  of  the  Paris  Mis-  gulf  between  husband  and  wife;  her  almadeeds  and 

sions  Etrang^res.  was  the  first  vicar  ApostoUc.    Five  her  habits  of  prayer  annoyed  him,  but  it  is  said  that 

yeans  later  (28  August,  1840)  the  new  vicariate  was  he  always  held  her  in  a  sort  of  reverence.     Monica 

divided  into  three  vicariates  Apostolic:  (1)  Liao-tung  was  not  the  only  matron  of  Tagaste  whose  married 

and  Manchuria;    (2)  Mongolia;   (3)  Kan  su.    Mon-  life  was  unhappy,  but,  by  her  sweetness  and  patience, 

goba  had  beoi  a  dependence  of  the  Diocese  of  Peking  she  was  able  to  exercise  a  veritable  apostolate  amongst 

from  1600  to  1838,  and  after  1783  had  been  adminis-  the  wives  and  mothers  of  her  native  town;  thev  knew 

tered  by  the  Lazarists;  the  Paris  Missions  Etrang^res  that  she  suffered  as  they  did,  and  her  words  ana  examr 

kept  it  onty  two  years^  and  when  it  was  made  a  sep-  pie  had  a  proportionate  effect. 

arate  vicanate  Apostohc  (28  August,  1840)  at  the  head  Three  cniloren  were  bom  of  this  marriage,  Aug;us- 
of  it  was  placed  Joseph  Martial  Moulv^  titular  Bishop  tine  the  eldest,  Navigius  the  second,  and  a  daughter, 
of  Fussola,  who,  on  his  transfer  to  Pekmg  (1857),  was  Perpetua.  Monica  had  been  unable  to  secure  bap- 
replaced  by  Florent  Daguin,  titular  Bishop  of  Troas,  tism  for  her  children,  and  her  grief  was  great  when 
who  died  0  May,  1850.  FranQois  Tagliabue  was  then  Augustine  fell  ill;  in  her  distress  she  besought  Patri- 
appointed  pro-vicar  and  superior  of  the  mission.  On  tins  to  allow  him  to  be  baptized;  he  agr^.buton 
7  Sept.,  1864,  the  Lazarists  surrendered  Mong[olia  to  the  boy's  recovery  withdrew  his  consent.  All  Moni- 
the  Belgian  missionaries,  and  Theophilus  Verbiest  (b.  ca's  aiudety  now  centred  in  AuKUstine;  he  was  way- 
at  Antwerp  in  1823)  was  the  first  superior  and  Pro-  ward  and,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  lazy.  He  was  sent  to 
vicar  Apostolic;  he  died  23  Feb.,  1868,  and  was  sue-  Madaura  to  school  and  Monica  seems  to  have  literally 
ceeded  as  pro-vicar  by  Edward  Smorembourg.    Jao-  wrestled  with  God  for  the  soul  of  her  son.     A  great 

2ues  Bax  (b.  1824)  was  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  22  consolation  was  vouchsafed  her — ^in  compensation 

lot.,  1874,  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Adran,  perhaps  for  all  she  was  to  experience  through  Au- 

6  Jan.,  1875,  and  died  4  Jan..  1805.  at  Si-wan-tze.  gustine — Patritius  became  a  Christian.    Meanwhile, 

On  21  Dec.,  1883,  Leo  XIII  oividea  Mongolia  into  Augustine  had  been  sent  to  Carthage,  to  prosecute  his 

three   vicariates   Apostolic,   Eastern,    Central,    and  studies,  and  here  he  fell  into  grievous  sin.    Patritius 

Western  and  Southern  Mongolia,  all  in  the  hands  of  died  very  shortly  after  his  reception  into  the  Church 

the  Belgian  Missionaries  (Congr.  Imm.  Cordis  B.  M.  and  Monica  resolved  not  to  manry  again.   At  Carthage 

V.  de  Scheutveld).    The  first  \^car  Apostolic  of  East-  Augustine  had  become  a  Manichean  and  when  on  his 

em  Mongolia  was  Conrad  Abels,  b.  at  Weest,  Lim-  return  home  he  ventilated  certain  heretical  proposi- 

burg,   Holland,   31   Jan.,   1856,   consecrated  titular  tions  she  drove  him  away  from   her   table,  but  a 

Bishop  of  Lagania,  31  Oct.,  1807;  residence  at  Sung  strange  vision  which  she  had  urged  her  to  recall  him. 

shu  tsuei  tze  (Notre  Dame  des  Pins).    He  was  sue-  It  was  at  this  time  that  she  went  to  see  a  certain  holy 

ceeded  by  Theodore  Hermann  Rutjes,  titular  Bishop  bishop,  whose  name  is  not  given,  but  who  consoled 

of  Eleuteropolis,  who  died  4  August,  1806.    There  are  her  with  the  now  famous  words,  ''the  child  of  those 

in  Eastern  Mongolia  30  European  and  12  native  tears  shall  never  perish". .  There  is  no  more  pathetic 

priests;  10,864  Christians;  18  churches.    (2)  Central  story  in  the  annals  of  the  Saints  than  that  of  Monica 

Mongolia,  after  the  partition,  in  1883,  remained  under  pursuing  her  wayward  son  to  Rome,  whither  he  had 

Mgr  Bax,  who  was  succeeded  as  vicar  Apostolic  by  gone  by  stealth;  when  she  arrived  he  had  already  gone 

Jerome  Van  Aertselaer  (b.  1  Nov.,  1845),  consecratea  to  Milan,  but  she  followed  him.     Here  she  found  St. 

titular  Bi&bop  of  Zarai,  24  July,  1808,  with  residence  Ambrose  and  through  him  she  ultimately  had  the  joy 

at  Siwan  tze.    There  are  46  European  and  23  native  of  seeing  Augustine  yield,  after  seventeen  years  of  re- 

griests;  25,775  Christians;  37  churches.  (3)  Western-  sistance.     Mother  and  son  spent  six  months  of  true 

outhem  Mongolia. — To  the  vicariate  created  in  1883  peace  at  Cassiacum,  after  which  time  Augustine  was 

were  added  bv  decree  of  12  Oct.^  1886,  the  Prefecture  baptized  in  the  church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  at 

gf  Ning  hi|k  from  the  Kftn-9U  yioftri^te  aad  the  Sub-  MiIml    Afrio^  claimed  them  however,,  and  they  set 


MONISM 


483 


out  on  their  Journey,  stopping  at  CiviUl  Vecchia  and 
at  Ostia.  Here  death  overtook  Monica  and  the  finest 
pages  in  his  "Confessions"  were  penned  as  the  result 
of  the  emotion  Augustine  then  experienced. 

St.  Monica  was  buried  at  Ostia,  and  at  first  seems 
to  have  been  ahnost  forgotten,  though  her  body  was 
removed  during  the  six&  century  to  a  hidden  crypt 
in  the  church  of  St.  Aureus.  About  the  thirteenth 
century,  however,  the  .cult  of  St.  Monica  b^an  to 
spread  and  a  feast  in  her  honour  was  kept  on  4  May. 
In  1430  Martin  V  ordered  the  relics  to  be  brought  to 
Rome.  Many  miracles  occuired  on  the  way,  and  the 
cultus  of  St.  Monica  was  definitely  established.  Later, 
the  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  Cardinal  d'EstouteviUe, 
built  a  church  at  Rome  in  honour  of  St.  Augustine  and 
deposited  the  relics  of  St.  Monica  in  a  chapel  to  the 
left  of  the  high  altar.  The  Office  of  St.  Monica  how- 
ever does  not  seem  to  have  found  a  place  in  the  Ro- 
man Breviary  before  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1850 
there  was  established  at  Notre  Dame  de  Sion  at  Paris 
an  Association  of  Christian  mothers  under  the  patron- 
age of  St.  Monica;  its  object  was  mutual  ^^yer  for 
sons  and  husbands  who  had  gone  astray.  This  Asso- 
ciation was  in  1856  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archcon- 
fratemity  and  spread  rapidly  over  all  the  Catholic 
world,  branches  being  estabhsned  in  Dublin,  London, 
Liverpool.  Sidney,  and  Buenos  A3rr€».  Eugenius  I V 
had  established  a  similar  Confraternity  long  before. 

St.  Auoustihc,  Confesnoru^  IX,  reprinted  in  Suricb.  GuaI/- 
TCBDB.  Canon  Regular  of  Ostia,  who  waa  specially  charged  with 
the  work  of  removing  the  relics  from  Oatia  b^  Martin  V,  wrote 
a  life  of  the  aaint  with  an  account  of  the  translation.  He  appended 
to  the  life  a  letter  which  used  to  be  attributed  to  St.  Augustine 
but  which  is  undoubtedly  spurious;  it  purports  to  be  written  to  his 
sister  Perpetua  and  describes  their  mother's  death.  The  Bollan- 
DisTB  decide  for  the  contemporary  character  of  the  letter  whilst 
denying  it  to  St.  Augustine.  Baronius,  Ann.  Seol.t  ad  an.  389; 
BouOAUn,  HUtoire  de  S.  Monique. 

Hugh  T.  Pope. 

MoniBin  (from  the  Greek  /tSpot^  "one'',  "alone", 
"unique")  is  a  philosophical  term  which,  in  its  various 
meamngs,  is  opposed  to  Dualism  or  Pluralism. 
Wherever  pluralistic  philosophy  distinguishes  a  multi- 
plicity of  things,  Monism  clenies  that  the  manifold- 
ness  is  real,  and  holds  that  the  apparently  many 
are  phases,  or  phenomena,  of  a  one.  Wherever  dual- 
istic  philosophy  distinguishes  between  body  and  soul, 
matter  and  spirit,  object  and  subject,  matter  ana 
force,  the  system  which  denies  such  a  distinction, 
reduces  one  term  of  the  antithesis  to  the  other,  or 
merges  both  in  a  higher  unity,  is  called  Monism. 

I.  In  Metaphysics. — ^The  ancient  Hindu  philos- 
ophers stated  as  a  fundamental  truth  that  the  world 
of  our  sense-experience  is  all  illusion  (maya)^  that 
change,  plurality,  and  causation  are  not  real,  that 
there  is  but  one  reality,  God.  This  is  metaphysical 
Monism  of  the  idealistic-spiritual  type,  tending  to- 
wards mysticism.  Among  the  early  Greek  pMlos- 
ophero,  the  Eleatics,  starting,  like  the  Hindus,  with 
the  conviction  that  sense-knowledge  is  untrustworthy, 
and  reason  alone  reliable,  reached  the  conclusion  that 
change,  plurality,  and  origination  do  not  reallv  exist. 
that  Bein^  is  one,  immut83>le,  and  eternal.  They  did 
not  explicitly  identify  the  one  reality  with  God,  and 
were  not,  so  far  as  we  know,  inclined  to  m3rsticism. 
Their  Monism,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  of  the 

Surely  idealistic  type.  These  two  fonns  of  metaph3rsical 
lonism  recur  freouently  in  the  history  of  philosophy; 
for  instance,  the  idealistic-spiritual  type  in  neo-Plato- 
nism  and  in  Spinoza's  metaphysics,  and  the  purelv 
idealistic  type  in  the  rational  absolutism  of  Hegel. 
Besides  idealistic  Monism  there  is  Monism  of  the  ma- 
tenalistic  type,  which  proclaims  that  there  is  but  one 
reality,  namely,  matter,  whether  matter  be  an  agglom- 
erate of  atoms,  a  primitive,  world-forming  substance 
(see  Ionian  School  of  Philosophy),  or  the  so-called 
cosmic  nebula  out  of  which  the  world  evolved.  There 
is  another  form  of  metaph vsical  Monism,  represented 
in  these  days  by  Haeckel  and  his  followers,  which, 


though  materialistic  in  its  scope  and  tendenc]^,  pro- 
fesses to  transcend  the  point  of  view  of  materialistic 
Monism  and  unite  both  matter  and  mind  in  a  hi^er 
something.  The  weak  point  of  all  metaphysical 
Monism  is  its  inability  to  explain  how,  if  there  is  but 
one  reality,  and  everything  else  is  only  apparent, 
there  can  be  any  real  changes  in  the  world,  or  real 
relations  among  things.  Iliis  difficulty  is  met  in 
dualistic  svstems  of  philosophy  by  the  doctrine  of 
matter  and  form,  or  potency  and  actuality^  which  are 
the  ultimate  reialities  in  the  metaphvsical  ord^. 
Pluralism  rejects  the  solution  offered  by  scholastic 
dualism  and  strives,  with  but  little  success,  to  oppose 
to  Monism  its  own  theory  of  synechism  or  panpsy- 
chism  (see  Pragmatism).  The  chief  objection  to 
materiahstic  Monism  is  that  it  stops  short  of  the  point 
where  the  real  problem  of  metaphjrsics  begins. 

II.  In  Theology. — ^The  term  Monism  is  not 
much  used  in  theology  because  of  the  confusion  to 
which  its  use  would  lead.  Polytheism,  the  doctrine 
that  there  are  many  Gods,  has  for  its  opposite 
Monotheism,  the  doctrine  that  there  is  but  one  God. 
If  the  term  Monism  is  employed  in  place  of  MonO' 
theisnif  it  may.  of  course,  mean  Theism,  which  is  a 
monotheistic  doctrine,  or  it  may  mean  Pantheism, 
which  is  opposed  to  theism.  In  this  sense  of  the 
term,  as  a  synonym  for  Pantheism,  Monism  main- 
tains that  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  Cvod 
and  the  universe.  Either  Cxod  is  indwelling  in  the 
universe  as  a  part  of  it,  not  distinct  from  it  (pantheis- 
tic Immanentism),  or  the  universe  does  not  exist  at 
all  as  a  reality  (Acosmism).  but  only  as  a  manifesta- 
tion or  phenomenon* of  Ckxi.  These  views  are  vigor- 
ously combated  by  Theism,  not  only  on  considerations 
of  logic  and  philosophy,  out  also  on  considerations 
of  human  life  and  conduct.  For  the  ethical  implica- 
tions of  pantheism  are  as  detrimental  to  it  as  its 
shortcomings  from  the  point  of  view  of  consistencv  and 
reasonableness.  Theism  does  not  deny  that  God  is 
indwelliiig  in  the  universe;  but  it  does  deny  that  He 
is  comprised  in  the  universe.  Theism  does  not  deny 
that  the  universe  is  a  manifestation  of  God ;  but  it  does 
deny  that  the  universe  has  no  reality  of  its  own.  Theism 
is,  therefore,  dualistic:  it  holds  that  God  is  a  reality 
distinct  from  the  universe  and  independent  of  it,  and 
that  the  universe  is  a  reality  distinct  from  God, 
though  not  independent  of  Him.  From  another  point 
of  view,  theism  is  monistic;  it  maintains  that  there 
is  but  One  Supreme  Reality  and  that  all  other  reality 
is  derived  from  Him.  Monism  is  not  then  an  ad^ 
quate  equivalent  of  the  term  Theism. 

III.  In  Psychology. — The  central  problem  of 
rational  psychology  is  the  question  of  tne  relation 
between  soul  and  body.  Scholastic  dualism,  following 
Aristotle,  maintains  Uiat  man  is  one  substance,  com- 
posed of  body  and  soul,  which  are  respectively  matter 
and  form.  The  soul  is  the  principle  of  life,  energy, 
and  perfection;  the  body  is  the  principle  of  decay, 
potentiality,  and  imperfection.  These  two  are  not 
complete  substances:  their  union  is  not  accidental, 
as  Plato  thou^t,  but  substantial.  They  are,  or 
course,  really  distinct,  and  even  separable;  yet  they 
act  on  each  other  and  react.  The  soul,  even  in  its 
highest  functions,  needs  the  co-operation,  at  least 
extrinsic,  of  the  body,  and  the  bodv  in  all  its  vital 
functions  is  energized  by  the  soul  as  the  radical 
principle  of  those  functions.  They  are  not  so  much 
two  in  one  as  two  forming  one  compound.  In  popular 
imagination  this  dualism  may  beexa^erated;  in  the 
mind  of  the  extreme  ascetic  it  sometimes  is  exagger- 
ated to  the  point  of  placing  a  too  sharp  contrastoe- 
tween  "the  flesh"  and  "the  spirit",  "the  beast"  and 
"  the  angel",  in  us. 

Psychological  Monism  tends  to  obliterate  all  distinc- 
tion between  body  and  soul.  This  it  does  in  one  of  three 
ways.  (A)  Monism  of  the  materialistic  tsrpe  reduces 
the  soul  to  matter  or  material  conditions,  and  thus,  in 


MONISM                             484  MONISM 

effect,  denies  that  there  is  any  distinction  between  the  body  and  soul  in  man  are  but  one  instance  of  a 
soul  and  body.  The  Stoics  described  the  soul  as  a  parellelism  which  prevails  evervwhere  in  nature, 
part  of  the  material  world-substance:  the  Epicureans  Paulsen  ("Introd.  to  Phil.",  tr.  Tnill3r,  87 sqa.)  holds 
neld  that  it  is  a  compound  of  material  atoms;  modem  that "  two  propositions  are  contained  in  the  tneoiy  of 
Materialism  knows  no  substantial  soul  except  the  parallelism:  (I)  Physical  processes  are  never  effects  of 
nervous  system;  Cabanis,  for  instance,  proclaims  his  psychical  processes;  (2)  Psychical  processes  are  never 
materialion  in  the  well-known  crude  formula:  "The  effects  of  physical  processes.''  He  adopts  Fechner's 
brain  diictests  impressions,  and  organically  secretes  panpsychism,  maintaining  that'' everything  ooiporeal 
thought.'^  Psychological  materialion,  as  metaphysi-  points  to  something  else,  an  inner,  intelligible  ele- 
cal  materialism,  closes  its  eyes  to  those  phenomena  ment,  a  beinj;^  for  itself,  which  is  akin  to  what  we 
of  the  soul  which  it  cannot  explain,  or  even  denies  that  experience  within  ourselves".  Both  the  corporeal 
such  phenomena  exist.  (B)  Monism  of  the  idealistic  and  the  "inner"  are  parts  of  the  universal  system, 
t3rpe  takes  an  entirely  opposite  course.  It  reduces  the  which  is  the  bod}r  of  Uod,  and,  though  they  do  not 
Ixxiy  to  mind  or  mental  conditions.  Some  of  the  interact,  th^  act  in  such  a  way  that  harmony  results. 
neo-PIatonists  held  that  all  matter  is  non-existent,  Herbert  Spencer  uses  the  word  paralldigm  in  a 
that  our  body  is,  therefore,  an  error  on  the  part  of  slightly  different  sense:  the  separate  impressions  of 
our  minds,  and  that  the  soiu  alone  is  the  personality,  the  senses  and  the  stream  of  inner  conscious  states 
John  Scotus  Eriugena,  influenced  by  the  neo-  must  be  adjusted  by  the  activity  of  the  mind,  if  the 
Platonists,  held  the  body  to  be  a  resultant  from  two  series  are  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  developing  or 
incorporeal  qualities  which  the  soul,  by  thinking  them  evolving;  animal  or  man;  that  is,  there  must  be  a 
and  synthesizing  them,  creates  into  a  body  for  itself,  parallelism  between  a  certain  physical  evolution  and 
In  modem  times,  Berkeley  included  the  human  body  the  correlative  p^chical  evolution"  (Principles  of 
in  his  general  denial  of  the  reality  of  matter,  and  main-  Psych.,  n.  179)|  while  both  mind  and  matter  are 
tained  that  there  are  no  substances  except  the  soul  mere  "symbols  of  some  form  of  Power  absolutely 
and  God.  The  grounds  for  this  belief  are  epistemo-  and  forever  unknown  to  us"  (op.  cit.,  n.  63).  This 
logical.  Psychological  Monism  runs  counter  to  com-  idea  finds  favour  among  the  evolutionists  raierally, 
mon  sense  and  experience.  Historically,  it  is  a  reaction  and  has  one  distinct  advantage:  it  obviates  the  neces- 
agalnst  materialism.  To  refute  materialism  it  is  not  sity  of  explaining  many  phenomena  of  mind  which 
necessary  to  deny  that  the  body  is  a  raality.  The  un-  could  not  be  accounted  for  by  the  orinciples  of  mate- 
reflecting  dualism  of  common  sense  and  the  scientific  rialistic  evolution.  Thus,  under  the  name  "double- 
dualism  which  the  Scholastics  built  on  the  facts  of  ex-  aspect  theory  "  it  is  adopted  by  Clifford,  Bain,  Lewes, 
Eerience  steer  a  safe  and  consistent  course  between  the  and  Huxley.  Among  empirical  psychologists  parallel- 
asty  generalization  of  the  Materialist,  who  sees  noth-  ism  has  been  found  satisfactory  as  a  "  working  hypoth- 
ing  but  body,  and  the  bold  paradox  of  the  Idealist,  who  esis ".  Experience,  it  is  maintained,  tells  us  nothing 
recognizes  no  reality  except  mind.  of  a  substantial  soul  that  acts  on  the  body  and  is  acted 
((J)  A  third  kind  of  psychological  Monism  goes  upon.  It  does  tell  us^  however,  that  psychical  states 
by  the  name  of  psychophysical  parallelism.  It  are  apparently  conditioned  by  bodily  states,  and  that 
maintains  two  principles,  the  one  negative  and  the.  states  of  body  apparently  influence  states  of  mind.  For 
other  affirmative.  First,  it  denies  categorically  that  the  purposes  of  science,  conclude  the  empiridsts,  it  is 
there  is,  or  can  be,  any  direct  causal  influence  of  the  enough  to  maintain  as  an  empirical  formula  that  the 
soul  on  the  body  or  of  the  body  on  the  soul:  our  two  streams  of  activity  are,  so  to  speak,  paralleL 


it  affirms  in  some  shape  or  form  that  both  the  bodv  is  enough  that,  as  Wundt  points  out.  the  facts  of  ex- 
and  the  soul  are  phases  of  something  else,  that  this  perience  establish  a  correspondence  between  ph3r8ical 
something  evolves  its  activities  along  two  piirallel  and  psychical,  while  the  dissimilarity  of  the  physical 
lines,  the  physical  and  the  psychical,  so  that  the  and  the  psychical  precludes  the  possibility  of  one  bdng 
thought,  for  instance,  of  moving  my  hand  is  synchro-  the  cause  of  the  other.  To  all  these  pmdlelistic  ex- 
nous  with  the  motion  of  my  hand,  without  one  in  planations  of  the  relations  between  soul  and  body  the 


sists  in  a  mutual  and  natural  correspondence  of  the  of  a  parallelistic,  as  well  as  of  a  dualistic,  explanation, 
thoughts  of  the  soul  with  the  processes  of  the  brain.  But  when  we  come  to  consider  the  unity  of  conscious- 
and  of  the  emotions  of  the  soiu  with  the  movements  ness,  which  is  a  fact  of  experience,  we  find  that  the 
of  the  animal  spirits"  (Rech.  de  la  V6rit^,  II,  v).  theory  of  parallelism  breaks  down,  and  the  only  ex- 
It  is  the  doctrine  of  Spinoza,  whose  metaphysical  planation  that  holds  is  that  of  dualists,  who  maintain 
Monism  compelled  him  to  hold  that  body  and  soul  the  substantiality  of  the  soul.  Secondly,  if  the 
are  merely  aspects  of  the  one  substance,  God,  under  parallelistic  theory  be  true,  what,  ask  the  Scholastic 
the  attributes  extension  and  thought,  but  that  they  dualists,  becomes  of  the  freedom  of  the  will  and  moral 
unfold  their  modes  of  activity  in  a  manner  preor-  responsibility?  If  our  mental  and  bodily  states  arc 
dained    to    correspondence    (Eth.,    II,   ii,   schol.).  not  to  be  referred  to  an  immediate  personal  subject. 

universal 
unknown 

^                           _  ^                     _                            sense 

and  "their  activities  there  exists  a  pre-established  the  will  can  be  free,  and  man  be  held  responsible  for 

harmony  (see  Leibniz;  Monad).     In  the  so-called  his  mental  or  bodily  acts. 

IdenittatsphUosophie  of  some  German  Transcenden-  In  a  minor  sense  the  word  numism  is  sometimes 

talists,  such  as  Schelling,  reality  is  mind  in  so  far  as  it  used  in  psychology  to  designate  the  doctrine  that 

is  active,  and  matter  in  so  far  as  it  is  passive;  mind  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  the  soul  and  its 

and  matter  are,  therefore,  two  harmonious,  but  in-  faculties.    Psychological  dualism  holds  that  soul  and 

dependent,   series  of  phases  of  reality.    Fechner's  body  are  distinct,  though  incomplete,  substances, 

view  is  similar:  he  holds  that  the  reality  pervading  But  how  about  the  soul  itself?    Plato's  doctrine  that 


MONISM  485 

jind  bequeathed   to   the   Schoohnen   the   problem  point  that  the  whole  Question  turns.    What  I  perceive 

whether  these  faculties  are  i'ea%i  or  only  notionally,  is  not  a  sensation  of  whiteness  but  a  white  object, 

distinct  from  the  soul  itself.    Those  who  favour  the  What  I  taste  is  not  the  sensation  of  sweetness  but  a 

real  distinction  are  sometimes  called  pluraUsts  in  sweet  substance.    No  matter  how  much  the  activity 

psychology,  and  their  opponents,  who  say  that  the  of  the  mind  may  elaborate,  synthesize,  or  recon- 

distinction  is  nominal  or,  at  most,  notional,  are  some-  struct  the  data  of  sense-perception,  the  objective 

times  called  psychological  Monists.    The  question  reference  cannot  be  the  result  of  any  such  subjective 

is  decided  by  mierences  from  the  facts  of  conscious-  activity;  for  it  is  given  originally  m  consciousness, 

ness.    Those  who  hold  real  distinction  of  function  On  the  contrary,  the  Monist  starts  with  the  idealistic 

arguethatthisis  sufficient  ground  for  a  real  distinction  assumption  that  what  we  perceive  is  the  sensation, 

of  faculties.  Whatever  objective  reference  the  sensation  has  in 

IV.  In  Epibtemoloot,  as  in  psychology,  Mon-  our  consciousness  is  conferred  on  it  by  the  activity  of 
ism  is  used  in  various  senses  to  sigmfy,  in  a  seneral  the  mind.  The  objective  is,  therefore,  reducible  to 
way,  the  antithesis  of  dualism.  The  Dualist  in  the  subjective;  things  are  thoughts;  we  make  our 
epistemology  agrees  with  the  ordinary  observer,  who  world.  In  the  dualist's  analysis  there  is  inmiediftte, 
distinguishes  both  in  theory  and  in  practice  between  presentative  contact  in  consciousness  between  the 
"things"  and  "thoughts".  Common  sense,  or  unre-  subject  and  the  object.  In  the  Monist 's  account  of 
fleeting  consciousness,  takes  things  generally  to  be  the  matter  there  is  a  chasm  between  subject  and 
what  they  seem.  It  acts  on  the  conviction  that  the  object  which  must  be  bridged  over  somehow.  The 
internal  world  of  our  thoughts  corresponds  with  the  problem  of  Dualism  or  Monism  in  epistemology  de- 
extemal  world  of  reality.  The  philosophical  dualist  pends,  therefore,  for  solution  on  the  question 
questions  the  extent  and  accuracy  of  that  correspond-  whether  perception  is  presentative  or  representative; 
ence;  he  learns  from  psycholo^  that  many  instsmces  and  the  dualist,  who  holds  the  presentative  theory, 
of  so-called  immediate  perception  have  in  them  a  large  seems  to  have  on  his  side  the  veraict  of  introspective 
share  of  interpretation^  and  are,  in  so  far,  referable  to  psychology  as  well  as  the  approval  of  common  sense, 
the  activity  of  the  mmd.  Nevertheless,  he  sees  no  In  recent  Pragmatist  contnbutions  to  epistemology 
reason  to  quarrel  with  the  seneral  verdict  of  common  there  is  presented  a  different  view  of  epistemological 
sense  that  there  is  a  world  of  reality  outside  us,  as  Monism  from  that  given  in  the  preceeding  paragraphs, 
well  as  a  world  of  representation  within  us,  and  that  and  a  solution  is  offered  whicn  differs  entirely  from 
the  latter  corresponds  in  a  measure  to  the  former,  that  of  traditional  dualism.  In  WiUiam  James's 
He  distinguishes,  therefore,  between  subject  and  works,  for  instance,  Monism  is  described  as  that 
object,  between  self  and  not-eelf,  and  holds  that  the  species  of  Absolutism  which  ''thinks  that  the  all-form 
external  world  exists.  The  Monist  in  one  way  or  or  collective-unit  form  is  the  only  form  that  is  ra- 
another  eliminates  the  objective  from  the  field  of  tional",  while  opposed  to  it  is  Pluralism,  that  is,  the 
reality,  obliterates  the  distmction  between  self  and  doctrine  that ''the  each-form  is  an  eternal  form  of  real- 
not-self,  and  denies  that  the  external  world  is  real,  ity  no  less  than  it  is  the  form  of  temporal  appearance" 
Sometimes  he  takes  the  ground  of  idealism,  maintain-  (A  Pluralistic  Universe,  324  sqq.).  The  multitude 
ing  that  thoughts  are  things,  that  the  only  reality  is  of  "each-forms"  constitute,  not  a  chaos,  but  a  cos- 
perception,  or  rather^  that  a  thing  is  real  only  in  the  mos,  because  they  are  "inextricably  int^used"  into 
sense  that  it  is  perceived,  esse  est  percipi.  He  scorn-  a  system.  The  unity,  however,  which  exists  among 
fully  rejects  the  view  of  naive  realism,  refers  with  con-  the  "each-forms"  of  reality  is  not  an  integral  unity 
tempt  to  the  copy-theory  (the  view  tnat  our  thoughts  nor  an  articulate  or  organic,  much  less  a  logical, 
represent  things)  and  is  rather  proud  of  the  fact  that  unity.  It  is  a  unity  "of  the  strung-along  type^  the 
he  is  in  conflict  with  common  sense.  Sometimes  he  is  type  of  continuity,  contiguity,  or  concatenation" 
a  soUpsist,  holding  that  self  alone  exists,  that  the  (op.  cit.,  325).  Into  this  unfinished  universe,  into 
existence  of  not-self  is  an  illusion,  and  that  the  belief  this  stream  of  successive  esroeriences,  the  subject 
in  the  existence  of  other  minds  than  our  own  is  a  steps  at  a  certain  moment.  By  a  process  which  be- 
vulgar  error.  Sometimes,  finally,  he  is  an  acosmist:  longs,  not  to  logic,  but  to  life,  which  exceeds  logic. 
he  denies  that  the  external  world  exists  except  in  so  he  cozmects  up  Qiese  experiences  into  a  concatenated 
far  as  it  is  thought  to  exist:  or  he  affirms  that  we  series.  In  other  words,  he  strings  the  single  heauda 
create  our  own  external  world  out  of  our  own  thoughts,  on  a  string,  not  of  thought,  but  of  the  practical  needs 

However,   the  classical  form  of  epistemolo^cal  and  purposes  of  life.    Thus  the  subject  makes  his 

Monism  at  the  present  time  is  known  as  Absolutism,  own  world,  and,  really,  we  are  not  any  better  off  than 

Its  fundamental  tenet  is  metaphysical  monism  of  the  if  we  accepted  the  verdict  of  the  inteUectualistic 

purely  idealistic  t3rpe.    It  holds  that  both  subject  Idealist.     We  have  merely  put  the  practical  reason 

and  object  are  merely  phases  of  an  abstract,  unlimited,  in  place  of  the  theoretical:   so  far  as  the  value  of 

impersonal  consciousness  called  the  Absolute;  that  knowledge  is  concerned  the  antithesis  between  Mon- 

neither  thines  nor  thoughts  have  any  reality  apart  ism  and  rluraUsm  is  more  apparent  than  real^and  the 

from  the  Absolute.     It  teaches  that  the  universe  latter  is  as  far  from  the  saneness  of  realistic  Dualism 

is  a  rational  and  systematic  whole,  consisting  of  an  as  the  former.    It  is  true  that  the  Pluralist  admits,  in 

intellectual  "ground"  and  multiform  "appearances"  a  sense,  the  existence  of  the  external  world;  but  so 

of  that  ^und,  one  appearance  being  what  the  Realist  also  does  the  Absolutist.    The  trouble  is  that  neither 

calls  things,   and  another  what  the  Realist  calls  admits  it  in  a  sense  which  would  save  the  distinction 

thoughts.    This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Hegelians,  from  between  subject  and  object.    For  the  Pluralist  as  well 

Hegel  himself  down  to  his  lat^t  representatives,  as  the  Monist  is  entangled  in  the  web  of  subjective 

Brtuiley  and  McTaggart.    All  these  forms  of  episte-  Idealism  as  soon  as  he  favours  the  doctrine  that  per- 

mological  Monism — namely,  idealism,  solipsism,  acos-  ception  is  representative,  not  presentative. 

mism,  and  absolutism — ^have,  of  course,  metaphysical  V.    In    Cosmoloot,  the  central  question  is  the 

bearings,  and  sometimes  rest  on  metaphysical  foundsr  origin  of   the  universe.      The   early   Ionian  phil- 

tions.     Nevertheless,  historically  speaking,  they  are  osophers  assigned,  as  the  cause  or  principle  O^x^ 

traceable  to  a  psychological  assumption  which  is,  is  the  Aristotelian  word)  of  the  universe,  a  substance 

and  always  will  be,  the  dividing  line  between  Dualism  which  is  at  once  the  material  out  of  which  the  uni- 

and   Monism  in   epistemology.    The   Dualists,   in  verse  is  made  and  the  force  by  which  it  was  made, 

their  analysis  of  the  act  of  knowing,  call  attention  As  Aristotle  says,  they  failed  to  distinguish  between 

to  the  fact  that  in  every  process  of  perception  the  the  material  cause  and  the  efficient  cause.    They 

object  is  immediately  given.    It  seems  like  emphasiz-  were,  therefore,  dsmamists  and  hylozoists.    That  is, 

ing  the  obvious  to  say  so,  yet  it  is  precisely  on  this  they  held  matter  to  be  of  its  nature  active,  and  en* 


MONISM 


486 


MONISM 


(lowed  with  life.  Without  the  aid  of  any  extrinsic 
force,  they  said,  the  original  substance,  by  a  process 
of  thickening  and  thinning,  or  by  quenching  and 
kindling,  or  in  some  other  immanent  way,  gave  rise 
to  the  universe  as  we  now  see  it.  This  primitive 
cosmothetic  Monism  gradually  gave  way  to  a  dualistic 
conception  of  the  origin  of  the  world.  Tentatively 
at  first,  and  then  more  decisively,  the  later  lonians 
introduced  the  notion  of  a  primitive  force,  distinct 
from  matter,  which  fashioned  the  universe  out  of  the 
primordial  substance.  Anaxagoras  it  was,  who,  by 
clearly  defining  this  force  and  describing  it  as  mind 
(roi/f),  earned  the  encomium  of  being  the  ''first  of 
the  ancient  philosophers  who  spoke  sense''.  Dual- 
ism, thus  introduced,  withstood  the  onslaughts  of 
materialistic  Atomism  and  Epicureanism,  panthe- 
istic Stoicism  and  emanationistic  neo-PIatonism.  It 
was  developed  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  who 
brought  to  their  description  of  the  world-forming 
process  a  higher  notion  of  cosmothetic  mind  than  the 
pre-Socratic  philosophers  possessed.  It  was  left 
for  the  Christian  philosophers  of  Alexandria  and  their 
successors,  the  Scholastics  of  medieval  times,  to 
elaborate  the  doctrine  of  creation  ex  nihilOf  and  thus 
bring  out  more  clearly  the  r61e  played  by  the  Divine 
Power  and  Will  in  the  formation  of  the  universe. 
The  order,  harmony,  and  purposiveness  evident 
everywhere  in  nature  are  cited  by  the  creationists 
as  evidence  to  show  that  mind  must  have  presided  at 
the  ori^nation  of  thinf^.  Furthermore,  the  question  of 
d}mamism  or  mechamsm  hinges  on  the  problem  of  the 
nature  of  matter.  This  phase  of  the  question  has  been 
developed  especial! v  in  post -Cartesian  philosophy, 
some  maintaining  that  matter  is  essentially  inert  and 
must,  therefore,  have  acquired  force  and  activity  from 
without,  while  others  as  stoutly  maintain  that  matter 
is  by  nature  active  and.  consequently,  may  have 
developed  its  own  force  irom  within.  Evolution  of 
the  thoroughgoing  type  takes  the  latter  view.  It 
holds  that  m  the  primitive  cosmic  matter  was  con- 
tain^ "the  power  and  potency''  of  all  Ufe  and  move- 
ment, in  such  a  way  that  no  external  agent  was  re- 
quired in  order  to  bring  it  to  actual  existence.  Here, 
as  in  the  question  of  Theism,  Christian  philosophy  is 
frankly  dualistic,  although  it  acknowledges  that,  since 
actu^ity  antecedes  potency  by  nature  and,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  world  originated  in  time,  while  God 
is  eternal,  there  was,  before  creation,  but  One  Reality. 
VI.  In  Ethics,  the  word  Monism  is  very  little 
used.  In  some  German  works  it  is  employed  to 
designate  the  doctrine  that  the  moral  law  is  autono- 
mous. Christian  ethics  is  essentially  heteronomic:  it 
teaches  that  all  law,  even  natural  law,  emanates  from 
God.  Kantian  ethics  and  Evolutiomstic  ethics  hold 
that  the  moral  law  is  either  self-imposed  or  emanates 
from  the  moral  sense  which  is  a  product  of  the  struggle 
for  existence.  In  both  the  Kantian  and  the  Evdfu- 
tionistic  systems  there  is  only  one  source  of  the  power 
of  moral  discrimination  and  approval.  For  this 
reason  the  word  Monism  is  here  used  in  its  generic 
sense.  In  English  philosophical  literature,  however, 
the  word  has  no  such  signification.  In  accounting  for 
tibe  origin  of  evil,  a  problem  which,  though  it  belongs 
to  metaphysics,  has  important  bearings  on  ethical 
questions,  some  philosophers  have  adopted  a  Dual- 
istic doctrine  and  explained  that  good  and  evil 
ori^nate  from  two  distinct  principles,  the  one  su- 
premely ^ood,  the  other  completely  and  absolutely 
evil.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  Persians, 
from  whom  it  was  borrowed  by  Manes,  the  founder  of 
tiie  Manichean  sect.  Opposed  to  this  is  the  Monistic 
view,  that  God  is  indeea  the  cause  of  all  that  is  good 
in  the  universe,  and  that  evil  is  not  to  be  assigned 
to  any  supreme  cause  distinct  from  God.  Whatever 
explanation  be  given  of  the  existence  of  evil  in  the 
world,  it  is  maintained  that  a  supreme  principle  of 
evil  is  utterly  impossible  and  even  moonoeivable. 


VII.      CONTEMPORART  MONISTIC  MOVEMENTS  AKD 

ScBooiA. — In  current  philosophical  literature,  when- 
ever no  special  qualification  is  added,  Monism  gen- 
erally means  the  modified  materialistic  monism  of 
Haeckel.  Modem  materialistic  Monism  in  Germany 
begins  with  Feuerbach,  a  disciple  of  Hegel.  FeuerbaiJi 
was  followed  by  Vogt  and  Moleschott.  To  these  suc- 
ceeded Haeckel,  who  combines  Darwinian  evolution 
with  a  materialistic  interpretation  of  Spinoza  and 
Bruno.  Haeckel's  works,  both  in  the  original  and 
in  English  translations,  have  had  a  wide  circulation^ 
their  popularity  being  due  rather  to  the  superfidal 
manner  m  which  Haeckel  disposes  of  the  most  serious 
questions  of  metaphysics  than  to  any  intrinsic  ex- 
cellence of  content  or  method.  Haeckel  is  honorary 
president  of  the  Monistenbund  (Society  of  Monist^y, 
founded  at  Jena  in  1906,  for  the  purpose  of  propagating 
the  doctrines  of  Monism.  The  society  is  openly  anti- 
Christian,  and  makes  active  warfare  against  the 
Catholic  Church.  Its  publications,  '^Der  Monist" 
(a  continuation  of  the  "Freie  Glocken" — first  num- 
ber, 1906),  ''Blatter  des  deutschen  Monistenbunds" 
(first  number.  Julv,  1906),  and  various  pamphlets 
(Flugblatter  aes  Monistenbunds),  are  intended  to  be 
a  campaign  against  Christian  education  and  the  unicm 
of  Church  and  State. 

The  group  of  writers  in  America  who,  under  the 
editorship  of  Dr.  Paul  Cams,  have  been  identified 
with  the  "Momsf  (Chicago,  monthly,  first  number, 
Jan.,  1891)  are  not,  apparently,  actuated  by  the  same 
animosity  against  Christianity.  Nevertheless,  they 
hold  HaeckeTs  fundamental  tenet  that  Monism  as  a 
system  of  philosophy  transcends  Christianity  as  a  form 
of  bdief ,  and  is  uie  only  rational  synthesis  of  science 
and  religion.  '^  Religious  progress  no  less  than 
scientific  progress",  writes  Cams,  ''is  a  process  of 
nx)wth  as  weU  as  a  cleansing  from  mythol(»y.  .  .  . 
Religion  is  the  basis  of  ethics.  .  .  .  The  ideaiof  feJi- 
gion  is  the  same  as  that  of  science^  it  is  a  liberation 
of  the  mythological  elements  and  its  aim  is  to  rest 
upon  a  concise  but  exhaustive  statement  of  facts" 
(Monism,  Its  Scope  and  Import,  8.  9).  This  "con- 
cise but  exhaustive  statement  of  facts"  is  positive 
Monism,  the  doctrine,  namely,  that  the  whole  <^ 
reality  constitutes  one  inseparable  and  indiviable 
entirety.  Monism  is  not  the  doctrine  that  one  sub- 
stance alone,  whether  it  be  mind  or  matter,  exists: 
such  a  theoiy,  says  Dr.  Cams,  is  best  designated  as 
Henism.  Tme  Monism  ''bears  in  mind  that  our 
words  are  abstracts  representing  parts  or  features  of 
the  One  and  All,  and  not  separate  existences"  (op. 
cit.,  7).  This  Monism  is  Positivistic,  because  its  aim 
is  "the  systematisation  of  knowledge,  that  is,  of  a 
description  of  facts  "  (ibid.) .  ' '  Radical  free  thou^t " 
is  the  motto  of  this  school  of  Monism;  at  ti^e  same 
time,  it  disclaims  idl  sympathy  with  destructive 
Atheism,  Agnosticism,  Materiali»n,  and  Negativism 
in  general.  Nevertheless,  the  untrained  student  of 
philosophy  will  be  likely  to  be  more  profoundly  infiu- 
enced  by  the  Monistic  criticism  of  Christianity  than 
by  the  constructive  effort  to  put  something  in  place  of 
the  errors  referred  to. 

All  Monism  may  be  described  as  resulting  from  the 
tendency  of  the  human  mind  to  discover  unitary 
concepts  under  which  to  subsume  the  manifold  of 
experience.  So  long  as  we  are  content  to  take  and 
preserve  the  world  of  our  experience  as  we  find  it,  with 
all  its  manifoldness,  variety,  and  fragmentation,  we 
are  in  the  condition  of  primitive  man,  and  little  better 
than  bmte  animals.  As  soon  as  we  b^n  to  reflect 
on  the  data  of  the  senses,  we  are  led  by  an  instinct 
of  our  rational  nature  to  reduce  manifold  effects  to 
the  unity  of  a  causal  concept.  This  we  first  do  in 
the  scientific  plane.  Afterwards,  carrying  the  process 
to  a  higher  plane,  we  try  to  unify  these  under  philo- 
sophical categories,  such  as  substance  and  accident, 
matter  and  force,  body  and  mind,  subject  and  object 


MONTTA 


487 


MONK 


The  history  of  philosophy,  however,  shows  with  un- 
mistakable clearness  that  tnere  is  a  limit  to  this  unify- 
ing process  in  philosophy.  If  He^el  were  right,  and 
the  formula,  ''The  rational  alone  is  real'',  were  true, 
then  we  should  expect  to  be  able  to  compass  alt 
reality  with  the  mental  powers  which  we  possess. 
But,  Christian  philosophy  holds,  the  real  extends 
beyond  the  domain  of  the  (finite)  rational.  Reality 
eludes  our  attempt  to  compress  it  within  the  cate- 
^ries  which  we  frame  for  it.  Consequently,  Dual- 
ism is  often  the  final  answer  in  philoeopny;  and  Mon- 
isin,  which  is  not  content  with  the  partial  synthesis 
of  Dualism,  but  aims  at  an  ideal  completeness,  often 
results  in  failure.  Dualism  leaves  room  for  faith, 
and  hands  over  to  faith  many  of  the  problems  which 
philosophy  cannot  solve.  Monism  leaves  no  room 
for  faiui.  The  only  mysticism  that  is  compatible 
with  it  is  rationaJistic,  and  very  different  from  that 
"vision"  in  which,  for  the  Christian  mystic,  all  the 
limitations,  imperfections,  and  other  shortcomings  of 
our  feeble  efforts  are  removed  by  the  light  of  faitn. 

See  works  referred  to  under  Mktaphtbics;  also,  Vbttch,  Dual' 
iam  and  Monism  (London,  1895) :  Ward,  Naturaliam  and  Aono§- 
tieiam  (2  vols.,  London.  1899);  Rotcs.  The  World  and  tho 
Individual  (New  York,  1901);  Bakewell,  Pluraliam  and  Mon* 
Mm  in  Philo9.  Rev.,  VII  (1898),  355  sqq.;  Bowen,  Dualiam, 
MaUrialum  or  Idealitn  in  Prinetlon  Rev.,  I  (1878),  423  sqq.; 
GuHNBT,  Monim  in  Mind,  VI  (1881).  153  sqq.:  Article*  in 
Manial  (1891—):  AoiCKBe.  JTan^  contra  Haeckel  (Berlin.  1901); 
GuTBEBLST,  Der  meehanieehe  Moniemue  (Paderbom,  1893); 
Enoebt,  Der  naturalietiehe  Monismue  HaeckeU  (Berlin,  1907); 
Dbxws,  Der  MoniamuM  (Leipsig.  1908);  Articlee  by  Kunikb  m 
JakrhuehfUT  Phil.  u.  Spek,  Theol.  (1905.  1906);  Maltese.  Mo- 
niamo  e  niehiliamo  (2  vols.,  Vittoria,  1887) ;  Abate,  R  moniamo 
nelU  diveraa  forme  (Catania,  1893) ;  Haeckel,  Der  Moniamua  ala 
Band  awiadtan  ReHgion  und  Wiaaenachaft,  tr.  Qxlchbist  (London. 
1894):  Idem.  Die  WeUrathaal,  tr.  McCabe  (London,  1900).  On 
Canis's  School  of  Monism,  besides  The  Moniat  (1891—)  and  The 
Open  Court  (pub.  fortnightly,  first  number,  Feb.  17,  1887),  cf. 
Casus,  Primer  of  Philosophy  (Chicago,  1896);  Idem,  Pundamen- 
tal  Problema  (Chicago,  1894) ;  Idem,  Moniam^  Ita  Scope  and  Im- 
port (Chicago,  1891). 

William  Turner. 

Monita  Secreta.  a  code  of  instructions  alleged 
to  be  addressed  by  Acquaviva,  the  fifth  general 
of  the  Society,  to  its  various  superiors,  and  laying 
down  the  methods  to  be  adopted  for  the  increase  of 
its  power  and  influence.  According  to  them,  every 
means  is  to  be  employed  of  acquiring  wealth  for  the 
order,  by  enticing  promising  young  men  to  enter  it 
and  endow  it  with  tneir  estates;  rich  widows  are  to  be 
cajoled  and  dissuaded  from  remarriage;  every  means 
is  to  be  used  for  the  advancement  of  Jesuits  to  bish- 
oprics or  other  ecclesiastical  dignities,  and  to  discredit 
the  members  of  other  orders,  while  the  world  is  to  be 
persuaded  that  i^e  Society  is  animated  by  the  purest 
and  least  interested  motives:  the  reputation  of  those 
who  quit  it  is  to  be  assailed  and  traduced  in  every 
way. 

That  the  "Monita"  are  in  reality  what  they  pre- 
tend, cannot  possibly  be  maintained.  They  are  known 
to  be  the  worK  of  one  Jerome  Zahorowski,  a  Pole,  who, 
having  been  a  member  of  the  Society,  had  been  dis- 
charge in  1611.  They  first  appeared  at  Cracow  in 
1612  in  MS.,  purporting  to  be  a  translation  from  the 
Spanish,  ana  were  printed  in  the  same  city  in  1614. 
Various  stories  were  told,  however,  as  to  the  mode  in 
which  these  secret  instructions  were  originally  discov- 
ered; the  credit  being  most  commonly  assigned  to 
Duke  Christian  of  Bnmswick  who,  havmg  been  bom 
in  1599,  was  a  mere  boy  when  they  first  saw  the  light. 
The  place  where  they  were  found  was  variously  set 
down  as  Paderbom,  Prague,  Li^e,  Antwerp,  ulatz, 
and  on  board  a  captured  Eajt  Indiaman.  Attempts 
urere  likewise  made  at  various  times,  as  late  even  as 
1783,  to  excite  interest  in  the  work  as  the  result  of  a 
new  discovery;  to  say  nothing  of  an  undated  edition, 
in  the  early  nineteenth  century,  which  professes  to 
iisue  from  the  Propaganda  Press,  and  to  be  authenti- 
cated by  the  testimonies  of  various  Jesuit  authorities. 
These,  however,  are  n^anifestly  nothing  but  impudent 


and  malijsAant  fabrications,  the  general,  "Felix  Aco- 
niti",  being  utterly  unknown  in  the  Annals  of  the 
Society,  and  the  censor  who  approves  the  publication 
bearing  the  ominous  name  "JPasquinelli",  while  the 
titles  which,  it  is  alleged,  should  ensure  the  esteem  of 
men  in  general  for  the  Society,  include  all  the  crimes 
and  abominations  of  every  kind — immoralities,  con- 
spiracies, murders,  and  regicides — which  their  bitterest 
enemies  have  ever  attributed  to  the  Society. 

In  looking  for  more  authentic  evidence  as  to  the 
true  character  of  the  "Monita",  it  is  unnecessary  to 
cite  any  to  whose  testimony  a  suspicion  of  p>artiality 
might  attach — from  Bishop  Lipski  of  Cracow  (1616), 
through  the  long  list  of  Jesuit  writers  who  have  from 
the  first  denounced  the  fabrication,  and  who  are 
quoted  by  Father  Bernard  Duhr  in  his  "Jesuiten 
Fabeln''.  Witnesses  beyond  any  such  exception  are 
for  example,  the  famous  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  the  historian 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  Jansenist  Henri  de  Saint- 
I^poace,  as  well  as  Amauld  and  the  "Nouvelles  EccM- 
siastiques",  to  whom  may  be  added  Pascal  himself, 
whose  negative  testimony  is  sufficient  to  show  what  he 
thought  on  the  subject. 

To  these  witnesses  may  be  added  such  pronounced 
anti-Jesuits  as  von  Lang,  Dollinger,  Friedrich  (the 
author  of  Janus)  ^  Ruber,  and  Keusch,  as  well  as 
the  Protestant  historian  Gieseler.  In  the  British 
House  of  Commons,  during  the  debates  on  Catholic 
Emancipation,  the  fraudulent  character  of  the  "Mo- 
nita" was  fully  adcnowledged  by  more  than  one 
speaker,  while  the  authorities  of  the  British  Museum, 
and  likewise  the  French  bibliographer  M.  Baibier, 
agree  in  describing  the  work  as  "apocryphal". 

The  only  defence  seriously  attempted  on  the  other 
side  is  that  offered  by  the  late  Dr.  littledale  in  his 
notorious  article  "Jesuits",  in  the  "Encyclopsedia 
Britannica " .  He  acknowledges,  indeed,  that  the  work 
is  in  reality  "both  caricature  and  libel",  but  pleads 
nevertheless  that  it  is  substantiaUy  true^  since  its 
author,  "a  shrewd  and  keen  observer",  havinf; noticed 
how  Jesuits  actually  worked,  deduced  from  his  obser- 
vations the  rules  by  which  they  were  Kuided.  As  to 
this  remarkable  example  of  "Jesuitical"  argumenta- 
tion, it  is  sufficient  to  mquire  upon  what  solid  founda- 
tion Dr.  Littledale's  basal  assumption  rests.  Where 
IS  the  evidence  that  the  principles  of  the  "Monita" 
animate  Jesuit  practice?  The  official  rules  and  con- 
stitutions of  the  order  plainly  contradict  in  every 
respect  these  supposed  instmctions,  for  they  expressly 
prohibit  the  acceptance  of  ecclesiastical  dignities  by 
its  subjects,  unless  compelled  by  papal  authority,  and 
from  the  days  of  the  founder,  St.  Ignatius  hiniself,  it 
is  known  that  eveiy  obstacle  has  been  thrown  by  uie 
Society  in  the  way  of  such  promotion.  Moreover,  in 
many  cases,  genuine  private  instructions  from  the 
general  to  subordinate  superiors  have  fallen  into  hos- 
tile hands,  but  while  in  many  cases  they  are  found  to 
five  instructions  directly  contrary  to  those  we  have 
eard,  it  is  not  even  alleged  that  in  any  instance  they 
corroborate  them. 

Duhr,  Die  Monila  Seereta  oder  die  qeheimen  Verordnunoen  der 
OeselUchaft  Jesu:  SAiNT-HiuER,  Lea  Monita  Secrata  dea  JiauHea, 
devani  VHiaioire;  Hubbb,  Der  Jeauitenorden,  p.  106;  Rsuoca. 
Der  Index  der  Verbotener  BUcher,  p.  281;  Pabkinson  in  The 
Month  (July- August,  1873;  March.  1902);  Gebabd,  The  Seerel 
Inatructiona  of  the  Jeauita  (Catholic  Truth  Society  pamphlet). 

John  Gerard. 

Monk. — ^A  monk  may  be  conveniently  defined  as  a 
member  of  a  community  of  men,  leading  a  more  or  less 
contemplative  life  apart  from  the  world,  under  the 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  according  to 
a  rule  characteristic  of  the  particular  order  to  which  he 
belongs.  The  word  monk  is  not  itself  a  term  com* 
monly  used  in  the  official  language  of  the  Church.  It 
is  a  popular  rather  than  a  scientific  designation,  but  it 
is  at  the  same  time  very  ancient,  so  much  so  that  its 
origin  cannot  be  precisely  determined.  So  far  as  re- 
gards the  Englidi  fonn  of  the  word,  that  undoubtedly 


MONOOAM7                          488  MONOOBAM 

comes  from  the  AnglonSaxon  munuCf  which  has  in  turn  MoAOgtim  of  Ohiiflt. — ^By  the  Monc^gram  of  Christ 

arisen  from  the  Latin  monackiu,  a  mere  transliteration  is  ordinarily  miderstood  the  'abbreviation  of  Christ's 

of  the  Greek  /dpaxot.    This  Greek  form  is  commonly  name  formed  by  combining  the  first  two  letters  of  the 

believed  to  be  connected  with  fi^wot,  lonely  or  single,  Greek  form  XPI£T02,  thus  ^ ;  this  monocrazn  wu 

and  is  suggestive  of  a  life  of  solitude;  but  we  cannot  also  known  as  the  Chritnum,  «d&  There  are,  Aowever. 

lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  word  ftow^,  from  a  dif-  besides  this  t3r^  of  monogram,  two  other  monograiDs 

ferent  iroot,  seems  to  have  been  freely  used,  e.  g.  by  of  Chnst — one  of  His  name,  Jesus,  the  other  of  boUi  His 

Palladius,  as  well  as  lutmffriipwv.  in  the  sense  of  a  reh-  names  together.    The  most  common  form  (that  first 

gious  house  (see  Butler,  '^PaUadius's  Lausiac  His-  alluded  to),  was  adopted  by  Constan tine  the  Great  oq 

tory ",  poMim),    Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Fathers  of  the  his  military  standaros.   The  monogram  of  the  famous 

fourth  century  are  by  no  means  acpreed  as  to  the  labarum  (q.  v.),  as  described  by  Eusebius  (Vita  Const,, 

et3rmolo|pcal  significance  of  monachus,    St.  Jerome  I,  xxxi),  is  that  given  above.    lActantius  (De  mont 

writes  to  Heliodorus  (P.  L.,  XXII,  350),  ^'Inteipret  persec.,  xliv)  describes  it  as  "transversa  X  litten 

the  name  monk,  it  is  thine  own;  what  business  nast  summo  capite  oircumflexo",  a  somewhat  obscure  ex- 

thou  in  a  crowd,  thou  who  art  solitary?"    St.  Augua-  pression  interpreted  by  Hauck  ("  Realencyk.  fOr  prot 

tine  on  the  other  hand  fastens  on  the  idea  of  unity  Theol.'^  s.  w.  Monogramm  Christi)  as  a  X  with  one 

(M0>^t)  and  in  his  exposition  of  Ps.  cxxxii,  extols  the  of  its  strokes  perpendicular    t  ^  and  the  upper  arm  of 

appropriateness  of  the  words  ''Ecce  quam  bonum  et  this  stroke  rounded  to  form  ^^  a  P  ^.  Many  vari- 

2uam  lucundum  habitare  fratres  in  unum"  when  ants  of  these  two  forms  exist  in  the  ^X  monumeDts 
bantea  in  a  monastery,  because  those  who  are  monks  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  The  Greek  letters  X  P 
should  have  but  one  heart  and  one  soul  (P.  L..  combined  in  a  monogram  occur  on  pre-Christian  coins 
XXXVII,  1733).   Cassian  (P.  L.,  XLIX,  1097),  and  (e.  g.  the  Attic  tetradrachma  and  some  coins  of  the 
Pseudo-lAonysius  (De  Eccl.  Hier.,  vi)  seem  to  have  Ptolemies),  and  in  some  Greek  manuscripts  of  the 
thought  monks  wero  so  called  because  they  were  celi-  Christian  period  they  are  employed  as  an  abbreviation 
bate.  of  such  words  as  XP0N02,  XPT20Z,  XPTZ0ZTOM02. 
In  any  case  the  fact  remains  that  the  word  monoF'  Lowrie  remarks,  however,  that  when  employed  as  an 
ckuB  in  the  fourth  century  was  freely  used  of  those  abbreviation  the  X  stands  upright,  i^  whereas  in  the 
consecrated  to  God,  whether  they  lived  as  hermits  or  monogram  of  Christ  it  lies  on  its  side  r^^,  thus  appear- 
in  oonmiunities.    So  again  St.  Benedict  a  little  later  in^  more  ssrmmetical.    The  form  P  is  of  Christi&n 
(c.  535)  states  at  the  beginning  of  his  rule  that  l^ere  origin;  it  came  into  use  in  the  *t^  course   of   the 
are  four  kinds  of  monks  {monachi) — (1)  cenobites  who  fourth  century,  and  represents  a  stage  in  the  develop- 
live  together  under  a  rule  or  an  abbot,  (2)  anchorites  ment  of  the  monogram  into  the  cross, 
or  hermits,  who  after  long  training  in  the  discipline  of  a  The  opinion  of  Hauck  that  the  monogram,  in  the 
community,  go  forth  to  lead  a  life  of  solitude  (and  of  form  in  which  it  appears  on  the  labanim,  was  well 
both  of  these  classes  he  approves) ;  but  fdso  (3)  ''sara-  known  in  Christian  society  before  Constantine  wouJd 
bites''  and  (4)  ''girovagi    (wandering  monks),  whom  seem,  from  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  to  be  well 
he  strongly  condemns  as  men  whose  religious  life  is  but  founded;  for  otherwise  how  would  the  emperor  have 
a  pretence,  and  who  do  their  own  will  without  the  recognised  it  as  a  Christian  symbol?   Yet,  at  the  same 
restraint  or  obedience.    It  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  time  it  must  be  said  that  it  appears  only  rarelv  on  pre- 
that  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  so  constantly  describes  Constantinian  monuments,  and  then  generally  as  an 
the  brethren  as  monachi  and  their  residence  as  mono-  abbreviation  {compendium  ecrivturce)  rather  than  as  an 
sterium,  that  a  tradition  has  arisen  according  to  which  emblem ;  as,  for  instance,  in  a  third  century  inscription 
these  terms  in  Latin  and  English  (though  not  so  uni-  in  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla:  ZOI  AOSA  EX  ^. 
formly  in  the  case  of  the  corresponding  German  and  The  adoption  of  the  monogram  by  Constantine  for  ^{^ 
Frraich  words)  are  commonly  applied  only  to  those  use  on  the  imperial  military  standards  and  on  the 
religious  bodies  which  in  some  measure  reproduce  the  shields  of  the  soldiers,  as  a  s^rmbol  of  Christianity,  was 
conditions  of  life  contemplated  in  the  old  Benedictine  the  beginning  of  its  populanty  in  the  empire.   During 
Rule.    The  mendicant  mars,  e.  g.  the  Dominicans,  the  fourth  century  it  was  represented  on  all  manner  of 
Franciscans,  Carmelites,  etc.,  thoudi  they  live  in  monuments:  on  public  edifices,  churehes,  sarcophagi, 
community  and  chant  the  Divine  Office  in  choir,  are  lamps,  vestments,  clothing,  household  utensils,  etc. 
not  correctly  described  as  monks.     Their  work  of  It  appears  frequently  in  association  with  inscriotioiis 
preaching,  mixing  with  their  fellow  men  in  the  world,  on  tombs,  sometimes  in  relation  with  the  apocalyptic 
soliciting  alms,  and  moving  from  place  to  place,  is  in-  letters  A  and  w,  or  with  the  symbolic  fish,  doves,  palm 
consistent  with  the  monastic  ideal.    The  same  is  to  be  branches,  and  the  like.    It  rarely  appears  on  Roman 
said  of  the  "clerks  regular",  like  the  Jesuits,  in  whose  monuments,  however,  after  the  fatal  year  410,  when 
rule  the  work  of  the  apostolate  is  regarded  as  so  im-  the  Eternal  City  fell  into  the  hands  of  Alaric,  but  in 
portant  that  it  is  considered  incompatible  with  the  the  East  it  long  continued  to  enjoy  its  popularitv.   In 
obligation  of  singing  office  in  choir.    Again  members  the  course  of  the  fifth  century,  in  the  West,  the  P 
of  the  religious  congregations  of  men,  which  take  sim-  form  became  the  more  common,  but  in  the  East  T* 
pie  but  not  solenm  vows,  are  not  usually  designated  as  the  earlier  form  continued  in  favour, 
monks.    On  the  other  hand  it  should  be  not^  that  in  Monograms    of    Jesus    Christ. — A    monogram 


times.    Besides  the  Benedictines  with  their  various  (in)  *YT>>mi  No.   Two  Gallic  monuments  with  this 

modifications  and  offshoots,  i.  e.  the  Cluniacs.  C^ter-  mon.i£L.ogram,bearing  the  dates  491  and  597,are  noted 

cians.  Trappista  etc.,  the  best  known  orders  of  monks  by  Le  Blant,  and  once  it  occurs  on  an  ancient  lamp,  in 

are  the  Carthusians,  the  Premonstratensians,  and  the  association  with  the  apocalyptic  letters  A  and  m.    In  a 

Camaldolese.    The  honorary  prefix  Dom,  an  abbre-  somewhat  different  form  it  occurs  in  several  monuments 

viation  of  Dominus  is  given  to  Benedictines  and  Car-  of  the  cemeteiy  of  St.  Callistus:  in  these  the  I  crosses 

thusians.  the  X  horizontally  instead  of  perpendicularly  V.. 

Hedcbucksr,  Die  Orden  und  Kongreoatumm  (Pbderbom,  1907  The  IX  monogram  (for  IH20Z  XPIST02),  also  Tl 

^Ji  ^v^^'.J^^Si^ii?Li^iJ^l^i!^ i^'T'iil^^i-'.  ®?""  appears  on  some  sarcophagi  of  Provence  enclosed  in  a 

reefu  (Main*,  1898),  3  aqq.  and  306  sgq.  ^^  Circle,  thus  formmg  a  Star:  the  Star  that  guided  the 

Hebbbbt  Thukimxjn.  Wise  Men  to  Bethlehem.    The  mono«;ram  10  XC  oc- 
curs in  manuscripts  of  the  Scriptures  (the  Codex  Alex- 
Monogamy.    See  Mabbiaob.  andrinus  and  the  Codex  daromontanus)  as  early  a9 


MONOMOTAPA                         489  M0N0FHT8IT1S 

the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.     Peculiar  to  the  Latin  JoXo   Dos  Santos,   Bihiopia  Oriental  fEvora.   1600),  tr. 

Church  is  the  monogram  IH2  XPZ,  which  occurs  in  '^'iti^^^lVSc^C^ny^l!^^ 

the  sixth  centuiy  Greek-Latm  Codex  Clanunontanus,  ^  s<nah  Africa  b0fSr4 1796  (tondoA.  lOOT) ;  Bbot,  Th$  Ruined 

as  an  abbreviation  of  both  Our  Lord  s  Greek  names.  CUiet  of  Mtuhonaiand  (London,  1896) ;  Hall,  PfhiuUtHc  Rho* 

The  Greeks  also  employed  the  letters  IH  as  an  abbre-  ^'•^  (London,  1909) ;  Wimor,  Monomoiapa  (London.  1896). 

viation  for  the  name  ofJesus^th  a  peculiar  symbolic  James  KjaNDAU 
meaning.  According  to  the  JSpistle  of  pseudo-Bama-  Honophjiltes  and  HonqphTBitlain. — ^The  his- 
bas  the  circumcision  by  Abraham  of  318  men  of  his  tory  of  t^iw  sect  and  of  its  ramincationa  has  been  sum- 
household  had  a  mystic  signification.  The  Greek  let-  marised  under  Euttchianibm  (the  nickname  somewhat 
ters  I  E  T,  used  as  numerals,  amount  to  318,  and  at  unfairly  given  by  Catholic  controversialists).  The 
the  siame  time  the  first  two  of  these  letters  are  abbre-  theology  of  Monophysitism  has  also  been  described 
viations  of  the  Name  of  Jesus,  while  the  third  repre-  under  the  same  heading.  Two  points  are  discussed  in 
sents  the  cross  (Pseudo-Barnabas,  c.  ix).  The  mean-  the  following  article:  first,  the  hterary  activity  of  the 
ing  was  adopted  by  the  Greek  Church,  and  from  them  Monophysites  both  in  Greek  and  Styriac;  secondly, 
it  was  borrowed  by  the  Latins.  The  familiar  mono-  the  question  whether  th^  can  be  exculpated  from 
gram  I H  S  was  first  popularised  by  St.  Bemardine  of  material  herc^  in  their  Uhiistology. 
biena  in  the  early  fifteenth  century  and  later,  with  the  Literabt  Uibtort. — From  many  points  of  view 
addition  of  a  cross  over  the  central  letter,  by  the  the  Monophysites  are  the  most  important  of  early 
Society  of  Jesus.    (See  I.H.S).  heretics,  and  no  here^  or  related  group  of  heresieB 

York7l901);  Fipisr  feiucK  in  ReaUlneuk.  f.  prot.  Theol,  a.  vv.  important  a  hterature.     A  large  porUon  of  It  IS  lost  J 

Monogrcmm  Chriati  (Letpag,  1903);  Kraub  in  RedL-encykUy-  some  remams  m  manuscnpt,  and  of  late  years  im- 

podM  der  ehrUaiehen  AUerthumerB.  v.  (Freibuw,  1886).  portant  publications  have  brought  much  of  this  msr 

Maubicb  M.  Hassett.  ^^^^1  ^  ^e  light  of  dajr.  Nearly  all  the  Greek  lit- 
erature has  perished  in  its  original  form,  but  much 
Monomotapa.  —  Whatever  be  the  elymoloncal  of  it  survives  in  early  Sjrriao  translations,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  word  Monomota'pa^  the  origin  of  which  Syriac  literature  itself  is  extant  in  yet  greater  amount, 
is  much  disputed,  it  is  certain,  at  any  rate,  that  the  The  scientific,  philosophical,  and  grammatical  writ- 
Portuguese  of  the  sixteenth  century  employed  it  to  de-  ings  of  Monophysites  must  for  the  most  part  be  passed 
note  the  paramount  chief  of  the  Ma[karanga,  a  powerful  over  here.  Ecclesiastical  history  and  biosprapny,  as 
South  African  tribe  dwelling  between  the  Zambesi  and  well  as  dogmatic  and  polemical  writings  will  be  de- 
Limpopo  rivers  and  extendmg  westward  from  the  In-  scribed  for  the  £Lftii  and  sixth  centuries,  together  with 
dian  Ocean  probablv  as  far  as  the  twenty-fifth  parallel  a  few  of  the  chief  works  of  the  centuries  immediately 
of  east  longitude.    ^'Some  interest'',  says  Mr.  Theal,  following. 


applied  to  the  entire  region  from  the  Zambesi  to  the  banished  patriarch  declares  the  reality  and  complete- 
mouth  of  the  fish  River.  Geographers,  who  knew  ness  of  our  Lord's  Human  Bodv,  intending  evidently 
nothing  of  the  country,  wrote  the  word  upon  thdr  to  deny  that  he  had  approved  tne  refusal  of  Eutyches 
charts,  and  one  copied  another  until  the  belief  became  to  adnut  Christ's  consubstantiality  with  us. 
general  t^at  a  people  far  advanced  in  civilization,  and  Timothy  JEIutm  (d.  477)  who  nad  beoa  ordained 
governed  by  a  mighty  emperor,  occupied  the  whole  of  priest  by  St.  Cyril  himself,  and  preserved  a  profound 
southeastern  Africa.  .  .  .  Such  an  empire  never  ex-  attachment  to  that  saint,  published  an  edition  of 
isted.  The  foundation  upon  which  imagination  con-  some  of  his  works.  He  accompanied  Dioscurus  to 
stnicted  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  Bantu  tribe."  The  the  Robber  Council  of  Ephesus  in  449,  as  he  savs  him* 
empire  of  the  Monomotapa  was  called  Mokaraiijpa.  self  "together  witii  my  brother  the  blessed  priest 
In  the  fifteenth  century',  it  was  united  and  powerful,  Anatolius"  (the  secretary  of  Dioscurus,  promoted  by 
but,  when  the  Portuguese  arrived  in  1505,  it  was  in  a  him  to  the  See  of  Constantinople).  It  is  not  necea- 
state  of  disruption,  as  the  reigning  Monomotapa,  Ma-  sary  to  infer  that  Timothy  and  AnatoUus  were 
komba  by  name,  had  delegated  his  authoritv  over  the  brothers.  When  the  death  in  exile  of  Dioscurup 
more  distant  parts  of  his  dominions  to  members  of  his  (September,  454)  was  known,  Timothy  assumed  the 
family  who  soon  asserted  their  independence.  The  leaaership  of  those  who  did  not  acknowledge  the  or- 
Makaranga  still  live  scattered  in  different  parts  of  thodox  ratriareh  Proterius,  and  demanded  a  new 
Rhodesia  over  a  territory  which  was  once  their  own.  bidiop.  He  had  with  him  four  or  five  deprived 
In  the  matter  of  civilization  thev  never  had  much  to  bishops.  The  riots  which  followed  were  renewed  at 
loee,  but  their  warlike  qualities  have  disappeared,  so  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Marcian,  and  Proterius  was 
that  the  word  Makaranga  is  used  by  their  neighbours  murdered.  ESven  before  this,  Timothy  had  been 
as  a  term  of  reproach  and  a  sjmonym  for  coward.  The  consecrated  patriarch  by  twp  bishops.  Eusebius 
word  Monomotapa  is  no  longer  known  amon^  them,  of  Pelusium  and  the  famous  Peter  the  Iberian, 
They  are,  at  any  rate,  more  intelligent  and  docile  than  Bishop  of  Maiuma,  the  latter  not  even  an  Eg3rptian. 
their  neighbours,  while  their  features  and  many  of  At  Constantinople  Anatolius  was  scarcely  his  enemv; 
their  customs  point  to  an  infusion  of  Semitic  biood.  the  minister  Aspar  was  probably  his  friend;  but  the 
The  theory  has  lately  obtained  in  some  quarters,  that  Emperor  Leo  certainlv  desired  to  acquiesce  in  the 
they  built  the  Great  Zimbabwe  and  other  ruins  scat-  demands  for  Timothy  s  deposition  adoressed  to  him 
tared  over  their  country.  It  is  far  more  probable,  by  the  orthodox  bishops  of  Egvpt  and  by  Pope  St. 
however,  that  these,  as  well  as  the  numerous  rock-  Leo,  and  he  punished  the  muraerers  of  Irotenus  at 
mrnes  found  in  the  g^ld  area  of  Rhodesia  and  Portu-  once.  Meanwhile  iElurus  was  expelling  from  their 
guese  East  Africa,  were  the  work  of  some  Semitic  sees  all  bishops  who  accepted  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
people  who  occupied  the  country  as  gold  seekers  long  don.  It  was  not,  however,  till  Anatolius  was  dead 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Bantu.  The  Makaranga  were  (3  July,  458)  and  had  been  succeeded  by  St.  Genna- 
evangelized  in  1561  by  the  Yen.  Father  Gon^alo  da  Sil-  dius,  that  the  Emperor  put  into  effect  the  opinions 
v^ra,  S.J.,  who  baptized  the  Monomotapa  and  many  he  had  elicited  from  all  the  bishops  of  the  East  in  the 
of  his  people.  Butwithim  three  months  of  his  arrival  "Encryclia",  by  exilinj^  JSIurus  first  to  Gangra  in 
the  converted  chief,  instigated  by  some  Mohammedan  Paphiagonia,  and  then  m  460  to  the  Cheronesus.  Dur- 
lefugeee  from  Mozambique,  turned  against  the  mis-  ing  the  reign  of  Basiliscus  he  was  restored,  at  the  end 
flionary  and  had  him  strangled  on  16  March,  1561.  of  475,  and  Zeno  spared  his  old  age  from  molestation. 


XOKOFHT8ITB8                       490  M<mOPH7SITI8 

Under  Extttchianism  something  has  been  said  of  who  had  attended  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431 .  Afts 
his  theology,  and  more  will  be  found  below.  Of  his  his  father's  death  he  was  sent  to  stud^  rhetoric  at  Alex- 
works  a  framient  on  the  Two  Natures,  is  in  Migne  andria,  being  yet  a  catechumen,  as  it  was  the  cust4>i& 
(P.  G.y  LXaXVI,  273} .  The  unpublished  Syriac  col-  in  Pisidia  to  delay  baptism  until  a  beard  should  ^pear. 
lection  of  his  works  (in  British  Mus.,  MS.  Addit.  Zacharias,  who  was  his  fellow-student,  testifies  to  his 
12156,  sixth  cent.)  contains  (a)  a  treatise  against  the  brilliant  talents  and  the  great  progress  he  made  in  the 
"Dyophysites"  (Catholics)  which  consists  mainly  of  study  of  rhetoric.  He  was  enthusiastic  over  the  an- 
a  collection  of  extracts  from  the  Fathers  against  the  cient  orators,  and  also  over  Libanius.  Zacharias  is- 
Two  Natures,  the  last  of  the  citations  being  from  let-  duced  him  to  read  the  correspondence  of  Libanius  wi:ii 
ters  of  Dioscurus.  This  is,  however,  but  a  summary  St.  Basil,  and  the  works  of  the  latter  and  of  St.  Greg- 
of  a  larger  work,  which  has  recently  been  published  ory  of  Nasianzus,  and  he  was  conquered  by  the  power 
entire  in  an  Armenian  translation  imder  the  title  of  of  Christian  oratory.  Severus  went  to  study  law  at 
"Refutation  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon".  We  Berytus  about  the  autumn  of  486,  and  he  was  fol- 
learn  from  Justinian  that  the  ori^Jial  was  written  in  lowed  thither  by  Zacharias  a  year  later.  Sevenis 
exile,  (b)  Extracts  from  a  letter  written  to  the  city  was  later  accused  of  having  been  in  youth  a  worship- 
of  Constantinople  against  the  Eutychianisers  Isaias  per  of  idols  and  a  dealer  in  magical  arts  (so  the  libeUus 
of  Hennopolis  and  Theophilus,  followed  by  another  of  the  Palestinian  monks  at  the  council  of  536),  ai  d 
florUegium  from  "the  Fatners''  (almost  entirely  from  Zacharias  is  at  pains  to  refute  this  calumny  indirectly, 
Apollinarian  forgeries).  This  letter  is  preserved  en-  though  at  great  length,  by  relating  interesting  stones 
tire  by  Zacharias  (in  Hist.  Misc..  IV,  xii,  where  it  is  of  the  discovery  of  a  hoard  of  idols  at  Menuthis  in 
foUowedby  the  second  letter),  and  also  in  the'*  Chron-  Egypt  and  of  the  routing  of  necromancers  and  eo- 
icle''  of  Michael  the  Syrian,    (c)  A  second  letter  chanters  at  Berytus;  in  both  these  exploits  the  friends 


asainst  the  same,  (d)  Extracts  from  two  letters  to  of  Severus  took  a  leading  part,  and  ZotI^m-im  aaks  tri- 
al! Egypt,  the  Thebaid,  and  Pentapolis  on  the  treat-  umphantly  whether  they  would  have  consorted  with 
ment  of  Catholic  bishops,  priests,  and  monks  who  Severus  had  he  not  agreed  with  them  in  the  hatred  of 
should  join  the  Monophysites.  (e)  A  refutation  of  paganism  and  sorcery.  Zacharias  continued  to  influ- 
the  Synod  of  Chalcedon  and  of  the  Tome  of  Leo,  ence  him,  by  his  own  account,  and  induced  him  to  de» 
writt^  between  454  and  460,  in  two  parts,  according  vote  the  free  time  which  the  students  had  at  their  dis- 
to  the  titJe.  and  concluding  with  extracts  from  the  posal  on  Saturday  afternoons  and  Sundavs  to  the 
"  Acts "  of  tne  Robber  Synod  and  four  documents  con-  study  of  the  Fathers.  Other  students  joined  the  pious 
nected  with  it.  (f)  A  short  prayer  which  Blessed  company  of  which  an  ascetic  student  named  Evaerius 
Timothy  used  to  make  over  those  who  returned  from  became  leader,  and  every  evening  they  prayed  to- 
the  communion  of  the  Dyophysites.  (g)  Exposition  gether  in  the  church  of  the  Resurrection.  Severus  was 
of  the  faith  of  Timothy,  sent  to  the  Emperor  Leo  by  persuaded  to  be  baptized.  Zacharias  refused  to  be  bis 
Count  Rusticus,  and  an  abridged  narration  of  what  godfather,  for  he  declared  that  he  did  not  conununi- 
subsequently  happened  to  him.  A  similar  supplica-  cate  with  the  bishopks  of  Phcenicia.  so  Evagrius  stood 
tion  of  ^lurus  to  Leo,  sent  by  the  silentiary  Diomede,  sponsor,  and  Severus  was  baptized  in  the  diurch  of 
is  mentioned  by  Anastamus  Sin.  The  contents  of  this  tne  martvr,  Leontius,  at  Tripolis. 
MS.  are  lar^^r  cited  by  Lebon.  A  translation  into  After  his  baptism  Severus  renounced  the  use  of 
Latin  of  patristic  testimonies  collected  by  iElurus  was  baths  and  betook  himself  to  fasting  and  vi^pJs.  Two 
made  by  Gennadius  Masai,  and  is  to  be  identified  of  his  companions  departed  to  berome  monks  under 
with  the  Armenian  collection.  A  Coptic  list  of  Peter  the  Iberian.  When  the  news  of  the  death  of 
Timothy's  works  mentions  one  on  the  Canticle  of  that  famous  monk  (488)  arrived,  Zacharias  and  sev- 
Cantides.  The  '^Plerophoria"  (33,  36)  speak  of  his  eral  others  entered  his  monastr^  of  Beith-Aphthonia, 
book  of  '^ Narrations",  from  which  Crum  (p.  71)  de-  at  the  native  place  of  Zachanas,  the  port  of  Gaia 
duces  an  ecclesiastical  history  by  Timothy  in  twelve  (known  also  as  Maluma),  where  Peter  had  been 
books.  Lebon  does  not  accept  the  attribution  to  bishop.  Zacharias  did  not  persevere,  but  returned 
Timothv  of  the  Coptic  fragments  by  which  Crum  to  the  practice  of  the  law.  Severus  intended  to  prac- 
establisned  the  existence  of  such  a  work,  but  he  finds  tise  in  his  own  coimtry,  but  he  first  visited  the  anrine 
(p.  110)  another  reference  to  a  histoncal  work  by  of  St.  Leontius  of  Tripolis,  the  head  pf  St.  John  Bap- 
tne  patriarch  in  MS.  Addit.  14602  (Chabot,  ''Docu-  tist  at  Emesa.  and  then  the  holy  places  of  Jerusalem, 
menta",  225  sqq.)«  with  the  result  that  he  joined  Evagrius  who  was  al- 

Pe^Afem^uA  (q.v.)  of  Alexandria  was  not  a  writer,  ready  a  monk  at  Maiuma.    The  great  austerities 

His  letters  in  Coptic  are  not  genuine :  though  a  com-  there  did  not  suffice  for  Severus,  and  he  preferred  the 

plete  Armenian  text  of  them  has  been  published,  life  of  a  solitary  in  the  desert  of  Eleutheropolis.     Hav- 

which  is  said  to  be  more  probably  authentic.    Peter  ing  reduced  himself  to  great  weakness  he  was  obliged 

Fullo  (q.  V.)  of  Alexandria  similarly  left  no  writings,  to  pass  some  time  in  uie  monastery  founded  by  Ro- 

Letters  addressed  to  him  exist,  but  are  certainly  spuri-  manus,  after  which  he  returned  to  the  laura  of  the  port 

ous.     Timothy  IV,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (517-  of  Gaza,  in  which  was  the  convent  of  Peter  the  ibe- 

535),  composed  '' Antirrhetica"  in  many  books.    This  nan.    Here  he  spent  what  his  charities  had  left  of  his 

polemical  work  was  lost:  but  a  homily  of  his  remains  patrimony  in  building  a  monastery  for  the  ascetics  who 

and  a  few  fragments.    Theodosius,  Patriarch  of  Alex-  wished  to  live  under  his  direction.    His  ouiet  was 

andria  (10-11  Februaxr,  535,  and  again  July,  535-537  rudely  disturbed  by  Nephalius,  a  former  leader  of  the 

or  538)  has  left  us  a  few  fragments  and  two  letters.  Acephali,  who  was  said  to  have  once  had  30,000  monks 

The  Severians  of  Alexandria  were  called  Theodosians  ready  to  march  on  Alexandria  when,  at  the  end  of  4S2, 

after  him.  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Gaianites  who  Peter  Mongus  accepted  the  Henoticon  and  became 

followed  nis  Incorruptibilist  rival  Gaianus.    The  lat-  patriarch.    Later  on  Nephalius  joined  the  more  mod- 

ter  left  no  writings.  erate  Monophysites,  and  finally  the  Catholics,  acoept- 

Severua:  The  most  famous  and  the  most  fertile  of  all  ing  the  Coimcil  of  Chalcedon.    About  507-8  he  came 

*  ithe  Monophjrsite  writers  was  Severus,  who  was  Patri-  to  Maiuma,  preached  against  Severus,  and  obtiuned 

arch  of  Antioch  (512-518),  and  died  in  538.    We  have  the  expulsion  of  the  monks  from  their  convents.    Se- 

his  early  life  written  by  his  friend  Zacharias  Scholasti-  verus  betook  himself  to  Constantinople  with  20O 

cus;  a  complete  biography  was  composed  soon  after  his  monks,  and  remained  there  three  years,  influendng 

death  by  John,  the  superior  of  the  monastery  where  the  Emperor  Anastasius  as  far  as  he  could  in  the  sup- 

Severus  nad  first  embraced  the  monastic  life.    He  was  port  of  the  Henoticon,  against  the  Catholics  on  Uie 

bom  at  Sozopolis  in  Pisidia,  his  father  being  a  senator  one  hand  and  the  irreconcilable  Acephali  on  the  other, 

of  the  city,  and  descended  from  the  Bishop  of  Sozopolis  He  was  spoken  of  as  successor  to  the  Patriarch  Mace- 


M0N0PHYSITE8  491  M0N0PHTSITE8 

donhifl  who  died  in  August  511.    The  new  patriarch,  lows  St.  Csrril  in  every  point  without  conscious  varia* 

Timotheus.  entered  into  the  views  of  Severus,  who  i^-  tion. 

turned  to  his  cloister.  In  the  following  year  he  was  A  controversy  with  Sergius  the  Grammarian,  who 
consecrated  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  6  November,  512,  in  went  too  far  in  his  seal  for  the  ''One  Nature  ,  and 
succession  to  Flavian,  who  was  banished  by  the  em-  whom  Severus  consequently  styles  a  Eutychian,  is 
peror  to  Arabia  for  the  half-heartedness  of  his  conces-  preserved  in  MS.  Addit.  17154.  This  polemic  enabled 
sions  to  Monophymtism.  Elias  of  Jerusalem  refused  severus  to  define  more  precisely  the  Monophyate 
to  recognize  ^verus  as  patriarch,  and  many  other  position,  and  to  guard  himself  against  the  exae^era- 
biahops  were  equally  hostile.  However,  at  Cfonstan-  tions  wnich  were  liable  to  result  from  the  habit  of 
tinople  and  Alexandria  he  was  supported,  and  Elias  restricting  theology  to  attacks  on  Chalcedon.  In  his 
was  deposed.  Severus  exercised  a  most  active  epis-  Egyptian  exile  Severus  was  occupied  with  his  contro- 
copac^r,  living  still  like  a  monk,  having  destroyed  the  versy  with  Julian  of  Halicamassus.  We  also  hear  of 
baths  in  his  palace,  and  having  dismissed  the  cooks,  works  on  the  two  natures  "Against  Felicissimus",  and 
He  was  deposed  in  Se^^tember,  518^  on  the  accession  of  "  Against  the  (Codicils  of  Alexander ''.  Like  all  Mono- 
Justin,  as  a  preparation  for  reumon  with  the  West,  physites  his  theology  is  limited  to  the  controversial 
He  fled  to  Alexandria.  questions.  Beyond  these  he  has  no  outlook.  Of  the 
In  the  reign  of  Justinian  the  patronage  accorded  to  numerous  sermons  of  Severus,  those  which  he  preached 
the  Monophysites  by  Theodora  *  raised  their  hopes,  at  Antioch  are  quoted  as  ''Homiliffi  cathedrales" 
Severus  went  to  Constantinople  where  he  fraternised  They  have  come  down  to  us  in  two  Syriac  transla* 
with  the  ascetical  Patriarch  Anthimus,  who  had  al-  tions;  one  was  probably  made  by  Paul,  Bishop  of 
ready  exchanged  friendly  letters  with  him  and  with  Callinicus,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  the 
Theodosius  ^f  Alexandna.  The  latter  was  deposed  other  by  Jacob  Baradai,  was  completed  in  701. 
for  heresy  by  Pope  A^apetus  on  his  arrival  in  Con-  Those  which  have  been  printed  are  of  astonishing 
stantinoplein536.  His  successor  Mennas  held  a  great  eloquence.  A  diatribe  against  the  Hippodrome  may 
council  of  sixty-nine  bishops  in  the  same  year  after  the  be  especially  noticed,  for  it  is  very  modem  in  its  de- 
pcnie's  departure  in  the  presence  of  the  papal  legates,  nimciation  of  the  cruelty  to  the  horses  which  was 
solemnly  heard  the  case  of  Anthimus  and  reiterated  involved  in  the  chariot  races.  A  fine  exhortation  to 
his  deposition.  Mennas  knew  Justinian's  mind,  and  frequent  communion  is  in  the  same  sermon.  The  let- 
was  determined  to  be  orthodox:  "We,  as  you  know",  ters  of  Severus  were  collected  in  twenty-three  books, 
said  he  to  the  council,  "follow  and  obey  the  Apostolic  and  numbered  no  less  than  3759.  The  sixth  book  is 
See,  and  those  with  whom  it  communicates  we  have  extant.  It  contains  theolo^cal  letters  besides  many 
in  our  communion,  and  those  whom  it  condemns,  we  proofs  of  the  vari^  activities  of  the  patriarch  in  his 
condemn."    The  Easterns  were  consequently  em-  episcopal  functions.   He  also  composed  hymns  for  the 


of  view  of  his  orthodox  opponents.  One  petition  is  Julian^  Bishop  of  Halicamassus.  joined  with  Seve- 
from  seven  bishops  of  Syria  Secunda,  two  others  are  rus  in  the  intrigue  by  which  Maceaonius  was  deposed 
from  ninety-seven  monasteries  of  Palestine  and  S3rria  from  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople  in  511.  He 
Secunda  to  the  emperor  and  to  the  council.  Former  was  exiled  on  the  accession  of  Justin  in  518^  and  re- 
petitions of  518  were  recited.  The  charges  are  some-  tired  to  tiie  monastery  of  Enaton,  nine  miles  from 
what  vague  (for  the  facts  arc  supposed  known)  of  mur-  Alexandria.  He  was  already  of  advanced  age.  Here 
ders,  imprisonments,  and  chains,  as  well  as  of  heresy,  he  wrote  a  work  "Against  the  Diphysites"  in  which  he 
Mennas  pronounced  the  condemnation  of  these  here-  spoke  incorrectly  according  to  Severus,  who  neverthe- 
tics  for  contemning  the  succession  from  the  Apostles  less  did  not  reply.  But  Julian  himself  commenced  a 
in  the  Apostolic  See,  for  setting  at  nou^t  the  patriar-  correspondence  with  him  (it  is  preserved  in  the  Syriac 
chal  see  of  the  royal  city  and  its  council,  the  Apostolic  translation  made  in  528  by  Paul  of  Callinicus,  and  also 
succession  from  our  iJord  in  the  holy  places  (Jeru-  partially  in  the  "Hist.  Misc.",  IX,  x-xiv)  in  which  he 
salem).  and  the  sentence  of  the  whole  Diocese  of  Ori-  be|;ged  his  opinion  on  the  question  of  the  incormpti- 
ens.  Severus  retired  to  Egypt  once  more  and  to  his  bihty  of  the  Body  of  Christ.  Severus  replied,  enclos- 
eremitical  life.  He  died,  8  February,  538,  refusing  to  ing  an  opinion  which  is  lost,  and  in  answer  to  a  second 
take  a  bath  even  to  save  his  life,  though  he  was  per-  letter  from  Julian  wrote  a  long  epistle  which  Julian 
suaded  to  allow  himself  to  be  bathed  with  his  clothes  considered  to  be  wanting  in  respect,  especially  as  he 
on.  Wonders  are  s^d  to  have  followed  his  death,  and  had  been  obliged  to  wait  for  it  a  year  and  a  month, 
miracles  to  have  been  worked  by  his  rehcs.  He  has  Parties  were  formed.  The  Julianists  upheld  the  incor- 
always  been  venerated  by  the  Jacobite  Church  as  one  ruptibility  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  meaning  that  Christ 
of  its  principal  doctors.  was  not  naturally  subject  to  the  ordinary  wants  of 
His  literary  output  was  enormous.  A  long  cata-  hunger,  thirst,  weariness,  etc.,  nor  to  pain,  but  that 
logue  of  works  is  given  by  Assemani.  Only  a  few  frag-  He  assumed  them  of  His  tree  will  for  our  sakes.  They 
ments  survive  in  the  original  Greek,  but  a  great  quan-  admitted  that  He  is  "  consubstantial  with  us  ",  against 
tity  exists  in  S3rriac  translations,  some  of  which  has  Eutyches,  yet  they  were  accused  by  the  Severians  of 
been  printed.  The  early  works  against  Nephahus  are  Eutychianism,  Manichsism,  and  Docetism,  and  were 
lost.  A  dialogue.  "Philalethes",  against  the  support-  nickna,med  Phantasiasts,  Aphthartodocet®,  or  Incor- 
ers  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  was  composed  curing  rupticoke.  They  retorted  by  calling  the  Severians 
the  first  stay  of  Severus  at  Constantinople,  509-11.  Phthartolotrse  (Cormpticoke),  or  KtistolatrsD,  for  Se- 
It  was  a  reply  to  an  orthodox  collection  of  250  extracts  verus  tau^t  that  our  Lord's  Body  was  "  conuptible  " 
from  the  woncs  of  St.  Cyril.  An  answer  seems  to  have  by  its  own  nature;  that  was  scarcely  consistent,  as  it 
been  written  by  John  the  Grammarian  of  Cssarea,  and  can  only  be  of  itself  "corruptible"  when  conndered 
Severus  retorted  with  an  "Apology  for  Philalethes"  apart  from  the  union,  and  the  Monophysites  refus^ 
(remains  of  the  attack  and  retort  in  Cod.  Vat.  Syr.  140  to  consider  the  Human  Nature  of  Christ  apart  from 
and  Cod.  Venet.  Marc.  165).  A  work  "Contra  Joan-  the  union.  Justinian,  who  in  his  old  age  turned  more 
neiB  Grammaticum  "  which  had  a  great  success,  and  than  ever  to  the  desire  of  conciliating  the  Monophy- 
seems  to  have  long  been  regarded  oy  the  Monophy-  sites  (in  spite  of  his  failure  to  please  them  by  condemn- 
sites  as  a  triumph,  was  probably  written  in  exile  after  ing  the  "three  chapters"),  was  probably  led  to  favour 
519.  Severus  was  not  an  original  theologian.  He  Julian  because  he  was  the  opponent  of  Severus,  who 
had  studied  the  Cappadocians  and  he  depended  much  was  universally  regarded  as  tne  great  foe  of  orthoaoxy. 
OD  the  ApoUinarian  forgeries;  but  in  the  main  he  fol-  The  emperor  issu^  an  edict  in  565  making  the  "  incor- 


MONOFHT8ITB8                        492  MONOFHT8ITB8 

niptibility "  an  obligatory  doctrine,  in  spite  of  the  fact  guiahed  from  an  earlier  grammarian,  also  called  FliBo- 

that  Julian  had  been  anathematised  by  a  oouncU  at  ponus,  who  flourished  under  Augustus  and  Tiberius. 

Constantinople  in  536,  at  which  date  he  had  probably  Of  his  life  little  is  known.   On  account  of  his  Trithe- 

Deen  dead  for  some  years.  istic  opinions  he  was  summoned  to  Constantinople  by 

A  commentary  by  Julian  on  the  Book  of  Job,  in  a  Justiman,  but  he  excused  himself  on  account  of  ms  agie 
Latin  version,  was  printed  in  an  old  Paris  edition  of  and  infirmity.  He  addressed  to  the  emperor  a  treatise 
Origen  (ed.  Genebrardus,  1574).  A  MS.  of  the  origi-  **  De  divisione,  differentia,  et  numero  ",  which  seems  to 
nal  Greek  is  mentioned  by  Mai.  It  is  largely  quoted  be  the  same  as  a  treatise  spoken  of  as  ''De  differentia 
in  the  catena  on  Job  of  Nicetas  of  Heraclea.  The  (lUflsmanerecrediturinChristopostunionem";  but  it 
mat  work  of  Julian  against  Severus  seems  to  be  lost,  is  lost.  He  addressed  an  essay  on  Tritheism  to  AthA- 
Ten  anathematisms  remain.  Of  his  commentaries,  nsfiius  Monachus,  and  was  condemned  on  this  account 
one  on  Matthew  is  cited  by  Moses  Barkepha  (P.  G.,  at  Alexandria.  At  a  disputation  held  by  the  em- 
CXI,  551).  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  of  Julian's  peror's  order  before  the  Patriarch  of  Ck>n8tantiiiople 
works  will  be  recovered  in  Syriac  or  Coptic  transla-  John  Scholasticus.  Conon,  and  Eugenius  represented 
tions.  An  anti-Julianist  catena  in  the  British  Museum  the  Tritheists;  John  condemned  Philoponus,  and  the 
(MS.  Addit.  12155)  makes  mention  of  Julian's  writ-  emperor  issued  an  edict  against  the  sect  (I^otius,  cod. 
ings.  We  hear  of  a  treatise  by  him^  "Against  the  24).  In  568  Philoponus  was  still  alive,  for  he  pub- 
Eutychianists  and  Manichseans",  which  wows  that  lished  a  pamphlet  against  John,  which  Fhotius  de- 
Julian,  like  his  great  opponent  Severus,  had  to  be  on  scribes  with  great  severity  (cod.  75).  The  style  of 
his  guard  against  extravagant  Monophysites.  Part  of  Philoponus,  he  says,  is  always  clear,  but  without  dig- 
the  treatise  which  Peter  of  CaUinicu8f  Patriarch  of  nity, and hu argumentation ispuerile.  (For the theo- 
Antioch  (578-591).  wrote  against  the  Damianists  is  logical  views  of  the  sect,  see  Tritheists.) 
extant  in  Syriac  MSS.  (see  Assemani's  and  Wright's  Corumf  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  though  a  Trithdst  and, 
catalogues).  with  Eugenius,  a  supporter  of  John  Philoponus  before 

The  writers  of  the  Tritheist  sect  (see  Trithbibtb)  the  emperor,  disag^^eed  with  that  writer  about  the 

next  demand  our  attention.    The  chief  among  them,  equality  of  the  three  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (see 

John  PkUaponnSf  of  Caesarea,  was  Patriarch  of  the  Tritheistb),  and  together  with  Eugenius  and  Themi9- 

Tritheists  at  Alexandria  at  the  be^^nnin^  of  the  sixth  Hus  wrote  a  book,  mrd  'Iitfdrwv,  against  his  views  on 

century,  and  was  the  principal  writer  of  his  party.  He  the  Resurrection.   Eugenius  is  call^  a  Cilidan  bishop 

was  a  grammarian^  a  philoeoi>her,  and  an  astronomer  by  John  of  Ephesus,  but  Bar  Hebrsus  makes  him 

as  well  as  a  theologian.  His  principal  theological  work,  Bishop  of  Seleuda  in  Isauria  (see  Trttheibtb).    The- 

Aicunyr^f  1j  vtpl  iwiSwwi.  in  ten  books,  is  lost.    It  dealt  mistius,  sumamed  Calon3rmus,  was  a  deacon  of  Alex- 

with  the  Chnstological  and  Trinitarian  controversies  andria,  who  separated  from  his  patriarch,  Timothy  IV 

of  his  age,  and  fra^ents  of  it  are.foimd  in  Leontius  (517-535),  and  founded  the  sect  of  Agncets.     He 

(De  sectis,  Oct.  5),  m  St.  John  Damascene  (De  haer.,  I,  wrote  against  Severus  a  book  called  "  Apologv  for  the 

101-107,  ed.  Le  Quien)  and  in  Niceph.  Call.,  XVIII  late  Theophobius",  to'which  a  Severian  monk  named 

(see  Mansi,  XI,  301).   A  complete  Syriac  translation  Theodore  replied;  the  answer  of  Themistius  was  again 

is  in  Brit.  Mus.  and  Vat.  MoS.   Another  lost  theo-  refuted  bv  Theodore  in  three  books  (Photius,  cod. 

logical  work,  Ttpl  dvaffrdveus,  described  the  writer's  108).    Other  works  of  Themistius  are  referred  to  by 

theory  of  a  creation  of  new  bodies  at  the  general  resur-  St.  Maximus  Confessor,  and  some  f numents  are  cited 

rection;  it  is  mentioned  by  Photius  (cod.  21-23),  by  in  Mansi.  X,  981  and  1117.   Stephen  Uc^rue  the  Tri- 

Timotheus  Presbyter  and  Nicephorus.    As  a  philos-  theist  is  known  only  by  the  elaborate  analysis  of  his 

opher  Philoponus  was  an  Aristotelian,  and  a  oisciple  book  given  by  Photius  (cod.  232);  it  was  a  "Sic  et 

01  the  Aristotelian  commentator  Ammonius,  son  of  Non"  like  that  of  Abelard,  giving  authorities  for  a 

Hermeas.    His  own  commentcuies  on  Aristotle  were  proposition  and  then  for  the  contrary  opinion.   At  the 


"De  anima",  1535;  "Meteorologica",  1. 1551;  "Met-        History. — ^We  now  turn  to  the  historiai 
aphysica",  1583).    He  also  wrote  much  against  the    rias  of  Gaza,  brother  of  Procopius  of  Gasa,  the  liieto- 


historians.    Zaehor 

.  ,  ,  „ ,  ^  __  of  Gaia,  the  rfieto- 

Er(x«(p^AuiTa  of  Proclus,  the  last  great  Neoplatonist:    rician,  Zacharias  Scholasticus,  Zacharias  the  Rheto- 


ed.  bv  Reichert.  1897),  on  the  Hexsemeron,  in  which  his  memoirs  of  Severus,  with  whom  he  studied  at  Alex- 
he  foUowB  St.  Basil  and  other  Fathers,  and  ^ows  a  andria  and  at  Berytus.  His  home  was  at  the  port  of 
vast  knowledge  of  all  the  literature  and  science  acces-  Gaza,  near  the  monastery  of  the  bishop,  Peter  the 
sible  in  his  day.  The  latter  work  is  dedicated  to  a  cer-  Iberian.  To  the  latter  he  was  greatly  oevotcd,  and 
tain  Sergius,  who  may  perhaps  be  identified  with  believed  that  Peter  had  prophesied  his  unfitness  for 
Sergius  the  Grammarian,  the  Eutychiimizin^  corre-  the  monastic  life.  He  in  fact  did  not  become  a  monk, 
spondent  of  Severus.  The  work  was  possibly  written  as  when  his  friends  E  vagrius,  Severus,  and  others  did  so. 
early  as  517  (for  617  in  the  editions  is  evidently  a  cleri-  but  practised  law  at  Constantinople,  and  reached 
cal  error) .  A  "  Computatio  de  Pascha  ",  printed  after  eminence  in  his  profession.  Of  his  writings,  a  dialogue 
this  work,  argues  that  the  Last  Supper  was  on  the  13th  "  that  the  world  did  not  exist  from  eternity  waa  prob- 
of  Nizan,  and  was  not  a  real  passover.  A  lost  theo-  ably  composed  in  youth  while  he  Uved  at  Berytus. 
logical  work  entitled  tfi-^/Mra  is  summarized  by  Michael  His  "  Ecclesiastical  Histoiy  "  is  extant  only  in  a  ^riac 
the  Syrian  (Chronicle,  II,  69).  A  book  against  the  epitome  which  forms  four  books  (III-VI)  of  the  ''^His- 
Council  of  Chalcedon  is  mentioned  by  Photius  (cod.  toria  Miscellanea".  It  begins  with  a  short  account 
55).  A  work  "Contra  Andream"  is  preserved  in  a  from  a  Monophysite  point  of  view  of  the  Coundl  of 
Ssrriac  MS.  Another  work  "Against  the  Acephali"  Chalcedon,  and  continues  the  history,  mainly  of  Pales- 
exists  in  MS.,  and  may  be  the  work  Philoponus  is  tine  and  Alexandria,  until  the  death  of  Zeno  (491). 
known  to  have  written  in  controversy  with  Severus.  From  the  same  histoiy  is  derived  a  curious  statisticBl 
In  grammar  his  master  was  Romanus,  and  his  extant  description  of  Rome  m  "Hist.  Misc.",  X,  xvi.  The 
writings  on  the  subject  are  based  upon  the  KaSoXuHj  very  mteresting  life  of  Severus  carries  the  author's 
of  Herodian  (ronffd  TapayyiX/Mra,  ea.  Dindorf,  1825;  recollections  up  to  the  accesmon  of  his  hero  to  the  See 
vtpl  tQw  8ia4tipm  rvfWfUmaw,  ed.  E^enolfiF,  1880).  of  Antioch  in  512.  It  was  written  subsequently  to  the 
This  sucth  cental  Monophymte  is  to  be  distin-  history,  as  the  cyJbieulanuB  Eupraxius,  to  whom  that 


MOKOFHTSmS  493  MONOFHT8ITE8 


work  was  dedicated,  was  already  dead.    Hib  reooUeo-  chael  with  a  continuation;  the  "Chronicon  eccledasti* 

timns  of  Peter  the  Iberian  and  of  Theodore,  Bishop  of  cum"  contains  the  ecclesiaatical  history  first  of  West- 

Antinoe,  are  lost,  but  his  biography  of  Isaias,  an  em  Syria  and  then  of  E^astem  Syria,  with  lives  of 

E^gyptian  ascetic,  is  preserved  in  ^ynac.    A  disputa-  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  of  the  Jacobite  nussionaiy 

tion  against  the  ManicluBans,  published  by  Cajnlinal  bishops  (called  maphrians)  and  of  the  Nestorian  patn- 

Pitra  in  Greek,  was  probably  written  after  uie  edict  of  archs.    The  *' Chronicle"  of  EUas  of  Nisibis  to  1008  is 

Justinian  against  the  Manichseans  in  527.    He  seems  important  because  it  mentions  its  sources,  but  it  is 

to  have  been  still  a  layman.    Up  to  the  time  he  wrote  very  defective  in  the  early  period  through  the  loss  of 

the  life  of  Severus  he  was  a  follower  of  the  Henoticon ;  some  pages  of  the  MS.    SaiU  the  CUician  and  John  of 

this  was  the  easy  course  under  Zeno  and  Anastasius.  ^gea  are  counted  as  Monophysite  writers  by  Ehrhard 

It  would  seem  that  he  foimd  it  paid  to  revert  to  ortho-  (in  Krumbacher,  p.  53),  out  Photius  clearly  makes 

doxy  under  Justin  and  Justinian,  for  he  was  present  as  them  out  Nestorians  (cod.  41.  55,  107),  and  it  is  by  a 

Bi^op  of  Mitylene  at  the  Ck)uncil  of  Mennas  at  Con-  slip  that  he  conjectures  Basil  to  be  the  author  of  a 

stantinople  in  536,  where  he  was  one  of  the  three  work  against  Nestorius. 

metropolitans  who  were  sent  to  summon  Anthimus  to        Syriac  WrUera. — Of  the  Syriac  Monophymte  writ- 

i^pear.    His  name  does  not  appear  in  the  incomplete  ers  none  is  more  important  than  PhUozenua,  other- 

pnnted  list  of  subscriptions  to  that  patriarch's  depom-  wise  Xenaiaa,  who  was  Bishop  of  Mabug  (Hierapolis) 

tion,  but  Labbe  testines  that  it  is  found  in  some  MSS.  from  485.    For  his  life  and  the  version  of  Scripture 

(Mausi,  VIII,  975) ;  it  is  absent  from  the  condemna-  which  was  made  by  his  order,  see  Philoxenub.    His 

tion  of  Severus  in  a  later  session.   Zacharias  was  dead  dogmatic  writinm  alone  concern  us  here.    His  letter 

b^ore  the  cecumenical  council  of  553.  to  the  Emperor  Zeno,  published  by  Vaschalde  (1902) 

An  important  historical  work  in  anecdotal  form  is  is  of  485,  the  date  of  his  episcopal  consecration  and  of 

the  "Plerophoria"  of  John  of  Mammae  composed  his  acceptance  of  the  Henoticon.    His  treatises  on  the 

about  515;  it  contains  stories  of  Monophysite  worthies  Incarnation  date  perhaps  before  500;  to  the  same  pe- 

up  to  date,  especially  of  Peter  the  Iberian,  whose  riod  belong  two  short  works, ''A  Confession  of  Faith'' 

liie  was  also  written  oy  Zacharias^  but  is  now  lost,  and  ''Against  every  Nestorian".    He  wrote  also  on 

A  later  life  of  Peter  has  been  pnnted,  which  con-  the  Trimty.    A  letter  to  Marco,  lector  of  Anasubus, 

t^ns  curious  information  about  the  Iberian  princes  is  attributed  to  515-518.    After  he  had  been  exiled  by 

from  whom  the  Monophysite  bishop  descended.    The  Justin  to  Philippolis  in  Thrace  in  518,  he  attacked  the 

life  of  the  ascetic  Isaiaa  by  Zacharias  accompanies  it.  orthodox  patriarch,  Paul  of  Antioch,  in  a  letter  to  the 

The  interesting  ''Histbria  Miscdlanea",  often  re-  monks  of  Teleda,  and  wrote  another  letter  of  which 

ferred  toas  Paeuao-Zachariaaf  was  composed  in  Syriao  fragments  are  found  in  MS.  Addit.  14533,  in  which  he 

in  twelve  books  by  an  unknown  author  who  seems  to  argues  that  it  is  sometimes  wise  to  adipit  baptisms  and 

have  Uved  at  Amida.    Though  the  work  was  com-  ordinations  by  heretics  for  the  sake  of  peace;  the  oues- 

pleted  in  569,  he  seems  to  have  used  part  of  the  histoiy  tion  of  sacramental  validity  does  not  occur  to  nim. 

of  John  of  Ephesus,  which  was  finished  only  in  571.  Fragments  of  his  commentaries  on  the  Gospel  are 

Certain  parts  were  written  earlier  (or  are  borrowed  foimd  in  MSS.    Thirteen  homilies  on  religious  life 

from  older  writers),  VII,  xv  before  523;  X,  xii  in  545;  have  been  published  by  Bud|;e.    They  scarcely  touch 

XII,  vii  in  555;  XlI.  iv  in  561.    The  first  book  con-  upon  dogma.    Of  his  three  hturgies  two  are  given  by 

tains  a  Quantity  of  legendary  matter  from  Greek  Renaudot.    Outof  the  great  mass  of  his  works  in  MS. 

sources  which  are  still  extant;  a  few  words  are  added  at  Rome,  Paris,  Oxford)  Cambridge,  London,  ooJy  a 

on  the  Syriao  doctors  Isaac  and  Dodo.    Book  II  has  fraction  has  been  published.    He  was  an  eager  con- 

the  story  of  the  Seven  Sleepers.    History  b^ns  in  troversialist,  a  scholar,  and  an  accomplished  writer. 

II,  ii.  with  an  account  of  Eutyches,  and  the  letter  of  His  Syriac  style  is  much  admired.    His  sect  had  no 

ProciUB  to  the  Armenians  follows.    The  next  four  more  energetic  leader  until  Jacob  Baradsus  himself, 

books  are  an  epitome  of  the  lost  work  of  Zacharias  He  was  president  of  the  synod  which  elevated  Severus 

Rhetor.  The  seventh  book  continues  the  story  from  to  the  See  of  Antioch.  and  he  had  been  the  chief  agent 

the  accession  of  Anastasius  (491),  and  together  with  in  the  extrusion  of  Flavian.    He  was  an  energetic  foe 

general  ecclesiastical  history  it  combines  some  inter*  of  Catholicism,  and  his  works  stand  next  in  impor- 

esting  details  of  wars  with  the  Persians  in  Mesopo-  tance  to  those  of  Severus  as  witnesses  to  the  tenets  of 

tanua.    A  curious  chapter  gives  the  Prologue  of  Moro,  their  party.    He  was  exiled  by  Justin  in  519  to  Philip- 

or  Mara,  Bishop  of  Amioa  (a  Syriac  writer  whose  polis  and  then  to  Gang^  where  he  died  of  suffocation 

works  appear  to  be  lost) ,  to  his  edition  of  the  four  Goe-  by  smoke  in  the  room  in  which  he  was  confined, 
pcds  in  (jrreek,  to  which  the  writer  appends  as  a  curioe-        James  ofSarughf  451-521  (q.  v.),  became  periodeiUea, 

ity  the  'pericope  of  the  woman  taken  in  adultery  (John,  or  visitor,  of  Maura  in  that  district  about  505,  ana 

viii)  wmch  Moro  had  inserted  in  the  89th  canon;  '*it  is  bishop  of  its  capital,  Batnan^  in  519.    Nearly  all  his 

not  found  in  other  MSS.''    Book  VIII.  iii,  ^ves  the  numerous  writings  are  metrical.    We  are  told  that 

letter  of  Simeon  of  Beit-Arsham  on  tn&  niartyrs  of  seventy  amanuenses  were  employed  to  copy  his  760 

Yemen,  perhaps  an  apocryphal  document.    Book  XI  metrical  homilies,  which  are  in  Wright's  opinion  more 

is  lost,  with  most  of  A  and  XII.    Some  of  X  has  bedi  readable  than  those  of  Ephraem  or  Isaac  of  Antioch. 

restored  by  Brooks  from  the  ''Chronicle"  of  Michael  A  good  many  have  been  published  at  various  times. 

theSyrian  (died  1199).    It  is  necessary  to  mention  the  In  the  Vatican  are  233  in  MSS.,  in  London  140,  in 

"Chronicle  of  Eklessa''^  from  495  to  506,  which  is  em-  Paris,  100.    They  are  much  cited  in  the  Syriac  Lit- 

bedded  in  the  "Chromcle"  attributed  to  Joshua  the  uror^  and  a  Uturgy  and  a  baptismal  rite  are  ascribed 

SiylUe  (who  seems  to  have  been  a  Catholic) ;  this  latter  to  him.    Numerous  letters  of  his  are  extant  in  Brit, 

is  Included  in  the  second  book  of  the ''Chronicle"  at-  Mus.,  MSS.  Addit.  14587  and  17163.    Though  his 

tributed  to  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Dionysius  of  feast  is  kept  by  Maronites  and  even  by  some  Nesto- 

TeOr-Mahre,  a  compilation  which  has  a  fourth  book  rians,  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  accepted  the  Henoti- 

(from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  to  775)  which  is  an  con,  and  was  afterwards  in  relation  with  the  leading 

original  work  by  the  compiler,  who  was  in  reality  a  Monophysites,  rejecting  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  to 

monk  of  Zonkenin  (north  of  Ainida),  possibly  Joshua  the  end  of  lus  life.    Stephen  bar  Soudaili  was  an  Edes- 

the  StyUte  himself.  sene  Monophysite  who  fell  into  Panthdsm  and  Origen- 

Soxne  small  chronicles  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  ism.    He  was  attacked  by  Philoxenus  and  James  of 

and  ninth  centuries  have  been  published  aa  "Chronica  Sarugh,  and  retired  to  Jerusalem.    The  confeasion  of 

minora"  in  the  " Corpus  Script.  Or."    Of  later  histo-  faith  olJohn  of  TeOa  (483-538;  bishop,  51^-521)  is  ex- 

ries,  those  of  Bar  Hwrams  (died  1286)  must  be  noted,  tant,  and  so  is  his  commentary  on  the  Trisa^on,  and 

Hjb  **  Chronioon  Syziacum  "  is  an  abridgment  of  Mi-  his  canons  for  the  clergy  and  replies  to  the  questions  of 


MONOPHTSmS                        494  MONOFHTSmS 

the  priest  Sergius — all  in  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  nian  literature  b  large,  but  cannot  be  treated  in  an 

The  great  James  Baradaiu,  the  eponymous  hero  of  the  article  like  the  present  one. 

Jacobites,  who  supplied  bishops  and  clergy  for  the  Obthodoxt. — Were  the  Monophysites  really  here- 

Monophysites  when  the^  were  definitively  divided  tics  or  were  they  only  schismatics?    This  question 

from  the  Eastern  Cathohcs  in  543,  wrote  but  Uttle:  a  was  answered  in  the  affirmative  by  Assemani,  more 

hturgy,  a  few  letters,  a  sermon,  and  a  confession  of  recently  bv  the  Oriental  scholar  Nau,  and  last  of  all  by 

faith  are  extant  (see  BARAOiBCB).    Of  Syriac  transla-  Lebon,  who  has  devoted  an  important  work,  full  of 

tors  it  is  not  necessaiy  to  speak,  nor  is  there  need  to  evidence  from  unpublished  sources,  to  the  establish- 

treat  of  the  Monophysite  scientist  Sergjus  of  Reschaina,  ment  of  this  thesis.    It  is  urged  that  the  Monophy- 

the  writer  on  philosophy,  Ahoudemmeh,  and  many  sites  taught  that  there  is  but  one  Nature  of  Christ,  tda 

others.  ^ijo'tt,  because  they  identify  the  words  ^^u  and  ^^- 

John  of  Ephe8U8f  called  also  John  of  iina,  was  a  ro^tt.    But  in  just  the  same  way  the  Nestorians  have 

Syrian  of  Amida,  where  he  became  a  deacon  in  529.  lately  been  justified.    A  simple  scheme  will  make  the 

On  accoimt  of  the  persecution  of  his  sect  he  departed,  matter  plain: 

and  W88  made  administrator  of  the  temporal  anairs  of  Nestoriam:  One  peraon,  two  hypostases,  two  na- 

the  Monophysites  in  Constantinople  by  Justinian,  tures. 

who  sent  nim  in  the  following  year  ss  a  missionary  Catholics:  One  person,  one  hypostasis,  two  natures, 

bishop  to  the  pagans  of  Asia  Minor.    He  relates  of  Monopkysiles     One   person,  one  hypoetafds,  one 

himself  that  he  converted  60,000,  and  had  96  churches  nature. 

built.    He  returned  to  the  capital  in  546,  to  destroy  It  is  urged  by  Bethune-Baker  that  Nestorius  and 

idol  worship  there  also.    But  on  the  death  of  Justin-  his  friends  took  the  word  hypostasis  in  the  sense  of 

ian  he  suffered  a  continual  persecution,  which  he  de-  nature,  and  by  Lebon  that  the  Monoph3r8ite8  took 

8crib»  in  his ' 'History",  as  an  excuse  for  its  confusion  nature  in  the  sense  of  hypostasis,  so  that  l>oth  parties 

and  repetitions.    What  remains  of  that  work  is  of  really  intended  the  CathoUc  doctrine.    There  is  a 

ipeat  value  as  a  contemporary  record.    Tlie  style  is  vrima  JaeU   argument    against    both    these   pleas, 

florid  and  full  of  Greek  expressions.    The  lives  of  Uranting  that  for  centuries  controversialistfi  full  of 

blessed  Easterns  were  put  together  by  John  alx>ut  odium  theoiogicum  might  misunderstand  one  another 

565-566,  and  have  been  published  by  Land.    They  and  fig^t  about  words  while  agreeing  as  .to  the  under^ 

include  great  men  hke  Severus,  Baradsus,  Theodo-  lying  doctrine,  yet  it  remains  that  the  words  person, 

sius,  etc.    (For  an  account  of  these  works  and  for  hypostasis,  nature,  {wpSaunrow,  ^Sarao^is,   ^^ct)  haa 

bibliography  see  John  of  Ephesus.)  received  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century  & 

GeorgCf  bishop  of  the  Arabians  (b.  about  640;  d.  perfectly  definite  meaning,  as  to  which  the  whole 
724)  was  one  of  the  chief  writers  of  the  Assyrian  Jaoo-  Church  was  at  one.  All  agreed  that  in  tJbe  Holy 
bites.  He  was  a  personal  follower  of  James  of  Edessa,  Trinity  there  is  one  Nature  (o^la  or  ^^tt)  ha\-ing 
whose  poem  on  the  Hexameron  he  completed  after  the  three  Hypostases  or  Persons.  If  in  Christology  the 
death  of  James  in  708.  In  this  work  he  teaches  the  Nestorians  used  ^6rrwrif  and  the  Monophysites 
Apocatastasis,  or  restoration  of  all  thinra.  indud-  ^is  in  a  new  sense,  not  only  does  it  follow  t^t  their 
ing  the  destruction  of  hell,  which  so  many  Gredc  Far  use  of  words  was  singularly  inconsistent  and  inexcu- 
there  learned  from  Origen.  George  was  bom  in  the  sable,  but  (what  is  far  more  important)  that  they  c&n 
Tchoiuna  in  the  Diocese  of  Antioch,  and  was  ordsined  have  nad  no  difficulty  in  seeing  what  was  the  true  mean- 
bishop  of  the  wandering  Arabs  in  November,  686;  his  ing  of  Catholic  councils,  popes,  and  theologians,  who 
see  was  at  Akoula.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable  consistentlv  used  the  woros  m  one  and  the  same  sense 
learning.  His  translation,  with  introduction  and  with  regara  both  to  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation, 
commentary,  of  part  of  the  "Or^anon''  of  Aristotle  There  would  be  every  excuse  for  Catholics  if  they  mis- 
C'  Catagories " ,  "  De  Interpretatione ".  and  "  Prior  understood  such  a  strange  *^  derangement  of  epitaphs ^* 
Analytics'')  isextant  (Brit.  Mus.,  MS.  Aadit.  14659),  as  on  the  part  of  the  schismatics,  but  the  schismatics  must 
is  the  collection  he  made  of  scholia  on  St.  Gregory  of  have  easily  grasped  the  Catholic  position.  As  a  fact 
Nazianzus,  and  an  explanation  of  the  three  Sacra-  the  Antiochene  party  had  no  difficulty  in  coming  to 
ments  (Baptism,  Holy  Communion,  and  consecration  terms  with  St.  Leo;  tney  understood  him  well  enough, 
of  chrism, — following  Pseudo-Dionysius).  His  let-  and  declared  that  they  had  always  meant  what  he 
ters  of  714  till  718  are  extant  in  the  same  MS.  as  this  meant.  How  far  this  was  a  fact  must  be  discussed 
last  work  (Brit.  Mus.,  MS.  Addit.  12154).  They  deal  under  Nestorianism.  But  the  Monophysites  alwavs 
with  many  things;  astronomical,  exegetical,  liturgical  withstood  the  Catholic  doctrine,  declaring  it  to  he 

auestions,  explanations  of  Greek  proverbs  and  fables,  Nestorian,  or  half  Nestorian,  and  that  it  divided 

ogma  and  polemics,  and  contain  historical  matter  Christ  into  two. 

about  Aphraates  and  Gregory  the  Illuminator.    His  Lebon  urges  that  Severus  himself  more  than  once 

poems  included  one  in  dodecasyllables  on  the  unprom-  explains  that  there  is  a  difference  in  tibe  use  of  words 

ising  subject  of  the  calculation  of  movable  feasts  and  in  "theology"  (doctrine  of  the  Trinity)  and   in  "the 

the  correction  of  the  solar  and  lunar  cycles,  another  economy"    (Incarnation):    "Admittedly   hypostasis 

on  the  monastic  life,  and  two  on  the  consecration  of  and  odala  or  0i^(f  are  nbt  the  same  in  theolonr; 

the  holy  chrism.    His  works  are  important  for  our  however,  in  the  economy  they  are  the  same"  (P.  G., 

knowledge  of  Syriac  Church  and  literature.    His  read-  LXXXVl,  1921),  and  he  alleges  the  example  of  Greg- 

ing  was  vast,  including  the  chief  Greek  Fathers,  with  ory  of  Nasiamsus  to  show  that  in  a  new  mystery  ^e 

whom  he  classes  Severus  and  Pseudo-Dionysius  the  terms  must  take  new  significations.    But  surely  these 

Areopagite;  he  knows  the  Pseudo-Clementines  and  very  passages  make  it  evident  that  Severus   distin- 

Josephus,  and  of  Syriac  writers  he  knows  Bardesanes,  guished  between  ^^(t  and  ^60-ra^is.    Putting  aside 

Aphraates,  and  St.  Ephraem.    His  correspondence  is  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  every  ^^it  is  a 

addressed  to  literary  monks  of  his  sect.    The  canons  ^ftrroo-tf,  and  every  inr^raffit  is  a  ^^ts, — in  this 

attributed  to  George  in  the  "Nomocanon"  of  Bar  statement  all  Catholics  and  Monophysites  asree. 

Hebrseus  are  apparently  extracts  from  his  writings  re-  But  this  means  that  the  denotation  of  the  words  is 

duced  to  the  form  of  canons.  the  same,  not  that  there  is  no  difference  of  connota- 


scribed  in  a  separate  article  The  Syriac  literature  of  the  connotation  of  the  words  is  diverse,  it  is  still  true 
the  Monophysites,  however,  continued  throughout  that  each  of  the  three  Hypostases  is  identified  with 
the  middle  ages.    Their  CopUc.  Arabic,  and  Arme-    the  Divine  Nature  (that  is,  each  Person  is  God);  btt^ 


MONOFB78ITB8                         495  MONOPHTSITSS 

if  each  Hypostasis  is  therefore  still  a  ^u  (the  one  mains  in  its  natural  state  with  its  own  characteristics 
^^tj)  yet  the  ^^it  is  not  one  but  three  Hsrpostases.  (iw  liUrrirri  tJ  jcotA  0i}<rtr)  yet  not  as  a  unity  but 
The  words  retain  their  old  sense  (connotation)  yet  as  a  part,  a  c|uality  {xoUntii  ^vcrtx^),  not  as  a  0^tf. 
have  received  a  new  sense  in  a  new  relation.  It  is  All  the  qualities  of  the  two  natures  are  combined  into 
obvious  that  this  is  the  phenomenon  to  which  Severus  one  irSararit  a^wOeros  and  form  the  one  nature  of 
referred.  Catholics  would  add  that  in  the  Incar-  that  one  hypostasis.  So  far  there  is  no  heresy  in  in- 
nation  conversely  two  natures  are  one  h3rpostasis.  tention,  but  only  a  wrong  definition: — that  one  hy- 
Thus  the  meanings  of  ^^(f  (abstract =oAir£a)  and  postasis  can  have  only  one  nature. 
^S^raait  (subsistent  ^tfcrtfj  ^Artt  d^ecrrc^a  or  *wx^  But  however  harnuess  the  formula  "one  nature" 
ararof)  in  the  Holy  Trimty  were  a  common  pos-  might  look  at  first  sight,  it  led  in  fact  immediately 
session;  and  all  agreed  further  that  in  the  created  to  serious  and  disastrous  consequences.  The  Divine 
universe  there  cannot  exist  a  nature  which  does  not  Nature  of  the  Word  is  not  merely  specifically  but 
subsiaif  Oxere  \s  no  such  thing  as  a  0^(t  dmnrSararos,  niunerically  one  with  the  Divine  Nature  of  the  Son  and 
(a)  But  Catholics  hold  the  Human  Nature  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This  is  the  meaning  of  the  word 
Christ  considered  in  itself  to  be  dwrd^raTos,  to  have  no  i/Mo^un  apjjlied  to  the  Three  Persons,  and  if  Har- 
human  inr6eTa<ritf  but  that  the  second  Person  of  the  nack  were  ri^t  in  supposing  that  at  the  Council  of 
Holy  Trinity  is  its  ^Aaraais,  As  the  infinity  of  the  Constantinople  in  381  the  word  was  taken  to  imply 
Divme  Nature  is  capable  of  a  threefold  subsistence,  only  three  Persons  of  one  species,  then  that  Council 
BO  the  infinity  of  the  Hypostasis  of  the  Word  is  able  accepted  three  Gods,  and  not  three  distinct  but  in- 
to be  the  Hvpostasis  of  the  Human  Nature  assumed  separable  Persons  in  one  God.  Now  if  the  Divine  and 
as  well  as  of  the  Divine.  The  union  in  Christ  is  not  Human  Natures  are  united  in  the  Word  into  one 
a  union  of  two  natures  directly  with  one  another,  but  Nature,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  one  of  two  conclu- 
a  union  of  the  two  in  one  hypostasis;  thus  they  are  sions,  either  that  the  whole  Divine  Nature  became 
distinct  yet  inseparable,  and  each  acts  in  communion  man  and  suffered  and  died,  or  else  that  each  of  the 
with  the  other.  (jS)  The  Nestorians  argued  thus:  three  Persons  had  a  Divine  Nature  of  His  own.  In 
There  are,  according  to  the  Fathers,  two  natures  in  fact  the  Monophysites  split  upon  this  question. 
Christ;  but  since  every  nature  is  a  hypostasis,  the  ^urus  and  Severus  seem  to  have  avoided  ihe  difii- 
Human  Nature  in  Christ  is  a  hypostasis.  In  order  to  culty,  but  it  was  not  long  before  those  who  refused 
make  one  Christ,  they  tried  (in  vain)  to  explain  how  the  latter  alternative  were  taimted  with  the  necessity 
two  hypostases  could  be  united  in  one  person  (xp^  of  embracing  the  former,  and  were  nicknamed  The- 
o'toTOP).  They  did  not  mean  to  divide  Christ,  but  their  opaschites,  as  making  God  to  suffer.  Vehemently 
prosopic  union  leaked  at  every  seam;  it  was  difficult  Severus  and  his  school  declared  that  they  made  the 
to  express  it  or  argue  about  it  without  falling  into  Divinity  to  suffer  not  as  God,  but  only  as  man;  but 
heresy.  The  Antiochenes  were  glad  to  drop  such  this  was  insufficient  as  a  reply.  Their  formula  was 
inadequate  formulsB,  for  it  was  certain  that  "person"  not  ''The  Word  made  flesh' ,  "the  Son  of  God  made 
in  the  Holy  Trinity  was  only  another  name  for  "hy-  man",  but  "one  Nature  of  the  Word  made  flesh"; 
postasis".  The  (Jyrillians  were  shocked,  and  could  — ^the  Nature  became  flesh,  that  is  the  whole  Divine 
not  be  induced  to  oelieve  (though  St.  Cyril  himself  Nature.  They  did  not  reply:  "We  mean  hypostasis 
did)  that  the  Nestorianizers  did  not  really  mean  two  when  we  say  nature,  we  do  not  mean  the  Divine 
Christs,  two  Sons.  (7)  Conversely,  starting  from  Nature  (which  the  Word  has  in  common  with  the 
the  same  proposition  that  every  ^^tt  is  a  Mffraait^  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost)  but  His  Divine  Person, 
the  Monophysites  argued  that  as  Christ  is  one  Person,  which  in  the  present  case  we  call  His  ^^u",  for  the 
one  Hypostasis,  so  He  is  one  Nature,  and  they  pre-  ^^(t  toO  OtoO  Aiyov^  before  the  word  vwapKtaiiAvri  has 
f erred  is  one  nature"  to  the  equivalent  "has  one  beenadded,  is  in  the  sphere  of  "theology"  not  of  "the 
nature".  They  alleged  high  authority  for  their  economy",  and  its  signification  could  not  be  doubted, 
formula,  not  only  St.  Cyril,  but  behind  him  St.  Atha^  Just  as  there  were  many  "Eu^chians"  among  the 
nasius,  Pope  St.  Julius,  and  St.  Gregory  the  Wonder-  Monophysites  who  denied  that  Christ  is  consubstan- 
worker.  These  authorities,  however,  were  but  Apol-  tial  with  ub,  so  there  were  found  many  to  embrace 
linarian  forgeries;  the  favourite  formula  of  St.  Cyril,  boldly  the  paradox  that  the  Divine  Nature  has  be- 
the  iiio.  ^Oo'tt  a'€ffapKWfidinif  had  been  borrowed  un-  come  incarnate.  Peter  Fullo  added  to  the  praise  of 
wittingly  from  an  Apollinarian  source,  and  had  been  the  Trinity  the  words  "who  was  crucified  for  us",  and 
meant  by  its  original  inventor  in  a  heretical  sense,  refused  to  allow  the  natural  inference  to  be  explained 
Nay,  the  "one  nature"  went  back  to  the  Arians,  and  away.  Stephen  Niobes  and  the  Niobites  expressly 
had  been  used  by  Eudoxius  himself  to  eicpress  the  denied  all  distinction  between  the  Human  and  the 
incompleteness  of  the  Human  Nature  of  Christ.  Divine  Natures  after  the  imion.  The  Actistets  de- 
Yet  the  Monophysites  were  far  from  being  Apol-  clared  that  the  Human  Nature  became  "uncreated" 
linarians,  still  less  were  they  Arians;  they  were  careful  by  the  union.  If  the  greatest  theologians  of  the  sect, 
from  the  beginning  to  explain  that  Christ  is  perfect  Severus  and  Philoxenus,  avoided  these  excesses,  it 
Man,  and  that  He  assumed  a  complete  Human  Nature  was  by  a  refusal  to  be  logically  Monophysite. 
like  ours.  Dioscurus  is  emphatic  on  this  point  in  his  It  was  not  only  the  orthodox  who  were  scandalised 
letter  to  Secimdinus  (Hist.  Misc.,  Ill,  i)  and  with  by  these  extreme  views.  An  influential  and  very 
need,  since  he  had  acquitted  Eutyches  who  had  de-  learned  section  of  the  schism  rebelled,  and  chose  the 
nied  our  Lord's  "consubstantiality  with  us",  second  of  the  two  alternatives^ — that  of  making  the 
^lunis  is  just  as  clear  in  the  letters  by  which  he  re-  Divine  Nature  itself  threefold,  m  order  to  ensure  that 
futed  and  excommunicated  Isaias  of  Hermopolis  and  the  Human  Nature  in  Christ  was  made  one  with  the 
Theophilus  as  "Eutychians"  (Hist.  Misc.,  IV,  xii).  Nature  of  the  Son  alone  and  not  with  the  whole  Divine 
and  Severus  had  an  acute  controversy  with  Sergius  Nature.  John  Philoponus,  the  Aristotelian  commen- 
the  Grammarian  on  this  veiy  point.  They  all  de-  tator,  therefore  taught  that  there  are  in  the  Trinity 
clared  with  one  voice  that  Christ  is  fda  ^it,  but  three  partial  substances  (fupucal  o^Uu)  and  one  com- 
^jr  9io  ^€uw  that  His  Divine  Nature  is  combined  mon  substance  (fi/a  Koirfj).  thus  falling  into  Polythe- 
with  a  complete  Human  Nature  in  one  hypostasis,  ism,  with  three,  or  rather  four,  gods.  This  Tritheistio 
and  hence  the  two  have  become  together  the  One  party  was  treated  with  leniency.  It  split  into  sections. 
Nature  of  that  one  hypostasis,  howbeit  without  Though  they  were  excommunicated  at  Alexandria,  the 
mixture  or  confusion  or  oiminution.  iElurus  insists  Patriarch  Damian  held  a  view  not  far  different.  He  so 
that  after  union  the  properties  of  each  nature  remain  distinguished  between  the  Divine  odtria  and  the  three 
unchanged;  but  they  spoke  of  "the  divine  and  human  Hypostases  which  partake  {lurix'^wiv)  in  it.  that  he 
things  ,  dmna  ei  Mimana,  not  natures;  each  nature  re-  conceded  the  o^£a  to  be  existent  of  Itself  {horapKrvt)^ 


MONOVHTSmS 


496 


ICOirOFUSAITU 


and  hiB  foUowera  were  nicknamed  Tetradites.  Thus 
Peter  Fullo,  the  Actistetie,  and  the  Niobites  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Tiitheiats  and-Damianists  on  the  other, 
developed  the  Monophysite  formula)  in  the  only  two 
possible  directions.  It  is  obvious  that  formuLe  which 
involved  such  alternatives  were  heretical  in  fact  as 
well  as  in  origin.  Severus  tried  to  be  orthodox,  but  at 
the  expense  of  consistency.  His  **  corruptibilist "  view 
is  true  enough,  if  the  Human  Nature  is  considered  in 
tike  abstract  apart  from  the  union  (see  Edttchian- 
iBu),  but  to  consider  it  thus  as  an  entitv  was  certainly 
an  admission  of  the  Two  Natures.  All  change  and 
sufferinf^  in  Christ  must  be  (as  the  Julianists  and  Jus- 
tinian nghtly  saw)  strictlyvoluntary,  in  so  far  as  the 
union  gives  to  the  Sacred  Himianity  a  right  and  claim 
to  beatification  and  (in  a  sense)  to  deification.  But 
Severus  was  willing  to  divide  the  Natures  not  merely 
"before''  the  union  (that  is,  logicallv  previous  to  it) 
but  even  after  the  union  "theoretically  ,  and  he  went 
BO  far  in  his  controversy  with  the  orthodox  John  the 
Gnunmarian  as  to  concede  9^  ^6cut  iw  Btiapta,  This 
was  indeed  an  immense  concession,  but  considering 
how  much  more  orthodox  were  the  intentions  of  Seve- 
rus than  his  words,  it  is  scarcely  astonishing,  for  St. 
CyrM  had  ooncedea  much  more. 

But  though  Severus  went  so  far  as  this,  it  is  shown 
elsewhere  (see  Euttchianism,  Maxdcus  Confessor. 
and  espedall^r  Monothelitibm)  that  he  did  not  avoid 
the  error  of  giving  one  activity  to  our  Lord,  one  will, 
and  one  knowledge.  It  is  true  enough  that  ne  had  no 
intention  of  admitting  any  incompleteness  in  the 
Humanity  of  Christ,  and  that  he  and  all  the  Mono- 
physitcs  started  merely  from  the  proposition  that  all 
activity,  all  will,  and  intelligence  proceed  from  the  per- 
son, as  ultimate  principle,  and  on  this  ground  alone 
they  asserted  the  unity  of  each  in  Christ.  But  it  was 
on  this  ground  that  Monothelitism  was  condemned. 
It  was  not  supposed  by  the  best  Catholic  theologians 
who  attacked  that  doctrine  that  the  Monophysites 
denied  Christ  to  have  exercised  human  activities, 
human  acts  of  the  will,  human  acts  of  cognition;  the 
error  was  clearly  recognised  as  lying  in  the  failure  to 
distinguish  between  the  human  or  the  mixed  (thean- 
dric)  activitv  of  Christ  as  Man,  and  the  purely  Divine 
activity,  will,  knowledge,  which  the  Son  has  in  oonunon 
with  the  Fatner  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  which  are  in 
fact  the  Divine  Nature.  In  speaking  of  one  activity, 
one  will,  one  knowledge  in  Christ,  Severus  was  reduc- 
ing Monophysitism  to  pure  heresy  just  as  much  as  did 
the  Niobites  or  the  Tntheists  whom  he  certainly  held 
in  horror;  for  he  refused  to  distinguish  between  the 
human  faculties  of  Christ — ^activity,  will,  intellect — 
and  the  Divine  Nature  itself.  This  is  not  Apollina- 
riamsm,  but  is  so  like  it  that  the  distinction  is  theoreti- 
cal lather  than  real.  It  is  the  direct  consequence  of 
the  use  of  Apollinarian  formulas.  St.  Cyril  did  not  go 
so  far;  and  m  this  Monothelite  error  we  may  see  the 
essence  of  the  heresy  of  the  Monophysites;  for  all  fell 
into  this  snare,  except  the  Tritheists,  since  it  was  the 
logical  result  of  their  mistaken  point  of  view. 

For  teneral  literature  oee  Euttchianism.  In  P.  O.  there  ore 
more  fracments  than  complete  writinn.  Important  collections 
are  Absbmant,  Bibliothtea  OHenlalis  (Rome.  1719-28);  Chabot 
and  others,  Corp.  Script.  Chriat.  OrierU.t  Seripi.  Syri;  Qraitin 
AND  Nau,  Palrologia  Orient.  (1905 — ,  in  progress);  also  db  IiA> 
qardb,  AnaUeta  Syriaea  (Leipsis.  1858) ;  Land,  Aneedcta  St/riaea 
(Leyden,  1870).  For  the  very  numerous  Monophysite  writings 
oontained  in  Syriao  MSS.  see  especially  the  following  catalogues: 
AasEiCAKi,  Bibl.  Mediccta  LaurerUiana  et  Palalina  MS.  Orient, 
eatal.  (Florence,  1742);  Idbic,  Bibl.  ApoH.  Vatic,  eatal.,  part  I, 
vol.  II-III  (Rome.  1758-9);  Wbioht,  Catal.  of  the  Syriae  MS.  in 
the  Brit.  Mua.  acquired  ainee  13S8  (London,  1870-2) ;  Wriqht  and 
Cook,  Catal.  of  Syriac  MSS.  of  the  Unit,  of  Cambridge  (Cam- 
bridge. 1901);  Sacrau.  Handeehrifl'Verteiehnieee  der  K.  Bibl.  tu 
Berlin,  XXIII.  Syrische  MSS.  (BerUn,  1899).  etc.  On  the  litera- 
ture in  general  see  Assemani,  op.  cit.,  II,  Diaaertatio  de  Monophyai- 
iia:  GtKSELER.  Commentatio  qua  Morufphyaitarum  teterum  errorea 
ex  eorum  acriptia  reoana  aditia  ittualrantur  (Gdttingen,  1835-8): 
WnamJSyriae  Literature  (Encydop.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,1887;  published 
separately  as  A  ShoH  HiMoru  of  Syr.  Lit.,  London,  1894) ;  Duval, 
La  littirature  Syriaque  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1907);  many  excellent 
articles  by  KbCgbb  in  Realeneyclopddie, 


Cbum,  Euaebiaat  mmd  Coptic  CkyrA 
th.  CLondon,  1902) ;  Tn-MsantT- 


Oii  xniOTBi  JBiiiJBus  see 
Hiat.  in  Pnc,  ifSoe,  cS  BibL  Artk 

TscmAN  AND  Tb»-NIinassiantb,  ^tiM.  ^Uattta*  dee  Pa^iaickn 
aom  Alemndrien,  Widerlegung  der  auf  der  8ynode  an  Ckateedc^ 
feataeaetaten  Lekre,  Armenian  text  (Leipxig,  1906):  Lxbon.  Ijh 
Chriatelooi*  de  Tim,  JSlure  ia  Reeue  dTkiat,  eecL  (Oct^  19(te  . 
loBM,  Le  Monophyeiame  aiairieH  (Louvain.  1900).  93-111. 

For  Freneh  tr.  of  the  letiers  of  Pbtbb  Fviajo  see  R^vnxorr  m 
Reaue  dee  Queaiima  Hiat.,  XXII  (1877),  83,  and  da  Coptic  sad 
Freneh)  Aimunbau,  Man,  powr  aerair  d  Fhiat.  de  rBgypte  ehrH. 
(Paris,  1888);  the  Armenian  text  in  Ismxsbans,  The  book  of  Id- 
tera,  Armenian  only  (Tiflis,  1901) ;  the  letters  to  Peter  Mongas  stv 
in  Manm,  VII,  1109  sqq.;  in  favour  of  their  cenmneDess  see 
Paoi's  notes  to  Babonivs,  ad  onn.  485,  No.  1 5 ;  •g*;**-*.  VAUcain, 
Obeen,  etfdea.,  4  (in  his  edition  of  Evaobius,  Paris,  1673;  P.  G.. 
LXXXVI),  and  Tillbmont,  XVI.  Greek  fragmeots  from  the 
homilies  of  Timotht  IV  in  Coemaa  IndieopUmalea  {P.  G.. 
LXXXVIII),  an  entire  homily  in  Mai.  Script.  aeL  noaa  eolL.  V 
(1831).  and  P.  O.,  LXXXVI.  Fragmento  of  TRZODOwra  in  Coe- 
maa (ihid.),  and  of  letters  to  Severus  in  P.  O.,  LXXXVI;  sk  slao 
Mansi.  X,  1117  and  1121.  A  letter  from  Theodosioa  to  Serenu 
and  one  to  Anthimus  in  Hiat.  Miae.,  IX,  24,  26. 

On  Sbvkbus  sse  Assbmani;  Kxt^acB  in  RoaleneyiL  s.  v.;  Vis- 
ABLBS  in  Diet.  ChriaL  Biog.;  Spanttr,  Zaehariaa  Rhetor,  Dea 
Leben  dea  Seaerua  (Syr.  text,  Gfittingen,  1893) ;  iives  hy  Zacsabzas 
and  John  op  Bbith-Aphthonia,  followed  by  a  oollection  of  dooi- 
ments  ooncendng  Severua,  edited  by  Kvobnxb  in  PairoL  OriemL, 
II;  The  Conflict  of  Seaerua,  by  AiVANASitrs,  Ethkqiic  text  vitb 
English  transl.,  ed.  by  Qoodspbed,  together  with  Copiie  frac- 
ments  of  the  same  work,  edited  by  CBrii.  in  PatreL  OriemL,  In: 
Duval,  HomUiaa  eathidrolee  de  Shhe,  52-7,  Syriac  and  Freneh, 
in  Patr.  OrienL,  II:  BBOOKa,  Sixth  hook  efaeUei  Mfsrs  of  SfierMta 
the  Syriac  aereion  of  Athanaaiua  of  NiaiHa  {Text  tmd  TromaL  Soe,, 
London.  1904) ;  Eubtratios,  Scvir«o«  A  Moro^ve^triic  (Leipsig.  1894}; 
Pbiskbb,  Seaerua  aon  AnUoAien,  oin  Kriiiaeker  Qudimbetrag  av 
OaaehichU  dea  Monophyaiamue  (Halle,  1903);  and  especiaUy  Lb- 
BON,  Le  Monophyaiame  aiairien,  largely  founded  on  the  study  of 
unpublished  Syriao  MSS.  in  the  Brit.  Mua.  (Louvain.  1909). 

On  JuuAN  sse  Fabbicivs,  Cavb,  GiBSBLaaLjDcttKBB,  EL&b- 
NACx:  also  Davids  in  Diet.  ChriaL  Bieg.  (18ffi)7KmeGKB  in  Reat- 
eneyd.  (1901);  Libtsmann,  Colsnsn  (Freiburg,  1897);  Idbm,  Aua 
Julian  aon  Hal.  in  Rheiniach.  Mua.,  LV  (1900),  32L  On  iomsf 
PHiLOPONm  see  Cavb,  Fabbicivs,  Assbmani,  Dobkbb,  etc.: 
ScBABBBNBBBO,  Diaaert.  de  Joanne  Philop.  (Leipsig.  176Q;  Davids 
in  Diet.  Chriet.  Biog.;  NArcx  in  AUgemdne  EnML;  StCickl  n 
Kirehenlex.,  s.  v.  Johannea  Philoponua;  Gass  and  Mxtbs  in  Reel' 
encycL;  RrrrBB,  Qeaeh.  der  PhUoa.,  VI;  KBrMBACBSB,  Coaek.  der 
hya.  LiU.  (2nd  ed.,  1897),  53  and  581.  etc.:  LmwicB.  De  Joanma 
Phitopono  grammatico  (Kdnigsberg,  1888-9).  On  Zacsabias  sse 
KuoBNBB,  La  compilation  hietorique  de  Pa.-'Zaeh.  le  rhMew  in  Re- 
vue de  rOrient  Chrit.,  V  (1900)  ,201 ;  Idbm,  Obaemiiimu  emrlanede 
Faacke  /sals  eteurlee  aiea  de  Pierre  Fib.  et  de  TModore  ^Antaawi 
par  Each.  U  Sehol.  in  ByaanL  Eeitachr.,  IX  (1900).  464;  in  thoe 
articles  Kugbnbb  distinguishes  the  Rhetor  m»n  the  Scbolastie, 
wliom  he  identifies  with  the  bishop;  but  he  has  rhsngpd  his  mmd 
aeo.  to  KbOgbb,  Zaeh.  SehoL,  in  RealencycL  (190Q.  8es  also  be- 
low under  Hiatoria  MieeeUanea. 

The  Plerophoria  of  John  op  MAfuMA  are  pieseiied  in  an 
abridgement  in  the  Chronide  of  Micbabl  Brat.  A  French  tm»> 
lation  by  Nau,  Lea  PUrophoriea  de  Jean,  Hiqme  do  Matouma  is 
Reaue  de  VOrient  ehrM.  (189S-9.  and  separately,  Paris.  1899).  The 
life  of  Pbtbb  thb  Ibbbian,  Raabb,  Psfnu  dsr  Iboror  (Lapaag, 
1895) ;  Bbooks,  Vitm  airorum  apud  Monopkyekaa  tetatmtimmum 
in  Corp.  Script.  Orient.,  Script.  Syri,  3rd  senes,  25,  including  the 
life  of  Isaias,  which  is  also  in  Land,  III  (Paris,  1907):  a  GeoigiaB 
version  of  this  biography  publ.  by  Mabb  (St.  Petersbang,  1896): 
Kugbnbb  in  Byaant.  Zmtaehr.,  IX  (Leipsif.  1900),  464; 
Pierre  ribirien  d*aprU  una  rieante  pubKoataom  in  B^om  de  COrieHt 
latin.  Ill  ilSlQ5),  3. 

The  Hiatoria  MiaeeUanea  of  PsBUDO-ZAcmaBiaa  was  published  by 
Land,  loc  cit..  Ill,  in  Syriac:  German  tr.  by  Abbbxb  and Kuolbb, 
Die  aogennante  Kirchengeechichte  aon  Za».  Rh,  (Leipsig,  1899): 
HAMiLrroN  AND  Bbooks,  The  Syriac  chronide  Imown  ae  tkat  of 
Zach.  ofMitylene  (London,  1899,  English  only);  see  Kugxnbb,  ep. 
dL  For  Micbabl  thb  STBtAJf,  Cbabot,  CkroniQiuo  de  Michelle 
Syrien  (Paris,  1901-2.  in  progress).  There  is  an  abridged  Latia 
translation  of  the  Chronide  of  Joshua  in  Assbmani,  loc  ciL,  I. 
262-283;  Svriao  and  French  by  Mabtin,  Chronigue  de  Joeui  le  St. 
in  AbhandJungen  fOr  dia  kunde  dea  Morgenlandee,  VI  (Lsipiig. 
1876) ,  1;  in  Syriac  and  Engliah  by  Wbight,  The  Chronide  t^J.  tJU 
St,  ((Jambridge,  1882) ;  Synao  and  latin  {Chronide  ofBdeaea  only) 
in  Corpua  Script.  Orient.,  Chronica  matnora  (Paris,  1902) ;  Hafiirs. 
Unterauehungen  Hber  die  Bdeaaeniacke  Chrenik  In  Texte  amd  Vn- 
tera.,  IX  (Leipsig.  1892).  1;  Nau  in  BulUtineritigue,  ^Smn..  1897; 
Idem.  Analyae  dee  partiea  infditea  de  la  ^ronigiue  attribuSe  d  Den^a 
de  Tell-mahri  in  Suppl  to  Retue  de  VOrient  ckrH.  (1897):  Tuix- 
BBBG,  Dionyaii  Tallmahrenaia  ehronici  Kb.  J  (TJpssla,  1851);  Cha- 
bot, Chronique  de  Denye  de  T.,  guairikme  parUo  (Paria.  1895): 
BsDiAN.  Barhebrai  Chronicon  eyriacum  (with  Latin  tr..  Paris, 
1890) ;  Abbbloos  and  Lamt,  BarhdiTai  Chron.  eedea.  (with  Latin 
tr.,  Louvain.  1872-7) ;  Lamt,  BUe  de  Niaibe,  ea  ekromologie  (earlier 
portion,  with  French  tr.,  Brussels,  1888). 

(>n  Priloxbnub  see  Assbmani,  Wbiqht.  Duval;  KhOobb's 
good  article  in  Realencyd.:  Budob.  The  Diaeouraee  of  Philoxenu*^ 
Biahop  of  Mabbdgh,  Sjrriao  and  English,  with  introduetioii  eon- 
taining  many  short  dogmatic  writings,  and  a  Hst  of  the  works  of 
Philoxenus,  in  vol.  2  (London,  1894);  Vabchaldb,  Three  lettera  of 
Philoxenua  Biahop  of  M.,  Syr.  and  Eng.  (Rome,  1902) ;  Idbm.  Phi- 
loxeni  Mabbugenaia  traHati*a  de  TYinitate  et  Ineamatione  in  Corpme 
Scripl.Or.,Scriptorea  Syri.  XXVII(Pariasnd  Rome,  1907) ;  DuvaU 
Hiat.  polMgue,  religiaaue  el  Uttiraire  d'Bdeeee  (Paris,  1882) ;  Qun, 


MQNOPOU                           497  MOKOPOLY 

L«  Uttera  de  FUotuno  at  Monad  di  TeU  Adda  in  Mem  ddF  Acad,  or  the  p088&bnity  that  people  may  get  On  without 

t.^^fS:^T,S:S^iL^^i^^.;<^^ir^^  «th*  ttrirticle  «  A.8utetitute.    &t  in  aU  c»»s 

Jaaibi  (with  three  ancient  Syriae  biographies.  Ix>uvain.  1867);  monopoly  impUCS  thc  abUlty  debberatelv  tO  regulate 

Ambmani.  Wbioht.  Duval,  loc.  eU.;  Ada  55.,  29  Get.;  Babdsm-  supply  and  prices  beforehand,  and  to  fix  both  at  some 

HBWM  inKiretienUx,^mfni^  in  ReaUf^;  Mabtin  J^n  M^ua  ^^g      ^^^  q^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^j^j  y^^^  ^^j^  reached 

poUe  au  V'  tt  VI*  t%ieU»  in  Rente  dee  Sciencee  eed,  (Oct.,  Nov.,  w"**^*  f*'"**'  «**»"  vwmv  ^umm^^viu^a  t***;^  fc^»*  »*.«^u^** 

1876);  Idbm.  Correewmdanee  de  Jaafiiee  de  Sarouq  atee  lee  moinee  by  the  natlU«l  aCtlOn  Of  the  market  Under  normal 

de  Mar  Baeeue  in  ZeUechr.  der  deuteehen  MorganiandL  GeeeUeA^  COmT)etition.     However  mexpedient  a  monopoly  may 

^.^I?Sl^z.l'Ii,'i*r3S»J\liS^^  ^.  ft>  not  m  i^elf  immoral     Its  mond  character 

1867):  Bbdjan,  70  ^omi/Micciaete  Afar /aeoM  5.  (Parifl  and  Leip-  depends  entirely  upon  it0  acUons  and  its  effects, 

sic.  190S^ ;  Angle  homilies  are  found  in  variouB  publications;  More  specifically,  its  morality  IS  determined  by  the 

•"^S^K^STIiilJl^^SiSigrrS^^^k  ana  tt.  Pri««  1»t  «tabliah«.,  and  the  method?  that  it 

hook  0/  Hierolheoe  (Leyden.  1886).    On  John  of  Tblla,  Klbtn.  employs  towaid  actual  or  potential  competitors. 

Hei  Ueen  van  Johannee  ean  Telia  (Leyden,  1882);  another  life  in  1.      aIoNGPOLXSTIC  PriCBB. — ^According  tO  the  oldeT 

t^Si:fXr^r^'o^ii>^r^^^.''JS^*A^,:i1t  T"^ theolopana,  monopoly prioee were unjuat when 

Wbioht.  Duval,  a  good  article  by  Rtbbbl  in  ReaUncyd.  (1899);  they  were  higher  than  the  pnces  that  would  have 

Idem.  Sin  Brief  Oeorge,  Bieehop  der  Ar.  an  den  Freeh,  Joeua  aue  prevailed  Under  Competition  (cf.  LugO,  "De  Justltla 

dem  Syrieehen  HherM  linderlatUerUmii  einer  BinleihMf  1ihfr*Mi  ^  ^^  Jure",  disp.  XXVi,  U.  72).      Wlule  thlS  Hllc  WaS 

Lebenundeeine,Schriflen(Gothn,188S);lDiRUtOeorffeedeeAraber<'  *^»'/*^     T.  «'  ***"*"  ^V»    xV     4V»jji      *    ^^    iT     7t 

biechofa  Gediehte  und  Briefe  (Leipmig.  1891),  this  work  gives  a  Oer-  Substantially  COrrect  fOr  the  Middle  AgeS,  When  the 

man  translation  of  all  George's  authentic  works,  apart  from  the  competitive,    or   rather    the    customary^    price    was 

nSS^'^S^'^rJJ^L^C^^l^ri^'iS^  f^r^y  '«^  to  both  prwiucen.  and  conaumen.  it  i. 

poetiea  Stfforwm  (1875);  the  whole,  with  that  on  the  monastic  life,  lar  from  acceptable  to-day,  When  the  Competitive 

ed.  by  Rtssbl  in  Atti  ddla  R,  AetuL  dei  Lineei^  IX  (RomCi  1892),  price  Is  often  tOO  low  tO  provide  a  jUSt  retum  tO  the 

'•55°tS?^tS'XriSl!SJr^'^™;m/i^^  ««ent8  of  production,    for  competitive,  prices,  as 

quelle  meeure  lee  Jacobiiee  eoni-iU  Mmopkyeiteet  in  Revue  de  Well  as  for  monO]^ly  pnces,  the    Objective  rule  Of 

r Orient  chrAien.  1906,  no.  2,  p.  113;  Lbbon.  op.  eU^paeeim,  justice  is  that  ft  thing  should  be  sold  at  a  price  suffi- 

JoHN  Chapman.  dently  high  to  remunerate  fairiy  all  who  nA^  con- 

Monopdi   DxocE«  ok  (Mokopout^x)   m  the  SK^^jJ^cl  rtT^SS"  SliSSf /Sl^S^'^^ 

Province  of  Ban,  m  Apulia,  southern  Italy.  The  city  proved  bv  oomDetoil  ibd  fair<mirtded  men   (a 

has  a  small  but  good  harbour  on  the  Adriatic.   It  sue-  Tanouerev   "DeJustiW'  776)     If  the  mononolv 

ceeded  the  ancient  Egpatia,  the  niins  of  which  are.not  nrfceT  does  not  exceed  thes^  limitk  it  is  not  unjiitly 

far  from  the  modran  tonra.    In  the  eighth  Mid  nmth  1,5^^  ^^^  though  rt  be  higher  dian  the  price  that 

c^turiM,Monopohwa8oftoi»vaged by  theSaracffls.  hSbbtained orTould  have  obtained  under  the Btim> 

^^oN*]?f  "^T**  w  ^^^  Nomian  co^ts,  »t  became  ^  competttion.    »noe  the  different  daases  that  help 

(1042)  the  s^t  of  Hugues.   Dunng  the  war  betwem  ^„    ^^e  a  sodaUy  useful  commodity  have  a  right 

FjMce  and  Spain  for  the  possessi^  of  the  Kmgdom  to  a  fair  retum  f or  thdr  services,  and  ance  this  re- 

?•'  ^"f^^^^TA^^A^^^ZAL^^-I^T.  turn  can  come  only  from  the  pric^  at  which  the  com- 

*"*L'i"^^  Ts*l9^2'i*°i*"'  !^,fTS^iSf!!SS^J{h  =»<xl»ty  to  sold,  th^  latter  is  iijustly  low  unless  it  to 

sacked.   In  1552  Charles  V  surrounded  the  town  with  nuflSdent  for  uito  numose     "^ere  is  no  hidden  force 

walla  and  towers  that  still  exist    The  epi3Copal  see  j^  eamnetition  hv  whiXui  uniiut  nrice  can  be  made 

The  cathedral  was  wected  by  the  second  bish^,  i,onopoly  to  justify  a  seding  price  that  is  more  than 

Romu^dus,  in.1073.  In  11 18  Polignano.  a  smaU  town  gufficSt  to  render  fair  retu^i^to  the  different  agents 

''*^*°°*t^^P™'^'Ji?'y??*'"8  the  Adriatic,  was  of  production.    These  propositions  are  accept^  by 

'^^^H^H«?^.  1^^J^2^^JS^^  the  overwhelming  m«j<Sityof  persons,  whether  ex- 

subject  to  the  Holy  See;  it  has  ewht  Pfmshes.  65,000  ^s  or  not:  the  practical,  and  the  only  serious  dif- 

U.  Benigni.  to  each  of  the  different  agents. 

Puttins  the  matter  as  briefly  and  as  summarily 
Monopoly,  Mobal  Aspects  of. — ^According  to  as  possible,  we  may  say  that  a  just  remuneration 
its  etymology,  monopoly  (fMwoir<a\ta)  sigmfies  ex-  to  the  agents  of  production  comprises:  (1)  a  living 
elusive  sale,  or  exclusive  privilege  of  selling.  Present  wage  for  all  labourers,  and  something  more  than  this 
usage,  however,  extends  the  term  to  any  degree  of  for  those  workers  who  possess  exceptional  abihty 
unified  control  over  a  commodity  sufficient  to  enable  or  skill,  who  put  forth  unusual  efforts,  who  perform 
the  person  or  corporation  in  control  to  limit  supply  disagreeable  tasks,  or  who  turn  out  exceptionally 
and  fix  price.  Tne  proportion  of  the  supply  of  an  large  products;  (2)  fair  profits  for  the  business  man, 
article  that  must  be  controlled  in  order  to  attain  on  accoimt  of  his  activities  as  director  of  industry; 
these  ends,  depends  upon  man^^  factors,  and  differs  (3)  a  fur  rate  of  interest  on  the  actual  capital  in- 
considerably in  different  industries.  In  the  majority  vested  in  the  business.  Fair  recompense  for  the 
of  monopoiused  businesses,  it  is  somewhere  between  captain  of  industry  in  a  monopoly  will  generally 
70  and  90  per  cent,  although  there  are  cases  in  which  mean  the  amount  that  he  could  obtain  in  retum  for 
the  unifiea  control  of  a  little  more  than  one  half  the  the  same  services  in  a  competitive  business.  Al- 
supply  of  the  commodity  seems  to  suffice.  In  most  though  comi)etition  is  not  of  itself  a  determinant 
of  tne  cases  in  which  the  monopoly  controls  less  than  of  fair  wages  in  the  case  of  ordinary  labour,  inasmuch 
three-fourths  of  a  business,  the  independent  dealers  as  it  often  forces  remuneration  below  the  level  of 
seem  to  have  the  power  to  overthrow  the  monopoly  decent  Uving,  it  is  generally  fair  to  the  director  of 
but  prefer  to  take  advantage  of  the  higher  prices  and  industry,  inasmuch,  as  it  enables  him  not  merely 
st^idier  market  conditions  established  by  the  domi-  to  obtain  a  decent  Uvelihood,  but  to  maintain  him- 
nant  concern.  They  are,  consequently,  passive  fac-  self  in  accordance  with  that  higher  standard  of 
tors  in  the  monopolized  condition  of  the  trade.  No  Uving  to  which  he  has  a  reasonable  chum.  And  it 
matter  how  great  the  degree  of  control  which  the  yields  even  more  than  this  to  those  business  men 
monopoly  enjoys,  its  power  over  supply  and  prices  is  whose  ability  is  exceptional.  A  fair  rate  of  interest 
not  aMolute.  Many  economic  and  prudential  con-  on  monopoly  capital  will  be  the  rate  that  prevails  in 
siderations  will  restrain  a  monopoly  from  exercising  competitive  businesses  that  are  subject  to  a  like 
this  power  to  the  extent  that  it  might  desire — for  amoimt  of  risk.  The  capitalist  or  interest  receiver 
example,  the  fear  of  potential  competition,  the  dis-  as  such,  does  not  work,  but  is  free  to  earn  his  Uveli* 
oovery  of  a  substitute  for  the  monopolised  article,  hood  by  his  labour  from  other  sources.  Thus,  since 
X.— 32 


MOKOPOLY 


498 


MOKOPOLT 


interest  is  not  his  sole  means  of  fiyelihood,  the  just 
rate  of  interest  is  not  determined  by,  nor  does  it 
bear  any  definite  relation  to,  the  content  of  a  decent 
livelihood  in  the  individual  case.  Consequently, 
competition  may  be  the  proper  rule  of  iustice  for 
the  mterest  receiver,  as  well  as  for  the  director  of 
industry,  although  it  is  not  always  a  just  rule  for 
the  ordmary  wage-earner. 

What  are  the  grounds  for  the  aasertion  that  the 
Investor  in  a  monopoly  has  no  right  to  more  than  the 
competitive  or  prevfufing  rate  of  interest?  The  an- 
swer to  this  question  is  bound  up  with  the  more  funda- 
mental question  concerning  the  basis  of  the  right  of 
any  investor  to  receive  any  interest  at  all.  But, 
no  matter  what  answer  we  c^ve  to  this  latter  question, 
no  matter  what  justification  of  interest  we  may 
adopt,  we  cannot  prove,  \7e  can  have  no  ground  upon 
which  to  erect  the  beguminp  of  a  proof,  that  the 
capitalist  has  a  right,  as  capitalist,  to  more  than  the 
prevaifing  or  competitive  rate  of  interest.  If  we 
assume  that  inter»t  is  justified  as  the  product  or 
fruit  of  capital,  we  have  no  reason  to  assert  that  the 
so-called  product  has  a  higher  value  than  men  at- 
tribute to  it  in  the  open  market  imder  competitive 
conditions.  If  we  regEu*d  interest  as  the  due  reward 
of  the  capitalist's  sacrifices  in  saving,  we  have  no 
ground  for  maintaining  that  these  are  not  fully  re- 
munerated in  the  current  rate.  If  we  adopt  the 
theory  that  seems  to  be  most  satisfactory  and  least 
asssdlable,  namely  that  interest  is  chiefly  justified  on 
grounds  of  social  utility,  inasmuch  as  the  community 
would  probably  not  have  sufficient  ci^)ital  unless  men 
were  encouraged  to  save  by  the  hope  of  interest,  we 
must  likewise  conclude  that  the  current  competitive 
rate  is  sufficiently  high,  since  it  brings  forth  sufficient 
saving  and  sufficient  capital  for  society's  needs. 
The  alignment  based  upon  this  theory  may  be  stated 
summiurily  as  follows:  Since  interest  on  capital 
cannot  be  shown  to  be  unjust  on  individual  erounds, 
that  is  as  a  payment  from  the  purchaser  of  uie  prod- 
uct of  capital  to  the  owner  of  capital  (for  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  consumer  is  the  real  and  final 
provider  of  interest  on  capital),  it  will  be  justified 
on  social  grounds  if  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  evoke 
sufficient  social  capital;  and  there  is  an  overwhelm- 
ing probability  that  it  is  necessary  for  this  purpose. 
Since  interest  is  justified  only  for  this  purpose  and 
to  this  extent,  the  just  rate  of  interest  cannot  be 
higher  than  the  rate  that  attains  this  end,  which  in 
our  time  is  the  competitive  rate. 

The  doctrine  that  capital  has  no  right  to  more  than 
the  competitive  rate  of  interest  is  accepted  by  the 
social  estimate  everywhere  (see  Final  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  p.  409).  It  is  implic- 
itly asserted  in  the  teaching  of  tne  theologians  that  the 
competitive  rate  is  the  just  rate  in  the  case  of  money 
loaned  (cf.  Tanquerey,  "De  Justitia",  n.  906). 
Where  the  risk  and  other  circumstances  are  the  same, 
men  do  not  value  an  investment  any  higher  than  a 
loan;  they  will  put  their  money  into  the  one  or  the 
other  indifferently;  consequently,  it  would  seem  clear 
that,  when  the  circumstances  just  referred  to  are  the 
same,  a  fair  return  on  invested  money  need  not  exceed 
a  fair  return  on  loaned  money.  To  be  sure,  investors 
and  business  men  do  obtain  more  than  the  competi- 
tive rate  of  interest  in  some  years  and  in  some  enter- 
prises, even  where  comp)etition  is  active  and  constant; 
but  this  advantage  is  either  offset  by  exceptionally  low 
rates  in  other  years,  or  it  is  due  to  unusual  business 
ability,  or  it  anses  from  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the 
land  connected  with  the  enterprise.  In  all  these  cases 
the  exceptionally  hi^  rate  is  imdoubtedly  lawful 
morally,  but  the  excess  is  due  to  other  factors  than  the 
capital  pure  and  simple.  Since  the  prevailing  or  com- 
petitive rate  is  sufficiently  high  to  satisfy  the  demands 
of  justice  in  businesses  that  are  subject  to  competition, 
there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  it  is  not,  gener- 


ally qieaking,  sufficiently  high  in  monopoGstie  eon- 
oems.  The  owner  of  a  monopoly  has  no  more  rig^t  to 
take  advantage  of  the  helplessness  of  the  oonsamer  in 
order  to  extort  an  exceptionally  high  rate  of  interest 
on  his  investment  than  the  money-lender  has  to  ex- 
ploit the  distress  of  the  borrower  in  order  to  exact  an 
exorbitant  rate  of  interest  on  the  loan .  It  would  seem 
that  the  only  exception  to  this  rule  would  occur  when 
the  monopoly,  while  paying  a  fair  wage  to  labour  and 
a  fair  price  to  those  from  whom  it  buys  materials,  in- 
troduces economies  of  production  which  enable  it  to 
sell  its  goods  at  less  than  the  prices  charged  by  its  com- 
petitors, and  yet  make  unusual  profito  and  interest  on 
its  investment.  In  such  a  case  it  seems  reasonable 
that  a  monopolistic  concern  (more  properiy,  its  active 
directors,  wno  alone  have  effected  ^e  productive 
economies)  should  receive  some  of  the  benefits  of  the 
cheaper  methods  of  production.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  sood  reason  why  the  monopoly  should  ap- 

Sropriate  afi  the  benefits  of  the  improvement.  If  it 
oes  not  share  them  with  the  consumer  by  reducing 
prices  below  the  competitive  level,  it  renders  no  sociaf 
service  to  compensate  for  the  social  danger  which  is 
inherent  in  every  monopolistic  enterprise.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  great  majority  of  existing  monoplies  do 
not  pay  higher  wages  nor  higher  prices  for  maUsial 
than  competitive  concerns,  and  yet  they  charge  the 
consumer  higher  prices  than  would  have  prevailed 
under  competition  (cf .  Final  Report  of  the  &dustrial 
Commission,  pp.  621,  625,  660). 

In  the  preceding  paragraphs  reference  is  had  to 
monopolistic  concerns  that  fix  prices  without  any 
supervision  or  restriction  by  the  State.  Wlien  the 
puolic  authority  exercises  adequate  control  over  the 
charges  of  public  service  monopolies,  such  as  gas 
and  street-railway  companies,  and  determines  these 
freely  and  honestly,  it  would  seem  that  the  monpolis- 
tic  corporation  has  a  right  to  collect  the  full  amount  of 
the  charges  established  by  the  public  authorities,  even 
though  they  should  yield  unusual  profits  on  the  investr 
ment,  for  the  presumption  is  that  such  charges  are 
fair  to  both  producer  and  consumer.  No  such  pre- 
sumption extends  to  those  cases  in  which  the  state 
control  over  charges  is  only  mildly  corrective  and  par- 
tial, instead  of  fundamental  and  thorough. 

II.  Monopolistic  Methods. — ^The  methods  and 
practices  employed  by  monopolies  in  dealing  with  th«r 
rivab  did  not  occupy  the  attention  of  the  older  moral 
theologians  who  wrote  on  the  subject  of  monopoly. 
Nor  have  recent  writers  given  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject the  attention  that  it  deserves.  As  a  consequence, 
authoritative  ethical  teaching  is  as  yet  silent,  whereas 
public  opinion  regards  as  immoraJ  most  of  the  prac- 
tices by  which  monopolistic  concerns  harass  and  ^imi- 
nate  their  competitors.  Amon^  the  most  notable  of 
these  methods  are  discriminative  underselling,  the 
factor's  ag^-eement,  and  railway  favouritism. 

Discriminative  underselling  occurs,  when  the  mon- 
opoly sells  its  goods  at  unprofitably  low  prices  in  the 
territory  in  which  it  wishes  to  destroy  competition, 
while  imposing  unreasonably  high  pnces  dsewhere. 
While  the  independent  dealer  mo  is  driven  out  of 
business  by  this  device  has  no  strict  right  to  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  customers  who  are  drawn  away  from 
him  through  the  low  prices  established  by  the  mo- 
nopoly, he  has  a  right  not  to  be  deprived  of  that  pat- 
ronage by  unjust  methods.  According  to  a  genml 
and  far-reachmf;  moral  principle,  a  man  is  unjustly 
treated  when  he  is  prevented  by  unjust  means  from  ob- 
taining an  advantage  which  he  has  a  right  to  pursue 
(cf.  Lehmkuhl,  "Theologia  Moralis",  I,  n.  974;  Tan- 
querey, ''De  Justitia",  n.  588).  Among  the  unjust 
means  enumerated  by  the  moral  theologians  are: 
force,  fraud,  deception,  falsehood,  intimidation,  and 
eictortion.  Now  when  a  manufacturer  or  a  merchant 
is  deprived  of  the  patronage  of  his  customers  through 
ruinously  low  prices,  which  the  monopoly  is  enabled  to 


MONOTHEISM 


499 


MONOT] 


:i.-*K 


maintain  by  means  of  the  exorbitantly  high  prices  that 
it  establishes  at  another  place  or  time,  he  is  deprived 
of  this  advantage  by  unjust  means.  The  unjustly 
high  prices  are  as  truly  the  means  by  which  the  inde- 
pendent dealer  is  injured,  as  the  lying  reports  brousht 
to  a  would-be  benefactor  are  the  means  by  which  his 
intended  beneficiary  is  deprived  of  a  legacy.  This  is 
the  stock  example  used  b^r  the  moral  theologians  to 
illustrate  the  general  principle  stated  above.  When, 
however,  a  business  concern  eliminates  a  competitor 
by  lowering  prices  universally,  and  keeping  them  low 
even  after  the  latter  has  gone  out  of  busmess,  no  injus- 
tice is  done,  because  no  unjust  means  are  employed. 
Even  when  a  monopolistic  concern  lowers  prices  every- 
where at  the  same  time,  and  raises  them  to  an  unjust 
level  only  after  its  competitors  have  been  driven  from 
the  field,  the  latter  would  seem  to  be  victims  of  injus- 
tice. For,  althoush  the  unjust  prices  do  not  come 
into  existence  untu  after  the  injury  has  been  accom- 
plished, they  are  as  certainly  the  means  whereby  the 
mjurv  was  done,  as  though  they  had  been  established 
simultaneously  with  the  ruinously  low  prices.  In 
both  cases  the  exorbitant  prices  operate  as  the  moral 
cause  of  the  act  by  which  the  unprofitably  low  prices 
are  established. 

The  factor's  agreement  is  exemplified  when  a  mer- 
chant engages  to  handle  no  goods,  or  no  goods  of  a  cer- 
tain kind,  except  those  manufactured  by  a  monopoly; 
should  the  merchant  decline  to  enter  into  this  agree- 
ment, the  monopolistic  concern  will  refuse  to  sell  him 
any  goods  at  all.    If  the  agreement  is  established,  the 
result  is  that  the  rivals  of  the  monopolistic  manufac- 
turing concern  are  deprived  of  the  patronage  of  the 
merchant  through  intimidation.    It  is  a  species  of 
secondary  boycott,  inasmuch  as  the  monopoly  re- 
fuses to  have  business  intercoiuise  with  the  merchant, 
unless  the  latter  refuses  to  do  business  with  the  inde- 
pendent manufacturer.    It  seems  sufficiently  clear 
that  boycotts  of  this  kind  are  unreasonable  ana  unjust 
whenever,  as  in  this  instance,  there  exists  no  sufficient' 
reason  for  the  intimidation  and  the  refusal  of  inter- 
course (see  Labour  Unions,  Moral  Abpects  of). 
Indeed,  the  motive  of  the  monopoly  is,  as  a  rule,  not 
merely  lacking  in  reasonableness,  but  positively  un- 
just; lor  its  ultimate  aim  is  not  simply  to  acquire  the 
patronage  that  now  goes  to  its  rivals,  but  in  addition 
to  raise  prices  to  the  consumer  after  its  rivals  have 
been  eliminated. 

Railway  favouritism  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
methods  of  monopoly.  It  has  in  all  probability  been 
as  effective  in  creating  and  maintaining  monopolies  as 
all  the  other  methoos  combined.  It  appears  under 
many  forms,  but  its  essence  is  found  in  tne  fact  that 
the  goods  dealt  in  by  a  monopoly  are  carried  by  the 
railroad  at  a  rate  so  much  below  that  charged  to  mde- 

gendent  dealers  that  the  latter  must  either  go  out  of 
usiness  or  be  content  with  insufficient  profits.    This 
practice  is  undoubtedly  immoral:  (1)  because  it  is  for- 
bidden by  the  civil  law;  (2)  because  the  railroad,  as  a 
quaa-public  agency,  is  under  obligation  to  treat  all  its 
patrons  with  the  same  distributive  justice  that  the 
state  itself  would  be  obliged  to  accord  them  if  it  were 
the    owner  of  the  railroads;  (3)  because  the  lower 
charges  collected  from  the  monopoly  imply  unjustly 
higli  charges  extorted  from  the  independent  shippers. 
As  a  violation  of  the  civil  law,  railway  favouritism  is 
ag^ainst  legal  justice;  as  unequal  treatment  of  different 
patrons,  it  is  a  violation  of  lx)th  distributive  and  com- 
mutative justice,  precisely  as  the  unequal  imposition 
of  taxes  violates  both  these  forms  of  justice.    If  the 
rate  accorded  to  the  monopoly  for  carrying  its  goods 
is  sufiSciently  high  to  be  just,  the  higher  rate  imposed 
upon  its  rivals  exceeds  the  limits  of  justice.    If  the 
former  rate  is  so  low  as  to  be  unremimerative  to  the 
railroad^  the  injustice  done  to  the  independent  deal- 
'     still  greater,  inasmuch  as  they  are  compelled  to 
%  part  of  the  charges  that  should  be  defrayed  by 


the  monopoly.  The  favours  accorded  to  the  latter 
are  not  deducted  from  the  normal  revenues  and  prof- 
its of  the  railway  company. 

As  a  matter  of  purely  natural  justice,  a  railroad 
might  concede  somewhat  lower  carrying  rates  to  a 
monopolistic  concern  because  the  monopoly  ships 
^oods  in  larger  lots.  The  cost  of  such  transportation 
IS  always  smaller  than  when  the  same  volume  of  goods 
is  carried  in  separate  lots  for  several  different  concerns. 
Nevertheless,  even  this  degree  of  favouritism  is  a  vio- 
lation of  legal  justice,  and  frequently  a  violation  of 
charity  as  regards  the  smaller  snipping  concerns.  In- 
asmuch as  the  practice  of  railway  xavouritism  to  mo- 
nopolies is  seldom  confined  within  these  narrow  limits, 
the  question  raised  in  this  paragraph  is  not  of  much 
practical  importance.  Agam,  the  railroad  mipht  be 
absolved  from  the  charge  of  violating  natural  justice 
if  the  lower  rates  which  it  extended  to  the  monopoly 
did  not  fall  below  the  lowest  level  (pretiuminfimum)  of 
justice,  while  the  charges  exacted  from  the  indepen- 
dent shippers  did  not  exceed  the  highest  level  {jpretium 
Bummum)  sanctioned  by  justice.  A  private  enter- 
prise, such  as  a  mercantile  concern^  could  probably  be 
absolved  from  the  stif^ma  of  injustice  if  it  indulged  in 
this  practice  toward  its  different  customers.  But,  as 
we  have  seen  above,  a  railway  is  not  a  purely  private 
concern.  Since  it  performs  a  quasi-public  function, 
it  would  seem  to  be  boimd  by  the  same  rules  of  dis- 
tributive justice  that  would  govern  the  State,  if  the 
latter  were  operating  the  business  of  transportation. 
The  share  of  the  monopoly  in  the  immorality  and  in- 
justice connected  with  railway  favouritism  consists  in 
the  fact  that  it  requests,  urges,  and  sometimes  intimi- 
dates the  riulway  to  indulge  in  the  practice.  The 
monopoly  is  therefore  a  co-operator.  In  the  language 
of  the  moral  theolo^ns,  it  is  a  mandans^  or  principal, 
and  likewise  a  'partidpans^  or  beneficiaxy  (frequently 
the  only  beneficiary)  of  the  injustice  done  to  its  rivafs 
throu^n  overcharges  for  transportation. 

While  monopoly  is  not  necessarily  unjust,  and  while 
any  particular  monopoly  may  be  free  from  unjust 
practices,  experience  shows  that  the  power  to  commit 
mjustice  which  is  included  in  monopoly  cannot  be  un- 
reservedly entrusted  to  the  average  human  being  or 
group  of  human  beings.  Consequently,  it  is  the  duty 
of  public  authority  to  prevent  the  existence  of  un- 
necessary monopohes,  and  to  exercise  such  supervision 
over  necessaxy  monopolies  as  to  render  impossible 
monopolistic  mjustice,  whether  against  the  indepen- 
dent business  man  through  unjust  methods,  or  the  con- 
sumer through- unjust  prices.  Many  of  the  moral 
judgments  enunciated  m  this  article  will  perhaps 
strike  the  reader  as  lacking  in  positiveness,  inasmuch 
as  thc^  are  modified  by  such  phrases  as  ''it  would 
seem,"  "it  is  probable/  "it  is  reasonable".  Yet  no 
other  course  was  possible.  Concerning  most  of  the 
specific  questions  discussed  in  the  foregoing  pages, 
tnere  exists  no  specific  teaching  by  the  Church,  or 
even  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  theologians.  There 
are  not  even  well-defined  bodies  of  theological  opinion. 
All  that  can  be  done  is  to  draw  conclusions  from, 
and  make  specific  applications  of,  the  more  general 
principles  of  justice  as  found  in  approved  Catholio 
sources. 

Ely,  Mvnopalim  and  TrutU  (New  York,  1900) :  Rzplbt,  TnuUf 
PooU,  and  Corporation  (New  York,  1005);  ReporU  of  U,  8, 
Induttrial  Commisnon,  I,  IX  (Washington,  1003);  Hows.  Privi* 
Uq€  and  Democracy  in  America  (New  York,  1010);  Busa,  New 
Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,  b.  v.  Trtule;  Slatkr  in  Iriah  TImh 
loffical  Quarterly  (July,  1006);  Ryan,  ibid,  (July,  1008);  Luoo. 
De  Juatitia  et  de  Jura  (Lyons,  1670) ;  Tanqvebby,  Da  Jtutitia 
(New  York,  1004) ;  Lxhmxuhl,  Theoloffia  Moralie,  I  (Freiburg, 
1803);  VsRitXKBSCH,  Quaetionea  da  Juatitia  (Bruflee,  1001); 
Jannst,  Le  Capital,  la  SpieulaUon  «t  la  Finance  (Paxu,  1802). 

John  A.  Rtan. 

Monotheism  (from  the  Greek  A^^yof  "only",  and 
B$h9  "god")  is  a  word  coined  in  comparatively  modem 
times  to  designate  belief  in  the  one  supreme  God,  the 


MONOTBBI8M                         500  MONOTHBI8M 

Creator  and  Lord  of  the  world,  the  eternal  Spirit,  Nor  is  there  anything  in  sound  science  or  phUosophy 

All-powerful.  All-wise,  and  All-«>od,  the  Rewarder  to  invalidate  this  teaching  that  Monotheistic  w&d 

of  good  and  Punisher  of  evil,  the  Source  of  our  happi-  was  imparted  by  God  to  primitive  man.    While  it 

ness  and  perfection.  It  is  opposed  to  Pol  vtheism,  which  may  be  true  that  human  life  in  the  beginning  was  on 

IS  belief  in  more  gods  than  one,  and  to  Atheism,  which  a  comparatively  low  plane  of  materiid  culture,  it  is 

is  disbelief  in  any  deity  whatsoever.    In  contrast  with  also  true  that  the  first  men  were  endowed  with  reason, 

Deism,  it  is  the  recognition  of  God's  presence  and  ac-  i.  e.  with  the  ability  to  conceive  with  sufficient  dis- 

tivity  in  ever^  part  of  creation.    In  contrast  with  tinctness  of  a  being  who  was  the  cause  of  the  manifold 

Pantheism,  it  is  oelief  in  a  God  of  conscious  freedom,  phenomena  presented  in  nature.    On  the  other  hand, 

distinct  from  the  physical  world.    Both  Deism  ana  a  humble  degree  of  culture  along  the  lines  of  art  and 

Pantheism  are  religious  philosophies  rather  than  re-  industry  is  quite  compatible  with  right  religion  and 

ligions.  morality,  as  is  evident  in  the  case  of  tribes  converted 

On  the  other  hand,  Monotheism,  like  Polytheism,  to  Catholicism  in  recent  times;  while  retaining  much 

is  a  term  applying  primarily  to  a  concrete  system  of  their  rude  and  primitive  mode  of  living,  they  have 

of  religion.    The  grounds  of  reason  underlying  mono-  reached  very  clear  notions  concerning  God  and  shown 

theism  have  already  been  set  forth  in  the  article  remarkable  fidelity  in  the  observance  of  His  law.    As 

God.    These  grounds  enable  the  inquiring  mind  to  to  the  bearing  of  the  Evolutionistic  hypothesis  on  this 

recognize  the  existence  of  God  as  a  morally  certain  question,  see  Fetisbism. 

truth.    Its  reasonableness  acquires  still  greater  force  It  is  thus  quit«  in  accordance  with  the  accredited 

from  the  positive  data  associated  with  the  revelation  results  of  phvsical  science  to  maintain  that  the  first 

of  Christianity.     (See  Revelation.)  man,  created  by  God,  was  keen  of  mind  as  well  a^ 

Pbimitivb  Monotheism. — ^Was  monotheism  the  sound  of  body^  and  that,  through  Divine  instruction. 

reUgion  of  our  first  parents,  and  hence  the  primitive  he  began  life  with  right  notions  of  God  and  of  his  moral 

form  of  religion?  Many  Evolutionists  and  Rationalist  and  religious  duties.    This  does  not  necessarily  mean 

Protestants  answer  No.    Rejecting  the  very  notion  that  his  conception  of  God  was  scientificallv  and  phi- 

of  positive.  Divine  revelation,  they  hold  that  the  losophically  profound.    Here  it  is  that  scholars  are 

mind  of  man  was  in  the  beginning  but  little  above  wide  of  the  mark  w^hen  they  argue  that  Monotheism  is 

that  of  his  ape-like  ancestors,  and  hence  incapable  a  conception  that  implies  a  philosophic  grasp  and 

of  grasping  so  intellectual  a  conception  as  that  of  training  of  mind  absolutely  impossible  to  primitive 

Monotheism.  man. 

They  assert  that  the  first  religious  notions  enter-  The  notion  of  the  supreme  God  needed  for  re- 
tained by  man  in  his  upward  course  towards  civiliza-  ligion  is  not  the  highlv  metaphysical  conception  de- 
tion  were  superstitions  of  the  grossest  kind.  In  a  mandod  by  right  philosophy.  If  it  were,  but  few 
word,  primitive  man  was,  in  their  opinion,  a  savage,  could  hope  for  salvation.  Tne  God  of  religion  is  the 
differing  but  little  from  existing  savages  in  his  intel-  unspeakably  great  Lord  on  whom  man  depends,  in 
lectual,  moral,  and  religious  liie.  Catholic  doctrine  whom  he  recognizes  the  source  of  his  happmess  and 
teaches  that  the  religion  of  our  first  parents  was  mon-  perfection;  He  is  the  righteous  Judge,  rewarding 
otheistic  and  supernatural,  being  the  result  of  Divine  good  and  punishing  evil;  the  loving  and  merciful 
revelation.  Not  that  primitive  man  without  Divine  Father,  whose  ear  is  ever  open  to  the  prayers  of  His 
help  could  not  possibly  have  come  to  know  and  wor-  needy  and  penitent  children.  Such  a  conception  of 
ship  God.  The  first  man,  like  his  descendants  to-day,  God  can  be  readily  grasped  by  simple,  imphilosophic 
had  by  nature  the  capacity  and  the  aptitude  for  re-  minds — ^by  children,  oy  the  unlettered  peasant,  by  the 
ligion.    Being  a  man  m  the  true  sense,  with  the  use  of  converted  savage. 

reason,  he  had  the  tendency  then,  as  men  have  now,  to  Nor  are  these  notions  of  a  supreme  being  utterly 
recognize  in  the  phenomena  of  nature  the  workings  of  lacking  even  where  barbarism  still  reigns.  Bishop 
a  mind  and  a  will  vastly  superior  to  his  own.  But,  as  Le  Roy,  in  his  interesting  work,  ''Religion  des  primi- 
he  lacked  experience  and  scientific  knowledge,  it  was  tifs"  (Paris.  1909),  and  Mr.  A.  Lang,  in  his  ''Making 
not  easy  for  him  to  unify  the  diverse  phenomena  of  of  Religion  (New  York,  1S98),  have  emphasized  a 
the  visible  world.  Hence  he  was  not  without  danger  point  too  often  overlooked  by  students  of  religion, 
of  going  astray  in  his  religious  interpretation  of  nature,  namely,  that  with  all  their  religious  crudities  and  su- 
He  was  liable  to  miss  the  important  truth  that,  as  na-  perstitions,  such  low-grade  savages  as  the  Pygmies  of 
ture  is  a  imity,  so  the  God  of  nature  is  one.  Kevela-  the  Northern  Congo,  the  Australians,  and  the  natives 
tion  was  morally  necessary  for  our  first  parents,  as  it  of  the  Andaman  iSands  entertain  very  noble  concep- 
ts for  men  to-day,  to  secure  the  possession  of  true  tions  of  the  Supreme  Deity.  To  say,  then,  that  prim- 
monotheistic  belief  and  worship.  itive  man.  fresh  from  the  hand  of  God,  was  incapable 

The  conception   that  Almighty  God  vouchsafed  of  monotneistic  belief,  even  with  the  sud  of  IHvine 

such  a  revelation  is  eminently  reasonable  to  every-  revelation,  is  contrary  to  well^ascertained  fact.     From 

one  who  recognizes  that  the  end  of  man  is  to  know,  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis  we  gather  that  our 

love,  and  serve  God.    It  is  repugnant  to  think  that  first  parents  recognized  God  to  be  the  author  of  all 

the  first  generations  of  men  were  left  to  grope  in  the  things,  their  Lord  and  Master,  the  source  of  their  hap- 

dark^  ignorant  alike  of  the  true  God  and  of  their  piness,  rewarding  good  and  punishing  evil.    The  sim- 

religious  duties,  while  at  the  same  time  it  was  God's  plicity  of  their  life  made  the  range  of  their  moral 

will  that  they  should  know  and  love  Him.    The  in-  obligation  easy  of  recognition.    Worship  was  of  the 

struction  in  religion  which  children  receive  from  their  simplest  kind. 

parents  and  superiors,  anticipating  their  powers  of  Mosaic  Monotheism. — The  ancient  Hebrew  re- 

mdependent  reasoning,  and  guiding  them  to  a  right  ligion,  promulgated  by  Moses  in  the  name  of  J^ovah 

knowledge  of  God,  being   impossible  for  our  first  (Jahwen),  was  an  impressive  form  of  Monotheism, 

parents,  was  not  without  a  fitting  substitute.    They  That  it  was  Divinely  revealed  is  the  unmistakable 

were  set  right  from  the  first  in  the  knowledge  of  their  teaching  of  Holy  Scripture,  particularly  of  Exodus  and 

religious  duties  by  a  Divine  revelation.    It  is  a  Catho-  the  following  books  which  treat  explicitly  of  Mosaic 

lie  dogma,  intimately  connected  with  the  dogma  of  legislation.    Even  non-Catholic  Scriptural  scholars, 

original  sin  and  with  that  of  the  Atonement,  that  our  who  no  longer  accept  the  Pentateuch,  as  it  stands,  a^ 

first  parents  were  raised  to  the  state  of  sanctifying  the  literary  production  of  Moses,  recognize,  in  great 

grace  and   were  destined   to   a  supernatural  end,  part,  that,  in  the  older  sources  which,  according  to 

namely,  the  beatific  vision  of  God  in  heaven.    This  them,  go  to  make  up  the  Pentateuch,  there  are  portions 

necessarily  implies  supernatural  faith,  which  could  that  reach  back  to  the  time  of  Moses,  showing  the 

come  only  by  revelation.  existence  of  Hebrew  monotheistic  worship  in  his  day. 


MONOTHEISM 


501 


MONOTHEISM 


Now.  the  transcendent  superiority  of  this  Monotheism 
tau^t  by  Moses  offers  a  strong  proof  of  its  Divine 
origin.  At  a  time  when  the  neighbouring  nations 
representing  the  highest  civiUzation  of  that  time — 
Egypt,  Babyloniai  Greece — were  g;iving  an  impure 
and  idolatrous  worship  to  many  deities,  we  find  the 
insignificant  Hebrew  people  professing  a  religion  in 
which  idolatry,  impure  rites,  and  a  degriading  mythol- 
ogy had  no  legitimate  place,  but  where,  instead,  be- 
hei  in  the  one  true  God  was  associated  with  a  digmfied 
worship  and  a  lofty  moral  code.  Those  who  reject 
the  claim  of  Mosaic  Monotheism  to  have  been  re- 
vealed have  never  yet  succeeded  in  giving  a  satis- 
factory explanation  of  this  extraordinary  phenomenon. 
It  was,  however,  pre-eminently  the  religion  of  the  He- 
brew people,  destined  in  the  fullness  of  time  to  eive 
place  to  the  higher  monotheistic  religion  revealed  by 
Christ,  in  which  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  should  find 
peace  and  salvation.  The  Jewish  people  was  thus 
God's  chosen  people,  not  so  much  by  reason  of  their 
own  merit,  as  because  they  were  destined  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  absolute  and  universal  religion,  Christian- 
ity. The  God  of  Moses  is  no  mere  tribal  deity.  He 
is  the  Creator  and  Lord  of  the  world.  He  gives  over 
to  His  chosen  people  the  land  of  the  Chanaanites. 
He  is  a  jealous  God,  forbidding  not  only  worship  of 
strange  gods,  but  the  use  of  images,  which  might  lead 
to  abuses  in  that  age  of  almost  universal  idolatry. 
Love  of  God  is  made  a  duty,  but  reverential  fear  is 
the  predominant  emotion.  The  religious  sanction  of 
the  law  is  centred  chiefly  in  temporal  rewards  and 

gunishments.    Laws  of  conduct,  though  determined 
y  justice  rather  than  by  charity  and  mercy,  are  still 
eminently  humane. 

Christian  Monothbism. — ^The  sublime  Monothe- 
ism taught  by  Jesus  Christ  has  no  parallel  in  the  lus- 
tory  of  religions.    God  is  presented  to  us  as  the  lov- 
ing, merciful  Father,  not  of  one  privileged  people,  but 
of  &L\  mankind.    In  this  filial  relation  with  God — a  re- 
lation of  confidence,  gratitude,  love — Christ  centres 
our  obligations  both  to  God  and  to  our  fellow-men. 
He  lays  hold  of  the  individual  soul  and  reveals  to  it  its 
high  destiny  of  Divine  sonship.    At  the  same  time, 
He  impresses  on  us  the  corresponding  duty  of  treating 
others  as  God's  children,  and  hence  as  our  brethren, 
entitled  not  simply  to  justice,  but  to  mercy  and  char- 
ity.    To  complete  this  idea  of  Christian  fellowship, 
Jesus  shows  Himself  to  be  the  eternal  Son  of  Godj  sent 
by  His  heavenly  Father  to  save  us  from  sin,  to  raise  us 
to  the  life  of  grace  and  to  the  dignity  of  children  of 
Ood  through  the  atoning  merits  of  His  Ufe  and  death. 
The  love  of  God  the  Father  thus  includes  the  love  of 
His  incarnate  Son.    Personal  devotion  to  Jesus  is  the 
motive  of  right  conduct  in  Christian  Monotheism. 
Co-operating  in  the  sanctification  of  mankind  is  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Spirit  of  truth  and  life,  sent  to 
confirm   the   faithful  in  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 
Xhese  three  Divine  Persons,  distinct  from  one  an- 
other, equal  in  all  things.  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost,  are  one  in  essence,  a  trinity  of  persons  in  the 
one,  undivided  Godhead  (see  Trinity,  Thb).    Such 
is  the  Monotheism  taught  by  Jesus.    The  guaranty  of 
the  truth  of  His  teaching  is  to  be  found  in  His  supreme 
moral  excellence,  in  the  perfection  of  Hia  ethical  teach- 
ing, in  His  miracles,  especially  His  bodily  resurrection. 
and  in  His  wonderful  influence  on  mankind  for  all 
time.     (Cf.  John^  xyii,  3;  I  Cor.,  viii.  4.)    As  Chris- 
tianity in  its  beginnings  was  surrounded  by  the  poly- 
tbeistic  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  pagan  world,  a 
clear  and  authoritative  expression  of  Monotheism  was 
necessary.    Hence  the  symbols  of  faith,  or  creeds, 
open  with  the  words:  "I  [we]  believe  in  God  [Oedv 
detAtn]"  or,  more  explicitly,  " I  [we]  believe  in  one  God 


{irct  Mr,  unum  deumY*.  (See  Denziger-Bannwart, 
"Enchiridion",  1-40;  cf.  Apostles'  Creed;  Athana- 
BIJL19  Cubed  ;  Nicene  Creed.)  Among  the  early  here- 
in some  of  the  most  important  and  most  directly  op- 


posed to  Monothebm  arose  out  of  the  attempt  to 
account  for  the  orisin  of  evil.  Good  they  ascribed  to 
one  divine  principle,  evil  to  another.  (See  Gnobti- 
cism;  Manicii£I8m;  Marcionftes.)  These  dualistio 
errors  gave  occasion  for  a  vigorous  defence  of  Mono- 
theism oy  such  writers  as  St.  Irenseus,  Tertullian,  St. 
Augustine,  etc.  (see  Bardenhewer-Shahan,  ''Patrol- 
oet",  St.  Louis,  1908). 

The  same  doctrine  naturally  held  the  foremost 
place  in  the  teaching  of  the  missionaries  who  con- 
verted the  races  of  Northern  Europe;  in  fact,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  diffusion  of  Monotheism  is  one 
of  the  great  achievements  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
In  the  various  conciliar  definitions  regarding  the 
Trinity  of  Persons  in  God,  emphasis  is  laid  on  the 
unity  of  the  Divine  nature;  see,  e.  g.,  Fourth  Coun- 
cil of  Lateran  (1215),  in  Denzinger-Bannwart,  "En- 
chiridion ' ' ,  428.  The  medieval  Scholastics,  taking  up 
the  traditional  belief,  brought  to  its  support  a  long 
array  of  arguments  based  on  reason;  see,  for  instance, 
St.  Thomas,  "Contra  Gentcs",  I,  xlii;  and  St.  Anselm, 
"Monol.'^  iv.  During  the  last  three  centuries  the- 
most  conspicuous  tendency  outside  the  Catholic 
Church  has  been  towards  such  extreme  positions  as 
those  of  Monism  (q.  v.)  and  Pantheism  (q.  v.),  in 
which  it  is  asserted  that  all  things  ase  really  one  in  sub- 
stance, and  that  God  is  identical  with  the  world.  The 
Church,  however,  has  steadfastly  maintained,  not 
only  that  God  is  essentially  distinct  from  all  things 
else,  but  also  that  there  is  only  one  God.  "  If  anv  one 
denv  the  one  true  God.  Creator  and  Lord  of  all  things 
visible  and  invisible,  let  him  be  anathema"  (Cone. 
Vatican.,  Sess.  Ill,  "De  fide",  can.  i). 

Mohammedan  Monotheism. — Of  Mohammedan 
Monotheism  httle  need  be  said.  The  Allah  of  the 
Koran  is  practically  one  with  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Its  keynote  is  islam,  submissive  resigna- 
tion to  the  will  of  Grod,  which  is  expressed  in  every- 
thing that  happens.  Allah  is,  to  use  the  words  of  the 
Koran,  '^The  Almighty,  the  Ail-knowing,  the  All-just, 
the  Lord  of  the  worlds,  the  Author  of  the  heavens  ana 
the  earth,  the  Creator  of  life  and  death,  in  whose  hand 
is  dominion  and  irresistible  power,  the  great  all-power- 
ful Lord  of  the  glorious  throne.  God  is  the  Mighty, 
.  .  .  the  Swift  in  reckoning,  who  knoweth  every  ant's 
weight  of  good  and  of  ill  that  each  man  hath  done,  and 
who  suffereth  not  the  reward  of  the  faithful  to  perish. 
He  is  the  King,  the  Holy,  .  .  .  the  Guardian  over  His 
servants,  the  Shelterer  of  the  orphan,  the  Guide  of  the 
erring,  tne  Deliverer  from  every  affliction,  the  Friend 
of  the  bereaved,  the  Consoler  of  the  afflicted,  .  .  .  the 
generous  Lord,  the  gracious  Hearer,  the  Near-at-hand. 
the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful,  the  Foradvin^'' 
(cited  from  "Islam  ,  by  Ameer  Ali  Syed).  The  in- 
fluence of  the  Bible,  particularly  the  (Jld  Testament, 
on  Mohammedan  Monotheism  is  well  known  and  need 
not  be  dwelt  on  here. 

Monotheism  and  Polytheistic  Religions. — 
What  has  thus  far  been  said  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  Christian  Monotheism  and  its  antecedent  forms, 
Mosaic  and  primitive  Monotheism,  are  independent 
in  their  origin  of  the  Polytheistic  religions  of  the  world. 
The  various  forms  of  polytheism  that  now  flourish,  or 
that  have  existed  in  tne  past,  are  the  result  of  man's 
faultv  attempts  to  interpret  nature  bjr  the  Ught  of  un- 
idded  reason.  Wherever  the  scientific  view  of  nature 
has  not  obtained,  the  mechanical,  secondary  causes 
that  account  for  such  striking  phenomena  as  sun, 
moon,  lightning,  tempest,  have  invariably  been  mis- 
taken for  personal,  hving  causes.  The  thunder  has 
BU^ested  the  thunderer;  the  tempest,  a  mysterious 
living  being  of  destructive  tendencies;  the  sun^  moon, 
and  stars  have  been  viewed  either  as  livine  bemgs,  or 
as  inert  bodies  kept  in  movement  by  invisible,  intelli- 
gent i^ents.  This  personaUzing  of  the  striking  phe- 
nomena of  nature  was  common  among  the  highest 
pagan  nations  of  antiquity.    It  is  the  common  view 


502 


MOIIOTBILmSM 


among  peoples  of  inferior  culture  to-day.  It  ia  only 
since  modem  science  has  brought  all  these  phenomena 
within  the  reign  of  physical  law  that  the  tendency  to 
view  them  as  manifestations  of  distinct  personahties 
has  been  thoroughly  dispelled.  Now  such  a  person- 
alizing of  nature  IB  forces  is  compatible  with  Monothe- 
ism so  long  as  these  different  intelligencies  fancied  to 
produce  the  phenomena  are  viewed  as  God's  creatures, 
and  hence  not  worthy  of  Divine  worship.  But  where 
the  light  of  revelation  has  been  obscured  in  whole 
or  in  part,  the  tendency  to  deify  these  personal- 
ities associated  with  natural  phenomena  has  asserted 
itself. 

In  this  way  pol3rtheistic  nature-worship  seems  to 
have  arisen.  It  arose  from  the  mistaken  application 
of  a  sound  principle,  which  man  everywhere  seems  nat- 
urally to  possess,  namely,  that  the  great  operations 
of  nature  are  due  to  the  agency  of  mind  and  will.  Pro- 
fessor George  Fisher  observes:  "The  polytheistic  re- 
ligions did  not  err  in  identif3ring  the  manifold  activities 
of  natiu«  with  voluntary  agency.  The  spontaneous 
feelings  of  mankind  in  tms  particular  are  not  belied  by 
the  principles  of  philosophy.  The  error  of  polytheism 
lies  m  the  splintering  of  that  will  which  is  immanent  in 
all  the  operations  of  nature  into  a  plurality  of  personal 
agents,  a  throng  of  divinities,  each  active  and  domi- 
nant within  a  province  of  its  own"  ("Groimds  of 
Christian  and  Theistic  Belief",  1903,  p.  29).  Poly- 
theistic nature-worship  is  to  be  found  among  practi- 
cally all  peoples  who  nave  lacked  the  guiding  star  of 
Divine  revelation.  Such  history  of  these  individual 
religions  as  we  possess  offers  little  evidence  of  an  up- 
wara  development  towards  Monotheism :  on  the  con- 
trary, in  almost  every  instance  of  known  historic  devel- 
opment, the  tendency  has  been  to  degenerate  further 
and  further  from  the  monotheistic  idea.  There  is,  in- 
deed, scarcely  a  Polytheistic  religion  in  which  one  of 
the  many  deities  recognized  is  not  held  in  honour  as 
the  father  and  lord  of  the  rest.  That  this  is  the  result 
of  an  upward  development,  as  non-Catholic  scholars 
very  generally  assert,  is  speculatively  possible.  But 
that  it  may  as  well  be  the  outcome  of  a  downward  de- 
velopment from  a  primitive  monotheistic  belief  can- 
not DO  denied.  Tne  latter  view  seems  to  have  the 
weight  of  positive  evidence  in  its  favour.  The  ancient 
Chinese  religion,  as  depicted  in  the  oldest  records, 
was  remarkably  close  to  pure  Monotheism.  The 
gross  Polytheistic  nature-worship  of  the  Egyptians  of 
later  times  was  decidedly  a  degeneration  from  the  ear- 
lier quasi-Monotheistic  belief.  In  the  Vedic  religion 
a  strong  Monotheistic  tendency  asserted  itself,  only  to 
weaken  later  on  and  change  into  Pantheism.  The  one 
happy  exception  is  the  upward  development  which  the 
ancient  Aryan  Polytheism  took  in  the  land  of  the 
Irs^ans.  Through  the  wise  reform  of  Zoroaster,  the 
various  gods  of  nature  were  subordinated  to  the  su- 
preme, omniscient  spirit,  Ormuzd,  and  were  accorded 
an  inferior  worship  as  his  creatures.  Ormuzd  was 
honoured  as  the  creator  of  all  that  is  good,  the  revealer 
and  guardian  of  the  laws  of  religious  and  moral  con- 
duct, and  the  sanctifier  of  the  faithful.  The  sense  of 
sin  was  strongly  developed,  and  a  standard  of  morality 
was  set  forth  that  justly  excites  admiration.  Heaven 
and  hell,  the  finaJ  renovation  of  the  world,  including 
the  bodily  resurrection,  were  elements  in  Zoroastrian 
eschatology.  A  nobler  religion  outside  the  sphere  of 
revealed  religion  is  not  to  be  found.  Yet  even  this  re- 
ligion is  rarely  classed  by  scholars  among  monotheis- 
tic religions,  owing  to  the  polytheistic  colouring  of  its 
worship  of  the  subordinate  nature-spirits,  and  also  to 
its  retention  of  the  ancient  Aryan  rite  of  fire-worahip, 
justified  by  Zoroastrians  of  modem  times  as  a  form  of 
symbolic  worship  of  Ormuzd. 

The  so-called  survivals  in  higher  religions,  such  as 
beUef  in  food-eating  ghosts,  pain-causing  spirits, 
witchcraft,  the  use  of  amulets  and  fetishes,  are  often 
pited  as  evidence  that  even  such  forms  of  Monotheism 


as  Judaism  and  Christianity  are  but  outgrowths  of 
lower  religions.  The  presence  of  the  greater  part  of 
these  supmtitiouB  beliefs  and  customs  in  the  more 
ignorant  sections  of  Christian  peoples  is  easily  ex- 
plained as  the  survival  of  tenacious  customs  that 
flourished  among  the  ancestors  of  European  peoples 
long  before  their  conversion  to  Christianity.  A^ain, 
many  of  these  beliefs  and  customs  are  such  as  might 
easily  arise  from  faulty  interpretations  of  nature,  un- 
avoidable in  unscientific  grades  of  culture,  even  where 
the  monotheistic  idea  prevailed.  Superstitions  like 
these  are  but  the  rank  weeds  and  vines  growing  around 
the  tree  of  religion. 

KRtao,  Der  MonathtiafnM*  d,  Offmbammf  «.  da»  HeitUntum 

gtfaiiu.  1880);  Bosddsb.  Naiunl  7A<oio9y  (New  York,  1891); 
mxacoLL,  Christian  PhUowphu.  God  (New  York.  1900):  Hoxrr- 
RKXM.  Ifulitutionea  Theodieaa  (Freibiirg,  1803);  Liixt,  T%e  Great 
Enigma  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1803);  Rickabt,  Of  God  and  Hit 
Crtaiuret  (St.  Louis,  1898) ;  MicneLST,  Dieu  «(  Voffnoatieigtms  ce^ 
temporain  (PariB,  1900) ;  db  la  PAQDnus,  EUmgnU  d'apolo^SHqut 
(Paria,  1898) :  QABRioon-LAOKANQB  in  Dittionnairs  o-poiatHliiqtis 
d^lafoi  eatholique  (Paria,  1910),  a.  ▼.  Dieu;  Fishbb.  The  Ground* 
of  TAeufie  and  Christian  BditfiSew  York,  1897);  Caxkd.  ThM 
Evolution  of  Religion  (3  vols..  Glaacow.  1899);  Gwatkxk,  Tht 
Knowledge  of  God  and  itt  Hidoric  Detdoptnent  (Edinburgh,  1906^ ; 
FuNT,  Theum  (New  York.  1896);  Idbm,  Anti-Theigtie  Th^vriea 
(New  York,  1894) ;  Itbbacb,  Thtitm  in  the  Lighi  of  Prtoeni  SrUnce 
and  Philoeophy  (New  York,  1890);  Orr.  The  Chrietian  View  of 
God  and  the  World  (New  York.  1907) ;  IIa8Rdalu  PhUoeojOky  and 
Religion  (New  York.  1910) ;  Scnmif  Aim,  Beliefin  God,  iu  Ori^ia, 
Nature,  and  Baeie  (New  York,  1890). 

Charles  F.  Aikek. 

MoBOthftBtiam  tad  HoBOthelitaB  (sometimea 
written  Monotheletbs,  from  fjM9o$€\^ai.  but  the  y 
is  more  naturally  transliterated  into  late  Latin  by  i), 
a  heresT^  of  the  seventh  century,  condenmed  in  the 
Sixth  General  Council.  It  was  essentially  a  modifi- 
cation of  Monophysitism,  proi)agated  within  the 
Catholic  Church  in  order  to  conciliate  the  Monophy- 
siteS)  in  hopes  of  reunion. 

The  Theological  Question. — ^The  Monophysites 
were  habitually  represented  by  their  Cathohc  oppo- 
nents as  denying  all  reality  to  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  after  the  union.  This  was  perhaps  a  logical 
deduction  from  some  of  their  language,  but  it  was 
far  from  being  the  real  teaching  of  their  chief 
doctors. 

Yet  at  least  it  is  certain  that  they  made  the  unity  of 
Christ  (on  which  they  insisted  ag^nst  real  and  sup- 
posed Nestorianiiers)  imply  only  one  principle  of  in- 
tention and  will,  and  only  one  kind  of  activity  or 
operation  (jip4py€ta).  Personality  seemed  to  them  to 
be  manifested  in  will  and  action;  and  they  thought  a 
single  personality  must  involve  a  single  will  and  a 
single  category  of  action.  The  Person  of  Christ, 
being  divino-human.  must  therefore  involve  one  di- 
vino-human  will  ana  one  divino-human  activity  (see 
Edttchianibm;  Monopbtbites  and  Monophystt- 
ibm). 

A.  The  txDO  WUU, — ^The  Catholic  doctrine  is  simple, 
at  all  events  in  its  main  lines.  The  facidty  of  wilung 
is  an  integral  part  of  human  nature:  therefore,  our 
Lord  had  a  human  will,  since  He  took  a  perfect  human 
nature.  His  Divine  will  on  the  other  hand  is  numer- 
ically one  with  that  of  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  acknowledge  two  wills  in 
Christ. 

But  if  the  word  tnll  is  taken  to  mean  not  the 
faculty  but  the  decision  tsken  by  the  will  (the  will 
willed,  not  the  will  willing),  then  it  is  true  that  the  two 
wills  alwavs  acted  in  harmony:  there  were  two  wills 
willing  and  two  acts,  but  one  object,  one  will  willed ;  in 
the  phrase  of  St.  Maximus,  there  were  6^  tfeX^/iara 
though  fUa  ywttik-fi.  The  woid  wUl  is  also  used  to  mean 
not  a  decision  of  the  will,  but  a  mere  velleity  or  wish, 
uolunUM  tU  natura  (^cX^tt)  as  opposed  to  wolunlas  lU 
roHo  (podXffais).  These  are  but  two  movements  of 
the  same  faculty;  both  exist  in  Christ  without  any 
imperfection,  and  the  natural  movement  of  Hia 
human  will  is  perfectly  subject  to  its  rational  or  free 
movement.    Lastly,  the  sensitive  appetite  is  aJao 


M0N0THIZJTZ8M                       503  M0N0THILITI8M 

BometinLes  entitled  xuiU.    It  is  an  integral  part  of  ing  that  all  the  actions,  human  and  divine,  of  the  in- 
human nature,  and  therefore  exists  in  the  perfect  camate  Son  are  to  be  referred  to  one  agent,  who  is  the 
human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ,  but  without  any  of  the  God-man;  but  they  were  wrong  in  inferring  that  con- 
imperfection  induced  by  original  or  actual  sin :  He  can  sequently  His  actions,  both  the  human  and  the  Divine, 
have  no  passions  (in  that  sense  of  the  word  which  im-  must  all  be  called  ''theandric''  or  "divino-human*', 
plies  a  revolt  against  the  reason),  no  concupiscence,  no  and  must  proceed  from  a  single  divino-human  iwipytw,, 
"will  of  the  flc»h'\    Therefore  this  'Mower  will"  is  to  St.  Sophronius,  and  after  him  St.  Maximus  and  St. 
be  denied  in  Christ,  in  so  far  as  it  is  called  a  will,  be-  John  Damascene,  showed  that  the  two  Mpy^uu  pro- 
cause  it  resists  the  rational  will  (it  was  in  this  sense  duce  three  classes  of  actions,  since  actions  are  complex, 
that  Honorius  was  said  by  John  IV  to  have  denied  and  some  are  therefore  mingled  of  the  human  ana  the 
that  Christ  had  a  lower  will);  but  it  is  to  be  asserted  divine.     (1)  There  are  Divine  actions  exercised  by 
in  Him  so  far  as  it  is  called  will,  because  it  obeys  the  God  the  Son  in  common  with  the  Father  and  the 
rational  wUl,  and  so  is  vo2un/<M  per'partidpatianem:  in  Holy  Ghost  (e.  g.  the  creation  of  souls  or  the  con- 
fact  in  this  latter  sense  the  sensual  appetite  is  less  servation  of  the  universe)  in  which  His  human  nature 
improperly  called  will  in  Christ  than  in  us,  for  quo  bears  no  part  whatever,  and  these  cannot  be  called 
perfectior  eat  voUnSf  eo  maqis  sensualiias  in  eo  de  divino-human,  for  they  are  purely  Divine.    It  is  true 
voluntate  hahet.    But  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  will  that  it  is  correct  to  sa^r  that  a  child  ruled  the  universe 
{voluntas J  9i\ii/M)  is  always  the  rational  will,  the  free  (by  the  communicatio  idiomatum),  but  this  is  a  matter 
will.    It  is  therefore  correct  to  say  that  in  Christ  there  of  words,  and  is  an  accidental,  not  a  formal  predication 
are  but  two  wills:  the  Divine  willj  which  is  the  Divine  — He  who  became  a  child  ruled  the  universe  as  God, 
nature,  and  the  human  rational  will,  which  always  acts  not  as  a  child,  and  by  an  activity  that  is  wholly  Divine, 
in  harmony  with  and  in  free  subjection  to  the  Divine  not   divino-human.     (2)    There   are   other   Divine 
will.    The  denial  of  more  than  one  will  in  Christ  by  actions  which  the  Word  Incarnate  exercised  in  and 
the  heretics  necessarily  involved  the  incompleteness  through  His  human  nature,  as  to  raise  the  dead  by  a 
of  His  human  nature.    Thev  confounded  the  will  as  word,  to  heal  the  sick  by  a  touch.    Here  the  Divme 
faculty  with  the  decision  of  the  faculty.    They  argued  action  is  distinguished  from  the  human  actions  of 
that  two  wills  must  mean  contrary  wills,  which  shows  touching   or  speaking,   thoush   it  uses  them^  but 
that  they  could  not  conceive  of  two  distinct  faculties  through  this  close  connexion  the  word  theandric  is  not 
having  the  same  object.    Further,  they  saw  rigjhtly  out  of  place  for  the  whole  complex  act,  while  the 
that  the  Divine  will  is  the  ultimate  governing  princi-  Divine  action  as  exercised  through  the  human  may 
pic,  rb  iiytfionKSp,  but  a  free  human  will  acting  under  be  called  formally  theandric,  or  divino-human.     (3) 
its  leadendiip  seemed  to  them  to  be  otiose,     x  et  this  Again,  there  are  purely  human  actions  of  Christ,  such 
omission  prevents  our  Lord's  actions  from  bemg  free,  as  walking  or  eatins[,  but  these  are  due  to  the  free 
from  being  human  actions,  from  being  meritorious,  in-  human  wul,  acting  m  response  to  a  motion  of  the 
deed  makes  His  human  nature  nothing  but  an  irra-  Divine  will.    These  are  elicited  from  a  human  potenr 
tional,  irresponfflble  instrument  of  the  Divinity — a  iia,  but  under  the  direction  of  the  Divine.   Therefore 
machine,  of  which  the  Divinity  is  the  motive  power,  they  are  also  called  theandric,  but  in  a  different 
To  Severus  our  Lord's  knowledge  was  similarly  of  one  sense — ^they  are  materially  theandric,  humano-divine. 
kind — He  had  only  Divine  knowledge  and  no  human  We  have  seen  therefore  that  to  some  of  our  Lord's 
cognitive  faculty.    Such  thoroup^hgoing  condusions  actions  the  word  theandric  cannot  be  applied  at  all;  to 
were  not  contemplated  by  the  mventors  of  Mono-  some  it  can  be  applied  in  one  sense,  to  others  in  a 
thelitism,  and  Sergius  merely  denied  two  wiUs  in  different  sense.    Tne  Lateran  Council  of  649  anathe- 
order  to  assert  that  there  was  no  repugnance  in  matized  the  expression  una  deivirUis  operation  itla  Btav^ 
Christ's  human  nature  to  the  promptings  of  the  Di-  Spuc^  Mpytia,  by  which  all  the  actions  divine  and 
vine,  and  he  certainly  did  not  see  the  consequences  human  are  performed.    It  is  unfortunate  that  the  re- 
of  his  own  disastrous  teaching.  spect  felt  for  the  writings  of  Pseudo-Dionysius  Areo- 
B.  The  ttDo  operations. — Operation  or  energy,  activ-  pagita  has  prevented  theologians  from  proscribing  the 
ity  {ip4py«ia,  operatio),  is  paraUel  to  will,  in  that  there  expression  deivirilis  ojieraiio  altogether.    It  has  been 
is  but  one  activity  of  Goa,  ad  extroj  common  to  all  Uie  shown  above  that  it  is  correct  to  speak  of  deiviriles 
three  Persons;  whereas  there  are  two  operations  of  actus  or  actiones  or  tfi«p7^Aiara.    The  icair^  6€ap8puci/j 
Christ,  on  account  of  His  two  natures.    The  word  MpytM,  of  Pseudo-Dionysius  was  defended  by  So- 
4w4prf€ia  is  not  here  employed  in   the  Aristotelean  phronius  and  Maximus  as  referring  to  the  Divine 
sense  (actuSj  as  opposed  to  potentia,  dtfm/uf),  for  this  Mpytta  when  producing  the  mixed  (formally  thean- 
would  be  practically  identical  with  esse  (existentia)^  dric)  acts;  theandric  thus  becomes  a  correct  epithet 
and  it  is  an  open  question  amonsnt  Catholic  theolo-  of  the  Divine  operation  under  certain  circumstances, 

S'ans  whether  there  is  one  esse  in  Christ  or  two.    Nor  and  that  is  all. 

>e8  ip4py«ia  here  mean  simply  the  action  (as  Vasquez,  Thou^  the  Monophysites  in  general  spoke  of  ''one 

followed  by  de  Lugo  and  others,  wrongly  held)  but  theandno  operation  ,  yet  a  speech  of  St.  Martin  at 

the  faculty  of  action,  including  the  act  of  the  faculty,  the  Lateran  Council  tells  us  that  a  certain  Colluthus 

Petavius  has  no  difficulty  in  refuting  Vasquez,  by  re-  would  not  go  even  so  far  as  this,  for  he  feared  lest 

f erring  to  the  writers  of  the  seventh  century;  but  he  "theandric'   might  leave  some  operation  to  the  hu- 

himseff  speaks  of  duo  genera  operationum  as  equiva-  man  nature;  he  preferred  the  word  BtKowpiinut^  Deo 

lent  to  duo  operationes,  which  introduces  an  unlortu-  dt^ibilis  (Mansi,  A,  982).    The  denial  of  two  opera- 

nate  confusion  between  MpyeuL  and  xpd|cit  or  ii^py^  tions,  even  more  than  the  denial  of  two  wills,  makes 

/Mira,  that  is  between   faculty   of   action  and  the  the  human  nature  of  Christ  an  inanimate  instrument 

multiple  actions  produced  by  the  faculty.    This  con-  of  the  Divine  will.    St.  Thomas  points  out  that  though 

fusion  of  terms  is  frequent  in  modem  theolof^ians,  and  an  instrument  participates  in  the  action  of  the  agent 

occurs  in  the  ancients,  e.  g.  St.  Sophromus.    The  who  uses  it,  yet  even  an  inanimate  instrument  has  an 

actions  of  God  are  innumerable  in  Creation  and  Provi-  activity  of  its  own;  much  more  the  rational  human 

dence,  but  His  Mpn/tia,  is  one,  for  He  has  one  nature  nature  of  Christ  has  an  operation  of  its  own  under 

of  the  three  Persons.    The  various  actions  of  the  in-  the  higher  motion  it  receives  from  the  divinity.    But 

camate  Son  proceed  from  two  distinct  and  unoon-  by  means  of  this  higher  motion,  the  two  natures  act  in 

fused  MpTftiai^  because  He  has  two  natures.     All  concert,  according  to  the  famous  words  of  St.  Leo's 

are  the  actions  of  one  subject  (agent  or  piincipium  Tome:  '*  Agit  enim  utraque  forma  cum  alterius  com- 

quod)f  but  are  either  divine  or  human  according  to  the  munione  quod  proprium  est;  Verbo  scilicet  operante 

nature  (principium  quo)  from  which  they  are  didted.  quod  Verbi  est,  et  came  exseouente  quod  camis  est. 

Tbe  MonophysiteB  were  therefore  quite  right  in  say-  Unum  horum  coruscat  miracuus,  aliud  suocumbit  ia- 


MONOTHELinSM 


504 


M0N0THELZTI8M 


juiiis"  (Ep.  28,  4).  These  worda  were  quoted  by 
Cyrus,  Sergius,  Sophronius,  Honorius,  Maximus,  etc., 
and  played  a  large  part  in  the  controversv.  This  in- 
tercommunication of  the  two  operations  follows  from 
the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Tc^tx^^P^*' » circuminaessio, 
of  the  two  unconf  used  and  inseparable  natures,  as  asain 
St.  Leo:  "Exprimit  quidem  sub  distinctis  actionibus 
veritatem  suam  utraque  natura,  sed  neutra  se  ab 
alterius  connexione  oisjungit''  (Serm.  liv,  1).  St. 
Sophronius  (Mansi,  XI,  480  sqq.)  and  St.  Maximus 
(Ep.  19)  expressed  this  truth  at  the  very  outset  of  the 
controversy  as  well  as  later:  and  it  is  insisted  upon  bv 
St.  John  Damascene.  St.  Tnomas  (III,  Q.  xix,  a.  1)  well 
explains  it:  ''Motum  participat  operationem  moven- 
tis^  et  movens  utitur  operatione  moti.  et  sic  utrumque 
agit  cum  communicatione  alterius  .  KrQger  and 
others  have  doubted  whether  it  could  be  said  that  the 
question  of  two  operations  was  already  decided  (as 
Loofs  held),  in  Justinian's  time.  But  it  seems  that 
St.  Leo's  words,  yet  earlier,  were  clear  enough.  The 
writings  of  Severus  of  Antioch  assumed  that  his 
Catholic  opponents  would  uphold  two  operations, 
and  an  obscure  monk  in  the  sixth  century,  Eustathius 
(De  duabus  naturis,  P.  G.,  LXXXVI,  909)  accepts 
the  expression.  Many  of  the  numerous  citations  from 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers  adduced  at  the  Lateran 
Council  and  on  other  occasions  are  inconclusive,  but 
some  of  them  are  clear  enough.  Really  learned  theo- 
logians like  Sophronius  and  Maximus  were  not  at  a 
loss,  though  Cyrus  and  Honorius  were  puzzled.  The 
Patriarch  Eulogius  of  Alexandria  (580-607)  had  writ- 
ten against  those  who  taught  one  will,  but  his  work 
was  unknown  to  Cyrus  and  Sergius. 

HiBTOBT. — The  origin  of  the  Monothelite  contro- 
versy is  thus  related  bv  Sergius  in  his  letter  to  Pope 
Honorius.  When  the  Emperor  Heraclius  in  the  course 
of  the  war  which  he  began  about  619,  came  to  Theo- 
dosiopolis  (Erzeroum)  in  Armenia  (about  622),  a 
Monophysite  named  Paul,  a  leader  of  the  Acephali, 
made  a  speech  before  him  in  favour  of  his  heresy. 
The  emperor  refuted  him  with  theological  alignments, 
and  incidentally  made  use  of  the  expression  "one 
operation''  of  Christ.    Later  on  (about  626)  he  in- 

auired  of  Cvrua,  Bishop  of  Phasis  and  metropolitan  of 
le  Lazi,  whether  his  words  were  correct.  Cynis  was 
uncertain,  and  by  the  emperor's  order  wrote  to  Sergius 
the  Patnarch  of  Constantinople,  whom  Heraclius 
greatly  trusted,  for  advice.  Sergius  in  reply  sent  him 
a  letter  said  to  have  been  written  by  Mennas  of  Con- 
stantinople to  Pope  Vigilius  and  approved  by  the 
latter,  in  which  several  authorities  were  cited  for  one 
operation  and  one  will.  This  letter  was  afterwards 
declared  to  be  a  forgery  and  was  admitted  to  be  such 
at  the  Sixth  General  Council.  Nothing  more  occurred, 
according  to  Sergius,  until  in  June,  631,  Cyrus  was 
promoted  by  the  emperor  to  the  See  of  Alexandria. 
The  whole  of  Egypt  was  then  Monophysite,  and  it  was 
constantly  threatened  by  the  Saracens.  Heraclius 
was  doubtless  very  anxious  to  unite  all  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  for  the  country  was  greatly  weakened  by  the 
dissensions  of  the  heretics  amon^  themselves,  and  by 
their  bitterness  against  the  official  religion.  Former 
emperors  had  made  efforts  for  reimion,  but  in  the  fifth 
century  the  Henoticon  of  Zeno  had  been  condemned 
by  the  popes  yet  had  not  satisfied  all  the  heretics,  and 
in  the  sixth  century  the  condemnation  of  the  three 
Chapters  had  nearly  caused  a  schism  between  East 
and  West  without  m  the  least  plzicating  the  Mono- 
physites.  Cyrus  was  for  the  moment  more  successful. 
Imagining,  no  doubt,  as  all  Catholics  imagined,  that 
Monophysitism  involved  the  assertion  that  the  hu- 
man nature  of  Christ  was  a  nonentitv  after  the  Union, 
he  was  delighted  at  the  acceptance  by  the  Mcmophy- 
sites  of  a  series  of  nine  CapUula^  in  which  the  Chal- 
cedonian  "in  two  natures"  is  asserted,  ^ the  "one 
composite  hypostasis",  and  ^wriKii  xal  xaB'  inrbcroffiv 
ivuaa,  together  with  the  adverbs  dtf-iryxiJrwf,  irpiirrut. 


dwXXoif^vt.  St.  Cyril,  the  great  doctor  of  the  Mono- 
physites,  is  cited;  and  all  is  satisfactory  until  in  the 
seventh  proposition  our  Lord  is  spoken  of  aa  "working 
His  Divine  and  His  human  woiks  bv  one  theandrio 
operation,  according  to  the  divine  Dionjrshia".  This 
famous  expression  of  the  Pseudo-Dionyaius  the  Areo- 
padte  is  taken  by  modem  critics  to  show  that  he  wrote 
under  Monophysite  influences.  But  Cyrus  bdieved 
it  to  be  an  orthodoi^  expression,  used  by  Mennas, 
and  M)proved  by  Pope  Vigilius.  He  was  triumphant 
therefore  at  the  reunion  to  the  Qiurch  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  Theodosian  Monophysites,  so  that,  as  Sergius 
phrases  it,  all  the  people  of  Alexandria  and  nearly  aD 
Eg^ypt,  the  Thebaid,  and  Libya  had  become  of  one 
voice,  and  whereas  formerlv  they  would  not  hear  even 
the  name  of  St.  Leo  and  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
now  th^  acclaimed  them  with  a  loud  voice  in  the  holy 
mysteries.  But  the  Monophysites  saw  more  cleariy, 
and  Anastasius  of  Mount  Sinai  tells  us  that  they 
boasted  "they  had  not  communicated  with  Chaloe- 
don,  but  Chalcedon  with  them,  by  acknowledging  one 
nature  of  Christ  through  one  operation". 

St.  Sophronius,  a  much  venerated  monk  of  Pales- 
tine, soon  to  become  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  was  in 
Alexandria  at  this  time.  He  stronfl^y  objected  to  the 
expression  "one  operation",  ana  unconvinced  by 
Cyrus's  defence  of  it,  he  went  to  Constantinople,  and 
urged  on  Sernus.  upon  whose  advice  the  expresaion 
had  been  used,  tnat  the  seventh  capitulum  must  be 
withdrawn.  Sergius  thought  this  too  hard,  aa  it  would 
destroy  the  union  so  gloriously  effected :  but  he  was  so 
far  impressed  that  he  wrote  to  Cyrus  tnat  it  would  be 
well  for  the  future  to  drop  both  expieanona  "one 
operation"  and  "two  operations",  ana  he  thought  it 
necessaiy  to  refer  the  whole  question  to  the  pope. 
(So  far  his  own  story.)  This  last  proceeding  must 
warn  us  not  to  iudge  Serous  too  hazahly .  It  may  be 
invention  that  be  was  bom  of  Monophjrsite  parents 
(so  Anastasius  of  Sinai)  j  at  all  events  he  was  an  op* 
ponent  of  the  Monophysites,  and  he  based  hb  defence 
of  "one  operation"  on  the  citations  of  Fathers  in  the 
spurious  letter  of  his  orthodox  predecessor  Mennas, 
which  he  believed  to  have  had  tne  approval  of  Pope 
Vimlius.  He  was  a  politician  who  evidenthr  knew 
little  theology.  But  he  had  more  to  answer  ror  than 
he  admits.  C}yrus  had  not  really  been  doubtful  at 
first.  His  letter  to  Sergius  with  great  politeness  ex- 
plains that  he  had  said  the  emperor  was  wrong,  and 
nad  quoted  the  famous  words  of  St.  Leo's  Tome  to 
Flavian:  "Agit  utraque  natura  cum  alterius  oom- 
munione  quod  proprium  est"  as  plaii^  defining  two 
distinct  but  inseparable  operations;  ^exgius  was  re* 
sponsible  for  leadmghim  into  error  by  sending  him  the 
letter  of  Mennas.  Further,  St.  Maximus  telfi  us  that 
Sergius  had  written  to  Theodore  of  Pharan  asking 
his  opinion:  Theodore  agreed.  (It  is  probable  that 
Stephen  of  bora  was  mistaken  in  making  Theodore  a 
Monothelite  before  Sergius.)  He  also  worked  upon 
the  Severian  Paul  the  one-eyed,  the  same  with  whom 
Heraclius  had  disputed.  He  had  requested  George 
Arsas,  a  Monophysite  follower  of  Paiil  the  Black  of 
Antioch,  to  furnish  him  with  authorities  for  the  "one 
operation",  saying  in  his  letter  that  he  waa  ready  to 
make  a  union  on  this  basis.  The  Alexandrian  St.  John 
the  Almsgiver  (609  or  619)  had  taken  this  letter  from 
Arsas  with  his  own  hand,  and  was  only  prevented  by 
the  irruption  of  the  Saracens  (619)  from  using  it  to 
obtsdn  the  deposition  of  Serous. 

In  the  letter  to  Honorius,  Sergius  unwittingly  de- 
velops another  hereey.  He  admits  that  "one  opera- 
tion^', though  used  by  a  few  Fathers,  is  a  strange 
expression,  and  might  suggest  a  denial  of  the  unoon- 
fused  union  of  two  natures.  But  the  "two  operations" 
are  also  dangerous,  by  suggesting  "two  contrary  wills, 
as  though  when  the  Word  of  God  wished  to  fulfil  Hb 
saving  Passion,  His  humanity  resisted  and  contra- 
dictea  His  will,  and  thus  two  contrary  wills  would  be 


MQN0THELZTI8M                       505  M0N0THELITI8M 

introduced,  which  is  impious,  for  it  is  impossible  that  having  condemned  the  Eksthesis.    John  IV,  who  suo- 
in  the  same  subject  there  should  be  two  wills  at  once,  oeeded  him  in  December,  lost  no  time  in  holding  a 
and  contrary  to  one  another  as  to  the  same  thin^'\  qmod  to  condemn  it  formally.    When  Heraclius,  who 
So  far  he  is  right;  but  he  continues:  "For  the  savmg  hisul  merely  intended  to  give  effect  to  the  teaching  of 
doctrine  of  the  holy  Fathers  clearly  teaches  that  the  Honorius,  heard  that  the  document  was  rejectedf  at 
intellectudly  animated  flesh  of  the  Loid  never  per-  Rome,  he  disowned  it  in  a  letter  to  John  IV^and  laid 
forms  its  natural  movement  apart  from,  and  b^  its  the  blame  on  Sergius.    He  died  Feb.,  641.    The  pope 
own  impetus  contrariwise  to,  the  direction  of  the  wrote  to  the  elder  son  of  Heraclius,  saying  that  tne 
Word  of  God  hypostatically  imited  to  it,  but  only  at  Ecthesis  would  doubtless  now  be  withdrawn,  and 
the  time  and  in  the  manner  and  to  the  extent  that  the  i^logizing  for  Pope  Honorius,  who  had  not  meant  to 
Word  of  God  wishes,"  just  as  our  body  is  moved  by  teach  one  human  will  in  Christ.    St.  Mazimus  Con- 
cur rational  soul.    Here  Sergius  speaks  of  the  natural  fessor  published  a  similar  defence  of  Honorius,  but 
will  of  the  flesh,  and  of  the  Divine  will,  but  makes  no  neither  of  these  apolosists  says  anvthing  of  the  oris- 
mention  of  the  nigher  free  will,  which  indeed  is  wholly  inal  error,  the  forbidding  of  the  ^Hwo  operations  ^ 
subject  to  the  Divine  wUl.    He  may  indeed  be  under-  which  was  soon  to  become  once  more  the  principal 
stood  to  include  this  intellectual  will  in  "the  intelleo-  point  of  controversy.   In  fact  on  this  point  no  defence 
tually  animated  flesh '\  but  his  thought  is  not  clear,  of  Honorius  was  pos»ble.   But  Pyrrhus,  the  new  Pa- 
and  his  words  simply  express  the  heresy  of  one  will,  triarch  of  Constantinople,  was  a  supporter  of  the 
He  concludes  that  it  is  best  simply  to  confess  that  "the  Ecthesis  and  confirmed  it  in  a  great  council,  which  St. 
only  begotten  Son  of  God,  who  is  truly  both  God  and  Maximus,  however,  reproves  as  irregularly  convoked. 
Man,  works  both  the  Divine  and  the  human  works,  and  After  the  death  of  Constantine  and  the  exile  of  his 
from  one  and  the  same  incarnate  Word  of  God  proceed  brother  Heracleonas,  IVrrhus  himself  was  exiled  to 
indivisibly  and  inseparably  both  the  Divine  and  the  Africa.    Here  he  was  persuaded  in  a  famous  contro- 
hiunan  operations  as  St.  Leo  teaches:    A^t  enim  ver^  with  St.  Maximus  (q.  v.)  to  renounce  the  appeal 
utraque,  etc."    If  these  words  and  the  quotation  from  to  Vigilius  and  Honorius  and  to  condemn  the  Ecthesis; 
St.  Leo  mean  anything,  th^  mean  two  operations;  he  went  to  Rome  and  made  his  submission  to  Pope 
but  Sergius's  error  lies  precisely  in  deprecating  this  Theodore,  John  IV  having  died  (Oct.,  642). 
expression.    It  cannot  be  too  carefully  c)ome  in  mind  Meanwhile  protests  from  the  East  were  not  want- 
that  theological  accuracy  is  a  matter  of  definition,  and  ing.   St.  Sophronius,  who,  after  becoming  Patriarch  of 
definition  is  a  matter  of  words.   The  prohibition  of  the  Jerusalem,  died  just  before  Sergius,  had  vet  had  time 
ri^t  words  is  always  heresy,  even  tnough  the  author  to  publish  at  his  enthronization  a  formal  defence  of  the 
otthe  prohibition  has  no  neretical  intention  and  is  dogma  of  two  operations  and  two  wills,  which  was 
merely  shortsighted  or  confused.    Honorius  replied  afterwards  approved  by  the  sixth  council.    This  re- 
reproving  Sopluonius^  and  praising  Sergius  for  reject-  markable  document  was  the  first  full  exposition  of  the 
ing  his    new  expression"  of  "two  operations".    He  Catholic  doctrine.    It  was  sent  to  all  the  patriardis, 
approves  the  recommendations  made  by  Sergius,  and  and  St.  Sophronius  humbler  asked  for  corrections, 
has  no  blame  for  the  capitula  of  Qsrrus.    In  one  point  His  references  to  St.  Leo  are  interesting,  especially  his 
hegoes  furUier  than  either,  for  he  uses  the  words:  statement:  "I  accept  all  his  letters  and  teachings  as 
"  \^erefore  we  acknowledge  one  Will  of  our  Lord  proceeding  from  the  mouth  of  Peter  the  Coryphsus, 
Jesus  Christ."  We  may  easily  believe  the  testimony  and  I  kiss  them  and  embrace  them  with  all  my  soul". 
of  Abbot  John  Symponus,  who  wrote  the  letter  for  Further  on  he  speaks  of  receiving  St.  Leo's  dennitiona 
Honorius,  that  he  intended  only  to  deny  a  lower  will  as  those  of  Peter,  and  St.  Cyril  s  as  those  of  Mark. 
of  the  flesh  in  Christ  which  contradicted  His  higher  He  also  made  a  large  collection  of  testimonies  of  the 
will,  and  that  he  was  not  referring  at  all  to  His  Divine  Fathers  in  favour  of  two  operations  and  two  wills. 
will^  but  in  connexion  with  the  letter  of  Serpus  such  He  finally  sent  to  Rome  Stephen,  Bishop  of  Dora,  the 
an  mteipretation  is  scarcely  the  more  obvious  one.  first  bishop  of  the  patriarchate,  who  has  given  us  a 
It  is  clear  that  Honorius  was  not  any  more  a  wilful  moving  description  of  the  way  m  which  the  saint  led 
heretic  than  was  Sexgius,  but  he  was  equally  incorrect  him  to  the  holy  place  of  Calvary  and  there  charged 
in  his  decision,  and  his  position  made  the  mistake  far  him,  saying:  "Thou  shalt  i^ve  an  account  to  the  Uod 
more  disastrous.    In  another  letter  to  Sergius  he  says  who  was  crucified  for  us  m  this  holy  place,  in  His 
he  has  informed  Cyrus  that  the  new  expressions,  one  glorious  and  awful  advent,  when  He  snail  come  to 
and  two 
most 

In  one 

to  the  pope's  letter  by  the  issue  of  an  "Exposition"  cens  wluch  is  come  upon  us  for  our  sins.   Swiftly  pass, 

oomposied  by  Serous  and  authorized  by  the  emperor:  then,  from  end  to  end  of  the  world,  until  thou  come  to 

it  is  Known  as  the  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius.   Sergius  died  the  Apostolic  See,  where  are  the  foundations  of  the 

9  r>ec.,  a  few  days  after  having  celebrated  a  council  in  holv  ooctrines.    Not  once,  not  twice,  but  many  times, 

^vhich  the  Ecthesis  was  acclaimed  as  "truly  agreeing  make  clearly  known  to  all  those  holy  men  there  all 

'with  the  Apostolic  teaching",  words  which  seem  to  be  that  has  be^  done;  and  tire  not  instantly  urging  and 

a  reference  to  its  being  founded  on  the  letter  of  Hono-  beseeching,  until  out  of  their  apostoUc  wisdom  they 

nixs.    Cynis  received  the  news  of  this  council  with  bring  forth  judgment  unto  victory."   Urged  by  almost 

great  rejoicings.    The  Ecthesis  itself  b  a  complete  all  the  orthodox  bishops  of  the  East,  Stephen  made  his 

profession  of  Faith  according  to  the  five  General  first  journey  to  Rome.  On  the  death  of  St.  Sophronius. 

Councils.    Its  peculiarity  consists  in  adding  a  prohi-  his  patriarchal  see  was  invaded  by  the  Bishop  or 

bition  of  the  expresuon  one  and  two  operations,  and  Joppa,  a  supporter  of  the  Ecthesis.    Another  heretic 

an  assertion  of  one  will  in  Christ  lest  contrary  wills  sat  m  the  See  of  Antioch.    At  Alexandria  the  union 

should  be  held.    The  letter  of  Honorius  had  oeen  a  with  the  Monophysites  was  shortlived.    In  640  the 

grrave  document,  but  not  a  definition  of  Faith  binding  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabians  under  Amru, 

on  the  whole  Church.    The  Ecthesis  was  a  definition,  ana  the  unfortunate  heretics  have  remained  until  to- 

Hut  Honorius  had  no  cognizance  of  it,  for  he  had  died  day  (save  for  a  few  months  in  646)  under  the  rule  of 

on  12  Oct.    The  envoys  who  came  for  the  emperor's  the  infidel.    Thus  the  whole  of  the  Patriarchates  of 

confirmation  of  the  new  Pope  Severinus  refused  to  Constantinople,  Antioch,  Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria 

j-econunend  the  Ecthesis  to  the  latter,  but  promised  were  separated  from  Rome.    Yet  no  doubt,  except  in 

to  lay  it  before  him  for  judgment  (see  Maximus  of  Egypt,  the  great  number  of  the  bishops  ana  the  whole 

Ooi^stamtinople)  .    Severinus.  not  consecrated  until  of  their  flocks  were  orthodox  and  had  no  wish  to  accept 

May 9  640,  died  two  months  later,  but  not  without  the  Ecthesis. 


M0N0THELITI8M                       506  MOROTHILITUII 

The  bishops  of  Cyprus,  independent  of  anv  oatri-  in  accordance  with  the  teaching  of  Pope  Honoriua.  It 
arch,  held  a  synod  29  May,  643,  against  the  Ectnesis.  would  be  a  measure  of  peace,  and  East  and  West 
They  wrote  to  Pope  Theodore  a  letter  of  entreaty:  would  be  again  united.  Paul  therefore  persuaded  the 
"Cmist.  our  God,  has  instituted  your  Apostolic  chair,  emperor  to  withdraw  the  Ecthesis,  and  to  substitute 
O  holy  nead,  as  a  God-fixed  and  immovable  foundi^  for  that  elaborate  confession  of  Faith  a  mere  disciplin- 
tion.  For  thou,  as  truly  spake  the  Divine  Word,  art  ary  measure  forbidding  all  four  expressions  under  the 
Peter,  and  upon  thv  foundation  the  pillars  of  the  severest  penalties;  none  of  the  emperor's  orthodox 
Church  are  fix^,  and  to  thee  He  committed  the  keys  subjects  nave  any  longer  permission  to  quarrel  over 
of  the  kingdom  of  Heaven.  He  ordered  thee  to  bind  them,  but  no  blame  is  to  attach  to  any  who  may  have 
and  loose  with  authority  on  earth  and  in  heaven,  used  either  alternative  in  the  past.  Transgression  of 
Thou  art  set  as  the  destroyer  of  profane  heresies,  as  this  law  is  to  involve  deposition  for  bishops  and  clerics, 
Coryphaeus  and  leader  of  the  orthodox  and  unsullied  excommunication  and  expulsion  for  monks,  loss  of 
Faith.  Despise  not  then.  Father,  the  Faith  of  our  office  and  dignity  for  officials,  fines  for  richer  laymen. 
Fathers,  tossed  by  waves  and  imperilled:  disperse  the  corporal  punishment  and  permanent  exile  for  the 
rule  of  the  fooli^  with  the  light  of  thy  divine  knowl-  poorer.  By  this  cruel  law  heresy  is  to  be  blamekas 
edge,  O  most  holy.  Destroy  the  blasphemies  and  in-  and  orthodoxy  forbidden.  It  is  Imown  as  the  Type  of 
solenoe  of  the  new  heretics  with  their  novel  expres-  Constans.  It  is  not  a  Monothelite  document,  for  it 
sions.  For  nothing  is  wanting  to  your  orthodox  and  forbids  that  heresy  just  as  much  as  the  Catholic  Faith, 
pious  definition  and  tradition  for  the  augmentation  of  Its  date  falls  between  Sept.  648  and  Sept.  649.  Pope 
the  Faith  amongst  us.  For  we — O  inspired  one,  ^ou  Theodore  died  5  May  of  the  latter  year,  and  was  suo 
who  hold  converse  with  the  holy  Apostles  and  sit  with  ceeded  in  July  by  St.  Martin  I.  In  Oct(4>er  St.  Mar- 
them— believe  and  confess  from  or  old  since  our  very  tin  held  a  great  council  at  the  Lateran,  at  which  105 
swaddling  clothes,  teaching  according  to  the  holy  and  bishops  were  present.  The  pope's  opening  speech 
God-f eanng  Pope  Leo,  and  declaring  that '  each  nature  ^ves  a  history  of  the  heresy,  and  condemns  the  Ecthe- 
works  with  the  communion  of  the  other  what  is  proper  bib,  Cyrus,  Sergius.  Pjrrrhus,  Paul,  and  the  Tjme.  John 
to  it'",  etc.  They  declare  themselves  ready  to  be  lY  had  spoken  ot  Sergius  with  respect;  and  Biartin 
martyred  rather  than  forsake  the  doctrine  of  St.  Leo:  does  not  mention  Honorius,  for  it  was  obviously  im- 
but  their  Archbishop  Sergius,  when  the  persecution  possible  to  defend  him  if  the  Type  was  to  be  con- 
arose,  was  found  on  the  side  of  the  persecutors,  not  of  demned  as  heresy.  Stephen  of  Dora,  then  on  his 
the  martsrrs.  It  is  abundantly  clear  that  St.  Maxi-  third  visit  to  Rome,  presented  a  long  memorial,  full  of 
mus  and  his  Constantinopolitan  friends,  St.  Sophro-  devotion  to  the  Apoetotic  See.  A  deputation  fol- 
nius  and  the  bishops  of  Palestine,  Sergius  and  his  suf-  lowed,  of  37  Greek  abbots  residing  in  or  near  Rome, 
fragans,hadnonotionthatthe  Apostolic  See  had  been  who  had  apparently  fled  before  the  SAraAAn^  from 
compromised  bv  the  letters  of  Honorius,  but  the^  look  their  various  homes  in  Jerusalem,  Africa,  Annenia, 
to  it  as  the  only  port  of  salvation.  Similarly  m  646  Cilicia,  etc.  They  demanded  the  condemnation  of 
the  bishops  of  Africa  and  the  adjoining  islands  held  Sergius,  Pyrrhus,  Paul,  and  Cyrus  and  the  anathema- 
councils,  m  the  name  of  which  the  primates  of  Nu-  tisin|[  of  the  Type  by  the  Apostolic  and  head  See.  The 
midia,  Byzacene  and  Mauritania  sent  a  joint  letter  to  heretical  documents  read  were  part  of  a  letter  of  Theo- 
Pope  Theodore,  complaining  of  the  Ecthesis:  **  No  one  dore  of  Pharan,  the  seventh  proportion  of  Cyrus,  the 
can  doubt  that  there  is  in  the  Apostolic  See  a  great  letter  of  Serous  to  Cyrus,  excerpts  from  the  synods 
and  unfailing  fountain  pouring  forth  waters  for  all  held  by  Sergius  and  Pyrrhus  (who  had  now  repented 
Christians ".  and  so  forth.  They  enclose  letters  to  the  of  his  repentance),  and  the  approval  of  the  Ecthesis  by 
emperor  ana  to  the  patriarch  Paul,  to  be  sent  to  Con-  Cyrus.  The  letter  of  Sergius  to  Honorius  was  not 
stantinople  by  the  pope.  They  are  afraid  to  write  r«ui,  nor  was  anything  said  about  the  correspondence 
directly,  for  the  former  governor,  Gregory  (who  had  of  the  latter  with  Sergius.  St.  Martin  summed  up; 
presided  at  the  disputation  of  his  friend  St.  Maximus  then  the  letter  of  Paul  to  Pope  Theodore  and  the 
with  Pyrrhus)  had  revolted  and  made  himself  em-  Type  were  read.  The  council  admitted  the  good  in- 
peror,  and  had  just  been  defeated;  this  was  a  blow  to  tention  of  the  latter  document  (so  as  to  spare  the  em- 
orthodoxy,  which  it  brought  into  discredit  at  Con-  peror  while  condemning  Paul),  but  declared  it  hereti- 
stantinople.  Victor,  elected  primate  of  Carthage  cal  for  forbidding  the  teaching  of  two  operations  and 
after  the  letters  were  written,  added  one  of  his  own.  two  wills.    Numerous  excerpts  from  the  Fathers  and 

Paul,  the  patriarch  whom  the  Emperor  Constans  from  Monophysite  writers  were  read,  and  twenty 

had  substituted  for  Pyrrhus,  had  not  been  acknowl-  canons  were  agreed  to,  the  eighteenth  of  which  oon- 

edged  by  Pope  Theodore,  who  demanded  of  him  that  demns  Theodore  of  Pharan,  Cyrus,  Sergius,  Pyrrhus, 

Pyrrhus  should  first  be  tried  by  a  council  before  two  Paul,  the  Ecthesis,  and  the  Type,  under  anathema.    A 

representatives  of  the  Holy  See.    Paul's  reply  is  pre-  letter  to  the  emperor  was  signed  by  all.    An  encyclical 

served:  the  views  he  exposes  are  those  of  the  Ecthesis.  letter  was  sent  throughout  the  Church  in  the  name  of 

and  he  defends  them  by  referring  to  Honorius  ana  St.  Martin  and  the  council,  addressed  to  all  bishops, 

Sergius.    Theodore  pronounced  a  sentence  of  deposi-  priests,  deacons,  abbots,  monks,  ascetics,  and  to  the 

tion  against  him,  and  Paul  retaliated  by  destroying  entire  sacred  fulness  of  the  CathoUc  Church.    This 

the  Latin  altar  which  belonged  to  the  Iloman  See  in  was  a  final  and  complete  condemnation  of  the  Coa- 

the  palace  of  Placidia  at  Constantinople,  in  order  that  stantinopolitan  policy.    Rome  had  spoken  ex  cathedra, 

the  papal  envo3rs  might  be  unable  to  offer  the  Holy  Stephen  of  Dora  had  been  before  appointed  papal 

Sacrifice;  he  also  persecuted  them,  together  with  many  vicar  m  the  East,  but  he  had  by  error  been  informed 

orthodox  la3rmen  and  priests,  by  imprisonment,  exile,  only  of  his  duty  to  depose  heretical  bishops,  and  not 

or  stripes.    But  Paul,  in  spite  of  this  violence,  had  no  that  he  was  authorisea  to  substitute  orthoaox  bishops 

idea  of  resisting  the  definitions  of  Rome.    Until  now,  in  their  place.    The  pope  now  gave  this  commission  to 

Honorius  had  not  been  disowned  there,  but  defended.  John,  Bishop  of  Phuaaelphia  in  Palestine,  who  was 

It  was  said  that  he  had  not  taught  one  will;  but  the  ordered  to  appoint  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  in  the 

prohibition  in  the  Ecthesis  of  two  operations  was  but  patriarchates  of  Antioch  ana  Jerusalem.    Martin  also 

an  enforcement  of  the  course  Hononus  had  approved,  sent  letters  to  these  patriarchates^  and  to  Peter,  who 

and  nothing  had  as  yet,  it  seems,  been  ofFciaUy  pub-  seems  to  have  been  governor,  asking  him  to  support 

lished  at  Rome  on  this  point.    Paul,  somewhat  natur-  his  vicar j  this  Peter  was  a  friend  and  correspondent  of 

ally,  thought  it  would  oe  suflScient  if  he  dropped  the  St.  Maximus.    The  pope  deposed  John,  Archbishop 

teaching  of  one  will,  and  prohibited  all  reference  to  of  Thessalonica,  and  declared  the  appointments  of 

one  will  or  two  wills  as  well  as  to  one  operation  or  two  Macarius  of  Antioch  and  Peter  of  Alexandria  to  be 

operations;  it  could  hardly  be  ur^ed  t}mt  this  was  no^  DvU  and  void,    CoMtaiU}  ret^ted  by  having  St. 


MOttOTSILITttM 


607 


MONOTHELinSM 


Martin  kidnapped  at  Rome,  and  taken  a  prisoner  to 
Constantinople.  The  saint  refused  to  accent  the 
Ecthesis,  and  after  8u£ferin^,  many  of  which  ne  has 
himself  related  in  a  touchmg  document,  he  died  a 
martyr  in  the  Crimea  in  March,  655  (see  Martin  I, 
Pope).  St.  Maximus  (662),  his  disciple  the  monk 
Anastasius  (also  662), and  another  Anastasius,  a  papal 
envoy  (666),  died  of  ill-treatment,  martyn  to  thdr 
orthodoxy  and  devotion  to  the  Apostolic  See. 

While  St.  Martin  was  bdnj^  insulted  and  tortured 
at  Constantinople,  the  patriarch  Paul  was  d^ing. 
''Alas,  this  will  increase  the  severity  of  my  judg- 
ment", he  exclaimed  to  the  emperor,  who  paid  him  a 
visit;  and  Constans  was  induced  to  spare  the  pope's 
life  for  the  moment.    At  Paul's  death  Pyrrhus  was  re- 
stored.   His  successor  Peter  sent  an  ambig^uous  letter 
to  Pope  Eugenius,  which  made  no  mention  of  two 
operations,  thus  observing  the  prescription  of  the 
Type.    The  Roman  people  raised  a  liot  when  it  was 
read  in  Sta.  Maria  Maffiiore,  and  would  not  permit 
the  pope  to  continue  his  Mass  until  he  promisea  to  re- 
ject the  letter.    Constans  sent  a  letter  to  the  pope  by 
one  Gregory,  with  a  gift  to  St.  Peter.    It  was  ru- 
moured at  Constantinople  that  the  pope's  envoys 
would  accept  a  declaration  of  "one  and  two  wills" 
(two  because  of  the  natures,  one  on  account  of  the 
union).    St.  Maximus  refused  to  believe  the  report. 
In  fact  Peter  wrote  to  Pope  Vitalian  (657-672)  prof e8»- 
ing  ''one  and  two  wills  and  operations"  and  adding 
mutilated  quotations  from  the  Fathers;  but  the  ex- 
planation was  thought  unsatisfactory,  presumably  be- 
cause it  was  only  an  excuse  for  upholding  the  Type. 
In  663  Constans  came  to  Rome,  intending  to  make  it 
his  residence,  on  account  of  his  unpopularity  at  Con- 
stantinople, for  besides  putting  the  pope  to  death  and 
groecribing  the  orthodox  faith,  he  naa  murdered  his 
rother  Theodoeius.    The  pope  received  him  with  all 
due  honour,  and  Constant^  who  had  refused  to  confirm 
the  elections  of  Martin  and  Eugenius,  ordered  the  name 
of  Vitalian  to  be  inscribed  on  Uie  diptychs  of  Constan- 
tinople.   No  mention  seems  to  have  be^i  made  of  die 
Type.    But  Constans  did  not  find  Rome  agreeable. 
After  spoiling  the  churches,  he  retired  to  Sicily,  where 
he  oppressed;  the  people.    He  was  murdered  in  his 
bath  in  668.    Vitalian  vigorously  opposed  rebellion  in 
Sicily,  and  Constantine  Pogonatus,  the  new  emperor, 
found  the  island  at  peace  on  his  arrival.    It  does  not 
seem  that  he  took  any  interest  in  the  Type,  which  was 
doubtless  not  enforced,  though  not  abDlished,  for  he 
was  fully  occupied  with  his  wars  against  the  Saracens 
until  678,  when  he  determined  to  summon  a  general 
council  to  end  what  he  regarded  as  a  quarrel  between 
the  Sees  of  Rome  and  Constantinople.    He  wrote  in 
this  sense  to  Pope  Donus  (676-78),  who  was  already 
dead.    His  successor  St.  Agatho  thereupon  assembled 
a  synod  at  Rome  and  ord^ed  others  to  be  held  in  the 
West.    A  delay  of  two  years  was  thus  caused,  and  the 
hereti(»d  patriarchs  Theodore  of  Constantinople  and 
Macarius  of  Antioch  assured  the  emperor  that  tne  pope 
despised  the  Elastems  and  Uieir  monarch,  and  they 
tricKl,  but  unsuccessfully,  to  get  the  name  of  Vitalian 
removed  from  the  diptychs.    The  emperor  asked  for 
three  representatives  at  least  to  be  sent  from  Rome, 
with  twelve  archbishops  or  bishops  from  the  West  ana 
four  monks  from  each  of  the  Greek  monasteries  in  the 
West^  perhaps  as  interpreters.    He  also  sent  Theo- 
dore mto  exile,  probably  because  he  was  an  obstacle  to 
reunion. 

The  first  session  of  the  Sixth  (Ecumenical  Council 
took  place  at  Constantinople  (7  Nov.,  680).  Constan- 
tine Pogonatus  presiding  and  having  on  his  left,  in  the 
I>Iace  of  honour,  the  papal  legates.  Maearius  of  An- 
tioch was  the  oxily  prelate  who  stood  up  for  Monothe- 
litism,  and  he  was  m  due  course  condemned  as  a  here- 
tic (see  Macarius  of  Antioch).  llie  letters  of  St. 
Agatho  and  of  the  Roman  Council  insisted  on  the  deci- 
sions of  the  Lateran  Council,  and  repeatedJIy  affirmed 


the  inerrancy  of  the  Apostolic  See.   These  documents 
were  acclaimed  by  tne  council,  and  accepted  by 
George,  the  new  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  his 
suffragans.    Macarius  had  i^pealed  to  Honorius:  and 
after  his  condemnation  a  packet  which  he  had  deliv- 
ered to  the  emperor  was  opened,  and  in  it  were  found 
the  letters  oi  Sergius  to  Honorius  and  of  Honorius  to 
Sergius.    As  these  were  at  best  similar  to  the  Type, 
alreadv  declared  heretical,  it  was  unavoidable  tnat 
they  snould  be  condemned.    The  fifth  council  had  set 
the  example  of  condemning  dead  writers,  who  had 
died  in  Catholic  communion,  but  Geoige  suggested 
that  his  dead  predecessors  mikht  be  spared,  and  only 
their  teaching  anathematised.    The  l^tes  might 
have  saved  the  name  of  Honorius  also  had  they  agreed 
to  this,  but  they  evidently  had  directions  from  Kome 
to  make  no  objection  to  his  condemnation  if  it  seemed 
necessary.    The  final  dogmatic  decree  contains  the  de- 
cisions of  the  five  preceding  general  councils^  con- 
demns the  Ecthesis  and  the  Type,  and  heretics  by 
name,  including  Honorius,  and  "greets  with  uplifted 
hands"  the  letters  of  Pope  Agnitho  and  his  council 
(see  HoNORnrs  I,  Pope) .    The  address  to  the  emperor, 
signed  by  all  the  bishops,  declares  that  they  have  fol- 
lowed Agatho,  and  he  the  Apostolic  teaching.    **  With 
us  f ou^t  the  prince  of  the  Apostles,  for  to  assist  us  we 
had  his  imitator  and  the  successor  to  his  chair.    The 
ancient  city  of  Rome  proffered  yon  a  divinely  written 
confession  and  caused  the  dayhght  of  dogmas  to  rise 
by  the  Western  parchmenU  And  the  ink  shone,  and 
by  Affatho,  Peter  spoke;  and  you^  the  autocrat  king, 
voted  with  the  Almighty  who  reups  with  you."    A 
letter  to  the  pope  was  also  signed  by  all  the  Fathers. 
The  emperor  gave  effect  to  the  decree  in  a  lengthv 
edict,  in  which  he  echoes  the  decisions  of  the  council, 
addine:  ''These  are  the  teachings  of  the  voices  of  the 
Gospels  and  the  Apostles,  these  are  the  doctrines  of 
the  holy  synods  and  of  the  elect  and  patristic  tongues; 
these  have  been  preserved  untainted  by  Peter,  the 
rock  of  the  faith,  the  head  of  the  Apostles;  in  this  faith 
we  live  and  reign."    The  emperor's  letter  to  the  pope 
is  full  of  such  expressions;  as  for  example:  ''Glorv  be 
to  Ckxl,  Who  does  wondrous  things.  Who  has  kq[>t 
safe  the  Faith  among  you  unharmed.    For  how 
should  He  not  do  so  in  Qiat  rock  on  which  He  founded 
His  Church,  and  prophesied  that  the  gates  of  hell,  all 
the  ambushes  of  heretics,  should  not  prevail  against 
it?    From  it,  as  from  the  vault  of  heaven,  the  word  of 
the  true  confession  flashed  forth,"   etc.    But  St. 
Agatho,  a  worker  of  many  miracles,  was  dead,  and  did 
not  receive  the  letter,  so  that  it  fell  to  St.  Leo  II  to 
confirm  the  council.    Thus  was  the  East  united  a^^ain 
to  the  West  after  an  incomplete  but  deplorable  schism. 
It  would  seem  that  in  687  Justinian  II  believed  that 
the  sixth  council  was  not  fully  enforced,  for  he  wrote 
to  Pope  Conon  that  he  had  assembled  the  papal  en- 
voys, the  patriarchs,  metropolitans,  bishops,  the  sen- 
ate and  civil  officials  and  representatives  of  his  vari- 
ous armies,  and  made  them  sign  the  original  acts 
which  had  recently  been  discovered.    In  711  the 
throne  was  seized  bv  Philippicus  Bardanes,  who  had 
been  the  pupil  of  Abbot  Stephen,  the  disciple  "or 
rather  I^ider^'  of  Macarius  of  Antioch.    He  restored 
to  the  diptychs  Sergius,  Honorius,  and  the  other  here- 
tics conoemned  by  the  coimcil;  he  burned  the  acts 
(but  privately,  in  the  palace),  he  deposed  the  Patri- 
arch Cvrus,  and  exiled  some  persons  who  refused  to 
subscribe  a  rejection  of  the  council.    He  fell,  4  June, 
713,  and  orthodo]^  was  restored  by  Anastasius  II 
(713-15).    Pope  donstantine  had  refused  to  recos- 
nize  Bardanes.    The  intruded  patriarch,  John  VI, 
wrote  him  a  long  letter  of  apology,  explaining  that  he 
had  submitted  to  Bardanes  to  prevent  worse  evils,  and 
asserting  in  many  words  the  headship  of  Rome  over 
the  universal  Church.    This  was  the  last  of  Mono- 
thelitism. 
The  ehief  aaciaiit  authoritiM  for  oar  kaowledfle  of  the  Mon» 


tbfl  worka  of  dr.  Maxii 

worlu  only  a  (ew  oecd  be  Apeci 
AiKlariun  ncnum,  [1  tllulona  M-k 
pn  actit   VI  lyno<li  {I'aru.    IMH) 

VIl'    '"     ■• "   ■     -  ■•-■ 


1  lyiiad  umI  of  tba  dtth  ecmocdl. 


VIII.  IXi 


incifa.  V    (Ede. 


rAUmndrii  (inT/wioiaff,  QuarUilirlinfl,  IBM,  no.  78); 

lArnQu^lUfTieipra/ltLeipiie.  1807).    8«  tin  HoNoutia  I,Por>, 
ud  Mizaiua  ur  Coim-iNrmopLs. 

John  Chapman. 


juuiunala,  Archdiocese  or,  in  the  province  of 
PaJenno,  Sicily,  on  the  akirU  of  Mount  Caputo.    The 
dty  is  built  in  a  commanding  situation  over  the  port 
of  Palermo.     It  was  a  pleasure  reeort  of  the  Norman 
kinsB,  to  whom  it  owes  i\a  foundation.    In  1107  Wil- 
liam 11  built  there  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova, 
with  ita  adjoining  monastciy  for  the  Beaedictiues   of 
Cav&  dei    Tirreni — 
the  most  superb  mo- 
nastic buildmg  of  the 
Benedictine  Order  in 
Europe,  famous  for 
its  cloister  and   ita 
graceful     Moresque 
colonnade.     At  the 

E resent  time  only  the 
>wer  pcotion  <S  the 

session  of  the  monks. 
The  church  (now  the 
cathedral)  is  the 
noblest  in  Sicily, 
though  the  portico  of 
its  facade  naa  been 
restored  in  a  style 
not  in  harmony  with 
the  remainder  of  the 
building.  Its  bronze 
dooiB,  the  work  of 
Bonanno   of   Pisa 

(1186),  are  notable,  c™™.. 

as  are  also  the  awr  chu«h.  XII  C«iiun'- 

besquesof  the  portals. 

The  mterior  has  three  naveSj  and  the  columns  of  E)m>- 
tian  muble  have  foiled  and  figured  capitals,  each  differ- 
oit  from  the  others.  The  apse  and  the  lateral  walls  are 
,  covered  with  beautiful  mosaics,  representing  scenes 
from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  high  altar 
is  covered  with  worked  sheets  of  silver  (seveotecDth 
century),  and,  in  a  chape!  to  ita  right,  are  the  tombs  of 
William  1  the  Wicked  and  of  William  I!.  The  chap^ 
of  Swnt  Benedict  contains  sculptures  by  Marabitti 
(eighteenth  century).  In  1811  a  fire  destroyed  the 
roof,  which  waa  restored  in  a  way  to  leave  the  rafters 
exposed  to  view.  On  the  mountain  beyond  the  city 
is  the  monastery  of  San  Martino  of  the  Casunese 
Benedictines,  whose  church  is  rich  in  works  of  art; 
farther  on  is  the  castle  of  San  Benedetto,  built  by  the 
Saracens.  In  1174  the  abbey  of  Monreale  was  de- 
clared a"  pnelatura  DulliuB  " :  two  years  later  its  abbot 
WSs  vested  with  the  title  and  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop, 
and  in  1182  he  became  the  metropolitan  of  Cata- 
nia and  of  Syracuse.  At  first  the  archbishops  were 
elected  by  the  monks,  but  were  not  always  Benedic- 
tines; since  1275,  however,  the  election  has  been  re- 
served to  itself  by  the  Holy  See.  In  time  Girgenti  and 
Caltagirone  also  became  suffragan  to  Monreale;  but 
Syracuse,  in  18M,  and  Catania,  in  1860,  became  ar- 
chiepiscopal  sees.  The  former  having  become  the 
Metropolitan  of  Calta^rone,  Monreale  received  the 
new  iSocese  of  Caltanisetta  (1860),  which  see  and 
Girgenti  are  now  its  only  sirlTrBgans.  Among  the 
archbishops  of  this  see  have  been  Cardinal  Giovanni 
Praccamazza  (1278);  Cardinal  Auasio  Dpspuig  de 
Podio  (1458);  Cardinal  Pompco  Colonna  (1531);  Car- 
dinal Ippolito  de'  Medici  (1532);  Aleesandro  Famese 


(1536);  Ludovico  de  Torres  (1584),  founder  of  the 
seminary;  Cardinal  Vitaliano  Visconti  (1670);  Car- 
dinal Tnuan  d'Acquaviva  d'Aragona  (1739).  From 
1776  to  1802  Monreale  and  Palermo  were  unit^. 
The  archdiocese  has  30  parishes  with  228,600  inhabit- 
ants; 352  secular  and  66  r^ular  priests;  26  oonvems 
of  men  and  one  of  women;  three  educattooal  insdtulfa 
for  male  students  and  three  for  drls. 

CAmLLBTTi.  ChiiM  cfilalu,  XXT  (Veoia.  ISGT);  Luu, 
Hittaria  Mia  ehina  di  timrtaU  (RonH,  lUNI)/ 

U.  Bkkigni. 

MoBTM,  Jaues  soldier,  convert,  b.  in  Albemarle 
county,  Virginia^ U.  S.  A.,  10  Sept.,  1790;  d.  at  Orange, 
New  Jersey,  7  Sept.,  1870.  He  was  the  son  of  .An- 
drew a  brother  of  President  James  Monroe,  and  greatly 
resembled  his  illustrious  uncle.  After  the  usu^ 
course  at  the  U.  S.  Militsry  Academy  at  West  Point, 
he^wluated  in  1815, 

sioned  a  lieutenant 
of  artillery.  In  the 
war  with  the  Alge- 
rian pirates  he  was 
wounded,  17  June, 
1815,  wlule  directing 
the  guns  of  the  frigate 
La  GuerriSre  in  a 
battle  off  Ove  de 
Gata,  Spain.  As  as 
aide  to  General  Scott 
he  served  during 
1817-22,  and  did  Kar- 
riaon  duty  as  a  first 
lieutenant  of  the  4th 
Artillery  to  30  Sept., 
1832,  when  he  re- 
ngnedfromthearmy. 
Settling  in  New  York 
he  ent«md  public  life, 
being  elected  to  the 
MmnuLB  Board  of  Aldeimei, 

Pcrti».XVIOml»f»  ^*^-^Aii?**i"^ 

greas,  1839-41.  Be 
was  nominated  to  Confess  also  in  1846,  but  the  Sec- 
tion being  contested  and  a  new  election  ordered  he  de- 
clined to  run  again.  In  1850-52  he  was  a  member  of 
the  New  York  legislature,  and  then  retired  from  pul>- 
lic  life  on  the  death  of  his  wife.  Previous  to  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  visited  Richmond  and 
sought  by  speeches  and  personal  influence  to  prevent 
the  secession  of  his  zwtiveState.  Virginia.  All  through 
the  war  he  was  a  staunch  upholder  of  the  Union.  His 
brother  Andrew  F.  Monbob,  b.  at  Chariotteeville, 
Va.,  5  March,  1824,  after  graduating  at  the  tl.  S. 
Naval  Academy  served  during  the  Mexican  War,  and 
while  on  a  naval  expedition  to  Cliina,  in  1853,  also  be- 
came a  convert.  He  joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1854  and  was  ordainca  priest  in  1860.  He  ws«  for  a 
number  of  vears  one  of  the  faculty  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier's  Collie,  New  York,  where  he  died  2  Aug.. 
1872. 

CuLLDU,  Bioa.RtaiiarotlhtOmttrtai\dOndaalaofUii  ['.  S. 
Miliiary  AcBdrmu.  I  (Sr-wYotV,  ISDI):  HinvAH.  Hi^.  Rttifrr 
and  DictitnarTi  o/  IKt  U.  S.  Armv  (WubiiiftoD.  1903).  s.  v.: 
Nalionai  £ncurl.  i^  Am.  Biaa.,  a.  v.;  Tim  Ctatet  e$  Si.  Fnirit 
Xaiut  (New  York.  1SB7J. 

Thohab  F.  Meehan. 

MonubrA,  Jacques-Mabde-Louis,  celdirated  pul- 

gt  orator,  b.  at  Blois,  France,  10  Dec,,  1827;  d.  at 
avre,  21  Feb.,  1907.     He  was  ordained  as  a  secular 
priest  15  June,  1851,  but  soon  felt  he  had  a  religious 


thought  seriously  of  entering  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
Four  days  later,  however,  the  feast  of  St.  Dominic,  he 
decided  to  become  a  Dominican  and  immediately 


1 


MONSEiaNEUB 


509 


MONSBLL 


wrote  a  letter  of  application  to  P^re  Lacordaire.  He 
had  to  wait  four  years  for  release  from  the  diocese,  as 
the  bishop  had  received  authorization  from  the  Holy 
See  to  withhold  that  long  his  permission  for  newly  or- 
dained priests  to  enter  a  religious  order.  In  m&yf 
1855,  he  recdved  his  dimissorials,  entered  the  noviti- 
ate at  Flavigny,  received  the  habit  on  the  thirty-first 
of  the  same  month  and  one  year  later  made  his  simple 
profession.  A  few  days  later  he  was  sent  to  the  house 
of  studies  at  Chalais,  where  he  spent  a  year  m  solitude 
and  praver.  In  the  winter  he  was  appointed  to 
preach  the  Lenten  sermons  in  the  church  of  St.  Ni- 
zier,  at  Lyons,  where  he  gave  the  first  indication  of 
that  eloquence  which  was  later  to  illimiinate  all 
France.  After  preaching  the  Lenten  sermons  in 
Lyons,  Monsabre  was  asingned  to  the  convent  of  St. 

Thomas,  in  Paris, 
where  he  began  to 
^ve  conferences. 
After  interrupting 
this  ministry  for 
several  years  he 
took  it  up  again. 
In  the  Advent  of 
1867  he  gave  con- 
ferences in  the 
convent  church. 
He  preached  then 
for  a  number  of 
years  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of 
France,  Belgium, 
and  even  in  Lon- 
don, conducting 
retreats,  novcnas, 
and  triduums.  His 
reputation,  how- 
ever, was  really 
first  made  by  the 
course  of  Advent 


Bishop  of  Angers,  he  was  invited  to  fill  the  vacancy  in 
the  Cnamber  of  Deputies,  but  declined.  In  1871  he 
was  sent  to  the  General  Chapter  of  Ghent  to  represent 
his  province  and  in  1898  to  that  of  Avila  as  Definitor. 
His  apostolic  labours  closed  with  the  magnificent 
oration  deUvered  at  Reims  on  the  occasion  of  the 
fourteenth  centenary  of  the  baptism  of  Clovis,  King 
of  the  Fruiks.  Since  1903  he  hved  in  retirement.  In 
that  year  the  Dominican  convent  in  which  he  lived 
was  confiscated  by  the  government,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  take  refuge  in  a  modest  little  nome  in  which 
he  cued. 

L' Annie  Dominioaine,  April,  1907.  146;  July,  1907,  289;   Th4 


Rotary  Maganne,  XXX 


,  Apn 
.459. 


Joseph  Schboedbr. 


jACQUBS-MARie-Lonw  MonsabbA 


sermons  which  he  preached  in  the  Cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  Paris,  in  1869,  as  successor  of  the  unfortunate 
Carmelite,  Pftre  Hyacinthe  Loyson.    The  success  of 
these  conferences  brought  the  invitation  to  preach  the 
Lenten  sermons  in  Notre  Dame  in  1870,  succeeding 
Pere  F61ix  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.    During  the  siege  of 
Paris  by  the  Prussian  troops,  the  conferences  at  Notre 
Dame   were   interrupted.    On   the   capitulation   of 
Metz,  Monsabr6  preached  from  one  of  its  pulpits. 
\Iean while  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Monsignor  Dar- 
boy ,  had  fallen  a  victim  to  the  Commune  and  was  suc- 
ceecied  by  Monsignor  Guibert,  who  lost  no  time  in 
inviting  Monsabr6  to  occupy  the  pulpit  of  his  cathe- 
dral.    From  this  time  on,  P^re  Monsabr^  preached  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  for  twenty  years  and 
proved  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  Bossuet,  Lacor- 
daire and  all  the  other  great  preachers  whom  the 
French  Church  has  produced.    He  conceived  and  exe- 
cuted the  gigantic  plan  of  expounding  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  Catholic  dogmatic  theology.     Not  often,  per- 
hap?»  never  before,  did  a  preacher  succeed  in  holding 
so  large  an  audience  completely  under  the  sway  of  his 
eloquence  for  so  long  a  time. 

'The  classic  and  elegant  form  of  Monsabr6's  dis- 
courses attracted  the  educated  class  of  France.  "  His 
intense  love  of  souls  and  apostolic  zeal  made  his  dis- 
courses throb  with  life,  and  his  clear  and  profoundly 
theological  mind  enabled  him  to  shed  light  even  upon 
the  most  abstruse  tenets  of  the  faith,  wmle  his  earnest 
and  impassioned  appeals  to  all  the  noblest  impulses  of 
man  always  met  with  an  enthusiastic  response." 
Monsabr^'s  published  works  consist  of  forty-eight 
volumes,  the  "  L'exposition  du  Dogme  Catholicfue" 
being  famous  for  its  eloquence  and  popular  exposition 
r»f  Catholic  dogma.  In  1890  he  preached  the  Advent 
.-sermons  in  Rome.  In  1891  he  gave  the  same  course 
ijj   Toulouse.    On  the  death  of  Monsignor  Freppel, 


Monaaigiieur  ffrom  numf  "my"  and  seioneur, 
"elder"  or  "lord",  like  Lat.  senior) j  a  French  hono- 
rific appellation,  etymologically  corresponding  to  the 
English  "  my  lord  ",  and  tne  ItaUan  monsiffnore.  It  is, 
after  all,  nothing  but  the  French  mormeur;  but,  while 
the  latter  has  become  current  as  appUed  to  every  man 
who  is  in  good  society,  Monseigneur  has  retained  its 
honorific  force.  In  ecclesiastical  usage  it  is  reserved 
for  bishops  and  archbishops,  and  is  chiefly  emploved 
when  speaking  or  writing  to  them.  It  is  used  oefora 
the  name  (thus  abridged :  Mgr  Dupanloui)) .  Former- 
ly it  was  not  prefixed  to  the  title  of  dignity,  but  it  is 
now,  as  "Mgrl'^vdauedeN  ..."  The  term  Monseir 
gneur  is  also  used  as  tne  equivalent  of  the  Italian  Monsir- 
gnare,  and  as  the  latter  title  is  given  to  Roman  prelates, 
some  confusion  results:  in  Italy,  however,  no  incon- 
venience arises  from  this  usage  as  in  that  country 
bishops  have  the  title  of  Ecceuemaf  i.  e..  Excellency. 
In  France,  only  the  Archbishop  of  Reims,  as  legaiua 
natiLSf  has  the  title  of  Excellency  (see  Monsignor). 

Hl^RicousT,  Let  lou  eeeUna^iquet  de  France^  £.  V,  22. 

A.   BOUDINHON. 

MoDBell,  William,  Babon  Emlt,  b.  21  Sept.,  1812; 
d.  at  Tervoe,  Co.  Limerick,  Ireland,  20  April,  1894. 
His  father  was  William  Monsell  of  Tervoe;  his  mother, 
Olivia,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Walsh  of  Ballykilcavan. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  (1826-1830)  and  Oriel 
College.  Oxford,  but  he  left  the  university  without 
proceeaing  to  a  d^ree.  As  his  father  had  died  in  1822 
ne  succeeded  to  the  family  estates  on  coming  of  age 
and  was  a  popular  landlord.,  the  more  so  as  he  was  resi- 
dent. In  1836  he  married  Anna  Maria  Quin,  daugh- 
ter of  the  second  Earl  of  Dunraven,  but  there  was  no 
issue  of  the  marriage.  After  her  death  in  1855  he  mar- 
ried Bertha,  youngest  daughter  of  the  Comte  de 
Martigny  (1857),  by  whom  he  had  one  son  and  one 
daughter.  In  1847  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  as 
member  for  the  County  of  Limerick  in  the  Liberal 
interest  and  represented  the  constituency  till  1874.  In 
1850  he  became  a  Catholic  and  thereafter  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  Catholic  affairs,  especially  in  Parliament. 
As  a  friend  of  Wiseman,  Newman,  Montalambertj  W. 
G.  Ward,  and  other  eminent  Catholics,  he  was  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  various  interests  of  the 
Church,  and  his  parliamentary  advocacy  was  often  of 
great  advantage  to  the  hierarchy.  In  the  House  itself 
he  was  successful  and  filled  many  oflSces.  He  was 
clerk  of  the  ordnance  from  1852  to  1857;  was  ap- 
pointed privy  councillor  in  1855;  was  vice-president 
of  the  board  of  trade  in  1866;  under-secretary  for  the 
colonies,  1868-1870;  postmaster-general,  Jan.,  1871, 
to  Nov^  1873.  Finally  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Eml^  on  12  Jan.,  1874.  He  lost  much  of  his 
popularity  in  Ireland  during  his  later  yeare,  owing  to 
nis  opposition  to  the  land  league  and  to  the  Home  Rule 
movement.  His  work  being  chiefly  parliamentarv,  he 
wrote  little,  but  published  some  articles  in  the  "Home 
and  Foreign  Review"  and  a  "Lecture  on  the  Roman 
Question'*^  (1860). 

Ward,  W.  O.  Ward  and  the  Oxford  Motement  (LondoOt  1890); 
Idem,  W,  G,  Ward  and  the  Catholic  Revival  (London,  1803);  Idsm 


MONBXONOB 


510 


MON8IONOB 


IAS9 «/  Cardinai  Wi$€man  (London.  1808) ;  Pubcblu  Lif^  cf  Cat' 
dinal  Manning  (London.  1805):  Iobm.  LUe  cf  Ambrow  PkUUppa 
th  LUU  (London,  1000);  Coustket  in  Diet.  Nai,  Biog.,  Supp. 
Vol.  Ill  (London*  1001). 

Edwin  Bubton. 

Monoignor  (dominus  meus;  monteigneur,  My  Lord). 
-tAs  early  as  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  the  custom 
to  address  persons  high  in  rank  or  pow^  with  the 
title  Monseigneur  or  Monsignore.  In  the  intercourse 
of  seculars,  either  of  equals  or  of  superiors  with  in- 
feriors, there  was  no  fixed  rule.  Until  the  seventeenth 
century  French  nobles  demanded  from  their  subjects 
and  dependents  the  title  of  Monseigneur.  In  interna- 
tional intercourse  two  titles  gradually  won  general  rec- 
ognition, "Monsieur"  as  the  title  of  the  eldest  brother 
of  the  King  of  France  (if  not  heir  presumptive)  and 
"Monseigneur''  for  the  Dauphin,  or  eldest  son  of  the 
French  king,  who  was  also  crown  prince,  or  for  what- 
ever male  member  of  the  family  was  recomized  as  heir 
presumptive  to  the  throne.  Actually  all  Bourbon  pre- 
tenders assume  this  title  as  a  matter  of  course,  e.  g.  the 
late  Don  Carlos  Duke  of  Madrid,  his  son  Don  Jaime,  the 
Count  of  Caserta,  the  Duke  of  Orl6ans^  etc.  Moreover, 
the  custom  often  obtains,  especially  m  Spain,  France, 
and  Italy,  of  extending  by  courtesy  the  title  Monseig- 
neur to  the  adult  members  of  the  Bourbons  and  closely 
allied  families  usually  addressed  as  "  Your  Royal  High- 
ness ".  In  official  usage,  however,  this  would  scarcely 
be  permissible.  At  present  the  title  is  no  longer  borne 
by  other  persons  of  civil  rank,  and,  so  far  as  the  author 
of  this  article  is  aware,  no  one  else  lays  claim  to  it. 
Among  ecclesiastics  the  title  Monsignore  implies 
simply  a  distinction  bestowed  by  the  hi(|nest  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  either  in  conjunction  with  an  office  or 
merely  titular.  In  any  case  it  bears  with  it  a  certain 
prescribed  dress.  To  counteract  a  widely  spread  mi»- 
conception  we  m^  state  here  that  the  pope  does  not 
bestow  the  title  Nionsignore,  but  a  distinction  of  some 
sort  to  which  this  title  is  attached.  Accordingly  it  is 
quite  incorrect  to  say  that  any  one  has  been  appointed 
a  Monsignor  by  the  pope.  If  we  may  be  permitted  to 
use  a  comparison,  Monsignor  in  the  spiritual  order 
corresponds  to  the  word  officer  in  the  military.  The 
highest  general  and  the  youngest  lieutenant  are 
equally  officers,  and  the  most  venerable  patriarch 
bears  the  title  Monsignor  as  well  as  the  simplest  hon- 
orary chaplain.  Thus  among  prelates,  both  higher 
and  lower,  it  is  no  badge  of  distinction  except  as  it 
denotes  in  a  very  general  way  an  elevation  above 
the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  Those  only  bear  the  title  of 
Monsignor,  who  arefamUiarea  aummi  pontificiSf  those 
who,  by  virtue  of  some  distinction  bestowed  upon 
them,  belong  as  it  were  to  the  family  and  the  retinue 
of  the  Holy  Father.  Those  familiarea  are  entitled  to 
be  present  in  the  cappeUa  poniificia  (when  the  pope 
celeorates  solemn  Mass),  and  to  participate  in  all 
pubhc  celebrations  purely  religious  or  ecclesiastical 
m  character,  at  whicn  the  pope,  the  cardinals,  and  the 
papal  retinue  assist.  It  is  assumed  that  they  will 
appear  in  the  robes  corresponding  to  their  respective 
offices. 

Up  to  1630,  when  Urban  VIII  reserved  the  title 
Eminence  (Eminentissimua)  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
cardinals,  the  latter  bore  the  title  Monsignor  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  prelates  of  high  rank,  and  in 
France  it  is  still  customary  to  address  a  cardinal  as 
Monseigneur.  In  all  other  languages  this  usage  has 
completely  disappeared,  so  that,  practically  speaking, 
cardmals  are  no  longer  to  be  counted  among  the 
Monsignori.  All  other  prelates,  from  patriarchs 
down,  who  have  received  a  papal  distinction  or  are 
archbishops,  bishops,  or  mitrea  abbots  (among  the 
secular  clergy  only),  have  a  right  to  this  title.  The 
fact  that  it  has  lapsed  in  usage  in  many  countries,  so 
far  as  these  are  concerned,  docs  not  affect  the  Question. 
Instead  of  addressing  patriarchs  as  "  Vostra  Beatitu- 
dine'\  archbishops  as  ''Your  Grace",  bi^ops  as 


"My  Lord",  abbots  as  ''Gradous  Lord",  one  may 
without  any  breach  of  etiquette  salute  all  equally  as 
Monsignor.  Following  is  a  list  of  official  and  honor- 
ary prelates  exclusive  of  those  already  mentioned: 
(1)  the  college  of  the  seven  official  protJhonotanea 
Apostolic  de  numero  parlicipantiufn  (of  the  number  of 
participants);  (2)  the  supiemumerary  prothonotaries 
(supra  numerum)f  includmp;,  (a)  the  prdate  canons  of 
the  three  patriarchal  basihcas  of  Rome,  (b)  the  wel- 
ate  canons  of  certain  cathedral  churches,  while  in 
office;  (3)  prothonotaries  Apostolic  ad  itutar  parti- 
cipanlium  (after  the  manner  of  participants),  includ- 
ing, (a)  prelate  canons  of  certain  cathedral  churches, 
as  above,  (b)  prothonotaries  appointed  cm/  peraonam 
(individually) ;  (4)  the  College  of  the  Auditors  of  the 
Sacra  Rota  Romana,  these  are  official  or  delegated 
prelates;  (5)  the  collese  of  official  clerics  of  the 
Apostolic  Camera;  (6)  all  other  prelates  not  membexs 
of  any  of  the  above  named  cofieges,  the  numat>u9 
domestic  prelates  scattered  throughout  the  world. 
All  the  above-mentioned  prelates  are  entitled  to  wear 
the  mantelletta  and  rocneiL  (7)  the  private  cham- 
beriains  constituting  the  official  ooUege  of  pontifical 
masters  of  ceremonies;  (8)  the  official  private  cham- 
berlains known  as  participarUes;  (9)  t^e  super- 
numerary private  chamberlains  (camerieri  aegnti 
8oprannuinerari)f  of  whom  there  are  several  hundred 
in  various  parts  of  the  Catholic  world;  (10)  the 
honorary  chamberlains  in  violet;  (11)  tiie  honorary 
chamberlains  extra  urbem  (outside  the  city),  who  are 
not  received  in  their  official  capacity  in  Uie  papal 
court  when  held  at  Rome;  (12)  the  official  college 
of  private  chaplains;  (13)  the  honorary  private 
chaplains;  (14)  the  honorary  chaplains  extra  urban 
(see  11);  (15)  the  private  clerics;  and  (16)  the  offidal 
college  of  papal  chaplains. 

In  the  case  of  certain  of  the  above-tnentidtied 
classes  the  honorary  office  (together  with  the  cor- 
responding title  and  distinctive  dress)  lapses  at  the 
death  of  the  pope.  This  is  particularly  true  with 
regard  to  the  supernumerary  private  and  honorary 
Chamberlains.  The  reason  for  this  is  self-evident. 
It  is  possible  to  be  prothonotaiy  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Church  or  cleric  of  the  Apostolic  C^amera,  etc.;  but 
one  cannot  be  chamberlain  to  the  Holy  Roman 
Church,  but  simply  chamberlain  to  a  particular 
pontiff,  whose  death  dissolves  the  relation  between 
the  two.  Unless  the  newly  elected  pontiff  lenewB 
the  appointment  the  former  chamberlain  returns 
permanently  to  the  general  ranks  of  the  clergy.  Nor 
is  there  inconsistency  in  the  fact  that  certain  lay 
chamberlains  continue  in  the  papal  service  imme- 
diately after  a  papal  election.  Thdr  services  are 
necessary  to  the  new  pontiff  and  he  naturally  recog- 
nizes such  persons,  wnich  amounts  practically  to  a 
tacit  appointment.  It  is  regrettable  tnat  occasionally 
persons  thus  distinguished  by  tiie  pope  ^ther  assume 
a  dress  arranged  according  to  their  own  notions  or, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  dress  conceded,  appn^ii- 
ate  that  of  a  higher  office.  The  farther  a  countiy 
is  from  Rome,  the  more  apt  are  audi  unfortunate 
things  to  occur.  It  should  be  noted  that  members 
of  religious  orders  may  use  the  title  **  Monsignor"  only 
if  they  are  bishops  or  archbishops.  All  other  ranks 
of  the  prelacy  are  of  course  closed  to  them,  if  we  ex- 
cept the  Master  of  the  Saored  Palace,  who  being 
always  a  Dominican,  is  one  of  the  prelates,  but  may 
not  be  addressed  as  Monsignor.  The  custom  in- 
troduced in  the  sixteenth  century  of  giving  the  gen- 
erals of  religious  orders  the  title  "Monsignor"  was 
of  short  duration. 


Bouix,  De  Curia  Romana  (Paris.  1880) :  Bakgxn,  Dm 
Curie  (MQnater.  1854);  Hummirbt.  Urbt  H  Orbit  (London, 
1899).  359-60;  Sickel,  Sin  Ruoio  di  Pamiglia  dts  Papttea  Pvu 
IV  in  MiUeillunoen  dea  Institute  fOr  aeUrreiehiaeht  G^adkidUa/of' 
echung,  suppl.  vol.  IV  (iQiubnick.  1803).  See  Also  London  Tahld, 
March  12.  26.  April  9.  16.  May  14.  21.  1910. 

Paul  Mabia  Baumgabten. 


TUr  V'-'T»  v--'/ 


PU 


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«'  1 1 «  I 


A'.   .     . 


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'iiLLL.*,\   f  *^v.*>  ^.-k  i  4i..^>. 


:J 


M0M8TEANGI 


611 


MONTAQNA 


Homtraneo.    See  Ostbnborittm. 

Monatrelet,  Enguebrand  de,  a  French  chron- 
icJcr,  b.  about  1390  or  1395;  d.  in  July,  1453.  He  was 
most  jprobably  a  native  of  Monstrelet,  a  village  mtu- 
ated  m  the  present  department  of  the  Somme.  His 
life  was  spent  at  Cambrai  in  the  service  of  Philip, 
Pake  of  Burgundvy  who  was  also  Count  of  Flanders. 
Th'-  cartulary  of  tne  church  of  Cambrai  proves  that  in 
l43t)  Monstrelet  was  lieutenant  of  the  gavenier;  as 
such  it  was  his  duty  to  collect  in  the  Cambr^sis  the 
*  called ''  gavenne  .  which  was  paid  to  Philip  by  the 
1  .uits  of  the  churches  there  in  return  for  the  pro- 
te«  ion  which  he  gave  them.  From  20  Jime,  1436,  to 
January,  1440,  he  was  bailiff  (haiUi)  of  the  chapter  of 
Cambrai  and  he  was  provost  (privdi)  of  Cambrai  from 
1444  to  1446  (not  until  his  death,  as  Dacier  says) ;  he 
became  baili£f  of  Walincourt  on  12  March,  1445,  an 
office  which  he  held  till  his  death.  Monstrelet,  who 
lived  during  an  a^tated  period,  did  not  take  pereonal 
part  in  the  conflicts  of  the  day.  To  him,  perhape, 
*-  plies  a  letter  of  pardon  granteid  in  1424  to  a  certain 
J  .iguerrand  de  Monstrelet  by  Henry  IV  of  England, 
.  lo  then  ruled  a  part  of  France:  Enguerrand,  accord- 
u.if  to  this  letter,  had  committed  certain  highway 
robberies,  believins  that  he  had  a  sufficient  excuse 
because  ne  robbed  the  Armagnacs,  enemies  of  the 
]  'ike  of  Burgundy.  However  this  may  be,  his  atti- 
tude in  his  'Chronicle"  is  that  of  an  impartial  nar- 
rator. He  speaks  of  himself  but  once,  when  he  relates 
r '  the  eighty-sixth  chapter  of  the  second  book  that  he 
%a  present  at  the  intesriew  which  Joan  of  Arc,  taken 
risoner  before  Compi^gne,  had  with  Philip  of  Bitf-~ 


DB  BBAUCOxntT,  I  (Paris,  1863).  2-3;  Dacxkr,  Mhiurim  de  Id- 
tSrature  tiria  dea  reguttrts  da  rAoad&mie  royale  det  Inaeriptiont  et 
BaUea-Uttrn,  XLIII  (Paris.  1786).  535-62.  Thet^  is  an  English 
tnnslation  of  Monstrelet  by  Johnxs  (Hafod.  1810). 

Geoboes  Gotau. 

Montagna,  Bartolomeo,  Italian  painter,  chief 
representative  of  the  Vicenza  School,  b.  at  Orzinuovi 
about  1450;  d.  at  Vicenza,  11  October,  1523.  Very 
little  is  known  concerning  ms  life.  His  work  presents 
not  a  very  original,  but  happy  combination  of  the 
dual  influence  of  Padua  and  Venice.  The  forms, 
draperies,  grandeur,  and  often  the  energy  of  expres- 
sion betray  the  action  of  Montagna,  but  the  order  of 
his  altar-pieces,  their  harmonious  8yinmetr3r,  and  the 
beauty  of  their  colouring  recall  Giovanni  Bellini  or 
Carpaccio.  Perhaps,  he  even  surpassed  these  two 
masters  as  regards  power  of  tone,  and  resembles  Cri- 
velli  more  closely.  Two  Madonnas  in  the  gallery  of 
Vicenza  and  a  smaller  one  in  the  Lochis  Uallery  at 
Bergamo  (1487)  are  characteristic  of  his  earl^r  man- 
ner, which  is  not  free  from  stiffness  and  a  certain  dry- 
ness. Here  the  artist  still  retains  the  old  process  of 
distemper.  His  best  period  was  from  1490  to  1505, 
his  years  of  work  and  travel,  during  which  he  was 
busuy  occupied  throughout  all  the  district.  At  Ve- 
rona he  painted  house  facades  in  fresco,  and  executed 
the  graceful  paintings,  unhappily  mucn  damaged,  of 
the  Chapel  of  St.  Blaise  in  the  Church  of  Sts.  Nazzaro 
and  Celso  (1493),  of  which  Salconetto  was  the  archi- 
tect. There  is  little  logic  in  the  construction,  but  the 
details,  despite  th^  dilapidation  of  the  whole,  still  pre- 
sentti  ehtifmlng  eff^t.    In  the  cupola  there  are  two 


tion  of  the  coronation  of  Charles  VI.  which  kiok    o^  the  delightful  ineonsistency  of  the  Renaissance 

place  in  1380;  but  its  true  starting-point  is  Easter-iay^.  i  .P»«5^.:»D5^^«W»8  jy  Montagna  in  the  Scuola  del 

1400,  when  the  history  of  Froissart  finishes,  and  ij.  .59^j^..4t.?a^iW./,iffl8be8t-knoTO 

extends  down  to  1444.    While  Froissart  confined  lim-    pieces,  pamted  m  oilhn  the  manner  of  BeUmi. 

self  ahnoet  entirely  to  events  which  took  placj  in  ^      Thela^eret&ble<>f  the  Brera  (1499),  the  Madonna 


France,  Monstrelet  deals  also  with  other  countii^j* 
giving  many  documents.  He  treats  not  only  of  mili- 
tary history,  but  also  gives  interesting  details  of  ^eat 
religious  events  such  as  the  Councils  of  Pisa,  Con- 
stance, and  Basle.  We  feel,  moreover,  that  the  rav- 
ages or  war  and  the  sufferings  of  the  people  therefrom 
cause  him  real  pain,  and  he  is  not  over-enthusiastic 
about  great  feats  of  arms.  He  is  occasionally  guilty 
of  d^onolo^cal  errors  and  confusing  proper  names. 
Finally,  the  literary  merit  of  the  book  is  mediocre; 
the  narrative  is  often  heavy,  monotonous,  diffuse, 
and  lacks  the  charm  of  Froissart.  In  the  early  edi- 
tions of  Monstrelet — of  which  the  first,  published  at 
Paris  towards  1470  in  three  folio  ^umes,  goes  back 
almost  to  the  invention  of  printing^the  chronicles 
contain  a  third  book,  relatmg  the  events  which 
rook  place  between  April,  14&,  and  the  death  of 
^he  Duke  of  Burgundy  m  1467.  But  the  ''N^rologe 
des  Cordeliers  de  Cambrai"  and  the  "Memoriaux" 
of  Jean  le  Robert  prove  that  Monstrelet  died  in  July, 
1453,  so  that  aU  this  book  could  not  possibly  have 
been  written  by  him.  Furthermore,  tne  history  of 
years  1444-53,  given  in  this  third  book^  is  so  oald 
that  it  contrasts  sin^arly  with  the  prolixity  of  the 
first  two  books.  It  is,  besides,  much  more  partial  to 
the  House  of  Burgundy  than  the  first  two,  and,  in 
contrast  to  these,  scarcdy  contains  a  single  document. 
Wher&w  the  first  two  books  are  preceded  by  a  preface, 
the  third  has  none;  finally,  the  historian,  Matthieu 
d'Escouchy,  in  the  prologue  to  his  own  chronicle, 
states  that  Monstrdet's  "  Chronicle  "  ends  at  20  May, 
1444.  Modem  scholars  unanimously  accept  the  state- 
ment of  Matthieu  d'Escouchy  and  hold  that  this  so- 
called  third  book  was  not  written  by  Monstrelet. 

Chroniqus  d'Enouerrand  de  MonUrdeit  eio.  d'Akcq  (6  Tola., 


enthrdnedin  a  magnificent  chapel  with  two  saints  on 
each  side  and  three  angels  playing  on  the  steps  of  the 
throne,  is  perhaps  his  masterpiece.  Whether  for  its 
architecture,  its  dimity,  the  sweetness  of  its  figures, 
or  for  the  depth  and  power  of  its  colouring,  it  is  in  all 
respects  one  of  the  most  beautiful  canvases  produced 
at  that  period  in  Upper  Italy.  The  "  PietA"  of  Monte 
Berico  (1500)  is  of  a  quite  different  character:  it  is  a 
startling  picture  of  grief,  the  figures  being  of  a  violent, 
almost  brutal  naturalness.  The  Academy  of  Venice 
possesses  some  works  in  his  later  manner;  the  tone 
grows  subdued,  becoming  brown  and  dightly  hard  and 
dull.  Such  is  the  "  Maaonna  enthroned  between  St. 
Roch  and  St.  Jerome".  But  there  is  still  a  deep  sen- 
timent of  mystical  adoration  in  the  ''Christ  between 
St.  Roch  and  St.  Sebastian".  Vicenza  is  especially 
rich  in  Montagna's  works,  no  less  than  ten  being  found 
at  the  Academy,  not  to  mention  the  frescoes  of  the 
Duomo  of  S.  Lorenzo  and  some  altar-pieces,  such  as 
that  of  Santa  Corona.  Nearly  all  are  late  works. 
Outside  of  Italy  may  be  mentioned  the  "Ecce  Homo" 
of  the  Louvre  and  especially  the  charming  piece,  as 
tender  and  delicate  as  a  Carpaccio,  the  "  Three  Angelic 
Musicians";  a laive  and  magnificent  retable  of  1500  at 
the  Museum  of  Berlin*  a  beautiful  bust  of  the  Ma- 
donna at  Bremen;  a  "Holy  Family"  at  Strasburg  and 
some  other  less  important  works  m  England  (Butler. 
Farrer,  and  Samuelson  collections,  and  at  the  home  ot 
Lord  Cowper  at  Panshanger). 

Bartolomeo  had  a  son,  Benedetto,  who  was  chiefly 
notable  as  an  en^aver.  As  a  painter  he  is  little  more 
than  a  feeble  imitator  of  his  father,  as  is  proved  by  a 
Madonna  at  Milan  and  a  "Trinity  "  in  the  Catheoral 
of  Vicenza.    He  flourished  from  1490  to  1541. 

RxDOLPX.  MerangUe  deXT  ArU  (Venioe,  1648);  Crowb  and 
C4^A<«4«lb»*  ffifi'  of  Painting  in  ^.  Jtaly  (LQOdon.  1891): 


M0NTAONAI8 


512 


MONTAiaNI 


BuBCKBAiuyr,  Cicerone,  Fr.  ed.  (Paiis.  1892);  Morblu,  IlaUan 
PainUr$,  tr.  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1900) ;  Bcbxnson,  Venetian  Paints 
ere  of  the  Renaieeance  (3rd  ed.,  London  «nd  New  York,  1906). 

LoUia  GiLLET. 

MontagnalB  IndUns,  Quebec,  French  for  "Moun- 
taineers", the  collective  designation  of  a  number  of 
bands  speaking  dialects  of  a  common  language  of 
Algonquian  stock,  and  ranging  along  the  shores  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  and  Gulf,  from  about  the  St. 
Maurice  River  to  below  Cape  Whittle,  and  inland  to 
about  the  main  divide  at  the  heads  of  the  rivers.  They 
are  closely  allied  and  considerably  intermixed  witn 
the  cognate  Nascapee  (q.  v.),  who  wander  generally 
farther  inland  in  the  interior  of  the  Labrador  Penin- 
sula, but  frequent  the  same  trading  and  mission  sta- 
tions along  the  St.  Lawrence.  Among  the  Montagu- 
ais  bands  or  tribes,  when  Champlain  first  met  them 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Saguenay,  in  1603,  were  the  Atti- 
kame^e,  or  "Whitefish",  about  the  head  of  the  St. 
Maurice;  the  Kakouchac,  or  "Porcupine'',  on  Lake 
St.  John;  the  Tadousac  about  the  mouth  of  the  Sague- 
nay; the  Bersamite,  farther  east;  the  Papinachois, 
north  of  the  last-named;  the  Oumamiwek,  farther 
east,  along  the  St.  Lawrence;  the  Chisedec,  about  the 
Bay  of  Seven  Islands.  They  were  without  agricul- 
ture or  pottery,  subsisting  entirely  hy  hunting  and 
fishing.  Polygamy  was  common,  with  divorce  at 
will,  descent  being  held  in  the  female  line.  Their 
dwellings,  as  well  as  their  canoes,  were  of  birch  bark 
or  brushwood.  They  were  good  tempered,  patient, 
peaceable,  honest,  and  musical  under  instruction. 

The  Montagnais  obtained  their  first  knowledge  of 
Christianity  at  Tadousac,  a  French  trading  post. 
Regular  missionary  work  was  be|^  among  them  by 
the  Reoollet,  Fr.  Jean  d'Albeau,  m  1615.  Ten  years 
later  the  Jesuits  were  invited  to  help.  Fr.  Jean  du 
Quen,  S.J.,  established  the  mission  at  Tadousac  in 
1640;  later,  stations  were  erected  by  the  Jesuits  at 
GaspiS  and  TVois-Rlvi^res.  The  Iroquois  raids  drove 
them  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  a  smallpox  epidemic, 
in  1670,  greatly  reduced  them,  practically  destroying 
the  AttiKamegue.  In  consequence,  the  Montagnais 
began  to  resort  to  the  mission  at  Sillery,  near  Quebec. 
The  whole  tribe  is  now  civilized  and  Catholic,  with  the 
exception  of  forty-eight  officially  reported  (1909)  as 
Anglican.  They  still  depend  mainly  on  the  fur  trade 
for  subsistence,  out  also  work  at  lumbering  and  the 
making  of  canoes,  snow-shoes,  and  moccasins.  A  few 
of  them  are  successful  farmers.  Apart  from  drunken- 
ness, they  are  moral,  devout,  industrious,  and  said  to 
be ' '  improving  every  year  " .  Their  largest  settlements 
are  at  Pointe  Bleue,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  St. 
John,  Bersimis,  Seven  Islands,  Romaine,  and  Mingan. 
Their  total  number  is  probably  at  least  2500.  Father 
Pierre  Laure,  S.J.  (d.  1738),  compiled  a  grammar, 
dictionary,  and  other  works  in  the  Montagnais  lan- 
guage, most  of  which  are  still  in  manuscript. 

Depi.  Ind.  Affair$.  Canada,  annual  repU.  (Ottawa);  Hind, 
Labrador  Penintula,  II  (London,  1863);  Piluno,  Bihliog.  of  the 
Algonquian  Languaote  (Washington,  1891^;  Speck,  The  Mon- 
lagnaie  IndianM  in  Southern  Workman,  XXXVIII  (Hampton, 
Va.,  March,  1909);  Jee.  Relatione:  Thwatixs  ed.  (Cleveland, 
189(^1901). 

James  Moonet. 

MontagnalB  IndUos,  a  name  given  in  error  to  the 
Chippewatans,  owin^  to  a  fancied  resemblance  to 
the  above.  The  Chippewayans  are  really  a  D^n^ 
tribe,  and  derive  their  name  from  the  Cree  words 
chipwaw  (pointed)  and  iveyan  (skin  or  blanket), 
alluding  to  the  original  form  of  the  main  article  of 
their  oress.  Their  habitat  b  Lakes  Cold,  Ile-&-la- 
Crosse,  Heart,  and  Caribou,  and  the  elevated  land 
in  the  vicinity  of  Methy  Portage  and  the  Eng- 
lish River.  To  the  natives  frequenting  these  locali- 
ties may  be  added  the  Athabascans,  who  have  for 
habitat  Lake  Athabasca,  the  basin  of  Slave  River, 
and  the  outlying  lands  to  the  east  of  Great  Slave 


Lake.  The  total  iX)pulation  of  the  two  divisions  is 
about  4000,  the  majority  of  whom  are  nomadic  hunt- 
ers, though  not  a  tew  have  of  late  taken  to  a  more 
settled  life,  and  cultivate  potatoes  The  tribe  eagerly 
welcomed  the  first  Catholic  missionaries  in  1845,  and 
ever  since  they  have  been  noted  for  their  attachment 
to  the  Faith.    They  are  practically  all  Catholics. 

The  Chippewayans,  or  Montagnais,  are  in  reality 
the  prototype  of  the  entire  D^n6  family,  in  that  sense 
that  they  have  given  it  their  own  name  i<Uni,  *'  men '') . 
They  were  the  first  of  the  northern  D^n^  to  come 
under  the  notice  of  the  whites,  through  the  travels 
and  journal  of  Samuel  Heame.  At  the  present  day, 
the  flourishing  mission  of  He  k  La  Crosse,  where  about 
one  thousand  Montagnais  live  happy  and  contented 
under  the  aegis  of  religion,  is  one  of  the  best  evi- 
dences of  the  civilizing  power  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

HcABNB,  A  Journey  from  Prince  of  WaU$  Port  to  the  Northern 
Ocean  (Dublin.  1796);  Richardson,  Arctic  SeorehinQ  Bxpeditum 
(London.  1851).  See  also  Father  Petitot'a  worka  enumerated 
after  the  article  on  the  Diiria. 

A.  G.  Moucx. 

Montaigne,  Michel-Etquen  de,  writer,  b.  at 
the  chateau  of  Montaigne,  in  P^rigord,  France,  on 
28  Feb.,  1533;  d.  there,  13  Sept.,  1592.  His  great- 
grandfather had  been  a  Bordeaux  merchant  of  wines, 
salt  fish,  etc.,  and  it  was  he  who  purchased  the  estate 
of  Montaigne.  His  father  entered  the  anny  and 
married  Antoinette  de  Louppes  or  Lopes,  of  Jewish 
origin,  and  for  two  years  was  mayor  of  Bordeaux. 
At  an  early  age  Michel  had  a  German  tutor,  who  was 
obliged  to  speak  to  him  in  Latin  only.  At  the  age 
of  six  and  a  half  he  was  sent  to  the  CoUege  of  Guyenne 
at  Bordeaux,  where  he  remained  seven  years.  Little 
is  known  of  the  ensuing  years.  It  is  believed  that 
he  studied  logic  and  dialectics  for  two  years  at 
the  Bordeaux  Faculty  of  Arts,  with  Maro-Antoine 
de  Muret  as  tutor.  He  afterwards  studied  law, 
possibly  at  Bordeaux,  more  probably  at  Toulouse. 
Having  become  counsellor  at  the  Cour  des  Aides 
of  P6ng;ord.  he  was  soon  incorporated  like  hb  col- 
leagues in  tne  Parlement  of  Bordeaux.  But  the  new 
counsellor  had  no  liking  for  his  profession,  and  he  was 
often  absent  from  the  Parlement.  From  1561  to 
1563  he  attended  the  court.  From  1559  he  knew  La 
Bo^tie,  his  chosen  friend,  and  like  himself  a  counsellor 
in  the  Parlement  of  P^rigord  and  his  elder  by  six 
years;  but  death  soon  separated  them  (1563). 

Two  years  later  Montaigne  married  fVanf^ise  de 
la  Chasssdgne,  the  daughter  of  a  parliamentaiy  ad- 
vocate. They  had  five  daughters,  only  one  of  whom 
survived  him.  In  1570  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven 
he  sold  his  post  of  counsellor,  and  in  the  following  year 
retired  to  the  ch&teau  de  Montaigne.  There,  from 
1571  to  1580,  he  wrote  his  "Essays".  The  first 
edition  of  this  work  contained  only  two  books.  He 
then  set  out  on  a  journey  which  lasted  a  year  and  a 
half,  of  which  he  has  wntten  in  his  "Journal".  He 
went  to  Lorraine  and  Alsace,  started  for  Switzerland, 
crossed  Bavaria  and  came  down  to  the  T^T^^  ^^^ 
Venice  and  reached  Rome,  the  end  of  his  journey, 
where  he  received  letters  of  citizenship.  During  ms 
absence  he  had  been  made  mayor  of  Bordeaux,  which 
office  he  held  for  four  years  (1581-85),  his  duties  com- 
ing to  an  end  when  the  pest  broke  out.  Montaigne 
being  absent  from  the  town  did  not  feel  obliged  to  re- 
turn to  it.  In  1588  he  published  a  new  edition  of  his 
"Essays",  corrected  and  augmented  by  a  third  book. 
He  continued  to  revise  his  work  until  his  death. 
In  1595  Mile  de  Goumay,  the  young  woman  who  at 
*the  age  of  twenty-two  became  his  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirer, and  whom  he  called  his  daughter,  issued  a  new 
edition,  in  which  she  inserted  the  revisions  and  ad- 
ditions which  he  had  indicated  in  a  copy  in  1588. 

It  is  impossible  to  analyse  the  "Essays".  They 
are  a  long  conversation  in  which  the  author  sets  forth 
in  haphazard  fsshion  his  memories  and  his  reflecUona. 


MOMULOmO  513  MOHTALEMBKBT 


His  memoiies  are  the  result  of  his  personal  experience  restoration  of  the  French  monarchy,  and  be  became 
and  espedally  of  his  very  extensve  reading.  According  under  the  Reetoration  plenipotentiary  minister  to 
tohiaowneaqireeaonhehiinBelfiB  "the  subject  of  his  Stutteart,  and,  lat^  to  Stockholm.  His  maternal 
book".  But  what  excuses  hitr  is  doubtless  the  fact  grancUather,  Jamee  Forbes,  belonged  to  a  very  old 
that  in  ducting  himself  he  often  depicts  human  na-  Scotch  Protestant  family  and  had  made  many  im- 
ture  in  general.  He  is  a  charminK  conversationaliBt,  portant  journeys  to  India,  which  he  related  in  the 
a  writer  full  of  pith  and  colour,  artlesaness,  grace,  and  four  volumes  of  his  "Oriental  Memoirs",  published  in 
life,  ^s  literary  merits  add  to  the  dangers  of  his  1813;  he  also  wrote  in  1810  a  volume  entitled  "Re- 
book,  which  is  deliberately  lascivious  and  as  a  whole  flections  on  the  character  of  the  Hindus  and  the 
openly  favourable  to  ^e  Fyrrhonians.  He  has  even  necessity  of  converting  them  to  Christianity". 
written  that  it  is  "a  slack  ear  for  a  shapely  head".  Montalembert's  mother,  converted  by  AbMBuason 
However,  on  the  other  hand,  he  thanked  "our  eove-  and  P^re  MacCarthy,  made  her  abjuration  of  heresy 
reign  Creator  for  havuiK  staved  our  trust  on  the  ever-  to  Cardinal  de  latil  in  1822.  The  early  years  of 
lasting  foundation  of  His  holy  Montalembert's  life  were 
word".  He  also  said  that  passed  in  England:  after- 
outside  of  the  path  pointed  wards  he  studied  at  the  Lyc6e 
out  by  the  ChuKh  reason  "is  Bourbon  and  at  the  College 
kst,  embarrassed,  shackled".  !  Sainte-Barbe  at  Paris,  where 
In  a  letter  he  relates  in  ft  out  of  twenty  pupils  in  the 
Christian  manner  the  Chris*  Bixteenth  year  of  their  age 
tian  death  of  his  friend  La  hardly  oue  was  a  practical 
Bo^tie.  He  himself,  as  soon  Catholic.  At  Sainte-Barbe 
as  he  became  ill,  would  not  young  Montalembert  made  a 
send  for  a  priest,  and  in  his  friend  of  Lfen  Comudet,  who 
last  illneee  did  not  depart  from  waa  also  a  Catholic,  and  the 
this  custam.  Paaqmer  relates  letters  the  boys  exchanged  in 
that  he  "caused  Mass  to  be  their  seventeenth  year  have 
said  in  his  chamber  and  whea  remained  famous.  At  that 
the  priest  came  to  the  ele-  early  age  Montalembert  wrote: 
valiou  the  poor  gentleman  "Would  it  not  be  a  splendid 
raised  hiniscU  as  weU  as  he  thing  to  show  that  religion  is 
could  in  bed  with  hands  joined  the  mother  of  liberty!",  a 
and  thus  yielded  his  soul  to  phrase  which  waa  to  become 
God",  He  died  therefore  in  the  motto  of  his  whole  life, 
a  supreme  act  of  faith.  In  1829  he  wrote  to  Rio:  "my 

BoamroK.  Mnniai^nt  it  m  e—at*  age,  my  tsstes,  my  future  call 

^^^''  ^'"^^iJ^S^''^  t'^j  me  to  support  the  new  ideal: 

A  iT^i^int  (igoo)."™  "'"  l™'  ray  religious  beliefs  and  .. 

GnoaoES  Bhstbin.  moral  emotions  cause  me  to 

lament    bitterly   the   bygone 

Montalcino,  Diocebb  ow  days.theagcsof faithandself- 
(Iu^inbnbib). — Montalcino  is  sacrifice.  If  Catholicism  is  to 
a  small  town  about  twmW  triumph  it  must  have  liberty 
miles  from  Siena,  some  1900  .,,._,,  bb  its  ally  and  tributary  sub- 
feet  above  sea-level  and  overw                    MnBai^Broc™  n.  Momicn™  -j^^..    Soon  after  its  estsblish- 


lookingthev^eyoftbeOn^RMie.    In  the  neighbour-    ment  in  1829  by  Carn6,  Caialds,  and  Auj 

hood  are  mineral  rorings  and  cbaDc  quarries.    In  the    Meaux,  with  the  motto  (borrowed  from  C ^, 

nintheentury  it  belonged  to  the  abbey  of  San  Antonio.     "Civil  and  ReU^ous  Lib^y  for  ^e  whole  world^ 


Inl212itwastakenbyllieSiene8e,butaoonafterwards  the  review  "Le  Correepondant"  had  Montalembert 

the  inhabitants  declared  themselves  in  favour  of  Flor-  as  a  contributor.     In  September  and  October,  IS30, 

(nee.  In  1280,  after  the  battle  of  Moutaperti,  it  once  he  travelled  in  Ireland,  where  he  met  O'Connell;  he 

more  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Sienese,  who  rnade  it  a  wasthinkingof  assietingtbe  cause  for  which  O'Coimdl 

stronghold.    In  1525  it  waa  besi^ed  by  the  imperial  was  struggling  by  writing  a  history  of  Ireland,  when  he 

troops;  in  1555,  when  Siena  was  aimexed  by  Tuscany,  learned  that  the  House  of  Commons  had  passed  the 

I^etro  Strosii  with  the  ud  td  French  troops  endeav-  Irish  Emancipation  Act. 

oured  to  set  up  a  free  rqwblio  at  Montalcino,  but        While  he  was  in  Ireland  he  recdved  the  prospectus 

in  1656  the  French  were  lAliged  to  retreat  and  the  of  the  new  paper  "L'Avenir'j  founded  in  October, 

town  submitted  to  Coeimo  1.    B^arthquakes  have  not  1830,  by  Lamennsis.    On  26  Oct.,  1830,  be  wrote  to 

been  unfrequent, the  last  being  in  1909.    Montalcina  Lameimais:  "AUthatlknow.andallthat  lamableto 

belonged  originally  to  the  Dioceee  of  AreHo;  in  the  do  I  lay  at  your  feet".    On  5  November,  1830,  he  met 

eleventh  century  the  abbots  of  San  Antonio  had  Lamermais  in  Paris,  and  on  12  November  at  Lunen- 

quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction  over  it;  in  1462  it  was  nais's  house  he  met  I^cordaire.    At  timee,  Moota- 

miade  a  diocese  and  united  with  the  See  of  Piensa,  lembert  had  to  smooth  over  some  of  the  risky  things 

which,  however,  became  in  1563  a  separate  diocese.  Lamennais  allowed  hiinself  to  be  led  into  writing 

Its  first  Inshop  was  Giovanni  Cinughi;  Francesco  against  the  royalists  in  the  paper:  on  the  oUier  hiua 

Piccolonuni  (Fius  III)  admrnistered  the  see  at  one  time,  he  was  engaged  in  controversy  witb  Lacordtdre^whose 

ThedioceeeisdirectlysubjecttotheHolySee;  ithas34  idea  of  aristocracy  and  the  past  glory  of  the  fVench 

parities  and  39,130  souls,  1  convent  for  men  and  two  nobles  he  considered  too  narrow.    It  was  Montalem- 

lor  women,  bert  who,  the  day  after  the  sack  of  St.  Germain 

CAVFBLLBTTi.LaCAMM<rjbilu,  XVIIKVer^.lSST).  I'Auxerrois    by    the    Pariman    mob,    published    in 

U.  BEtnorn.  "L'Avenir"  an  eloquent  article  on  the  (>ms of  Christ, 

Kontelambert,  CHABLEa-FoRBBS-RENi,  Comtb  "which  has  ruled  over  the  destinies  of  the  modern 

DB,  b.  in  London,  15  April,  1810;  d.  in  Paris  13  March,  world."     He  especially  distinguished  l^msclf  in  the 

1870.     His  father,  Marc  Renfi.  had  fought  in  the  army  "  L'Avenir"  by  his  campawns  in  favour  of  freedom 

of  Cond4,  and  htul  afterwards  served  in  an  English  for  Ireland  and  Poland,  and  for  these  he  recraved  the 

cavalry  r«nment;  he  was  chosen   by  the   Pnnce  congratulations  of  Victor  Hugo  and  Alfred  de  Vigny. 

Regent  of  England  to  aimounce  to  Louie  XVUt  the  In  1831  he  thou^t  of  goin^  to  Poland  and  joining  tbp 
X.— 33 


inwigeota.  When  the  "  Af^enre  g^n^rale  poor  Is  d^ 
fcDK  de  U  liberK  rdiipf^uHi!"  (Ontral  committee  for 
the  safcgu&rdiog  of  rplieious  liberty),  founded  by  the 
editoraoiF  "  L' A venir",  had  Bolemaly  declared  war  on 
the  tnoDopoly  of  the  French  University  by  opening  k 
primary  school  (9  Klay,  1S31),  Afont&lcmbert  waa 
mdicled.  Ab  at  thia  time  by  hia  father's  death  on  20 
June,  1831,  he  became  a  pet^r  of  France,  he  demanded 
that  he  be  tried  by  the  House  of  Peers;  and  the 
famous  "Free  School  Case"  was  heard  before  that 
aasembly,  19  and  20  September,  1^1. 

The  speech  delivered  by  Montalcmbert  on  Uukt  oo- 
eaaion  waa  a  gem  of  eloquence.  The  trial  ended  in  hia 
condemnation  to  a  fine  of  one  hundred  francs;  but  his 
eloquence  succeeded  in  calling  public  attention  to  the 
question  of  freedom  of  teaching,  which  was  destined 
not  to  be  solved  until  1850.  When  the  last  number  of 
"L'Aveoir"  appeared  {15  November,  1831),  Monta- 
lembert  accompanied  Lacordaiie  and  Lamennais  to 
Rome.  While  in 
March,  1832,  La- 
j  cordoire  divinnl 
1  thewishcsofGreg- 
ory  XVI,  and  re- 
turned to  France, 
Montalembert 
persisted 
mainins 
with    Ls 

who  insisted  on  a 
public  decision  by 
the  pope  concern- 
ing '  L'Avenir". 
It  was  not  until 
July  that  they  left 
Rome,  and  the 
'clipal"Mirari 

took  thorn  at  Mu- 
nich, wasacause  of 
(Ovat    sorrow     to 
!„„.■..,.-— r  mem.  Montalem- 

bert submitted  at 
onoe,and  when  early  in  1833  Liunennais  announced  hia 
intention  of  again  takiniit  U[)  his  editorial  work,  e^ccpt- 
inft  the  field  oi  theology,  m.d  concerning  himself  only 
with  social  and  iMililicai  quest  ions,  Montalembert  did 
all  he  could  to  diivuade  him  Trom  so  imprudent  a  step. 
When  Grecory  XVI  by  hta  Brief  dated  5  October. 
1833,  found  fault  with  tiie  "Iohr  and  violent  preface' 
Montalembert  had  written  for  Mickiewici'a  "  Livre 
des  Pftlerins  Polonais"  and  when  st  the  end  of  that 
eome  year  Lamennais  broke  away  from  the  Church, 
Niontalembcrt  patwcd  through  a  period  of  much  soi^ 
row,  durine  which  the  advice  of  Lacord^re  helped  him 
greatly.  He  tried  in  1834  to  dissuade  Lamennais  from 
publishinK  "Les  Paroles  d'un  Croyant",  and  in  vain 
twsought liim  to  submit  to  the  Encyclical  "Slngulari 
nos"  of  7  July,  1834,  He  submitted  to  all  Gregory's 
decisions  (8  December.  1834)  and  his  correspondence 
with  Lamennais  ccasea  definitely  in  1830, 

In  1836  he  published  his  "Vie  de  S^ntb  EIJEabeth 
de  Hongrie"  which  restored  hagiography  in  France 
and  brought  back  to  Catholics  a  taste  for  the  super- 
natural as  shown  in  the  hves  of  the  saints.  On  16 
August,  1836,  Abbd  Gerbet  blessed  his  marriajse  with 
Mile  de  Mfrode,  daughter  of  the  Felix  de  Mf  rode  who 
bad  taken  such  an  important  part  in  the  insurrection 
of  the  Belgian  Catholics  against  the  government  of 
the  Low  Countries,  and  who  was  descended  from  Saint 
Eliiabeth  of  Hungary.  She  was  the  sister  of  Xavier 
de  M^rode,  afterwards  minister  of  Pius  IX. 

In  the  House  of  Peers,  Montalembert  took  pride  in 
presentiiu  himself  as  a  Catholic  first  of  all,  at  a  time 
when  as  he  himself  wrote,  "to  profess  or  defend  the 
Catholic  faith  one  had  to  face  marked  unpopularity". 
In  May,  1S37,  he  spoke  in  favour  of  the  right  of ''"' 


CiuLH-Poaau-REH^  Cowtb  d 


cleeiastical  burial  had  been  refused  to  Montloiia-  by 
Bishop  Firon  of  Clermont,  he  replied  in  the  name  of 
the  liberty  of  the  Church  to  those  who  BPrti>ili-d  this 
purely  ecclesiastical  act.  He  secooded  with  all  his 
influence  the  re-establishment  of  the  Benedictines  by 
Dom  Gujranger,  and  of  the  Dominicans  by  Lacor- 
daire,  and  in  1841  be  obtained  from  Martin  du  Nord, 
Minister  of  Worship,  permisaioD  for  l-acotxiaire  to 
wear  his  monastic  drees  m  the  pulpit  of  Notre  Dame. 
"L'Univns  Religieux", »  daily  psperfouDded  in  1S34 
byAbb^Migne.oweditasolvencyin  1838  to  pecuniajr 
aacrifices  made  by  Montalembert,  and  it  soon  passed 
intothehandstrfliouisVeuillot.  In  June,  1845  Monta- 
lembert questioned  the  govemm^it  concerning  the 
measures  it  was  about  to  take  against  the  Jesuila,  and 
a  few  days  later,  when  the  conceauons  made  by  the 
Holy  See  to  Roesi,  whom  Guisot  had  sent  to  Rome, 
had  brought  about  the  partial  dispersion  of  the  French 
Jesuits,  he  loudly  expressed  his  surprise  and  sorrow. 
"You  are  our  father,  our  support,  our  friend",  wrote 
Fire  de  Ravignan  to  him.  In  the  House  he,  more- 
over, defended  the  interests  of  foreign  Catholics;  in 
1845,  at  the  time  of  the  Lebanon  massacres,  he  ques- 
tioned Guiiot  as  to  what  France  was  doing  to  protect 
Christians  in  the  East;  in  1846  he  questioned  him 
concerning  the  manacres  committed  by  Austria  in 
Galicia,  and  the  cruelties  practised  against  the  Poles 
of  that  province;  on  11  January,  1S48,  he  enthusias- 
tically praised  the  hopes  Pius  IX  held  out  to  the 
Italian  people,  and  reproached  the  gOTftnuoent  of 
France  for  the  lukewarm  support  it  gave  the  new  pope 
against  Mettemich'  on  14  January,  1848  in  a  speech 
on  the  Sonderbund,  the  fineet,  peitiape,  he  ever  ut- 
tered, he  impeached  European  radicalism,  and  pro- 
claimed that  France,  in  the  face  of  Radicalism,  was 
"destined  to  uphold  the  flag  and  safeguard  the  rights 
irf  liberty",  Never  did  a  speech  bo  carry  meji  away, 
wrote  Sainte-Beuve. 

But  it  waa  esriccially  to  aecure  liberty  of  teaching 
(see  Fn.wcE  and  Falloctc  du  Coudrat)  that  Monta- 
lembert devoted  his  efforts.  In  1839  he  addressed  an 
eloquent  letter  to  Villemain,  minister  of  public  in- 
sLrucI  ion,  demanding  that  liberty;  in  1841  under  press- 
ure from  the  episcopate,  he  compelled  Villemain  to 
withdraw  a  bill  on  education  because  it  waa  not  suffi- 
ciently liberal;  in  his  pamphlet  "Du  Devoir  des  Catho- 
liques  dans  la  question  dela  liberty  d'msdKnanenl", 
published  in  1843,  he  summoned  the  Catholics  to  t^e 
part  in  the  struggle.  On  16  April,  1844,  in  the  House 
of  Peers,  he  undertook  the  defence  of  the  bishops  who 
had  attacked  a  second  bill  brought  in  by  \~illeniain, 
and  he  replied  to  Dupin,  who  demanded  the  punish- 
ment of  the  bishops;  We  are  the  sons  of  the  crusad- 
ers; and  we  shall  never  yield  to  the  sons  of  Voltaire"; 
then  aeain  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  discussion  of 
the  bill,  which  owing  to  Villemaia's  mental  infirmity 
waa  abandoned.  Between  1845  and  1S46  he  soliciled 
petitions  among  the  laity  in  support  of  liberty  of  edu- 
cation, and  ho  succeeded  in  havmg  140  supportos  ol 
educational  liberty  elected  as  deputies  in  1S46.  In 
1847  he  renewed  the  attack  on  the  bill  introduced  by 
Salvandy  and  declared  it  unacceptable.  The  July 
monarchy  fell  before  the  question  was  settled.  The 
Revolution  of  1848  respected  the  rights  of  the  Church 
and  Pius  IX,  26  March,  1848,  wrote  to  Montalem- 
bert: "We  gladly  believe  that  it  is  in  partowingto 
your  eloquence,  which  has  endeared  your  name  to 
your  generous  countrymen,  that  no  harm  has  been 
done  to  religion  or  its^ ministers". 


jxpedition  to  aid  Pius  IX,  declared  amid  the  applause 
of  two-thirds  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  tiiat  the 
Church  is  "a  mother,  the  mother  of  Europe,  the  ■ 
mother  of  modern  society".  Once  more  he  took  up  . 
'^-  struggle  for  liberty  of  education;  in  1849,  togethei  > 


MOKTALEBCBXBT 


515 


MONtALKUBEET 


with  Dupanloup  he  was  the  chief  instigator  of  the 
negotiations  between  the  Catholics  and  a  number  of 
liberals  such  as  Thiers,  which  resulted  in  spite  of  the 
sharp  attacks  of  Louis  Veuillot  in  the  definitive  grant 
of  liberty  of  education  by  the  Falloux  Law.  When  in 
October,  1850,  Montalembert  went  to  Rome,  Pius  IX 
congratulated  him,  and  caused  him  to  be  named  Cwia 
Romanus  by  the  municipality  of  Rome.  After  the 
Coup  d'Etat,  2  Dec,  1851,  in  an  open  letter  to  the 
"Univere",  he  invited  the  Catholics  to  rally  to  Louis 
Napoleon;  this  manifesto,  which  he  afterwsjtls  re- 
gretted, was  the  result  of  an  idea  he  had  that  it  was  un- 
wholesome for  Catholics  to  abstain  from  taking  part 
in  the  life  dl  the  State.  But  when  in  1852  he  had  ap- 
pealed in  vain  to  Louis  Napoleon  to  abrogate  the  or- 
ganic articles,  to  grant  liberty  of  higher  education,  and 
medom  of  association,  he  refused  to  enter  the  Senate. 
He  was  deputy  for  Besan^n  to  the  legislature  of  1852^ 
1857,  but  failed  to  be  re-elected  in  1857  owing  to  the 
defection  of  many  Catholic  voters.  He  cut  nimself 
off  entirely  from  Louis  Veuillot  and  the  "Univers", 
which  he  thought  accepted  with  too  great  compla- 
cenc^r  all  the  acts  of  the  new  government  curtailing 
certain  political  Uberties. 

The  break  began  in  1852  when  Montalembert's 
pamphlet  "Les  Int^rSts  Catholiques  au  XlXemo 
Sidcfe''  was  attacked  by  Dom  Gueranger  and  Louis 
Veuillot;  it  became  more  marked  in  1855  when  Mon- 
talembert, takine  from  Lenormant's  hands  the  man- 
agement of  the  ''A^Jorrespondant''.  which  had  at  t^e 
time  only  672  subscribers,  made  that  review  an  oi^gan 
of  the  political  opposition,  and  took  up  the  side  known 
as  "liberal"  in  contradistinction  to  the  views  sup- 
|K>rted  by  the  ^^Univers".  As  an  organ  of  the  oppo- 
sition ^'Le  Correspondant"  was  often  at  odds  with  the 
imperial  government:  in  1858  an  article  Montalem- 
bert wrote  entitled  "Un  d^bat  sur  Plnde  au  Parle- 
ment  anglais''  led  to  his  prosecution,  and  in  spite  of 
the  defence  set  up  by  Berryer  and  Dufaure.  ne  was 
sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment,  wnich  the 
emperor  remitted.  In  1859  his  article  on  "Pie  IX  et 
la  France  en  1849  et  1859",  in  which  he  attacked  the 
partiality  of  the  empire  towards  Italy  and  aJl  the  op- 
ponents of  the  temporal  power^  caused  some  disquiet 
m  court  circles,  and  won  for  hun  ihe  congratulations 
of  Pius  IX,  His  two  letters  to  Cavour,  Oct.,  1860, 
and  April.  1861,  in  which  he  attacked  the  centralizing 
spirit  of  those  who  were  bringing  about  Italian  unity, 
and  took  up  the  defence  of  Uie  Holy  See.  drew  from 
Pius  IX  the  enthusiastic  exclamation  of ''  Vivat.  vivat ! 
our  dear  Montalembert  has  surpassed  himself  .  But 
the  hostility  between  the  '*Correspondant"  and  the 
'*  Univers"  was  growing,  and  in  the  heat  of  the  strug- 
gle Montalembert  wished  to  profit  by  the  Congress  of 
Belgian  Catholics  at  Mechlin  (Auguist,  1863)  to  pour 
out  his  whole  soul  concerning  the  future  of  modem 
society  and  the  Church. 

His  first  speech  aimed  to  show  the  necessity  of 
Christianising  the  democracy  by  accepting  modem 
liberties.  His  second  speech  dealt  with  nberty  of 
conscienoe,  and  the  conclusion  he  drew  was  that  the 
Church  could  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  religious  lib- 
erty and  with  the  modem  state  which  is  founded  on 
that  liberty,  and  that  everyone  is  free  to  hold  that  the 
modem  state  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  one  which  pre- 
ceded it.  The  future  Cardinal  Pie,  Bishop  of  Poitiers, 
the  future  Cardinal  Ledochowski,  Nuncio  at  Brussels, 
Mgr.  Talbot,  Chamberlain  to  Pius  IX,  Louis  Veuillot, 
and  the  Jesuits  who  edited  the  "Civiltil  Cattolica'* 
were  alarmed  at  these  declarations.  On  the  other 
hand  Cardinal  Sterck,  Archbishop  of  Mechlin,  the  fu- 
ture Cardinals  Guibert  and  Lavigerie.  many  well- 
known  Paris  Jesuits,  such  as  Pdres  de  ronlevoy.  OH- 
viunt,  Matignon,  and  especially  Bishop  Dupanloup  of 
Orleans,  supported  him  and  took  up  his  defence.  At 
the  end  of  March,  1864,  he  received  a  letter  from  Car- 
dinal   AntonelU    finding   fault   with   the    Mechlin 


speeches.  When,  on  8  Dec.,  1864,  the  Encyclioal 
'^Quanta  Cura"  and  the  Syllabus  were  issued,  Monta- 
lembert resisted  the  advice  given  him  by  the  Protec- 
tant L6on  de  Malleville  to  protest  publicly  against 
these  pontifical  documents  as  a  political  measure;  and 
the  commentarv  on  the  Syllabus  which  Dupanloup 
published,  and  Pius  IX  approved  of,  4  Feb.,  1865,  met 
with  his  joyous  adhesion. 

When  the  Vatican  Coimcil  drew  near  he  feared  that 
the  council  would  infer  from  the  Syllabus  and  define 
as  articles  of  faith  certain  affirmative  propositions  con- 
cemins  liberty  and  touching  on  the  State.  He  en- 
couraged the  authors  of  the  Coblenz  manifesto  who 
raiseadoubts  as  to  the  opportuneness  of  the  infallibil- 
ity question,  and  he  drew  up  under  the  heading  "Ques- 
tions au  futur  concile"  a  great  niunber  of  disquieting 
grievances  which  he  circulated  among  the  bishops. 
The  three  hundred  pages  he  wished  to  insert  in  the 
"Correspondant"  on  the  causes  of  Spanish  decadence, 
and  in  which  he  made  a  lively  attack  on  the  "Civilt^ 
Cattolica",  were  refused  by  the  "  Correspondant",  and 
so  Montalembert  broke  off  his  connexion  with  that 
review. 

His  letter  to  the  lawyer  Lallemand,  published  in 
the  "Gazette  de  France",  7  March,  1870,  was  m- 
tended  to  reconcile  his  former  "ultramontanism'' 
with  his  present  state  of  feeling,  which  had  been  st^^led 
Gallicanism.  In  that  letter  ne  spoke  of  "The  idol 
which  the  lay  theologians  of  absolutism  had  set  up  in 
the  Vatican^'.  The  impression  left  by  this  letter, 
which  Abb6  Combalot  in  the  pulpit  of  San  Andrea 
della  Valle  styled  a  "satanic  work'',  was  sUll  fresh  in 
the  mind  of  Pius  DC,  when  Montalembert  died,  13 
March,  1870.  Pius  IX  refused  to  allow  a  solemn  ser- 
vice to  be  held  for  him  in  the  Ara  Coeli ;  but  a  few  days 
later  he  gave  orders  that 'an  oflice  should  be  sunff  m 
Santa  Maria  Transpontina,  and  he  attended  there 
himself  in  one  of  the  barred  galleries. 

The  letter  (published  very  much  later)  which  on  28 
September,  1869,  he  wrote  to  M.  Hyacinthe  Lo3rson  to 
dissuade  him  from  leaving  the  Church,  is  in  the  opin- 
ion of  M.  Emile  Ollivier  "one  of  the  most  pathetic  ap- 
peals that  ever  came  from  the  human  heart" ;  and  the 
future  Cardinal  Perraud,  when  pronoimcing  the  pane- 
gyric of  Montalembert  in  the  Sorbonne,  comd  say  that 
even  his  latest  writing?,  however  darms  they  might 
be,  were  filled  with  "a  noble  passion  of  love  for  the 
Church". 

A  member  of  the  French  Academy  from  9  Januaiy, 
1851,  Montalembert  was  both  an  orator  and  a  histo- 
rian. As  early  as  1835  he  had  planned  to  write  a  life  of 
St.  Bernard.  He  was  led  te  publish  in  1860,  under  the 
title  "Les  Moines  d'Occident",  two  volumes  on  the 
ori^n  of  monasticism;  then  followed  three  voliunes  on 
the  monks  in  Englana;  he  died  before  he  reached  the 
period  of  St.  BernEutl.  But  he  left  among  his  papers, 
on  the  one  hand,  a  manuscript  entitled  "Influence  de 
I'ordre  monastique  sur  la  noblesse  fdodale  et  la  soci^t^ 
lalque  jusqu'&  la  fin  du  XI^^dm  si^cle",  and  on  the 
other  hand  a  work  on  Gregonr  VII  and  the  conflict  of 
investitures:  and  these  two  MSS.,  published  in  1877 
by  his  friend  Foisset  and  his  son-in-law  the  Vicomte  de 
Meaux,  made  up  the  sixth  and  seventh  volume  of  the 
"Moines  d'Occident".  His  work  on  "L'Avenir  po- 
litique de  I'Angleterre",  published  in  1856,  drew  a 
brilliant  picture  of  the  parliamentary  institutions  of 
En^and,  and  rejoiced  in  the  ascendant  march  of  Cath- 
olicity in  the  British  Empire. 

Finally,  Montalembert  was  one  of  the  writers  who 
did  most  to  foster  in  Europe  regard  and  taste  for 
Gothic  Art.  His  letter  to  Victor  Hugo  on  "Vanda- 
lisme  en  France",  published  1  March,  1833,  made  a 
strong  impression  everywhere,  and  helped  to  save 
many  Gothic  monuments  from  impending  ruin. 
Auguste  Reichensperger  and  the  Catholics  of  Rhenish 
Pnusia  profited  by  the  artistic  lessons  of  Montalem- 
bert.   In  1838  he  addressed  to  the  French  clergy  an 


HOHULTd  516  IIOMTAMA 

doqucot  ^>pflBl,  in  whJch  he  pniaeil  the  Gmnaa  the  eaatem  portion,  and  the  c<»ifluent8  of  the  Colust- 
B^ool  of  Overt>eok,  and  lamented  that  French  Chris-  bia  the  western.  The  foimer  is  formed  by  the  junction 
taan  an  was  debased  by  pagan  infiltradona.  He  in-  of  the  Jeffemon,  Uadin»,  and  Gallatin,  the  two  laat- 
terested  himsdf  in  the  duapidated  condition  of  the  namedhavtngtheiraourceinthe Yellowstone  National 
Cathedra]  of  Notre  Dame,  and  caused  the  House  of  Park  and  the  other  in  the  mountaina  in  the  extreme 
Peera  in  1845  to  vote  a  sum  of  money  to  repair  it.  His  eouth-weetem  part  of  the  state.  The  main  tributar]' 
speech  on  vandalism  in  works  of  art,  before  the  same  of  the  Missouri,  the  Yellowstone,  likewise  taJies  ita  rise 
BHBembly,  27  June,  1847,  denounced  the  demoUtions  in  the  park,  in  a  lake  of  the  same  name.  Another  tril>- 
and  ignorant  restorations  carried  on  by  government  ar-  utary  of  the  Missouri,  the  Milk  River,  has  its  origin  in 
chitecta,  and  brought  abouta  change  for  the  better.  It  the  north-weet«m  section  of  the  state,  which  is  noted 
waspartly  duetoDimthatinl837  the  Historical  Com'  for  its  scenic  beauty.  From  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
mittee  of  Arts  and  Monuments,  for  the  preserving  of  tains  there  one  may  overlook  a  country  within  which 
wraks  of  ar^  was  established;  and  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  head-waters  of  three  great  continental  river- 
churchmen  laid  such  weight  on  his  artistic  opinions,  systems— the  Mississippi- Missouri,  the  Saskatche- 
that  even  from  far-off  Kentucky  Md'  Flaget,  Bishop  wan,  and  the  Columbia.  This  region  has  lately  been 
of  Bardstown,  wrote  to  him  aslung  turn  to  dnw  up  a  made  a  national  reeerv&tion  under  the  name  of  Glacier 
plan  for  the  cathedral  he  was  about  to  build  at  Louis-  Park.  The  Bfissouri  traverses  Uw  state  from  Three 
ville.  Forks,  named  from 
Montalembert's  "Speeches"  have  been  published  its  location  at  the 
in  three  volumes;  his  "Polemics"  in  three  volumes  confluence  of  the 
also.  three  rivera  men- 

LHunjvr.    UmdaUmbtrt    (3   vdIl.    Puis.    I8flS-190G);    d1  tioned  above     a 

Umaxh,  Uon»aUmbtrHPaTiM,1000);Foiuoixi,  UanlaUmbrrt^  j:.,.„.-,   -i   l-_ 

Mer  Porirt.  (PkU,  lOOS) ;  OunULtrr.  Uimair  ot Count  lU  MaUa.  QlStance  OI    ^ 

lniter((2Tf)U.. LondoD).  proumately    5  60 

GEOBGBa  GoTAU.  miles.     The  Yel- 

Hontalto,  Diocese  op  (Montib  Alti),  in  AscoU  imta  course  roujth- 

Piceno.     The  situation  of  the  little  town  of  Montalto  hTparftUel  to^^e 

is  very  attractive.    Orimially  (1074)  under  the  juris-  toi^^b  tream 

diction  of  the  abbots  of  Farf  a,  it  was  annexed  in  1571  makw  a  waterway 

by  Pius  V  to  the  Dioceee  of  Ripatransone.     In  1686  ^tyn  Montan^ 

Sixtus  V,  a  native  of  Montalto,  made  it  an  episcopal  borders '450  milee 

see.    The  first  bishop  was  Paob  Emilio  Giovannmi;  j^q-      •p^^  Koo- 

other  bishops  were  Oraiio  Giustiniani  (1640),  later  f-.ilii  rfminii  r  nnr-  »_       ~ir 

a  carnal,  end  Francesco  Saverio  Csstig^ioni  (1800),  JfroFS^,^,^  ^  "  """"* 

who  became  ^pe  under  the  name  otPius  VII.    TTie  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  but  the  gi^at  bulk  of 

dwceee  has  33   parishes  with  29,000   mh^itanta;  ^i^^  western  watera  in  that  region  comes  south,  by  the 

7B  secutar  and  4  regular  pnests;  1  reUgious  bouse  of  piathead,  to  meet  witb  thoae  from  the  southern  por- 

"^:^™  ^T£^VMii»  ITT  ™„i»  iMr,  t'on  I'tiich  flow  north  and  west  to  make  the  Miseoula. 

C*rF««ni.  C*iM,  <f  Jtobo.  Ill  tV«J«..  ^^-^^^^^  These  two  streams  unite  to  fonn  the  Clark's  Fork  of 
the  Columbia.     The  Flathead  feeds  and  empties,  in 

Hontuia,  the  third  largest  of  the  United  States  of  its  course,  Flathead  Lake,  the  laivest  fresh-water  lake 

America,  admitted  to  the  Union  8  November,  1889;  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Faciflc. 
called  the  "Treasure  State".  The  climate  is  ve^  similar  in  character  throughout 

BocNDAHiEa  AND  Ahea. — Its  northem  boundary  the  state,  except,  of  course,  on  the  lofty  mountaina, 

line,  which  divides  it  from  Canada,  extends  along  the  where  snow  lies  perpetually  or  far  into  the  summer — a 

forty-nintii  parallel  from  meridian  27  west  of  Wash-  providential  condition,  in  consequence  of  which  water 

ington  (104  west  of  Greenwich),  its  eastern  boundary,  for  irrigation  is  supplied  in  comparative  abundance  in 

to  meridian  39 — that  is,  549  miles.    Starting  from  the  the  period  of  drought.    The  extremes  of  temperature 

east,  the  forty-fifth  parallel  murks  its  southern  boun-  arc  not  quite  so  great  and  rain  falls  somewhat  more 

daiy  as  far  as  meridian  34,  where  the  line  drops  south  abundantly  on  the  western  slope  of  the  mountains, 

to  the  creetofthemainrangeoftheRocky  Mountains,  The  climate,  except  for  brief  periods  in  the  winter 

which,  with  the  extreme  summits  of  the  Bitter  Root  season,  is  mild  and  agreeable.     In  the  northern  part 

and  the  Cceur  d'Al^ne  Mountains,  divides  it  from  of  the  state  the  seventy  of  the  oolder  months  is  tem- 

Idaho  on  the  southwest  and  west  until  meridian  39  perod  by  an  occasional  warm  west  wind,  known  as  the 

ts  reached.     This   last  meridian   then   becomee  the  ehinonk,  which  tempers  the  climate  without  bringing 

western  dividing  line  to  the  international  boundary,  excessive  moisture.     A  very  low  temperature  is  en- 

The  area  of  the  state  is  146,080  square  miles.  dured  with  much  lees  discomiort  than  in  regions  where 

pHTBiCALCHAnACTEiueTics. — ^  its  name  suggests,  the  atmosphere  is  more  dense,  the  humidity  greater, 

the  state  is  mountainous  in  character,  being  crossoa  and  the  sunshine  lees  abundant.    The  mean  t^pera- 

from  north  to  south  by  the  system  known  coUectively  ture  at  Helena  is  65°  (Fahr.)  for  the  months  of  Jun^ 

as  the  Rocky  Mountains.    Yet  it  would  be  erroneous  July,  and  August;  44°  for  September,  October,  and 

to  regard  the  state  as  everywhere  mountauious.    The  November;  22*  for  December,  Janua^,  and  February, 

eastern  half  of  the  state  is  an  expanse  of  plain  and  and  41°  for  March,  April,  and  May.     The  mean  annual 

Sroirie,  though  there  are  few  places  within  it  which  rainfall  for  the  entire  state,  based  on  reports  for  toi 
o  not  reveal  on  the  horizon  elevations  sufficiently  years,  is  15.57  inches, 
imposing  to  be  called  mountains.  The  highest  moun-  Histobt. — The  state  has  an  interesting  history. 
tain  in  the  state  is  Granite  Peak,  theclevation  of  which  About  a  third  of  a  century  before  the  Revolution,  m 
is  12,6(X}  feet.  The  Northem  Pacific  railroad  crosses  1742,  it  was  visited  by  a  party  of  French  explorers 
thecontinental  divide  twentymiles  westofHelena.at  headed  by  two  young  sons  of  Pierre  Gauthier  de 
an  elevation  of  5573  feet;  the  Great  Northem  main  Varennee  de  la  Virend^e,  on  a  quest  for  a  river  lead- 
line crosses  at  an  elevation  of  5202,  and  the  Montana  ing  to  the  Pacific.  They  started  from  Fort  La  Reine, 
Centra],  a  branch  of  the  last-named  system,  near  one  of  the  most  remote  of  a  chain  of  poets,  which  the 
Butte,  at  an  elevation  of  6343.  The  eastern  portion  elder  de  la  Vdrmdrye  had  established  m  the  wUdcmces 
of  the  slate  has  a  mean  elevation  of  from  2000  ta  3000  north  and  west  of  lAke  Superi4»  in  an  effort  to  reach 
feet.  The  state  is  blessed  with  many  magnificent  the  weetem  sea.  The  wanderings  of  the  youthful  ad- 
river  systems.  The  Miaeouri  and  its  triDtitanea  dnin  vsntureis  led  than  from  Fort  La  Baine  on  tho  AmIiu- 


MONTANA 


617 


MONTANA 


boine,  west  of  Winnipeg,  to  the  village  of  the  Mandans 
on  the  Missouri  River,  near  the  present  city  of  Bis- 
marck, North  Dakota,  whither  their  father  had  pre- 
ceded them  four  years  before.  Thence,  proceeding  in 
a  general  southwesterly  direction  through  the  coun- 
ties of  Custer  and  Rosebud,  they  crossed  the  rivers 
falling  into  the  Yellowstone  until  they  reached  the  Big 
Horn  Mountains,  near  or  across  the  Wyoming  line. 
Sixtv-two  years  later,  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and 
Clark  gave  to  the  world  authentic  information  of  the 
country.  It  followed  the  Missouri  to  the  Three  Forks, 
then  ascended  the  Jefferson  to  its  source  in  the  Bitter 
Root  range,  and  crossed  the  mountain  barrier.  Re- 
turning, the  leaders  travelled  together  until  they 
reached  the  Big  Blackfoot,  a  tributary  of  the  Missoula. 
Here  they  parted,  Lewis  ascending  that  stream  to  its 
source  and  reaching  the  Missouri  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Great  Falls,  whence  he  returned  by  the  route  the 
party  had  come.  Guided  by  the  Shoshone  woman 
Sacajawea,  whom  the  expedition  picked  up  on  the 
outwiurd  journey  among  the  Mandans,  whither  she  had 
been  carried  as  a  captive  when  a  child,  Clark  pursued 
the  route  later  followed  in  the  construction  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad  to  the  Yellowstone  near 
Livingston,  and,  descending  that  stream,  rejoined  his 
companion  at  its  mouth. 

The  Astor  expedition,  which  set  out  for  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  in  .1811.  purposed  following  the  route 
which  had  been  opened  up  oy  the  Lewis  and  Clark 
party.     But  the  fierce  Blackfeet  being  on  the  war- 
path, they  abandoned  the  river  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Cheyenne  and  set  out  over  the  plains  with  the  aid  of 
horses  purchased  from  the  Indians.    After  proceeding 
some  distance  to  the  northwest,  doubtless  into  Mon- 
tana, they  pursued  a  more  southerly  route  and  reached 
the  heEhdwaters  of  the  Columbia  as  they  issue  from  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park.    The  Astor  project,  in  its 
commercial  aspect,  took  form  later  in  the  organisation 
of  the  American  Fur  Company.    But  it  was  antici- 
pated by  the  daring  Manuel  Lisa  of  St.  Louis,  who  as 
early  as  1807  established  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Big  Horn  River.    Clark  the  explorer,  the  brothers 
Chouteau,  and  others  united  with  nim  in  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  Missouri  Fur  Company.   In  1832  the  steam- 
boat "Yellowstone,"  owned  by  the  American  Fur  Com- 
Stny,  which  had  absorbed  its  rival,  ascended  the 
issouri  to  Fort  Union,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
after  which  the  craft  was  named.    The  region  east  of 
the  mountains  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 
over  which  the  United  States  acquired  dominion  by 
the  treaty  with  Napoleon  in  1803.    The  western  slope 
constituted  a  part  of  that  ill-defined  district  known  as 
the  *'  Oregon  Gountiy  ".   The  conflicting  claims  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  to  this  country  were 
not  settled  until  1846.    Meanwhile  hunters  and  trap- 
pers bearing  allegiance  to  both  nations  overran  the 
country.    A  few  homebuilders  established  themselves 
within  the  borders  of  the  State  in  the  late  fifties,  but  the 
history  of  the  development  of  the  commonwealth  be- 
gins with  the  discovery  of  gold  at  Gold  Creek  and  Ban- 
nack  in  1862.  The  Alder  Gulch  placers  were  discovered 
in  1863,  giving  rise  to  Vii^ginia  City,  and  those  of  Last 
Chance  Gulch  in  1864,  bringing  Helena  into  existence. 
The  stonr  of  the  fabulous  wealth  of  these  deposits 
attracted  a  great  multitude,  who  made  the  journey 
either  by  ox-teams  from  Omaha,  or  came  up  the  river 
by  boat  to  Fort  Benton,  which  was  established  in 
1846.    Every  promising  gulch  in  the  state  was  quickly 

¥  respected,  many  of  them  proving  very  remunerative. 
'he  soiutse  of  the  placer  oeposits  was  soon  sought  in 
the  ledges,  and  quarts-minmg  speedily  began.  The 
enormous  price  which  food-stuns  commanded  oper- 
ated as  an  incentive  to  those  having  some  skill  in 
agricultiu^  to  engage  in  ranching,  and  the  fertile  val- 
leys of  the  Gallatin,  the  Deer  Lodge,  the  Bitter  Root, 
and  the  Prickly  Pear  were  subjected  to  tillage.  The 
abundant  nutritious  grasses  of  the  plains,  that  had 


supported  immense  numbers  of  buffalo  and  antelope, 
and  of  the  parks  in  the  mountains,  where  deer  and  elk 
abounded,  invited  the  pursuit  of  raising  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses. 

Long  before  this  period,  however,  as  early  as  1840, 
Father  Peter  J.  De  Sm^t,  S.J.,  had  come  from  St. 
Louis  in  response  to  an  invitation  conveyed  by  a  depu- 
tation from  the  Flathead  Indians  to  Cmistianixe  that 
tribe.  He  established  St.  Mary's  Mission  in  the  Bitter 
Root  valley  near  the  present  town  of  Stevensville.  In 
1844  he  founded  the  Mission  of  St.  Ignatius  in  the 
midst  of  a  beautiful  vallev,  within  what  is  now  the 
Flathead  Reservation.  Father  Nicholas  Point  preached 
to  the  Blackfeet  in  the  winter  of  1846-7,  laying  the 
foundations  of  St.  Peter's  Mission  which  however  was 
not  permanently  established  until  1859.  Father  A. 
Ravalli,  who  shares  the  veneration  in  which  the  mem- 
ory of  the  founder  of  St.  Mary's  \b  held,  came  to  that 
mission  in  1845.  The  county  in  which  it  was  located 
is  named  in  his  honoiur.  The  western  part  of  the  state 
was  successively  a  part  of  Oregon  Territory,  Washing- 
ton Territory,  and  Ididio  Temtory .  The  eastern  por- 
tion became  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  on  the 
cession  of  the  latter  to  the  United  States,  and  was 
attached  to  various  territories  organized  out  of  that 
region.  But  there  was  no  organized  government  any- 
where. Even  after  the  rush  consequent  upon  the  gold 
discoveries,  though  nominally  subject  in  those  jMirts 
to  the  f;ovemment  of  Idaho  Territory,  the  constituted 
authorities  were  so  remote  that  the  people  themselves 
administered  a  rude  but  effective  justice  through 
miners'  courts  and  vigilance  committ^.  In  1864  the 
Territory  of  Montana  was  organized  with  boundaries 
identical  with  those  which  now  define  the  limits  of  the 
state.  Hon.  Sidney  Edgerton  was  appointed  gover- 
nor. The  first  legislative  assembly  convened  at  Bsji- 
nack  on  12  December,  1864.  The  next  session  was 
held  at  Vii^inia  City  in  1866,  from  which  place  the 
capital  was  moved  to  Helena  in  1874,  the  migrations 
of  the  seat  of  government  indicating  to  some  extent 
the  variations  m  the  centres  of  population.  GenenJ 
Thomas  Francis  Meagher  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  territory  in  1865  and,  in  the  aosence  of  the  gover- 
nor, assumed,  under  the  law,  the  duties  of  that  office, 
which  he  continued  to  discharge  until  his  unfortunate 
death  by  drowning  in  1867.  Samuel  McLean  was  tiie 
first  delegate  to  Congress  from  the  territoxy.  The 
state  was  admitted  to  the  Union  by  proclamation  of 
President  Harrison  on  8  November,  1889,  pursuant  to 
an  Act  of  Congress  approved  on  22  Feb.,  1889,  the 
constitution  h&ving  oeen  meanwhile  framed  and 
adopted. 

In  1880  the  Utah  and  Northern  Railroad  Company, 
subse(}uently  merged  in  the  Union  Pacific  system, 
built  mto  Butte  from  Ogden.  Three  years  later  the 
Northern  Pacific  completed  its  line  across  the  terri- 
tory aided  by  a  grant  made  by  Congress  in  1864,  by 
which  it  acquired  every  alternate  section  of  land 
within  forty  miles  of  its  line.  The  Great  Northern  was 
completed  to  the  coast  across  Montana  in  1891,  and 
the  year  1909  witnessed  the  construction  of  another 
transcontinental  line  crossing  the  state  from  east  to 
west, — ^that  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Puget 
Sound  Railway  Company.  The  Montana  Central, 
since  a  part  of  the  Great  Northern  system,  was  built 
in  the  very  heart  of  the  mountain  country  in  1887,  to 
connect  the  mines  at  Butte  with  the  smelters  at  Great 
Falls.  Since  the  opening  of  the  railroads,  resulting  in 
the  extinction  of  tne  buffalo,  the  main  reliance  of  the 
Indians  for  subsistence,  the  task  of  keeping  them  in 
check  on  the  reservations  has  become  comparatively 
simple.  In  the  struggle  with  them  l^eretotore,  three 
events  attain  special  prominence — the  brush  with 
General  Sully  at  the  Bad  Lands  in  1864,  while  escort- 
ing a  party  of  250  emigrants  from  Minnesota  bound 
for  the  mines  of  Montana;  the  Custer  Massacre  in 
1876,  and  the  raid  of  Chief  Joseph  after  the  Battle  of 


MONTANA  518  MONTANA 

the  Big  Hole  and  his  masterly  retreat,  followed  by  his  still  in  its  infancy,  but  is  destined  to  a  great  grovth 

capture  in  the  Bear  Paw  Mountains  in  1877  by  General  owing  to  the  extent  of  available  water-power.     Thne 

Mues.  power  dams  now  turn  the  flow  of  the  Miraouri  Kiv^, 

Resources. — ^The  industry  which  gave  rise  to  the  and  three  more  are  in  process  of  constructicHi.     Ad- 

original  settlement  of  Montana  was  mining.    In  1863  other  larxe  dam  utilises  in  part  the  energy  of  the 

goM  valued  at  $8,000,000  came  from  the  sluices.   The  Madison  Kiver.    The  Flathead  River  tuzzSlee  over 

next  year  produced  double  that  amount.    The  total  seven  miles  of  cascades,  as  it  issues  from  Flathead 

production  of  gold  up  to  and  including  the  year  Lake,  offering  stupendous  opportunities  for  power 

1876  is  conservatively  estimated  at  $140,000,000.    At  development. 

about  that  time  silver  mining  began  to  assume  para-  State  Inbtitutionb. — ^The  capitol  at  Helena  wis 
mount  importance,  but  about  1890  it  yielded  pre-  erected  in  1900  at  a  cost  of  $350,000.  The  growth  of 
eminence  to  copper,  which  is  at  present  the  chief  metal  the  state  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  additions  were 
produced.  The  copper  mines  are  at  Butte,  while  the  authorised  by  the  last  session  of  the  leeislature  to  cost 
smelters  are  located  at  Anaconda  and  Great  Falls.  A  half  a  million  dollars.  The  funds  for  &e  orinnal  coo- 
silver  and  lead  smelter  ia  in  operation  at  East  Helena,  struqtion,  as  well  as  the  work  now  to  be  unaertaken, 
In  1907  there  was  produced  copper  to  the  value  of  are  derived  from  lands  donated  to  Uie  state  on  its  ad- 
$44,021,758,  silver  $6,149,619,  and  gold  $3,286,212.  mission  to  the  Union  by  the  general  government.  Tbe 
Montana's  stores  of  coal  are  ver^r  great.  Elstimates  state  maintains  a  university  at  Missoula,  an  africul- 
made  by  the  authorities  of  the  United  States  Geolo^-  tural  college  at  Boseman,  a  school  of  mines  at  Butte, 
cal  Survey  give  the  area  of  bitimiinous  and  lispitic-  a  normal  school  at  Dillon,  a  soldiers' home  at  Columbia 
bitiuninous  coal  at  13,000  square  miles,  and  the  lignite  Falls,  a  deaf,  dumb,  ana  blind  afrylum  at  Boulder,  a 
areas  at  from  25,000  to  50,000  sq^uare  miles.  Coal-  reform  school  at  MHea  City,  and  a  penitentiary  at 
mining  is  extensively  carried  on  m  the  counties  of  Deer  Lodge.  The  insane  are  cared  for  at  a  private  in* 
Carbon,  Gallatin,  Cascade,  and  Fergus.  Lumbering  stitution  at  Warm  Springs.  The  usual  ssrstem  of  public 
IS  an  industry  of  the  western  portion  of  the  state,  schools  prevails,  and  nearly  all  the  towns  of  oonse- 
where  there  are  dense  forests  of  pine,  fir,  larch,  cedar,  quenoe  maintain  public  libraries, 
and  hemlock.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  confined  Education. — ^In  1908  there  were  enrolled  61 ,928  of 
to  that  region,  as  all  the  mountains  of  any  consider-  the  77,039  children  of  school  age.  The  total  expense 
able  height  bear  a  more  or  less  abundant  growth  of  for  all  school  purposes  was  $2,178,322.90.  The  aver- 
timber.  Nearly  20,000,000  acres  of  the  public  lands  age  monthly  salary  paid  to  male  teachers  was  $99,  and 
within  the  state,  of  which  there  are  about  50,000,000,  to  female  teachers  $60.  The  educational  interests  of  the 
are  included  witiiin  the  national  forest  reserves.  state  are  under  the  direction  of  a  state  superintendoit 

Stock-raising  early  assumed  an  important  place  in  and  a  state  board  of  education,  consisting  df  that  offi- 
the  business  life  of  the  state.    Vast  herds  of  cattle,  cer,  the  governor  and  the  attorney-general,  and  eight 
horses,  and  sheep  were  reared  and  matured  on  the  other  members  appointed  by  the  governor.    County 
3pen  range  with  little  or  no  provision  for  feeding  even  superintendents  supervise  the  administration  of  the 
in  the  depth  of  winter.   The  appropriation  of  the  pub-  school  system  in  the  rural  communities,  and  city  super- 
lie  domam  by  settlers  has  progressed  to  such  an  ex-  intendents  in  the  municipalities.   Hie  chief  revenues 
tent,  however,  as  to  enforce  a  radical  change  in  the  are  derived  from  taxes  collected  by  the  county  ireas- 
method  by  which  the  business  is  carried  on.   Provision  urer.    The  school  fund  consists  of  the  revenues  from 
for  feeding  is  now  almost  universally  made,  but,  ex-  grants  of  lands  made  bv  the  seneral  ^vemment,  and 
cept  in  stormy  weather,  sheep  especially  thrive  with-  other  grants  from  the  federar  authority,  the  avails  of 
out  much  regard  to  temperature  on  the  native  grasses  escheated  estates,  and  fines  for  violations  of  various 
that  cover  the  plains  and  foot-hills,  cured  by  the  hot  laws.    The  fund  must  be  kept  intact  and  only  the 
sun  of  the  summer  season  when  comparatively  little  income  used.     The  state  university  has  a  grant  of 
rain  falls.   The  annual  production  of  wool  in  the  state  45,000  acres  from  the  nation,  which  may  be  sold  at  not 
is  about  40,000,000  pounds,  the  clip  of  approximately  less  than  $10  per  acre.    The  avails  constitute  a  fund 
five  and  a  half  million  sheep.   The  number  of  cattle  in  the  income  of  which  only  is  subject  to  use.    For  the 
the  state  is  in  excess  of  600,000.  Agriculture  is  under-  year  1909  there  were  appropriated  for  its  support 
going  a  marvellous  development,  both  as  to  the  area  $67,500,  and  it  has  other  revenues  amounting  to  about 
under  cultivation  and  the  methods  of  farming.    All  $75,000  in  all.   Its  corps  of  prof essors  numbers  twenty, 
the  cereals  yield  bountifullv.    Recent  immigration  to  In  1908  it  had  184  students,  exclusive  of  thoee  doing 
the  state  has  been  markedly  to  the  more  promising  special  work  and  not  including  those  taking  the  course 
agricultural  sections  which,  within  the  past  two  years,  at  the  biological  station,  which  is  maintained  in  con- 
have  received  an  influx  hitherto  unknown.    In  earlier  nexion  with  it. 

years  irrigation  was  universally  resorted  to,  but  more        Early  Missionaribs  and  Mibsiokb. — ^It  is  not  im- 

recently  great  areas  have  been  cultivated  with  marked  probable  that  Father  C.  G.  Coquart,  S. J. ,  accompanied 

success  by  the  "dry  farming"  system.    Eight  great  the  V^rendyre  brothers  on  their  expedition  into  Mon- 

works  of  irrigation  are  being  carried  on,  or  have  been  tana.    He  was  a  member  of  the  party  when  they  set 

completed  by  the  government  reclamation  service,  out  from  Montreal  on  tiieir  great  enterprise  and  is 

The  state  is  directing  others  under  the  Carey  Land  quoted  as  saying  that  the  V^rendyres  on  some  of  their 

Act,  and  private  corporations  are  engaged  in  many  excursions  went  beyond  the  great  fiJls  of  the  Missouri, 

similar   enterprises.      Montana   produced   in    1908:  and  as  far  as  the  Gate  of  the  Mountains  near  Helena 

3,703,000  bushels  of  wheat  on  153,000  acres;  10,556,-  The  establishment  of  the  early  missions  has  been  men- 

000  bushels  of  oats  on  254,000  acres;  and  875,000  tioned.    Besides  those  refezred  to,  tibe  Holy  Family 

bushels  of  barley  on  25,000  acres.    Fruit-raising  is  a  Mission  among  the  Blackfeet,  originally  a  dependency 

Erofitable  business  in  many  parts  of  the  state,  particu-  of  St.  Peter's,  became  a  fixed  establisnment  in  1885. 

irly  in  the  counties  of  Ravalli,  Missoula,  and  Flat-  St.  Paul's,  another  offspring  of  St.  Peter's,  was  estab- 

head,  where  it  is  extensively  carried  on.    Apples  are  lished  about  the  same  time  among  the  Gros  Ventres 

the  staple  fruit  crop,  the  quality  being  excellent  and  and  Assiniboines  on  the  Fort  Bellomp  Indian  Res^rsr 

the  yield  large.    The  culture  of  suear  oeets  has  been  tion.    St.  Labre,  the  mission  among  the  Cheyennes, 

stimulated  by  the  construction  of  a  factory  at  Billines,  dates  from  1884,  when  Rev.  Joseph  Kyler  came  from 

which  has  been  in  operation  since  1896.    It  will  be  Clevelamd  wi^  six  members  of  the  Ursuline  Sister* 

supplied  (in  1910)  with  over  115,000  tons  of  beets,  hood,  with  Mother  Amadeus  at  their  head  in  response 

The  abundance  of  sunshine  and  the  character  of  the  to  a  call  issued  by  Bishop  Gilmore  at  the  appeal  of 

soil  gives  to  the  Montana  beet  an  exceptionally  high  Bishop  Brondel,  lately  appointed  to  the  newly  created 

percentage  of  saccharine  matter.    Manufacturing  is  See  of  Montana.   St.  Xavier'B,axaong  the  Crows,  dates 


MONTANA                             519  MONTANA 

from  1887.    Schools,  as  a  matter  of  course,  are  main-  Fhbbdov  of  Worship. — Freedom  of  religion  la 
tained  at  all  the  missions,  those  at  St.  Ignatius  partio-  guaranteed  bv  the  following  provision  of  the  constitu- 
ularly  being  models.   The  Ursulines  have  a  convent  at  tion:  *'  Art.  ill,  Sec.  4.    The  free  exercise  and  enjoy- 
St.  Peter's.    The  Jesuits  were  the  pioneer  missionaries  ment  of  religious  profession  and  worship,  without 
to  both  Indians  and  whites  in  Montana.    The  minis-  discrimination,  shall  forever  hereafter  be  guaranteed, 
trations  of  Father  De  Smet  extended  to  ail  the  tribes  and  no  person  shall  be  denied  any  civil  or  political 
that  have  been  mentioned,  and  he,  as  well  as  all  of  his  right  or  privilege  on  account  of  his  opinions  concern- 
associate  "black  robes",  was  held  in  the  highest  re  ver-  ing  religion,  but  the  liberty  of  conscience  hereby 
ence  by  them.    His  labours  were  prodi^ous.    In  1869  secured  shall  not  be  construed  to  dispense  with  oathis 
he  induced  five  sisters  of  the  commimity  of  Leaven-  or  aflinnations,  excuse  acts  of  licentiousness,  b]^  bi^a- 
worth  to  come  to  Helena,  where  they  founded  St.  mous  or  polygamous  marriage,  or  otherwise,  or  justify 
Vincent's  Academy.  practices  inconsistent  wi^  the  good  order,  peace  or 
DiocESBB. — ^In  uie  earlier  territorial  days,  the  west-  safety  of  the  state,  or  opposed  to  the  civil  authority 
em  part  of  the  state  was  included  in  the  Vicariate  of  thereof,  or  of  the  Unltea  States.    No  person  shall  be 
Idaho,  and  the  eastern  part  in  that  of  Nebraska.    An  recjuired  to  attend  any  place  of  worship  or  support  an^ 
episcopal  visit  was  made  to  these  then  remote  regions  ministry,  religious  sect  or  denomination,  against  his 
by  Bishop  James  O'Connor  of  Omaha  in  1877,  and  by  consent;  nor  shall  any  preference  be  given  by  law  to 
Archbishop  Charles  J.  Seghers  of  the  Province  of  Ore-  any  religious  denomination  or  mode  of  worship."   The 
gon  in  1879  and  again  in  1882.    Upon  the  ui^ent  reo-  diversion  of  the  public  fimds  to  the  promotion  of  sec- 
ommendation  of  the  last-named  prelate,  Montana  was  tarian  purposes  is  forbidden  by  the  following:  "Art.  V, 
made  a  vicariate  on  7  April,  1883,  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  Sec.  35.    No  appropriation  shall  be  made  ^or  charita- 
John  B.  Brondel,  then  Bishop  of  Victoria,  Vancouver  ble,  industrial,  educational  or  benevolent  ptirposes  to 
Isbmd,  was  appointed  administrator.    On  7  March,  any  person,  corporation  or  community  not  under  the 
1884,  the  Diocese  of  Helena  was  created,  embracing  absolute  control  of  the  state,  nor  to  any  denomina- 
the  whole  of  Montana,  and  Bishop  Brondel  was  ap-  tional  or  sectarian  institution  or  association." 
pointed  to  the  see.    He  was  at  the  head  of  its  affairs  Oaths. — Every  court  or  officer  authorized  to  take 
until  his  death  in  1903,  when  the  diocese  was  divided,  testimony  or  decide  on  evidence  may  administer  oaths 
the  eastern  part  of  the  state  becoming  the  Diocese  of  or  affirmations,  the  witness  being  entitled  to  elect 
Great  Falls  and  the  remainder  continuing  as  the  Dio-  whether  he  shall  be  sworn  or  shall  simply  affirm. 
cese  of  Helena.    The  Rt.  Rev.  John  P.  Carroll,  D.D.,  Sunday  Obsbbvancb,  etc. — Sunday  is  a  holiday, 
was  then  appointed  bishop  of  the  latter,  and  ^e  Rt.  as  is  Christmas,  New  Year's,  and  Columbus  Dav  (12 
Rev.  Mathias  Lenihan,  D.D.,  of  the  former  diocese.  October).    If  Christmas  or  New  Year's  Day  fafls  on 
Catholic  Population. — ^The  Catholic  population  Sunday,  the  day  following  is  a  holiday.    Whenever 
of  the  Great  Falls  diocese  is  about  15,000;   of  the  any  secular  act,  other  than  a  work  of  necessity  or 
Helena  diocese  about  50,000.    Thirty  priests  minister  mercy,  is  appointed  by  law  or  contract  to  be  done  on 
to  the  people  of  the  new,  fifty-three  to  those  of  the  old  a  certain  day,  and  it  so  happens  that  such  a  day  is  a 
diocese.    No  statistics  are  available  nving  the  nation-  holiday,  it  may  be  done  on  the  day  following  with  like 
ality  or  ancestrv  of  either  the  Catholic  population  or  effect  as  if  done  on  the  day  appointed.    It  is  a  inisde- 
that  of  the  whole  people  of  the  state.     Among  the  for-  meanour  to  keep  open  or  mam  tain  on  Sunday  any 
mer,  the  dominant  blood  is  probably  Irish,  a  very  large  barber-^op,  tiieatre,  play-house,  dance-house,  race- 
percentage  of  the  adults  bemg  native  Americans.   But  track,  concert  saloon,  or  variety  hall.    It  is  likewise  a 
almost  every  Catholic  count^^  of  Europe  has  contrib-  misdemeanour  to  disturb  any  assembly  of  people  met 
uted  to  the  truly  cosmopolitan  citizenship  of  Montana,  for  religious  worship  by  profane  discourse  or  in  an^ 
China  and  Japan  have  added  to  some  extent  to  the  otiier  manner.    Neither  olasphemy  nor  profanity  is 
population.    In  recent  years  Italians,  Austrians,  Bui-  otherwise  made  pimishable. 

garians,  and  Servians  have  come  in  considerable  num-  Fbayier  in  the  Legislature. — ^The  law  provides 

Bers.    Most  of  these  are  more  or  less  closely  attached  for  the  election  of  a  chaplain  of  each  house  of  the  legis- 

to  the  ancient  Faith.  lature  and  the  daily  sessions  are  opened  with  prayer 

Charitable    Institutions. — ^Hospitals   are   con-  by  that  officer.    The  Bannack  session  seems  to  have 

ducted  by  sisters  of  various  orders  at  Great  Falls,  had  no  chaplain,  but  Rev.  Joseph  Giorda,  S.J.,  offici- 

Billings,  Fort  Benton,  Lewistown,  Helena,  Anaconda,  ated  in  that  capacity  for  both  nouses,  apparently,  at 

Butte,  and  Missoula.    There  are  a  House  of  the  Good  the  second  session  held  at  Viiginia  City  in  1866.    Rev. 

Shepherd  and  an  orphanage  at  Helena^  and  academies  L.  Palladino,  S.J.,  the  historian  of  the  Montana  Mis- 

at  Lewistown,  Miles  City,  st.  Peter's,  Helena,  and  Deer  sions,  universally  revered  for  his  saintly  life,  who  came 

Lod^e.    The  parochial  schools  enrolled  5536  pupils  in  to  Siunt  Ignatius  in  1867,  acted  in  the  same  capacity 

1 908,  not  including  those  attending  the  mission  schools  at  the  ninth  session. 

on  the  reservations.  Seal  of  Confession. — Disclosures  made  in  the 

OicmNOUiSHED  Catholics. — The  spirit  of  religious  confessional  are  held  sacred  by  express  statute.    A 

intolerance  has  had  scant  encouragement  in  Montana,  clergyman  will  be  neither  compelled  nor  permitted 

and  many  Catholics  have  occupied  prominent  poei-  to  testify  as  to  them. 

tions  in  her  industrial  development  and  poUticar  his-  Incorporation  of  Churches. — Special  provision 

tory.     Among  those  who  have  served  in  high  official  is  made  for  the  incorporation  of  religious  bodies  and 

station  are  General  Thomas  Francia  Meagher,  acting  congregations.    The  method  is  simple.    At  a  meeting, 

governor  from  1865  to  1867;  Hon.  James  M.  Cava-  trustees  are  elected  and  they  are  authorized  bv  resolu- 

nau^h,  dele^te  in  Congress  from  1867  to  1872;  Hon.  tion  to  file  articles  with  tibe  county  clerk  or  the  secre- 

Martin  Maginnis,  delegate  in  Congress  from  1873  to  tary  of  state,  according  as  the  organization  is  to  be 

1885;    Hon.  Thomas  H.  Carter,  delegate  in  Congress  local  or  general  in  its  nature.    The  articles  state  the 

from  March  to  November,  1889,  and  representative  name  of  the  corporation,  its  purpose,  and  the  number 

from  the  admission  of  the  state  to  1891;  afterwards,  of  trustees.    It  then  has  continual  succession,  and  the 

from   1895  to  1901  United  States  Senator,  and  now  usual  powers  of  a  corporation.    Another  act  provides 

0erving  his  second  term,  having  been  again  elected  in  for  the  oiganization  of  corporations  sole  "whenever 

1905;     and  Hon.  Thomas  C.  Power,  United  States  the  rules,  regulations  or  discipline,  of  any  religious 

Senator  from  1889  to  1895.    Among  those  who  have  denomination,  society  or  Church,  permit  or  require  the 

^g^tten  their  names  large  in  the  industrial  historv  of  estate,  property,  temporalities,  and  business  thereof, 

the  atate  are  Marcus  Daiy,  Thomas  Cruse,  Peter  Lar-  to  be  held  in  the  name  of,  or  managed  by  a  bishop, 

son,  and  John  D.  Ryan,  the  latter  being  at  present  at  chief  priest,  or  presiding  elder,  of  such  religious  de- 

(.to  b^9f4  of  tb9  Amalgamftt^  Copper  Qoinpany.  pominfttion,  ^o^iety  or  ^Imrpfe/'    The  passage  of  this 


MONTAfttB                            520  MONTlMS 

act  was  procured  bv  Bishop  Brondd  who  incoiponted  for  bv  contract  or  in  the  will,  or  unless  the  will  ex* 

under  the  name  of  the  "Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  pressly  excludes  her  from  taking. 

Helena".  Charitable  Bequests. — Charitable  bequests  con- 

EbcsMpnoN  OF  Clergtmsn  and  Church  Prop-  tained  in  wills  made  within  thirty  days  of  the  death  of 

BRTT. — ^All  clergymen  are  exempt  from  juiy  duty,  the  testator  are  void.    If  the  aggregate  of  such  be- 

The  constitution  declares  that ''such  property  as  may  quests  in  any  will  exceed  in  amount  one-third  the 

be  used  exclusively  for  agricultural  and  norticultund  value  of  the  estates,  and  the  testator  have  legal  heirs 

societies,  for  educational  purposes,  places  for  actual  thev  are  scaled  down  until  their  sum  does  not  exceed 

religious  worship,  hospitals  and  places  of  burial  not  such  amount. 

used  or  held  for  private  or  corporate  profit,  and  insti-  Cemeteries. — ^A  law  applicable  specially  to  that 

tutions  of  purelypubhc  charity  may  oe  exempt  from  subject  authorises  the  incorporation  of  cemetery  asso- 

taxation  "  (Art.  XII,  Sec.  2),  and  the  statutes  declare  ciations.   Burial  without  a  certificate  of  death  is  made 

the  exemptions  in  the  same  terms.  punishable,  as  is  violation  of  sepulture,  defacing  of 

Maiuuage  and  Divorce. — Marriage  may  be  con-  graves  or  monuments,  or  neglecting  to  bury  the  bodies 

tracted  by  mutual  consent  followed  bv  a  solemnisa-  of  dead  kindred. 

tion  or  public  assumption  of  the  marital  relation.   The  ^  J^-  ««».  Stride*  of  i907;  Biftoriad  Soei^of  Mantma 

marruMseable  age  is  eighteen  in  the  caae  of  nudes,  and  ^'SS^^S^TS^^Ti^JSI^^ST^^ 

Sixteen  m   females.     Marnages  between  ancestors  York):   Dtb,  The  Conquest  (New   York);  Irting,  A^cha 

and  descendants  of  every  degree,  between  brothers  (New  VorkJ;  CarrrEWMw.  Early  SiMmhoai  Saviaaiwi  of  <V 

andsistewof  thehalf  «  weU  as  the  whole  Wood,  and  g^TS^^'^lZS^^iriliitS^ilSSH:''''^^''  "'^  '^ 
between  aunts  and  nephews  or  uncles  and  nieces,  are  T.  J.  Walsh. 
declu^  void  ab  inUio.  So  likewise  are  marriages  be- 
tween a  white  person  on  one  side,  and  a  negro  or  a  MontalMs,  Juan  MARrfinsz  (d.  1649),  a  notc^l 
person  part  negro,  or  a  Chinese  or  Japanese,  on  the  Spanish  sculptor  of  the  seventeenth  century,  some- 
other  side.  Marriages  contracted  without  the  state  times  called  the  Sevillian  Phidias".  Like  many  of 
and  valid  where  contracted  are  valid  within  the  his  coimtrymen,  he  confined  himself  almost  exdu- 
state.  Licences  are  required  to  be  issued  by  the  sively  to  sculpture  in  wood.  According  to  Palomino, 
clerk  of  the  court  of  the  county  where  the  marriage  he  was  bom  at  Seville;  according  to  GordiUo,  his 
is  to  be  solemnized,  and  a  return  must  be  made  by  contemporary,  at  AlcaU  la  ReaL  He  studied  under 
the  officiating  clergyman  or  officer.  Licences  cannot  Pablo  ae  Rojas  at  Granada;  and  later  settled  at  Se- 
be  granted  to  minors  without  the  written  consent  ville  where  most  of  his  works  are  to  be  found.  One  of 
of  the  parents  or  guardian.  Marriage  may  be  solem-  the  earliest  is  a  charming  Infant  Jesus  (cathedral 
nised  by  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  judge  of  sacristjr,  Seville)  bearing  the  date  1607  and  the  sculp- 
the  district  court,  justice  of  the  peace,  priest  or  tor's  signature.  In  1610  he  modelled  the  head  and 
minister  of  any  denomination,  or  mayor  of  the  city,  hands  of  the  statue  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola — used  in  the 
or  by  religious  societies.  It  need  not  be  solenmized  religious  celebrations  of  t£e  beatification  of  the  saint 
at  all  if  the  parties  make  and  file  a  joint  dec-  (chapel  of  the  university,  Seville).  This  image, 
laration  giving  their  names,  the  fact  of  marriage,  clothed  and  coloured  by  Facheco,  is  esteemed  one  of 
the  date  of  marriage,  and  that  it  has  not  been  solem-  the  truest  and  most  sBsthetic  representations  ever 
nised.  Marriages  ucensed  and  not  solemnised  as  pro-  made  of  the  soldier  saint.  The  St.  Francis  Xavier  in 
vided  by  law  are  forbidden,  but  are  expressly  declared  the  same  place  is  attributed  to  Montazids.  In  1612  he 
not  to  be  void.  executed  tor  the  Hieronymite  monastery  of  S.  Isidro  del 

Divorces  are  authorised  for  six  causes,  vis.  adultery,  Campo,  near  Seville,  the  life-sise  penitent  St.  Jerome* 

extremecruelty,wilfuldesertion,  wilful  neslect,  habit-  one  of  his  most  masterly  productions,  and  the  rere- 

ual  intemperance,  and  conviction  of  felon  v.     The  dos  and  statues  for  the  altar;  in  1614  the  famous  large 

constitution  forbids  the  passage  by  the  legisUture  of  crucifix  for  the  Carthusians  of  S.  Maria  de  las  (^vas; 

any  special  law  granting  divorce,  or  separation  a  1617  to  1618  two  reredos  in  the  lay  choir  of  the  same 

mensa  et  toro,  or  decrees  for  separate  maintenance,  a  monastery,withstatuesof  Our  Lady,  the  two  St.  Johns, 

power  the  early  territorial  legislatures  freely  exercised,  figures  representing  the  theological  virtues,  and  lovely 

Residence  in  the  state  one  year  by  the  plaintiff  is  a  reliefs  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  and  Shepherds;  the 

reauisite  of  j urisdiction.  expressive  St.  Bruno,  now  in  the  museum,  was  made  for 

LiQUOB. — ^The  sale  of  liquor  is  permitted  imder  the  Carthusians  in  1620.    In  1635  the  sculptor  went  to 

licences  issued  by  coimties  and  cities.    Local  option  Madrid  and  spent  seven  months  there  modelling  a 

is  authorised  by  law,  but  the  traffic  is  not  prohibited  portrait  of  Philip  IV,  which  was  to  be  used  by  Pietro 

in  any  county.    The  employment  of  women  in  places  Tacca  for  his  equestrian  statue  of  the  king,  finished  in 

where  liquor  is  sold  is  forbidden,  as  is  its  sale  in  places  Florence,  1640,  and  now  in  Madrid  (Plasa  del  Oriente). 

of  public  amusement,  or  at  any  camp  meeting,  or  near  The  likeness  of  Montan^s  by  Velasquez  fPrado  GaUer^*), 

any  cemetery.    A  law,  known  as  the  ''Wine  Room  was  probably  painted  at  this  time.    As  a  reward  for 

Law",  makes  it  punishable  to  have  in  connexion  with  his  services  the  king  mnted  Montafi6s  the  rights  m  a 

a  saloon  any  room  or  apartment  into  which  females  merchant  ship  ''whether  in  the  fleet  of  the  Continent 

are  permitted  to  enter.  or  of  New  Spain"  (America).    This  promise  was  ful- 

WiLLS  and  Tbotaments. — ^Wills  may  be  made  by  filled  to  the  sculptor's  widow  and  children  after  his 
any  person  over  eighteen.  If  in  his  own  handwriting  death  in  1649.  Other  works  at  Seville  are  the  St. 
it  neisd  be  neither  witnessed  nor  attested;  if  not,  it  Dominic  of  heroic  sise  in  tiie  museum,  from  the  con- 
must  bear  l^e  signatures  of  two  witnesses.  A  nuncu-  vent  of  Portaceli;  a  beautiful  St.  John  Evangelist  in 
pative  will  may  be  made  orally  disposing  of  an  estate  the  church  of  San  Juan  de  las  Palmas;  the  high  altar 
less  than  $1000  in  value,  when  the  testator  is  in  actual  of  the  church  of  San  Lorenso  and  a  statue  of  the 
military  service  in  the  field,  or  doing  duty  on  ship-  patron  saint;  and,  at  the  cathedral  (Seville),  a  very 
board  and  in  peril  or  fear  of  death,  or  when  he  is  fine  life-sise  Imnaaculate  Conception,  a  lam  cru- 
expecting  deatn  from  injury  received  the  same  day.  cifix  in  the  Sacristy  of  the  Chalices,  and  that  re- 
A  wife  has  a  dower  right  in  her  husband's  real  estate,  nowned  "Christ  bearing  the  Cross"  carried  in  Holy 
but  he  has  no  interest  in  her  property  except  that  she  Week  processions,  so  vivid  and  sorrowful,  the  sculp- 
cannot  without  his  written  consent  deprive  him  by  tor  would  station  himself  at  the  comers  of  streets  to 
will  of  more  than  two-thirds  of  her  estate.  The  will  see  it  pass,  "absorbed  and  wondering  at  the  work  of 
of  an  unmarried  woman  is  revoked  by  her  subsequent  his  own  hands".  Montaft^s  is  noted  for  the  maj* 
marriage,  as  is  that  of  a  man  made  before  he  marries  esty  and  religious  character  of  his  types,  his  pro- 
by  his  aubsequent  marriage,  unless  bis  w^e  is  provided  fpund  ^ens^  of  beauty,  and  hi?  elegant  and  correct 


M0NTANIST8                         521  MONTANISTS 

modelling.    His  child  forms,  infant  and  cherub,  are  Epiphanius's  authority  counted  the  years  of  emperors 

peculiarly  happy.    He  would  not  consent  that  any  of  from  the  September  preceding  their  accession   (as 

Lis  figures  should  be  tinted  except  under  his  own  Hegesippus  seems  to  have  done),  and  therefore  the 

supervision.  nineteenth  year  of  Pius  would  be  Sept.,  155-Sept., 

Palomino  t  ViahABco,  Vidaa  ds  loa  Pin^rea  y  EaiatuarioB  156.   Even  if  the  later  and  Western  mode  of  reckon- 

Z^rtSiiS^^iStii'^iS^'^Ji:^]!^'/^^^  m  f«"n  the  Januao;  after  ^cession  is  used,  the  vear 

en  Egpaiia  (Bladrid,  1800);  Montaner  t  Sim6n.  Diccianario  157  can  be  reconciled  With  the  proconsulship  of  Qua- 

Bncidopidieo  Higpano-Atnericano,  XII   (Barcelona,    1893);  dratus  in  155,  if  we  remember  that  Epiphanius  merely 

SnRUNO-MAXWBLL,  ilnnal«  of  the  ArttalM  of  Spam  (U>ndoa,  ^        "fthonf  tha  ninpf.A«»nfh  voor  nf  Phia"    unffinnf 

1891;  DxBULAFOY,  IM  Siatuaire  polychrome  en  Bapaone  (Paris.  ^^^     aOOUt  ine  mneteentn  year  Ol  riUS   ,  ^tnout 

1908).  vouching  for  stnct  accuracy.    He  tells  us  further  on 

M.  L.  Handlet.  that  Maximilla  prophesied:  ''After  me  there  ^all  be 

no  prophetess,  but  the  end",  whereas  he  was  writing 

Montaniatfl,   schismatics  of  the  second  century,  aft^  290  years,  more  or  less,  in  the  year  375  or  376. 

first  known  as  Phrygians,  or  'Hhose  amon^  the  Phry-  To  correct  the  evident  error  Hamack  would  read  190, 

gians"  (ol  rard  ^p&yas),  then  as  Montanists,  Pepu-  which  brings  us  roughly  to  the  death  of  MaximUla 

zians.  and  (in  the  West)  Cataphrygians.   The  sect  was  (385  for  379).    But  fKarow  for  SuucSaia  is  a  big  change, 

founded  b;^  a  prophet,  Montanus,  and  two  prophet-  It  is  more  likely  that  Epiphanius  is  calculating  from 

esses,  Maximilla  and  Prisca,  sometimes  called  riis-  the  date  he  had  himself  given.  19th  of  Pius=  156,  as  he 

cilia.  did  not  know  that  of  Maximilla's  death:  his ''more  or 

Chronology. —  An     anonymous     anti-Montanist  less ' '  corresponds  to  his  former ' '  about  ' .   So  we  shall 

writer^  cited  by  Eusebius,   addressed  his  work  to  with  Zahn  adopt  Scaliger's  conjecture  dtair60'ia  ^rMaxot- 

Abereius  Marcellus^  Bishop  of  Hieropolis,  who  died  S^ica  for  8iaK6<rta   iweviiKovra^  which  brings   us  from 

about  2O0.    Maximilla  had  prophesiecf  continual  wars  156  to  375=219  years.    As  ApoUonius  wrote  forty 

and  troubles,  but  this  writer  declared  that  he  wrote  years  after  the  sect  emerged,  his  work  must  be  dated 

more  than  thirteen  years  after  her  death,  yet  no  war,  about  196. 

general  or  partial,  had  taken  place,  but  on  the  con-  Montanism  in  Asia  Minor. — Montanus  was  a  re- 

trary  the  Christians  enjo3red  permanent  peace  through  cent  convert  when  he  first  began  to  prophesy  in  the 

the  mercy  of  God  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  eccl.",V,  xvi,  19).  village  of  Ardabau  in  Phrygia.    He  is  said  by  Jerome 

These  thirteen  years  can  be  identified  oxdy  with  the  to  have  been  previously  a  priest  of  Cvbele;  but  this  is 

twelve  and  a  half  years  of  Commodus  (17  March,  180—  perhaps  a  later  invention  intended  to  connect  his 

31  December,  192).   The  wars  between  rival  emperors  ecstasies  with  the  dervish-like  behaviour  of  the  priests 

began  early  in  193,  so  that  this  anonymous  author  and  devotees  of  the  "great  goddess".     The  same 

wrote  not  much  later  than  January,  193,  and  Maxi-  prophetic  gift  was  believed  to  have  descended  also 

milla  must  have  died  about  the  end  of  179^  not  Ions  upon  his  two  companions,  the  prophetesses  Maxi- 

before  Marcus  Aurelius.    Montanus  and  Pnscilla  had  milla  and  Prisca  or  Priscilla.    Their  headquarters 

died  3ret  earlier.     Consequently  the  date  given  by  were  in  the  village  of  Pepuza.    The  anonymous  oppo- 

Eusebius  in  his  "Chronicle'' — eleventh  (or  twelfth)  nent  of  the  sect  describes  the  method  of  prophecy 

year  of  Marcus,  i.  e.  about  172 — for  the  first  appeal^  (Eusebius,  V.  xvii,  2-3) :  first  the  prophet  appears  dis- 

ance  of  Montanus  leaves  insufficient  time  for  the  traught  witn  terror  {iy  rapeKffTdffei)^   then  follows 

development  of  the  sect,  which  we  know  further  to  quiet  (Adcta  Kal  d^fila^  fearlessness);  beginning  by 

have  been  of  great  importance  in  177,  when  the  Church  studied  vacancy  of  thought  or  passivity  of  intellect 

of  Lyons  wrote  to  Pope  Eleutherius  on  the  subject.  {iKo6<rios  dfMdla)^  he  is  seized  by  an  uncontrollable 

Again,  the  Montanists  are  co-ordinated  with  the  mar-  madness  {dKoiaios  pavia  ^Oxv^).    The  prophets  did 

tyr  Thraseas,  mentioned  chronologically  between  Poly-  not  speak  as  messengers  of  God:   "Thus  ssith  the 

carp  (155)  and  Sagaris  (under  Sersius  Paulus,  166^7)  Lord,"  but  described  themselves  as  possessed  by 

in  tne  letter  of  Polvcrates  to  Pope  Victor;  the  date  of  God  and  spoke  in  His  Person.    "  I  am  the  Father,  the 

Thraseas  is  therefore  about  16(),  and  the  oriran  of  Word,  and  the  Paraclete, "  said  Montanus  (Didy- 

Montanism  must  be  yet  earlier.   Consequently,  2«ahn.  mus.  "De  Trin.",  Ill,  xli);  and  again:  "I  am  the 

Hamack,  Duchesne,  and  others  (against  Vdlter  ana  Lord  God  omnipotent,  who  have  descended  into  a 

Voigt,  who  accept  the  late  date  ,^ven  by  Eusebius,  man",  and  "neitner  an  angel,  nor  an  ambassador,  but 

regard  St.  Epiphanius  (Hser.,  xlviii,  1)  as  giving  the  1.  the  Lord,  the  Father,  am  come"   (Epiphanius, 

truedateof  tne  rise  of  the  sect,  "about  the  nineteenth  '  Hsr.",  xlviii,  11).     And  Maximilla  said:  "Hear 

year  of  Antoninus  Pius"  (that  is,  about  the  year  156  not  me,  but  hear  Christ"  (ibid.);  and:  "I  am  driven 

or  157).  off  from  among  the  sheep  like  a  wolf  [that  is,  a  false 

Bonwetsch,  accepting  Zahn's  view  that  previously  prophet — cf.  Matt.^  vii,  15];  I  am  not  a  wolf,  but  I 

(Hser.,  xlvi,  1)  Epiphanius  had  given  the  twelfth  am  speech,  and  spirit,  and  power."  This  possession 

year  of  Antoninus  Pius  where  he  should  have  said  M.  by  a  spirit,  which  spoke  while  the  prophet  was  in- 

Aurelius,  wishes  similarly  to  substitute  that  emperor  capable  of  resisting,  is  described  by  the  spirit  of  Mon- 

here,  so  that  we  would  get  179,  the  very  date  of  the  tanus:  "Behold  the  man  is  like  a  lyre,  and  I  dart 

death  of  Masdmilla.    But  the  emendation  is  unneces-  like  the  plectrum.    The  man  sleeps,  and  I  am  awake" 

eary  in  either  case.   In  "  Hsreses",  xlvi,  1,  Epiphanius  (Epiphanius,  "  Har. ",  xlviii,  4). 

clearly  meant  the  earlier  date,  whether  ri^t  or  wrone;  We  hear  of  no  false  doctrines  at  first.    The  Para- 

and  in  xlviii,  1,  he  is  not  dating  the  death  of  Maximilla  dete  ordered  a  few  fasts  and  abstinences;  the  latter 

but  the  first  appearance  of  the  sect.    From  Eusebius,  were  strict  xerophagitBy  but  only  for  two  weeks  in  the 

V,  xvi,  7,  we  leam  that  this  was  in  the  proconsulship  of  year,  and  even  then  the  Saturdays  and  Sundays  did  not 

Gratus.    Such  a  proconsul  of  Asia  is  not  known,  count  (Tertullian,  "De  jej.",  xv).    Not  only  was  vir- 

Bonwetsch  accepts  Zahn's  suggestion  to  read  "Qua-  gnity  strongly  recommended   (as   always    by   the 

dratus",  and  pom ts  out  that  there  was  a  Quadratus  in  Church),   but  second  marriages  were  disapproved. 

155  (if  that  is  the  year  of  Polycarp's  death,  which  was  Chastity  was  declared  by  Priscilla  to  be  a  preparation 

mnder  Quadratus),  and  another  in  166,  so  that  one  of  for  ecstasy:  "The  holy  [chastel  minister  knows  how  to 

these  years  was  the  real  date  of  the  birth  of  Monta^  minister  holiness.    For  those  who  purify  their  hearts 

niflm.     But  166  for  Quadratus  merely  depends  on  [reading  purificantes  enim  corda,  by  conjecture  for 

Schnud  8  chronology  of  Aristides,  which  has  been  purificantia  enim  concordal]  both  see  visions,  and 

rejected  by  Ramsay  and  others  in  favour  of  the  earlier  placing  their  bead  downwards  (!)  also  hear  manifest 

chronolo^  worked  out  by  Waddington,  who  obtained  voices,  as  saving  as  they  are  secret "  (Tertullian.  "Ex- 

155  for  the  Quadratus  of  Aristides  as  well  as  for  the  hort.''  X,  in  one  MS.).    It  was  rumoured,  however, 

Quadratus  of  Polycarp.  Now  it  is  most  probable  that  that  Priscilla  had  been  married^  and  had  left  her  bus- 


MONTAMISn 


522 


MONTAMISTS 


bVmd.  Mart3rrdozn  was  valued  00  highly  that  flight 
from  persecution  was  disapproved,  and  so  was  the 
bu3ring  off  of  punishment.  ''You  are  made  an  out- 
law?" said  MontanuSi  "it  is  good  for  you.  For  he 
who  is  not  outlawed  among  men  is  outlawed  in  the 
Lord.  Be  not  confounded.  It  is  justice  which  hales 
you  in  public.  Why  are  you  confounded,  when  you 
are  sowing  praise?  Power  comes,  when  you  are  stared 
at  by  men."  And  again:  ''Do  not  desire  to  depart 
this  life  in  beds,  in  miscarriages,  in  soft  fevers,  but 
in  martjrrdoms,  that  He  who  suffered  for  you  may 
be  gjorified"  Hl'ertullian,  "De  fuga",  ix;  cf.  "De 
anima",  Iv).  Tertullian  says:  "Those  who  receive 
the  Paraclete,  know  neither  to  flee  persecution  nor 
to  bribe"  (De  fuga,  14)^  but  he  is  unable  to  cite  any 
formal  prohibition  by  Montanus. 

So  far,  the  most  that  can  be  said  of  these  didactic 
utterances  is  that  there  was  a  slight  tendency  to 
extravagance.  The  people  of  Phrysia  were  accus- 
tomed to  the  orgiastic  cult  of  Cytieie.  There  were 
doubtless  maxiv  Christians  there.  The  contemporary 
accounts  of  Montanism  mention  Christians  in  other- 
wise unknown  villages:  Ardabau  on  the  Mysian  bor- 
der, Pepuza.  Tymion,  as  well  as  in  Otrus,  Apamea, 
Cumane,  Elumenea.  Early  Christian  inscriptions 
have  been  found  at  Otrus,  Hieropolis,  Pepuza  (of 
260),  Trajanopolis  (of  279),  Eumenea  (of  249)  etc. 
(see  Hamack,  "Expansion  of  Christianity^".  II,  360). 
There  was  a  council  at  S3mnada  in  the  third  century. 
The  "Acta  Theodoti"  represent  the  village  of  Malus 
near  Ancvra  as  entirely  Christian  under  Diocletian. 
Above  all  we  must  remember  what  crowds  of  Chris- 
tians were  found  in  Pontus  and  Bithynia  by  Pliny  in 
112,  not  only  in  the  cities  but  in  country  places.  No 
doubt,  therefore,  there  were  numerous  Christians  in 
the  Phrygian  villages  to  be  drawn  by  the  astounding 
phenomena.  Crowds  came  to  Pepuza,  it  seems,  and 
contradiction  was  provoked.  In  the  very  first  days 
ApoUinarius,  a  successor  of  St.  Papias  as  Bishop  of 
Hierapolis  in  the  southwestern  comer  of  the  prov- 
ince, wrote  against  Montanus.  Euscbius  knew  this 
letter  from  its  being  enclosed  by  Serapion  of  Antioch 
(about  191-212)  in  a  letter  addressea  by  him  to  the 
Christians  of  Caria  and  Pontus.  Apolinarius  related 
that  iElius  Publius  Julius  of  Debeltum  (now  Burgas) 
in  Thrace,  swore  that  "Sotas  the  blessed  who  was  in 
Anchialus  [on  the  Thracian  coast]  had  wished  to  cast 
out  the  demon  from  Priscilla;  but  the  h3rpocrite8 
would  not  allow  it."  Clearly  Sotas  was  dead,  and 
could  not  speak  for  himself.  The  anonymous  writer 
tells  us  that  some  thought  Montanus  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  an  evil  spirit,  and  a  troubler  of  the  people; 
they  rebuked  him  ana  tried  to  stop  his  prophesy- 
ing: the  faithful  of  Asia  assembled  m  many  places, 
ana  examining  the  prophecies  declared  them  pro- 
fane, and  condemned  the  her^y,  so  that  the  dis- 
ciples were  thrust  out  of  the  Church  and  its  com- 
munion. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  how  soon  this  excommunication 
took  place  in  Asia.  Probably  from  the  beginning 
some  bishops  excluded  the  followers  of  Montanus,  and 
this  severity  was  growing  common  before  the  death  of 
Montanus;  but  it  was  hardly  a  general  rule  much  be- 
fore the  death  of  Maximilla  in  179;  condemnation  of 
the  prophets  themselves,  and  mere  disapproval  of 
their  disciples  was  the  first  stage.  We  hear  of  holy 
persons,  including  the  bishops  Zoticus  of  Cumana  and 
Julian  of  Apamea,  attempting  to  exorcize  Maximilla 
at  Pepuza,  doubtless  after  the  death  of  Montanus. 
But  Themison  prevented  them  (Eusebius,  V,  xvi,  17; 
xviii,  12).  This  personage  was  called  a  confessor  but, 
according  to  the  anonvmous  writer,  he  had  bought 
himself  off.  He  published  "a  catholic  epistle,  in 
imitation  of  the  Apostle",  in  support  of  his  partv. 
Another  so-called  martyr,  called  Alexander,  was  for 
many  years  a  companion  of  MaximilK.  whn.  though  a 
prophet^,  did  not  know  that  it  was  for  robbery,  and 


not  "for  the  Name",  that  he  had  been  condemned  hj 
the  proconsul  JBmilius  Frontinus  (date  unknown)  in 
Ephesus;  in  proof  of  this  the  public  archives  of  Asia 
are  appealed  to.  Of  another  leader,  Alcibiades,  noth- 
ing is  known.  The  prophets  are  accused  of  taking 
gins  under  the  guise  of  offerings;  Montanus  sent  out 
salaried  preachers;  the  prophetesses  painted  their 
faces,  dyed  their  eyelids  with  stibium,  wore  ornaments 
and  played  at  dice.  But  these  accusations  may  be 
untrue.  The  great  point  was  the  manner  ot  prophesy- 
ing. It  was  denounced  as  contrary  to  custom  and  to 
tradition.  A  Catholic  writer,  Miltiades,  wrote  a 
book  to  which  the  anonymous  author  refers,  "  How  a 
prophet  ought  not  to  sp^dc  in  ecstasy  ".  It  was  urged 
that  the  phenomena  were  those  of  possession,  not  those 
of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  or  of  New  Testament 
prophets  like  Silas,  Agaous,  and  the  daugfaters  of 
Philip  the  Deacon;  or  of  prophets  recently  known  in 
Asia,  Quadratus  (Bishop  of  Athens)  and  Ammia. 
prophetess  of  Philadelphia,  of  whom  the  Montanist 
prophets  boasted  of  being  succeasors.  To  speak  in 
the  first  person  as  the  Father  or  the  ParacKte  ap- 
peared blasphemous.  The  older  prophets  had  epoken 
''in  the  Spirit",  as  mouthpieces  of  the  Spirit,  but  to 
have  no  free  wiU,  to  be  helpless  in  a  state  of  madness, 
was  not  consonant  with  the  text:  "The  q[>irits  of  the 
prophets  are  subject  to  the  prophets."  Montanus 
declared:  "The  Lord  hath  sent  me  as  the  chooser, 
the  revealer,  the  interpreter  of  this  labour,  this  prnm* 
ise,  and  this  covenant,  bein^  forced,  willinjely  or  un- 
willingly, to  learn  the  gnosis  of  God."  The  Mon- 
tanists  appealed  to  Gen.,  ii,  21:  "The  Lord  sent  an 
ecstasy  {lirraaip]  upon  Adam";  Ps.  cxv,  2:  "I  said 
in  my  ecstasy";  Acts,  x,  10:  "There  came  upon  him 
[Peter]  an  ecstasy";  but  these  texts  proved  neither 
tiiat  an  ecstasy  of  excitement  was  proper  to  sanctity, 
nor  that  it  was  a  right  state  in  which  to  prophesy. 

A  better  argument  was  the  declaration  that  the  new 
prophecy  was  of  a  higher  order  than  the  old,  and  there- 
fore unlike  it.  It  came  to  be  thought  higher  than  the 
Apostles,  and  even  beyond  the  teaching  of  Christ. 
Priscilla  went  to  sleep,  she  said,  at  Pepuza,  and 
Christ  came  to  her  and  slept  by  her  side  "in  the  fonn 
of  a  woman,  clad  in  a  bright  garment,  and  put  wisdom 
into  me,  and  revealed  to  me  that  this  place  is  holy, 
and  that  here  Jerusalem  above  comes  down  "•  "  M  %*»• 
teries"  (sacraments?)  were  celebrated  there  publicly. 
In  Epiphanius's  time  Pepuaa  was  a  desert,  and  the 
village  was  ^one.  Marcellina,  surviving  the  other 
two,  prophesied  continual  wars  after  her  death — ^do 
other  prophet,  but  the  end. 

It  seems  on  the  whole  that  Montanus  had  no  partic- 
ular doctrine,  and  that  his  prophetesses  went  rurlber 
than  he  did.  The  extrava^^ces  of  his  sect  were  after 
the  deaths  of  aU  three;  but  it  is  difEcult  to  know  bow 
far  we  are  to  trust  our  authorities.  The  anonyir>oiL« 
writer  admits  that  he  has  onlv  an  uncertain  report  f(  r 
the  story  that  Montanus  and  ^'aximilla  both  h&i  ^  <i 
themselves,  and  that  Themison  was  carried  into  tl  e 
air  by  a  devil,  flung  down,  and  so  died.  Ihe  5<(t 
gained  much  popularity  in  iria.  It  would  seem  t)  at 
some  Churches  were  wholly  \^  ontanist.  The  anony- 
mous writer  found  the  Church  at  Ancyra  in  193 
greatly  disturbed  about  the  new  prophecy.  Tertul- 
Ran's  lost  writing  "De  Ecstasi",  m  defence  of  their 
trances,  is  swd  by  Praedestinatus  to  have  been  an  an- 
swer to  Pope  Soter  (Haer.,  xxvi,  hcxxvi),  who  had  con- 
demned or  disapproved  them ;  but  the  authority  is  not 
a  good  one.  He  has  presumably  confoimded  Soter 
with  Sotas,  Bishop  of  Anchialus.  In  177  the  Churches 
of  Lyons  and  Vienne  sent  to  the  Churches  of  Asia  and 
PhryRia  their  celebrated  account  of  the  martyrdoms 
that  had  been  taking  place.  Eusebius  tells  us  that  at 
the  same  time  thev  enclosed  letters  which  had  been 
written  in  prison  bv  the  martyrs  on  the  question  of 
the  Mont  anisic.  They  sent  the  same  by  Irenapus  to 
Pope  Eleutherius.    Eusebius  says  only  that  they  took 


MONTANIBTB 


523 


M0NTANI8TS 


ft  pradent  and  most  orthodox  view.  It  Is  probable 
that  they  disapproved  of  the  prophets,  but  were  not 
inclined  to  extreme  measures  agamst  their  followers. 
It  was  not  denied  that  the  Montanists  could  count 
man^r  inart3rrs;  it  was  replied  to  their  boast,  that  all  the 
heretics  had  many,  and  espscially  the  Marcionites. 
but  that  true  mart3rrB  like  Gains  and  Alexander  of 
Eumenea  had  refused  to  communicate  with  fellow- 
martyrs  who  had  approved  the  new  prophecy  (Anon, 
in  Eusebius,  V,  xvi,  27).  The  acts  of  Carpus,  Papy- 
lus,  and  Agathonice  (the  last  of  these  threw  herself  into 
the  fire),  martyrs  of  Th]^atira  under  Marcus  Aurelius 
(about  161-9),  may  exhibit  an  influence  of  Montan- 
bm  on  the  martyrs. 

MoNTANifiM  IN  THE  West. — A  sccond-centuTy  pope 
(more  probably  Eleutherius  than  Victor)  was  inclined 
to  approve  the  new  prophecies,  according  to  Tertul- 
lian.  but  was  dissuaded  by  Praxeas  (q.  v.).    Their  de- 
fender in  Rome  was  Procius  or  Prociuus,  much  rever- 
enced by  Tertullian.    A  disputation  was  held  by 
Gaius  against  him  in  the  presence  of  Pope  Zephyiinus 
(about  202-3,  it  would  seem).    As  Gaius  supported 
the  side  of  the  Churchy  Eusebius  calls  him  a  Church- 
man (II,  xxv^  6),  and  is  delighted  to  find  in  the  min- 
utes of  the  discussion  that  (Talus  rejected  the  Johan- 
oine  authorship  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  attributed  it 
to  Cerinthus.    But  G<uus  was  the  worse  of  the  two, 
for  we  know  from  the  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse 
by  Bar  Salibi,  a  Syriac  writer  of  the  twelfth  centurv 
(see  Theodore  H.  Robinson  in  "Expositor",  VII,  sixth 
series.  June,  1906),  that  he  rejected  the  (jk)spel  and 
Epistles  of  St.  John  as  well,  and  attributed  them  all  to 
Cerinthus.    It  was  af^ainst  Gaius  that  Hippolvtus 
wrote  hb  "Heads  against  Gaius"  and  also  his  "De- 
fence of  the  Gospel  and  the  Apocalypse  of  John"  (un- 
less these  are  two  names  for  the  same  work).    St. 
Epiphanius  used  these  works  for  his  fifty-first  heresy 
(cf.  Philastrius,  "Hsr.",  Ix)^  and  as  the  heresy  had  no 
name  he  invented  that  of  A\oyot^  meaning  at  once 
'*  the  unreasoning"  and  "those  who  reject  the  A6yot", 
We  gather  that  Gaius  was  led  to  reject  the  Gospel  out 
of  opposition  to  Plroclus,  who  taught  (Pseudo-Tertul- 
lian.  ^De  Prsesc.",  lii)  that "  the  Holy  Ghost  was  in  the 
Apostles,  but  the  Paraclete  was  not,  and  that  the 
Paraclete  published  through  Montanus  more  than 
Christ  revealed  in  the  Gospel,  and  not  only  more,  but 
aJso  better  and  greater  things";  thus  the  promise  of 
the  Paraclete  (John,  xiv,  16)  was  not  to  the  Apostles 
but  to  the  next  age.    St.  Irenseus  refers  to  Gaius  with- 
out naming  him  (III,  xi,  9):  "Others^  in  order  that 
they  may  frustrate  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  which  in  the 
last  days  has  been  poured  upon  the  human  race  ac- 
cording to  the  good  pleasure  of  the  Father,  do  not  ad- 
mit that  form  [the  lion]  which  corresponds  with  the 
Gospel  of  John  in  which  the  Lord  promised  to  send 
the  Paraclete;  but  they  reject  the  (jTospel  and  with  it 
the  prophetic  Spirit.     Unhappy,  indeed,  in  that,  wish- 
ing to  have  no  false  prophets  [reading  with  Zcdm 
pseudoprophetas  esse  nolunt  for  pseudopro'ph^eB  esse 
f}olunl],  they  drive  away  the  grace  of  propnecv  from 
the  Chureh;  resembling  persons  who,  to  avoid  those 
6vho  come  in  hypocrisy,  withdraw  from  conmiunion 
Bven  with  brethren."    The  old  notion  that  the  Alogi 
were  an  Asiatic  sect  (see  Alogi)  is  no  longer  tenable; 
thev  were  the  Roman  Gaius  and  his  followers,  if  he 
iad  any.    But  (jruus  evidently  did  not  venture  to  re- 
ject the  Giospel  in  his  dispute  before  Zephyrinus,  the 
M^count  of  which  was  known  to  Dionysius  of  Alexan- 
Iria  as  well  as  to  Eusebius  (cf.  Eusebius,  III,  xx,  1,  4). 
[t  is  to  be  noted  that  Gaius  is  a  witness  to  the  sojourn 
>f  St.  John  in  Asia,  since  he  considers  the  Johannine 
xritinflps  to  be  forgeries,  attributed  by  their  author 
Z^erintnus  to  St.  John;  hence  he  thinks  St.  John  is 
-cpresented  by  Gerinthus  as  the  ruler  of  the  Asiatic 
Dhurches.    Another    Montanist    (about    200),   who 
leema  to  have  separated  from  Procius,  was  iEschines, 
¥ho  tauRfat  that  "the  Father  is  the  Son",  and  b 


counted  as  a  Monarehian  of  the  type  of  Noetus  or 
SabdliuB. 

But  Tertullian  (q.  v.)  is  the  most  famous  of  tao 
Montanists.  He  was  born  about  150-5,  and  beca:ne  a 
Christian  about  190-5.  His  excessive  nature  led  Lini 
to  adopt  the  Montanist  teaching  as  soon  as  he  knew 
it  (about  202-3).  His  writings  from  this  date  on- 
wards grow  more  and  more  bitter  against  the  Catholic 
Chureh,  from  which  he  definitively  broke  away  about 
207.  He  died  about  223,  or  not  much  later.  ILs 
first  Montanist  work  was  a  defence  of  the  new  proph- 
ecy in  six  books, '' De  Ecstasi  "^  written  probabl>r  in 
Greek;  he  added  a  seventh  book  m  reply  to  Apollonius. 
The  work  is  lost,  but  a  sentence  preserved  by  Pra3dcs- 
tinatus  (xxvi)  is  important:  "In  this  alone  we  differ, 
in  that  we  do  not  receive  second  marriage,  and  that 
we  do  not  refuse  the  prophecy  of  Montanus  concern- 
ing the  future  judgment."  In  fact  Tertullian  holds 
as  an  absolute  law  the  recommendations  of  Montanus 
to  eschew  second  marriagss  and  flij;ht  from  persecu- 
tion. He  denies  the  pos»bility  of  torgiveness  of  sins 
by  the  Chureh;  he  insists  upon  the  newly  ordained 
fasts  and  abstinences.  Catholics  are  the  Psydiici  as 
opposed  to  the  "spiritual"  followers  of  the  Paraclete; 
tne  Catholic  Chureh  consists  of  gluttons  and  adulter- 
ers, who  hate  to  fast  and  love  to  remarry.  Tertullian 
evidently  exaggerated  those  parts  of  the  Montanist 
teaching  whicb  appealed  to  himself,  caring  little  for 
the  rest.  He  has  no  idea  of  making  a  pilgrimage  to 
Pepuza,  but  he  speaks  of  joining  in  spirit  with  the 
celebration  of  the  Montamst  feasts  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  Acts  of  Sts.  Perpetua  and  Felicitas  are  by  some 
thought  to  reflect  a  period  at  Carthage  when  the 
Montanist  teaclung  was  arousing  interest  and  sym- 
pathy, but  had  not  yet  formed  a  schism. 

The  following  of  Tertullian  cannot  have  been  largn; 
but  a  Tertullianist  sect  survived  him  and  its  renmants 
were  reconciled  to  the  Chureh  b^  St.  Augustine  (Hair., 
Ixxxvi).  About  392-4  an  African  ladv,  Octaviana, 
wife  of  Hesperius,  a  favourite  of  the  Duke  Arbogastcs 
and  the  usurper  Maximus,  brought  to  Rome  a  Tertul- 
lianist priest  who  raved  as  if  possessed.  He  obtained 
the  use  of  the  chureh  of  Sts.  Processus  and  Martini- 
anus  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  but  was  turned  out  by  Theo- 
dosius,  and  he  and  Octaviana  were  heard  of  no  more. 
Epiphanius  distinguished  a  sect  of  Montanists  as 
Pepuzians  or  Quintillians  (be  calls  Priscilla  also  Quin- 
tilfa).  He  says  thev  had  some  foolish  sayings  which 
fj&ye  thanks  to  Eve  for  eating  of  the  tree  of  knowledge. 
They  used  to  sleep  at  Pepuza  in  order  to  see  Christ  as 
Priscilla  had  done.  Often  in  their  chureh  seven  vir- 
gins would  enter  with  lamps,  dressed  in  white,  to 
j>rophesy  to  the  people,  whom  by  their  excited  ac- 
.tion  they  would  move  to  tears;  this  reminds  us  of 
some  modem  missions  rather  than  of  the  Irvingite 
''speaking  with  tongues",  with  which  the  Montanist 
ecstasies  have  often  been  compared.  These  heretics 
were  said  to  have  women  for  their  bishops  and  priests, 
in  honour  of  Eve.  They  were  called  "Artotyrites", 
because  their  sacrament  was  of  bread  and  cheese. 
Praedestinatus  says  the  Pepuzians  did  not  really  differ 
from  other  Montanists,  but  despised  all  who  did  not 
actually  dwell  at  the  "new  Jerusalem".  There  is  a 
well-known  story  that  the  Montanists  (or  at  least  the 
Pepuzians)  on  a  certain  feast  took  a  baby  child  whom 
they  stuck  all  over  with  brazen  pins.  They  used  the 
blood  to  make  cakes  for  sacrifice.  If  the  child  died  it 
was  looked  upon  as  a  mart3rr;  if  it  lived,  as  a  high- 
priest.  This  story  was  no  doubt  a  pure  invention, 
and  was  especially  denied  in  the  "De  Ecstasi"  of  Tei^ 
tullian.  An  absurd  nickname  for  the  sect  was  Tosco- 
drugiUBj  from  Phrygian  words  meaning  peg  and  nose, 
because  they  were  said  to  put  their  forefinger  up  their 
nose  when  praying  ''in  order  to  appear  dejected  and 
pious"  (Epiphanius,  Hsr.,  xlviii,  14). 

It  is  interesting  to  take  St.  Jerome's  account,  writ- 
ten in  384,  of  the  doctrines  of  Montanism  as  ne  b^ 


i 


MONTAUBAN  524  MONTAUBAN 

lieved  them  to  be  in  his  own  time  (Ep.,  xli).    He  de-    ^"^JJ^H*  /^«*JHi«-  i^®?);  *t  T*  ¥*^i'*^*'7!^L  Jcucbxb.  En 
Bcribes  them  aa  Sabellians  in.  their  idea  of  the  Trinity,    ^o;I]:t:S!^^^ 


as   forbidding   second    marriage,    as   observing   three  Weinel,  Z>m  Wirkungen  det  GeiUea  wtd  dtr  GriaUr  im  naehapasL 

Lents   "as   though   three   Saviours   had   suffered".  ZeitaJur  hi* auf  Irtndtu  (Tna>nn,  iswh  Qmi^wrv^^ 

Above  bishops  they  have  ';Cenones"  (probably  not  L'^ £^J^^^^^^^^ 

Kouwpol,  but  a  Phrygian  word)  and  patnarchs  above  TniBONT.  Hiu.  det  dogmn,  1. 210:  BAnrvoL,  vaoUm  nai»»a^t 

these  at  Pepiua.    They  close  the  door  of  the  Church  (3«i  ^*  looo).  281;  Ducnaim.  BUl  aneiennt  dm  VBgiiae^  i,  2:0, 

to  almost  every  sin.    They  say  that  God,  not  being  John  Cbafman. 
able  to  save  the  world  by  Moses  and  the  Prophets, 

took  flesh  of  the  Virgin  Manr,  and  in  Christ,  His  Son,  Montailbaa,  DiocssK  of  (Montis  Alb  ant),  suffra- 
preached  and  died  for  us.  And  because  He  could  not  gan  of  Toulouse,  comprises  the  entire  department  of 
accomplish  the  salvation  of  the  world  by  this  second  Tarn  and  Garonne.  Suppressed  in  1802  and  divided 
method,  the  Holy  Spirit  descended  upon  Montanus,  between  the  three  neighbouring  dioceses  of  Toulouse, 
Prisca,  and  Maximilla,  giving  them  the  plenitude  which  Agen,  and  Cahors,  Montauban  was  re-established  by 
St.  Paul  had  not  (I  Cor.,  xiii,  9).  St.  Jerome  refuses  imperial  decree  of  1809,  but  this  measure  was  not  ap- 
to  believe  the  story  of  the  blood  of  a  baby;  but  his  ac-  proved  by  the  Holy  See.  Re-established  by  the  coo- 
count  b  already  exaggerated  beyond  what  the  Mon-  cordat  of  1817,  it  was  filled  only  in  1824. 
tanists  would  have  e^nittcd  that  they  held.  Origen  In  820  the  Benedictine  monks  had  founded  the 
C'Ep.  ad  Titum''  in  ''  Pami)h.  A^l.",  I  fin.)  is  uncer-  Abbey  of  Montauriol  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Mar- 
tain  whether  they  are  schismatics  or  heretics.  St.  tin;  sub8equentl>rit  adopted  the  name  of  its  abbot  St 
Basil  is  amazed  that  Dionvsius  of  Alexandria  admitted  Thcodard,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne,  who  died  at  the 
their  baptism  to  be  vsdid  (Ep.,  clxxxii).  According  abbey  in  893.  The  Count  of  Toulouse,  Alphonse 
to  Philastrius  (Hssr.,  xllx)  they  baptized  the  dead.  Jourdan,  took  from  the  abbey  in  1144  its  lands 
Sozomen  (xviii)  tells  us  that  they  observed  Easter  on  on  the  heights  overlooking  the  right  bank  of  the  Tarn, 
6  April  or  on  the  following  Sunday.  Germanus  of  and  founoed  there  the  citv  of  Montauban;  a  cert-ain 
Constantinople  (P.  G..  XC V III,  44)  says  they  taught  number  of  inhabitants  of  Montauriol  and  serfs  of  the 
eight  heavens  and  eigtit  degrees  of  damnation.  The  abbey  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  population.  The 
Christian  emperors  from  Constantine  onwards  made  monks  protested,  and  in  1149  a  satisfactory  agreement 
laws  agiunst  them,  which  were  scarcely  put  into  exe-  was  conclude.  Notwithstanding  the  sufferings  of 
cution  in  Phrygia  (Sozomen,  II,  xxxii).  But  gradu-  Montauban  during  the  Albigensian  wars,  it  grew  rap- 
ally  they  became  a  small  and  secret  sect.  The  bones  idly.  John  XXII,  by  the  Bull  ''Salvator"  (25  June, 
of  Montanus  were  dug  up  in  861.  The  numerous  1317),  separated  from  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Montanist  writings  (ftip\oi  irtipoi, ''  Philosoi^himiena",  Narbonne,  the  See  of  Toulouse,  made  it  an  archiepisco- 
VIII,  xix)  are  all  lost.  It  seems  that  a  certain  Asterius  pal  see,  and  gave  it  as  suffragans  four  dioceses  creatal 
Urbanus  made  a  collection  of  the  prophecies  (Euseb.,  within  its  territory:  Montauban,  St.-Papoul,  Rieux, 
V,  xvi,  17).  ^  ^  Lombez.  Bertrand  de  Puy,  abbot  at  Montauriol, 
A  theory  of  the  origin  of  Montanism,  originated  by  was  first  Bishop  of  Montauban.  Montauban  counts 
Ritschl,  has  been  followed  by  Hamack,  Bonwetsch,  among  its  bishops:  Cardinal  Georges  d'Amboise 
and  other  German  critics.  The  secularizing  in  the  (1484-1491),  minister  of  Louis  XII,  and  Jean  de 
second  century  of  the  Church  b^  her  very  success  and  Lettes  (1539-1556),  who  married  and  became  a 
the  disappearance  of  the  prinutive  ''Enthusiasmus''  Protestant.  Despite  the  resistance  of  Jacques  des 
madeaaifficulty  for ''those  believers  of  the  old  school  Pr6s-Montpezat  (1556-1589),  a  nephew  of  Jean  de 
who  protested  in  the  name  of  the  Gospel  against  this  Lettes  who  succeeded  him  as  bishop,  the  Calvinists 
secular  Church,  and  who  wished  to  gather  together  a  became  masters  of  the  city;  in  1561  they  interdicted 
people  preparea  for  their  God  regardless  alike  of  num-  Catholic  worship;  the  destruction  of  the  churches, 
Ders  and  circumstances''.  Some  of  these  "ioined  an  and  even  of  the  cathedral,  was  besun  and  carried  on 
enthusiastic  movement  which  had  originatea  amongst  until  1567.  In  1570  Montauban  oecame.  one  of  the 
a  small  circle  in  a  remote  province,  and  had  at  first  a  four  strongholds  granted  the  Protestants  and  in  157iS 
merely  local  importance.  Then,  in  Phrygia,  the  cry  1579,  and  1584  harboured  the  synods  held  by  the 
for  a  strict  Christian  life  was  reinforced  py  the  belief  d6put^  of  the  Reformed  Churches  of  France.  For  a 
in  a  new  and  final  outpouring  of  the  Spirit.  .  .  .  The  short  time,  in  1600,  Catholic  worship  was  re-estab- 
wish  was,  as  usual,  father  to  the  thought;  and  thus  so-  lished  but  was  soon  suppressed;  Bishop  Anne  Carrion 
cieties  of  'spiritual'  Christians  were  formed,  which  de  Murviel  (1600-1652)  withdrew  to  Montech  during 
served,  especially  in  times  of  persecution,  as  rallying  •  the  ^eater  part  of  his  reign  and  administered  thence 
points  for  all  those,  far  and  near,  who  sighed  for  the  the  Church  of  Montauban.  In  spite  of  the  unsucces&> 
end  of  the  world  and  the  exceasus  e  sobcuIo,  and  who  ful  siege  of  Montauban  by  Louis  XIII  (August- 
wished  in  these  last  days  to  lead  a  holy  life.  These  November,  1621),  the  fall  of  La  Rochelle  (1629) 
zealots  hailed  the  appearance  of  the  Paraclete  in  entailed  the  submission  of  the  city,  and  Richelieu 
Phrygia,  and  surrendered  themselves  to  hb  guidance"  entered  it  on  20  August,  1629.  Otner  bishops  of 
(Hamack  in  "Encycl.  Brit.",  London.  1878,  s.  v.  note  were :  LeTonnellierdeBreteuil  (1762-1794),  who 
Montanism).  This  ingenious  theory  has  its  basis  dicdduringtheReignof  Terror  in  the  prison  of  Rouen, 
only  in  the  imagination,  nor  have  any  facts  ever  been  after  converting  the  philosopher  La  Harpe  to  Catholi- 
advanced  in  its  favour.  cism;  the  future  Cardinal  de  Cheverus  (q.  v.),  1824- 


TiLLBifONT,    MimoiTea,   II;    ScHWsaucR,   Der   MontanumuM 


26. 


fObinsen.  1841);   Ritschl.  Entstehung  der  AUkalkolischenkirehB  The  (I!hurch  of  MoissaC,  whosC  portal  built  in  1107 

id  ed..  Bonn,  1857);  Bonwetoch.  Geseh,  de*  MonianUmuM  ig  a  veritable  museum  of  Romanesque  sculpture,  de- 

&S;i^^.A.r"«^  WiS!::S3Jfl::'L^'li^T^\  serves  notice:   ite  dobter  (1100-1108)  fa  one  of  the 

lo^uinRealencyelop.  far  prot.  Theol.  (1903),  B.V.  Afonianismus:  most  remarkable  m  France.     Legend  attributes  to 

WEIMACK.B  in  Theoi.  liu,  Zeituno  (1882).  74;  Salmon  in  Diet,  Clovis  the  foundation  of  the  Abbey  of  Moissac  in  506, 

g£??xf ;a••&^^87S^''^^^^^  ^^l  St.  Amand  (594^75)  seems  to  have  been  the  first 

(London,  1880) ;  volter.  Der  Uraprungsjahr  des  Mont,  in  Zeii-  abbot.   The  abbey  grew,  and  m  a  few  years  its  posses- 

•chr.  far  iCT««.  rAeo?.,  XXVII,  23 ;  H arnack  in  Encyd.  Britanniea  slona  extended  to  the  gatcs  of  Toulouse.    The  threats 

^u*:ii:'ZftJ;,^TrHT.'s'T^-K^1lii%i^^^^  S"Li»"'™e'«  1*?,?  Sarwe™    Hungarian.,   and 

1888);  Idbm,  Forschungen,  V.  3-57:  Die  Chnmotogie  de*  Mont,  Northmen    brought    the    monks   of  MoiSSaO  tO  clect 

(Erlangen,  1893) ;  Voior,  Eine  verschoUene  Urkunde  dee  arUimont.  "  knight  abbots  "  who  were  laymen,  and  whose  miSSion 

Kampfee  (LeipMg.  1891) :  YBii^vmcR  Veber  dieCerumee  der  M.  ^  defend  them.    From  the  tenth  to  the  thirteenth 

he%  Hxeronymue  in  S%taungaber.  Akad.  MUnchen  (1895).  207;  A.  H.,  ""o  *^  wt.*^**v»  ^  vt;        » v»m  w**o  ^      ,                      ,  ^^^^v** 

Die  Cmonm  der  MonL  in  Zeitechr, fur  wiet,  TheoL,  III  (1896),  480;  century  several  of  the  counts  of  Toulouse  were  kni^t- 


MONTAULT 


525 


MONTBOI88IEB 


abbots  of  Moksac:  the  death  of  Alfonso  11  (1271) 
made  the  King  of  France  the  legitimate  successor  of 
the  counts  of  Toulouse,  and  in  this  way  the  abbey 
came  to  depend  directly  on  the  kings  of  France,  hence- 
forth its  "knight-abbots".  Some  of  the  abbots  were 
saints:  St.  Ausbert  (663-678);  St.  L6otadius  (678- 
691);  St.  Patemus  (691-718);  St.  Amarandus  (718- 
720) .  The  union  of  Moissac  with  Clunv  was  began  by 
Abbot  Stephen  as  early  as  1047,  and  completed  in 
1063  under  Abbot  Durand.  Four  filial  abbevs  and 
numerous  priories  depended  on  the  Abbey  of  Nloissac. 
Arnoi^  the  commendatory  abbots  were  Louis  of  Lor- 
raine, Cardinal  de  Guise  (1556-1578);  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  the  Cardinal  de  Vaudemont  (1578-1590). 
In  1618  Moissac  was  transformed  into  a  collegiate 
church  which  had,  among  other  titulars,  Cardinal 
Masarin  (1644-1661),  and  Cardinal  de  Lom^nie  de 
Brienne,  minister  of  Louis  XVI  (1775-1788).  On 
25  July,  1523,  fifteen  inhabitants  of  Moissac,  after 
they  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Compostella,  grouped 
themselves  into  a  confraternity  "k  Fhonneur  de  Dieu, 
de  Notre  Dame  et  Monseigneur  Saint  Jacques".  This 
confraternity,  reorganised  in  1615  by  letters  patent  of 
Louis  XIII,  existed  for  many  vears.  As  late  as  1830 
"pilgrims"  were  still  seen  in  the  Moissac  processions. 
In  fact  Moissac  and  Spun  were  long  closely  united;  a 
monk  of  Moissac,  St.  G^rault,  was  Archbishop  of 
Braga  from  1095  to  1109.  The  general  synod  of  the 
Reformers  held  at  Montpellier,  in  May,  1598,  decided 
on  the  creation  of  an  academy  at  Montauban;  it  was 
opened  in  1600,  was  exclusively  Protestant,  and  gath- 
ered students  from  other  countries  of  Europe.  In  1632 
the  Jesuits  established  themselves  at  Montauban,  but 
in  1659  transferred  the  Academy  to  Puylaurens.  In 
1808  a  faculty  of  Protestant  theology  was  created  at 
Montauban  and  still  exists. 

The  principal  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre 
Dame  de  lavron  or  de  la  Deliverance,  visited  by 
Blanche  of  Castillo  and  Louis  XIII;  Notre  Dame  cfe 
Lorm,  at  Castelfemis,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; Notre  Dame  de  la  Peyrouse,  near  Lafrangaise. 
Before  the  application  of  the  law  of  1901  as  to  associa- 
tions, the  diocese  counted  Jesuits,  Redemptorists, 
Marianists,  and  various  orders  of  School  Brothers. 
Among  the  congregations  of  women  which  originated 
in  the  diocese  we  mention:  Sisters  of  Mercy,  hospital- 
lers and  teachers,  founded  in  1804  (mother-house  at 
MoissacJ;  Sisters  of  the  Guardian  Angel,  hospitallers 
and  teachers,  founded  in  1839  at  Quillan  in  the  Diocese 
of  Carcassonne  by  P6re  Deshayes,  Superior  of  the 
Daughters  of  Wisdom,  whose  mother -house  was 
transferred  to  the  chateau  of  La  Molle,  near  Montau- 
ban in  1858.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury the  religious  congregations  had  charge  of:  1 
creche,  24  day  nurseries,  10  girls'  orphanages.  1  refuge 
(onitFre  de  rehabilitation),  2  houses  for  the  rebef  of  the 
poor,  11  hospitab  or  asylums,  30  houses  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes.  In  1908  the  Diocese 
of  Montauban  counted  188,563  inhabitants,  of  whom 
7000  were  Protestants;  31  parishes;  296  succursal 
parishes;  58  vicariates. 

Oattia  Chrialiana,  XIII  (tuna,  1786).  226-260,  inHrumenta, 
181-224:  Daux,  RaeHfieaiioru  et  addUwiu  au  tomt  XIIU  du 
GaOia  CtiriaHana  (diotAae  de  Montauban)  in  Buttetin  de  la  SocUU 
arehtaiof/iaue  de  Tarn  et  Oaronne,  IV  (1876).  105-112;  Iosm. 
Hietoire  de  VigUee  de  MontatAan  (2  vols.,  Montauban,  187&- 
1886);  RuFiK.  Lee  CloUree  et  VAbbaife  de  Moieeac  (Paris.  1897); 
Dauz.  L«  pHtrntage  d  CompoetOU  et  la  confriHe  dee  pUerine  de 
Mcneeignewr  Saint  Jaeqptee  de  Moieeae  (Parii.  1898). 

Gborqbs  Gotau. 

Montanlty  Xavisb  Barbibr  de,  b.  at  Loudun,  6 
February,  1830;  d.  at  Blaslay,  Vienne  (France),  29 
March,  1901.  He  came  of  a  noble  and  large  family, 
and,  when  only  eight  years  old,  was  confidkd  to  the 
care  of  his  great-uncle,  Mgr  Montault  des  Isles, 
Bishop  of  Angers.  He  studied  theology  at  the  Semi- 
nary of  St.  Sulpice,  and  went  to  Rome  to  continue  his 
studies  m  theology  and  arohe^logy  at  the  ^{^lienza 


and  the  Roman  College.  After  four  years  his  health 
obliged  him  to  return  to  France  (1857),  where  he  was 
appointed  historiographer  of  the  Diocese  of  Angers. 
He  searched  the  archives  of  the  diocese  with  great  dili- 
gence, studied  its  inscriptions  and  monuments,  and 
founded  a  diocesan  museum,  a  project  in  which  de 
Caumont  took  a  lively  interest.  Another  sojourn  of 
fourteen  years  in  Rome  (1861-75)  enabled  him  to 
augment  his  already  extensive  knowledge  of  liturgy 
and  Christian  antiquities.  Meanwhile  he  was  of  great 
service  to  different  French  bishops  as  canonical  con- 
suitor,  and  at  the  Vatican  Council  acted  as  theologian 
to  Mgr  Desfl^ches,  Bishop  of  Angers.  His  first  ar- 
chaeological study  appeared  in  1851  in  the  "  Annales 
archtologiques",  and  Didron  assigned  him  the  task  of 
making  an  mdex  for  this  publication.  Mgr  Barbier  de 
Montault  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  contributors  to 
the  "Revue  de  Part  chrdtien"  from  the  inception  of 
this  periodical,  his  articles  continuing  to  appear  until 
1903  (two  years  after  his  death).  He  also  wrote  nu- 
merous articles  for  other  reviews  as  well  as  several 
separate  works  on  iconography,  ecclesiastical  fumi- 
turcj  liturgy,  canon  law,  etc.  In  1889  he  began  to 
reprmt  his  scattered  works,  classif  3ring  them  according 
to  subjects.  This  publication  was  to  comprise  sixty 
volumes,  but  went  no  further  than  the  sixteenth,  and 
is  to  be  recommended  more  for  its  erudition  than  for 
its  critical  value.  Works:  "(Euvres  completes"  (un- 
finished): I.  "Inventaires  eccl6siastiques'':  II.  "Le 
Vatican";  III.  "Le  Pape";  IV-V.  ^' Droit  papal"; 
VI-VIII.  "Devotions  populaires";  IX-XVI.  "Hagl- 
ographie"    (Rome.    1889-1902);     "Trait6    d'icono- 

Srapnie  chr^tienne"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1890) ;  "  Collection 
es  d^crets  authentiques  des  ss.  congpr^gations  ro- 
maines"  (8  vols.,  Rome,  1872). 

Hklbxo,  Mgr  Xavier  Barbier  de  MontavU  in  Revue  de  Vart  dvritient 
(1901).  367-60;  GnON,  Mgr  X,  B.  de  MontauU,  frio-MM.,  HommeB 
(1910). 

R.  Maere. 

Montboissior,  Peter  of  (better  known  as  Peter 
THE  Venerable),  Blessed,  bom  in  Auvergne,  about 
1092;  died  at  Cluny,  25  December,  1156.  His  mother, 
Blessed  Rain^^u^e,  offered  him  to  God  in  the  monas- 
tery of  SauxiUanges  of  the  Congregation  of  Cluny, 
where  he  made  his  profession  at  the  age  of  seventeen. 
He  was  only  twenty  years  old  when  he  was  appointed 

Erof essor  and  prior  of  the  monastery  of  Vdzelajr,  and 
e  discharged  his  duties  in  that  house,  and  later  in  the 
monastery  of  Domdne,  with  such  success  that  at  the 
age  of  thirty  he  was  elected  general  of  the  order.  The 
onler,  which  ^en  counted  not  less  than  2000  houses 
throughout  Europe,  was  in  need  of  reform.  The  ab- 
bot had  bef^un  this  work  when  his  predecessor,  the 
Abbot  Pontius,  who  had  been  deposed  by  the  pope,  at- 
tempted to  be  reinstated  in  his  omce  by  violence.  Our 
saint  had  to  face  other  attacks  made  on  his  order  by 
St.  Bernard  himself,  who  did  not  fail  however  to  ac- 
knowledge the  eminent  virtue  of  Peter  and  was  the 
first  to  call  him  Venerable.  Peter  resisted  the  at- 
tacks with  both  firmness  and  meekness,  and  took  oc- 
casion of  them  to  write  the  rules  of  the  Congregation 
of  Cluny,  one  of  the  most  complete  and  perfect  codes 
of  religious  life.  He  was  prominent  in  resisting  the 
schism  caused  by  the  Antipope  Anacletus  II,  after  the 
death  of  Honorius  II  (1130).  With  St.  Bernard,  he 
was  the  soul  and  the  light  of  the  General  Council  of 
Pisa  (1134),  and  having  encouraged  Innocent  II  to 
stand  firm  in  the  midst  of  persecutions,  he  predicted 
the  end  of  the  schism,  which  happened  in  1138. 

During  a  visit  to  Spain  (1139)  he  became  interested 
in  Mohfunmedanism  and  had  the  Koran  for  the  first 
time  translated  into  Latin.  He  made  several  jour- 
neys to  Rome,  where  the  popes  entrusted  him  with 
delicate  missions,  and  he  accompanied  Eugene  III  to 
the  Council  of  Reims  (1147),  where  the  doctrines  of 
Gilbert  de  la  Por6e  were  condemned.  Kmgp  and  em- 
perors came  to  him  for  advice  and  in  tb^uivi^t  q(  lufl 


MOirrCALM-GOZON                    526  MOMTl 

labours  he  found  time  to  write  numerous  letters,  valu-  tion  of  New  France.    Although  a  fint  enooonter  (5 

able  theological  works  on  the  questions  of  the  day,  July.  1758)  had  proved  disastrous  to  the  French,  the 

the  Divinity  of  Christ,  the  Real  Presence,  against  the  death  of  the  valiant  young  Lord  Howe,  the  real  nead 

Jews  and  the  Mohammedans,  and  concerning  the  of  the  English  troops,  deprived  Abercromby  of  his 

statutes  and  the  privileges  of  his  order,  besides  ser-  chief  support.   On  the  8th  the  onslaught  of  the  entire 

mons  and  even  verses.    Theologians  praise  the  pre-  Anglo-American  army  was  rendered  impossible  by  the 

cision  of  his  teaching.     When  Abelard  s  doctrine  nad  earthworks  and  compUcated  barricade  of  felled  trees 

been  condemned  at  Soissons,  Peter  opened  his  mon-  protecting  Fort  Canllon;    while  a  deadly  fire  ded- 

astery  to  him,  reconciled  him  with  St.  Bernard  and  mated  the  assailants.    When  the  fray  was  over  2000 

with  the  pope,  and  had  the  joy  of  seeing  him  spend  English  soldiers  lay  killed  or  wounded,  while  the 

the  rest  ot  his  life  under  his  guidance.    He  died  on  French  losses  were  only  104  killed  and  248  wounded; 

Christmas  Day,  according  to  nis  wish,  "  after  a  sub-  3800  men  had  repulsed  15.000.    In  thanksgiving  to 

hme  sermon  to  his  brethren  on  the  mystery  of  the  the  God  of  Hosts,  Montcalm  raised  a  cross  with  an 

day".    Honoured  as  a  saint  both  b^  thepeopleand  inscription. 

his  order,  he  was  never  canonised;  Pius  IX  confirmed  After  arresting  the  invaeion  by  land,  Montcalm  had 

the  cult  offered  to  him  (1862).  to  face  the  attack  of  the  naval  forces.    During  the 

rrf^^^'^^f'^^.,?^'*^ ^,^'Ji'A^Si^^}^  RoDULPHXTs,  sicgc  of  Qucbec  by  Wolfe,  Montcalm  with  L^vis  won 

iTc^^'^SSS^ca'^a^nt:^!^^  a  &Bt  jdctonr  at  Montmorency  Fallg  with  *  loa.  of 

pl%»9ima  ColUctio,  VI,  1187-1202;  OaUia  CKrigtiarM,  IV,  1137-  450  to  the  English  (31  July,  1759).    But  the  final  act 

1140;  PiaNOT,  HiMovrt  de  Vordrt  de  ciuny.  III.  4ft-509;  Dkmx-  was  drawing  nigh,  which  was  to  seal  the  fate  of  New 

(P2ri;.^80«.      ^^^"^  ***""•  mom«<»a-  au  Xll'^  ..^  Fmace.   On  13  Sept.  the  enemy  stealthily  scaled  the 

j^.  FouRNET.  Heights  of  Abraham,  and  at  early  mom  was  ranged  in 

battle.    Montcalm,  thunderstruck  by  the  unexpected 

Montcalm-Ctoion,  Louis-Joseph.  Marqttis  de,  a  tidings,   hurried  from    Beauport  and  arrayed   his 

French  general,  b.  28  Feb.,  1712,  at  Candiac,  of  Louis-  troops.    Though  about  equal  in  numbers,  they  were 

Daniel  and  Marie-Thdrdse  de  Lauris;  d.  at  Quebec  14  doomed  to  d^eat  for  several  reasons,  including  sur- 

Sept.,  1759.    He  was  descended  from  Gozon,  Grand  prise,  hardship,  privation,  fatigue,  and  a  disadvan- 

Master  of  Rhodes  of  legendary  fame.    The  warlike  tageous  position.    Both  generals  fell,  Wolfe  dying  on 

spirit  of  his  ancestors  had  given  rise  to  the  saying:  the  battle-field,  and  Montcalm  the  next  morning. 

'War  is  the  tomb  of  the  Montcalms."    Though  less  This  battle,  considered  in  its  results,  was  one  of  the 

clever  than  a  younser  brother,  a  prodigy  of  learning  at  flreatest  events  of  the  ei^teenth  century.    It  saved 

seven,  Louis-Josepn  was  a  classical  scholar.  A  soldier  Canada  from  the  French  Revolution  and  heralded  the 

at  fifteen,  he  spent  his  leisures  in  camp  reading  Greek  dawn  of  American  Independence.    Montcalm  was  a 

and  German.    He  served  successively  at  the  sieges  of  brave  and  generous  commander,  a  high-minded  and 

Kehl  and  Philipsbourg,  and  became  a  knight  of  St.  disinterested  patriot;   a  faithful  Christian  giving  to 

Louis  (1741)  after  a  campaign  in  Bohemia,  and  was  God  the  gloiy  of  his  victories.    His  memoiy  is  cher- 

appointed  colonel  of  the  Auxerrois  regiment  (1743).  ished  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World.    In  Canada  he 

He  received  five  wounds  at  the  battle  of  Piacensa.  shares  the  honours  awarded  to  his  victor,  as  the  fol- 

In  1736  he  had  married  Ang^lique-Louise  Talon  de  lowing  inscription  on  their  joint  monument  testifies: — 

Boulay,  grand-niece  of  the  famous  intendant  of  that  Mortem  virtus 

name.   Of  this  union  were  bom  ten  children.   In  1755  Communem  famam  historia 

he  succeeded  the  ill-fated  Dieskau,  in  the  command  of  Monumentum  posteritas  dedit. 

the  French  army  in  Canada,  under  governor  Vau-  — a  tribute  dulv  anticipated  by  the  French  Academy 

dreuil.    The  dissonance  of  character  between  the  two  in  the  last  words  of  the  hero's  epitaph  in  the  chi^>el  of 

chiefs  was  to  cause  much  friction  during  this  trying  the  Ursuline  monastery: — 

period.    Unlike  his  superior,  Montcalm  was  quick  in  Galli  lugentes  deposuerunt  et  generosae  hosUum  fidei 

conception,  fearless,  generous  and  impulsive,  self-  commendarunt. 

reliant  and  decisive  in  action.  Intendant  Bigot's  un-  (The  French  mourned  and  buried  him  and  commended 
scrupulous  dishonesty,  the  apathy  of  the  French  court  him  to  the  enemies'  penerosity). 
for  the  "few  arpents  of  snow",  an  impoverished  col-  ^  Cabgrain,  Montcalm  rf  Uw  (Tours,  1898>;  DouaHrr,  Tht 
ony  an  ill-fed,  iU-cUd  and  badly  provided  armv,  f^^f^Si^'Vln^^t^i^f^'^Zl^?^ 
all  this  enhances  Montcalm  s  heroic  courage  and  faith-  (i909):  Canoidb.  Au  pays  dc  Montcalm  in  La  Noup^Ue-Fmnee 
fulness  to  duty.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  the  skilful,  (1009).  Lionel  Lindsay. 
prudent  and  brave  chevalier  de  L6vis.  The  dispropor- 
tion in  numbers  and  resources  between  the  belligerent  Monte  Oassino,  Abbbt  of,  an  abbey  nuUitu  situ- 
forces  rendered  more  arduous  the  problem  to  be  solved,  ated  about  eighty  miles  south  of  Rome^  the  cradle  of 
Yet  it  was  only  after  a  record  of  three  brilliant  victo-  the  Benedictine  Order.  About  529  St.  Benedict  left 
ries  that  he  was  to  end  his  glorious  career  on  the  Plains  Subiaco,  to  escape  the  persecutions  of  the  Jealous 
of  Abraham.  First  in  order  of  time  comes  the  cap-  priest,  Florentius  (see  Benedict  of  Nubsia,  Saint). 
ture  of  Chouaguen  (Oswego),  an  undertaking  wherein  Accompanied  by  a  chosen  band,  among  them  &ta.  Mau- 
all  the  odds  were  against  the  besiegers.  Overcoming  rus  ana  Placid,  he  journeyed  to  Monte  Cassino,  one  of 
all  diffidence,  Montcalm  succeeded  (14  Aug.,  1756),  the  properties  made  over  to  him  by  Tertullus,  St. 
thereby  winning  the  region  of  Ontario  to  the  domina-  Placid's  father.  The  town  of  Cassmum  (Caaano). 
tioB  01  France,  and  with  a  few  badly  armed  troops  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  had  been  destroyea 
taking  1600  prisoners,  5  flags,  100  ^ns,  at  the  cost  of  bv  the  Goths  some  thirty-five  years  earlier,  but  a  tem- 
only  30  killed  and  wounded.  Attributing  his  success  pie  of  Apollo  still  crowned  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
to  Grod,  he  raised  a  cross  with  the  inscription : ''  In  hoc  tain,  and  the  few  remaininfi;  inhabitants  were  still  sunk 
signo  vincunt."  In  connexion  with  a  later  triumph,  in  idolatry.  Benedict's  first  act  was  to  break  the 
the  capture  of  Fort  William  Henry  (9  Aug.,  1757),  image  of  Apollo  and  destroy  the  altar,  on  the  site  of 
Montcalm  has  been  accused  of  tolerating  the  massacre  which  he  built  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  John  the 
by  the  Indians  of  the  English  prisoners.  Yet,  even  Baptist,  and  an  oratory  in  honour  of  St.  Martin  of 
Bancroft  admits  that  he  exposed  himself  to  death  to  Tours.  Around  the  temple  there  was  an  enclosng^ 
stop  the  savages  infuriated  by  the  rum  given  them  by  wall  with  towers  at  intervals,  the  arx  (citadel)  of  the 
the  English  contrary  to  his  orders.  The  last  and  destroyed  city  of  Cassinum.  In  one  of  these  towers 
greatest  of  Montcalm's  victories,  shared  by  LSvis  and  the  saint  took  up  his  abode,  and  to  this  fact  its  prcser- 
Bourlamaque,  was  at  Carillon  (Ticonderoga),  a  battle  vation  is  due,  for,  while  the  rest  of  the  Roman  arx  has 
whidi  was  to  result  either  in  the  salvation  or  deetruo-  been  destroyed,  this  tower  has  been  carefully  pre- 


MONTI  527  HOHTK 

served  and  eabioaed  in  the  Uter  building.    Outside    Abbot  Deeiderius,  who  ruled  from  1058  until  1087, 
tlie  existiDK  monaatery,  however,  tliere  atill  remaiiiH  a.     when  he  was  elected  pope  under  the  title  of  Victor  III 
conHiderable  part  of  a  tar  more  ancient  enclosure,  vii,      (q.  v.).     Under  this  abbot,  the  most  famous  of  all  the 
a  Cyclopean  wall  some  twenty-AUt  feet  high  and  four-     series  after  St.  Benedict  himself,  the  number  of  monks 
teen  and  a  half  feet  in  thickness,  which  once  ran  down     rose  to  over  two  hundred,  and  the  school  of  copyists 
the  mountain  side  encloBing  a  large  triangular  space     and  mioitLture  painters  became  famous  throughout 
that   contained  the  Casainum  of  pre-Roman  times,     the  West.     The  buildings  of  the  monastery  were  re- 
Once  eatabli^ed  at  Monte  Caaaino,  St.  Benedict  never    constructed  on  a  scale  of  great  magnificence,  artists 
left  it.     There  was  written  the  Rule  whose  influence 
was  to  spread  over  all  Western  monacbism:  there  he 
received  the  visit  of  Totila  in  542,  the  only  date  in  his 
life  of  which  we  have  certain  evidence;  there  he  died, 
and  was  buried  in  one  tomb  with  his  siat«r,  St.  Scho- 
lastics.    After  the  saint's  death,  the  abbey  continued 
to  flourish  luitil  580,  when  it  was  pillaged  and  burned 
by   the  lx>mbards,   the   surviving  monks  fleeing   to 
Iu>me.     Here,  welcomed  by  the  pope,  Pelagius  11,  and 
permitted  to  establish  a  monasteiy  beside  tne  Lateran 
Basilica,   they  remained  for  a  hundred  and   thirty 
years,  during  which  time  Monte  Cassino  seems  not  to 
have  been  entirely  deserted,  though  nothing  like  a 
regiilar  community  existed  there.    To  this  period  alDO 
is   assigned   the  much   discussed   translation   of   St. 
Benedict's  body  to  Fleury  in   France,  the  truth    of 
which  it  seems  almost  impossible  to  doubt.     (See 
Fleury,  Abbey  3f.) 

The  restoration  of  MonteCassino  took  place  in  718, 
when  Abbot  Petronax,  a  native  of  Brescia,  was  en- 
trusted with  this  task  by  Gregory  II.  Aided  by  some 
of  the  monks  from  the  L-ateran  monastery,  Petronax 
restored  the  buildings  at  Monte  Caaaino  and  built  a  being  brought  from  Amalfi,  Lombardy,  and  even  Con- 
new  church  over  the  tomb  of  St.  Benedict.  This  stantiaople  to  supervise  the  various  works.  The  ab- 
na.1  consecrated  in  748  by  Pope  Zachat^  in  person,  bev  church,  rebuilt  and  decorated  with  the  utmost 
who  at  the  same  time  confirmed  all  the  gifts  made  to  splendour,  was  consecrated  in  1071  by  Pope  Alexan- 
the  monastery  and  exempted  it  from  episcopal  iuris-  der  11,  who  was  assisted  by  ten  archbishops,  forty- 
diction.  The  fame  of  the  abbey  at  this  period  was  four  bishops,  and  so  vast  a  crowd  of  princes,  abbots, 
great,  and,  among  the  monks  professed,  may  be  men-  monks,  etc.  that,  the  enthusiastic  chronicler  declarer 
tioned  Carioman,  the  son  of  Charles  Martel,  Rachis,  "it  would  have  been  easier  to  number  the  stars  of 
brother  of  the  great  I^ombard  Duke  Aatolf,  and  Paul  heaven  than  to  count  ao  great  a  multitude."  A  de- 
Wamefrid  (usually  called  Paul  the  Deacon],  the  his-  tailed  account  of  the  abbey  at  this  date  exists  in  the 
torian  of  the  Lombards.     Towards  the  middle  of  the     "Chronica  monasterii  Cassinensie"  of  Leo  of  Ostia 


iiifilh  century  (he  Saracens  overran  this  part  of  Italy  (see  Perti,  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  Scriptores",  VII). 
end  Monte  Casino  did  not  escape.  In  S84  Abbot  From  this  date  a  decline  set  in.  The  unsettled 
Bcrtharius  and  some  of  his  monks  were  killed,  the  rest  condition  of  Italy  and  the  great  strategical  value  61 
fleeing  to  Teano.  Within  two  years  the  restoration  Monte  Caaaino  involved  the  abbey  in  the  constant 
of  Monte  Cassino  was  begun,  but  Teano  retained  the  political  strugglce  of  the  period.  In  1239  the  monks 
were  driven  out  of  their  cloister  by  Frederick  II,  but 
returned  thither  under  Charles  of  Anjou.  In  1294 
Celestine  V  endeavoured  to  unite  Monte  Cassino  to 
his  new  order  of  Celestines  (q.  v.),  but  this  scheme 
collapsed  on  his  abdication  of  the  papacy.  In  1321 
John  XXII  made  the  church  of  Monte  Cassino  a 
cathedral,  the  abbot  becoming  bishop  of  the  newly 
constituted  diocese,  and  his  monks  the  chapter.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  this  was  done  with  the  best  of  in- 
tentions, as  an  additional  honour  to  the  great  abbey; 
in  practice,  however,  it  proved  disastrous.  The 
bishops  of  Monte  Cassino,  nominatod  at  Avignon,  were 
secular  prelates  who  never  visited  the  diocese,  but 
who  appropriated  the  income  of  the  abbey  to  their 
personal  use.  The  number  of  monks  thus  dwindled, 
the  observance  declined,  and  utter  ruin  became  a 
mere  question  of  time.  In  view  of  this  danger  Urban 
V,  who  was  a  Benedictine  monk,  proclumed  himself 
Abbot  of  Monte  Cassino,  collected  monks  from  other 

„        „  „         „  houses  to  reinforce  the  community,  and  in  1370  ap- 

Crom^r.uj..  Aneet  Cm™™.  Mobt.  Ca«i™  pointed  Andrew  of  Faenia,  a  Camaldolese,  as  superior. 

The  revival,  however,  was  short-lived;  in  1454  the 

, ^ ^ systemof  commendatory  abbots  was  reintroduced  and 

St.  Benedict's  Rule,  which  had  been  preserved  till  now  lasted  until  1504,  when  Julius  II  united  Monte  Cas- 
through  all  the  viciHsiludes  of  the  community's  exist-  sino  to  the  recently  established  Congr^ation  of  St. 
ence,  periAed  in  a  fire  durinjt  the  stay  at  Teano.  The  Justina  of  Padua  (see  Benedictines),  which  waa 
high  state  of  discipline  at  Monte  Cassino  about  this  thenceforth  known  as  the  Cassinese  Congregation. 
lime  is  vouched  for  by  St,  Nilu.i,  who  visited  it  in  the  In  1799  the  abbey  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the 
latter  half  of  the  tenth  century  and  again  by  St.  Odilo  French  troops  who  had  invaded  the  Kingdom  of 
of  Cluny  some  fifty  jears  later.  The  abbey's  rcputa-  Naples,  and  m  1866  the  monastery  was  suppressed  in 
tion  reached  its  semth,  however,  during  the  reign  of    common  with  all  other  Italian  leUfcious  houses.    At 


MOMtlfSLIftO  528  MOMTtftLTBO 

the  present  day  Monte  Caaano  is  the  property  of  tains  MDMb  1400  manuscript  oodioes  chiefly  patristic 

the  Italian  Government,  which  has  declared  it  a  and  historical,  many  of  which  are  of  the  greatest 

national  monumentj  the  abbot,  however,  is  recog-  value.    The  ubraiy  contains  a  fine  ooUection  of 

aized  as  Guardian  m  view  of  his  administration  of  modem  texts  and  appartUiu  criUeus,  which  is  always 

the  diocese.     The  reigning  abbot  is  Dom  Gregono  most  courteously  put  at  the  disposal  of  schc^an  who 

Diamare  (elected  1900):  the  community  (1909)  con-  come  to  woric  on  the  manuscripts.     When  the  abbey 

sists  of  thirtyHseven  cnoir  monks  and  thirty  lay  was  declared  a  national  monument,  orders  were  giv^ 

brothers.    The  vast  buildings  contain,  besides  the  to  transport  the  whole  collection  oi  manuscripts  to 

monastery,  a  lay  school  with  126  boarders  and  two  the  National  library  at  Naples;  but,  owing  to  the 

seminaries,  one  open  to  aU  and  the  other  reserved  for  personal  intercession  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  then  Prime 

the  Diocese  of  Monte  Cassino  with  76  and  50  pupils  Minister  of  En^and,  the  ozder  was  reversed,  and  in- 

respectively.    In  the  management  of  these  institu-  stead  on?  of  the  community  was  appointed  as  Archi- 

tions  the  monks  are  assisted  by  a  number  of  secular  vist  with  a  salary  from  ^e  Government,  an  arrange- 

priests.  ment  which  still  continues. 

The  present  buildings  form  a  vast  rectangular  pile        The  Diocese  of  Monte  Casmno  includes  most  of  the 

externally  more  massive  than  beautiful.    The  ancient  Abruui,  and  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  Italy.    It 

tower  of  St.  Benedict,  now  a  series  of  chapels  elabo-  was  formed  by  uniting  seven  ancient  dioceses,  a  fact 

rately  decorated  by  monastic  artists  of  tne  Beuron  which  is  borne  in  mindby  the  interesting  custom  that, 

school,  is  the  only  portion  dating  back  to  the  foundar  when  the  abbot  sings  pontifical  High  Mass,  he  uses 

tion  of  the  abbey.    The  entrance  gate  leads  to  three  seven  different  precious  mitres  in  succession.     As  or- 

square  court-yards  opening  out  of  one  another  with  dinarv  the  abbot  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See, 

arcades  in  the  Doric  order.    These  date  from  1515  and  the  choir  monks  take  rank  as  the  chapter  of  the 

and  are  attributed,  on  somewhat  slight  evidence,  to  diocese,  of  which  the  abbatial  basilica  of  Monte  Cas- 

Bramante.    From  the  middle  court-yard  an  immense  sino  is  the  cathedral.    The  conferring  of  sacred  orders, 

flight  of  steps  leads  to  the  atrium  or  forecourt  of  blessiag  of  Holy  Oils,  and  administration  of  Uie  Sacra- 

the  basilica.     This  quadrangle  has  an  arcade  sup-  ment  of  Confirmation  are  the  only  pontifical  functions 

ported  by  ancient  columns  taken  from  the  basilica  which  the  abbot  does  not  exercise.    The  vicaz^-general 

of  Abbot  Desiderius,  and  probably  once  in  the  de-  is  usually  one  of  the  conmmunity. 

stroyed  temple  of  Apollo  on  the  site  of  which  the  ^i*^^^  5?**'»«~"/?.J*"^*!.^(?*-.^T!^  f^*^*r *?^"'^.vI5' 

present    church    stands.     The    exiStll^    church,    the  Maroajukub.  fluttanCwtn.  (2  vols.,  Venice.  1650);  AjSeujco! 

fourth  to  occupy  the  site,  is  from  the  designs  of  COSI-  BM.  Bfnedidino-CasinensiM  (AniA.  1732);  GROaai«  I^a  SemUa  t 

mo  Fansaga.    It  was  begun  in  1049,  and  was  conse-  ^,f*'*g'«!?^.<iv^<»^  ^?*«*??  ^^•P*S^  ^^L.2?*^'  ^**^ 

crat^  in  1727  by  Benedict  XIII.    In  ri^ess  of  ?&fSf^*  i^^r^c::.^!!  T^^^^ 

marbles,   the  mtenor  is  said   to   be   surpassed   only  DetenptUm  .  ,  .  du  Mont  Canin  (Monta  Caanno,  1874);  iDui, 

by  the  CertOSa  at   Pavia,  and   the  first  impression  |f«»*  Ca»nn  ei  U  XIV-  eentenaire  d^SL  BenoU  (PaJis,  IffiO); 

is  certamly  one  of  astonishing  magnificence.     On  d««o  (Monte  Camno,  1880);  cJwb,  L«t  orwtm  fttfiOdiefiiui 

closer  inspection,  however,  the  style  is  found  to  be  (Paris,  1899);  Uohelxj. /<ai«i  &ura^I  (Venice,  1647),  1027-35; 

somewhat  decadent,  especially  in  the  plasterwork  of  toNoraLLow  in  AOanUe  Motufdy^Jaxv  (1875).  isi;  Bra- 

*u«  M^;i:««.    .n^un^  ♦u«.  ^«^».«,tL..<.  ^m^r^.^^i^w^  *vf  :««l«;yl  nakoi,  Lorcn»»io  « lo  «W»o£A«ob  o»  AT,  C.  (Mont©  Cfeaaano.  1872); 

the  ceihng.  while  the  enormous  profusion  of  mlaid  x)irf.  ie*  Mss,,  II  (Micne.  1853).  923-52;  SpieiUaium  cisM^ 

marble  and  gilding  produces  a  slightly  restless  effect.  (Monte  Caasino.   1893^):    Pucicblu-Taeoqi,   La   paUognM 

Still  it  is  undoubtedly  the  finest  example  of  Floren-  ortiuiea  di  M,  C.  (6  vola.,  Mont«  Casino.  1878^). 
tine  mosaic  work  in  Europe,  and  the  ^neral  colour  O*  IvOgbr  Hudubston. 

scheme  is  excellent.    The  church  is  cruciform  in  plan,        Montafdtro,  Diocese  of    (Ferbtrana).  in  tiie 

with  a  dome  at  the  crossing,  beneath  which  is  the  high  wovince  of  Urbino,  in  the  Marches,  Central  Italy, 

altar.    Behind  this  altar  is  the  choir  with  its  ekbo-  ^e  earliest  mention  of  it,  as  Mons  Feretri,  is  in  the 


relics  of  the  saint  now  remain  there.    This  chapel  has  j^  1135^  and  Counts  of  Urbino  in  1213.     Their  rule 

recently  been  decorated  with  mosaics  from  designs  by  was  interrupted  from  1322  to  1375,  when  Ederigo  I  of 

artists  of  the  Beuron  school,  the  seventy  of  which  con-  Montefeltro  amd  Urbino  lost  possession  of  the  city, 

traats  markedly  with  the  slightly  Rococo  paintings  by  This  prince  and  his  successors  made  several  attempts 

Luca  Giordano  m  the  church  above.    The  sacnsty  to  recover  Montefeltro,  from  which  Cardinal  Albomoi 

contains  the  ancient  pavement  of  opu8  alexandnnum,  (1359)  again  expelled  them  in  the  person  of  Nolfo. 

which  was  formerly  in  the  basilica  of  Abbot  Desiderius.  The  elder  Guido  of  Montefeltro,  a  famous  GhibeUine 

In  the  left  transept  is  the  monument  of  Pietro  di  captain,  finally  became  a  Franciscan,  and  died  in  1298. 

Medici,  son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and  brother  The  first  known  bishop  of  Montefeltro  was  Agatho 

of  Leo  X.    This  tomb,  which  is  by  the  creat  archi-  (826),  whose  residence  was  at  San  Leo:  other  bishops 

tect  Antomo  di  Sangallo,  is  unquestionably  the  most  were  Valentino  (1173),  who  finished  the  cathedral; 

beautiful  and  dignified  work  in  the  whole  building.  Benvenuto  (1219),  deposed  as  a  partisan  of  Count 

The  great  west  door,  a  bronae  piece  of  the  twelfth  Ederigo;  Benedetto    (1390),   a   Benedictine   monk, 

century.  IS  engray^  with  ^e  names  of  all  the  parishes  rector  of  Romagna  and  Duke  of  Spoleto:  the  Fran- 

m  the  Diocese  of  Monte  Cassino.    The  kitchens  are  ciscan  Giovanni  Seclani  (1413),  who  built  the  epifr 

approached  from  the  ground-floor  by  a  long  covered  copal  palace  of  Calamello;  Cardinal  Ennio  Filonardi 

parage  on  an  incUned  plane,  large  enough  for  two  (1549);  Giovanni  Francesco  Sarmani  (1667),  founder 

mules  laden  with  provisions  to  pass.    This  .cunous  of  the  seminary  of  Pennabilli,  thenceforth  residence  of 

structure  dates  from  the  twelfth  century  and  is  ht  by  the  bishops,  the  episcopal  see  havmg  been  transferred 

an  exquisite  marble  windowof  four  arches  in  the  style  to  that  town  from  San  Leo,  an  important  fortress  of 

known  as  Cosmatesque.    The  buildmgs  as  a  whole  the  Pontifical  States.    Under  Bishop  Flaminios  Dondi 

produce  an  efifect  of  great  dignity  and  magnificence,  (1724)  the  see  was  again  transferred  to  San  Leo,  but 

all  the  more  unexpected  from  the  inaccessible  posi-  later  it  returned  to  Pennabilli.    This  diocese  is  suffra- 

tion  of  the  monastery  and  the  extreme  severity  of  the  gan  of  Urbino,  and  has  120  parishes,  173  secular 

exterior.    The  view  from  the  "Loggia  del  Paradiso"  prieste,  30  regulars,  60,350  CathoHcs.  91  religioua 

or  forecourt,  is  one  of  the  most  famous  m  Southom  houses  of  men,  9  of  women,  2  educational  instituted 

Italy.  for  male  students,  and  3  for  girls. 

The  arehives  (arckmum).  beddes  a  vast  numhAr  nf  CAPPSLLnn,  L§  cAmm  d^ltaiia.  III  (V«nioe,  1S57). 

documents  relating  to  the  nistory  of  the  ab^  U*  Bszaom. 


MONTXnUCOHl  5^ 

BSontoflftieon*,  Diocbbb  of  <Montib  Faubci),  in 
the  province  of  Rome,    like  city  is  attuated  nearly 
2000  feet  ibove  seBr-levei,  on  a  tuf&  maaa  thftt  ovsr- 
loolu  the  Lake  of  Bolsena;  it  is  famoui  for  its  wine. 
The  town  is  of  Etruscan  origin  and  was  called  Falis- 
codunum.    Some  believe  that  it  is  the  ancient  Fanum 
Voltumiue.    For  the  Faliacana,   and  later  for  the 
popes,   it  was  a.  most  important  strategic  position; 
GrEsory  IX  fortified  it  in   1235  against  Fredericic 
II,  nut  the  town  surrendered  to  that  prince  in  1240, 
and  thenceforth  never  regained  its  earher  importance. 
The  castle,  now  in  ruins,  was  restored  by  Leo  X.    The 
cathedr&1iatheworkof8amnucheli(I51Q).  Out«dethe 
city,  on  the  road  to  Bolaena,  is  the  famous  double  ba- 
silica of  San  Flaviano,  the  lower  portion  of  which  dates 
from  1030,  while  the  upper  ba^ica,  dating  from  1262, 
prcaeDt«  the  ial«re8ting  feature  of  alternating  ogiv« 
and  round  arches.     There  alao  is  the  tomb  of  that  fa- 
mous drinker  whom 
the  wine  of  Monte- 
fiascone  brought   to 
his  death  (Est,  Est, 
Ket),  and  who,  con- 
trary to  report,  was 
neither  a  canon  nor 
one  of    the  Fugger 
family  of  Augsburg. 


Mo 


I  the 


gnorea,  was  mode  an 

episcopal  see  in  1369; 

ita   first  bishop  was 

the  French  Augustio- 

ian  Pierre  d'Anguis- 

ceQ  (1376),  a  ^artj- 

■an  of  the  antipope 

Clement    VII.      In  Pauo  of  ns  Puhci 

1435    the    see    was 

united  with  that  of  Corneto,  and  so  remained  until, 

in  1854,  Corneto    became    a  part  of  the  Diocese  of 

Civitavecchia. 

Among  iU  bishops  were  Alessandro  Fameae  (1499), 
later  Paul  III;  the  two  brothers  and  cardinals  Paolo 
Enulio  Zacchia  (1601)  and  Ludovico  Zacchia  (1605), 
both  of  whom  did  much  for  the  building  of  the  cathe- 
dral; Cardinal  Paluzio  Albertoni  Altieri  (1666), 
founder  of  the  seminary  and  restorer  of  the  cathedral, 
which  was  damaged  by  a  fire  in  1670;  the  learned  cai^ 
dinal  M,  Antonio  Barbarigo  (16S7),  who  was  trana- 
fened  later  to  Padua;  he  gave  great  assistance  after 
the  earthquake  of  1695;  Cardinal  Pompeo  Aldobran- 
dini  (1734)_;  the  learned  Giuseppe  Garampi  (1776), 
who  gave  it«  libra^  to  the  seminary,  and  Cardinal 
Giovanni  Sifredo  Nlamy  (1794);  the  attitude  of  this 
prelate  towards  Napoleon  was  not  imitated  by  his 
clergy,  who  therefore  suffered  imprisonment  and  exile. 
The  diocese  is  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See;  it 
contuns  18  polishes,  74  secular  priests,  21  regulars, 
26,147  inbabitonto,  3  religious  houses  of  men,  14  of 
women,  and  3  convent  schools  for  girls. 

Cirri LI-aTT],  U  CAi™  d'llalia  (Vemee.  IgST);  db  Ahobui, 
(?iywunm7iiario  Horieo-crUico  fu  roriffiru  e  U  vicende  di  Monttflateont 
t,  1841). 

U.  Benioni. 


9  MONTEHSailO 

novel  "Ia  Diana",  published,  according  to  commfttl 
report,  at  Valencia,  m  1542,  but  thought  by  others, 
from  allusions  in  the  work  itself,  to  have  been  pub- 
lished  after  1554,  probably  in  1558  or  1559.  This 
book,  which  for  a  lon^  time  served  as  a  model  tor 
novels  of  its  kind,  is  written  in  good  Spanish,  and  in  it 
the  author  describes  certain  incidents  in  his  own  life, 
among  others  an  unfortunate  love  aff^.  The  por- 
tions written  in  verae  are  not  as  meritorious  as  those 
written  in  prose.  The  author  promisee  a  sequel 
which  never  appeared.  Three  otner  "Dianas"  ap- 
peared, however,  which  purported  (o  be  continuations 
of  Montemayor's.  One  by  Alonro  Perei,  a  physician 
of  Salamanca,  who  claimed  that  Montemayor  had  en- 
trusted to  him  his  plans  for  finishing  the  wori(,  aj^ 
peared  in  1564  and  was  a  failure.    The  two  otbeis,  by 


The  "Diana"  ei^ 
joyed  great  popular- 
ity and  led  to  many 
imitations  by  famous 
authors,  notably  "La 
Arcadia"  of  Lope  de 
Vega,  and  "La  Ga- 
latea" of  Cervantes, 
and  it  is  said  thai 
Shakespeare  based 
his  "Two  Gentlemai 
of  Verona"  upon  an 

Diana".  It  went 
through  many  edi- 
tions Both  in  and  out 
of  Spain.  There  are 
mi  French,  two  Ger- 
man, and  one  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the 
book,  the  latter  the 
work  of  Bartholo- 
mew Young  (Lon- 
don, 1598).  Man- 
tcmavor  has  also  left  a  number  of  lyric  poems,  pub- 
lished in  1554  under  the  title  of  "Cancionero",  and 
reprinted  in  1562,  1572,  and  1588.  These  are  also 
written  in  Spanish,  but  are  not  of  any  particular 


CniNJE,  MONTCHBOW) 


Bmu  Hupanfou  (Puu,  ISSS);  FrmuDiucB-Ki 

•V  ef  SBiiniili  UltnUun  (New  York.  IBOe);  Ticx 
■S  0/  SjaHith  LUtralurt  (Bo  "        


4  Hif 


,  _r  (MontehAb),  Jorqb  db,  writer,  b. 

at  MontonAr,  province  of  Counbra,  Portugal,  about 
1520;  d.  at  Turn,  26  F^ruary,  1561.  Although  of 
Portu^OMe  birth,  Montemayor  occupies  a  proounent 


was  not  a  man  of  university  training,  being  not  evoi 
iuaint«d  with  I«tin. 

e  work  which  has  ipven  him  fame  is  his  pastoral 
X.— 34 


The 


Ventura  Ftjentbb. 

Hontutegro,  a  kii^om  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea;  the  t«rritoTy 
was  in  ancient  times  a  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Dalmatia.  Emperor  Diocletian  made  Southern  Dal- 
matia  a  separate  province,  Pnevalis  (Dioclea,  Dio- 
clitia)  with  Dioclea  as  its  capital.  From  the  seventh 
century  the  north-western  portion  of  the  l>eninsula 
began  to  be  invaded  by  Slav  tribes;  one  of  these,  the 
8m>B,  settled  in  the  territory  whicli  they  still  possess, 
and  founded  there  several  principalities  (Zupanaie), 
the  most  southern  of  which  wascolled  Zeta,  or  (after 


Servian  Empire  attained  its  greatest  power  (see 
Servia).  Stefan  I  Nemanja  was  recognized  as 
Chief  Zupan  by  Emperor  Manuel  I,  in  11^- having 
reduced  mto  submission  the  stubborn  lesser  Zupans, 
he  embraced  the  Orthodox  Faith,  and  then  began  to 
oi^anise  the  Servian  Church.  His  youngest  son, 
SawB,  or  Sabas,  after  being  appointed  first  Orthodox 
Archbishop  of  Servia  in  1221,  founded  a  see  for  Zeta 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Michael  near  Cattaro.  In  the 
Empire  of  the  Serbs,  each  hdr  apparent  to  the  throne 
was  first  appointed  administrator  of  the  Province  of 
Zeta.  However,  under  King  Stefan  DuSan  (1331-55) 
""-of  the Balsmoi family  was  Darned  Governor 


IIOHTIHIOBO                         530  KOMTENBaRO 

oTZeU.  Prom  1360  to  1421  this  f&mil^  ruled  in  Zeta,  with  tLe  mgn  of  Vladika  Petex  I  Petrori^  (1777- 
ootwithstanding  the  conatant  opposition  of  the  Cer-  1830),  who  repelled  unaided  s  Rerce  attack  of  the 
Dojevid  family,  settled  in  Upper  Zeta.  On  the  de-  Turks  In  1706  and  rendered  valuable  aid  to  the  Huo- 
Btniction  cd  Uie  Great  Servian  Empire  by  the  Turka  mans  against  the  French  during  the  Napoleonic  wan. 
after  the  battle  of  Amsfeld  in  1380  Zeta  became  the  Because  of  his  glorious  reign,  Peter  was  proclaimed 
refuge  of  the  meet  valiant  of  the  SertM,  who  refused  to  a  salat  by  the  people  in  1834.  He  was  Huc«ceded  by 
submit  to  the  Turkish  ydce.  Pet«r  II  Petnivii!  (1830-51),  who  was  educated  at 
At  die  beojnning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  Ve-  St.  Petersburg :  tliiB  momkrch,  who  was  a  diBtinguished 
DeUans  eatsAtiahed  a  settlement  on  the  eastern  coast  poet,  rendered  valuable  services  to  his  country  by 
of  the  Adriatic,  and  conquered  a  portion  of  the  Ser-  raising  its  intellectual  and  commerdal  condition, 
nan  Empire  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  people.  Having  abolished  the  oSioe  of  governor,  which  had 
Aa  TBSBal  of  the  Venetians,  Iwan  Ccmojew)6,  the  son  been  too  frequently  the  occasion  of  strife,  be  took  into 
of  8t«fan  (brother-in-law  of  Skanderbeg),  secured  for  hie  own  hands  the  secular  adminietratiou,  founded 
himself  sovereign  authority.  He  founded  the  mon-  schools,  instituted  a  aystem  of  taxation,  organised 
astety  of  Cetinje  about  1478  or  148S.  It  was  dur-  a  Kuard  as  the  nucleus  of  a  standing  army,  and  es- 
Ing  tnis  period  that  the  land  received  the  name  of  tablished  a  senate  of  twelve  membeis.  His  successor 
Cmagora,  or  Montenegro.  Under  Iwan's  son,  George  and  nephew,  Donilo  (1851-60),  changed  Mont«n^TO 
(1490 — ),  the  firat  Slav  liturpcal  books  were  printed  into  a  secular  state,  dispensed  with  episcopal  conse- 
at  Obod  (1493-5).  In  1516  he  abdicated  and  the  oration,  and  undertook  the  adminietration  aa  a 
people  invested  ths  bishop  (vladika),  who  was  also  secular  prince.  At  a  national  assembly  held  at 
superior  of  the  mon-  Cetinje  on  21 
astery  at  Cetinje,  March,  1852,  the 
with  supreme  secular  separation  ot  the 
authority.  Subee-  spiritual  and  secular 
quently  the  bishop,  powers  of  the  vladika 
who  until  1697  wu  was  decreed,  and  the 
always  chosen  by  the  supreme  eccledasti- 
National  Assembly,  cat  authority  en- 
was  both  spiritual  trusted  to  the  archi- 
and  temporal  ruler  mandriteofthamon- 
of  the  Ettle  state,  astery  of  Oatrog.  In 
althouf^  he  named  the  same  year  Russa 
a  secular  governor  and  Austria  recog- 
to  conduct  war  and  nised  Montenegro 
adminiater  justice.  aa  an  hereditary, 
The  Turks  made  re-  secular,  and  tndepen- 
peated  attacks  dur-  dent  state.  The 
tug  the  fifteenth  cen-  Porte,  however, 
tury  on  the  freedom  which  still  regarded 
(rf  the  mountain  the  country  as  "a 
kingdom.  The  Moo-  portion   of   its    Ra- 

ten^prins,    notwith-  jaha  tei ='-■  =- 

standing  their  heroio  revolt", 
opposition,  were  fi-  recognition  and  sent 
nally  fcnroed  to  make  n*ti™*i.  Cc»rni««,  Cim»«.  MoB™™ao  mi  ejtpedition  of  60,- 
tharsabnusBioa,aad  000  men  against  it. 
from  about  1530  had  to  p^  tribute  to  the  Sanjak  Whenthelandseemedabouttobeoverwhelmedbysuch 
of  Scutari.  In  domestic  asairs,  however,  they  re-  huge  forces,  Austria  interfered  in  its  behalfjjandoom- 
mafned  independent,  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  peiled  the  Porte  to  discontinue  the  war.  The  politi- 
Porte  waa  mostly  of  a  purely  nominal  character,  eal  position  of  the  land,  however,  remaned  still 
Frequently  the  little  nation,  which  (according  to  the  undefined.  In  1868.  when  the  Turks  attacked  Monte- 
description  of  the  Italian  Mariano  BoUsia  in  1611)  negro  without  any  declaration  of  hostilities,  the  Euro- 
then  contained  00  settlements  and  8027  armed  men.  pean  Great  Poweis,  especially  France  and  Russia, 
engaged  in  war  with  the  Turks,  being  oft«n  aasiBtea  came  forward  aa  ite  protectois,  and  a  commismon  of 
with  money  and  arms  by  the  Venetiana.  the  Powers  fined  the  frontiers  of  the  country,  whose 

In  1696  Danilo  Petrovid,  of  the  Nj^oifamily,was  territory  was  increased  by  a  few  diatricts. 

elected  vladika,  and  made  the  epiacopaldignity  nered-  In  1S60  Dantlo  was  shot  by  a  Montenegrin  deserter, 

itary  in  hia  houae,  the  vladika,  who  as  bishop  could  and,  as  he  left  behind  only  a  daughter  two  years  old, 

not  marry,  being  succeeded  on  hia  death  bj^  hia  hia  widow  secured  on  14  Au^at,  1860,  the  election  of 

nephew  or  brother.     As  prince  of  a  nation  recognizing  the   youngest   son    ot    Danilo'a    brother,    who    still 

the  Orthodox  Church,  DaniJo  inaugurated  closer  rela-  reigns.     Montenegro's  participation  in  the  insurreo- 

tions  with  Eussia,  which  held  the  same  religious  bebefe,  tion  of  Heriegovina  led  in  1862  toa  war  with  Turkey, 

and  Pe(«r  the  Great  undertook  the  protectorate  of  during  which  the  Turks  invaded  the  land  and  occu- 

Montenegro  in  1710-      Since  that  date  the  Montene-  pied  Cetinje.     The  Peace  of  Scutari  conceded  to  the 

grins  have  always  shown  themselves  the  faithful  allies  Turks  various  fortressea  along  the  road  leading  from 

of  Runs  in  its  wars  asunst  the  Turks,  although  at  HcrzEsovina   through    Monten^o   to   Scutari.     In 

the  end  of  these  ware  Ihey  usually  reaped  no  advan-  1S70,  however,  the  Porte  aurrendered  its  right  to  oo- 

tages.    The  Rusaiana,  however,  often  made  large  con-  cupy  these  fortresses.    In  1875,  when  the  insurrection 

fjibutions  of  money  to  tb«r  poor  allies:  in  1714  Peter  occurred  in  Bosnia,  Nikita,  who  controlled  an  army 

I  contributed  10,000  rubles  towards  the  relief  of  those  of  15.000  well-armed  troo^,  formed  an  alliance  with 

whoee  property  had  been  burnt  and  for  the  rebuilding  the  Boanians  against  the  Turks,  and  prosecuted  the 

at  the  destroyed  monasteriee;  in  1715  he  asmgned  an  war  wilh  success  until  1878.     Not  only  did  he  repel 

»Timial  contribution  of  500  rubles  and  other  presents  all  the  Turkish  attacks,  but  he  even  auccceded  in 

to  the  monastery  of  Cetinje;  and  in  1837  Emperor  capturing   Antivari    (tbua   securing   a '  .ktn^-thnirad 

Nicholas  I  aamgned  to  the  prince  a  fixed  annual  in-  maritime  outlet  for  his  country)  andDnloigaein'1878. 

oome  of  9000  ducata.  At  the  Congress  of  Berlin  Turkey  racogniMd-  At 

Tha  most  pioaperoua  era  of  Montenegro  opened  politioalindependenoeof  Montenegro  (13  MtvI^S^i 


MOMTB  5: 

the  territory  of  which  was  now  more  than  doubled. 
According  to  Article  29  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  how- 
ever, MoDten^ra  might  neither  keep  shipe  of  war, 
nor  fortify  the  coast,  and  was  obliged  to  reoogniie  Uie 
right  of  Austria  to  police  the  coast.  It  was  onlv  in 
1909  that  the  country  secured  a.  releaae  from  these 
conditions.  When  Austria-Hungary  annexed  Bosnia 
and  HeraesDvina  in  October,  1908,  and  thereby  an- 
nihilated the  dreams  of  Montenegro  and  Servia  of  a 
United  Servian  Empire,  Montenegro  protested  in 
common  with  Servia  and,  encouraged  by  Russia, 
demanded  from  Austria  the  annulment  of  Article20 
of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  and  the  evacuation  of  Spiua. 
In  April,  1909,  Austria  agreed  to  the  abrogation  of 
Article  29,  but  refused  to  surrender  Spissa,  and  se- 
cured the  retention  of  that  portion  of  the  Berlin 
Treaty^  which  forbade  the  transformation  of  An- 
tivari  into  a  naval  station.  In  190S  Nikita  granted 
ihe  country  a  constitution  and  a  national  assembl/ 
elected  by  popular  suffrage.  Although  the  economi- 
;al  resources  of  the  land  are  small,  and  its  cultural 
^onditions,  notwithstanding  the  great  progress  made 
n  the  last  fiftj[  yeaie,  leave  much  to  be  desired,  it 
>ccupies  a  position  of  increased  condderation  and 
mportance  with  regard  to  the  Balkan  politics  of  the 
i]uropean  powers  on  account  of  the  ability  of  its  ruler 
md  Its  intimate  relations  with  Rusda,  Italy,  and 
fervia.  In  1900  Prince  Nikita  received  the  title  of 
iioyal  Highness,  and  in  August,  1910,  with  the  con- 
sent of  all  the  powers  he  had  himself  crowned  king. 
>n  that  occasion  Russia  gave  expression  to  the  an- 
cient friendship  existiag  between  the  countries  by 
laming  the  new  king  General  Field-Marshal,  the  heir- 
tpparent  Major  General,  and  Prince  Mirleo  Lieuten* 
mt  Colonel  of  the  Russian  Army. 

hlonten^ro  has  an  area  of  3030  sq.  miles  and  a  pop- 
ilation  of  250,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  the  great  m»- 
ority  are  of  unmixed  Serb  stock.  About  223,500 
iclong  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church;  12,900  are 
i^atholics  (mostly  Albanians),  and  about  14,000  are 
VIohaminedanB.  The  capital  is  Cettnje.  The  earlier 
ilenary  power  of  the  prince  has  not  been  substantially 
essenedoy  the  Constitution  of  6  (19)  December,  1906. 
The  Boembero  of  the  popular  assembly  (Skupschtina) 
\ie  elected  by  jiuhUc  direct  suffrage  ever^  four  years; 
be  assembly  includes  twelve  ex-officio  members, 
LmooK  whom  are  the  Orthodox  metropoUtan,  the 
!;atholic  Archbishop  of  Antivari,  the  Mufti  of  Mon- 
pocgro,  the  president  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Jue- 
ice,  etc.  The  state  rclipon  is  the  Greek  Orthodox; 
>11  other  religious  bodies  recognised  by  the  State  are  at 
iberty  to  practice  their  religion,  but  every  attempt  on 
heir  part  to  gain  converts  from  among  the  Orthodox 
i  forbidden.  The  Orthodox  Church  of  Montenegro 
9  autocephalous,  i.  c,  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of 
^nstantinople;  its  spiritual  head,  who  bears  the  titles 
<f  Metropolitan  of  Skanderia  and  Parathalassia,  Arch- 
Fishop  of  Tsetinia,  etc,,  is  chosen  by  the  National  A»- 
embly  from  the  ranks  of  the  native  unmarried  secular 
lergy  or  monks,  and  is  consecrated  by  the  Russian 
loly  Synod  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  resides  at  the  mon- 
.•rtery  of  St.  Peter  at  Cetinje.  In  1877  a  second  see, 
hat  of  Brda  and  Ostrog,  was  erected.  The  proto* 
iresbyteratee  number  17,  and  the  parishes  about  160. 
rhe  priestly  office  is  as  a  rule  hereditary,  ance  each 
irieat  trains  his  son  for  the  priesthood:  the  oCGce  of 
irotopreebyter  is  similarly  in  the  possession  of  certain 
aroilies. 

Since  the  convention  between  the  Holy  See  and  the 
'riace  of  Montenegro  of  IS  August  (ratified  8  Octo- 
4er),  1886,  the  CathoUc  Church  enjoys  the  official 
ecognition  of  the  Stal«.  Its  head  is  the  Archbishop 
<f  Antivari,  who  is  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
lee.  There  are  13  secular  priests,  10  regular  priests, 
'7  churches  and  chapels,  and  eleven  elementary 
chools.  The  number  of  oarishes  is  thirteen,  but  a 
aw  recently  passed  by  the  Skupschtina,  in  contraven- 


tion of  the  Convention  and  without  consulting  the 
Roman  authorities,  reduced  the  number  to  seven. 
The  archiepiscopal  see  is  at  present  (1910)  vacant,  its 
administration  Dong  carried  on  by  Don  Metodio 
O.S.F.  Negotiations  concerning  the  filling  of  the  sea 
and  the  alteration  of  the  Convention  are  being  carried 
on  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Montenegrin  Gov 
enunent  (1910). 

Tba  suUar  UtRmtitn  will  b*  fooad  In  VAUirmiaLU.  BiUia- 
anAa  dtBa  Dalmalia  •  dtl  UaiiUiuaro  (Zaaifaiu,  lUEj  8uppl»- 


m  Fartltntamt  Ucnttatgn 


,irieau.  18S3):    LxHOuUNT,  Piiki  i(  JfunUiifariM 

(Pmru.  ISM):  DairroH,  JVonMnivra,  iU  Pwvf^  and  Hitters  (Los- 
dpB.lB77);  CoilTmlA.SlHiadcl  Jfinffluradh-tmpianlKAi^ 

ein(Livonio,  IBW);  iSjkCSwuii 

nJffra  il  la  SaintSiir-  '" ' 

VtraaittfJ-^  i-da 

ScsWAiu,  AfoKtofuvw  (Leipng,  xoooii  nAovBHr,  l-_-.-  -_ 
pA|»Mb«>  OitBnpkit  mh  IfmlauenSOothM.  ISSS),  with  lubUof 
nptiy:  MitrTan,  II  ttimlntare  (Rome,  IB97):  Wton  ams 
PmwcK,  Tht  LamI  ofUu  BlatJi  Maunlain  (Loadoo,  1903);  Pa» 

"-■ —    -  vixl  Mani.  (La^idc.  lOM)  i    Jf«iiM>uro  und 

«  liuHoTZa  coniMwuwdS  JTanl. 


ws.  ISSS):    Hasurt,  BrISrsot  rar 


Honto  Ollreto  Uagglon. 


JOBIPH  LlKB. 

See  OuvcTANa. 


Montapuldaiui,  Diocbbb  of  (Montis  PolitianiJ, 
in  the  province  of  Siena,  in  Tuseanv  The  city  ia 
built  on  the  Hummit  of  Monte  Poliiioao.    It  is  the  ' 


pAuno  PusBuco.  MoHnrDLcuica 
XrVCmtury 

ancient  Etruscan  city  of  Nocera  Alfatema,  which  ia 
308  B.  C.  made  an  alliance  with  Rome  against  the 
Samnites.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  acknowledged  the 
suzeraintv  of  Florence,  but  was  conquered  by  Siena  in 
1260.  The  cathedral  was  built  m  161S,  from  plans  bv 
Scalso;  until  the  eighteenth  century  it  held  tlie  tomo 
of  Bartolomeo  Arragasii,  secretary  of  Martin  V,  a 
work  of  MicheloiEo.  The  church  of  the  Madonna  lU 
San  Biagio  is  a  notable  structure  planned  by  Antonio 
da  SangaUo  (1618-^7).     The  faQftdes  of  the  cfauioh  of 


532 


Saint  AgOBtiao  and  of  the  Oratorio  della  MisericordiA  lished  were  retMned,  and  thus  it  is  that  bo  rnanr  of  tim 

are  worthv  of  mention.    Among  the  civic  buildings  towns,  rivers,  and  mountAins  still  bear  the  nsiofa  d 

are  notable  the  Tanigi  palace,  lilce  the  Mercato  a  various  SEunts.    The  mo«t  noted  among  the  eaii;  mia- 

woricofHgDola;  the  Contucci  palace  designed  by  San-  sionariee  were  the  holy  and  energetic  Fr.  Junfpero 

gallo,  and  the  fourteenth-century  FaJaHO  Municipale,  Sena,  the  founder  of  the  miniooB;  Fr.  F^«iiciBeo  Pa- 

wluch  contiuns  a  small  gallery  of  Steneae  and  of  Uta-  I6u,  bis  biographer  and  the  historian  of  the  ewly  nus- 

brian  art.     The  most  famous  men  of  Montepulciano  sionary  penod;  Fr.  Fennin  de  Lasuen,  the  wise  and 

are  Catdinal  Bellarmine,  Pope  Marcellus  II,  Cervini,  firm  successor  of  Fr.  Serra;  Fr.  Luis  Jayme,  the  Erst 

Angelo  Arobrogini,  better  known  as  Poliiiano  (1454-  martyr;  Fr.  Juan  Crespi,  one  of  the  diBCOverere  of  San 

14M),  and  the  humanist  Bartolomeo  of  Montepul-  FVancisco  and  Monterey  Bays  and  author  of  a  lenph; 

dano.     St.  Agnes  of  Montepulciano  died  in  1137.  description  of  the  expedition;  Fr.  Buenaventurs  Sit- 

The  city  belonged  originally  to  the  Dioceae  of  jar,  author  of  a  dictionary  of  the  Telame  lacguac^ 

Arexio,  and  had  a  collegiate  church,  whose  archprieat  (New  York,  1861);  Fr.  Geronimo  BoBcana,  author  of 

became  a  mitred  abbot  in  1400;  in  1480  it  became  a  "Chinigclunig",  an  accouot  of  the  Indian  chanu-tcr 

pndalura  nuUiua,  and  in  1561  was  made  the  seat  of  and  customs  (New  York,  1846};  Fr.  FeUpe  Arroyo  d? 

a  bishop.      Its  first  la  Cucsta,  author  irf 

bishop  was  Spinello  a  dictiona^  of  2SS4 

Benci  (1562);  among  words    and     eipres- 

theothersthefollow-  sionsinthc  Mut^n 

ing  are  well  known;  language  (New  York. 

TaJtaito  de'  Talenti  1862);  Fr.  Vinrem-" 

(1640),  a  great  sav-  de  SairiA,  first  mm- 

ant;AntanioCervini  itarw-prefeeto     acil 

(1663),whodidn|Uch  eminent  forleanune 

for  the  cathedral  and  and  piety;  Fr.  Mar- 

the  episcopal  palacej  iano  Paveraa,  author 

Pietro      Francesi  of  an  Indian  caie- 

(1737)  exposed  the  chism;    Fr.    Nardso 

novelties  of  the  Ehiran;    Fr    Magin 

Council  of  Florence  CataM;  Fr.Frandsco 

in  1787;  Pell^rino  DumeU:     Fr.    Joat 

Maria     Carletti  Sefian;  Fr.  Est^aa 

(1802),   author  of  Taf>is;  and  Fr.  Joa£ 

several  works  and  of  Maria    Gonsalei 

dghteen   letters  on  Rdbio,  administrator 

the  National  Coud-  of  the  diocese  afta 

cil  of  Paris  of  1810,  Bishop  Diego's 

atwhich  he  assisted.  death.     The   first 

The  diocese  is  im-                                    Ciramaii,  MoNnrnLciANo  bishop  <rf  both  Cali- 

mediately dependent  fornias,  Rt.  Rev. 

on  the  Holy  See,  and  has  18  parishes,  15,879  inhabi-  Francisco    Garcia     Diego  y   Moreno,   O.F.M.,   was 

tants,  two  religious  bouses  of  men,  and  two  of  women,  consecrated   4  October,    1840,   and   died  30  April, 

CAFPBLLBTn.  £<  CMm  cf  JMIu,  XIII  (Venioe,  18*7).  1S46,  at  Santa  Barbara  Mission,  where  his  remains 

U,  Bbniqni.  were  interred  on  the  Epistle  side  of  the  altar.     Dur- 
ing his  administration  the  first  seminary  for  the  edu- 

HOBtorey  and  Los  Angeles,  Diocbbi:  or  (Mon-  cation  of  secular  priests  on  the  weatem  coast  was 
TBRBTSNaiB  ET  ANQELORnu),  comprises  that  part  of  opened  4  May,  1844,  at  Mission  Santa  Inei;  Fr.  Joet 
the  State  of  California  which  lies  south  of  37°  5'N.lat.  Joaquin  Jimeno,  O.F.M  was  the  firat  rector.  Verr 
and  covers  an  area  of  SG,000  square  miles.  It  thus  Rev.  Jos£  Maria  Gonsalei  Rdbio,  O.F.M. ,  was  ad* 
embraces  eighteen  of  the  twenty-one  Indian  misuons  ministrator  from  1846  to  1851  when  Bishop  Alemany 
which  made  California  famous.  Originally  the  whole  arrived.  Fr,  Rdbio  was  later  propoaed  for  a  diocese 
statewith  the  peninsulaof  Lower CDJiiomia  formed  ^e  but  declined  the  mitre.  While  in  charge  of  the  See  of 
Diocese  of  Both  Califomias  whose  first  bishop  was  the  Monterey,  which  included  both  Califoinias,  he  eo- 
Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Garcia  DieRo  y  Moreno.  On  his  joyed  the  privilege  of  administering  the  saciainent  of 
arrival  in  Uppr  California  he  established  his  residence  Confirmation.  Loable  to  procure  priesta  to  replace 
at  Santa  Baroara  Mission.  On  1  May,  1850,  the  pope  the  old  missionaries  who  were  fast  djring  away,  Fr. 
orgMiised  the  Diocese  of  Monterey  and  named  Rt.  Rdbio  in  1849  invited  the  Jesuit  Fathers  to  come  to 
Bev.  Joseph  Sadoc  Alemany,  O.P.,  its  first  bishop,  California  and  found  a  college  in  the  territory.  They 
but  Lower  California  was  not  withdrawn  from  his  consented  and  opened  their  college  in  1851.  He  was 
Jurisdiction  until  21  Dec,  1S5I.  In  1853  the  penin-  bom  at  Guadalajara,  Mexico,  in  1804,  and  entered  the 
eula  was  placed  under  the  administration  of  the  Franciscan  Order  at  Zapdpan  in  1824.  In  1833  he  ai^ 
Metropolitan  of  Mexico.  When  on  29  July,  1853,  rived  in  California  and  was  given  charge  of  Miaaion 
the  Archdiocese  of  San  Francisco  was  erected,  the  SanJoefi.  In  1842,at  the  requeetof  thebiahop,  here- 
boundariea  of  the  Monterey  Diocese  were  drawn  as  moved  to  Santa  Barbara,  and  lived  there  continuously 
they  eidst  at  present.  Archbishop  Alemany  on  29  until  his  death  2  November,  1875.  His  remains  wae 
July,  1853,  was  promoted  to  the  See  of  San  Francisco,  buried  in  the  vaults  of  the  mismon  church. 
and  on  the  same  date  Rt,  Il«v,  Thaddeua  Amat,  Rt.  Rev.  Thaddeus  Amat,  CM.  (q.  v.),  after  his 
C.M.,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Monterey.  The  new  con.secration  at  Rome,  12  March,  1854,  reached  Call- 
bishop  resided  at  Santa  Barbara,  however,  until  9  foraiain  1855.  In  1856  he  called  the  Sisters  of  Charily 
July,  1859,  on  which  date  the  pope  permitted  him  to  (Vincentions)  to  the  diocese.  They  founded  and  still 
remove. hisresidence  to  Los  Angeles,  but  with  instruc-  conduct  the  orphan  asylums  at  Los  Angeles,  Santa 
tions  to  retun  the  old  title.  Barbara,  and  Santa  Cruz   and  an  academy  at  Hollia- 

Around  the  former  missions  and  the  four  military  ter.     He  also  brought  the  Lasarists  or   Vinoentian 

garrisons  in  the  course  of  time  immigrants  from  ai-  Fathera  to  LosAngeleswheretheyerected  St.  Vincent's 

most  eveiy  part  of  the  world  took  up  their  abode  and  College.    At  his  request  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 

founded  citlee,  but  the  names  of  the  saints  under  Heart  of  Maiy  came  from  Spain  to  Califoniia.  30 

whose  invocation  the  Indian  missions  had  been  estab-  August,  1871,  and  opened  schools  for  prb  at  Los 


M0NTEBE7                            533  M0NTEBE7 

Angdes,  San  Luu  Obispo,  and  San  Bernardino.  In  leek,  County  Cavan,  Ireland,  1  August,  1847,  and 
1871  Bishop  Amat  laid  the  cornerstone  for  the  cathe-  came  to  America  with  lus  parents  in  1850.  tie  at- 
dnd  at  Los  Angeles,  and  placed  it  and  the  diocese  tended  the  home  schools  of  Taunton,  Mass.,  grad- 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Vibiana  (Bibiana),  virgin  uated  from  Holy  Cross  College,  Worcester,  Mass.,  in 
and  martyr.  The  Duilding  was  completed  and  dedi-  1869,  was  ordamed  priest  at  Montreal  Seminary  21 
cated  30  June,  1876.  In  1870  he  attended  the  Vatican  December,  1872,  was  made  assistant  at  St.  John's 
Council.  Owing  to  constant  ill-health  he  asked  for  a  Church.  Worcester,  Mass.,  1  January,  1873,  and  pas- 
coadjutor  who  was  given  him  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  tor  of  tne  church  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Worcester,  10 
Francis  Mora.  Bishop  Amat  died  12  May,  1878.  January,  1880.  During  these  years  he  was  actively 
His  remains  lie  buried  in  the  cathedral  which  he  engaged  in  the  cause  m  total  abstinence  and  educa- 
erected.  tion.   He  was  president  of  the  Total  Abstinence  Union 

Rt.  Rev.  ^l^Vancis  Mora  was  bom  at  Vich,  Catalonia,  of  America,  and  for  several  yeam  president  of  the 

Spain,  25  Nov.,  1827;  he  attended  the  seminary  of  his  Catholic  Summer  School  at  Cliff  Haven.    At  different 

native  city;  in  1855  he  accompanied  Bishop  Amat  to  times  he  was  elected  to  public  positions  of  trust  in  the 

California,  and  was  ordained  priest  at  Santa  Barbara  city  of  Worcester.    On  10  January^  1897,  he  was  ap- 

19  March,  1856.    From  July  of  that  year  to  the  end  of  pomted  Rector  of  the  Catholic  University,  Washing- 

1860  he  was  stationed  at  the  Indian  mission  of  San  ton,  D.  C,  by  Leo  XIII.    On  1  November,  1897,  he 

Juan  Bautista,  and  from  September,  1861,  to  July,  was  made  domestic  prelate,  and  14  July,  1901,  named 

1866,  he  had  charge  of  Mission  San  Luis  Obispo,  titular  Bishop  of  Samos,  and  was  consecrated  at  the 

After  that  he  resided  at  Los  Angeles.    On  20  May,  cathedral,  Baltimore,  21  November,  1901,  by  Cardi- 

1873,  Father  Mora  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Mosy-  nal  Gibbons.     On  27  March,  1903,  he  was  appointed 

nopolis  in  partibua  infidelium  and  made  coadjutor  of  Bishop  of  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles  to  succeed 

Bishop  Amat.   At  the  death  of  the  latter  he  succeeded  Bishop  Montgomery.    The  influx  of  immigrants  from 

to  the  See  of  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles.    In  1894^ he  the  East,  especially  into  the  oit}r  of  Los  Angeles,  has 

asked  for  a  coadjutor,  who  was  appointed  in  the  person  been  phenomenal.    From  his  arrival  in  the  latter  part 

of  Rt.  Rev.  Geoiige  Montgomery.    On  1  February,  of  1903  to  the  latter  part  of  1910  twelve  new  pturishes 

1896,  Bishop  Mora  resigned,  and  when  Rome,  20  June,  have  been  added  to  the  episcopal  city,  and  nine  parish 

accepted  his  resignation  he  returned  to  Spain.    He  schools  have  been  erected  in  various  parts  of  the  dio- 

died  at  Sarria,  Catalonia,  3  August,  1905.    During  his  cese  for  2500  additional  pupils.   The  number  of  priests 

administration  the  Sisters  of  Bt.  Joseph  and  of  St.  has  increased  from  101  in  1903  to  206  in  1910,  73  of 

Dominic  were  invited  into  the  diocese  to  open  schools,  whom  belong  to  eight  different  religious  orders.    The 

Bishop  Mora  was  remarkable  for  his  financial  ability,  character  of  the  Catholic  population  numbering  100,- 

and  succeeded  in  paying  off  many  of  the  important  000,  of  whom  60,000  live  in  Los  Angeles,  is  cosmo- 

debts  of  the  diocese,  and  by  his  careful  investments  politan.    The  percentage  of  Catholics  to  the  inhab- 

left  it  in  a  splendid  financial  condition.  itants  of  the  diocese  is  about  one-sixth.    Besides  the 

Rt.  Rev.  George  Montgomery  was  bom  in  Daviess  Englishnspeaking  races,  there  are  large  colonies  of 
County,  Kentuc&r,  30  December,  1847,  and  was  or-  Spaniards  or  Mexicans,  Germans.  ItiJians,  Portu- 
dained  priest  at  Baltimore,  20  December,  1879.  He  guese,  Poles,  Slavonians,  French,  Basques,  Lithuani- 
held  the  post  of  Chancellor  of  the  Archdiocese  of  San  ans,  and  Syrians.  Churches  and  priests  are  caring 
Francisco  until  his  consecration  as  titular  Bishop  of  for  the  spintual  interests  of  these  different  nationali- 
Tumi  8  April,  1894,  when  he  became  coadjutor  to  ties.  One  feature  of  the  diocesan  work  is  the  care  of 
Bishop  Mora.  Two  years  later  he  succeeded  to  the  the  Indians,  most  of  whom  axe  descendants  of  the 
see  and  at  once  displayed  remarkable  energy.  At  this  former  Mission  Indians.  About  4000  are  cared  for  by 
period  immigrants  from  the  eastern  States  began  to  seven  priests  who  devote  themselves  entirely  or  to  a 
flock  to  southern  California  in  great  numbers.  Los  great  extent  to  their  spiritual  needs,  spetJcing  to  the 
Angeles  more  than  doubled  its  population.  New  needs  young  people  in  English  and  to  their  elders  in  Spanish, 
arose  which  it  was  the  endeavour  of  the  bishop  to  which  is  generally  understood  by  the  natives.  Churches 
meet  by  building  churches  and  schools,  and  by  calling  have  been  built  for  them  at  all  reservations.  A  church 
to  his  aid  more  priests  and  religious.  In  season  ana  and  parochial  residence  have  also  been  erected  near 
out  of  season  Bishop  Montgomery  insisted  on  the  the  Government  Indian  School  at  Sherman,  and  a 
necessity  of  educating  children  in  Catholic  schools,  priest  acts  as  chaplain  for  the  Catholic  children  of  that 
It  was  ms  fearless  attitude  which  compelled  the  Com-  institution.  The  Catholic  Indian  Bureau  maintains  a 
missioner  of  Indian  Affairs  to  recognize  the  right  of  lar^e  boarding  school  for  Indian  children  at  Banning 
Indian  parents  and  guardians  to  send  their  children  to  which  is  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  As  the 
the  schools  of  their  choice  independent  of  the  reservar  diocese  annually  receives  its  share  of  the  Pious  Fund 
tion  agent.  Subsequently  this  same  view  was  adopted  of  Mexico,  it  has  been  able  to  provide  for  many  of  the 
by  the  Government,  and  made  the  rule  for  all  the  religious  necessities  of  the  Indians,  but  there  are  many 
Indians  in  the  United  States.  The  bishop  thus  in  demands  calling  for  diocesan  help.  The  rapidly  grow- 
every  way  manifested  a  watchful  solicitude  for  the  ing  population  of  the  diocese  impelled  Bishop  Conaty  to 
spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  of  the  diocese.  His  caJl  to  his  assistance  the  following  additional  religious 
personality  won  friends  for  the  Church  on  all  sides,  orders  and  congregations:  Benedictine  Fathers  for  the 
whilst  his  vigorous  defence  of  Catholic  doctrine,  as  Basoues,  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour 
well  as  his  clean-cut,  outspoken  advocac3r  of  Ameri-  for  tne  Poles^  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
can  rights  and  duties,  gave  to  the  Church  in  southern  for  the  Mexicans.  Jesuit  Fathers,  Redemptorist  Fa- 
California  a  great  onward  movement  and  prepared  the  thers,  Sisters  of  tne  Good  Shepherd,  Little  Sisters  of 
way  for  Bishop  Conaty's  administration.  In  1903  the  Poor,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart 
Bishop  Montgomery  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  (Italian),  and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. 
Omno  in  parilbus  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  Arch-  Statistics. — Besides  the  items  already  mentioned 
bi^op  of  San  Francisco.  He  died  10  January,  1907,  above,  there  are  166  churches  and  chapels,  43  stations 
sincerely  lamented  by  all  classes,  especially  by  the  without  churches,  33  eccledastical  students,  1  semi- 
poor.  ^  During  his  administration  the  following  con-  nanr  for  Franciscan  Fathers,  2  colleges  for  young  men 
sTOgations  of  religious  were  received  into  the  diocese:  with  407  students,  1  college  and  16  academies  for  girls 
Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of  Mercv,  Sisters  of  the  and  young  ladies,  29  parochial  schools  with  (including 
Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names,  Sisters  of  the  pupils  of  the  academies)  5424  children,  9  orphan 
Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  and  the  asylums  with  1048  inmates.  1  Catholic  Indian  board- 
Ureuline  Sisters.  ing  school  with  118  pupils,  2  Government  Indian 

Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  James  Conaty  was  bom  in  Kihia-  schools  with  355  Catholic  pupils,  6  hospitals  and  8 


bomes  for  the  ttged.    A  new  cathodra]  is  contemplated  Id  June,  1626,  with  Father  Anthonv  de  Cerrastea,  he 

which  will  be  worthy  of  the  city  of  Loe  Anncles.  accomptmied   oeveral   hundred   coionist«   under   the 

^^  Bariura  ifiuuH  ^rottKi;  SUhapi  ArMfti  iL«  An-  lesdersbip  of  ilo'llon  to  GuMidape,  pndwbly  where 

Rfiliw.  Mi°h!:"*sm';  R.BM.  B^'ct^p.  B/aTHU^T^v^  **>«  Enghsh  Bubeequently  founded  Jamestown;  or,  u 

ii$  U.S.  (Mil*>uke».  IBSB);  CaihtUe  Dirteitry-  some  are  inclined  t«  think,  proceeded  even  sa  far  as 

Zepbtbin  ENOBLHABtyr.  New  York.     In  either  case,  however,  we  are  safe  in 

__     .         .,               „                   .n .         .  aaaertina  that  Holy  Maas  was  celebrated  for  the  fint 

MmtW,  MiLTTMiT  Ordsb  oy.— ThiB  order  was  time  in  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States  by 

est»bli8hed  in  the  Kingdom  rf  Aragon  to  take  the  these  Dominican*.    On  the  death  of  AyUon  (Oct., 

place  ol  the  Order  01  the  lemple,  of  which  it  wasm  a  1528)  the  colony   abandoned  the  country  and  re- 

oertwn  sotbc  the  contmuation.     It  derived  ita  Ut!e  turned  to  San  Domingo.    According  to  Helps,  "Spao- 

from  St.  George  of  Montesa,  ita  principal  Btronghold.  igj,  Conquest  in  America",  he  went  to  Venemiela 

The    Templars  about  1528  with  twenty  of  his  brethren.     NothinR 

were     received  more  is  known  tA  him  except  the  slight  inforaation 

with    enthuaasm  furnished  by  a  note  in  the  margin  of  the  registry  of 

'?  ."^°^    '™™  his  profession  in  the  convent  of  St.  Stephen  at  S'ala- 

theu-very  founda-  manca,  which  says:  "Obiit  martyr  in  Indiis".     He  is 

tion  (1128).     Be-  the  authorof  "Informatio  iuridica  in  Indoruin  defei  ■ 

rcngerlu,  Count  gionem". 

of     Barcelona,  Qu^nr-EcBAMD.  SS.  Ori.  FW<f..   II.  123;    H>Ln,    SmU 

wished    to    die    in  C™?--*    •n    Amrrica    (Neir    York),    pwKm:    MicNuTT.    Lift 

Ihp    hahi.    nf  a.  ?/  ^    f"™'    (New  York),     pmnim:    Todhob.   Hawt.   ilL  it 

ine   naoii   01  a  jforJr.  s.  Do-iinw",  IV  (Puri.,  I747).  ms-^S;  BaMA.  Hitivr ti 

Templar     (1130).  U<  CoUMic  Ckurcli  n  Uu  Unifd  SlaUt.  I  (New  York,  •.  dj. 

King   Alfonso  I,  101-O8. 

"The     Fighter",  Jobeph  Scthrokdks. 
having  no  direct 

heir,    Dequeathcd  HontWinos,    Luis  de,   Spanish  theologian,  date 
his  dominions  to  and  place  of  birth  unknown;  d.  7  Oct.,  1621.     He  en- 
be  divided  among  tered  the  Dominican  Order  and  studied  philosophy  and 
the  Templars,  the  theology  in  the  Kpanieh  universities  where  he  gained  a 
Hospitallers,  and  reputation  for  sound  scholarship  and  solid  piety  that 
the  Canons  of  the  made  him  illustrious  among  the  savants  of  his  time. 
Holy    Sepulchre,  Beginning  his  career  as  professor  of  philosophy,  he  was 
but  naturally  this  Rradually  promoted  to  the  most  important  chairs, 
bequest   was   an-  HewaBtheforemostexponentofThomialictheologyal 
nuUed  by  his  sub-  the  Univeraity  of  AlcalA.     His  vast  erudition,  power 
iecta  (1131).   The  of  penetratiohjand  clearness  of  exposition  won  for  him 
Templars  had  to  the  surname  Doelor  darut.     He  possessed  a  singular 
be  contented  with  chami  of  manner  which  secured  for  him  at  once  love 
A  HmoHT  or  Montmi                 certain  castlc«,  the  and  respect.     Such  was  his  success  in  teaching  that 
ohief  of  which  was  Monion.     Although  the  Aragonese  his  lecture  hall,  though  one  of  the  largest  in  Spain,  was 
branch  of  the  order  was  pronounced  innocent  at  the  too  small  to  admit  his  audiences.     For  thirty  years  he 
famou»trial  of  the  Templars,  Clement  V's  Bull  of  sup-  taught  with  untiring  leal  and  devotion,  refusing  all 
pi«seion  was  applied  to  them  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  ecclesinstical  honours.    Though  threatened  with  total 
King  James  11   (1312).     By  way  of  compensation,  blindness  in  his  latter  years,  he  continued  to  teach  till 
however,   this   monarch  obtained   from   Pope   John  his  death.     He  is  the  author  of  "Commmentaria  in 
XXII  authority  to  dispose  of  the  possessions  of  the  primajn  secunds  S.  Thonue"  (Alcali,  1622). 
TemplaiB  in  his  Kingdom  of  Valencia  in  favour  of  a  JoesPB  ScEffiOEDEK. 
mihtary  order  not  essentially  differing  from  that  of 

the  Templars,  which  should  "be  charged  with  the  de-  Hontu  FlMatii  are  charitable  institutions  of 
fenceof  his  frontier  against  the  Moors  and  the  pirates,  credit  that  lend  money  at  low  rates  of  interest,  or 
It  was  affiliated  to  the  Order  of  Calatrava,  from  which  without  interest  at  all,  upon  the  security  of  objects 
its  first  recruits  were  drawn,  and  it  was  maintained  in  left  in  pawn,  with  a  view  to  protecting  persons  in 
dependence  upon  that  order.  The  firat  of  the  four-  want  from  usurers.  Being  charitable  establishments, 
teen  grand  masters,  who  ruled  the  Order  of  MonI.eaa  they  lend  only  to  people  who  arc  in  need  of  funds  to 
until  the  ofHce  was  united  with  the  Crown  by  Philip  pass  through  some  financial  crisis,  as  in  cases  of  gen- 
ii in  1687,  was  Guillermo  d'Eri!.  eral  scarcity  of  food,  misfortunes,  etc.  On  the  other 
LutpiB.  Msmtcta  lOiniroto  {Valsnci*,  1669) ;  Drfinirinnti  de  ta  hand,  these  institutions  do  not  Seek  financial  Profit, 
SftSSSMtSSrS™"'"-  """  ""*""■■  ""■  ""t  «»  .11  p™«.  th.l  ma,  ,c™,  10  Ih™  iS,  a, 
Ch.  Moeller.  payment  of  employees  and  to  extend  the  scope  of 
their  charitable  work.  Formerly  there  were  not  onlv 
Hontaaino,  Antonio,  Spanish  missionary,  date  of  pecuniary  montcs  (numarii)  which  lent  money,  but 
tMrth  unknown;  d.  in  the  West  Indies,  1545.  Of  his  also  grain  montes  Qrantatici),  Sour  montes,  etc.  In 
early  life  little  is  known.  He  entered  the  Order  of  St.  the  history  of  these  estabii^ments  it  may  be  ob- 
Dominic  and  made  his  religious  profession  in  the  con-  served  that  the  word  mont,  even  in  ancient  Latin 
vent  of  St.  Stephen,  Salamanca,  where  in  all  probabil-  (Plautus,  Prudentius),  was  used  to  ugnify  a  'great 
ity  he  studied.  He  was  noted  for  his  exemplary  piety,  ouantity",  or  heap,  with  reference  to  money,  while 
his  love  of  strict  observance,  his  eloquence,  and  moral  the  juridic  term  for  a  monetary  "fund"  waa  rather 
courage.  In  September.  1510,  under  the  leadership  naiaa;  and  long  before  the  creation  of  the  montes 
of  Pedro  de  Cordova,  he  landed  with  the  first  band  of  pietatis  the  word  mons  (in  Italian,  mortU)  was  used 
Dominicans  in  Hispaniola,  He  was  the  first,  in  1511,  to  designate  collected  funds,  destined  to  various  utdi, 
to  denounce  publicly  in  America  the  enslavement  and  which  in  time  came  to  be  called  montes  profani. 
(ippreseion  ot  the  Indians  as  sinful  and  disgraceful  to  Thus  the  public  debt  that  was  contracted  by  the 
the  Spanish  nation.  Being  censured  for  this,  he  was  Republic  of  Venice  between  1164  and  1178  was 
cited  to  Spain  in  1512,  where  he  pleaded  the  cause  of  called  Mons  or  Imprestita.  and  similar  n 


Moims 


535 


M0NTS8 


called  montesi  as,  for  ezamplci  the  "mons  alumini^ 
riufl",  which  operated  the  aliun  deposits  of  Tolfa. 
The  same  was  true  of  insurance  societies  and  of  the 
banks  of  exchange  or  of  credit  that  for  the  greater 

Eart  w&re  in  the  himds  of  Jews  or  of  the  so-called 
ombards.  As  these  banks  often  lent  money  on 
objects  delivered  to  them  in  pawn,  the  charitable 
institutions  which  were  created  for  transactions  of 
that  cla«s  also  took  the  name  of  monaj  pietalis  being 
added  to  express  the  fact  that  the  establishments  in 
question  were  beneficent  and  not  speculative. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  very  difficult  to  obtain 
monev^  as  much  on  account  of  its  scarcity  as  of  the 

{prohibitions  by  which  Christians  were  bound  in  re- 
ation  to  usury,  which  second  condition  gave  a  spe- 
cies of  monopoly  of  the  credit  business  to  the  Jews, 
who  were  excluded  from  all  other  kinds  of  trade 
or  industrv,  and  who  were  often  accorded  great  priv- 
ileges by  the  towns,  on  condition  of  the  establishment 
of  pawn  banks.  They  lent  money  at  excessive  rates 
of  mterest — as  much  as  60  per  cent — or,  when  that 
was  prohibited,  as  at  Florence,  where  they  were  not 
allowed  to  charge  more  than  20  per  cent,  they  re- 
aorted  to  subtemiges  that  made  it  possible  for  them 
to  obtain  as  high  rates  as  elsewhere.  And  in  this 
way,  they  soon  became  rich  and  hated.  Not  less 
hated,  however,  were  the  so-called  coaraini  (named 
not  after  the  city  of  Cahors  in  France,  but  after 
that  of  Cavour  in  Piedmont) ;  likewise  the  Lombards, 
who  were  a  kind  of  travelling  bankers,  and  whose  ex- 
tortions were  often  even  greater  than  those  of  the 
Jews,  their  usual  rate  of  interest  being  43  H  P^r  cent, 
and  trequentlv  as  high  as  80  ner  cent.  It  was  often 
a  question,  during  the  Midole  Ages,  of  finding  a 
remedy  for  this  exploitation  of  the  misfortune  of 
others;  although  it  is  not  true  that  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua  foimded  a  mens  pietatis.  The  celebrated 
I>octor  Durand  de  Saint  PourQain,  Bishop  of  Mende. 
proposed  that  the  magistrates  of  cities  be  compelled 
to  lend  money  at  low  rates  of  interest.  It  is  not 
known  whether  this  proposition  was  accepted  or 
not,  but,  in  either  event,  it  did  not  suggest  the  idea 
of  the  monte,  for  there  lacked  the  condition  of  objects 
pawned,  which  was  the  case,  also,  in  the  institution 
of  the  "  Mont  de  Salms",  established  later  than  1350. 
The  first  true  mons  pietatis  was  founded  in  London, 
where  Bishop  Michael  Nothbur^,  in  1361,  left  1000 
marks  of  »lver  for  the  establishment  of  a  bank 
that  should  lend  money  on  pawned  objects,  without 
interest,  providing  that  the  expenses  of  the  institution 
be  defrayed  from  its  foimdation  capital.  In  this  way. 
of  course,  the  capital  was  eventually  consumed,  ana 
the  bank  closed.  In  1389  Philippe  de  Maizi^res 
published  his  project  for  the  establishment  of  an 
institution  that  should  lend  money  without  in- 
terest, but  should  receive  remuneration  from  those 
who  might  profit  by  its  loans;  this  project,  however, 
was  not  realized.  Finally  (1462),  the  first  mons 
pietatis  was  established  at  Perugia,  and  in  a  few 
years  there  were  similar  institutions  throughout 
Italy.  The  establishment  and  dissemination  of 
montes  pietatis  is  one  of  the  brightest  glories  of  the 
followers  of  the  "Poverello"  of  Aasisi,  for  the  mons 
pietatis  of  Perugia  was  founded  in  consequence  of 
the  preachinff  at  that  city  of  the  Franciscan  Michele 
Carcano  of  Milan,  who  mveighed  against  the  usury 
of  the  Jews  (1461).  The  fund  for  that  charitable 
establishment  was  made  up  in  part  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions and  in  part  by  money  lent  by  the  Jews 
themselves.  But  the  idea  of  the  mons  pietatis  was 
devised  by  the  Franciscans  Bamabd  da  Temi  and 
Fortunato  Coppoli  of  Perugia.  In  fact  it  seems  that 
for  a  lon^  time  the  preachers  of  the  Franciscan  Order 
had  considered  the  problem  of  applying  an  effectual 
remedy  to  the  evils  of  usury  (cf.  Holzapfel,  32  sq.). 
The  assistance  and  the  influence  of  the  Apostolic 
delegate  to  Perugia,  Ennolao  Barfoaro,  Bishop  of 


Verona,  greatly  facilitated  the  work  at  the  former 
town,  and  it  was  soon  repeated  at  Orvieto  (1463) 
through  the  action  of  the  Franciscan  Bartolommeo 
da  Colle,  and  also  at  Gubbio  and  at  other  towns  of 
Umbria.  In  the  Marches  the  first  mons  was  es- 
tablished at  Monterubbiano,  in  1465,  through  the 
efforts  of  the  Franciscan  Antonuzzo  and  the  Domini- 
can Cristoforo;  the  first  city  of  the  Papal  States 
that  established  a  mons  pietatis  was  Viterbo  (1469): 
in  Tuscany,  Siena  (1472);  in  Liguria,  Savona,  ana 
Genoa  (1480),  and  in  the  Milanese  territory,  Milan 
(1483);  everywhere  it  was  the  Franciscan  Observants 
who  took  the  initiative.  But  the  greatest  develop- 
ment was  given  to  this  work  by  Blessed  Bernardino 
da  Feltre^  whose  apostolic  journeys  were  marked  by 
montes  pietatis,  either  institutea  or  re-established!; 
he  introduced  them  at  Mantua  (1484)  and  at  various 
cities  of  the  Venetian  Republic,  where  they  had  to 
stru^le  against  the  ill-will  of  the  Government;  he 
earned  them  also  to  the  Abruzzi,  to  Emilia,  and  to 
Romagna. 

The  montes  pietatis  were  either  autonomous  es- 
tablishments, or,  as  at  -Perugia,  municipal  corporsr 
tions;  they  nad  a  director,  called  depositariitSf  an 
appraiser,  a  notarius  or  accountant,  salesmen^  and 
otner  employees^  and  all  were  paid  either  with  a 
fixed  salary  or  with  a  pereentage  m  the  profits  of  the 
establishment.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  be- 
ginning the  montes  did  not  lend  money  gratuitously, 
out,  on  the  contrary,  the  expressed  intention  of  the 
founders  was  that  the  money  should  be  lent  at  interest, 
varying  from  4  per  cent  to  12  per  cent.  After  opposi- 
tion had  been  shown  to  these  establishments  montes 
grafuiti  were  instituted  in  some  places,  especially  in 
Lombardy,  but  as  these  charities  were  not  self-support- 
ing they  were  altered  to  establishments  that  lend  with 
interest,  for  Blessed  Bernardino  da  Feltre  always  in- 
sisted on  the  necessity  of  interest  to  ensure  the  per- 
manency of  the  institution.  At  the  end  of  each 
month  or  of  each  year  the  net  profits  were  applied  to 
the  capital,  and  if  they  were  considerable,  tne  rate 
of  interest  was  lowered.  In  order  to  increase  the 
funds  of  these  institutions  in  some  cities,  collections 
were  regularly  taken  on  appointed  days — at  Padua 
on  Easter  day — or  boxes  were  set  up  for  contributions, 
as  at  Gubbio  and  Orvieto.  At  Gubbio  there  was  a  tax 
of  1  per  cent  on  all  property  bequeathed  by  will,  and  at 
Spello  the  notary  was  required  to  remind  the  testator 
that  he  should  leave  something  to  the  monte. 

At  first  the  sums  loaned  were  very  small,  the 
maximum  limit  at  Perugia  being  six  florins,  and  at 
Gubbio  four.  Thus  it  was  hoped  that  speculation  and 
extravagance  would  be  avoided,  but  little  by  little 
the  limit  was  increased  in  some  places  to  100  and 
even  to  1000  ducats.  The  amount  of  a  given  loan 
was  eaual  to  two-thirds  the  value  of  the  object 
pawned,  which,  if  not  redeemed  within  the  stipulated 
time,  was  sold  at  public  auction,  and  if  the  price  ob- 
tained for  it  was  greater  than  the  loan  witn  the  in- 
terest, the  surplus  was  made  over  to  the  owner. 

The  opposition  to  the  montes  which  has  been  referred 
to  came  m  the  first  place  from  those  whose  interests 
were  affected,  the  Jews  and  the  Lombards,  who 
were  able  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  these  char- 
ities into  some  cities,  as  Venice  and  Rome,  until 
1539.  At  Florence  their  efl'orts  were  directed  to  the 
same  end,  but  the  people  rising  in  tumult  obtained 
the  rec^l  of  Blessed  Bernardino  da  Feltre  to  the  city. 
At  AquUa  the  Jews  sent  a  commission  to  Bleraed 
Bernardino  to  ask  him  not  to  appear  in  the  pulpit. 
But  the  most  serious  opposition  the  montes  encoun- 
tered was  from  certain  theologians  and  canonists,  who 
censured  these  establishments  because  they  lent 
money  at  interest,  which  in  those  times  was  con* 
sidered  illicit  even  by  the  promoters  of  the  montes. 
The  controversy  was  long  and  bitter.  The  opposition 
was  not  directed  against  the  montes  pietatis  as  suchi 


MOimSQUXlir                       53G  MOMTfiSOtrlSU 

but  merely  against  the  condition  of  requiring  in-  nance  prescribed  the  creation  of  montes  pietatis  tn 

t^est.    It  was  not  admitted  that  the  use  of  the  in-  all  the  cities  that  might  need  them.    However,  they 

terest  to  maintain  the  charity  justified  the  usury,  were  not  merely  chant«i)le  institutions,  because  they 

since  a  good  end  could  not  justify  evil  means,  and  were  bound  to  lend  money  to  all  applicants,  whether 

it  was  held  that  lending  money  at  interest  was  in-  in  need  or  not,  while  not  infrequently  the  rate  of 

trinsically  bad,  money  being  unfruitful  by  its  nature,  interest  was  high.    They  were  reorganized  by  the 

and    since    Christ    expressly    forbids    the    practice  law  of   1851,   with   the  special  feature  that   their 

(Luke,  vi,  33).    The  term  interest  was  not  readily  directors    be    appointed    by    the    Govemmoit.     In 

admitted  by  the  friends  of  the  montes,  who  replied  Germany  and  m  Austria  the  montes  pietatis  were 

that  there  were  in  reality  two  contracts  between  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.     At 

the  montes  and  the  borrower:  one  that  of  the  loan,  present  they  are  municipal  establishments-^though 

which  should  be  g^tuitous,  the  other  implying  the  some  of  them  belong  to  the  Government — and  their 

custody  of  the  object  pawned,  therefore,  the  use  of  net  profits  are  appUed  to  the  account  of  public 

space  and  personiui  responsibiuty,  which  should  not  chanties.    The   first   mons  pietatis  in  Spain   was 

be  gratuitous;  and  it  was  precisely  on  account  of  created  in  1702  at  Madrid.    In  England  this  form 

these   two   conditions   that   interest   was   charged,  of  charity  never  obtained  a  foothold,  on  the  contrary 

The  loan,  therefore,  was  regarded  merely  as  a  con-  it  was  held  in  aversion  on  account  of  its  connexion 

dilio  nne  aua  narif  and  not  as  a  direct  cause  of  the  with  the  papacy;  an  attempt  to  establish  such  an 

interest.    On  the  other  hand,  even  the  adversaries  institution  at  London  in    1797  fcdled  in  less  than 

of  the  montes  admitted  that  the  damnum  emergens  twenty  years,  through  default  on  the  part  of  its 

or  the  liLcrum  cessans  were  legitimate  titles  upon  managers. 

which  to  require  interest;  and  these  two  principles  The  aversion  in  which  montes  pietatis  are  held  by 

may  be  applied  to  the  mons  pietatis.     Many  other  many,  even  in  our  own  day,  leads  to  the  question  of 

objections  to  which  it  was  easy  to  reply  were  ad-  the  advantages  and  of  the  defects  of  these  instito- 

duced,  and  in  these  disputations  the  friends  of  the  tions^  it  is  held  that  they  promote  carelessness  in  con- 

montes  were  victorious.      Only  at  Fsnza,  in  1494,  tractmg  debts,  that  they  destroy  love  for  labour,  incite 

was  the  defender  of  the  montes  unable  to  answer  the  to  theft,  are  often  the  cause  of  financial  ruin,  and, 

objections  of  the  Aupistinian  Bariano,  who  is  the  lastly,  that  they  are  contrary  to  the  principle  of  free 

author  of  a  work  entitled  ''De  Monte  Impietatis".  competition.    On  the  other  hand,  thev  are  a  necefr- 

It  was  among  the  Dominicans,  however,  that  the  sitv;  for  without  them  the  needy  would  be  ezpoeed 

montes  found  a  greater  number  of  antagonists,  nota-  either  to  the  extortions  of  private  lenders  or  to  niin, 

bly  the  yoimg  Tommaso  de  Vio,  who  became  Car-  into  which  they  might  be  plunged  b^r  some  misfortune 

dinal  Csetano.    It  cannot  be  said  that  the  order  from  which  a  momenta^  loan  might  save    them, 

as  a  whole  was  opposed  to  these  institutions,  for  Their  disadvantages  are  undeniable,  but  disadvan- 

several  of  its  memoers  favoured  the  establishment  tages  are  common  to  all  human  contrivances.     For 

of  the  montes  as  has  been  seen  in  the  case  of  Monte-  the  rest  the  montes  pietatis,  besides  the  relief  that 

rubbiano,  and  as  was  the  case  at  Florence,  where  they  brought  to  the  poor,  exerted  sreat  influence  upon 

Savonarola  (1495)  reopened  the  montes  which  had  the  ideas  concerning  interest  on  loans;  for  the  ngid 

been  established  in  14^.     Meanwhile  other  Domini-  views  of  the  theologians  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  that 

cans,  e.  g.   Annio  da  Viterbo  and   Domenico  da  connexion  imderwent  a  first  modification,  which  pre- 

Imola,  wrote  juridicial  opinions  in  favour  of  the  pared  the  way  for  a  generalization  of  the  principle 

montes,  but  the  writer  who  most  exerted  himself  that  moderate  interest  might  justly  be  charged,  and 

in  their  defence  was  the  Francbcan  Bernardino  de  also  the  mere  existence  of  the  montes  pietatis  com- 

Bustis   (Defensorium  Montis  Pietatis).    The  legal  pelled  private  speculators  to  reduce  their  rates  of  in- 

and  theological  faculties  of  the  universities,  as  well  terest  from  the  usurious  rates  that  had  hitherto  pre- 

as  individual  jurists,  gave  opinions  favourable  to  the  vailed. 

montes.     The  popes  had  approved  of  several  of  these  ,  Holiaffbl.  Die  Ar^fange  der  MonUa  PUUUU  (Mimiph,  lOOS); 

Inatitutiona  that  appeal«f  to  the  Holv  See,  either  '^^^^^^ i^^^'ll^Sir^ itAt^ 

for  Its  sanction,  m  general,  or  for  special  concessions;  tatu  (Lsrons,  1656) ;  Blaub.  Dm  Mmu  d«  puti  etc  (PariB.  1856) ; 

Holzapfel  (10  sq.)  refers  to  sixteen  of  these  acts,  an-  CMpn.  Gloria  dei  Monti  di  P»e<a  (Padua,  1762).  Fr.  tr.  (Padua. 

tenortotneBuu    intermmtipucw    oii^A^4May,  ^^^^  ^^  p^^  jgQ2);  Fuhb.  OmcA.  d-  kirdd,  Zinntrbou 

1515).      By  this  Bull  the  pope  and  the  Lateran  Coun-  rrablnsen,  1876) ;   Jaknet.  Le  a-Mit  vopulaite  d,  Ue  hanvue  c» 

cil,  which  took  up  the  case  of  the  montes  in  its  tenth  itaiieduXy*auXVllh»UeU{^m,i«&^^    Manabsbi.  fiamoM 

oMminn     HAolftraH   th*»  innfitiitinnn  in    niiAfltinn   in   nn  daTem\e\»%un  M(mi\d\  P%etA\nBvM.SUiruiPainaverVUmhna, 

"®^"9S?  aeciarea  tne  mstituuons  m  question  in  no  ym  ^^^  ^  (Perugia,  1902);  Scalvawti,  n  Mom  Pietatie  di 

way  llhcit  or  sinful,  but  on  the  contrary  mentonOUS,  Peruoia  (Perugia,  1802) ;  Idbm.  Il  Mom  Pietatie  di  Gubbio  (Peru- 

and  that  whosoever  preached  or  wrote  against  them  e».  1896);  Vani.abr,  Lee  Monte  dePiilS  en  Prance  (LUIe.  189«); 

in  the  future^incurml  ex«x,mmuiiication^    This  BuU  J^I'll^S^^^lllr^'ii^vfpSSL''^™'  *"">•  *"" 

also  provided  that   montes   established   thereafter  \j^  Benigni. 

should  obtain  the  Apostolic  approbation.   The  Bishop  - 

of  Trani  was  the  only  member  of  the  coimcil  who  MontMqnioa,    Charles-Louis     de     Sbcokdat, 

spoke  against  the  montes,  and   Cardinal   Cietano,  Baron  de,  French  writer  and  publicist,  b.  in  the 

general  of  the  Dominicans,  who  was  absent  at  that  ChAteau  de  la  BrAde  near  Bordeaux  J  8  January,  1689: 

session,   subsequently   abandoned   his   position   on  d.  at  Paris,  10  February,  1755.     His  family  was  of 

the  subject  of  tnese  establishments.  noble  rank;  his  grandfather,  President  of  the  Bor- 

The  question  of  moral  right  having  been  deter-  deaux  Parliament,  his  father,  a  member  of  the  royal 

mined  in  their  favour,  the  montes  pietatis  spread  bodyguard,  and  his  mother,  Marie  de  Penel,  who  died 

rapidly,  especially  in  Italy,  where,  m   1896   there  when  he  was  eleven,  traced  her  ancestry  to  an  old  Eng- 

were  556  of  them,  with  a  combined  capital  of  nearly  lish  family.    Young  Charles  de  la  BrMe,  as  he  was 

72,000,000  lire.     Outside  of  Italy  the  first   mons  then  known,  was  sent  to  the  Oratorian  College  at 

pietatis  to  be  established  was  at  Ypres  in  Belgium,  Juilly  (1700-11),  where  he  received  a  wholly  literary 

(1534)  but  the  institution  did  not  develop  in  that  and  classical  education  in  which  religion  held  but  a 

country  until  1618,  when  the  Lombards  were  for-  minor  place.    When,  at  twenty-five  years  of  age  he 

bidden  to  receive  objects  in  pawn;  since  1848  the  returned  home,  after  having  been  called  to  the  bar,  he 

law  has  transformed  the  montes  into  municipal  es-  received  from  nis  paternal  uncle  the  style  and  title  of 

tablishments.    In  France   the   first  mons  pietatis  Baron  de  Montesquieu,  by  which  he  was  afterwards 

appeared  at  Avignon,  then  a  papal  possession  (1577);  known,  and  became  councillor  of  the  Bordeaux  Par- 

S  next  at  Beaucaire  (1583);  and  in  1626,  an  ordi-  liament.    He  married  a  Protestant,  Jeanne  Lartiguey 


H0NTB8QUIBU                            537  HONTESQUnU 

"nd  ibeyhad  three  children;  but  neither  his  profeadon  viata  lo  Paris,  and  mixed  with  literary  men  and  the.'r 
iiiii'  Lis  family  seem  to  have  claimed  much  of  his  at-  friends  in  the  salona  of  Madame  de  Tencin,  Madame 
(Dotion.    At  the  end  of  nine  yeais  he  sold  his  office,  Geoffrin,  and  Madame  duDefftwd.    Yet  he  studiously 
and  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  study  nhich  hence-  avoided  over  familiarity  with  what  was  known  as  the 
forth  oecumehta  life  a  one  and  only  passion.  "Study",  philosophical  set      Though  his  religious  convictions 
he  wrote  afterwards,  "has  been  my  sovereign  remedy  were  not  deep,  hia  serious  and  moderate  turn  of  mind 
against  the  worries  of  life.     I  have  never  had  a  care  had  nothinK  in  common  with  the  noisy  and  aggressive 
that  an  hour's  reAding  could  Dot  dispel".     As  a  mat^  impiety  of  Voltwre  and  his  friends, 
ter  of  fact  the  story  of  his  life  is  but  the  chronicle  of  Henceforth  his  great  aim  in  life  was  to  write  the 
the  preparation  and  composition  of  his  books.     His  "Esprit  des  lois",  and  al!  his  spare  time  in  the  studi- 
earliest  productions  were  read  before  the  Academy  of  ous  seclusion  at  La  Brfeie  was  devoted  to  it.     To  be- 
Bordeaux,  of  which  he  became  a  member  (1716).  gin  with,  ancient  Rome  gave  him  ample  material  for 
They  deal  with  a  variety  of  subjects,  but  mtunly  with  Uiought,  but  took  up  so  much  space  in  his  work  that 
ecientific  topics,  history,  and  politics.     For  a  time  he  in  order  not  to  mar  the  proportions  of  his  book  he  pub- 
thought  of  writing  a     physical  history  of  the  Earth"  liahed  all  that  concerned  it  as  a  distinct  work,  "Les 
for  which  he  began  collecting  material  (1719),  but  Conaidiimtions  sur  les  causes  de  la  grandeur  et  de  la 
two  years  later  was  busy  in  a  very  different  direc-  decadence    dea 
tion,  publishing  the  "Lcttres  persanee"  (Amsterdam,  Rommns"     (Am- 
1721),  so  named  because  it  pretended  to  be  a  corre-  sterdam,       1734). 
Bpondence  between  two  Persian  gentlemen  travelling  In   this   book    he 
in  Europe,  and  their  friends  in  Asia,  who  sent  them  shows  successively 
the  gossip  of  their  seraglio,  the  glorious  prog- 
Under  tlus  fictitious  guise  the  writer  goes  on  to  resa  and  slow  de- 
deflcribe  or  rather  satirize  French,  and  especially  cay    which    the 
Parisian  manners  between  1710  and  1720.     The  king,  Empire   experi- 
the  absolute  monarchy,  the  Parliament,  the  Academy,  encea    from     the 
the  University,  are  an  very  transparently  ridiculed;  foundation     of 
but  it  was  the  Catholic  religion,  its  dogmas,  its  prac-  Rome  to  the  cap- 
tices,  its  ministers  from  pope  to  monks  that  came  in  ture  of  Constan- 
for  his  bitterest  raillery.    Kecauae  of  its  ideal  of  celi-  tinopic  by   the 
bacy,  the  Catholic  Church  is  accused  of  being  a  cause  Turks,     He   does 
of  depopulation,  and  because  of  ila  teaching  concern-  not  narrate  events, 
ing  this  world's  goods,  it  is  charged  with  wenkening  but  supposing  thai 
the   prosperity   of   the   nation,   while   its   intolerant  they   are   already 

STJselytism  is  a  source  of  disturbance  to  the  state,  known,  he  seeks  to 

n  the  other  hand  Protestantism  is  held  up  as  more  discover  the  links 

favour^le   to   material   progress.      Coming   ostensi-  in   the    chain    of 

bly  from  Mohammedans   these  criticisms  may  have  events,   and    to 

seemed  less  shocking  to  thoughtless  minds,  but  they  point    out    the 

were  none  the  less  one  of  the  first  and  rudest  attaclts  eoureesfrom which 

directed  against  the  Church  during  the  eighteenth  they     aprang, 

century.  In  them,  he  showed  himself  as  incapable  of  choosing  preferably  poUtical  causes,  that  is,  institu- 
understanding  the  Chureh's  dogmas  as  he  was  of  tions.  By  exhibiting  them  m  their  natural  relation- 
appreciating  her  services  to  society.  Though  in  later  ships  he  throws  unexpected  light  on  certain  events  of 
years  he  was  to  find  a  juster  point  of  view,  his  witty  ancient  history  and  those  of  more  recent  date.  Bos- 
criticisms  in  their  lively  setting  of  romance  and  sen-  suet  had  already  devoted  two  chaptera  of  fiis  "His- 
mialisra,  quite  to  the  taste  of  that  age,  assured  a  great  toire  UniverBclfe"  to  explaining  the  sequence  of 
success  for  the  "T,«ttre8  persanes  .  Eight  editions  changes  at  Rome".  Monte8C[mcu  treats  the  same 
were  published  within  a  year.  Montesquieu  had  subject  in  a  larger  way  and  with  closer  correlation  of 
not  signed  his  name  to  them,  but  the  author  was  facts.     His  point  of  view  is  that  of  the  statesman 

auickly  discovered,  and  the  public  nominated  him  for  rather  than  of  the  moralist,  and  every  religious  pre- 

le  French  Academy.     He  was  elected  in  1726,  but  occupation  is  left  aside.     Such  indeed  is  his  indinei^ 

owing  to  the  scandal  the  "Lettrcs  persanc^"  had  encc  that  he  has  not  a  word  about  religion.    This 

caused,  the  king  did  not  approve  and  an  excuse  was  concession  to  the  prejudices  of  bis  age  was  a  mistake, 

given  that  the  author  did  not  live  in  Paris,  as  the  as  modem  criticism  has  shown,  especially  in  the  works 

rules  of  the  Academy  required.     Whereupon  Monies-  of  Fusl«l  de  Coulanges,  that  religion  pl^ed  a  greater 

quieu  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  and  was  elected  part  in  the  political  conduct  of  the  Romans  than 

once  more,  and  admitted  in  1728,  Montesquieu  credited  it  with. 

Side  by  side  with  their  frivolous  levity  the  "Lettres  "Les  Considfrations"  was  but  an  advance  chapter 

persancs      contain   some   profound  olwervations   on  of  "L'Esprit  dcs  lois"  which  Montesquieu  published 

history  and  politics.     They  show  even  then  Monies-  after  twenty  years  of  labour  (2  vols.,  Geneva,  1748). 

quieu  B  meditation  on  the  laws  and  customs  of  man-  In  this  second  work  the  author  studies  human  laws  in 

kind,  from  which  was  to  result  hIa  latei:  work,  "l.'Es-  their  relationships  with  the  government,  climate,  and 

prit  dps  loia".     As  a  preparation  for  this  work  he  set  general  character  of  the  country,  its  customs,  and  its 

out  (1728)  on  a  long  aericH  of  travels  through  Europe,  reli^on.     He  undertakes,  not  to  examine  various  laws 

and  visited  Vienna,  and  Hungary,  spent  some  time  in  and  discover  their  meaning,  but  to  point  out  their 

Venice,  Florence,  Naples,  ta'uoa,  and  Home,  where  underlying  principles  and  to  lay  down  the  conditions 

he  was  received  by  Cajdinal  de  Polignae  and  Benedict  which  must  be  verified  if  such  laws  are  to  work  tor  the 

XIII.     In  the  suite  of  Lord  Chesterfield  he  went  to  happiness  of  man  in  society.     In  his  judgments  and 

England  where  he  remained   eighteen   months,  and  conclusions  Monleaquieu  is  careful  to  take  into  ac- 

was  the  guest  of  PrimcMiniaterWalpole,  of  Swift,  and  count   experience   and   tradition.     He   beheves   that 

Pope.     Wherever  he  went  he  made  the  acquaintance  laws  can  be  enacted  only  for  men  in  definitely  known 

of  statesmen,  took  copious  notes  of  what  he  saw  and  conditions  of  time  and  place.     In  so  far  he  differs  from 

beard,  and  rend  with  avidity.     After  an  absence  of  the  throrizers  and  Utopians  of  hia  day  and  of  a  later 

three  years  he  returned  to  his  family,  his  business,  his  age,  who  had  no  hesitation  in  drafting  laws  for  man  in 

vineyards  and  the  farming  of  bis  estates  at  ChAteau  theabstractorforahumanityfreedfromallspatialand 

de  W  SrM?-    A?  a  relaxation  he  paid  occasional  temporal  determinations,  and  who  took  as  the  bftW 


MONTIVIBDI  538  MONTI 

of  their  deductions  either  the  idea  of  a  social  contract  Biutand  (London,  1008) :  Dn>»v.  Montnomum  «f  b  &adiHom 

in  primitive  times,  or  of  a  state  of  nature  which  had  ****'*!?«%  "V*?^  V\  '^T  ff*™*Ji*^^'Ji  ?f'  *^;J^  ^?J^ 

A     ir**^*^^^,  «"**«»>  ^'^  V*  «*  o«»«?  ^  iMM.i*»w  vTuiuu  uou  ,^r|c^  Th€  SjnrU  of  Law§,  by  Ndobnt,  revised  ed.  with  mtnxL  by 

to  be  developed   or  restored.     He   thus   avoids  the  F.  R.  Coudbrt  (London  and  New  York.  1900).    ForhistnflueDee 

errors  of  Hoboes,  Locke,  and  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  upon  the  founders  of  the  United  sutes.  see  The  Fedtmiuc 

His  personal  sympathies  went  rather  with  the  Ub-  "*^»*  mtxvu.  1788.  ed.  Gxdmn  (Wwhincton.  18^). 
end  ideas  which  have  triumphed  almost  everywhere  Antoinb  Degest. 

in  the  civilized  world  of  tonday,  but  which  were  novel-        mm^^4.^^^,^^   ru  ,^.^  j*-*-..     •  u^         •  •       1. 

ties  then.    He  declared  himsel/  in  favour  of  separating  ..??1"*^*'?5'  ^^]^J  ^^P^^^^'^^^^ 

the  executive,  legislative,  and  judiciary  powers  (XC  t^^^'i^T^  ^J"^'  P^'  ^*  at  Vemoe,  29  Nov.,  1^. 

vi),  condemned  slavery  knd  t6rture,  iia  advocateci  1®„*!?^^  1^^^,^  Ingegnen  (composer  of  the  "Re- 

gentler  treatment  of  cSminals,  toleration  in  reUgious  g>^nsona  ,  that  until  recently  were  regarded  as  by 

beUef,  and  freedom  of  worship.    But  in  this  woS  he  l^^^"^"^^*  and  at  the  a^  of  «xteen  he  pubbahcd  a 

treata  the  religious  issue  witt  more  gravity  than  he  ^\  °^  cansonets  foUowed  by  foiu-  volumes  of  inad- 

haddoneinthe"Lettrespersane8".  ^efhepasses  P«?^V  Althoughthemajontyof  his ea^ly  works  show 

over  the  truth  of  its  teaching  and  the  sanctity  of  ito  ^^^H  *~^.  ^ Vl®  ''^^^V''®*  ^"^  ""rT^  afterwards 

moral  precepts,  and  treats  ofit  "only  as  regirds  ito  revolutioiuaed  the  prevalent  ^^tem  of  liarmonv.  one 

advant^es  W  civic  life".     But  far  from  thinking  ?}  ^  madngals,  pnnt«i  m  1592^  is  remarkable  for 

that  there  can  be  a  conflict  between  religion  and  soci-  ??  P^y.  suspensions  of  the  dominant  seventh,  and 

ety,  he  insists  that  the  one  is  useful  to  the  other.  **^.'°Y5^!?°L?®  also  suspended  nmths.     He  was  ap- 


***«*«  clearly:  "What  a  wonderful  thing  jo  mc  v^urio-     1 ,  j       .  o  ~l'  li  i_-  •  .  j    . 

tian  religion!  it  seems  to  aim  only  aTfiappiness  in  a  I'^l^St^**,^  T^'iri^  WUT^  ^"^  appreciated  at 

future  life,  and  yet  it  secures  our  happine^  in  this  life  ^^^ ^"^  5  ^^^^ '  Vii^  the  Procuratonmcreased  1^ 

also."     rie  does  not  dream  of  separating  Chureh  and  ?^*F  ^  ^''^  ^"^  ^^^^-     From  that  dat^  untU 

State,  nor  of  subjecting  the  former  to  the  latter:  "I  ^**  f^**^  ^®  produced  numerous  choral  compositions, 

have  never  claimai  that  the  interests  of  reUgion  should  ^  ^^^^^  cantatas,  ballete,  most  of  which  cannot 

give  way  to  those  of  the  State,  but  that  they  should  S?JL^„*'?^;^  ^'"'^SS*!^^'  *^^  ^^  ""^^  ""^ 

go  handf  in  hand."    Nevertheless  on  various  points  -  ^"^fP  »  printed  m  1609  has  come  down  to  us,  wid 

he  seriously  misunderstood  Catholic  teaching:  "  Les  "  ^H»^  sufficient  to  indicate  the  inventive  powers  of  a 

NouveUes  Eccl^astiques"  (Oct.,  1749)  called  atten-  ™^cian  who  broke  away  from  the  trammels  of  the 

tion  to  several  stateinents  of  thw  sort,  and  the  Sor-  °*^'  school  and  created  a  school  of  his  owii. 

bonne  drew  up  a  list  of  passages  from  his  writinra  that  Monteverde  not  only  showed  his  gemus  m  his 

seemed  to  c^  for  ceii8mr(August,  1752).    before  <™»atic  wnting  but  m  the  employment  of  new  m- 

this  (March,   1752),  "L'Esprit  des  lois"  had  been  ftrumentel  effwts,  and  the  wmbinatwn  of  ^^ 

placed  on  tte  Roman  Index.    But  these  measure  m  the  theatre  band.    In  his  interlude  written  for  the 

created  no  great  stir.    The  success  of  the  book  was  T^^Ij'  fu  ^^I  P.^^®,  ^^  Girolamo  Mocenigo,  he  cin- 

enormous,  ite  political  influence  worW-wide.    The  fr^^  t^^  ^®^^  ^['^  instrumental  tremolo.  UU 

eariy  American  statesmen  were  very  familiar  with  t^^en  uiiknown.    Another  novel  effect  was  his  einploy- 

"UEsprit  des  lois"  and  from  it  (XI,  A)  derived  much  ?^'^?f„^''T*^^  ^.  ^^^^S^*^? /^u-    9^?u    *°^ 

of  their  idea  of  federal  government.    Jefferson,  the  J^^^    r  ?u^*^li?  ^^^'  /u  *^^  ^^^  ^^  Y^ 

author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  HamUton,  JSiQ^*"^!.  ^'  ^^^  priesthood,  and  he  was  ordiuned  m 

Madison,  and  Jay  who  wrote  in  the  "  Federalist "  iri  }^l    ^^*  ^^  later  he  composed  an  opera  "  Atone" 

defence  of  the  new  Constitution,  were  all  enthusiastic  ^^f  ***®  ^P?*  u  T*  /     .u  ^^^^^^k  ^ opowed  by  two 

readers  of  Montesquieu.     Montesquieu's  reputation  ?Sf*'  IS- f«J?,^fel  ?™]?®Jff?ll-^^^                     ^ 

became  universal.  '"  ""  ""'*'•   """'* 

the  homage  i 

the^ureh,  ^d  dio^ng'evrrir' outwIrd^wT^f*^^  tion  of  instrumentation.    He  may  justly  be  claimed  as 

feet  obedience  to  her  laws.    The  influence  of  his  id^  If®    au      «« .dramatic  music,  as  we  now  understand 

was  to  be  felt  long  afterwards  both  in  France  and  V*'  .^^,P®  anticipated  Wagner  m  the  employment  of 

elsewhere  heumotw, 

B^des'  the  works  which  we  have  mentioned,  and  I^5:»Xip?5fl'^cfw^^^  a^don.^9S;: 
which  are  the  most  important,  Montesquieu  left  afew  W.  H.  Gbattan-Flood. 
papers  which  he  read  before  the  Academy  of  Bor- 
deaux, and  a  few  incomplete  writings.  "Le  temple  de  Monte  Vorffine  (Montis  Virgints),  an  abbey  in 
Guide",  a  short  novel  of  a  sensuous  turn  written  for  the  province  of  Naples,  Italy,  near  the  town  of  Avel- 
the  licentious  society  of  the  Regency  epoch,  does  him  lino,  commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Mediter- 
little  credit.  He  wrote  an  "Essai  sur  le  goiit",  a  ranean  along  the  Bays  of  Naples,  Salerno,  and  Qaeia, 
"Dialogue  de  Sylla  et  d'Eucrate",  "Arsace  et  Is-  and  inland  as  far  as  the  Abrussi  Mountains.  Monte 
m6nie",  an  uninteresting  novel,  and  over  one  hundred  Vergine  was  formerly  known  as  Mons  Sacer  because 
letters.  These  have  all  been  collected  in:  the  "CEu-  of  a  temple  sacred  to  Cybele  that  stood  there;  also  as 
vres  completes  de  Montesquieu",  edited  by  Edward  Mons  Virgilianus,  from  the  legend  that  Virgil  retired 
Laboulaye  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1875-79);  ''^M^langes  thither  to  study  the  SibyUine  books.  St.  Feto  of  Nola 
m^dits  de  Montesquieu"  published  by  Baron  de  is  said  to  have  taken  refuge  there,  and  in  the  seventh 
Monteaqmeu  (Bordeaux,  1892);  "  Voyages  de  Montes-  century  St.  Vitalian  of  Capua  erected  on  the  hill  a 
quieu  ,  published  by  the  same  (Bordeaux,  1894-  chapel  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  called  "Sancta 
96);  "Pense^  et  fragments  in6dits  de  Montesquieu",  Maria  de  Monte  Vergine  .  Whatever  the  origin  of 
pubhshed  by  the  same  (Bordeaux,  1899-1901:  two  the  name  it  is  certwn  that  a  pagan  shrine  existed  there, 
volumes  have  appeared;  others  are  in  course  of  and  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Cybele  lie  all  about  the 
preparation).  hill.  In  1119  St.  William  of  Vercelli  built  a  monastery 
I7?5tr^f:r//%rf df ^^^^  \!:S^r.^,  T^t;  of strictobservanceimdDj^tualabsth^^^^ 

Bkus,  Elude  gur  Montesquieu  (Fans,  1874);  SoRtu  Montesquieu  Vergine,  and    m   1149  hlS  SUCCessor  Blessed   Robert, 

(Paris,  18872:  zAvort,  Montesquieu  (Pariu.  1887);  Lbp^vrk.  with  the  approval  of  Alexander  III,  gave  it  to  the 

t'^ili^^JZUV'.T^t^Trj^l'Jf^^  Benedictines^   According  to  CaHtellain.  St    William 

1902) ;   Barckhausbn.  Montesquieu  see  idies  et  see  auvres  (Pariii.  ^^  CanOUlzed  by  thlS  pope,  and  hlS  fcast  IS  kept  On  25 

1907) ;  Chubton  Coluns.  VoUaire,  Montee^ieu,  and  Aoumwv  m  Juue,     As  early  1(3  1 191  tb©  ftbbey  10  Spol^^  of  M  be* 


MONTEVIDBO                          539  MONTFAVCON 

loni^g  "ad  Dominum  Papam  specialiter".    It  re-  vows,  instituted  civil  marriage,  and  made  it  a  crimd 

oeived  throughout  the  Middle  Aees  many  marks  of  to  baptize  a  child  before  its  birth  was  registered  civilly, 

consideration  from  the  kings  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  To-day,  however,  the  Church  is  flourishing,  and  the 

witMn  whose  domains  there  were  at  one  time  no  less  archdiocese  contains    many  congregations  of  men 

than  one  hundred  monasteries  of  this  branch  of  the  (Jesuits,  Capuchins,  Redemptorists,  Salesians,  etc.), 

Benedictine  order.    After  manv  vicissitudes,  laxity  and  over  300  nuns  engaged  in  teaching  and  chari- 

of  rule  threaten^  ruin  to  the  abbey,  and  in  the  six-  tablework.    The  diocese  contains  72,210  square  miles, 

teenth  century  Clement  VIII  charged  Blessed  John  and  about  1,103,000  inhabitants  (in  1906),  almost 

Leonard,   founder    oi*    the  Clerks    Regular  of  the  all  Catholics,  of  whom  308,0(X)  were  in  the  Depart- 

Mother  of  God,  to  restore  the  monastic  spirit.    The  ment  of  Montevideo.    There  are  46  parishes,  7  filial 

new  constitutions  were  approved  by  Paul  V  in  1611,  cures,  122  priests,  and  about  ICX)  chapels  and  churches, 

and  included  among  other  things  a  regulation  that  Thepresentoccupantof  the  see  is  Mgr.  Mariano  Soler. 

the  monks  of  Monte  Vergine  should  use  me  Camaldo-  b.  at  San  Carlo,  Uruguay,  25  March,  1846;  elected 

lese  Breviary.    The  habit  of  the  monks  was  to  be  bishop,  29  Jime,  1891;   consecrated  archbishop,  19 

white,  and  they  were  to  wear  a  white  scapular.  April,   1897;    he  has  two  auxiliary  bishops:    Mgr. 

From  the  beginning  the  abbey  seems  to  have  been  Ricarao  Isasa  ^titular  Bishop  of  Anemurium),  b.  at 

freed  from  diocesan  control,  and  its  abbots  had  the  Montevideo,  7  i!*ebruary,  1847;  elected,  15  February, 

faculty  of  conferring  the  four  minor  orders  and  confir-  1891;  and  Mgr.  Pio  Gaetano  Secondo  Stella  (titular 

mation.    Between  1440  and  1515  it  was  held  in  com-  Bishop  of  Amizona),  b.  at  Paso  del  Molino,  Uruguay, 

mendam  by  five  cardinals,  and  in  that  year  was  united  7  August.  1857;  elected,  22  December,  1893.   Almost 

with  the  Hospital  of  the  Nunziata  at  Naples.    The  all  the  innabitants  are  Catholics,  there  is,  however,  a 

governors  of  tne  hospital  sent  as  their  representative  small  Piedmontese  Waldensian  agricultural  colony  in 

to  Monte  Vergine  a  sacristan  who  interfered  with  the  the  East  of  Colonia. 

discipline  of  the  place,  and  from  this  indignity  the  Among  the  noteworthy  buildings  of  the  City  of 

monks  were  freed  by  St.  Pius  V  in  1557.    In  1579  Montevideo  may  be  mentioned  the  cathedral,  bc^gun 

Gregory  XIII  gave  them  chary^e  of  St.  Agatha's  in  in  1803,  completed  and  restored  in  1905;  and  the 

Subura,  Rome;  Paul  V  made  it  a  privileged  abbey,  Jesuit,   Redemptorist,    and    Franciscan    churches, 

and  it  remained  in  their  care  until  Gregory  XVII  gave  Within  recent  years  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 

it  to  the  Irish  students  (see  Irish  College,  Rome).  have  been  established  in  all  the  city  parishes;  likewise 

The  monastery  chapel  contains  an  ancient  Byzan-  an  excellent  Catholic  club;  and  an  institute  for  Cath- 

tine  picture  of  tne  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  said  to  have  olic  working-men.  The  city  dates  back  to  early  in  the 

come  originally  from  Antioch.    The  dark  features  of  seventeenth  century;  a  small  fort,  San  Jos6,  was  built 

the  Blessed  Virgin  standing  out  from  a  background  of  there  in  1724;  in  January,  1728,  the  town  was  founded 

bright  gold  have  won  for  it  from  peasants  and  pil-  by  Bruno  de  Zabala  with  the  name  San  Felipe  y 

grims  the  name  of  "Schiavona".    The  story  runs,  Santiago;  in  1807  it  was  captured  by  the  British;  in 

that  the  head  of  the  picture  was  cut  from  its  frame  by  1828  it  oecame  the  capital  of  the  republic ;  from  18^  to 

Baldwin,  the  Latin  Emperor  of  Jerusalem,  to  save  it  1851  it  withstood  the  nine  years'  siege  by  Oribe  and  his 

from  desecration,  that  it  was  found  among  his  posses-  Argentine  allies.   Montevideo  has  witmn  recent  years 

sions  by  his  grand-niece  Catherine  of  Valois  (who  lies  grown  to  be  one  of  the  seven  greatest  seaports  in  the 

buried  in  the  chapel),  and  that  she  gave  it  to  Monte  world  (see  Uruquat).   San  Jos^  de  Mayo  (9(XX))  con- 

Verg[ine.    The  lower  portion  of  the  picture  as  it  ex-  tains  a  magnificent  church,  more  massive  than  the 

ists  in  the  shrine  was  added  at  a  later  date  by  the  '  cathedral;  and  also  the  college  of  the  Sisters  of  Nue»- 

brush  of  Montana  di  Arezzo.    The  .church  is  also  said  tra  Sefiora  del  Huerto,  which  has  a  very  pretty  chapel 

to  contain  relics  of  the  bodies  of  the  young  men.  Si-  attached.    (For  the  early  Urugu^an  nussions  among 

drach.  Misach,  Abdenago,  who  were  saved  from  the  the  Indians  see  Reductions  of  Paraquat.) 

fiery  furnace.    These  relics  were  brought  from  Jem-  „^^''?»  9«*P^i*  naeional  (Montevideo,   1892);  Mulhaud, 

ool^Tm  Kv  FrM^AripIr  TT       Ppnipprw^  «.nHfhp  Aicrhth  nf  ffa^^'dhook  of  the   River  Plate   Rejna>lxce    fBuenoa  Airea,    1892); 

Salem  DV  l?  reaenCK  ll.      rentecOSt  ana  tne  eigntn  OI  Kj^^k*.  Centnl  and  South  America,  I  (London,  1809). 

September  are  the  two  great  days  of  pilgrimage  and  A.  A.  MacErlean. 
rejoicing  at  Monte  Vergine.    The  nearest  town  is 

Meroo^ano  and  on  these  days  its  population  is  more  Montfaucoilt   Bernard  de.  French  scholar,  b. 

than  doubled.    The  present  abbot  is  Mgr.  Victor  Cor-  in  1655,  at  the  ch&teau  de  Soulatge,  Department 

vaia,O.S.B.,bomatPalermo,  19  June,  1834,  succeeded  of  Aude,  arrondissement  of  Carcassone;  d.  in  Paris, 

18  January,  1884.    The  chapter  consists  of  15  canons,  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain-des-Pr^s,  m  1741.     He 

Tlieabbot's  jurisdiction  extends  over  7  parishes  form-  was  the  son  of  Timol^on  de  Montfaueon  and  of 

ing  part  of  four  oommimes  in  the  border  provinces  of  Flore  de  Maignan.    His  family,  originally  of  Gas- 

Avellino    and    Benevento.      There   are   27  chapels  cony,  had  settled  in  Languedoc  after  the  Albic^ensian 

within  the  prelacy,  and  the  population  of  8070  souls  is  CniiBade   of   the   thirteenth   century;   its   pnncipal 

ministered  to  by'  31  secular  pnests  and  18  regulars.  seat  was  the  ch&teau  of  Roquetaillade  (arronaissement 

Vita  8.  Chdidmt  Abbatit  In  Acta  55.,  June.  V;  Giobdano,  of  Limoux),  where  Bernard  was  reared.    He  was  in- 

S^SS^vt:  S"^ULT'5^«SiS'V^^te«  V^  ft^oted  by.  PaviUon   Bishop  of  AJeth,  his  faUt^-s 

1840):  CRAwroBD,  Southern  Italy  and  StcUy  (London,  1905);  fnend,  and  m  1672,  at  the  age  of  thurteen,  he  entered 

Annuario  SecUtiattieo  (1908);   Qerarchia   (1910);  Ann,  Pont,  the  Academic  des  Cadets  at  Perpignan.  to  prepare 

^^®^^^"                                                     J,  Q,  Obey  ^^^  ^  military  career.    After  his  fathers  death,  he 

left  home  with  his  relative,  the  Marquis  d'Hautpol, 

MontoirideOt  Archdiocese  of  (Montisvidei),  in  a  captain  of  grenadiers  in  the  Regiment  of  Langueaoo, 

TJru|Suay,  comprises  the  whole  of  the  republic.    This  and  served  as  a  volunteer  under  Turenne  (1673). 

territory  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Paraguayan  He  went  throu^  the  campaign  of  Alsace,  was  at  the 

Church  till  1620,  when  it  became  subject  to  Buenos  battle  of  Manenthal,   and  fell  dangerously  ill  at 

Aires.   In  18^  the  Holy  See  erected  it  mto  a  vicariate  Saveme.    In   pursuance  of   a   vow   made   to   the 

Apostolic.   On  15  July,  1878,  it  was  ndsed  to  episcopal  Blessed  Virgin,  he  then  returned  to  his  own  country, 

rs^,  Mgr.  Hyacinth  Vera  being  first  bidiop;  on  19  resolved  upon  entering  religion.    On  13  May,  1676, 

April,  1807,  it  was  made  an  archdiocese.    It  was  de-  he  made  his  profession  in  the  Benedictine  monastery 

cided  at  tiiat  time  to  erect  two  suffragan  sees,  Melo  and  of  Durade,  at  Toulouse.    Being  sent  to  the  Abbey 

Salt6,  but  no  appointments  have  vet  oeen  made  (1910) .  of  Sor^ze,  he  there  learned  Greek,  making  rapid  prog- 

Since  colonial  days  ended,  the  Church  has  been  perse-  ress.    He  next  spent  eight  years  at  the  priory  of 

cuted  at  times,  especially  between  1880  and  1890  under  la  Grasse  (Aude) .    Claude  Martin,  assistant  superior 

Santos,  who  forbade  religious  under  forty  to  make  of  the  Congregation  of  St-Maur,  noted  his  zeal  and 


MONTVOftT                          540  MONTVOftT 

eaufled  him  to  be  sent  to  the  Abbey  of  Sainte-Croix  observations.    His    great    ^'Palsogniphia    Gnrca'' 

at  Bordeaux.    Finally,  in  1687,  he  was  transferred  (folio,  Paris,  1708)  inaugurated  the  scientific  study  of 

to  Paris,   to   the  Aboey    of    St-Germain-des-Prds,  Greek  texts.    Another  auxiliary  science  of  history, 

which,  under  the  rule  of  Mabillon,  had  become  one  that  of  bibliography,  owes  to  him  a  work  stiU  of 

of  the  chief  centres  of  French  erudition.    He  was  considerable  value,  tne  "Bibliotheca  bibliothecarum 

then  chosen  to  assist  in  preparing  the  edition  of  the  manuscriptorum  nova"  (2  vols.,  folio,  Paris,  1739), 

Greek  Fathers  which  the  Benedictines  had  under-  a  catalogue  of  the  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  chief 

taken.    To  perfect  his  own  training,  he  also  began  libraries  of  Europe.    Lastly,  Montfaucon  intuitively 

the  study  of  Hebrew,  Chaldean,  S3rriac,  and  Coptic,  saw  what  benefit  might  accrue  to  history  from  the 

as  well  as  that  of  numismatics,  and  in  1694  was  study  of  figured  monuments,  and,  if  he  was  not  the 

appointed  curator  of  the  numismatic  collection  at  creator  of  areh®ology,  he  was  at  least  the  first  to 

St-Oermain-des-Pr^.  show  what  advantages  might  be  derived  from  it. 

In  1690  Montfaucon  had  published  a  treatise  on  Two  of  his  works  show  him  to  be  an  originator. 

"La  v6rit^  de  I'histoire  de  Judith".    The  monu-  In   1719   he  published   '' L' Antiquity  expUqu^e  et 

mental  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  Athanasius,  on  representee  en  figures"   (10  vols.,  folio,  Paris),  in 

which  he  laboured  with  Dom  Pouget  and   Dom  which  he  reproduces,  methodically  grouped,  all  the 

Lopin.  appeared  in  1698  and  was  well  received  (3  ancient  monuments  that  might  be  of  use  m  the  study 

vols.,  tolio,  Paris;  reproduced  in  P.  G.,XXV-XXVIII).  of   the   reli^on^    domestic   customs,   material    life, 

Before  undertaking  new  patristic  labours,   he  re-  military  institutions,  and  funeral  rites  of  the  ancients, 

solved  to  study  the  manuscripts  in  the  libraries  of  Of  this  work,  which  contains  1120  plates,  the  whole 

Italy.    Obtaimng  permission  m  1698,  he  set  out  with  edition  of  1800  copies  was  exhausted  in  two  months, 

Dom  Paul  Briois.    At  Milan  he  made  the  acouaint-  in  spite  of  its  enormous  size.    The  regent,  Philippe 

ance  of  Muratori;  at  Venice  he  was  receivea  very  d'Orl^ans,  desired  that  the  author  should  become  a 

coldly,  and  was  not  even  allowed  to  see  the  manu-  member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  BeUe»- 

Bcripts    in    the    Benedictine    monasteries   of   San  Lettres,  and  he  was  elected  to  replace  P^re  Letellier 

Gioraio  Maggiore  and  San  Marco.    On  the  other  (1719).    Montfaucon  then  conceived  a  more  daring 

hand,  he  was  welcomed  at  Mantua,  Ravenna,  and  idea,   a  work,  similar  to  '4' Antiquity  expliqude  , 

especially  at  Rome  by  Innocent  XI.     Having  been  which  should  embrace  the  entire  history  of  France, 

named  by  his  superiors  procurator  general  at  Rome  Thb  work,  the  ''Monuments  de  la  monarchie  fran- 

of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict,  certain  difficulties  with  ^ise",  dedicated  to  Louis  XV,  appeared  from  1729 

the  Jesuits  led  to  his  resignation  of  that  office  which  to  1733  (5  vols.,  folio,  Paris).    In  it  Montfaucon 

brought  with  it  so  many  distractions  from  his  chief  studies  the  history,  as  it  is  shown  in  the  monuments, 

work,  and  in  1701  he  secured  his  recall  to  France,  of  each  successive  reign  down  to  that  of  Heniv 

The  scientific  results  of  his  journey  were  embodied  IV.    His  reproductions  are  inexact,  and  the  work 

in  the  quarto  volume  of  his  ''Diarium  Italicum"  remained    incomplete.    On    19    December,     1741, 

(Paris,  1702).    He  also  collected  the  notes  of  his  he  read  before  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  a  plan  for 

companion,  Dom  Paul  Briois,  who  had  died  on  the  completing  this  work;  two  days  later  he  passed  away 

journey    (edited   by   Omont,    ''Revue   des   Bibho-  tranquilly,  without  any  premonitory  svmptoms  of 

th6ques",  XIV,  1904).  illness.    An  indefatigable  scholar,  a  bold,  thinker,  an 

In  the  full  maturity  of  his  powers,  at  liberty  to  originator  of  scientific  methods,  he  left  after  him  a 

satisfy  his  passion  for  work,  with  a  large  experience  mighty  generation  of  disciples  to  form  the  connecting 

of  life  and  an  immense  fund  of  general  information,  link  between  the  old  Benedictine  learning  and  modem 

Montfaucon  now  took  up  his  abode  at  the  Abbey  ot  scholarship. 

St-Germain-des-Pr6s,  where  he  spent  the  last  forty  .D»  Brooub,  l«  5o«d«  da  Se^«rfnaftn^-fV^  au  xr///« 

vAo««   rxf  Wta   Iff  A       TTa«a   o    Akr%;/iA   kyv4«r   ^f   c>/itt^s1oJ«  «*««.•  Bernard  de  MorU/aueon  tt  U*  Bernordtiu  1716-1760  (2  voIb,, 

years  of  his   life.     Here  a  choice   body   of  scholars  p^^ia.  1891);  Gioas,  LeUree  dee  BinSdietine  de  ta  eoTK^^ion  di 

gathered  around  him,  his  avowed  disciples,  whose  st-Maw,  1706-1741  (2  vols.,  Paria,  1893);  Omomt,  Bernard  de 

affection  for  their  master  prompted  them  to  take  ^«Sfe««»^»  ~  Z^^*/**  ?<  •?  ?rr**^  "^'^^ 

the   name   of    "Bemardins".    Among   these   were  Jj^^^f i%  J^i^J.^ffs?)?' '  ^*^ 

Claude  de  Vic  and  Joseph  Vaissette,  authors  of  the  '                '         *                    Louis  I^s^hibr. 
"Histoire    de    Languedoc",    the   hellenist    Charles 

de  la  Rue  (his  favourite  disciple),  Dom  Lobineau,  Montfort,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester,  date  of 

the  historian  of  Brittany,  and  even  the  Abb^  Provost,  birth  unknown,  d.  at  Toulouse,  25  June,  1218.    I^mon 

who  was  then  a  collaborator  on  the  ''Gallia  Christ-  (IV)  de  Montfort  was  descended  from  the  lords  of 

iana".    Montfaucon,  moreover,  corresponded  with  Montfort  TAmauiy  in  Normandy,  being  the  second 

scholars  all  over  £urop>e,  and,  in  spite  of  the  heavy  son  of  Simon  (III),  and  Amicia,  dau^ter  of  Robert  de 

tasks  he  took  upon  himself,  he  succeeded,  thanks  Beaumont,  third  iLarl  of  Leicester.    Having  succeeded 

to  his  abstemious  and  regular  life^  in  working  almost  his  father  as  Baron  de  Montfort  in  1181,  in  1190  he 

to  his  last  day.    During  this,  his  most  productive  married  Alice  de  Montmorency,   the  daughter  of 

period,  he  supplemented  the  former  edition  of  the  Bouchard  (III)  de  Montmorency.    In  1199  while  tak- 

Greek  Fathers  with  a  ''CoUectio  nova  patrum  et  ing  part  in  a  tournament  at  Ecnr-sur-Aisne  in  the 

scriptorum  gnecorum"  (2  vols.,  folio,  Paris,  1706).  province  of  Champagne  he  heard  Fulk  de  Neuilly 

In  1709  he  translated  into  French  the  **De  vita  con-  preaching  the  crusade,  and  in  company  with  Count 

tcmplativa"  of  Philo  Judaeus,  and  essayed  to  prove  Thibaud  de  Champagne  and  many  other  nobles  and 

that  the  Therapeut®  there  mentioned  were  Chris-  knights  he  took  the  cross.    Unfortunately,  the  crusade 

tians.    Next  appeared  the  edition  of  Origen  (2  vols.,  got  out  of  control,  and  the  French  knight«,  instead  of 

fol.,  Paris.  1713)  and  that  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  co-operating  with  the  pope,  decided  on  a  campaign  in 

(13  vols.,  loUo,  Paris,  1718),  prepared  with  the  assi»-  Egypt,  and  on  their  arnval  at  Venice  entered  on  a 

tance  of  Francois  Faverolles,  treasurer  of  St-Denis,  contract  for  transport  across  the  Mediterranean.    Be- 

and  four  Benedictines,  who  spent  thirteen  years  in  ing  unable  to  fulfil  the  terms  of  the  contract,  they 

collating  300  manuscripts.  compounded  by  assisting  the  Venetians  to  capture 

The  thoroughly  scientific  bent  of  Montfaucon's  Zara  in  Dalmatia.    In  vain  the  pope  urged  them  to 

mind  led  him  to  elaborate  a  new  auxiliary  science  out  set  out  for  the  Holy  Land.    They  preferred  to  mareh 

of  the  studies  he  had  made  for  the  verification  of  his  on  Constantinople,  though  Simon  ae  Montfort  offered 

Greek  texts.    As  Mabillon  had  created  the  science  of  energetic  opposition  to  this  proposal.    Notwithstand- 

diplomatics,  so  Montfaucon  was  the  father  of  Greek  ing  his  efforts,  the  expedition  was  undertaken  and  the 

paLeography,  the  principles  of  which  he  established  pope's  plans  were  defeated. 

by  the  rigour  of  his  method  in  grouping  his  personal  In  1204  or  1205  Simon  succeeded  to  the  Earldom  of 


H6NTa6LnKft  541  HOHTOOLnZB 

Leicea(«r  and  large  estetes  in  England,  tor  on  the  land  was  shown  by  his  efforts  to  dissuade  Tx>u|b  of 

death  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Leireater  in  that  year,  hia  France  from  invading  England  in  July,  1216,  in  which 

honour  of  I,eicester  devolved  on   his  sister  Alicia,  matter  he  was  seconded,  though  fruitlcBsly,  by  thn 

Simon's  mother;    and  as  her  husband    Simon  (III),  legate  Gualo.    Having  nt  this  time  raised  more  troops 

and  her  eldest  Bon  were  already  dead,  the  %arldom  in  Paris,  Simon  returned  to  the  south  of  France,  where 

devolved  on  Simon  himself.    But  though  he  was  recog-  he  occupied  himself  in  waging  war  at  Ntmee,  until  in 

niied  by  King  John  as  Earl  of  Leicester,  he  was  never  1217  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  Provence,  where  Count 

formally  invested  with  the  earldom,  and  in  February,  Raymond's  son  re-entered  Toulouse.    Simon  hastened 

1207,  the  king  seized  all  his  English  estates  on  pretext  to  besiege  the  city,  but  waa  hampered  by  lack  of  troops, 

of  a  debt  due  from  him.    Shortly  afterwards  they  were  On  25  June,  1218,  while  he  was  at  Mass  he  learned 

restored,  only  to  be  confiBoa ted  again  before  the  end  of  that  the  besieged  bad  made  a  sortie.    Refusing  to 

the  year.    Simon,  content  with  the  Norman  estates  he  leave  the  church  before  Mass  waa  over,  he  arrived  late 

had  inherited  from  the  de  Montforts  and  the  de  Beau-  at  the  scene  of  action  only  to  be  wounded  mortally. 

monts,  remained  in  France    where  in  1208  he  was  He  expired,  commending  his  soul  to  God,  and  was 

made  captain-general  of  the  French  forces  in  the  Cru-  buried  in  the  Monastery  of  Haute-Bruy&re.    He  left 

sade  against  the  Albigenses.    At  first  he  declined  this  three  sons,  of  whom  Almeric  the  eldest  ultimately  in- 

Iionour,   but   the   pope's   legate,   Arnold,   Abbot   of  herited  hisFrenchestates:  theyounHestwaaSimonda 

tTteaun,  ordered  him  in  the  pope's  name  to  accept  it,  Montfort,  who  succeeded  him  as  Earl  of  Leicester,  and 

t.nd  he  obeyed,  who  waa  to  play  so  great  a  part  in  English  history. 

Simon  thus  received  control  over  the  territoiy  con- 

,r,cr«l  torn  Ewraond  (VI)  o(  Toalou«  .nd  ty  hi.  ,^i;-rj,5'rK*,."|S"..\'rifca'i'?.4SS:S 

Bar  Simon  dt  MontfoH  (Puis.  ISg4);  L' Hebuiti,  Vit  dt  Simon, 
ComU  di  Monl/grl  [■.  I.  ■.);  Mouhieh,  Calalotat  det  acta  dt 
Simon  It  d'Amauride  Monijorl ia  Biblu4h.  de  I'fcolt  det  CAorfa 
(1375).  XXXiV  (Ptiit.  lgH);HoaaxTmiD  Diet.  Nat.  Bioe..t.T. 
Simon  (V)  de  MoTUSari. 

Edwin  Burton. 

MontffOlfier,  Josefh-Michbl,  inventor;  b.  at  Vi- 
daloD-lez-Annonay,  Departmeat  of  Ard^che,  France, 
26  August,  1740;  d.  at  Balaruc-les-Baina,  Depart- 
ment of  Hdrault,  France,  26  June,  1810.  His  father 
was  a  prosperous  paper-manufacturer,  who  brought 
up  nine  children,  presenting  to  them  an  exanmle  of 
high  virtue,  honesty,  economy,  and  piety.  Joseph 
was  educated  at  the  local  college  in  a  very  unsatis- 
factory manner.  When  be  returned  home  he  found 
in  the  manufacture  of  paper  subjects  of  study  more 
to  his  liking.  He  set  up  an  independent  establish- 
ment with  lus  brother  Augustine  in  order  to  eitercise 
the  inventive  faculties  that  were  held  in  check  by 
his  economical  father.  His  numerous  ideas  and  pro- 
jects and  his  simplicity  of  character  exposed  him  to 
financial  losses,  and  eventually  brought  upon  him  an 
DuTs  o»  Satm  ".f^^^'^'jjfj  ™'  Stouhhq  of  unjust  temporary  imprisonment. 

Stooa  bM-rdid  la  the  othedru  of  CuoBiHina  He  improved  the  manufacture  of  paper,  invented  a 

method  of  stereotyping,  and  constructed  an  air-pump 
militaryskill,  fierce  courage,  and  ruthlcBsnesB  he  swept  for  rarefying  the  ajr  m  the  moulds.  Numerous  ob- 
the  counti?.  His  success  won  for  him  the  admiration  jecta  of  everyday  life  occupied  his  inventive  genius. 
of  the  E^^ish  barons,  and  in  1210  King  John  received  Hia  most  important  work,  however,  was  in  connexion 
information  that  they  were  plotting  to  elect  Simon  with  hydraulics  and  aeronautics.  He  interested  his 
King  of  England  in  his  stead.  Simon,  however,  con-  brother  Etienne  in  these  so-called  chimerical  projects. 
centrated  his  fierce  eneraes  on  his  task  in  Toulouse,  They  invented  the  hydraulic  ram,  which  uses  the 
and  in  1213  he  defeated  Peter  of  Aragon  at  the  battle  energy  from  a  copious  flow  of  water  under  a  smaU 
of  Muret.  The  Albigenses  were  now  crushed,  but  headin  order  to  force  a  small  portion  of  that  water 
Simon  carried  on  the  cainpaign  as  a  war  of  conquest,  to  a  considerable  height.  Obiicr^'atioua  on  the  be- 
bcing  appointed  by  the  Council  of  Montpellier  lord  haviour  of  a  sheet  hung  over  a  fire  led  them  to  attempt 
over  all  the  newly-acquired  territory,  as  Count  of  a  number  of  experimente  with  balloons  made  of 
Toulouse  and  Duke  of  Narbonne  (1215).  The  pope  taffetas  and  filled  with  heated  air.  On  5  June,  1783, 
confirmed  this  appointment,  understanding  that  it  a  succeastvd  exhibition  took  place  before  the  Estates 
would  effectually  complete  the  suppression  of  the  of  Vivarais,  assembled  at  Annonay.  A  globe,  110 
heresy.  It  is  ever  to  be  deplored  that  Simon  stained  feet  in  circumference  and  weighing  about  SU)  pounds, 
his  many  great  qualities  by  treachery,  harshness,  and  was  filled  with  air  half  as  heavy  as  the  atmosphere, 
bad  faith.  His  severity  became  cruelty,  and  he  de-  This  baUoon  rose  to  a  height  of  6600  feet  and  came 
Uvered  over  many  towns  to  fire  and  pillage,  thus  in-  down  very  gently  at  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half, 
volving  many  innocent  people  in  the  common  ruin.  This  attempt  naturally  excited  enormous  interest 
This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as  his  intrepid  leal  tor  throughout  the  civilized  world.  Joseph  left  to  his 
the  Catholic  faith,  the  severe  virtue  of  hin  private  life,  brother  the  honour  and  duty  of  r^rorting  to  the 
and  his  courage  and  skill  in  warfare  marked  him  out  as  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris  and  of  repeating  ex- 
s  Kreat  man.  periments  at  the  expense  of  the  Government.     Bal- 

Meanwhile  the  pope  had  been  making  efforts  to  loons  were  constructed  that  carried  with  them  a  fur- 
eecure  for  him  the  restitution  of  his  English  estates,  nace  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  air  heated  and 
The  surrender  of  his  lands  by  John  waa  one  of  the  therefore  light,  and  two  courageous  physicists,  Biot 
conditions  for  reconciliation  laid  down  by  the  pope  in  and  Gay-Luasac  made  a  successful  ascent.  At  Lyons, 
1213;  but  it  was  not  till  July,  1215,  that  John  reluct-  Joseph  and  six  others  went  up  in  a  balloon  126  feet 
antl^  yielded  the  honour  of  Leicester  into  the  hands  high  and  102  feet  in  diameter.  On  20  August,  17S3, 
of  Simon's  nephew,  Ralph,  Earl  of  Cheater,  "for  the  the  brothers  were  placed  by  acclamation  on  the  list  of 
beo^t  of  the  said  Simoo "    SimOD'a  interest  in  Eng-    correspondents  of  th«  Academy,  "as  acientista  to 


H0NTH8  5- 

whom  we  ue  mdebted  for  a  new  art  that  will  make  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  human  science".  Etienae  re- 
ceived the  decoration  of  Saint-Michel  for  hlraseif,  and 
letters  of  nobility  for  his  father.  Joec^ph  obtained  a 
pennon,  and  40,000  livres  for  the  construction  of  an 
experimental  diri^ble  balloon.  This  he  was  unable 
loreaUM. 

He  waa  noted  for  extraordinary  bodily  strength  and 
for  courageous  philanthropy.  During  the  stormy 
days  of  the  Revolution  he  ofTered  and  ensured  pro- 
tection and  aayliun  to  many  proacribed  penons,  who 
often    not 


known  to  him 
even  by  name. 
"Siding  with  no 
faction,  he  Bub- 
raittcd  to  the  po- 
litical laws  unleea 
they  were  in  op- 

eition  to  the 
B  of  humanity, 
and  awaited  with 
confidence  the  re- 
turn of  order". 
His  businees  hav- 
ing been  ruined, 
he  went  to  Paris, 
where  the  now 
Government  wel- 
comed and  re- 
warded him.  He 
was  called  to  the 
consultingbureau 
of  arts  and  manu- 
Jobbps-Mkidl  Aim  Jxatm-Bnnnn      facturcs,    Was 

MoHiooi^o.  named    demon- 

strator of  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades,  was 
received  at  the  Institute,  1807,  aa  the  successor  of 
Coulomb,  and  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour. 

Apart  from  a  few  memoiis  in  "Journal  dee  Mines" 
and  "Journal  de  I'Ecole  polytechnique",  he  pub- 
lished very  little,  vii.:  "Discoura  sur  1  aerostat" 
(with  his  brother  Etienne),  Paris,  1783;  "Voyageura 
a^riens"  (with  Etienne),  Paris,  17S4;  "Mfmoires  sur 
la  machioe  aerostat! que",  Pans,  1784;  "Notes  sur  !e 
b^lierhydraulique",  Paris,  1803. 

DtuiiBHE,  Doticw  ia  UfmnirH  dc  rtmUlui.  SeinuH  tnalk.  tl 
'0(Puu,  lail):  WiH.  fiviMiiKtr  Aaronaufio  (Philadel- 


\2  U0NTR8 

dulgences,   three  hundred  daj^  daily  for  thntc  '<-hc 

Erivately  or  publicly  [)fr(orra  some  pious  pratti<  .■  in 
ODOur  of  St.  Joseph,  during  the  month,  a  plcnory  in- 
dulgence on  any  day  of  the  montli  under  the  ii;,urI 
conditions  (Pius  IX,  "Rescript  Congr.  Induig,".  27 
April.  1865).    This  month  of  duvotionamaycomui'  dcc 
in  February  and  be  concluded  19  March  (Pius  I.\.  IS 
July,   1877).    March  can  be  replaced  by  any  K'her 
month  in  case  of  legitimate  impediment  (Rac<N.lta, 
404).    The  practice  ofa  triduum  before  the  feast  "i  St. 
Joseph  has  been  recommended  by  Leo  XIII  (lincycl. 
"Quamquampluries",  15  August.  1889).   (3)  May,  thu 
Blessed  Vii^n  MaiT-    The  May  devotionin  itsprr  sent 
form  originated  at  Rome  where  Father  Latomin  ut  the 
Roman  College  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  to  counteract 
infidelity  and  immorality  among  the  students,  ntM''' 
a  vow  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  dc-- 
the  month  of  May  to  Mary.     From  Rome  the  pru.  - 
tice  spread  to  the  other  Jesuit  colleges  and  thence  ' 
nearly  every  CathoUc  church  of  the  Latin  rite  (.^llj" 
"aiucthenktinte",  IV,  5.31  sq,).     This  practice  is  ; 
oldest  instance  of  a  devotion  extending  over  an  eo., 
month.     Indulgences,  three  hundred  days  each  du' 
by  assisting  at  a  public  function  or  performing  i'- 
devotion  in  private,  plenan'  indulgence  on  any  daj- 
the  month  or  on  one  of  the  first  eight  days  of  Ju^ 
under  the  usual  conditions  (Pius  Vll,  21  March,  ISI" 


ioiU 


m). 


>n,  lor 


Willi  All  Fox. 


ptJsi'li 


Months,  Special  Dbvotionb  for. — During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  public  functions  of  the  Church  and 
the  popular  devotions  of  the  people  were  intimately 
connected.  The  laity  assisted  at  the  daily  psalmody, 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  numerous  processions, 
and  were  quite  famihar  with  the  liturgy.  Those  few 
relipous  practices  outside  of  official  services,  e.  g.  the 
Ro^ry  (asubstitute  for  the  150  Psalms)  originated  in 
the  liturgy.  Later,  however,  eepecially  since  the  six- 
teenth century,  popular  devotion  followed  its  own 
channels;  unUturgical  practices  like  the  Stations  of  the 
Cross,  the  Quarant  'Ore,  various  htanies  and  rosaries 
(corona) ,  prevailed  everywhere ;  novenaa  and  series  of 
Sundays  and  week-days  in  honour  of  particular  saints 
ur  mysteries  were  instituted.  Entire  months  of  the 
year  were  fpven  over  to  special  devotions.  Following 
IS  a  list  of  the  more  common  devotions  with  the  in- 
dulgences attached:  (1)  Januarj/,  the  Holy  Name  of 
Jesus  (feast  of  the  Holy  Name,  second  Sunday  after 
Epiphany);  indulgences,  one  hundred  days  each  day 
if  the  devotion  is  made  privately,  three  hundred  days 
each  day,  if  the  devotion  be  in  a  public  church  or 
ohanel,  plenary  indulgence  for  daily  assistance  at  the 
public  functions,  under  the  usual  conditions  (Leo  XIII, 
■'Brief",  21  Dec.,  1901;  "AcU  S.  Sodis",  XXXIV, 
425).  (2)  March.  St.  Joseph  (feaat,  10  Mareh):  in- 


privatcly  practised,  was  approved  by  Pius  IX,  8  Ma>, 
1873  (Rescr.  auth.,n.  409),  and  urgently  rccommenrlcd 
by  Leo  XIII  in  a  letter  addressed  by  the  Cardinal  Pre- 
fect S.R.C.  to  all  the  bishops,  21  July,  1899.  ludul- 
gcnces:  (a)  seven  ycarsand  seven  quarantines  each  day 
for  performing  the  devotion  publicly  or  privately;  (b) 
if  the  devotion  ia  practised  daily  in  private,  or  if  a  per- 
son aasists  at  least  ten  times  at  a  public  function,  a 
plenoiT  indulgence  on  any  day  in  June  or  from  1-8 
July  (Deer.  Urbis  et  orbia,  30  May,  1902);  (c)  the  ir 


where  the  month  of  June  is  celebrated  solemnly. 
Pius  X  (8  Aug.,  1906)  urged  a  daily  sermon,  or  at 
least  for  eight  days  in  the  form  of  a  mieiiion  (26  Jan., 
1908) ;  (d)  to  those  priests,  who  preach  the  sermaoa  at 
the  solemn  functions  in  June  in  honour  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  and  to  the  rectors,  of  the  churches  where  these 
functions  are  held,  the  privilege  of  the  Gregorian  Al- 
tar on  thethirtiethof  June  (Pius  X,S  Aug.,  1906);  (e) 
plenary  indulgence  for  each  Commumon  in  June  and 
to  those  who  promote  the  solemn  celebration  of  the 
month  of  June  ("Acta  Pontificia ",  IV,  3SS,  8  Aug., 
1906).  (5)  July,  the  Precious  Blood  (feast  of  the 
Precious  Blood,  first  Sunday  of  July).  This  devotion 
was  propagated  by  Bl.  Ca-spar  Buffalo  (d.  at  Rome,  28 
Dec.,  1837),  founder  of  the  Conpregation  of  the  Pre- 
cious Blood  of  JesiisChrist.  Indulgences,  for  the  pub- 
lic devotion:  seven  years  and  seven  quarantines  each 
day;  plenary  indulgence  on  any  day  in  July  or  1-8 
August,  after  having  assisted  eight  times  at  a  public 
function  under  the  usual  conditions;  if  the  devotion 
be  held  privately  three  hundred  days  each  day  with 

flenary  indulgence  on  31  July,  or  1-S  of  August  (Pius 
X,4June,  1850).  For  thispracliceany  other  month 
or  any  period  of  thirty  days  during  the  year  may  be 
chosen  (Raccolta,  178).  (fi)  Scplember,  the  Seven 
Dolours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  (feast  of  the  Seven 
Doloura,  third  Sunday  in  September):  indulgences, 
three  hundred  days  each  day  and  the  devotions  may 
be  performed  in  public  or  private;  plenary  indulgence 
on  any  dav  of  September  or  1-8  October  under  the 
usual  conditions  (Leo  XIII,  "Raccolta",  27  Jan., 
18S8,  232). 
(7)  October,  the  Holy  Rosary  (feast  of  the  Holy 


)  in  which  he  admonished  the  uilhful  U 


MONTI  543  MONTMIBAXL 

de^lii^ate  the  month  of  October  to  the  Queen  of  the  our  of  King  Lotus,  of  the  queen-mother,  and  the  pa- 

Hl/ly^ llosary  in  order  to  obtain  through  her  interoe»-  tron  saints  of  Paris,  and  of  his  order.     W  ith  him  had 

sion  ^he  grace  that  Grod  may  console  and  defend  His  come  several  noble  families  destined  to  contribute  to 

C^orch  in  her  sufferings,  and  for  nineteen  years  he  the  country's  development  and  renown.    During  his 

published  an  encyclical  on  this  subject    By  the  de-  administration  were  built  the  Jesuit  Coll^  (founded 

cr(^,6f  the  Congregation  of  Rites  (20  Aug.,  1885;  26  1635),  the  Ursuline  monastery,  and  H6t«l-Dieu  (1639). 

Ar.^ij  1886;  2  Sept.,  1887)  he  ordiuned  that  every  year  Isle  J^sus,  lying  parallel  to  Montreal,  was  first  called 

dunpg  the  entire  month  of  October,  including  the  first  bv  the  Jesuit  Lejeune  Jale  MorUmagny  in  his  honour, 

anj^.seeond  of  November,  in  every  cathedral  and  paro-  from  the  outset,  he  was  ardent  for  the  conversion  of 

chn^  church,  and  in  all  other  churches  and  chapels  the  aborigines.    In  1636  was  begun  the  reduction  of 

whiqh  are  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  five  Sillery,  where  Montma^py  strove  to  have  the  Indians 

decades  of  the  Rosaiy  and  the  Litany  of  Loreto  are  instructed.    When  Maisonneuve,  in  the  autunm  of 

to  l>e  recitedj  in  the  morning  during  Mass  or  in  the  1641,  came  with  forty  colonists  to  found  Montreal, 

aftQ(3ioon  whilst  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  exposed,  and  Montmagny  kept  them  for  the  winter,  and  in  the 

by  the  encyclical  letter  of  15  AuKUst,  1889,  a  prayer  in  spring  personall]^  escorted  them  to  their  destination, 

honpur  of  St.  Joseph  was  addeoT.    Indulgences  (S.  C.  He  built  Fort  Kichelieu  (now  Sorel)  at  the  mouth  of 

^;;i,4lilg.,  23  July,  1898):  (a)  seven  years  and  seven  the  river  of  the  same  name,  where  he  victoriously  re- 

^U^antines  every  day  for  the  public  or  private  recita-  pulsed  the  onslaught  of  700  Iroquois.    At  the  expirar- 

lon  of  five  decades;  (b)  plenary  indulgence  on  the  tion  of  a  third  term  of  office,  he  was  replaced  by 

"ri^t  of  the  Holy  Rosary  or  during  the  octave  for  Daillebout  (1648).  and  departea  sincerely  regretted  by 

,  ,f}^e  who  during  the  entire  octAve  recite  daily  five  all  and  leaving  behind  him  an  undying  reputation  for 

Ivf'^^des  and  fulfil  the  other  usual  conditions;  (c)  plen-  prudence  and  wisdom.    He  had  efficaciously  aided  in 

j!ry  indulgence  on  any  other  day  of  the  month  for  the  progress  of  the  colony  by  the  concession  of  twenty 

i^ose  who,  after  the  octave  of  the  feast,  recite  for  at  large  domains  to  the  enterprising  heads  of  as  many 

••'  ist  ten  days  five  decades  (''Raccolta'',  354;  Albers,  noble  families.    Shortly  after  his  return  to  France,  he 

,iMuethcnkr&nze",  III,  730  sq.).    Also  in  October  was  sent  to  St.  Christopher  in  the  Antilles,  a  possefr* 

-A)f',Te  are  devotions  in  honour  ol  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  sion  of  his  order,  where  ne  died.    He  lies  buriea  in  the 

"^oast,  4  Oct.) ;  indulgences,  three  hundred  days  each  church  of  Basseterre.    Parkman  accuses  him  of  being 

j^iay  by  assisting  at  the  public  devotions  in  honour  of  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  but  his  refusal  to 

^i.'  Francis  in  a  church  or  public  oratory;  plenary  in-  develop  actively  their  missions  in  the  region  of  the 

jjulgence  on  the  feast  of  St.  Francis  or  dunng  the  oo-  Great  Lakes,  to  the  detriment  of  the  interests  of  Que- 

tave  (11  June,  1883,  for  ten  vears;  29  Feb..  1904,  in  bee,  gives  ample  proof  of  his  independent  government. 

perpetuum;  ''Acta  Mlnorum  ,  1904, 106).    Any  other  Awed  by  his  imposing  stature  and  dignity^  the  aborig- 

month  may  be  selected  instead  of  October.     (8)  No-  ines called  him Onon/Aio  or  "High  Mountam"  (a  trans- 

icmher^  the  Holy  Souls  in  Purgatory  (2  Nov.,  Com-  lation  of  his  name,  Montmagny,  MofnsrnoQnus),    V^ 

mem.   of  all   the  Faithful  Departed) ;  indulgences,  was  withal  mild,  courteous,  and  affectionate,  winning 

seven  years  and  seven  quarantines  each  day;  plenary  the  attachment  of  both  Indians  and  whites.    He  was 

indulgence  on  any  day  of  month  under  the  usual  con-  charitable  and  sincerely  pious,  free  alike  from  bigotry 

ditions  (Leo  XIII,  17  Jan.,  1888).    Popular  devotion  and  dissimulation. 

has  also  selected  other  mysteries  and  has  dedicated  ,  Fbrlakd.  Co«r«  d'HUtmn  du  Canada  (Quebeo,  1882);  Rot, 

January  to  the  Holy  ChUdtcxHl  and  the  hidden  life  of  i^'^J^;  (iSSL.'UTtSffi;^  JgSSTli  Jv^K^^JTcfe 

Jc^us  accordmg  to  the  Gospel  of  the  first  Sunday  after  Nov..  Dec,  1908). 

Epiphany;  March,  to  the  Holy  Family,  on  account  of  Lionsl  Lindsat. 

the  feast  of  St.  Joseph  and  the  Annunciation  (25 

March);  August,  to  the  Maternal  Heart  of  Mary        Montmirail  (Montb-Mirabili),  John  db,  son  of 

(feast  on  the  Sunday  after  twcnty-seoond  of  August) ;  Andrew,  Lord  of  Montmirail  and  Fert6-Gaucher,  and 

October,  to  the  Holy  Angels  (feast,  2  Oct.);  Decem-  Hildiarde  d'Oisy,  b.  in  1165;  d.  29  Sept.,  }217.    He 

bcr,  to  the  Immaculate  Conception  (fea^t,  8  Dec.)  or  was  trained  in  piety  by  his  mother,  and  well  instructed 

to  the  Holy  Child  in  the  stable  at  Bethlehem  (25  in  the  secular  sciences.    Whilst  youm;  he  embraced 

Dec.).    These  practices,  however,  are  not  formally  a  mHitary  career,  and  was  presentea  at  the  Ro^al 

approved  by  the  Churcn,  nor  enriched  with  indulg-  Court,  where  he  formed  a  lasting  friendship  with  Philip 

enccs.  ^  ^  Augustus,  later  King  of  France.    The  dissipations 

These  devotions,  of  course,  vary  with  conditions  in  of  court  life  led  him  to  neglect  the  training  of  his 

dlfTorent  countries.    Though  there  is  a  wide  varietv,  youth:  even  his  marriage  witn  a  most  estimable  ladv, 

constantly  chan^ng,   the  prayers  more  commonly  Helviae  de  Dampierre,  failed  to  effect  a  change  for  the 

used  are  the  litanies  of  the  Holy  Name,  Sacred  Heart,  better.    However,  in  his  thirtieth  year  he  met  Jobert, 

St.  Joseph,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  indulgcnced  pray-  Prior  of  St-Etienne  de  Montmirail,  whose  words  of 

ers  of  tne  Raccolta,  the  rosary  of  the  Domimcans.  counsel  proved  sufficient  to  cause  his  conversion;  and 

For  the  May  and  June  devotions,  a  short  sermon  or  he  turned  to  God  with  generosity  and  fidelity.    He 

instruction  usually  follows,  with  Benediction  of  the  built  an  hospital  for  the  sick  of  ail  kinds,  but  the  ob- 

Blossod  Sacrament  concluding  the  services.  jects  of  his  predilection  were  the  lepers,  and  those 

BEaiNOEB.  DU  AhioMMinth  ejCPaderbom,  1906);  ScBwrno-  hopelessly  afflicted.    He  loved  the  poor  as  brothers, 

""""•  ^"--«"~'  ^"'""I-ISbics  G.  Holweck.  ^  P«>^d«l  for  them     He  waa  severe  on  huiujelf, 

*  EKtuuM^a  v,j».  v^.      y,u  r^M»..  wcaHug  a  coaTsc  hau'-ehirt,  passmg  frequently  entire 

Monti  di  PietA.    See  Montes  Pibtatis.  pjg^jts  m  prayer.    Not  satisfied  with  a  life  of  holiness 

in  the  world,  nor  with  that  of  a  recluse,  which  he  tried 

Montmagny,  Charles  Huault  de,  second  French  for  a  while,  he  entered  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 

Governor  of  Canada,  b.  in  France  towards  the  end  of  Lon^pont,  after  having  distributed  amongst  the  poor 

the  sixteenth  century,  of  Charles  Huault  and  Antoi-  all  his  possessions  not  needed  by  his  wife  and  family; 

nette  du  Drac;  d.  in  the  Antilles  after  1651.    Edu-  and  he  gave  himself  wholly  to  prayer  and  penance,  so 

catcd  by  the  Jesuits,  he  joined  the  Order  of  Malta  in  much  so  that  he  had  to  be  reprimanded  tor  going  to 

1622,  and  fought  against  the  Moslems  and  the  cor-  excess.    He  had  to  bear  every  kind  of  insult  from  his 

sairs  of  Africa.     Appointed  to   replace  Champlain  former  friends;  even  members  of  his  own  familv 

before  the  announcement  of  the  latter's  death,  he  abused  him  for  having  abandoned  honour  and  wealth 

reached  Quebec  on  15  June,  1636.    He  rebuilt  Fort  for  povertv  and  subjection.    But  none  of  these  things 

HtrLouis,  and  traced  the  plan  of  the  city,  giving  to  its  could  weaken  the  fervor  with  which  he  sought  perfect 

four  primitive  streets  the  names  they  still  bear  m  hon-  tion.    Innumerable  miracles  were  wrought  at  his 


H0NTK0BBKC7  & 

bimb,  and  attract  pilgnms  even  to  the  present  day. 
Lao  XIII  granted  a  special  office  in  hia  honour  for  the 
Diocese  of  Soiasons. 

HhmUf  Ci^trtiiti  (Salnl-BHcua,  IBBH):  Crolkhot.  SirUt 
SB.  .  .  Ord.  Cut.  (Puii.  1S70);  BAiTVHirii.  rilrrrium  Bu- 
TtTtnm  (Piwo*.  170D);  Jda  SS..  Sapl.,  vn[.  im  Kiq,;  Mut- 
nqca,  AnmaUi  Cul<rn«uu,  IV  (l.yoiu,  16.'''i. 

Edmond  M.  Obbecht. 

Hontmonner,  Anne,  Fihht  Dukb  of,  b  at  Chan- 
tiUy,  15  March,  1492;  d.  at  PariH  12  Xovpnlvr.  l,-*7. 
He  belonged  to  that  family  of  Moniinurcn  -y  whose 
memberB  from  1327  held  the  title  of  first  lUrons  of 
France.  Educated  with  the  future  Fraiicis  I.  ap- 
pointed marshal  in  1522  as  a  reward  for  his  Bprvic™  in 
the  capture  of  Novara,  bis  successful  efforts 
the  freedom  of  Francis  I,  taken  prisoner 
(1525). 


■a  oblBJn 


Amn  DB  MoxmoHi 


him  of  his  favour. 
He  immediately 
became  grand 
master  o[  t  he  royal 
house  and  Gove:^ 
nor  of  Lanftuedoc. 
To  his  cleverness 
wafidue  the  treaty 
ofCairibrai(1529), 
by  which  the  two 
Bona  of  Francis  f, 
retained  as  hos- 
t^:e8  by  Charles  V 
since  1526,  were 
released;  in  1530 
his  power  became 
unlimited.  Ilein- 
auKurated  a  new 
poRey;  his  fore- 
moettumwaathat 
France  should  re- 


and  the  pone.    He  arranged  the  interview  

seillee  (1533)  between  Francis  I  and  Clement  VII 
in  which  the  marriage  of  Catherine  de  MSdicis  with 
Prince  Henry,  the  second  son  of  the  king,  was  ar- 
ranged. The  continued  friendsliip  of  Francis  I  with 
Certain  German  princee  and  his  ambitions  in  Italy 
which  were  opposed  to  those  of  the  emperor,  made  an 
understanding  with  Charles  V  very  difficult.  With 
the  outbreak  of  war  in  1536,  Montmorency  adopted 
the  tactics  of  never  giving  battle;  he  laid  waste  Pro- 
vence so  that  when  the  imperial  forces  invaded  that 
province  they  were  obliged  by  famine  to  retreat.  The 
articles  of  agreement  miich  Charles  V  and  Francis  I 

Xed  (July,  1538),  were  the  work  of  Montmorency, 
declared  afterwards  that  "the  interests  of  both 
might  be  considered  identical".  The  journey  of 
Charles  V  to  France  (January,  1540)  led  Francis  I  to 
believe  that  the  emperor  was  about  to  cede  Milan  to 
him ;  but  he  was  soon  undeceived.  Montmorency,  con- 
stable since  1538,  was  disgraced  (June,  1541)  through 
the    influence   01    the    favourite,   Mme.   d'Etampea. 


Charles  V  made  advances  to  the  constable  who  in  1551 
became  a  duke  and  a  peer.  He  soon  found  himself 
opposed  to  the  Guises.  In  spite  of  the  military  glory 
of  occupying  Met*  (April,  1.^52),  his  one  desire  was  to 
aecure  peace  between  France  and  the  Empire,  and  in 
1555  he  made  a  vain  effort  to  bring  this  about  through 
the  mediation  of  Mary  Tudor.  The  war  was  pro- 
longed: at  8mnt-Quentin  (August,  1557)  Montmo- 
rency, defeated,  was  taken  prisoner;  it  was  in  prison 
that  he  commenced  the  negotiations  which  termi- 
nated in  the  treaty  of  Cateau-Cambrfsis  (April,  1559) 
by  which  France  obtained  Moti,  Toul,  Verdun,  and 
Calais  but  renounced  any  claim  to  Italy,  Savoy,  Bres- 
cia, and  Bugey.  Montmorency,  in  retirement  during 
QiereignofFrancisII,  under  the  regency  of  Catherine 


14  HOHTOB 

de  M^ds  found  hia  position  very  tximpficsted.  Tin 
uncle  of  Cotigny  and  an  enemy  of  the  Guises,  it  aenned 
as  if  he  ought  to  have  sustained  that  policy  of  tolent- 
tion  towatda  the  Frot«stants  at  first  iaaugur*ted  by 
the  queen-resent;  but  his  CathoUc  convictions  led  him 
with  the  Diue  of  Guise  and  the  Mai^chal  de  Saint- 
Andr£  to  form  a  triumvirate  {6  August.  1561)  to  save 
Catholicism.  Wounded  and  captured  by  the  Hugue- 
nots at  the  battle  of  Dreui  (19  December,  15ti3) 
after  the  peace,  he  joined  with  the  Protestant  ConcK 
in  the  eflort  to  take  Havre  from  the  English  (30  July, 
1563).  In  the  second  war  of  religion  he  again  <^ 
posed  Cond^ ;  and  it  was  a  follower  of  Condf  who  mor- 
tally woimded  him  at  the  battle  of  S^nt-Denis  (10 
November,  1567). 

Of  indomitable  courwe,  his  crudty  towards  con- 
quered soldiers  was  shocCiig,  He  prelerred  defensive 
to  offensive  warfare.  Although  definitively  the  first 
of  the  great  French  lords,  he  worked  towards  the  de- 
velopment of  royal  absolutism;  under  Francis  I  and 
Htairy  II  he  showed  himself  a  futhful  defender  of  the 
royal  authority  and  suspected  the  Gtiiaes  of  being  its 
enemies.  A  conservative  in  refi^on,  he  could  not 
understand  the  intrigues  of  Catherine  de  MMids  and 
throughout  the  religious  wars  he  fought  vigorously  for 
Catholicism  under  the  same  bau)er  as  the  Guises 
whom  he  detested.  An  enlightened  and  gensous  ptt>- 
tector  of  the  writers  and  artists  of  the  R^aissance.  in 
his  castle  at  Chantilly  finished  in  1530,  he  lathered 
together  a  numismatic  collection  which  later,  after  the 
condemnation  of  the  Duke  of  Montmorency,  the  de- 
scendant of  Anne,  Louis  XIII  gave  to  bis  brother, 
Gaston  d'Orlfans.  and  which  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Cabinet  des  Mf^dailles  of  the  national  hbrary  of  Paris. 
The  hbraiy  of  Chantilly  as  formed  by  Anne  contained 
wonderful  copies,  luxuriously  edited,  of  the  first 
French  translations  of  Latin  authors.  The  InEtitut 
de  France  in  1000  bought  "LesHeuresduconn^table" 
to  add  them  agun  to  this  library  from  which  they  had 
been  taken;  they  form  one  of  the  most  admirable  illu- 
minated manuscripts  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  w« 
find  in  them  a  very  beautiful  prayer  to  Saint  Christo- 
pher, composed  by  Aime  himsell  during  his  yeais  of 
disgrace;  this  manuscript  was  completed  in  1519. 
During  his  disgrace  Aime  built  the  chateau  of  Ecoucn 
where  Jean  Goujon,  Rosso,  and  Bernard  Policy 
worked,  and  where  were  to  be  found  two  slaves  in  mar- 
ble of  Michael  Angelo. 

JiAH  D>  Ldisuboitiui,  Lt  Iriompht  ^  k>  e^n  dt  JTfr  Anmt  it 

ttonlmttrtncii,  sd,  Diublk  (Puris,  1904);  Dkuili.  Lm  ki 
eanyMabU  A»r»  d>  ilimlmortner  an  U<utt  C      "   — 

an  eon#nJ  du  rtri  Franeait  I"  (Pftru.  ]S85t  \  [deu.  Amu.  dw  dt 
Mmtmarrncy.  amntliMt  ri  niir  dt  Franrr  nru  Itt  rait  Ntnn  II. 
Frantoit  II  M  CharUt  IX  {Puii.  ISIffi).  Saa  klao  bibliocrafitty 
under  Guru  uid  CtTHium  D>  Maoicts. 

Georoes  Gotac. 
Hontor,  Alexis-F^ncoib  Artacd  dk.  diplomat 
and  historian,  b.  at  Paris,  31  July,  1772;  d.  at  Paris, 
12  Nov.,  1849.  An  fmigri  during  the  Revolution,  be 
was  entrusted  by  the  royal  princes  with  missions  to 
the  Holy  See  and  served  during  the  campaign  of 
Champagne  in  Condi's  army.  BonBpart«  nude  him 
secretary  of  the  French  Ijcgation  at  Rome;  Artaud  oc- 
cupied this  po^t  under  Cacault.  left  Rome  for  a  short 
time  when  Cardinal  Fesch,  Cacault 's  successor, 
brought  Chateaubriand  with  hino,  and  returned  to 
Rome  in  the  same  capacity  after  Chateaubriand  h:ui 
resigned.  Appointedchari^d'affairesofFranceto Flor- 
ence in  1805  he  wa."  recalled  in  1807  because  he  was 
wrongfully  suspected  of  having  employed  his  power  in 
behalf  of  the  Queen  of  Etruria  whose  possessions  Napo- 
leon wislicil  to  give  to  Elisa  Honaparte.  Made  censw 
during  Ihelastycarsoftheempire,  he  became  under  the 
Restoration  secretary  of  the  embassy  at  Vienna,  then  , 
again  at  Rome.  In  1830  he  retired  upon  a  peofflon  to  I 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  literary  works.    B^sidea 


x  CffwM  (Chuully. 


HOMTPILLIKB                           645  HONTPILLBS 

hiatranalationof  DaDt«'B"I>iviiiftComme(Ea"  (1811-  but  to  be  sold  for  exportation  to  the  merchants  of  ths 

1813)  nhich  was  mted  very  highly,  Artaud  de  Montor  Mediteiranetui. 

left  important  hlBtorioal  works :  "Machiavel,  song^e  In  July,  1204,  MontpellierpaaBed  bto  the  hands  of 

etBeaerreuTB"  (Paru,  1833);thevolumeonthehiitoiT  Fet«Tof  AJagon^n-in-lawoi thelastof  tbeGuiUemB; 

of  Italy  in  the  collection  of  the  "  Univere  pittoreeque  Jaime  I,  son  of  Pet«r  II,  united  the  city  t«  the  Kinp- 

(Puis,  1834);  "Hiatoire  du  pape  Pie  Vll"  (2  vok.,  dom  of  Majorca.    In  1282  the  King  of  Majorca  paid 

Pane,  1836);  "Histoire  de  Dante  Alighieri     (Faiia,  homage  to  the  King  of  France  for  Maguelcuine. 

1841);  "Hiirtoiredeesouverainspontifes  romains"  (8  Birenger  de  Fr£doI,  Bishop  of  Maguelonne,  ceded 

vols.,  Paris,  1842);  "Histoire  de  L6oa  XII"  (Paris,  MontpeUier  to  Philip  IV  (1292).    Jaune  III  of  Ma- 

lS43);"HistoirBdePieVIIl"(PariB,1843).    Shorlly  jorca  sold  MontpeUier  to  Philip  VI  (1349);  and  the 

bd'ore  his  deaUi,  he  published  in  1849  when  Pius  IX  dty,  save  for  the  period  from  1365  to  1382,  was  hence- 

was  banished  to  Gsta,  &  work  entitled:  "La  papautj  forth  French.    Urban  V  (GuiHaume  de  Grimoard)  had 

et  Icsfimeutea  romainee".    His  recollections  and  bis  studied  theology  and  canon  taw  at  MontpeUier  and 

observations  as  a  diplomat  form  the  valuable  featura  was   crowned  pope  by  Cardinal  Ardouin   Aubert, 

of  Artaud  de  Montor'a  historical  works.     He  was  a  nephew  of  Innocent  VI,  and  Bishop  of  Maguelonne 

mcanber  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  bellee  from  13S2  hi  1354;   hence  the  attachment  of  Pope 

lettres  from  17  Dec..  1S30.  Urban  for  this  diocese  which  he  favoured  greatly.    Id 


.. IdltltfralmAwKatHemtdnpenuni,  ICParii.  IStO), 

7S-82^    LoEHHI,   Calaiotttt  aintral  it  la  Lillrairit  frantaitt.   I 

(Puift  18B2).  79.  GuonaBa  Gotao. 

MontpelUar,  Diocbsi  or  (Montib  Pessulani), 
oomprises  the  department  of  H^rault,  and  is  a  suffrsr 
gan  of  Angnon.  When  the  Concordat  of  1802  re- 
established this  dioceee,  it  accorded  to  it  also  the 
department  of  Tarn,  which  was  detached  from  it  in 
1822  by  the  creation  of  the  Archdiocese  of  AIbi;  and 
from  1802  to  1822,  MontpeUier  was  a  suffragan  of 
Toulouse.  A  Brief  of  16  June,  1877,  authorised  the 
bishops  of  MontpeUier  to  call  themselves  bishops  of 
MontpeUier,  B^iiera,  Agde,  Lod6ve,  and  Saint-Pons, 
in  memory  of  the  different  dioceaes  united  in  the  pres- 
ent Dioceee  of  MontpeUier. 

(A)  Dioceee  of  MontpeUier. — Maguelonne  was  the 
Drigiaal  dioceee.  Local  traditions,  recorded  in  1S83  by 
\bM  Gariel  in  his  "Histoire  des  ^vfr^ues  de  Mague- 
lonne", affirm  that  St.  Simon  the  Leper,  having 
landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  RhAne  with  St.  Lasanis 
ind  his  msters,  was  the  earliest  apostle  of  Maguelonne. 
Gariel  invokes  in  favour  of  this  tradition  a  certain 
maouBcript  brought  from  Bysantium.  But  the  chron* 
cler.  Bishop  Arnaud  de  Verdale  (1339-1352)  was 
Ignorant  of  this  allesed  Apostolic  origin  of  Mague- 
onne.  It  is  certajn  that  the  tombstone  of  a  Christian 
Hoatan  named  Vera  was  found  at  Maguelonne;  Le 
Blaot  asagiu  it  to  the  fourth  century.  The  first  hi»> 
x>rical]y  known  Bishop  of  Maguelonne  was  Bcetius, 
irbo  assisted  at  the  CouncU  of  Narbonne  in  580. 
Vlacuelonne  was  completely  destroyed  in  the  course 
>f  the  wars  between  Cnarles  Martel  and  the  Saracens, 
rhe  diocese  was  then  transferred  to  Subatantion,  but  „ 

3iflhop  Arnaud  (1030-1060)  brought  it  back  to  Ma-  C*™i!db»i.  MonmLua 

^elonne  which  he  rebuilt.  Near  Maguelonne  had  1364  he  caused  the  foundation  at  MontpeUier,  of  s 
STown  up  by  degreee  the  two  villages  of  MontpeUier  Benedictine  monastery  under  the  patronage  of  St. 
ind  MontpeUieret.  According  to  legend,  they  were  in  Germain,  and  came  himself  to  MontpeUier  to  see  the 
.he  tenthcenturytheproperty  of  the  two  sisters  of  St.  new  church  (9  Jan.-S  March,  1367).  He  caused  the 
■\ilcran,  Bishop  of  Lod^ve.  About  975  they  gave  cnty  to  be  surrounded  by  ramparts,  in  order  that  the 
bent  to  Ricuin,  Bishop  of  Maguelonne.  It  is  certain  scholars  might  work  there  in  safety;  and  SnaUy  he 
hat  about  990  Ricuin  possessed  these  two  villages;  caused  a  large  canal  to  be  b^un  by  which  MontpeUier 
le  kept  MontpeUieret  and  gave  MontpelUer  in  Gd^  to  might  communicate  with  the  sea.  At  the  request  of 
.he  famUy  of  the  Guillems.  In  1085  Pierre,  Count  of  King  Francis  1,  who  pleaded  the  epidemics  and  the 
iubstantion  and  Melgueil,  became  a  vassal  oif  the  ravages  of  the  pirates  which  constantly  threatened 
ioly  See  for  this  countahip,  and  relinquished  the  right  Maguelonne,  Paul  111  transferred  the  see  to  Mont- 
if  nomination  to  the  Diocf'se  of  Maguelonne.  Urban  pellier  (27  March,  1536).  MontpeUier,  into  which 
I  charged  the  Biahop  of  Maguelonne  to  exercise  the  Calvinism  was  introduced  in  Feb.,  1560,  by  the  pastor. 
)apal  susertunty,  ana  he  spent  five  days  in  this  town  GuiUaume  Mauget,  was  much  troubled  b^  the  wars  of 
Then  he  came  to  France  to  preach  the  Crusade.  In  religion.  Under  Henry  III  a  sort  of  Calvmistic  repub- 
.215  Innocent  III  gave  the  countship  of  MelgueU  in  he  was  instaUed  there.  The  city  was  reconquered  by 
ief  to  the  Bishop  en  Maguelonne,  who  thus  became  a  Louis  XIII  (October,  1622). 
emporal  lord.  Among  the  54  bishops  of  Maguelonne.  and  the  ISbish- 

From  that  time  the  Bishop  of  Maguelonne  had  ops  of  MontpeUier,  may  be  mentionea:  Blessed  Louis 
he  right  of  coinage.  Clement  IV  repraBched-(1266)  Aleman  (1418-23),  later  Bishop  of  Aries;  Guillaume 
iishop  B^renger  de  Frgdol  with  causing  to  be  struck  Fellicier  (1527-68).  whom  Francis  I  sent  as  an  am- 
n  his  diocese  a  coin  called  "  Miliarcnsis",  on  which  bassador  to  Venice,  and  whose  learning  as  a  humanist 
ras  read  the  name  of  Mahomet;  in  fact  at  that  date  and  naturalist  made  him  after  Sc^vole  de  Sainte- 
he  bishop,  as  weU  as  the  King  of  Aragon  and  the  Marthe,  "the  most  learned  man  of  his  century";  the 
!^unt  of  Toulouse,  authorized  the  coinage  of  Arabic  preacher  Pierre  FenouUlet  (1608-52);  Frangois  de 
ooney,  not  intended  for  circulatiQii  in  Magueloone,  Bgaquet  (16S7-70},  wttQse  histQEioal  laboun  WQte 
X.— 35 


MONTPELLOa 


546 


MONTPILLSB 


very  useful  to  the  celebrated  Baluse:  the  bibliophile 
Colbert  de  Croiasy  (1696-1738),  who  induced  the 
Oratorian  Poueet  to  oompoee  in  1702  the  famous 
"Catechism  of  Montpellier^  condemned  b3rthe  Holy 
See  in  1712  and  1721  for  Jansenistic  tendencies;  Four- 
nier  (1806-34) ,  who  in  1801  was  confined  for  a  time  in 
the  madhouse  at  Bic^tre  at  the  command  of  Napoleon, 
for  a  sermon  a^nst  the  Revolution.  Among  the 
numerous  councils  and  synods  held  at  Montpellier, 
the  following  merit  mention:  the  council  of  1162  in 
which  Alexander  III  excommunicated  the  antipope, 
Victor;  the  provincial  'synod  of  1195,  which  was 
occupied  with  the  Saracens  of  Spain  and  the  Albi- 
censes;  the  council  of  1215,  which  was  presided  over 
by  Peto"  of  Benevento,  legate  of  the  Holy  See  and 
passed  important  canons  concerning  discipline,  and 
declared  also  that  subject  to  the  approval  or  the  pope, 
Toulouse  and  all  the  other  towns  taken  from  tlie 
Albigenses  should  be  given  to  Simon  de  Montfort: 
the  council  of  1224,  which  rejected  the  request  oi 
Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  who  promised  to  pro- 
tect the  Catholic  Faith  and  demanoed  that  Amaury 
de  Montfort  withdraw  his  claims  to  the  countship  of 
Toulouse;  the  coimcil  of  1258,  which  b^  permitting 
the  seneschal  of  Beaucaire  to  arrest  ecclesiastics  taken 
in  the  act  of  crime,  in  order  to  hand  them  over 
to  the  bishop,  made  way  for  royal  magistrates  to 
excise  a  certain  power  within  the  limits  of  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction  and  thus  inaugurated  the  move- 
ment as  a  result  of  which,  under  tlie  name  of  "i)rivi- 
leged  cases'' J  a  certain  number  of  offences  committed 
by  ecclesiastics  became  amenable  to  lay  justice. 

(B)  Diocese  of  Agde. — Local  traditions  designate  as 
the  first  Bishop  of  Asde,  St.  Venustus,  said  to  have- 
suffered  mart^tiom  during  the  legendary  invasion  of 
the  barbarian,  Chiocus,  about  407  or  408.  The  first 
historically  known  Bishop  of  Agde  is  Sophronius  ^ho 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Agde  in  506. 

(C)  Diocese  of  B^ziers. — Local  traditions  asirfgn  as 
the  first  Bishop  of  B^ziers  the  Eg3n[>tian  saint,  Aphro- 
disius,  said  to  nave  sheltered  the  Holy  Family  at  Her- 
mopolis  and  to  have  become  a  disciple  of  Christ,  also 
to  have  accompanied  Sergius  Paulus  to  Gaul  when  the 
latter  went  thither  to  found  the  Church  of  Narbonne, 
and  to  have  died  a  martyr  at  B^ziers.  The  first  his- 
torically known  bishop  is  Paulinus  mentioned  in  418; 
St.  Guiraud  was  Bishop  of  B^ziers  from  1121  to  1123; 
St.  Dominic  refused  the  See  of  B^ziers  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses. 

Among  the  fifteen  synods  held  at  B^ziers  must  be 
mentioned  that  of  356  held  by  Satuminus  of  Aries, 
Arian  archbishop,  against  St.  Hilary;  those  of  1233, 
1246,  and  1255  against  the  Albigenses. 

Local  traditions  made  St.  Aphrodisius  arrive  at 
B^ziers  mounted  on  a  camel.  Hence  the  custom  of 
leading  a  camel  in  the  procession  at  B^ziers  on  the 
feast  of  the  saint:  this  lasted  until  the  Revolution. 

(D)  Diocese  ot  Lod^ve. — Since  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury local  tradition  has  made  St.  Florus  first  bishop  of 
Loddve,  and  relates  that  as  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter,  he 
afterwards  evangelized  Haute-Auvergne  and  died  in 
the  present  village  of  St-Flour.  It  is  historically  cer- 
tain that  bishops  of  Loddve  have  existed  since  421; 
the  first  historically  known  bishop  is  Matemus,  who 
was  present  at  the  Council  of  Agde  in  506.  Among 
the  bishops  of  Loddve  are:  St.  George  (863-884), 
previouslv  a  Benedictine  monk;  St.  Fulcran  (949- 
1006),  who  in  975  dedicated  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Gen^  and  founded  the  Abbey  of  St.  Sauveur;  the 
Dominican  Bernard  Guidonis  (1324-1331);  Cardinal 
Guillaume  d'Estouteville  (1450-1453).  who  played  an 
important  part  as  papal  legate,  also  in  the  rehabili- 
tation of  Joan  of  Arc;  the  brothers  Guillaume  Bri- 
gonnet  (1489-1516)  and  Denis  Brigonnet  (1516-1520). 

(E)  Diocese  of  Saint- Pons- de-Thomi^res. — The 
Abbey  of  St-Pons  was  foimded  in  936  by  Raymond, 
Pount  of  Toulouse,  who  brought  thither  the  monks  of 


St.  G^raud  d'Aurillac.    By  a  Bull  of  18  Fd>.,  1318. 
John  XXII  raised  the  abbey  to  a  see. 

Special  honour  is  paid  in  the  present  Diocese  d 
Montpellier  to  St.  Pons  (Pontius)  de  Cimies,  msityr 
under  Valerian,  patron  of  St-Pons-de-Thomi^res;  Sts. 
Tiberius  and  Modestus  and  St.  Florence,  martyn  zi 
Agde  under  Diocletian;  St.  Severus,  Abbot  of  St 
Andrg,  at  Agde  (d.  about  500);  St.  Maxentius,  a 
native  of  Agde  and  founder  of  the  Abbey  of  St-Maix- 
ent,  in  Poitou  (447-515) ;  St.  Benedict  cl  Aniane,  and 
his  disciple  and  first  historian.  Saint  Aido  Smaragduf 
(d.  in  843);  St.  Guillem,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  who  io 
804,  founded  near  Lod^ve,  on  the  advice  of  St.  Beoe- 
diet  of  Aniane,  the  monastery  of  Gellone  (later  St- 
Guillem  du  D^rt),  died  there  in  812,  and  under  the 
name  of  "Guillaume  au  Court  Nez"  became  the  hero 
of  a  celebrated  epic  chanson;  St.  Etiome,  Bishop  d 
Apt  (975-1046),  bom  at  Agde;  Blessed  GuiOaume 
VI,  Lord  of  Montpellier  from  1121  to  1149  and  who 
died  a  Cistercian  at  Grandselve;  Bl.  Peter  of  Castd- 
nau.  Archdeacon  of  Maguelonne,  inquisitor  (d.  in 
1208);  St.  Gerard  (or  G^ri),  Loid  of  Lunel  (end  of 
thirteenth  century) ;  the  celebrated  pilgrim,  St.  Roch, 
who  was  bom  at  Montpellier  about  the  «id  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  saved  several  cities  of  Italy  fnxn 
the  pest,  and  returned  to  MoiitpeUier  to  live  as  a  her^ 
mit,  ^ere  he  died  in  1325.  The  Benedictine  Abbey 
of  Aniane  (see  Benedict  of  Aniane)  was  in  the  ninth 
oenturv  a  centre  of  monastic  reform.  The  Benedic- 
tine Abbey  of  Valmagne  was  founded  in  1138  by  Ba3r 
mond  of  Trencavel,  Viscount  of  Briers.  As  eariy  as 
1180  the  Hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Montpdlier 
received  exposed  or  abandoned  children. 
.  -The  chief  pil^^rimages  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre 
Dame  de  TErmitage  at  St-Guillem  du  D^ert  (four* 
teenth  century) ;  Notre  Dame  de  Gr&ce  at  Gignac,  od 
the  site  of  a  sanctuary  built  by  St.  Flour,  first  Bishop 
of  Loddve;  Notre  Dame  de  Grau  near  Agde,  on  the 
site  of  an  oratory  built  in  456  by  St.  Severus;  Notre 
Dame  de  Mous^res  at  Moug^res  (fifteenUi  oentuI7^); 
Notre  Dame  de  Montaigu  at  Ceyras.  a  pilgrimage 
founded  bv  the  Franciscans  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century:  Notre  Dame  de  Roubignac 
(datinp;  from  the  tenth  century) ;  Notre  Dame  du  Sue 
at  Bnssac,  established  by  the  Benedictines;  Notre 
Dame  de  Tr^dos,  a  pilgrimage  already  in  existence  in 
1612;  Notre  Dame  dee  Tables  at  Montpellier,  datinx 
from  the  ninth  century,  and  particularly  developed 
after  miracles  in  1189.  The  Church  of  Notre  Dante 
des  Tables  disappeared  after  the  Revolution;  but  the 
cult  transferred  to  the  chapel  of  the  Jesuits  is  still  in 
vogue,  and  in  1889,  Mgr  de  Cabri^res  crowned  the 
statue  in  the  name  of  the  pope.  Before  the  <HppIica- 
tion  of  the  Law  of  1901  there  were  in  the  diooese,  Car- 
thusians, Jesuits,  Franciscans,  Laaarists,  Mission- 
aries of  la  Salette,  Carmelites,  Salesians  of  Dom 
Bosco,  and  various  orders  of  teaching  brothers.  Con- 
gregations of  women  native  to  the  diocese  are:  The 
Augustinian  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Our  Lady,  ho^itai- 
lers,  founded  at  B^ziers  in  1646;  Sist^s  of  Chnstian 
Doctrine,  founded  in  1853  (mother-house  at  Ceilhes) : 
Dominican  religious  founded  in  1855  (mother-house  at 
Cette);  the  Nursing  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  auxilia- 
trice,  founded  1845  by  the  Abbd  Soulas  (mother-house 
at  Montpellier).  At  the  bepnning  of  the  twentieth 
century  the  congregations  du^cted  in  the  diocese  2 
creches,  5S  infant  schools,  1  school  for  the  blind,  1 
school  for  deaf  mutes,  8  orphanages  for  bo^rs,  15 
orphanages  for  girls,  1  institution  of  preservation,  1 
establishment  for  correction,  1  institution  of  rehabili- 
tation, 8  houses  of  mercy,  15  establishments  for  nurs- 
ing the  sick  in  their  homes,  1  hospital  for  the  insane, 
6  hospitals  or  infirmaries. 

In  1908  the  diocese  numbered  482,779  inhabitants, 
43  parishes,  310  chapels,  27  vicariates. 

GaUia  ChriHiana,  VI  (nova,  1739),  233-266.  393-383.  525^570. 
e64-70Qu  727^831.  1123;  Bud  inUntmmta,  73-102.  127-166.  263- 


rv^, 


,' .'» 


THE  NEW  TORK 

PUBLIC  LIBRARY 


1 


ASTOR,  LFNOX  AND 
TILDEM  «'OU:4I>A'nOM8 


°  "I  ■  °^-N  r° L 


Primed  especially  U.t  THE  TATHOLIC  KN 


if    I  I-         1  EoL  Ptbt.  •f  Hntral     li  t  E«l.  Pr«.  of  IWMrta 

■  i^JuiiHu  ^_J  Ecd.  Prav.  af  KImMm 


V" 


THE  NEW  YORK 

PUBLIC  LIBRARY 


•  ASTOR,  LFNOX  AND 
TILDEN  *  CUM  DA  I  IONS 


MdKtStAL                         547  MONTREAL 

04. 311-40, 341-411:  FiBQtTvr,  France  p<mi</i«ai«:  McniptUitr  (2  gince  been  realized — of  reorganising  the   provincial 

ff'^'/^Pfli^^Vr^yf;?^^'  ^V^  ipucopajij.  ifGBoujMT,  univermtiee  in  France. 

ad.  La  Puardiem  (4  vols..  Montpellier,  187&-82);  Arnaud  db  uin^S^l^^SS^t^ iT^SS^rlL 

AofiMtf  in  Amie  n«mufiMKiffii«,  XX  Tl8&5).  199-237:  Quibaud.  UEOBGBB  CiOTAU. 

Ker,  188^91);  c£?2L»r«  ciet  o66oyw^Aniaiw  01^ ds  deUmu,  ed.  Montreal,  Archdiocbbb  OF,  Metropolitan  of  the 

A  LA  vs.  CASBAir.  and  Mbtnial  (Montpellier.  1898);  Sabatxbb,  ecclesiastical  Province  of  Montreal.    Suffragans:  the 

fS'^fc'^f  fe£f^*^^*'^%^S■*"!^^*®**^L?^■^  Dioceses   of   Saint-Hyadnthe,  Sherbrooke,   Valley- 

H%9t,  d€  la  tilled* Lodtte^  de  ton  aneien  diodte  ttdeton  Itofr2u««-  «  1  ,           ,     T^i;^**^       n«*U^i;o    •v^*«,,U4:^»     A^t\  nM. 

ment  actud  iMontpfAMcr,  1851)  iMAwnif,  Hut.  d€  la  viUedeLodhe  neWi    and    Joliette.      OathOllC    population,    47O2OOO; 

(2  vols.,  Montpellier,  1900) ;  Soupaibac.  Petit  diet.  giog.  et  hiat,  clergy,  720,  of  whom  395  are  secular  pricsts.    Prot- 

iSi^iTcMoSiMlSr'lsMii'KK^^  estant    population,   80,000,   composed   of    different 

'mAfLi^to^delitL'kd'hiai.r^i!!^fnMiiadroceanonduj^  sects.    The    diocese,    Separated    from    Quebec    by 

(i«Af^d«Ca6ri«re«,  III  (Paris,  1899).  Gregory  XVI   (1836).   has  a  maxunum  length  of 

Georgbs  Gotau.  sixty  and  breadth  of  fifty-two  miles.  (See  the  official 

reports  of  His  Grace  the  Archbishop  to  the  Holy  See, 

TJNrvBRsrrr  of  Montpellier. — It  is  not  knov*::  ex-  in  the  Archives  of  Montreal.) 

actlyat'what  date  the  schools  of  literature  were  founded  The  present  article  will  be  divided  into:  I.  History: 

which  developed  into  the  Montpellier  faculty  of  arts;  II.  Present  Conditions.     Division  I  will  be  subdivided 

it  may  be  that  they  were  a  direct  continuation  by  periods:   A.  Before  the  Cession  (1763) ;   B.  From 

of  the  Gallo- Roman  schools.    The  school  of  law  the  Cession  to  the  Formation  of  the  Diocese  (1836); 

was  foimded  bv  Placentinus,  a  doctor  from  Bologna,  C.  From  1836  to  the  present  time  (1910),  in  Uie 

who  came  to  Montpellier  in  1160,  taught  there  during  last  subdivision  including  an  account  of  the  Eucharis- 

two  different  periods,  and  died  there  in  1192.    The  tic  Congress  of  1910. 

school  of  medicine  was  foimded  perhaps  by  a  graduate  I.  History. — ^A.    Before  the  Cession. — On  his  seo- 

of  the  Spanish  medical  schools;  it  is  certain  that,  as  ond  voyage  (1635),  Jacques  Cartier,  the  discoverer 

early  as   1137,  there  were  excellent  physicians  at  of  Canada,  siter  stopping  at  Stadacond  (Quebec), 

Montpellier.    The  statutes  given  in  12^  by  Cardinal  went  up  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  savage  vnlage  of 

Conrad,  legate  of  Honorius  III,  which  were  completed  -  Hochelaga,   now   Montreal.     It   was   Cartier,   who 

in  1240  by  Pierre  de  Concmes.  placed  this  school  bestowed  the  beautiful  and  well  deserved  name  of 

under  the  direction  of  the  Sisnop  of  Maguelonne.  Mont  Royal  on  the  mountain  that  overhangs  the 

Nicholas  IV  issued  a  Bull  in  1289,  combining  all  the'  ptiesent   city.    In    1608   Quebec   was   founded   by 

schools  into  a  university,  which  was  placed  under  the  Samuel    de    Champlain.    While,    in    Canada,    the 

direction  of  the  bishop,  but  which  in  fact  enjoyed  youthful  colony  was  endeavouring  to  live  under  the 

a  large  measure  of  autonomy.    Theology  was  >t  rather  weak,  because  too  selfish  and  mercantile,  gov- 

first  taught  in  the  convents,  in  which  St.  Aiithony;of  eniment  of  the  Compagnie  des  Cent-Associds,  the 

Padua,  Ka^ond  Lullus,  and  the  Dominican  Bernard  Compagpde  de  Ndtre^Dame-de-Montr6al  was  being 

de  la  TreiUe  lectured.    Two  letters  of  King  Jonn  formed  in  France.    7^^  ^^^^  of  God,  M.  Olier,  or 

prove  that  a  faculty  of  theology  existed  at  Mont-  Saint-Sulpice,  and  M.de  la  Dauversi^re,  were  the  life 

pellier  independentlv  of  the  convents,  in  January,  of  this  Compagnie  de  Montr^.    They  offered  them- 

1350.    By  a  Bull  of  17  December.  1421,  Martin  V  selves  without  imposing  any  burden  on  the  king, 

panted  canonical  institution  to  this  faculty  and  united  the  clergy,  or  the  people,  havins  as  their  sole  aim, 

It  closely  with  the  faculty  of  law.  the  glory  of  God  and  the  establishment  of  religion 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  faculty  of  theology  in  New  France.  This  association  having  addr^sed 
disappeared  for  a  time,  when  Calvinism,  in  the  reign  itself  to  M.  Chomodey  de  Maisonneuve,  found  in 
of  Henry  11^  held  complete  possession  of  the  city,  him  one  who  would  carry  out  it«  wishes  faithfully. 
It  resumed  its  functions  after  Louis  XIII  had  re-  The  island  of  Montreal  was  purchased  from  the  Corn- 
established  the  royal  power  at  Montpellier  in  1622:  pagnie  des  Cent -Associ^,  for  purposes  of  colonizsr 
buttherivalnesof  Dominicans  and  S^BatQ  interfered  tion  (7  August,  1640).  On  18  May,  1642,  M.  de 
seriously  with  the  prosperity  of  the  faculty,  which  Maisonneuve  arrived  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Royal,  and 
disappeared  at  the  Revolution.  The  faculty  num-  landed  with  MUe  Jeanne  Mance,  ^e  future  foundress 
bered  among  its  illustrious  pupils  of  law  Petrarch,  of  the  H6tel-Dieu.  Ville-Marie,  as  he  first  named 
who  spent  four  years  at  Montpellier,  and  among  its  Montreal,  was  then  founded.  (See  Canada.)  For 
lecturers  Guillaume  de  Nogaret,  chancellor  to  Philip  thirty  years  an  heroic  struggle  had  to  be  carried  on 
the  Fair,  Guillaume  de  Grimoard.  afterwards  pope  a^gainst  the  Iroquois.  In  1^3  there  arrived  Margue- 
under  the  name  of  Urban  V,  and  Pedro  de  Lima,  rite  Bourgeoys,  who  a  little  later  established  the  Sisters 
antipope  as  Benedict  XIII.  But  after  the  fifteenth  of  the  Congregation.  In  1657  the  first  Sulpicians, 
century  this  faculty  fell  into  decay,  as  did  also  the  sent  by  M.  Olier  on  his  death-bed,  settled  under  the 
faculty  of  arts,  although  for  a  time,  under  Henry  direction  of  M.  de  Queylus.  From  that  time  the 
IV,  the  latter  faculty  had  among  its  lecturers  Ca-  spiritual  wants  of  Montreal  have  been  entrusted 
saubon.  The  Montpellier  school  of  medicine  owed  mainly  to  the  Fathers  of  Saint-Sulpice  (see  Saint- 
ita  success  to  the  ruling  of  the  Guilhems,  lords  of  Sulpice,  Congregation  of).  It  was  at  Montreal 
the  town,  by  which  any  licensed  physician  might  that  DoUard  formed  his  famous  battalion  in  1660. 
lecture  there;  there  was  no  fixed  limit  to  the  number  of  There  also,  Lemoyne  and,  before  him,  Lambert 
teachers,  lectures  were  multiplied^  and  there  was  a  Closse,  after  Maisonneuve,  had  won  great  distinction. 
Kreat  wealth  of  teaching.  Rabelais  took  his  medical  M.  de  Queylus,  the  Sulpician,  had  come  to  Can- 
degrees  at  Montpellier.  It  was  in  this  school  that  ada  as  Vicar-Oeneral  of  Rouen  (1657).  Rightly  or 
the  bioloffical  theory  of  vitalism^  elaborated  bv  wrongly,  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen  believed  that 
Barthes  (1734-1806),  had  its  origm.  The  French  Canada  was  subject  to  him  in  spiritual  matters,  as  the 
Revolution  did  not  interrupt  the  existence  of  the  missionaries  had  gone  thither  from  his  diocese; 
faculty  of  medicine.  The  faculties  of  science  and  of  neither  the  pope  nor  the  king  had  raised  any  objection, 
letterswerere-establishedin  1810;  that  of  law  in  1880.  Mgr  de  Laval  airived  at  Quebec  in  1659.  M.  de 
It  was  on  the  occasion  of  the  sixteenth  centenary  of  Quevlus,  not  having  been  informed  directly,  either 
the  university,  celebrated  in  1889,  that  the  Govern-  by  the  Court  or  by  the  Holy  See,  of  the  nomination  of 
xaent  of  France  announced  its  intention — ^which  has  Laval  by  Alexander  VII,  hesitated  a  moment  before 


MOHTSUL  5- 

vieldinK  up  the  spiritual  rights  vhich  he  believed  to 
be  his  [see  Laval,  Saint-Suuicb).  On  28  October, 
1S7S,  Mgr  de  Laval  erected  canonically  the  pariah 
of  Notre-Dame  at  Montreal,  which  was  naturally 
confided  to  the  Sulpiciana.  From  that  time  to  the 
ceaaion,  the  successive  curte  were  MM,  Francois 
DoUier  de  Caason  (30  Oct.,  1678) ;  Francois  Vaohon  de 
Bellemont  (28  Sept.,  1701);  Louis  Normant  (25  M^, 
1732);  EtiemiB  Montgolfier  (21  June  1760).  The 
third  successor  of  Mgr  de  Laval,  Mgr  Dosquet,  from 
1725  till  1739  Coadjutor,  and  later  Bishop,  of  Quebec, 
was  an  old  Sulpician  from  Montreal.  In  1682,  the 
ElaeoUecta  were  called  to  Montreal.  PVom  the  time 
[rf  their  arriv^  at  Quebec  in  1615,  these  reUgious  bad 
been  travelling  through  the  countrv,  and  one  of  their 
Dumber,  Father  Viel,  had  peiishea,  with  his  disciple 
Ahuntsic,  in  the  Sault-au-IUcollet,  near  Moatreal, 
both  victims  of  the  treachery  of  a  Uuron. 

The  Jesuit  miBaionaries  constantly  journey* dk 
through  these  regions,  frequently  passed  by  Montreal 
in  these  early  days.    It  was  in  1669  that  the  Prairie 


Saint-Louis,  now  CauKhnawaga.  The  house,  and  the 
deak  at  which  the  celebrated  P£re  CbarlevoiK  wrote 
his  "Relations",  are  still  to  be  seen  there.  It  was 
there,  too,  that  the  suntly  Iroquois,  Catherine 
Tegakwitha,  lived.  The  Iroquois  miHsion  of  Caugh- 
nawaga  has  lately  been  again  taken  under  the  care 
of  the  Jeeuits.  Mile  Mance  had  founded  the  Hdtel- 
Dieu,  on  her  arrival,  in  1642.  In  1658  the  Venerable 
Marguerite  Bourgeoya  established  the  Sisters  of  the 
Congregation,  for  the  instruction  of  young  girls. 
Then,  in  1738,  Venerable  Marguerite  Dufroat  de  la 
Jemmerais  (the  nddow  d'Youville)  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  the  Institute  of  the  Grey  Siaters.  The 
superiors  of  Saint-Sulpice,  in  addition  to  being  cur^ 
of  Notre~Dame,  were  alao  vicars-general  ot  the 
Bishop  of  Quebec.  After  the  victory  of  Wolfe  over 
Montcalm  on  the  plains  of  Abraham  and  the  capitula- 
UoD  of  Quebec  (1760),  Mgr  de  Pontbriant,  the  last 
bishop  of  the  French  period,  withdrew  to  the  Sulpi- 
clans  at  Montreal. 

B.  From  (A«  Cession  to  the  Formation  of  the  Diaeett 
(1836). — Montreal  remained  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of 
Quebec  until  1836.  The  curfe  of  Notre-Dame  during 
tMs  period  were  after  M.  Montgolfier,  MM.  Jean 
Braaaier  (30  August,  1791);  Jcan-AuKUste  Rout  (24 
Oct.,  1798);  Joseph-Vincent  Quibher  (12  April,  1831). 


I  fur   aa  is  permiaaible  under  the   laws  of  Great 


S  KOHTBSAL 

1793  there  remained  only  two,  who  were  septuagena- 
rians. The  British  Government,  however,  at  that 
time  allowed  thfi  French  priests  who  were  driven  out 
by  the  Revolution  to  settle  in  Canada,  and  of  the 
thirty-fourwhocame  twelve  were  Sulpiciana.  In  1767 
the  College  of  Montreal  was  founded  by  the  Sulpician, 
M.  Curatteau  de  la  Blaiserie.  In  1766  the  HAtel- 
Dieu,  and  in  1769  the  eetabliahment  of  the  Sistera 
of  the  Congr«!ation,  which  had  been  burnt,  arose  from 
their  ruins,  thanks  to  Saint-Sulpice.  In  1801,  Mgr 
Plessis  (b-  at  Montreal  in  1763)  waa  conaecrated  at 
Quebec.  This  waa  the  great  bishop  (1801-1815)  who 
fought  BO  ably  and  so  resolutely  for  religious  liberty. 
The  cleigy  of  Montreal  supported  him.  Mgr  Fleeaia, 
having  aaked  for  auxiliaries,  obtained,  among  others 
Mgr  Provencher  for  the  West  and  Mgr  Lartigue,  a 
Sulpician,  for  Montreal.  The  Iatt«r  waa  consecrated 
lop  of  Telmeseus  in  1820.     In  1809  the  College 


Franooia  Labelle.  Thia  waa  the  anawer  given  to 
the  English  Protestants,  who,  with  their  Institution 
Royale,  wished  to  monopoliie  education  in  all  its 
branches.  In  1824  theJawiguM  (adminiatrative  coun- 
dla  in  charge  of  chunih  revenues)  were  authorited 
to  acquire  and  hold  property  for  the  support  of  the 
schools.  In  1838  normal  achools  were  etrtabliahed 
by  the  help  of  the  clergy.  In  1832,  and  a^ain  in 
1834,  a  cholera  epidemic  afforded  opportunities  for 
the  display  of  heroic  seal.  In  1836  tne  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  waa  eetabliahcd  at 
Montreal,  on  the  model  of  the  society  founded  at 
Lyons  in  1822,  with  which  it  became  affiliated  in 
1843,  but  from  which  it  separated  in  1876.  Mgr 
Plessis  was  succeeded  in  the  See  of  Quebec  by  Mgr 
Panet,  in  1825,  and  Mer  Signay  (Sinai)  followed  m 
1832.  Finally,  on  13  February,  1836,  Montreal  was 
erected  into  a  diocese  by  Pope  Gregory  XVI. 

C,  From  l8Se  to  tht  Presenl  Time  (1910).— This 
was  a  diaturbed,  but  very  fruitful  and  prosperous 
period.  After  the  unfortunate  events  of  1837-38 
(when  several  Montreal  villages,  on  the  Richelieu  and 
at  Deux  Montagnea,  inapired  by  a  noble-hearted  gen- 
eronty  rather  than  by  prudence,  rose  up  in  axma 
against  the  encroachmenta  of  British  bureaucracy) 


there  followed  the  period  called  the  Union  of  the  Two 

_ _   , _...     Parliamentary  inat" 

pendent  on  the  people  were  eetablisned  b^  the  effort* 


Canadas  (1840-67).     Parliamentary  inatitutions  de- 


of  Lafontaine  and  Cartier,     The  Confederation  waa 
established  in   1867.     (See  Canada).    During  this 

Seriod  the  bishops  and  archbishops  of  Montreal  were: 
Igr  Lartigue,  consecrated  in  1821,  titular  in  1836, 
d.  1840;  Mgr  Bourget,  coadjutor  in  1837,  titular  in 
1840,  resigned  in  1876,  d.  1885;  Mgr  Fabre,  coadjutor 
in  1873,  titular  biahop  in  1876  archbiahop  in  1886, 
d.  1896;  Mgr  Bruchtei,  archbiahop  from  1897  to  the 
present  time.  The  superiors  of  Saint-Sulpice,  after 
M.  Quiblier,  were  MM.  Bilaud^e  (1846),  Graoet 
(1856),  Bayle  (1866),  Colin  (1881),  and  Lecoq  (1902). 
The  foundation  of  the  Grand  S^miniure  at  Montreal 
took  place  iu  1840;  of  the  Canadian  College  at  Ilome, 
in  1888;  of  the  S^minaire  de  Philoeophie,  near  the 
Grand  S^minaire,  at  Montreal,  in  charge  of  the  Sul- 
piciana, in  1894.  The  Brothers  of  Uie  Christian 
Schools  arrived  in  1837 ;  t  he  Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu- 
late, in  1841.  The  Jeeuits  returned  in  1842,  their 
novitiate  was  opened  in  1843,  and  the  Coll^  Sainte- 
Marie,  in  1848.  The  Viateura  and  the  Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Cross  arrived  in  1847,  Of  the  communities  of 
women,  the  Rcligioua  of  the  Society  of  the  Sajcred 
Heart  arrived  from  France  in  1842;  the  Sisters  <rf  the 
Good  Shepherd  of  Angera,  for  teaching  and  establish- 
ing hoRica  for  penitents,  arrived  in  1343;  in  the 
same  year  the  Sistera  of  Providence  were  founded  by 
Madame  Gomelin,  for  teaching  and  woriu  of  charity, 
on  were  the  tcacliinii  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Nsmee  of 


649  HONTBtiL 

JanHandMur;  tbeSistenof  theHt^CrOBBiBboa    tacts.    OntheaidaofMontRoyd,  intheParcMMioe, 
teaohiiifiiostitutefiamFrtuic^  arrived  mlS47 1  in  1848    an  imiiMnse  park  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  a 
the  ingtitute  of  ScBura  de  la  Mia6rioorde  were  founded    monumental  altar  had  been  erected ;  there  Man  was 
forthecareofMagdaleneaandinlSSOtheSiaterBofSt.     celebrated  ta  the  open  air  on  10  Septemher,  and  there 
Anne,  for  teaching.    CoU^^  were  founded  at  Joliette    on  the  followii^  day,  the  great  procemion  terminated, 
and  Bouiget,  br  Uie  Clerioa  of  Saint-Viateur,  in  1846    when  nearly  S00,000  Christiana  aHsembled  U>  welcome 
and  ISGO;  at  S^t-Laurent,  by  the  Fathers  of  the    Jeeua  in  the  Eucharist  held  in  the  handa  of  the  cardi- 
Holy  CroHH,  in  1847.     (For  the  Laval  University,    nal  lecate,  blesaiiig  Montreal,  Canada,  America,  and 
chartered  in  1862,  and  it«  Buccuraal  at  Montreal,  aee    the  whole  world.     Besides  tne  literary  reunions  al- 
LAy4i.UNiv»BBnTO»Qu»B»c.)    Inl852the  Dioceee    ready  mentioned,  two  great  meetings  were  held  on 
of  St.  Hvaeinthe  waa  erected,  and  in  1874  that  of     Friday  and  Saturday  eveoingH  at  Notre-Dame,  where 
Sfaerbrooke;  both  of  theee  became  suR'ragan  of  Mont-    speeches  in  honour  of  the  Christian  Faith  and  the 
real  in  1680,  when  Montreal   became  a   metropoli-     B1essedSacrameatweredeliveredby:CardinalVannu- 
tan  see.    The  other  two  Huffragans,  VeJleyfield  and    tclli,  Cardinal  Logue,  Archbishops  BruohM,  Bourne, 
Joliette,  wert^  erected  in  1892  and  1904  respectively,     and  Ireland.  Bishopa  Touofaet  and  Rumeau,  Sir  Wil* 
Other  notsi>Ie  events  were:  in  1840,  the  missions  of 
Mgr  Forbin  Janson,  and  the  Act  granting  separate 
schooU  (denominational);  in  1843,  the  preachinfj  of 
temperance;  in  1848,  the  establishment  of  colomsa- 
tion  locietiee  (celebrated  later  under  the  direction  of 
Mgr  Labelle,  parish  priest  of  St.  J£r6me)  to  coun- 
teract the  emigration  movement  towards  the  United 
States;  in  1866,  divimon  of  the  parish  of  Notre-Dame 
(mnce  divided  further  into  more  than  50  parishes); 
in  1868,  the  condemnation  by  Bishop  Bourget.  con- 
firmed by  the  Holy  See,  of  the  "  Institut  Canaoien  ", 
a  club  which  by  means  of  its  books  and  its  lectures 
bad  become  a  centre  of  Voltaireanism  and  irreligion; 
also  "the  Guibord  afffur",  a  famous  lawsuit  in  refer- 
ence to  the  burial  in  conaecrat«d  ground  of  a  member 
of  thesamedub.    About  1884,  b^anat  Montreal  the 
Lenten  lectures  in  Notre  Dame,  then  those  in  the 
Gesil^d  lastly  those  in  the  cathedral  (in  1898)  under 
Mgr  Bruchtei.     In  1896  Loyola  College  was  founded 
by  the  Jesuits  for  EagliBh-Bpeakiag  Catholics;  in  1905, 
Mgr  Radcot  was  appointed  auxiliary  bishop  to  the 
\Tchbishop  of  Montreal. 

The  Euchariatic  Congr^  of  1910.— The  Twenty- 
Srst  International  Eucharistic  Congress  was  held  at 
Montreal,  7-11  September,  1910.  (For  the  origin 
utd  object  of  these  congresses,  see  CoNaitEssEs, 
[7aTBOUc:  IniemationaiCongreaaa.)  AttheEucha- 
-istic  Congress  of  London,  in  1908,  the  Committee 
iffered  Mgr  Bruchtei  the  opportunity  to  hold  tho 
Ikingrefls  of  1910  in  his  archiepiscopal  city.  For 
i  year  the  various  committees  at  Montreal  worked 

tnergetically  in  preparation  for  the  event.     Pius  w™~_ .,,  ,„, ,,.,  . 

K   S^t  SB  legate  a  loferc  His  Eminence  Vincenio  Borsmr  Mo™™t.  MOir«au. 

/annutelli,  Caidinal-Biahop  of  Falestiina.  All  the  fridLaurier,  SirLomerGouin,  Hon.  Thomas  Chapaio, 
tiflhopaof  Canada  and  the  United  States  tmd  a  large  Judge  Doherty.  Deputy  Tellier,  Judge  O'SuUivan, 
lumber  from  Europe  were  present  in  peraon  or  sent  Dei>uty  Henri  Bouraasa,  M.  Gerher,  and  many  other 
heir  representatives.  Three  cardinals,  one  hundred  distinguished  ecclesiastics  and  laymen  of  the  Old 
md  twenty  archbishops  and  bishops,  between  three  and  New  World.  These  memorable  displays  of  elo- 
ind  four  thousand  priests,  and  more  than  a  half  quoics  made  a  deep  impresuon  in  the  soids  of  the 
nillion  lay  visitors  came  to  Montreal.  The  literary  re-  twelve  to  fifteen  thousand  auditors.  Also  in  the  church 
inions  of  the  French-speaking  section  were  held  at  the  of  Notre-Dame,  at  the  fiist  hour  of  Thursday,  8  Sep- 
louse  of  Uie  Fathers  tn  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Laval  tember,  as  a  reli^ous  prelude  to  the  literary  siances, 
Jnivernty,  and  the  National  Monument,  while  those  an  imponng  midnight  Mass  was  celebrated,  at  which 
if  the  Engliah-apeaking  section  took  place  at  the  thousandsof menreceivedHolyCommunion,theMBSB 
>>nvent  of  the  Sacrea  Beort,  Windsor  Hall,  and  having  been  preceded  by  an  hour's  solemn  adoration 
Itanley  Hall.  More  than  a  hundred  studies  on  the  under  the  direction  of  members  of  the  Association 
Ilessed  Eucharist — in  relation  to  dogma,  moroL  Adoration  Nocturne  of  Montreal.  The  ceremony  of 
liatory,  discipUne,  pious  practices,  devotions,  and  the  official  reception  of  the  papal  legate,  the  special 
asociBtioas — were  read  and  discussed.  Each  stance  Mass  on  Thuisday,  8  September,  in  favour  of  the 
/tie  presided  over  by  a  bishop.  Special  reunions  for  numerous  reLgious  communities  of  Montreal,  and  also 
iriests,  men  and  women,  and  tor  the  young  were  held  the  high  Mass  on  Sunday,  1 1  September,  sung  by  the 
rith  great  Bucceas.  cardinal  legate,  at  which  Cardinal  Gib^ns  and  Mgr 

A  splendid  gathering  of  twenty  thousand  young  Touchet  preached,  all  took  place  in  the  cathedral  of 
Den  recaved  the  papal  legate  with  enthusiaam;  St.James.  Attheopen-urMBssonSaturday,10Sep., 
hirty  thousand  school-children  passed  in  review  be-  sung  by  Mgr.  Farley,  the  preachers  were  Mgr  O'Con- 
are  nim.  It  is  estimated  that  a  hundred  thousand  ne!l  and  the  Rev.  Father  Ha^e. 
yen  marched  in  procession  on  the  occasion  of  the  What  specially  distinguished  the  Codjqvsb  of 
olemn  clodng  of  the  Congress,  Sunday,  11  Septera-  Montreal  from  any  previous  Eucharistic  Congren 
«r,  in  ths  presence  of  700,000  spectators.  The  was  the  official  participation  of  the  dvij,  federal,  pro* 
treets  of  tiie  city  were  maamlicently  decorated  for  vincial,  and  municipal  authorities.  The  Canaaian 
he  occBBon  with  triumphal  arches,  draperies,  and  Pacific  Rwlway  Company  had  sent  a  reprcsenta- 
loCTi  under  the  direction  of  the  committee  of  archi-     tive  to  meet  the  legate  in  Rome,  and  Hia  Emipwim 


MOmUtJIL 


550 


MONTEEUXL 


eroBBed  the  ocean  on  board  one  of  the  EmpresB 
linen  of  the  same  company.  At  Qud>ec  the  Federal 
Government  yacht  met  the  cardinal  and  his  suite,  and 
conveyed  them  thence  to  Montreal.  All  along  the  route, 
the  population  on  the  banks  of  the  river  greeted  the 
legate  as  he  passed.  At  Montreal,  despite  most  in- 
clement weather,  an  immense  crowd  gave  him  an 
enthusiastic  reception.  Mayor  Guerin  presented  ad- 
dresses of  welcome  in  French  and  English.  During  the 
congress,  the  Federal  Government,  the  Provincial 
Government,  and  the  City  of  Montreal  eadi  held  a 
reception  for  the  legate  and  other  official  personages. 

Under  the  inmiediate  direction  of  Archbishop 
Bruch6Bi  and  the  more  remote  direction  of  the  Per- 
manent Ck>mmittee  of  the  Eucharistic  Congresses, 
presided  over  by  Mgr  Heylen,  Bishop  of  Namur, 
four  great  conmuttees  laboured  to  organize  the  Con- 
gress of  Montreal:  Committee  of  Works:  president, 
Canon  Gauthier;  vice-presidents,  MM.  Lecoq,  Mo- 
Shane,  Perrier,  and  Auclair.  Conmiittee  of  Finance: 
§  resident.  Canon  Martin;  vice-presidents.  Sir  Hiomas 
haughnessy  and  Hon.  L.  J.  Forget.  Committee 
of  Reception:  presidents.  Canon  Dauth  and  Father 
Donnell^jr;  vice-presidents.  Canon  Roy  and  Father 
Troie.  Committee  of  Decorations  and  Procession: 
president,  Canon  Le  Pailleur;  vice-presidents.  Fathers 
B^langer,  Laforce,  Piette,  Rusconi,  O'Reilley,  Martin, 
Deschamps,  Heffeman.  To  these  committees  there 
had  been  added  for  press  purposes  a  special  commit- 
tee presided  over  by  Father  Eilie  J.  Auclair. 

Present  CoNnrnoNs. — ^The  Diocese  of  Montreal, 
at  the  present  time  (1910)  is  imder  the  direction  of 
Mgr  Paul  Bruchdsi,  with  an  auxiliary  bishop  (at 
present  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr  Zotique  Radcot,  titular 
Bishop  of  Pogla),  and  a  cathedral  chapter.  The 
Catholic  population  is  about  470,000,  served  by  720 
priests;  the  non-Catholics,  about  80,000 1  there  are 
150  puishes  or  missions,  66  of  which  are  m  the  city 
and  suburbs.  Besides  Laval  University  (see  above), 
the  seminaries  and  colleges  are:  the  Grand  Sdminaire, 
with  350  students:  the  Seminary  of  Philosophy,  120; 
the  Montreal  College,  300;  ana  Sacerdotal  College, 
recently  founded  and  under  the  direction  of  the 
Sulpicians;  St.  Mary's  and  Loyola  College,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuits;  those  of  Ste  Th6r^e  and 
I'Assomption.  under  secular  priests,  and  of  Saint 
Laurent,  under  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross.  In 
all,  some  2000  boys  and  young  men  are  trained  in 
Uiese  colleges.  In  addition  to  these,  64,000  children 
are  taught  in  the  schools  or  convents  of  religious 
orders,  and  24,000  by  lay  Catholic  teachers,  men  and 
women.  Some  1500  Brothers,  and  more  than  3700 
Sisters  devote  themselves,  in  the  diocese,  to  works  of 
teaching  or  of  charity.  There  are  nearly  60  hospices, 
asylums,  or  orphana^es^  where  some  45,000  old  people, 
orphans,  sick,  and  mnrm  are  charitably  cared  for. 
Moreover,  according  to  the  latest  official  diocesan  re- 
port, from  which  the  above  details  are  gathered,  more 
than  200  secular  priests  from  this  diocese  ana  more 
than  4000  Sisters  minister  or  teach  in  other  parts  of 
Canada  or  in  the  United  States. 

In  1909,  there  were  some  390  secular  priests  in  the 
diocese,  ^  Sulpicians,  150  Jesuits,  20  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  30  Franciscans  (in  Montreal  since 
1890),  30  Trappists,  50  Redemptorists  (in  Montreal 
since  1884),  30  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross,  20  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament  (1890),  8  of  St.  Viator,  5  of  the 
Company  of  Mary,  10  Dominicans  (1901),  2  Brothers 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (1908).  It  would  be  impossible 
to  give  all  the  details  of  this  useful  and  fruitful  reli- 
rious  life.  The  Carmelites  (1875)  and  the  Sisters  of  the 
Prions  Blood  (1874)  are  vowed  to  the  contemplative 
life.  To  these  communities  have  been  added  the  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor  (1887),  the  Soeurs  de  TEspdrance 
(1901),  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(1904),  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom  (1910),  and  the 
Brothers  of  the  Presentation  (1910).    The  parishes, 


in  town  and  country,  are  in  a  flourishing  oonditioiL 
Mgr  Bruch^si  has  devised  a  plan  of  giving  poor  churches 
help  and  protection  by  making  certain  rich,  older 
parishes  act  as  their  sponsors.  Every  year,  on  one  of 
the  Sundays  of  September  all  Montreal  visits  the 
cemetery,  near  the  top  of  Mount  Ro}ral,  where,  in  the 
presence  of  50,000  Catholics,  a  service  for  the  dead 
takes  place,  possibly  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  On  the  eve  of  the  civic  Labour  Holiday,  the 
archbishop  has,  for  some  years  past,  invited  the  work- 
men of  his  diocese  to  be  present  at  a  religious  service. 

Arehiwet  de  rarehStSehi  tU  Montreal;  La  8Sm.  BeHguutie  {Uootr 
real),  files;  Da  Cbllxs,  Papineau  (Montreid.  1905);  Cai^ixitx 
AWD  Dbbomb.  CaUndr  er  etdMatHqM  (1905):  CHAflSBOBOs,  ffuc 
du  novtcwtf  dM  JituiUt:  Foubkvt  in  Diet,  d»  thSoL  aitk.  (Pana, 
1904) ,  a.  V.  Canada;  Tanouat,  Ripertaire  duderoSf^emadieH  (MaoU 
real.  1893);  Qasnbau,  Hi&Unre  du  Canada,  II.  Ill;  Gt7s&AJU>,  La 
France  Canadienne  in  Le  Correepondaid  (April,  1877) ;  CBanrnc, 
Hiaiory  of  Canada  (Qaebeo.  184S) :  tMaUon  de  Jaequea  CartUt  in 
LncARBOT.  Hiet.  de  la  NouveiU-Franee  (Paris,  1609);  Dioaora, 
La  NowMtU-Franee  de  Cartier  d  Champlain  (Quebec,  1S91) :  BxaI7> 
Bivir,  Hiei.  de  SauU-au-RSeoOel  (Montreal,  1897) :  Faillox,  Vie  de 
Mme  (T  YouviOe  (Montreal,  1852) ;  Jbttb,  Viedeta  Vininbie  Mirt 
d'YowriOe  (Montreal,  1900);  Gahnbau,  Hietoire  du  CamMda,  I; 
DoLUBR  DB  Cabson,  Hietoire  de  Montrtal  (Montreal,  18G9); 
Faillok,  Hietoire  de  ia  Coionie  Frat^aiee  en  Canada  (Montreal, 
1865):  Idbm,  Viedela  Yin.  Mkre  Bourgeoye  (Pane,  1853):  losif, 
Yie  de  MUe  Mance  (Paris,  1854);  Idbm.  Vie  de  M.  OKer  (Paris. 
1873);  RouMAN,  Vie  de  Paul  Chomodey  de  Maiemnmiee  (Mont- 
real, 1886);  The  Narrative  of  the  Sucharietie  Conoreee,  Septendier 
7-11, 1010  (Montreal,  1910). 

EUB  J.  AUGLAHL 

Montronil,  Charterhouse  of  Notre-Dame-des-Pr^ 
at  Montreuil,  in  the  Diocese  of  Arras,  D^>art- 
ment  of  Pas-de-Cal£us,  France,  founded  by  Robert, 
Count  of  Boulogne  and  Auvergne.  The  charter  of 
foundation  is  dated  from  the  chftteau  d'Hardelot  on  15 
July,  1324;  the  church  was  consecrated  in  ld3S.  The 
foundation,  being  close  to  Calais,  was  liable  to  dis- 
turbance in  time  of  war.  Thus  it  was  often  sacked  by 
the  English  during  the  wars  in  the  fourteenth  and  fif- 
teenth centuries,  and  was  for  a  time  abandoned.  The 
religious  retumea  when  peace  was  restored.  In  1542 
the  monastery  was  again  wrecked  by  the  Imp^ial 
troops  and  in  the  wars  of  relimon  fresh  troubles  at- 
tended the  commimity.  Finally  the  house  was  re- 
built by  Dom  Bernard  Bruyant  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century  and  remained  undisturbed  un- 
til the  Revolution.  In  1790  the  monastery  was  sup- 
pressed and  its  property  sold  by  auction  tiie  following 
year.  Eighth-two  years  later  the  Carthusians  repur- 
chased a  portion  of  their  old  estate  and  the  first  stone 
of  the  new  monastery  was  laid  on  2  April,  1872.  The 
work  was  pushed  forward  with  such  oiergy  by  the 
Prior,  Dom  Eus^be  Bergier,  that  the  whole  was  fin- 
ished in  three  years.  The  monasteiy  contains  twenty- 
four  cells  in  its  cloister.  Montreuil  has  taken  a  spi^ 
cial  position  among  Carthusian  houses^  owins  to  'the 
estaolishment  there  of  a  printing  press  from^^ch  has 
been  issued  a  number  of  worlu  connected  with  the 
order.  Domle  Couteulx's  "AnnaJes''  (in  ei^t  vols.) 
and  the  edition  of  Denys  the  Carthusian  may  be 
quoted  as  examples  of  the  fine  printing  done  by  the 
monks.  By  the  recent  ''Association  Laws''  the  com- 
munity of  Montreuil  has  been  once  more  ejected. 
The  monks  are  now  lodged  in  the  Charterhouse  of 
Parkminster,  England;  the  printing  works  have  been 
transferred  to  Toumai  in  Belgium. 

Trombt,  Storia  .  .  .  <I«U*  ordine  Cartueiano  (Naplea,  1773); 
Ls  CouTSULX,  Annalee  ordinie  Cartueieneie  (Montreuil,  1901): 
LarsBTiUD,  S.  Bruno  et  Pordre  dee  Chartreux  (Paria.  1883). 

G.  ROGBB  HUDLBBTOH. 

Montnuil  Abbey,  a  former  convent  of  Qsterdan 
nuns  in  the  Diocese  of  Laon,  now  Soissons,  France. 
Some  incorrectly  claim  that  it  was  the  first  convent 
of  Cistercian  nuns.  It  was  founded  in  1136  by 
Bartholomew,  Bishop  of  Laon,  and  within  a  few 
years  it  numbered  nearly  three  hundred.  In  early 
days  the  community  busied  themselves  not  merely 
in  weaving  and  embroidery,  but  also  in  tilling  the 
fields,   clearing  the  forest,  and  weeding  the  eoil 


H0NT-8T-HICR1L  551  HOKT-ST-HICHZL 

So  Urge  *  numbo'  in  one  community  had  its  disttd'  ment  and  undratook,  none  too  soon,  the  todc  of  MS- 
vantages,  (or  within  a  century  of  its  foundation  the  toration.  The  worli  has  gone  on  almost  continually 
convent  was  forbidden  by  the  Abbot  of  Clairvaux  to  ever  since,  and  the  reatorera  miMt  be  praised  for  Hie 
take  novicea  until  the  number  of  nuns  at  Montreuil  skil!  with  which  the  great  pile  has  been  saved  from 
was  reduced  to  one  hundred,  which  figui«  was  not  ruin,  and  the  good  taste  with  which  the  mcAe  has 
in  future  to  be  exceeded.     In  the  seventeenth  cen-    been  done. 

tury  the  convent  was  so  much  disturbed  by  the  wars  This  vaat  group  of  buildings  has  been  the  subject  of 
which  ra^  in  the  neighbourhood  that  the  nuns  several  important  monogr^hs.  Speaking  generally, 
abandons^  it  and  settled  m  the  hospital  of  St-Lazare  the  monastic  buildings  consist  of  three  main  stones, 
close  to  the  city.  The  list  of  abbessee  is  in  Gallia  Of  these,  the  two  lower  take  the  form  of  vast  irregular 
Chrietiana  (IX,  639);  the  convent  was  suppressed  at  rings  complel^y  enclosing  the  natund  rock,  which 
the  French  Revolution.  forms  a  core  to  the  whole  edifice.     The  third  story 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  Montreuil  was  a  resW  partly  on  the  two  lower  stories  and  partly  on  the 
place  of  pilgrimage,  being  famous  for  the  "SMnte  apex  of  the  rock  which  is  found  immediat^y  beneath 
Face"  or  VimI  of  St.  Veronica.  This  picture,  which  the  pavement  of  the  church.  The  most  remarkable 
was  regarded  by  many  as  the  orinnal  rehc,  was  part  of  all  is  the  mass  of  buildings  known  as  "la  m«- 
reaUy  acopyof  the"VeraBffipee"  mSt.  Peter's  at  valle"  (the  marvpl)  on  the  north  side  of  the  rock  fac- 
Rome.    It  was  presented  in  1249  to  the  Abbess  of    ing  the  ocean.    This  vast  structure,  half  mihtaiy, 

Montreuil  by  her  brother  Jacques  Pantaleon,  after-  — 

wards  Uiban  IV.  The  painting,  apparently  of  East- 
em  origin  and  already  ancient  when  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  nuns,  bore  an  inscription  that  seemed  un- 
decipherable, even  Mabillon  being  completely  baffled 
by  it.  Subsequently,  however,  some  Russian  savants 
declared  the  words  to  be  Slavonic,  and  to  read 
"Obraa  gospoden  naroubrouse"  or  "Imaao  Domini 
in  linteo  .  It  seems  to  have  perished  with  the  convent 
in  the  French  Revolution. 

Bbathikk,  Rteemii  fOwttn^tte  .  .  .  da  Abbavm  tt  Prietim  d* 
Ftana  (Pmru,  1728).  806-07;  Gnllto  Cftririiono  O'iri".  1761),  IX, 
030;  UisHB,  Ditiiiiimaif  da  AUaiw  (Pbtu.  ISMJ.  T"    ' 


t,  Orioma  Cifrnmnum  (Viaimk  1S77].  p.  lii. 

G.  Roger  Hcdi 


ISMJ.  sei:  Jin 

!cDL£s'roN. 


MOBt-St-BCcbel,  a   Bene(Uctine   Abb^,  in    the 
Dioceee  of  Avranches,  Normandy,  France.     It  is  un- 

Siestionably  the  finest  example  both  of  French  me- 
eval  architecture  and  of  a  fortified  abbey.  The 
buildings  of  the  monastery  are  piled  round  a  conical 
maas  ofrock  which  rises  sbrupljy  out  of  the  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  to  the  height  of  300  feet,  on  the  summit 
of  which  stands  the  great  church.  This  rock  is  nearl}[  a 
mile  from  the  shore,  but  in  18S0  a  causeway  was  built 
across  the  duigerous  quicksand  that  occupies  this 
apace  and  is  exposed  at  low  water,  so  that  there  is 
DOW  no  danger  in  approaching  the  abbey.  The 
monasteiY  was  founded  about  the  year  708  by  St. 
Aubert,  Bishop  of  Avranches,  and  according  to  the 

legend,  by  direct  command  of  the  Archangel  Michael  half  monastic,  is  built  wholly  of  granite  quarried  cm 

himself,  who  appeared  to  the  bishop  in  a  dream  on  the  mainland,  and  was  entirely  constructed  betweea 

three  separate  occasions.     About  966,  Richard  the  the  vears  1203  and   1228.     Its  foundations  are  one 

Fearless,  third  Duke  of  Normandy,  finding  the  com-  hundred  and  sixty  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  it 

munity  in  a  rdaxed  condition,  installed  Benedictines  connsts  of  three  stories  of  which  two  are  vaulted, 

from    Monte   Ca^no   at    Mont-St^Michel.     A    few  The  lowest  cont^ns  the  almonry  and  cellar;  above 

'  '     ,  in  1017,  Abbot  Hildebcrt  II  began  theco-  these  come  the  refectory  and  "hall  of  the  knights", 

me  of  buildings  all  round  the  rock  which  on  which  again  rest  the  dormitory  and  the  cloistet. 

should  form  a  huge  platform  level  with  the  summit,  on  The  last  named  building,  which  is  perhaps  the  finest 

which  the  abbey  church  mightstand.     In  strife  of  the  gem  of  all,  has  a  double  arcade  so  planned  that  the 

enormous  difiiculties   involved   in   the   design,   diffi-  columns  in  one  row  are  opposite  tJie  centre  of  the 

culties  increased  by  fire  and  the  collapse  of  portions  of  arches  in  the  other — a  unique  arrangement  of  wonder- 

the  edifice,  the  great  scheme  was  persevered  ia  during  ful  beauty.     The  church  is  cruciform  with  a  NormBD 

five  centimes  and  crowned  by  the  completion  of  the  nave  which  was  formerly  seven  bays  in  length,  but 

flainboyant   choir   in   1620.     Even   among   rehgious  the  three  western  bays  were  destroyed  in  1776.     The 

eommumtiee,  such  an  instance  of  steadfast  purpose  central  tower  has  lately  been  restored  and  crowned 

and  continuity  of  plan  stands  unrivalled;  but  the  com-  with  a  copper-covered  spire  surmounted  by  ^  fplded 

pletion  was  only  just  in  time.     In  1523  the  abbey  was  statue  of  St.  Michael  by  M.  iWmiet.     The  choir  is 

^rcuited  in  commendam  to  Cardinal  Le  Veneur  and  the  apsidal  and  has  a  chevet  of  chapels  with  a  crypt  or , 

ieries  of  commendatory  Abbots  continued  until  1622  lower  church  beneath. 

ivhen  the  abbey,   its  community  reduced  almost  to  Thepositionof  the  abbey  rendered  it  of  the  highest 

'.be  vanishing  iHunt,  was  united  to  the  famous  Congre-  Etrategic  importance  especially  during  the  wars  with 

S.tion  of  8t-Maur.     At  the  French  Revolution  the  England,  and  both  it  and  the  little  town  that  had 

aurist  monks  were  ejected  and  the  splendid  build-  grown  up  at  the  foot  of  the  rock  on  the  land  side, 

nee  became  a  prison  for  political  oScnders  while,  with  were   enclosed   by   strong   fortifications   during   the 

incoOBcious  irony^  the  name  of  the  place  was  changed  fourteenth  and  futccnth  centuries.     So  impregnable 

rom  Mont  8t-Michel  to  Mont  Libre.     In  1863  the  was  the  rock  made  in  this  way  that,  although  fre- 

irison  was  closed  and  for  a  few  years  the  abbey  was  quently  attacked  by  superior  forces,   it  was  never 

cnrrfl  to  the  Bishop  of  Avranches,  but  in  1872  the  captured.     The  abbot  was  also  commandant  of  the 

•V^cfa  Goremment  took  it  over  ae  a  national  oionu-  place  by  appointmeut  o(  the  King  of  FrMCe,  «Qd 


c 


M0NT70N  552 

he  WB8  empowered  to  bestow  feoffs  on  the  nobles  of  the  the  prise  to  be  bestowed  on  the  author  of  the  work 

provmoe  who  bound  themselves  in  return  to  ^uard  most  useful  to  morals.    Thesepriaesaretobeawaidfid 

the  abb^  in  time  of  war.    In  1469  King  Louis  XI  by  the  French  Academy.    Montvon  also  distributed 

founded  the  Order  of  St.  Michael,  and  held  the  first  huws  sums  of  mone^  among  the  bureaus  of  diarities 

ehapter  of  its  knights  in  the  ''salle  des  chevaliers/'  in  Paris.    His  will,  m  which  are  expressed  sentimenta 

It  is  said  that  the  cockle  shell,  horxK  and  staff,  which  of  the  deepest  pietv,  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his  piop- 

became  the  recognised  inHignia  of  a  pilgrim  from  erty  to  the  hospitals  ana  homes  of  his  native  city, 

the  thirteenth  century  onwards,  take  theit  origin  ^,^<^?"2[™g!,^P**g^  *^Jf'  i*  if ^'^f^  ^J^'^^J*  FASS^ 

from  Mont^VMichd.    The  eta*  was  u«d  to  test  H^J^^^^iS^li^^^^r'USlr'^'^"^" 

the  path  across  the  treacherous  qmcksand,  the  horn  Pibbbb  Mabiqub. 

aerved  to  summon  aid  should  tide  or  f (^  surprise  the  _, 

pilgrim;  while  the  cockle  shell  was  fixed  in  the  hat  as  Moor,  Huqh,  Vbnbbablb.    See  Mobton,  Rob- 

a  souvenir  to  show  that  the  pilnim  had  accomplished  ^^^f  Vbnbbablb. 

his  journey  m  safetv.    The  abbejr  bore  as  its  anns  a  Moore,  Abthxtb,  Count,  b.  at  liveipool,  1849;  d. 

eockle  dbefl  and  fleursKie-hs  jnth  the  significant  at  Mooresfort,  Tipperery,  Irdand,  190^  was  the  son 

motto  "T^or  immenai  OTOam".  of  Charles  Moore,  M.P.  for  Tipperary.     Educated 


1888),  tr.  ABM0TBOHO,  Go<AieAnA«toelur«  (London,  1893);  Brik,       .mj--     •  11.  •         'x         j        x-  r 

Si,  iiieM  0t  u  M.st'M,  dant  Vhiturirt  et  la  litUrature  (Paris,  children  m   workhouses,   umvemty  education   for 

l5*3».?^??*^":i2v^*''^~'**'''^?"*S*^^*'J2^*fr**'  ^  Irish  Catholics,  and  Home  Rule:  and  he  specially 

if^  %'&.'^i)rD^^S^SW'^M.:llff.  jnt««ted  Wn^tf  in  providing  CathoKo  ^pWna  for 

(Paris,  1806) ;  Fibtau  Lm  meneiOet  du  M.-strM.  (Paris,  s.  d.) ;  the  navy.  In  1877  he  mamed  a  daughter  of  an  English 

QiMi^aji.Hitfm&uff.'Si^M.om^     prUon d'BuuiTm.i^V);  baronet,  Sir  Charles  Clifford,  and  the  same  year  re- 

DATii>.I«0hmrftA»ai^ifOo«d«u  (Pans.  1907),  36^78.  cdved  the  title  of  Count  from  the  pope.    During  the 

G.  RoGBB  HuDLEflTON.  Gladstone  Parliament  of  1880-85  Count  Moore  waa 

'  T        r»  -n  A  usually  on  the  side  of  Pamell.    He  favoured  land 

Mon^oii,  ANTODnhJBAN-BApnsTB^RoBEBT  Au-  purchase  as  the  best  settlement  of  the  Iriah  land 
or,  Babon  db,  famous  French  philanthropist;  b.  at  question;  he  advocated  the  providing  of  suitable 
Pans,  23  December,  1733;  d.  there  29  December,  cottages  for  Irish  labourers,  and  better  treatment  of 
1820.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  official  of  the  irigh  emigrants  on  board  ship;  he  always  voted  for 
Exchequer.  As  soon  as  he  had  completed  his  educa-  Holme  Rule,  and  vehemently  denounced  coercion, 
tion,  young  Montvon  was  made  king's  advocate  at  But  he  had  no  ieith  in  violent  agitation,  and  did 
the  court  of  Le  ChAtelet  (Paris)  where  his  inflexible  not  favour  the  full  programme  of  the  Land  League  or 
integrity  won  for  him  the  surname  of  "Grenadier  of  that  of  the  National  League;  and  he  voted  for  the 
the  Bar."  In  1768  he  entered  the  Great  Council  and  second  reading  of  Gladstone's  Land  Bill  though  Par- 
in  1760  was  appointed  master  of  the  petitions.  In  nell  and  his  friends  abstained  from  voting.  Count 
1767  he  became  intendant  of  Auvergne,  where  his  Moore  would  only  follow  where  his  convictions  led, 
liberaKtv  to  the  poor  endeared  him  to  the  people.  It  and  he  was  too  independent  to  be  blindly  obedient  to 
is  said  that  he  vearly  spent  as  much  as  twenty  thou-  Mr.  Pamell:  when  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1886 
sand  francs  of  nis  private  income  to  give  work  and  dLrfranchised  Clonmel,  he  was  left  without  a  seat  in 
help  to  needy  faxnilies.  On  his  refusal  to  install  Parliament.  He  had  therefore  no  share  in  the  stirring 
the  new  maipstrates  i^pointed  by  Maupeou  after  scenes  which  followed  the  general  election  of  1885. 
the  suppreasion  of  the  Parliaments,  he  was  transferred  But  he  was  not  content  to  lead  a  life  of  ease  and  in- 
to the  mtendanoe  of  Provence  and  then  to  La  Rochelle.  activity,  believing  that  "  a  Catholic  layman  should  be 
In  1775,  through  the  influence  of  the  due  de  Pen-  up  and  domg  and  not  merely  telling  his  beads  in  a 
thidyre,  he  was  recalled  to  Paris  and  appointed  coun-  comer".  Blessed  with  ample  wealth  he  was  a  gener- 
dllor  of  State.  Amidst  the  cares  of  public  life,  he  ous  contributor  to  schools,  churehes,  convmts,  and 
had  found  time  for  the  study  of  economics  and  belles-  hospitals;  a  militant  but  not  an  agmssive  Catholic  he 
lettres.  The  Frenrib  Academy  awarded  a  distinction  was  always  ready  to  do  battle  f orCatholic  tmth,  and 
to  his  "Eloge  de  Michel  de  rHdpital"  (Pans,  1777).  in  speeches,  lectures,  and  newspaper  articles  often  did 
The  foUowing  year  he  published  ''Recherehes  et  con-  splendid  service  for  the  advancement  of  Catholic 
adorations  sur  la  population  de  la  France. "  Mont-  interests.  He  spared  no  eflfort  to  secure  that  Catholic 
yen's  great  concern,  however,  was  philanthropy,  sailors  should  not  be  left  without  religious  instnio- 
which  he  delighted  to  practice  m  ui  anomrmous  way.  tion  during  life,  or  without  a  priest  at  the  hour  of 
In  ocder  to  foster  emulation  for  the  good  among  his  death:  and  so  valuable  was  his  woric  in  tins  matter 
countrymen,  he  founded  a  number  of  prizes  to  be  that  the  Irish  Bishops,  at  th&i  meeting  at  Maynooth 
awarded  by  the  French  Academy,  the  Academy  of  in  1903,  thanked  him  by  special  resolution.  He  sup- 
Science,  or  the  Academv  of  Me^me.  ported  the  Catholic  Tmth  Society  and  attended  its 

At  the  beginmng  of  the  French  RevolutioiL  he  meetings;  he  desired  to  have  a  branch  of  the  Benedio- 
thought  it  was  his  duty  to  share  the  fortunes  of  the  tine  Order  in  Ireland,  and  would  have  helped  to  en- 
princes  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  and  he  left  the  dow  it.  He  established  and  generously  endowed  the 
country.  He  travelled  m  Switam-land  and  Germany,  Cistercian  Abbey  at  Roscrea.  Always  ready  to  hdp 
but  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  exile  in  London;  others  he  did  not  forget  his  own  personal  sanctiW. 
during  Ws  stay  in  that  «*y»  he  mve  each  year  ten  He  attended  Mass  every  day,  spent  hours  before  tiSe 
thousand  francs  to  relieve  the  French  refugees,  and  tabernacle  in  his  own  private  oratory,  fasted  riffoi^ 
the  French  sol(hers  who  were  prisoners  m  £ng-  ousiy,  made  frequent  retreats;  and  he  went,  year  after 
land;  the  same  amount  was  sent  to  the  poor  of  Au-  year,  to  Lourdes  and  to  the  Holy  Land,  not  as  a  men 
vergne.  Montyon  returned  to  France  in  1815  at  the  sight-seeing  traveller  but  as  a  pugrim  and  a  penitent 
time  of  the  second  restoration  and  henceforth  de-  At  home  he  was  the  kindest  and  the  most  indulgent  of 
voted  all  his  time  to  the  work  that  had  made  his  name  landlords,  and  no  beggar  went  unrelieved  from  his 
famous.  He  re-established  the  prises  which  he  had  door.  When  he  died,  his  body,  clothed  in  the  Fran- 
founded  before  the  Revolution  and  which  had  been  ciscan  habit,  was  interred  near  the  high  altar  in  the 
abolished  by  the  National  Convention.  The  best  church  of  the  Cistercians  at  Roecrea. 
known  of  these  prises  are  'Me  prix  de  vertu'',  to  re-  Baxbt,  Life  afCowu  Artlnir  Movn  (DubUa.  loo^. 
war4  ^  virtuous  act  done  by  a  poor  Frenoh^iaiii  f^  &  A-  P^AlA(M< 


THE  l^T/N  YC2K 

PUBr.TC  LIPRARY 


1 


553  HbOBl 

Moors  for  Moor),  Michael,  priest,  preacher^  and  Moore  gave  little  or  no  heed  to  academio  honours.  A 
professor,  b.  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  i640;  a.  at  Pans,  22  curious  point  noted  by  a  recent  biographer  is  that 
Aug.,  17!^.  Educated  at  Nantes  and  Paris,  he  tat]|;ht  Moore  was  entei^  as  a  Protestant,  possibly  by  Ms 
r^osophy  and  rhetoric  at  the  College  des  Grassins.  school-master,  Mr.  Whyte,  who  himself  a  Protestant. 
Ketumm^  to  Ireland,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1684,  wished  to  qualify  his  favourite  pupil  for  all  the  gooa 
and  appomted  Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Dublin  things  that  the  college  off^^  to  non-Catholics, 
by  Archbishop  Russell.  When  the  Revolution  of  1688  Moore  probablv  was  not  aware  of  this;  at  any  rate  he 
drove  James  II  from  his  British  dominions.  Ireland  never  availed  himself  of  it.  Though  his  education 
was  held  for  him  by  Richard  Talbot,  Earl  (afterwards  and  associations  were  mostly  Protestant,  and  though 
Duke)  of  Tyrconndl.  The  provost  of  Trinity  College,  he  himself  was  in  fact  after  his  first  year  in  college 
Dublm,  Dr.  Huntingdon,  fled  to  En^and  when  James  scarcely  more  than  a  nominal  Catholic,  he  never 
landed  in  Ireland.  The  college  was  sdsed  by  the  changed  his  creed.  Anionor  his  intimate  friends  was 
Jacobites,  the  chapel  was  made  a  powder  magazine,  Rob^  Emmet,  whose  tragic  death  made  on  him  a 
one  portion  of  the  building  was  turned  into  a  barrack,  lasting  impression.  Moore  shows  this  in  his  writinss, 
and  another  into  a  gaol  for  persons  suspected  of  dis-  as  in  the  beautiful  lyric,  "O  breathe  not  his  name^', 
affection  to  the  royal  cause.  Moore  was  chaplain  and  and  also  in  the  veilea  allusions  in  ''The  Fire  Worship 
confessor  to  Tyroonnell  through  whose  influence  and  pers'^  one  of  the  four  long  poems  of  ''Lalla  Rookh^'. 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops,  After  graduating  in  1798  he  set  out  in  the  following 
he  was  appointed  (1689)  by  James,  provost  of  Trimt^  spring  for  London  to  study  law.  He  was  never  ad* 
College — ^the  only  Catholic  who  ever  held  that  posi-  mitted  to  the  Bar,  as  legal  studies  had  for  him  no  at* 
tion.  He  upheld  the  rishts  of  the  college,  secured  it  traction.  Literature  was  more  to  his  likin^^.  When 
from  further  pillage,  ana  endeavoured  to  mitigate  the  scarcely  fifteen^some  verses  of  his  appeared  m  a  Dub- 
treatment  of  the  prisoners.  With  the  librarian.  Father  tin  magazine ''The  AnthologiaHibmdca''.  While  in 
McCarUiy,  he  prevented  the  soldiery  from  burning  college  he  wrote  a  metrical  translation  of  the  "Odes  of 
the  library,  and  by  preserving  its  precious  collections  Anacreon"  which  he  published  in  London  in  1800. 
rendered  an  incalculable  service  to  letters.  A  sermon  with  a  dedication  "bv  permission''  to  the  Prince  of 
which  he  preached  in  Christ  Church  cathedral  of-  Wales.  He  publishea  in  the  following  year  his  first 
fended  the  king  so  deeply  that  he  was  obliged  to  volume  of  original  poems  under  the  title  of  "The 
resign  (1690),  and  retired  to  Paris.  When  James,  after  Poetical  Works  of  the  late  Thomas  little'',  which  met 
the  Dattle  of  the  Boyne  (1690),  fled  to  Paris,  Moore^^jyt\.^\£l^^osUifiism  on  the  grounds  of  indecency, 
removed  to  Rome,  became  Censor  of  Books,  and  wpn  "X^^fr  editions  w^re  expuigated;  but  Moore  showed 
the  favour  of  Innocent  XII  and  Clement  XI.  When  hn'^^nan^  for  amorous  poetry  by  recurring  to  it  in 
Cardinal  Barbari^  established  his  college  at  Monfe^^^^VXteli^yesijf  tbd  An^^''.  Again  critidzed,  he  bent 
fiascone,  he  appomted  Moore  rector,  and  professor tof  to  tnemdnii  by  ^turning  his  poor  Angels  into  Turks". 

I>hilosophy  ana  Greek.    The  college  attracted  men  of  Moore's  success  almoei  from  the  day  he  set  foot  in 

earning,  and  received  from  Innocent  XII  an  annital  England  was  e3(traqrdinary.    It  was  no  doubt  his  per- 

grant  oi  two  thousand  crowns.    After  the  death  bf  ^^MiJuMoharm  ana  tt^miisterly  singing  of  his  own  songs 
James  II  (1701).  Moore  returned  to  France,  whene^;  >;tba1>.gEmf  ^kxi^e  stfirt  in  ms  successful  career.    like 

through  Cardinal  de  Ncuulles,  he  was  appointed  R^  ^e  ancient  bard  ^e  sang  his  own  verses  to  his  own 
tor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (10  Oct.,  IvOl  to  9  ^^l^^jftfOflTrT'V''"^'*"^;  y^  ^«*^  welcomed  everjrwhere. 

1702).    He  was  also  made  principal  of  the  College  de  Early  in  1803  the  Government  proposed  to  estab- 

Navaire,  and  professor  of  philosophy,  Grec^,  and  lish  an  Irish  laureateship  and  offered  Moore  the  posi- 

Hebrew  in  the  College  de  ¥Vance.    In  1702  he  was  tion  vrith  the  same  saloiy  and  emoluments  as  the 

selected  to  detiver  the  annual  panegyric  on  Louis  XIV,  English  office  of  similar  title;  but  Moore  declined  the 

founded  by  the  City  of  Paris.   Moore  joined  Dr.  Far-  honour.    Another  offer  later  in  the  year,  that  of  Reg- 

relly  (Fealy)  in  |>urcha8ing  a  house  near  the  Irish  istrar  of  the  Admiralty  Court  of  Bermuda,  he  ao- 

CoUege  for  poor  Irish  students.   Blind  for  some  years,  cepted  and  left  England  in  September  for  his  post  of 

he  haid  to  employ  an  amanuensis,  who  took  advantage  duty.    After  four  months'  trial,  finding  the  office  not 

of  his  masters  afiSiction  to  steal  and  sell  many  hun-  to  ms  liking  he  appointed  a  deputy  and  sailed  for  New 

dred  volumes  of  his  choice  library.    What  remained  York.    He  visited  the  prindpd  cities  of  the  States, 

Moore  bequeathed  to  the  Irish  College.    He  ^ed  in  and  then  went  to  (Danada.    Me  was  delighted  with 

the  CoU^e  de  Navarre,  and  was  buned  in  the  vault  his  Canadian  toiu*.  but  was  far  differently  impressed 

under  the  chapel  of  the  Irish  College.    His  publiehed  by  ''the  land  of  the  free"  and  its  people.    Judging 

works  include:  "De  Existentia  Dei,  et  Humanie  Men-  everything  from  his  pro-English  viewpoint,  he  could 

tis  Immortalitate,  secundum  Cartesii  et  Aristotelis  find  scarcely  anything  to  admire  in  the  young  re- 

Doctrinam"  (Paris,  1692);    "Hortatio  ad  Studium  public  which  had  so  lately  gained  its  independence 

linguse  Graecs  et  Hebralcs"  (Montefiascone,  1700);  irom  Engluid.    After  an  ab^nce  of  fourteen  months 

"Vera  Sciendi  Methodus"  (Paris,  1716).  he  returned  to  London  "with  a  volume  of  poetio 

Wab«.  Ths  WfiUTB jif  ir^nd,  f)d.  Hamu  (Dublin.  1746);  travels  in  his  pocket"  which  with  later  additions  he 

?f?iS)^¥f{SS;  ^il^ott^u^sU^TS^^  published  in  1806  mider  the  title  of  "Epistles,  Odes 

BKiTT.  History  of  DtMin  (1861^:  Joubdaxk,  i7Miotr«  d«  2'  Univertiu  and  Other  Poems  ",    In  addition  to  his  animadversions 

iU  Paru  au  xyip jt  au xviiPaiMe  (Pm^iS62^):^^  on  America  it  contained  several  amatory  pieces. 

gS.^SSS:ill£^r*'''  """^^"""^  ''"^  ^^'*'^'^'^'*  The  [amous  critic,  Jeffrey,  in  an  article  in  the/Edin. 

P.  J.  Lennox.  burgh  Review"  attacked  the  book  severely  and  callea 

its  author  "the  most  licaitious  of  modem  versifiers". 

Moore,  Thomas,  poet  and  bioflrapher,  b.  28  May,  lliis  brought  on  the  famous  "leadless duel",  and  paved 

1779,  at  Dublin,  Ireland;  d.  26  Feoruaiy,  1852,  at  the  way  for  the  lifelong  friendship  between  the  poet 

Devizes,  England.    His  father  was  a  grocer  till  1806  and  the  critic.    Another  challenge  from  Moore,  this 

when  he  was  appointed  barrack-master  at  Dublin,  time  to  Lord  Byron  for  his  sarcastic  reference  to  the 

His  mother,  a  woman  of  varied  accomplishments,  did  "leadless  pistols"  used  in  the  meeting  with  Jeffrey, 

much  to  train  him  for  his  remarkable  success  in  soci-  result^  in  anotiier  close  friendship  between  "hostile 

ety.    Thomas  early  manifested  a  remarkable  power  forces". 

of  rhyming,  dnpng,  and  acting.    When  fifteen  he  was  In  1807  Moore  published  the  first  numbers  of  his 

enteredatTrij^tyCollege,  Dublin,  which  by  the  Cath-  "Irish  Melodies".    Were  all  his  other  works  lost, 

otic  ReUef  Act  of  1793  had  opened  its  doors  to  Catho-  these  would  give  him  the  right  to  the  title  he  so  much 

tics,  who  were,  howeVer,  hardly  more  than  tolerated,  priz^,  "The  Poet  of  the  people  of  Ireland".    The 

Denied  all  incentive  because  of  his  religious  belief;  importance  and  the  difficulty  of  this  undertaking — ^to 


MOOU  554  MOOBI 

fit  words  to  the  old  national  urs  of  Ireland — Moore    ''EQstory  ci  CM>tain  Rock  and  hia  Aneeston"  in 


menta  which  they  express,  must  feel  and  understand  savages  deserving  the  sword,  but  the  bad  laws  of  Eng- 

that  rapid  fluctuation  of  spirits,  that  unaccountable  land  that  generated  all  sorts  of  crime.   The  book  made 

mixture  of  gloom  and  levity  which  composes  the  its  way  everywhere.    In  Eni^Uind,  perhaps  for  the  first 

character  of  my  countrymen  and  has  deeply  tinged  time,  the  cause  of  Ireland  received  a  hearing.    Natu- 

their  Music''.    Almost   aU   contemporary   writers,  rally  it  became  popular  in  Ireland  where  even  Catho- 

among  them  ^elley  and  Landor,  spoke  enthusiasti-  lies,  notwithstanding  (in  the  words  of  Moore)  "some 

cally  of  the  melodies,  saying  that  the^  were  lyrics  d  infidehties  to  their  religion  which  break  out  now  and 

the  hi|diest  merit.    His  friend  and  biographer.  Lord  then  in  it",  expressed  in  a  formal  manner  their  grati- 

JohnRussell,  wrote  in  1853  that  "of  alTlyrical  poets,  tude  for  his  ddTence  of  their  country. 

Moore  is  surely  the  greatest".    Moore  continued  to  This  favourable  reception  delighted  Moore;  only 

write  these  at  intervals  for  twentv-eeven  years,  re-  now  he  began  to  know  Ireland  and  her  people.    He 

odving  $500  for  each,  which  gave  him  an  annual  ixH  came  back  at  times  to  his  own  and  enoeavoured  to 

come  of  $2500.     Six  of  the  ten   numbers  df  his  make  amends  for  his  former  lack  of  sympathy .  as  may 

mdodies  were  published,   when  he  tried  his  hand  be  seen  in  some  of  his  later  writings,  as  the  ^*Iife  « 

with  like  success  at  "Sacred  Songs"  and  "National  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald"  (1831).     Tlus,  which  is 

Airs  ".  probably  his  best  prose  woric,  was  a  labour  of  love;  for 

The  lyrics,  however,  did  not  take  up  all  his  time.  Id  m  writing  a  sympathetic  account  of  a  young  Irish 
1808  he  published  poems  on  "  Corruption  "  and  on  "  In-  patriot  who  suffered  for  his  country  in  the  uprising  of 
tdkiranoe"  and  in  the  following  ^^ear  "The  Sceptic".  1798,  Moore  could  hardly  hope  for  encouragement 
These  attempts  at  serious  satire,  in  which  he  used  the  from  an  English  reading  public.  In  the  meantime  he 
hooic  couplet  of  Pope,  did  not  meet  with  success,  had  published  the  "Life  of  Sheridan"  (1825),  a  work 
Quite  different  was  his  next  venture,  this  time  in  a  which  had  engaged  his  attention  during  the  preceding 
lighter  strain  and  directed  against  the  prince,  his  seven  vears.  So  successful  was  it  financially  that  the 
former  patron,  who  on  becoming  regent  tnrough  the  publishers  added  $1500  to  the  original  price  of  the 
insanity  of  his  father  had  changed  m>nt  and  broken  copvright.  Its  chief  value  lay,  as  the  critic  Jeffrey 
with  the  Whigs,  with  whom  Moore  had  previously  said,  in  the  historical  view  it  gave  of  public  transac- 
allied  himself.  These  pieces,  togetiier  with  ^ose  he  tions  for  the  past  fifty  years.  The  next  proae  work, 
wrote  against  several  members  of  the  Ministry,  were  "The  Epicurean"  (1827),  has  some  merit  aa  a  story, 
^thered  together  and  published  in  1813  with  the  but  not  as  a  study  of  ancient  manners  or  as  a  presents- 
title  "  Intercepted  Letters  or  The  Two-penny  Post-  tion  of  the  Epicurean  philosophy.  Mo(»«  was  to  be 
bag".  In  this  sort  of  light-hearted  satire  Moore  had  H^n's  editor;  he  became,  instead,  hia  biographer, 
struck  a  rich  vein  which  he  worked  for  more  than  His  "Life  of  Byron"  (1830)  is  one  of  the  moet  popular 
twenty  years  with  his  " Fudge  Family  in  Paris",  "  The  biographies  ever  written,  though  the  picture  givm  is 
Fudges  in  England",  and  "Fable  of  the  Holy  AUi-  not  wholly  true  to  life. 

ance'\    Moore's  reputation  in  tiiie  literary  world  of  After  finishing  the  life  of  Fitsgerald  he  wrote  a  theo* 

his  time  was  of  the  highest,  as  is  shown  from  the  busi-  logical  treatise  which  he  dedicated  "  to  the  people  of 

ness  arrangements  made  for  the  copyright  of  "Lalla  Ireland  in  defence  of  their  Ancient  National  Faith", 

Rookh"  (1817).    Longmans,  the  publishers,  agreed  and  called  it  "The  Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in 

to  give  the  highest  price  ever  paid  for  apoem,  $15,000.  Search  of  a  Religion  "  (1834).    The  Iridbt  Gentleman 

and  that,  too,  without  seeing  a  line  of  the  work.    Ana  wishes  to  become  a  Protestant,  studies  hard  at  home 

twenty  years  later  they  stul  called  it  the  "cream  of  and  abroad,  but  faib  to  find  anything  either  in  Script- 

the  copyrights".    After  considerable  reading  and  ure  or  the  Chureh  Fathers  to  justify  a  change.   Thtt 

some  discouraging  experiments,  he  hit  upon  the  idea  of  vindication  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  a  curious  book 

founding  a  story  on  the  lonj;  and  fierce  struggle  be-  written  as  it  was  by  one  who  had  married  a  Protestant, 

tween  the  Persian  fire-worshippers  and  their  haughty  and  was  glad  to  have  his  children  brought  up  as  Prot- 

Moslem  masters — a  theme  that  had  much  to  recom-  estants.    In  his  fifty-fifth  year  Moore  doubtfeas  took  a 

mend  it  to  an  Irishman  familiar  with  the  Ions  struggle  different  view  of  life,  and  saw  the  folly  ci  mere  woridly 

between  his  countrymen  and  their  rulers.     Men  who  advantages  when  these  involved  a  sacrifice  of  religious 

had  lived  long  in  the  East  marvelled  at  his  skill  in  truth.    Similar  motives  likely  influenced  him  in  his 

reproducing  so  faithfully  life  in  the  Orient  with  its  next  and  last  work,  "The  Historv  of  Ireland"  (1835- 

barbaric  splendours.  46).    During  much  of  his  life  he  had  been  more  of  an 

Scarcely  was  this  off  his  hands  when  the  news  ar-  English  Whig  than  an  Irish  Nationalist.    But  the  last 

rived  that  he  must  mi^e  good  the  loss  of  $30,000  of  it  he  gave  generously  to  his  countrv  by  calling  the 

caused  by  his  agent  in  Bermuda.     Moore  had  not  attention  of  the  English  people  to  their  misgovem- 

saved  an3rthing  out  of  his  large  income.    His  friends  ment  of  Ireland.    The  task  wnich  he  undertook  was. 

would  have  come  to  his  assistance;  but  he  would  not  however,  too  much  for  him;  the  one  volume  intended 

allow  them.    To  escape  arrest  he  took  refuge  in  1819  lengthened  out  into  four,  and  then  stopped  at  the  reign 

on  the  continent.    More  than  three  years  ne  had  of  of  Queen  Elisabeth. 

rather  enjoyable  exile,  most  of  which  was  spent  in  Paris  Moore  was  now  broken  down.  Hnancial  troubles 
where  his  family  joined  him  in  1820.  He  had  in  1811  had  constantly  harassed  him,  notwithstanding  his 
married  a  young  actress.  Miss  Bessy  Dyke.  Towards  large  income.  He  had  ^mected,  and  with  good  reason, 
the  close  of  1822,  after  settling  the  Biermuda  claim,  great  things  from  the  Government  when  lus  friends 
which  had  been  reduced  to  $5,000,  he  took  up  his  resi-  the  Whigs  got  in  power.  A  recognition  came  in  1833 
dence  again  in  England.  Heretofore  he  nad  been  when  he  received  a  literary  pension  of  $1500,  to  which 
almost  exclusively  a  writer  of  verse;  from  this  on  he  was  added,  a  few  years  bdFore  his  death,  anoUier  pen- 
is primarily  a  wnter  of  prose: — ^he  becomes  a  biog-  sion  of  $500.  He  was  not  spared  domestic  troubles, 
rapher,  a  controversisiist,  an  historian.  During  the  Two  daughters  died  in  infancy;  the  third  fived  only 
summer  of  1823,  he  accompanied  Lord  Lansdowne  on  to  be  a  girl  of  sixteen.  Of  his  two  sons  one  died  from 
a  visit  to  the  south  of  Ireland.  While  there  he  learned  consumption  in  1841;  the  other,  Thomas,  wild  and 
much  of  the  discontent  among  the  peasants,  of  their  extravagant,  died  in  Africa  in  1845.  At  this  time 
secret  organisations,  and  of  ^eir  mysterious  leader,  Moore  wrote  in  his  "Diary":  "The  last  of  our  five 
Captain  Rock.  On  his  return  he  read  history,  and  as  children  is  now  gone  and  we  are  left  desolate  and  alon«, 
a  result  of  hia  reading  and  his  sight-seeing,  he  wrote  a  Not  a  single  relative  have  1  now  left  in  the  worki  ** 


M0P8UXSTIA 


555 


MOB 


He  had  previously  lost  his  parents  and  his  sisters,  his 
favourite  Ellen  a3dng  suddenly  at  about  the  same 
time  as  his  son  Thomas.  His  life  was  now  practically 
over,  and  he  died  in  his  seventy-third  year  and  was 
buried  at  Bromhami  near  Devises  m  Wiltshire. 
Moore's  biographer,  Lord  John  Russell,  declared: 
''When  these  two  great  men"  (Scott  and  B3nx)n) 
"have  been  enumerated,  I  know  not  any  writer  of  his 
time  who  can  be  put  in  comparison  with  Moore";  and 
yet  when  Moore  wrote,  England  was  rich  in  great 
writers.  Such  praises  as  this  may  appear  exaggerated 
to-day  when  critical  opinion  has  swung  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme,  especially  among  younger  writers.  The 
truth,  as  usual,  seems  to  lie  oetween  two  extremes. 
Much  of  Moore's  work  is  ephemeral,  but  there  re- 
mains a  ^up  of  l3rric8  that  are  as  perfect  of  their  kind 
as  anythmg  in  the  world  of  literature.  In  1841  Moore 
collected  and  arranged  his  poems,  to  which  he  wrote 
interesting  prefaces. 

MooBS»  JiemoirMt  JowmaUt  and  eorreapondenee,  edited  by 
LoBD  John  Russbll  (London.  1853-6);  Gwtnn,  Tfunruu  Moore 
(London,  1905);  Gunniko,  Moore^  Poei  and  Patriot  (Dublin, 
1900);  Memoirt  of  the  author  prefixed  to  the  x>oemfl  collected  by 
Moore  himself  (1841);  Vallbt,  Btude  aur  la  tie  H  Ua  autree  cm 
Thomae  Moore  CPvia,  1886). 

M.  J.  Flahebtt. 

Mopsneatia,  a  titular  see  of  Cilicia  Secunda  in  Aoa 
Minor  and  suffragan  of  Anazarbus.  The  founding  of 
this  city  is  attributed  to  the  soothsayer,  Mopsus,  who 
lived  before  the  Trojan  war,  althou^  it  is  scarcely 
mentioned  before  the  Christian  era.  Pliny  calls  it  the 
free  dty  of  Mopsos  (Hist,  nat.,  V,  22),  but  the  ordi- 
nary name  is  Mopsuestia  or  better  Mompsuestia,  as 
found  in  all  the  Christian  geographers  and  chroniclers. 
At  one  time  the  city  took  the  name  of  Seleucia,  but 
gave  it  up  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest;  under 
Hadrian  it  was  called  Hadriana,  under  Decius  Decia, 
etc.,  as  we  know  from  the  inscriptions  and  the  coins  of 
the  dty.  Constantius  built  there  a  magnificent  bridge 
over  tiie  Pvramus  (Malalas,  "Chronographia",  XIII; 
P.  G.,  XCVII,  488)  afterwards  restored  dv  Justinian 
(Procopius,  "De  ^dificiis",  V,  5)  and  still  to  be  seen 
in  a  very  bad  state  of  preservation.  Christianity 
seems  to  have  been  introduced  very  early  into  Mop- 
suesUa  and  during  the  third  century  there  is  mention 
of  a  btshopj^Theodorus,  the  adversaiy  of  Paul  of 
Samosata.  worthy  of  mention  are  Saint  Auxentius, 
who  lived  in  the  foiurth  century  and  whose  feast  is  kept 
on  18  December,  and  Theodore,  the  teacher  of  Nesto- 
rius.  The  Greek  diocese  which  depended  on  the  Patri- 
9rctL  of  Antioch,  still  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christianus", 
II»  1002).  At  fiiBt  a  suffragan  of  Anasarbus,  Mop- 
suestia was  an  autocephalous  archbishopric  in  879 
(Mansi,  "Conoil.  CoUectio",  XVII,  XYm^  472,  476- 
480,  etc.),  and  perhaps  it  was  already  so  m  713  (Le 
Quien,  11. 1000).  The  dty  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  at 
uie  veiy  Dinning  of  Islamism;  in  686  we  find  all  the 
surrounding  forts  occupied  by  them  and  in  700  thev 
fortified  the  city  itself  (Theophanes,  "Chronopr.' , 
A.  M.  6178, 6193) .  Nevertheless  because  of  its  position 
on  the  frontier,  the  city  fell  naturally  from  time  to 
time  into  the  hands  of  me  Byzantines;  about  772  its 
inhabitants  killed  a  great  number  of  Arabs  (op.  cit., 
A.  M.  6264).  Being  t^ie^ed  in  vain  by  the  Byzantine 
tioops  of  John  Tzimisces  m  964,  Mopsuestia  was  taken 
the  following  year  after  a  long  ana  difficult  siege  by 
Nicephorus  Phocas.  The  city  then  numbered  200,(X)0 
iDhi£itants,  some  of  whom  were  killed,  some  trans- 
ported elsewhere  and  replaced  by  a  Christian  popula- 
tion. Its  river,  the  Pyramus,  formed  a  great  harbour 
extending  twdve  miles  to  the  sea. 

In  1097  the  Crusaders  took  possession  of  the  cit^ 
and  engaged' in  a  fratricidal  war  under  its  walls;  it 
remained  m  the  possesdon  of  Tancred  who  annexed  it 
to  the  Prindpality  of  Antioch.  It  sufferedjnuch  from 
Crusaders,  .Mnenians,  and  Greeks  who  lost  it  and  re- 


captured it  altematdy,  notably  in  1106^  in  1152,  and  fai 
1171.  The  Greeks  finally  abandoned  it  to  the  Arme- 
nians. Set  on  fire  in  1266,  Mamissa,  as  it  was  called  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  became  two  years  afterwards  the 
capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lesser  Armenia,  at  the  time 
that  a  coimdl  was  hdd  there.  Although  it  was  by  this 
time  in  a  state  of  dedine  it  still  possessed  at  least  four 
Armenian  churches.  In  1322,  the  Armenians  suffered 
a  great  defeat  under  its  w^ls;  in  1432  the  Frenchman, 
Bertrandon,  foimd  the  citv  occupied  b^r  the  Mussul- 
mans and  largely  destroyed..  Since  then  it  has  steadily 
declined  and  to-day,  under  the  name  of  Missis,  is  a 
little  village  of  about  8(X)  inhabitants,  partly  Arme- 
nians, partly  Mussulmans;  it  is  situat^  m  the  sanjak 
and  the  vilayet  of  Adana.  The  list  of  its  Latin  bishops 
may  be  found  in  Le  Quien,  III,  1 197-200;  in  Ducange, 
"Les  families  d'outre-mer",  770;  in  Eubd,  "Hierar- 
chia  cathol^ca  medii  sevi",  I,  338;  that  of  the  Anne- 
nian  bishops  in  Alishan,  "  Sissouan  ",  290. 

AusHAN,  Sittouan  (Venioe,  1899).  284-291;  Lanolou,  Voyage 
dana  la  Cilieie  (Paria.  1861).  446-463;  Scblumbbbgbb,  NiOphore 
Phoeae  (Paris,  1890).  402-404,  480-488. 

S.  Vailh^. 
Mopsuestia,  Thbodorb  of.    See  Theodorb  or 

MOFSUEBTIA. 

Mor  (Moob),  Antonib  Van  Dashorst,  commonlv 
called  Antonio  Moro^  or  Anthonis  More,  a  Dutch 
painter,  b.  at  Utrecht,  m  1519;  d.  at  Antwerp,  between 
1576  and  1578.  Of  his  early  Ufe  we  only  know  that  his 
artistic  education  was  commenced  under  Jan  van 
Scorel,  and  his  earliest  work  is  probably  the  portrait 
at  Stockholm,  dated  153S.  Recent  investigations 
would  indicate  that  the  group  of  knights  of  St.  John, 
at  Utrecht,  supposed  to  have  been  painted  about  1541, 
and  a  picture  of  two  pilgrims  at  Berlin,  dated  1544,  to- 

f  ether  with  the  portrait  of  a  woman  unknown,  in  the 
lille  gallenr,  were  probably  among  his  earliest  works, 
although  their  autnenticity  has  not  been  proven.  In 
1547,  he  was  received  as  a  member  of  the  Venerable 
Guild  of  St.  Luke  at  Antwerp,  and  shortly  afterwardo 
^about  1548)  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Cardinal 
Granvelle,  Bishop  of  Arras,  who  became  his  steady 

Satron,  and  presented  him  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
^f  the  portraits  executed  during  the  commencement 
of  his  (jrranvella  career,  two  are  especially  notable:  of 
the  bishop  himself  in  the  Imperial  gallery  at  Vienna, 
and  of  the  Duke  of  Alba,  which  now  belongs  to  the 
Hiiroanic  Society  of  New  York.  He  probab^^  visited 
Italy  first  in  1550,  for  we  hear  of  him  in  Rome,  where 
he  copied  some  works  by  Titian,  notably  the  "  DanaS  ". 
He  was  sent  by  (^ueen  Mary  of  Hungary  to  Portu- 
gal, doubtless  his  first  visit  to  that  countnr,  and 
among  its  notable  results  are  a  portrait  of  the  Infanta 
Maria  and  one  of  Queen  Catharine  of  Portugal^  both 
in  the  Prado,  and  those  of  King  John  III  ana  his  wife 
Catherine,  preserved  at  Lisbon.  After  this  he  re- 
turned to  Madrid,  where  he  painted  the  portrait  of 
Maximilian  of  Bohemia;  he  was  in  Rome  agun  in 
1552.  It  has  been  gravely  suggested,  but  on  insuffi- 
cient evidence,  that  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the 
Prado  gallery,  the  portrait  of  the  unlmown  youns 
Cardinal,  hitherto  attributed  to  Rafael,  and  regarded 
as  one  of  his  noblest  works,  should  be  credited  to  Mor. 
From  Rome,  he  went  to  Genoa,  and  thence  to  Madrid. 
In  1553  he  was  sent  to  England,  where  he  painted  the 
portrait  of  Mary  Tudor,  perhaps  one  of  his  very 
noblest  works;  and  in  all  probability  the  portraits  of 
Sir  Henry  Sidney,  and  of  Ambassador  Simon  R^iard. 
That  of  Renard's  wife  was  not  painted  until  three 
years  later.  To  this  period  should  be  attributed  the 
miniature  of  Mary  Tudor  in  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch's 
collection,  two  portraits  of  Elizabeth  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  one  of  which  once  belonged  to  Dr.  Pro- 
pert,  and  another  even  more  notable,  of  Roger  Ascham, 
now  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Pierpont  Morgan.   Tb's 


MORALES  5 

ma  at  one  time  the  property  of  Ascbam's  coOege,  and 
later,  of  the  Marquees  of  Kaatinga. 

At  about  this  tune  Mor  married,  but  we  know  little 
of  hia  wife,  save  that  her  name  waa  Metgen,  and  she  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  widow.  He  became  a  man 
of  large  means,  acquired  property,  and  was  known  as 
Mora  van  DRshorst  when  residing 
nUtrecht.    Hahadoacson.PhiUp, 


aftei 


MOI,  COttMOHLT 


daughters.    At  the  end  of  1554,  he 
waa  back   in   Holland,  where  he 

Sainted  a  portrait  of  William  of 
range,  and  other  notable  works. 
A  little  later  be  executed  his  own 
portrait,  now  in  the  Uflizi  Gallery, 
one  of  his  wife,  now  in  the  Prado, 
a  portrait  of  a  kni^t  of  St.  James 
at  Budapest,  one  of  Alexander 
Famese  at  Parma,  the  portrait  of 
an  unknown  man  in  Verona,  and 
a  very  extraordinary  religiaus  pio- 
ture  of  the  Resurrection,  now  at 
Nimwcgen  in  a  private  collection. 
Hia  portrait  of  Jean  Le  Cocq 
[Gallua],  one  of  his  wife,  and  that 
called  Don  Carlos,  in  the  gallery 
at  Caosel,  those  of  the  Duchess  de 
Ferift  (7),  and  of  a  widow,  in  the  ^„  ,„„ 

Prado,  of  himself  in  Lord  Spencer's  """ 

collection,  and  of  Campafia,  the  Brussels  painter,  in 
the  Basle  gallery,  are  of  a  euDscquent  period.  Several 
rery  important  workn,  executed  towards  the  close  of 
bis  life  are,  Elizabeth  Queen  of  SpaiOtin the  Biachoffs- 
heim  collection  (London),  Jacopo  da  Tretio  and  three 
other  fine  por- 
traits, in  the  Stuers 
gallen*  (Paris) ,  and 
the  lamoua  por- 
trait of  bis  own 
master,  Jan  van 
Bcorel,  belon^ng 
to  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  (Lon- 
don). Other  noted 
works  are  those 
representing  a  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford 
in  tbe  Brunswick 
Gallery,  and  the 
y  fa 


enoes  to  him  and  the  numerous  enaya  on  his  etMtr, 
have  been  summed  up  by  Henri  Hymaoa  in  hia 
memoir  of  Mor  (Brussels,  1910),  and  to  thia  invslo- 
able  work  all  students  muat  now  be  referred. 


Gkobob  Crablxs  Wiluamson. 

HonlM,  Ambrobio,  Spaniah  his- 
torian, b.  at  Cordova,  1513;  d.  in 
1591.  After  his  studies  at  the 
Uni  verity  of  Salamanca  and  AlnaU, 
he  took  Holy  orders.  Soon  be  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  Belles-Lettna 
atAlcaU.  Inl574hewaaappmnted 
chronicler  of  Castile  and  commis- 
sioned  to  continue  Floriin  de 
Ocampo's  "Cr6nica  General  de 
Espafia".  This  he  brought  down, 
after  ten  vears  of  labour  on  it,  to 
the  date  en  the  union  of  Castile  and 
Leon imder Ferdinand  I.  Uia  pupil 
Sandoval  continued  it  down  to  1079. 
While  he  exhibits  more  tal^it  and 
a  better  training  than  his  predeces- 
sor Ocampo.  Morales  still  proves  ta 


very  f 


of     Sir 


Thomas  and  Lady 
Gresham,  at  one 
time  at  Strawberry 


Kin, 


1  the 


J,  IvtUiVtCB  BLUl  fUUVOI  lu 

.rWe  an  old-time  cIumu- 

cler,  and  manifests  little  tendency  to 
react  upon  his  facts,  con«late  cause 
and  effect,  or  philosophiee  in  any  way.  His  style  is 
rather  wearisome.  See  the  "Cr^ca  general  de  Es- 
pa&a,  prosiguiendo  adelante  los  cinco  hbrtw  que  d 
Maestro  Florian  Docampo,  Coronista  del  Emperador 
D.  Carlos  V  dez6  morita<"^  (AloaU,  1574,  3  vols.,  and 
see  abo  the  id.<A 
Madrid,  1791-3). 
Odter  writings  of 
Morales  an  "De 
las  anttKOedadea 
de  las  ciudadcs  de 
ERwfla";  and  the 
"Viaie  por  orden 
dd  Key  D.  Fdipe 
Hetc.'' 


Hermitage  collec- 
tion (St.  Peters- 
burg). After  the 
disgrace  of  Car- 
dinal Granvelle, 
Mor  remained  in 
Spain  for  a  while, 
and  the  following 
portraits  belong  to 

this  period  of  nis  auuuma  i-nu,  m 

life:  The  Jeweller  M«Wd 

in  the  gallery  of  The  Hague,  Sir  Henry  Lee,  m 
Lord  Dillon's  collection,  Antonio  del  Rio,  his  sons,  and 
his  wife,  in  the  Louvre,  the  Duke  of  Alba,  at 
Brussels.  Ferdinand  of  Toledo,  at  Vienna,  and  several 
others  of  unknown  people.  His  laat  portrait  appears 
to  be  that  of  "Goltiiua",  in  the  Brussels  Gallery. 
The  last  document  that  refers  to  him  was  one  issued 
at  Antwerp,  in  1573,  and  we  obtain  the  date  of  bis 
death  from  certain  documents  still  extant  in  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame  in  that  city.    The  many  refer- 


Horalaa,  JirAit 


hiaa,  Spainj  d.  at 
Fu-ning,  Chma,  17 
Sept.,  1664.  He 
altered  tiie  Older 
of  St.  Dominic  at  a 
very  early  ^e,aiid, 
after  devoting 
Bomeye&n  to  mis- 
nonary  work  in  the 
Philippine  Idaods, 
accompanied  in 
1633  a  band  of  D»- 


jre  or  Mixunuui  It  arise  to  China,  tak- 

Antoola  Mor,  The  Pndo.  Mudiil         Jug   up  their  WOrk 

intheprovinceofFu-kien.  Herehet<»kan*tivepert 
in  the  controversy  between  the  Jesuits  on  the  one  ade 
and  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  on  the  oUier,  re- 
gardingChinesecu8toms(seeCHiNA).  The  latter  main- 
tained that  tlie  Jesuits,  to  win  over  more  eamlytbe  peo- 
ple to  the  religion  of  Christ,  tolerated  to  aoertain  extent 
thecultofConfuciusandof  ancestors ;  and,  seeing  in  this 
Sieged  condescension  to  heathen  customo,  a  jeopardy  to 
tbepurityofthefaith,  they  despatohed  Morales  to  Rome 
in  1643,  and  on  12  Sept.,  1645,  obtained  tnm  iDnoeeat 


ThbE 


M0BALI8 


657 


MOEALrmS 


X  a  deciaon  condemning  the  methods  of  the  Jesuits. 
The  latter  also  appealed  to  Rome,  and  obtained  from 
Alexander  VII  a  contradictory  decree.  In  1661  Mo- 
rales agiun  called  the  attention  of  the  Holy  See  to  the 
matter,  and  in  1669,  five  years  after  the  death  of 
Morales,  Clement  yC  issued  a  new  decree  deciding 
against  the  Jesuits.  About  the  same  time  the  Domini- 
cans discovered  an  enemy  in  their  own  ranks  in  the 
person  of  the  Chinese  friar,  Gregory  Lopez,  Bishop  of 
Basilea,  who  sent  to  the  Holy  See  a  memorandum 
favourable  to  the  Jesuits.  Among  the  works  of 
Morales  the  following  are  the  most  im[x>rtant:  (1) 
''Qusesta  xvii  a  Fr.  J.  B.  de  Morales,  missionum  sina- 
rum  procuratore,  proposita  Roms  1643  S.  Congreg. 
de  Prop.  Fide"  (Rome,  1645);  (2)  "Tractatus  ad 
explicandas  et  elucidandas  opimones  et  controversias 
inter  Patres  Societatis  Jesu  et  relig^osos  S.  Ord. 
Pr«d.";  (3)  "Commentarium  super  Latanias  B.  Vir- 
pnis  lingua  sinica*';  (4)  "Tractatus  ad  Dei  amorem 
in  voluntate  excitandum.  lingua  sinica." 

QxjUTtr-EcBKKD,  Seripl.  Ord.  Prod.,  II,  611;  ToxniOK,  Hommea 
iUuH.  de  rordre  S.  Dominique,  V.  627.  628.  630;  Hue,  Le  Chri9- 
tiawieme  en  Chine,  III  (Paru.  1857),  11-19. 

Joseph  Schroedeb. 

Morales,  Luis  de,  Spanish  painter,  b.  at  Badajos 
in  Estremadura  about  1509;  d.  at  Badajoz,  1586. 
His  life  was  spent  in  painting  devotional  subjects  for 
churches  and  oratories.  Pamting  was  for  him  not 
merely  a  means  of  charming  the  sense  of  vision:  he 
strove  by  his  brush  to  express  the  religious  enthusiasm 
which  characterized  his  age.  Critics  have  detected 
two  styles  in  the  long  artistic  career  of  Morales.  In 
his  earlier  style,  the  influence  of  the  Florentine  school 
is  more  marked:  he  executed  various  studies  and 
exercises  after  works  of  Michelangelo;  notably,  he 
copied  at  Evora  a  picture  representing  Christ  on  the 
Cross,  with  the  Blessed  Virsin  and  St.  John.  To  this, 
not  easily  definable,  period  is  referred  a  ''Circumci- 
sion", now  in  the  Prado  Museum  at  Madrid,  and  six 
panels  for  the  high  altar  of  the  church  of  La  Higuera 
of  Fregenal.  In  his  second  style  Morales  lessens  the 
number  of  figures  in  his  compositions,  which  seldom 
contain  more  than  two  or  three,  often  in  bust  or 
in  half-length.  His  favourite  themes,  frequently  re- 
produced without  any  change,  are  ''Ecce  Homo", 
^'Christ  at  the  Colunm",  and  "The  Blessed  Virgin 
holding  the  Dead  Christ  *\  The  drawing  is  clean  and 
firm,  the  anatomy  correct,  the  figures,  which  recall 
primitive  German  and  Flemish  work  by  their  slender- 
ness,  are  not  wanting  in  grace,  and  at  times  are  char- 
acterized by  a  certain  air  of  melancholy.  The  colour- 
ing is  delicate  and  as  brilliant  as  enamel.  Morales 
excels  in  the  faculty  of  making  his  modelling  stand  out 
by  the  skilfully  graduated  employment  of  half-tones; 
like  the  early  Northern  painters,  he  exercises  minute 
care  in  the  reproduction  of  the  beard  and  hair,  and 
makes  a  point  of  rendering  faithfullv  the  drops  of 
blood  falling  from  the  thorn-crowned  brow  of  Cnrist. 
and  the  tears  flowing  from  the  eyes  of  the  aflSictea 
Mother. 

No  artist  of  his  time  knew  better  than  he  how  to 
appeal  to  the  ardent  faith  of  his  countrymen,  because 
no  one  else  in  that  day  knew  so  well  how  to  impart  to 
bis  sacred  characters  so  intense  and  infectious  emotion. 
As  an  example  of  this  we  may  take  the  "Christ  at 
the  Column  in  the  Church  of  San  Isidro  el  Real 
at  Madrid;  here  the  painter  pathetically  places  the 
disciple  who  has  demed  Him  face  to  face  with  the 
EHvine  Master  at  the  flagellation.  The  resignation  of 
Jesus,  His  loving  look  directed  towards  Peter  and 
fraught  with  for^veness,  the  deep  penitence  of  the 
Apostle,  are  so  vividly  rendered  that  one  shares  the 
enthusiasm  of  Morales's  countrymen,  and  can  under- 
stand why  they  called  him  El  Divino.  Naturally, 
bis  reputation  spread  rapidly  through  Spain;  Philip 
II,  however,  whose  preference  was  for  the  Italian 
painters,  does  not  seem  to  have  shared  the  general 


enthusiasm:  he  gave  Morales  but  one  conunismon, 
for  the  "Christ  going  up  to  Calvary",  which  he  pr^ 
sented  to  the  Jeronymite  church  at  Madrid.  The  King 
afterwards,  in  1581,  granted  a  pension  to  the  artist, 
who  had  oecome  aestitute  in  his  old  age.  Many 
imitators  of  Morales  exaggerated  his  style  into  man- 
nerism and  caricature.  His  son  Crist6bal  accom- 
plished little  beyond  mediocre  reproductions  of  hia 
works,  but  one  of  his  pupils.  Juan  Labrador,  became 
distinguished  as  a  painter  oi  still  life.  To  the  works 
of  Morales  already  mentioned  we  may  add:  at  Bada- 
joz (Church  of  the  Conception),  "Virgin  and  Child 
playing  with  a  bird'\  "Cnrist  canyii^  the  Cross", 
"St.  Joachim  and  St.  Anne";  at  Madrid,  "Ecce 
Homo".  "Our  Lady  of  Sorrows".  "Mary  caressing 
the  Divine  Child",  ''^The  Presentation  in  the  Temple'*, 
a  "Head  of  Christ"  (Prado  Museum),  "Ecce Homo'* 
(Church  of  San  Felipe),  "Virgin  with  the  Dead 
Christ"  (Academy  of  San  Fernando);  at  Seville  (in 
the  chalice-room  of  the  cathedral),  "Ecce  Homo", 
with  the  "  Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  John"  on  the  panels: 
at  Toledo  (in  the  Provincial  Museum),  a  "Head  oi 
Christ",  "Our  Lady  of  Solitude";  at  Basle  (in  the 
Museum),  "Christ  carnring  the  Cross",  "Our  Lady 
and  St.  John";  at  Dresden  (in  the  Museum) ^  "Christ 
carrying  the  Cross",  "Ecce  Homo";  at  Dublm  (in  the 
National  Gallery),  "St.  Jerome  in  the  Desert",  at 
New  York  (in  the  Historical  Society),  "Ecce  Homo"; 
at  Paris  (in  the  Louvre),  "Christ  carrying  the  Cross": 
at  St.  Petersburg  (in  the  Hermitage),  "Our  Lady  of 
Sorrows";  at  Stuttgart  (in  the  Museum),  "Ecce 
Homo". 

Stibung.  AnnaJe  of  the  AHiaU  of  Spain,  (London,  1868),  224; 
Bl41«c.  Hi*t.  dee  peintne  de  Undee  lee  BooUe  (Paris,  1866):  BeoU  e»» 
jnonole;  LnroBT,  La  peinhtre  eepagnale,  (Paris,  1893),  74-6. 

Gaston  Sobtais. 

MoralitieB  (or  Moral  Plats)  are  a  development 
or  an  offeboot  of  the  Miracle  Plajrs  and  together  with 
these  form  the  greater  part  of  Medieval  drama.  They 
were  popular  in  the  fifteenth  and  early  sixteenth  oen-* 
turies  and  existed  side  by  side  with  the  Miracle  Plays 
of  that  date.  A  Morality  has  been  defined  by  Dr. 
Wiurd  as  "a  play  enforcing  a  moral  truth  or  lesson  bv 
means  of  the  speech  and  action  of  characters  which 
are  personified  abstractions — figures  representing  vices 
and  virtues,  qualities  of  the  human  mmd.  or  abstract 
conceptions  in  general",  and,  on  the  whole,  that  defi- 
nition comprehends  the  msdn  features  of  the  Morality 
proper  in  its  most  characteristic  form.  Miracle  Plavs 
and  Moralities  existed  throughout  Europe,  especially 
in  France,  and  had  various  features  in  common  while 
the  manner  of  their  presentation,  at  least  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  Morality,  diiffered  hardly  at  all — the  per- 
formance being  out  of  doors  upon  movable  scaffolds 
with  all  the  usual  "properties".  The  aim  of  both  was 
religious.  In  the  Miracle  Play  the  subject-matter  is 
concerned  with  Bible  narrative.  Lives  of  Saints,  the 
Apociyphal  Gospels,  and  pious  legends,  a  certain  his- 
torical or  traditional  founclation  underlies  the  plot,  and 
the  object  was  to  teach  and  enforce  truths  of  the  Cath- 
olic faith.  In  the  Moralitv  the  matter  was  allegorical 
rather  than  historical,  and  its  object  was  ethical;  the 
cultivation  of  Christian  character.  The  intention  of 
both  Miracle  Plays  and  Moralities,  as  we  have  said, 
was  religioua;  in  the  one  it  aimed  at  faith,  the  teach- 
ing of  dogma,  in  the  other  morals,  the  application  of 
Christian  doctrine  to  conduct.  In  the  one  medieval 
morality  at  sJl  well  known  to  the  general  public,  that 
of  "Everyman",  this  is  clearly  illustratea— a  human 
life  is  brought  face  to  face  with  the  imperative  facts  of 
the  Christian  faith.  It  is  not  difficult,  therefore,  to  see 
that  the  Morality  is  not  only  a  development  from  the 
Miracle  play  but  also  its  complement.  ^ 

It  is  tne  custom  with  many  dramatic  and  literary 
historians  to  decry  the  Moralities,  especially  in  com- 
parison with  the  Miracle  plays,  as  unutterably  duU, 
aud  to  place  them  in  the  lowest  rank  of  dramatic  art  j 


MOBAUTIES  £58  MOBAUTmi 


that  of  the  Miracles  and  farces.   Mr.  Pollard  is,  more-  owner,  the ' *  Macro  Moralities  ".  ed.  Pollard  and  Fumi- 

over,  of  the  opinion  that  in  its  earlier  days  the  Moral-  vail,  see  below);    ''Everyman^'   (London,  19Q2),   a 

ity  was  not  wholly  unworthy  to  be  ranked  with  Uie  translation  from    a    Dutch  original;    tibe    ''World 

Miracle  Play.   It  is,  of  course,  clear  that  the  substitu-  and  the  Child"   (Mundus   et   fnfans;    ed.   Manly, 

tion  in  the  moralities  of  abstract  ideas  (Love,  Friend-  see  below).    All  the  above  plays  are  lengthy  and 

ship,  etc.)  in  place  of  the  human  personalities  of  the  belong  almost  certainly  to  the  fifteenth   century. 

Bible  or  legendaiy  narrative,  would  tend  to  produce  About  the  same  date  we  may  place  two  plays  'vrhidi 

a  less  real  dect  if  acted  carelessly,  or  if  the  audience  though  not  pure  Moralities  are  yet  much  influenced 

did  not  thoroughly  comprehend,  or  was  out  of  s^m-  by  the  Moralities,  "St.  Mar^  Magdalene"  (ed.  Fumi- 

path^r  with,  the  meaning  of  the  play  (and  this  is  vail,  see  below),  and  what  is  known  as  the  Croxton 

practically  the  position  of  the  modem  reader,  espe-  Play  of  the  "Sacrament"  (ed.Waterhouse,  see  below), 
cially  if  non-Catholic).    But  the  abstract  ideas,  i^r        About  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centuiy  a  new  kind 

sdl,  were  represented  as  human  beings  (though  typical  of  Morality  play  appeared.    In  the  earlier  Moralities 

human  beings^  on  the  stage,  and  if  we  put  ourselves  of  which  we  have  been  speaking,  time  was  not  an 

even  slightly  into  the  Catholic,  religious,  and  moral  object,  nor  was  there  need  to  hmit  the  number  of 

atmosphere  of  the  medieval  audience  (to  which  the  actors,  but  little  by  little,  as  performances  began  to 

ethical  bearing  of  the  play  was  not  naturally  dull  but  take  place  indoors,  in  the  hall  of  a  king  or  a  noble, 

vivid,  because  of  the  tremendous  human  issues  it  was  and  as  they  passed  into  the  hands  of  professional 

concerned  with),  we  should  be  able  to  understand  why  actors,  compression  began  to  be  necessary  both  in 

the  Moralities  were  popular  not  onl^  in  the  Middle  time  and  in  the  numMT  of  personages  introduced. 

Ages  but  on  into  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.   Besides  The  aim  of  the  play,  also,  became  gradually  more 

this,  in  many  Moralities  the  characters  were  not  ail  secular.    The  result  was  a  modified  and  shortened 

abstract   qualities — there   were   angels   and   devils,  Morality  known  as  an  Interlude.   The  meaning  of  this 

priests,  doctors,  and,  especially  in  English  pla3rs,  the  term  is  not  yet  clearly  defined.    Its  primaiy  meaning 

tool,  under  various  names,  chiefijr  that  of  the  ''Vice",  according  to  Mr.  Chambers  is  that  of  a  play  in  dia- 

The  versification  of  the  Moralities  was,  too,  on  the  logue  between  two  or  more  performers,  but  its  secon- 

whole,  more  varied  than  that  of  the  Miracle  Plays,  diuy  meaning,  that  of  a  aramatic  diversion  in  the 

One  of  the  latest  and  most  thorough  of  English  writers  pause  or  interlude  between  the  parts  of  a  banquet  or 

upon  this  stage  of  the  drama  points  out  that  four  main  other  entertainment,  which  has  been  general! v  given 

plots  can  be  distinguished  in  the  earlier  Moralities,  to  it,  ma}r  still  stand.   The  nature  of  the  Moral  Intei^ 

sometimes  occurring  alone  and  sometimes  in  combina-  lude  and  its  close  connexion  with  the  earlier  Moral- 

tion:  the  Debate  of  the  Heavenly  Graces;  the  Com-  ity  proper  is,  however,  clear.    It  deals  with  portions 

ing  of  Death;  the  Conflict  of  Vices  and  Virtues;  and  only  of  a  man's  life;  and  the  ethical  teaching,  in  some 

the  Debate  of  the  Soul  and  the  Body.  Interludes,  is  mainly  limited  to  warnings  against  oei^ 

In  England,  however,  we  have  not  extant  examples  tain  sins  (especially  those  of  youth)  and  in  others  to 

of  all  the  four,  though  tne  Morality  Play  is  well  repre-  exhortations  to  learning  and  study.    "Hick  Scomer" 

sented  in  our  literature.    The  earliest  English  Moral-  (ed.  Manly,  see  below)  and  the  Interlude  of  the  "Four 

itv  of  which  we  hear  is  a  play  of  the  "Lord's  Prayer"  Elements"  (Hazlitt,  "Dodsley's  Old  Plays",  London, 

of  the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  "in  which  1874)  are  early  examples.   This  type  of  play  was  often  ' 

all  manner  of  vices  and  sins  were  held  up  to  scorn  and  used  as  a  means  of  assertinjS  F^testantism  against 

the  virtues  held  up  to  praise".   This  play  is  lost,  but  it  Catholicism.    Among  the  writers  of  this  later  typie  of 

must  have  been  mucn  thought  of,  for  a  Guild  was  Morality  we  find  John  Skelton  in  his"  Magnyfycence" 

fonned  in  York  (where  it  was  played)  with  the  special  (ed.  Ramsay,  see  below),  and  John  Heywood,  the 

object  of  maintaining  it.    Also  lost  is  another  earlv  oramatist,  who  was  especially  noted  for  his  Interludes, 

and  highly  interesting   Morality   of   the   "Creed  .  some  of  which^  however,  are  more  like  plays  proper 

The  earliest  complete  Moral  play  extant,  leavine  out  having  a  satirical  rather  than  a  definite  moral  ami, 

the  still  earlier  fragment  of  the  "Pride  of  Life     (ed,  and  leading  to  another  development  of  the  drama. 

Waterhouse,  see  below),  is  the  "Castell  of  Perseve-  Some  of  the  Interludes  are  lively  enough,  but  in  others 

ranee",  3650  lines  long,  and  written  perhaps  in  the  there  appears  something  of  the  dramatic  lifdessness 

early  fifteenth  century.    This  "traces  (to  quote  Mr.  which  has  been,  perhaps  rashly,  attributed  to  Morali- 

Pollard's  skilful  summary)  the  spiritual  histonr  of  ties  in  general.    When  we  find  an  Interiude  on  the 

Humanum  Genua  [Mankind  or  the  typical  man]  from  subject  of  Love,  in  which  the  characters  are  named 


wa^  is  beset,  the  Guardian  Angel  by  whose  help  he  is  plain  that  this  type  of  work  is  reaching 

resists  them,  and  the  ordinances  of  Confession  and  it  is  to  continue  must  take  on  a  more  livmg  character. 

Penance  by  which  he  is  strengthened  in  his  conflict".  John  Heywood's  work,  however,  on  the  whole,  brings 

Dramatic  power  is  eliown  in  this  Morality;  the  plot  us,  in  Interludes  such  as  "The  Four  P's"  and  "The 

forms  a  unity,  and  is  developed  in  logical  sequence.  Pardner  and  the  Frere"  (both  plays  to  be  found  in 

It  must  have  oeen  a  thrilling  moment  for  the  audience  Hazlitt's  "Dodsley  "),  to  the  thi^hold  of  real  drama, 

when  Humanum  Genus  after  hearing  the  persuasive  Allegory  has  passed  away,  together  with  the  recog- 

argjuments  of  hb  Good  and  his  Bad  Angels,  hesitates  nized  Moral  plot,  and  the  characters  are  drawn  from 

wmch  to  follow: —  contemporary  life.   This  "transformed  morality  takes 

"Whom  to  folowe,  wetyn  I  ne  may;  its  place  as  one  of  the  threads  which  went  to  make  up 

I  stonde  in  stodye,  and  gynne  to  rave;  the  wondrous  web  of  the  Elizabethan  drama". 

I  wolde  be  rvche  in  leret  arav.  Chambbiw,  TheMedicBval  Stage  (Oxford,  1903);  POLLAKD.  tn^ 

And  favn  T  woIHp  tyi v  snwlp  hJiva  '"*  Miracle  Playa  (Oxford,  1909);  Ram«at.  Pnfaee  to  5lreft<m*« 

Ana  layn  l  WOiae  my  SOWle  save  Magnyfycence  in  Early  Eng,  Text.  Socy.  PtMieaiunu  (London. 

As  Wjmde  m  water  I  wave.  1906) :  Pollabo  and  Furnivall,  Pr^ace  to  Macro  Ptay  in  Early 

Thou  (to  Bad  Angel)  WOldyat  to  the  world  I  me  Eng.  Text  So<n/.PtM%eatioru  (Uindon,  l9fA):^ 

-                 9    J             J  000  to  Non^yele  Mystery  Playe  in  Early  Eng,  Text  Soeu,  PubUm- 

tiona  (London,  1909) ;  Fuunitall,  Pre/aee  to  Dighy  Jv yaterus  in 


toke; 


Now  so  God  me  helpe,  and  the  holy  boke  Englieh  Literature.  II  (l«ndon.  1893);  Waw».   Engfiiak  Drmitatic 

«»».    \''°^^^v^-  '""Wche  I  may  have."        \ts^n}i}^^'^^i^^^s:^fs^:zs;:iS:?t^^ 

other  early  Morahties  approaching  the  same  type  are    Wark^  Ch.  zu  (London,  1908);  Manthus.  History  qf  Thtattiei 


MORAUTT 


559 


M0RALIT7 


Art,  tr.  GoflasL,  II  (London.  1903):  GAn^T,  Reprmmtaiiv  Bno- 
Uah  Camodin  (New  York.  1903);  Iobm,  Play  of  Our  Fortfathtrt 
(London  and  New  York.  1908):  Manlt,  Speeinuiu  of  Pre- 
Shak^perian  Drama  (Boeton  and  London,  1897). 

K.  M.  Warrbn. 

Morality. — ^It  is  necessary  at  the  outset  of  this 
article  to  distinguish  between  morality  and  ethics, 
terms  not  seldom  employed  synonymously.  Morality 
is  antecedent  to  ethics:  it  denotes  those  concrete 
activities  of  which  ethics  is  the  science.  It  may  be 
defined  as  human  conduct  in  so  far  as  it  is  freely  sub- 
ordinated to  the  ideal  of  what  is  right  and  fitting.  This 
ideal  governing  our  free  actions  is  common  to  tne  race. 
Though  there  is  wide  divereence  as  to  theories  of 
ethics,  there  is  a  fundamental  agreement  amone  men 
regarding  the  general  lines  of  conduct  desirable  in 
public  and  private  life.  Thus  Mr.  Hobhouse  has  well 
said:  "The  comparative  study  of  ethics,  which  is  apt 
in  its  earlier  stages  to  impress  the  student  with  a  be* 
wildering  sense  of  the  diversity  of  moral  judgments, 
ends  ratner  bv  impressing  them  with  a  more  funda- 
mental and  far-reaching  uniformity.  Through  the 
greatest  extent  of  time  and  space  over  which  we  have 
records,  we  find  a  recurrdnce  of  vhe  common  features 
of  ordinary  morality,  whi  ;L  ^o  my  mind  at  least  is  not 
less  impressive  than  the  variations  which  also  appeaF." 
(Morals  in  Evolution,  I,  i,  n.  11).  Plainly  this  imi- 
formity  r^ards  principles  rather  than  their  appli- 
cation. The  actual  rules  of  conduct  differ  wiaely. 
While  reverence  to  parents  may  be  universally  ac- 
knowledged as  obligatory,  certain  savage  trib^  be- 
lieve that  filial  piety  rec^uires  them  to  despatch  their 
parents  when  the  infirmities  of  old  a^  appjear.  Yet 
making  allowance  for  all  such  diversities,  it  ma]^  be 
said  that  the  common  voice  of  the  race  proclaims  it  to 
be  right  for  a  man  to  reverence  his  parents;  to  care 
and  provide  for  his  children ;  to  be  master  of  his  lower 
appetites;  to  be  honest  and  just  in  his  dealings,  even 
to  nis  own  damf^ ;  to  show  benevolence  to  his  fellows 
in  time  of  distress;  to  bear  pain  and  misfortune  with 
fortitude.  And  only  withm  comparatively  recent 
years  has  anyone  been  found  to  deny  that  beyond  this 
a  man  is  bound  to  honour  God  and  to  prefer  his  coun- 
try's interests  to  his  own.  Thus,  indeed,  the  advance 
of  morality  lies  not  so  much  in  the  discovery  of  new 
principles  as  in  the  better  application  of  those  already 
accepted,  in  the  recognition  of  their  true  basis  and 
their  ultimate  sanction,  in  the  widening  of  the  area 
within  which  they  are  held  to  bind,  and  in  the  removal 
of  corruptions  inconsistent  with  tneir  observance. 

The  relation  of  morality  to  religion  has  been  a  sub- 
ject of  keen  debate  during  the  past  century.  In  much 
recent  ethical  philosophy  it  is  strenuously  maintained 
that  right  moral  action  is  altogether  independent  of 
religion.  Such  is  the  teaching  alike  of  the  Evolution- 
ary, Positivist,  and  Idealist  schools.  And  an  active 
propaganda  is  being  carried  on  with  a  view  to  the 
general  substitution  of  this  independent  morality  for 
morality  based  on  the  beliefs  of  Theism.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Church  has  ever  affirmed  that  the  two  | 
are  essentially  connected,  and  that  apart  from  religion  I 
the  observance  of  the  moral  law  is  impossible.  Tnis, 
indeed,  follows  as  a  necessary  consequence  from  the 
Church's  teaching  as  to  the  nature  of  mondity.  She 
admits  that  the  moral  law  is  knowable  to  reason:  for 
the  due  regulation  of  our  free  actions,  in  which  moral- 
ity consists,  is  simply  their  right  ordering  with  a  view 
to  the  perfecting  of  our  rational  nature.  But  she  in- 
sists that  the  law  has  its  ultimate  obligation  in  the  will 
of  the  Creator  by  whom  our  nature  was  fashioned,  and 
who  imposes  on  us  its  right  ordering  as  a  duty;  and 
that  its  ultimate  sanction  is  the  loss  of  God  which 
its  violation  must  entail.  Further,  among  the  duties 
which  the  moral  law  prescribes  are  some  which  are 
directly  concerned  with  God  Himself,  and  as  such  are 
of  supreme  importance.  Where  morality  is  divorced 
from  religion,  reason  will,  it  is  true,  enable  a  man  to 


recognize  to  a  large  extent  the  ideal  to  which  hia 
nature  points.  But  much  will  be  wanting.  He  will 
disregard  some  of  his  most  essential  duties.  He  will, 
further,  be  destitute  of  the  strong  motives  for  obedience 
to  the  law  afforded  by  the  sense  of  obligation  to  God 
and  the  knowledge  of  the  tremendous  sanction  at- 
tached to  its  neglect— motives  which  experience  has 
S roved  to  be  necessary  as  a  safeguard  against  the  in- 
uence  of  the  passions.  And,  finally,  his  actions  even 
if  in  accordance  with  the  moral  law,  will  be  based  not 
on  the  obligation  imposed  by  the  Divine  will,  but  on 
considerations  of  human  dignity  and  on  the  good  of 
human  society.  Such  motives,  however,  cannot  pre- 
sent themselves  as,  strictly  speaking,  obligatory.  But 
where  the  motive  of  obligation  is  wanting,  action  lacks 
an  element  essential  to  true  morality.  Moreover,  in' 
this  connexion  the  Church  insists  upon  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin.  She  teaches  that  in  our  present  state 
there  \a  a  certain  obscurity  in  reason's  vision  of  the 
moral  law,  together  with  a  morbid  cravine  for  in- 
dependence impelling  us  to  transgress  it,  ana  a  lack  of 
complete  control  over  the  passions;  and  that  by  rea- 
son of  this  inherited  taint,  man,  unless  supported  by 
Divine  aid,  is  unable  to  observe  the  moral  law  for  any 
length  of  time.  Newman  has  admirably  described 
from  the  psychological  point  of  view  this  weakness  in 
our  grasp  of  the  moral  law:  ''  The  sense  of  right  and 
wrong  ...  is  so  delicate,  so  fitful,  so  easily  puzzled, 
obscured,  perverted,  so  subtle  in  its  ai^gumentative 
methods,  so  impressionable  by  education,  so  biassed 
by  pride  and  passion,  so  unsteady  in  its  course,  that 
in  tne  struggle  for  existence  amid  the  various  exercises 
and  triumphs  of  the  human  inteUect,  the  sense  is  at 
once  the  highest  of  all  teachers  yet  the  least  luminous  " 
(Newman, ''  Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk",  in  section 
on  conscience). 

In  dealing  with  this  subject,  however,  it  is  further 
necessary  to  take  account  of  the  historical  argument. 
Various  facts  are  adduced,  which,  it  is  allied,  show 
that  morality  is,  in  point  of  fact,  capable  of  dissocia- 
tion from  relieion.  It  is  uiged  (1)  that  the  most  primi-  ' 
tive  peoples  do  not  connect  their  religious  beliefs  with 
such  moral  code  as  they  possess ;  and  (2)  that  even « 
where  the  moral  consciousness  and  the  religious  system 
have  reached  a  high  degree  of  development,  the 
spheres  of  religion  and  morality  are  sometimes  re- 
garded as  separate.  Thus  the  Greeks  of  classical 
times  were  in  moral  questions  influenced  rather  by 
non-religious  conceptions  such  as  that  of  oLBibt  (natural 
shsjne)  than  by  fear  of  the  gods;  while  one  great 
religious  system,  namely  Buddhism,  explicitly  taught 
the  entire  independence  of  the  moral  code  from  any 
belief  in  God.  To  these  arguments  we  reply,  first: 
that  the  savages  of  to-day  are  not  primitives,  but  de- 
generates. •  It  is  the  merest  superstition  to  suppose  that 
these  degraded  races  can  enlighten  us  as  to  what  were 
the  beliefs  of  man  in  his  primitive  state.  It  is  among 
civilized  races,  where  man  has  developed  normally,  that 
we  must  seek  for  knowledge  as  to  what  is  natural  to 
man.  The  evidence  gathered  from  them  is  overwhelm- 
ingly in  favour  of  the  contention  that  human  reason 
proclaims  the  essential  dependence  of  morality  on 
religious  belief.  In  regard  to  the  contrary  instances 
alleged,  it  must  be  denied  that  the  morality  of  the 
Greeks  was  unconnected  with  religion.  Though  they 
may  not  have  realized  that  the  laws  prescribed  hj 
natural  shame  were  derived  from  a  divme  commancL 
they  most  certainly  believed  that  their  violation  would 
be  punished  by  the  sods.  As  to  Buddhist  belief,  a 
distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  metaphysical 
teaching  of  the  Buddha  or  of  some  of  his  disciples,  and 
the  practical  interpretation  of  that  teaching  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  lives  of  the  great  mass  of  the  adherents 
of  the  creed.  It  is  only  the  Buddhist  monks  who  have 
really  followed  the  speculative  teaching  of  their  mas- 
ter on  this  point  and  have  dissociated  the  moral  law 
from  belief  m  God.    The  mass  of  adherents  never  did 


MORAL                               560  UOSLkrtil 

so.  Yet  even  the  monks,  while  denying  the  existence  dation  of  a  nation's  morality.  SimxlarlT  the  Church 
of  a  personal  God,  r^araed  as  a  heretic  anywho  dis-  maintains,  that  during  the  years  of  school  life,  the 
puted  the  existence  of  heaven  and  helL  Thus  they  moral  and  religious  atmosphere  is  of  vital  importance, 
too  help  to  bear  witness  to  the  universal  consensus  and  that  apart  from  this  toe  possession  of  intellectual 
that  the  moral  law  is  based  on  supernatural  sanctions,  culture  is  a  danger  rather  tlum  a  safeguard.  (2)  It  is 
We  may,  however,  readily  admit  that  where  the  re-  hiudly  necessary  to  do  more  than  call  attention  to  the 
ligious  concei)tionB  and  the  moral  code  were  alike  im-  necessitv  of  a  sound  public  opinion.  The  great  mass 
mature  and  inadequate,  the  relation  between  them  of  men  have  neither  opportunity  nor  leisure  to  deter- 
was  less  dearly  gjrasped  in  thought,  and  less  intimate  mine  a  standard  of  morab  for  themselves.  Ther  ac- 
tn  practice,  than  it  became  when  man  found  himself  in  oept  that  which  prevuls  around  them.  If  it  b  ni{|h, 
possession  of  a  fuller  truth  regarding  them.  A  Greek  they  will  not  Question  it.  If  it  is  low,  they  will  aim 
or  a  Buddhist  community  may  have  preserved  a  cer-  no  higher.  When  the  nations  were  Catholic,  public 
tain  healthiness  of  moral  tone  even  tnough  the  reli-  opinion  was  predominantly  swayed  by  the  teaching 
eious  obligation  of  the  moral  law  was  but  obscurely  ox  the  Church.  In  these  days  it  is  laigely  formed  bv 
felt,  while  ancestral  precept  and  civic  ohUgation  were  the  press;  and  since  the  press  as  a  whole  views  moral- 
viewed  as  the  preponderating  motives^^A  broad  dis-  ity^  apart  from  religion,  the  standard  proposed  is  in- 
tinction  must  be  made  between  such  cas&  and  that  of  evitaoly  very  different  from  what  the  Church  would 
those  nations  which  having  once  accepted  the  Christian  desiderate.  Hence  the  immense  importance  of  a 
faith  with  its  clear  profession  of  the  connexion  be*  Catholic  press,  which  even  in  a  non-Catholic  environ- 
tween  moral  obligation  and  a  Divine  law,  have  subse-  ment  will  keep  a  true  view  before  the  minds  of  thoae 
quently  repudiated  this  belief  in  favour  of  a  purely  who  recognize  the  Church's  authority.  But  public 
natural  moralitv.  There  is  no  parity  between  'Fore-  opinion  is  also  laigely  influenced  bv  voluntary  associa- 
Christians''  and  "After-Christians''.  The  evidenectat  tions  of  one  form  or  another;  and  of  recent  years  im- 
our  command  seems  to  establish  as  certain  that  it  is  mense  work  has  been  done  by  Catholics  in  organising 
impossible  for  these  latter  to  return  to  the  inadequate  associations  with  this  purpose,  the  most  notable  in- 
grounds  of  obligation  which  may  sometimes  suffice  for  stance  being  the  German  volkiverein,  (3)  It  ma^  be 
nations  still  in  the  immaturity  of  their  knowledge;  and  said  with  truth  that  the  sreater  part  of  a  nation's 
that  for  them  the  rejection  of  the  religious  sanction  is  legislation  affects  its  morauty  in  some  way  or  other, 
invariably  followed  by  amoral  decay,  leading  rapidly  This  is  of  course  manifestly  the  case  with  all'  laws 
to  the  corruptions  of  the  most  degraded  peric^  of  our  connected  with  the  family  or  with  education  |  and  with 
history.  We  may  see  this  wherever  the  great  revolt  those,  which  like  the  laws  regarding  the  drmk  traffic 
from  Christianity,  which  began  in  the  eighteenth  cen-  and  the  restriction  of  bad  literature,  have  the  public 
tury,  and  which  is  so  potent  a  factor  to-day,  has  morals  for  their  immediate  object.  But  it  is  also  true 
spread.  It  is  naturally  in  France,  where  the  revolt  of  all  legislation  which  deals  with  the  circumstances  of 
beean,  that  the  movement  has  attained  its  fullest  de-  the  lives  of  the  people.  Laws,  for  instance,  determin- 
velopment.  There  its  effects  are  not  disputed.  The  ing  the  conditions  of  labour  and  protecting  the  poor 
birth-rate  has  shrunk  until  the  population,  were  it  not  from  the  hands  of  the  usurer,  promote  morality,  for 
for  the  immigration  of  Flemi^s  and  Italians,  would  they  save  men  from  that  degradation  and  despair 
be  a  diminisning  quantity;  christian  family  life  is  in  which  moral  life  is  practically  impossible.  It  ia 
disappearing;  the  number  of  divorces  and  of  siucides  thus  evident  how  necessary  it  is,  that  in  all  such  ques- 
multiplies  annually:  while  one  of  the  most  ominous  of  tions  the  Church  should  in  every  country  have  a  defi- 
all  symptoms  is  the  alarming  increase  of  juvenile  nitelyformed  opinion  and  should  make  her  voice  heard, 
crime.  But  these  effects  are  not  peculiar  to  France.  (See  Ethics;  Law.) 
The  movement  away  from  Christianity  has  spread  to  .Cathrkw,  Relimon  und  AfmZJFrabuns,  igpo);  Fox,  AeU- 

Mkrfjiin  flM*f  inna  nf  f  h«»  nnnnUf  mn  in  f  hi  TTnifAH  fitAtes  C^  °^  Moralxty  (New  York.  1899);  Devas,  Key  to  the  WoHdra 

oertam  sections  OI  tne  population  m  tne  Uniteo  btates,  t^^offreaa  (London.  1906);   Idbm,  Studiea  of  Family  Lift  (Lon- 

m  England,  m  Germany,  m  Australia,  countries  pro-  don,  1886);  Balfour,  Foundatiaru  of  Belief  (London,  1895). 

viding  in  other  respects  a  wide  variety  of  circum-  Pftft  I,  \%   CaOuAicTfy^  Society' e  Leduree  on  the  Hutory  oi 

stances.    Wherever  it  is   found,   there   in   varying  «<rfvvm«  (London,  1910). 

degrees  the  same  results  have  followed,  so  that  the  --      -  -«. .,         .         «      -rn           ^'  ""  ootcb. 

unprejudiced  observer  can  draw  but  one  conclusion,  Moral  PbUoBopliy.    See  Ethics. 

namely:  that  for  a  nation  which  has  attained  matu-  M(ffal  Theology.    See  Theoloqt. 

rity,  morality  is  essentially  dependent  on  the  religious  «»            t%              -n.               «      n               « 

sanction,  and  that  when  this  u  rejected,  morality  will  Moran,  Patrick  Francis.     See  Sydnbt,  Arch- 

soon  decay.  diocbsb  of. 

Granting  religion  to  be  the  essential  basis  of  moral  Moratin,  Leandro  Fernandez  db,  Spanish  poet 
action,  we  may  further  inquire  what  are  the  chief  con-  and  playwri^t,  b.  at  Madrid.  10  March,  1760;  a.  at 
ditions  rec^uisite  for  the  growth  and  development  of  Paris,  21  June,  1828.  He  is  usually  known  as  the 
morality  in  the  individual  and  in  the  community,  younger  Moratin.  and  was  the  son  of  Nicole  Femto- 
Three  such  may  be  singled  out  as  of  primary  moment,  dez  de  Moratin  (1737-80),  a  lawyer  and  professor  of 
namely:  (1)  a  ri^ht  edipition  of  the  young,  (2)  a  poetry  at  the  Imperial  CoUege,  also  a  playwright, 
healthy  puUic  opmion,  (3)  sound  legislation.  It  will  The  elder  Moratin  had  devoted  himself  to  attempting 
be  unnecessary  f^  us  to  do  more  tnSh  touch  in  the  to  reform  the  Spanish  drama  and  had  written  several 
briefest  manner  on  these  points.  (1)  Under  education  plays  siter  the  style  of  Racine  and  Comeille.  In  1762 
we  include  the  early  training  of  the  home  as  well  as  the  he  had  published  his  '  *  Desengafio  al  Teatro  Espaliol  '* 
subsequent  years  of  school  life.  The  family  is  the  true  in  which  he  criticized  the  old  drama  and  especi^y  the 
school  of  morality,  a  school  which  nothing  can  replace.  ''  Auto  Sacramental "  which  still  flourished.  So  sue- 
There  the  child  is  taught  obedience,  truthfulness,  cessful  was  this  woric,  that  three  years  later  the  exhibi- 
aelf-restraint,  and  the  other  primary  virtues.  The  tionof  "Autos"  was  forbidden  by  royal  edict.  Amons 
obligation  to  practise  them  is  impressed  upon  him  by  his  works  were  "  La  Petimetra",  "Guzmto  el  Bueno^ 
those  whose  claim  on  him  he  at  once  recognizes,  and  and,  probably  the  best  known,  "Hormeeinda",  a 
whose  word  he  does  not  dream  of  doubting;  while  the  infeay.  Knowing  by  his  own  experience  how  pr»» 
observance  of  the  precept  is  made  easy  by  thcaffec-  canous  was  literature  as  a  means  of  Uvdihood.  the 
tion  which  unites  him  with  those  who  impose  it.  It  is,  elder  Moratin  apprenticed  his  son  to  a  jeweller^  tnink- 
therefore,  with  reason  that  the  Chureh  nas  ever  de-  igg  in  this  way  to  develop  his  son's  artistic  skill. 
Glared  divorce  to  be  fatal  to  the  truest  interests  of  a  While  serving  as  apprentice,  young  Leandro  won  two 
nation.  Where  divorce  n  frequent,  family  life  in  its  prizes  ofTered  by  the  Academy,  one  in  1779  with  an 
faigber  form  disappears,  and  with  it  perishes  the  foun-  epic  ballad  entitled  ''  La  toma  de  Granada",  and  the 


MOftAVIA                            561  MORAVU 

other  in  1782  with  "  La  lecci6npo6tica",  a  satire  upon  delivered  from  the  Avar  yoke  temporarily  (622-  oS)  by 
thepopular  poets  of  the  day.  These  brought  him  to  the  Siuno,  who  was  perhaps  of  Prankish  parentage,  and 
notice  of  the  statesman  and  author  Jovellanos,  through  finally  by  Charlemagne,  whose  defeat  of  the  Avars  in 
whose  influence  Moratfn  was  appointed  secretary  to  796  enabled  the  Moravians  to  recover  the  territory 
Count  Cabarrus  upon  the  latter^s  specisJ  mission  extending  from  Mannhartsbcrg  to  the  mouth  of  the 
to  France  in  1787.  During  the  year  that  he  spent  in  Gran.  Curing  this  period  a  uniform  principality  had 
Paris  he  improved  the  opportunity  to  study  the  developed  on  Moravian  soil,  and  received  the  name  of 
French  drama  and  formed  friendship«  with  men  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Moimorides  from  the  founder  of 
letters,  both  of  which  circumstances  uded  materially  the  dynasty,  Moimlr.  Moravia  stood  towards  the 
in  the  artistic  development  of  the  young  poet.  Re-  Frankish  Empire  in  relations  of  dependence;  at  least, 
turning  to  Spain  in  1789,  Moratin  set  out  to  continue  the  "  Maharaner "  brought  presents  to  Emperor  Louis 
the  work  b€^n  by  his  father  of  reforming  the  Spanish  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  in  822.  When  Moimir  sought 
drama  upon  the  French  classical  model.  He  secured  to  assert  his  independence  of  the  empire,  he  was  de- 
the  patronage  of  Manuel  Godoy,  prime  minister  and  posed  by  the  Germans  and  his  nephew  Wratislaw  ap- 
favourite  of  Charles  IV,  through  whose  influence  he  pointed  prince.  The  latter's  struggle  for  coniplete 
was  able  in  1790  to  stage  the  first  of  his  plays,  "  £1  freedom  ended  in  his  betrayal  into  the  hands  of  Louis 
Viejo  y  la  NifLa'\  a  comedv  in  three  acts  and  m  verse,  the  German  by  his  nephew  Swatopluk,  who  then  at- 
This  was  followed  in  1792  oy  "La  Comedia  nueva"  or  tained  to  power  under  German  protection. 
"  El  Caf6 "  in  two  acts  and  in  prose.  In  the  same  vear  In  the  ecclesiastical  domain  Wratislaw  had  also  de- 
Godoy  gave  him  the  means  for  foreign  travel  and  his  sired  independence  of  the  German  Einpire.  Christian- 
journey  through  France,  England,  the  Low  Countries,  ity  had  already  been  preached  in  A^ravia,  but  had 
Germany,  and  Italy  completed  his  education.  His  failed  to  reach  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  as  the 
next  plav  "El  Bar6n"  was  produced  in  1803,  followed  German  and  Italian  missionaries  were  ignorant  of 
in  1804  by  "La  Mojigata"  (The  female  hypocrite),  a  the  vernacular  speech.  In  863  Wratislaw  a^ed  the 
weak  imitation  of  Molidre's  "Tartuffe''.  An  unsuo-  Greek  emperor  to  send  new  apostles  acquainted  with 
cessful  attempt  was  made  to  suppress  this  last  piece  the  Slav  tong^ue.  This  monarch  dispatched  the  broth- 
on  religious  grounds  by  means  of  the  Inquisition,  ers  Constcmtine  (afterwards  called  C3rril)  and  Metho- 
Moratfn's  crowning  triumph  came  in  1806  when  the  diusin864.  Having  only  minor  orders,  the  missionaries 
second  of  his  prose  comeaies  and  his  best  woric  "El  confined  themselves  to  the  training  of  the  youth  and 
Sf  de  las  Niflas''  was  produced.  Performed  before  the  translation  of  a  portion  of  the  Bible  into  the  Slav 
crowded  houses  night  after  night,  it  ran  through  sev-  language,  for  which  purpose  they  invented  special 
eral  editions  in  one  year,  and  was  translated  into  sev-  Slav  characters.  In  867  they  set  out  for  Rome  to 
eral  foreign  languages.  In  1808,  upon  the  fall  of  his  seek  papal  permission  to  conduct  the  Divine  Service 
friend  Godoy,  Moratin  was  compelled  to  flee  from  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  Pope  Adrian  11,  who  conse- 
Spain.  but  returned  shortly  afterward  to  accept  from  crated  both  brothers  bishops,  is  said  to  have  acceded 
Josepn  Bonaparte  the  post  of  royal  librarian,  a  lack  of  to  their  petition.  While  Constantine,  having  a  pre- 
patnotism  which  lost  him  the  friendship  of  loyal  Span-  sentiment  of  his  approaching  end  (869),  remained  in 
laxds,  so  that  when  the  Spaniards  returned  to  power,  Rome.  Methodius  returned  to  Moravia  and  there  re- 
Moratf n  was  compelled  to  pass  the  rest  of  his  days  in  sumea  his  work  of  evangelization,  in  opposition  to  the 
exile,  principally  m  Paris  where  he  died.  In  addition  German  clergy.  After  the  fall  of  Wratislaw,  Metho- 
to  the  works  mentioned,  Moratfn  made  a  rather  poor  dius  had  to  submit  to  the  German  spiritual  authori- 
translation  of  Hamlet,  and  translated  and  adapted  to  ties,  was  confined  for  two  and  a  half  years  in  a  German 
the  Spanish  stage  Moli^re's  "Ecole  des  Maris"  and  monastery,  and  was  freed  only  at  the  strict  command 
"Le  M6decin  Malgr6  Lui"  under  the  titles  respec-  of  the  pope  in  873.  His  activity  was,  however,  even 
lively  of  "La  Escuela  de  los  Maridos"  and  "El  M4-  now  narrowly  restricted  by  the  Bavarian  bishops,  al- 
dico  A  Palos".  During  his  exile  he  wrote  a  history  of  'though  the  use  of  the  Slav  Litui^gy  was  expressly  recog- 
the  Spanish  drama  entitled  "Origines  del  Teatro  nizedby  the  pope  in  880. 

Espafiol".   In  his  work,  Moratin  shows  originality,  he  The  understcmding  between  Swatopluk  and  the 

skilfully  describes  the  manners  of  his  time  ana  is  Frankish  Empire  was  of  short  duration.    From  882 

clever  in  his  dialogue.     He  adheres  to  the  French  Swatopluk  was  engaged  in  fieree  conflict  with  Amulf, 

unities,  but  introduces  certain  peculiarities  of  the  who  administered  Carinthia  and  Pannonia.    In  885, 

Spanish  stage,  dividing  his  plays  into  three  acts  and  however,  a  complete  reconciliation  took  place,  and  the 

using  the  short  romance  verse.    He  was  unquestion-  Moravian  prince  lent  Amulf  his  zealous  suppiort  until 

ably  the  best  dramatic  writer  Spun  had  produced  the  latter  successfuUy  established  his  claim  to  the 

once  the  famous  ones  of  the  Siglo  ae  oro.   The  "Biblio-  German  Crown.    But  the  energetic  Amulf  was  not 

tecadeAutoresEspafioles",  Vol.  II,  contains  the  plays  likely  to  tolerate  any  longer  the  growth  of  Swato- 

of  both  the  elder  and  the  younger  Moratfn.  pluk  s  power,  so  dangerous  to  his  empire.   In  892  war 

ncDforn,  HUtary  of  Spaniah  Literature  (Boston,  1866) ;  Fn*-  again  broke  out,  and^watopluk  died  m  895  before  any 

iiSSS^:^£li>,HiX!H^  decisive  result  had  been  reached.    Subseauently  the 

Xspana,  tr.  from  QemuMi  of  Mbikr  (Madrid,  188&>87).  Moravian  Kingdom  was  rent  asunder  by  the  struggle 

Ventura  Fitentbs.  of  various  claimants  for  the  throne,  and  in  the  first  dec- 
ade of  the  tenth  century  succumoed  to  the  attack  of 
MoraTia  (German  MXhren),  Austrian  crown  Hungary  at  the  battle  of  Presburg.  The  country  re- 
land  east  of  Bohemia.  In  the  century  before  the  mained  in  the  hands  of  Hungary  until  the  battle  of 
Christian  era  the  Germanic  Quadi  (a  tribe  closely  re-  Lechfeld  in  955.  when  it  was  united  with  Bohemia  by 
lated  to  the  Marcomanni,  who  had  just  driven  the  the  Bohemian  Duke  Boleslaw  of  the  Hemyd  family. 
Celtic  Boii  from  Bohemia)  took  possession  of  the  mod-  the  confederate  of  Emperor  Otto  I.  Towards  the  end 
em  Moravia.  Of  these  two  tribes  settled  in  Bohemia  of  the  tenth  century  Moravia  was  conquered  by  the 
and  Moravia  we  know  nothing  beyond  their  collisions  Polish  duke,  Boleslaw  Chrobry  (992-1025),  but,  when 
with  the  Romans — e.  g.,  their  wars  with  Marcus  Aure-  domestic  disturbances  broke  out  in  Poland  after  his 
liuB  in  A.  D.  165  and  181  and  with  Vaientinian  I  (364-  death,  Duke  Udalrich  of  Bohemia,  with,  the  assist- 
75) .  The  invasion  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  drove  the  ance  of  his  son  Bf  etislaw,  recovered  Moravia  from  tb& 
majority  of  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi  from  their  Poles.  Bfetislaw  administered  the  land  as  Duke  of 
settlements.  In  the  fifth  century  the  deserted  terri-  Moravia,  and  established  Ids  residence  at  Olmtits. 
tory  was  occupi^  by  Slav  tribes.  About  the  middle  of  With  the  booty  from  his  campaigns  against  the  Poles. 
the  sixth  century,  these  were  conquered  by  the  Atars,  he  founded  the  first  Moravian  monastery,  that  oi 
who  advanced  as  far  as  Thuringia.    The  Slavs  were  Raigem  near  BrOnn  (1048).    The  strife,  caused  by 


UObAVU                          562  ttOft&TU 

the  law  Mtablislimg  in  Bohemia  the  riKht  of  succession  1306.     Moravia  at  fiist  felt  with  Bohemia  to  Albert  I 

by  seniority  (1054),  extended  also  to  Moravia  (which  of  Hapsburg;  then  on  Albert's  death  in  1307  to  Heniy 

would  have  been  divided  to  provide  petty  principsli-  of  Carinthia,  and  in  1309  to  John  of  Luiembunt,  eon 

ties  for  the  younger  sooa  of  the  ducal  house),  eepe-  of  Emperor  HenTy  VII.    In  the  Privilege  of  1311  John 

ciall/  to  the  principalities  of  Brtiim,    OlmUti,  and  grantM  the  country  important  Lberties,  which  formed 

Znaun.      The  suzerainty  of  the  Bohemian  duke  was  the  foundation  of  the  Bubeequeotly  augmented  rights 

however  maintained.      In    1063    Duke   Wratislaw  of  the  estates.    Under  the  provincial  governor  Henry 

(1061-02)  gave  the  land  its  own  ecclesiastical  centre  of  Lipa  and  Margrave  Charles  (1333).  later  Emperor 

by   establi^iinK  the  Diocese  of  OlmQti,  which  was  CharlealV,  anewperiodof  proeperity  b^an.    In  1349 

placed  under  Maini.  Charles  enfeoffed  his  brother  Jonn  in  the  margrBviate. 

The  Moravian  petty  princea  repeatedly  rebelled  Inl371  Johndivided thecountryamonghiathreesona, 

Sainst  the  sovereignty  of  the  Bohemian  auke:  thus  Jobet  (Jodocus)  receiving  the  title  of  Ancient  Mar- 
ten, on  the  death  of  Wratislaw  II,  Bfetislaw  II  ap-  grave  and  Overlord;  his  two  younger  sons  were  also 
pointed  his  brother  his  successor  in  contravention  of  given  the  title  of  MarErave,  but  they  were  to  hold 
the  law  regulating  succession  by  eeniority,  long  wars  their  lands  in  fief  from  Jobst.  This  partition  and  the 
were  waged  against  him  by  the  rightful  heir,  Duke  great  Western  Schism,  which  evoked  two  ecclesiasti- 
Udalrich  of  BrUnn  (1101,  II05,  and  HOT).  These  cal  parties  in  Moravia  as  elsewhere,  gave  rise  to  mudi 
wars  reached  their  climan  in  1125,  when  Prince  Otto  discord  and  disturbances  between  1380  and  1405.  On 
of  OlmQti  rose  against  Duke  Sobeslaw,  the  youngest  the  death  of  the  childless  Jobst,  Moravia,  as  a  vacant 
son  of  Wratislaw  II.  Gef,  reverted  to  the 
and  was  supported  Bohemian  Crown, 
by  Lothair  of  Sup-  and  its  administra- 
punburg.  Lothairled  tion  was  entrusted  to 
an  army  in  person  for  certain  district  gover- 
his  confederate  Otto,  Dors  by  Wenccalaus 
but  was  defeated  IV. 
in  a  decisive  battle  As  in  Bohemia, 
near  Kulm  (1126).  where  similar  poliii- 
Sobestaw  (1125-  cal  and  eccleaiaHtira] 
40)  and  his  nephew  conditions  prevailed, 
and  successor,  Wlad-  Hussitism  made  rapid 
islaw  II,  energeti'  and  great  progress 
cally  mental ned  the  in  Moravia  under  the 
Bohemian  suprem-  feeble  rule  of  Wences- 
acy  over  Moravia:  laus,  especially 
during  the  reign  of  among  the  nobihty 
the  latter  the  Mo-  and  peasantry;  the 
ravian  branch  of  the  Bishop  of  OtmQt  land 
Pfemysl  family  be-  almost  all  the  im- 
cajne  extinct,  where-  perial  cities  inhabited 
upon  Prince  Conrad  Mabukt  and  Cnr  Hall,  BatiHK,  Mouvu  oy  Gennaas,  how- 
Otto  of  Zoaim,  who  ever,  remained  true 
probably  belonged  to  the  collateral  line  of  the  Bo-  to  tbe  Catholic  cause.  On  Wenceslaus's  death  his 
fiemian  Pfemysis,  united  the  three  divisions  of  the  brother.  Emperor  Sinsmund,  was  recognized  in  Mo- 
Moravian  kinsdom  (1174).  On  his  attempting  also  -  ravia  as  mej^rave,  although  the  Bohemians  refused 
to  annex  Bohemia  (from  which,  on  the  death  of  to  recognize  hun  as  king.  Against  the  Hussites,  who, 
Wladislaw,  his  son  Frederick  had  been  expelled  by  under  the  leadership  of  two  apostate  prieets,  had 
bis  barons),  Barbarossa,  to  whom  Frederick  had  established  a  fortified  camp  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
fled,  summoned  both  the  Pl^mysl  nobles  to  appear  Ungarisch-HradiBch  (Neu  Tabor),  the  emperor  re- 
before  liis  tribunal  at  Ratiabon,  and  decided  (29  ceived  vigorous  support  from  Duke  Albert  of  Austria. 
Sept.,  1182)  that  Frederick  should  rule  in  Bohe-  In  1423  Albert  received  for  these  services  the  Jlai^ 
mia,  but  that  thenceforth  Conrad  Otto  should  hold  graviate  of  Moravia  in  fief.  After  the  chief  powa  of 
Moravia  as  an  immediate  margraviate,  independent  the  fanatical  Hussitea  in  Bohemia  had  been  crushed  in 
of  Bohemia.  After  Conrad  Otto's  death  ia  Sicily  the  battle  near  LJpau  (1434),  a  tre.aty  of  peace  was 
(1191),  a  new  war  of  succession  broke  out  between  the  also  arranged  in  Moravia,  according  to  which  the  Bus- 
brothers  Ottokar  and  Henry  Wladislaw:  to  avoid  sites  were  allowed  to  receive  Communion  under  both 
bloodshed,  the  latter  renounced  in  1197  hia  claims  to  species,  these  Compactala,  as  they  were  called,  being 
Bohemia,  accepting  Moravia  as  a  margraviate  feuda-  published  at  the  Diet  of  Iglau  (1436).  Under  Al- 
tory  to  the  Bohemian  crown.  Thenceforth,  this  was  bert's  son,  Wladislaw  Posthumus  (1449),  began  the 
thepolitical  condition  of  Moravia.  first  attetmits  to  stem  Utraquism  and  to  restore  to  the 
The  German  colonization  of  Moravia,  begun  under  Catholic  Church  its  earlier  dominant  position.  £e- 
HeniT  Wladislaw,  greatly  increased  under  his  succes-  peciallyefiiaaciouatowardBthisendwaathemissionary 
B0T8  Henry  WladisUw  II  and  Pfcmyal,  as  the  inva-  activity  of  St.  John  Capistran,  whose  ignorance  of  the 
flionsof  the  Mongols  in  1241  and  the  Cumansin  1252  native  speech,  however,  prevented  him  from  attaining 
had  swept  away  numbers  of  the  inhabitant*  into  cap-  complete  success.  George  of  Podicbrand,  who  be- 
tivity.  This  immigration  of  Germans  led  to  the  foi^  came  King  of  Bohemia  on  Wladialaw's  death  in  1457, 
mation  of  German  townships,  the  development  of  had  to  resort  to  arms  to  secure  recognition  in  Moravia 
which  was  encouraged  by  the  Pfemys!  family,  cspe-  from  the  German  and  Catholic  towns.  In  1464  he 
cially  by  Ottakar  II,  Thcprivilegcs,  accorded  to  these  promised  the  Moravian  Estates  that  the  margraviate 
towns,  were  based  generally  on  those  of  Magdeburg  shouldneverbeseparatedfrom  the  Crown  of  Bohemia 
and  Nuremberg.  AfterOttakarhad  fallen  in  the  bat-  by  sale,  exchan^,  or  mortgage.  After  his  death, 
tie  of  Marchfeld  fighting  against  Rudolf  of  Hapsbui^  however,  the  strife  between  Matthias  Corvinua  and 
(1278),  Moravia  remained  for  five  years  as  a  pledge  in  Wladislaw  of  Poland  for  the  Bohemian  Crown  resulted 
Rudolf's  hands,  but  was  then  under  Ottakar^  suceea-  in  the  peace  of  1478,  according  to  which  Corvinua  re- 
9or,  Weaceslaus  II,  reunited  with  Bohemia,  though  ceived  Moravia  for  life  and  Wladislaw  Bohemia.  On 
its  area  was  somewhat  reduced.  With  Wenceslaus  the  death  of  Corvinus,  Moravia  also  fell  under  the 
m  the  ruling  line  of  the  Ptemysls  became  extinct  in  sway  of  Wladislaw  (1490).     Thanks  to  the  excellent 


MOftAVU 


563 


MOftAVtA 


administralion  of  the  govemor  Ctibor  of  Csrmburg 
(1469-94),  who,  although  &  Utnujukt,  enjoyed  the 
confidence  of  both  princes,  Wladislaw  was  able  to 
leave  to  his  son  Louis  II  in  1516,  considering  the 
troubled  era,  a  splendidly  ordered  land.  Louis  was 
slain  in  the  Battle  of  Mohics  against  the  Tiirks  (1526). 
As  he  was  childless.  Ferdinand  of  Hapsburg.  husband 
of  Anna  Jagellon,  the  sister  of  Louis,  claimed  Moravia 
with  Eiohemia  and  Hungary.  His  claim  was  admitted 
by  the  assembly  of  the  Moravian  Estates,  who  did 
homage  to  Fermnand  at  Briinn  and  Olmtitz  in  1527. 

Turning  to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  there  was  in  Mora^ 
via  in  the  fifteenth  century,  besides  the  Catholics  and 
Utraquists,  a  third  confession,  the  so-called  ''Breth- 
ren's Union".  This  body  had  B|)read  widely,  thanks 
mainly  to  the  patronage  of  certain  influential  nobles, 
who  could  defy  all  decrees  of  banishment.  Luther's 
teaching  thus  found  a  favoiuuble  soil  in  Moravia, 
and  spread  rapidly,  especially  in  the  cities  of  Olmiitz, 
Znaim,  and  telau.  From  1526  Moravia  was  also 
the  refuge  and  new  home  of  the  Anabaptists,  the 
adherents  of  Hubmaier,  the  Gabrielists,  and  the  Mora- 
vian Brethren,  who  later  emigrated  to  Russia  and 
thence  to  the  United  States.  The  friendly  attitude  of 
Emperor  Maximilian  II  (1564-76)  towards  Protest- 
antism favoured  the  growth  of  all  these  non-Catholic 
movements.  With  the  foundation  of  the  Jesuit  Col- 
leges of  BrUnn  and  Olmtitz  (1574)  the  Catholic  Coun- 
ter-Reformation set  in,  its  direction  being  undertaken 
by  Franz  von  Dietrichstein,  Bishop  of  Olmutz  (1599- 
1636).  The  Bohemian  rising  agamst  the  emperor  in 
1618  extended  for  a  short  time  to  Moravia,  and  on  19 
August,  1619.  the  opposition  party  of  the  Moravian 
Estates  votea  in  conunon  with  the  Bohemian  Estates 
at  Prague  for  the  deposition  of  Ferdinand  and  the 
election  of  Frederick  of  the  Palatinate  as  King  of 
Bohemia.  In  Feb.,  1620,  the  latter  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing his  entry  into  Brtlnn  as  Mar^ave  of  Moravia,  but 
the  Battle  of  the  White  Mountam  gave  victory  to  the 
cause  of  the  emperor  and  Catholicism,  and  the  im- 
perial generals  occupied  the  land.  Sharp  punishment 
was  meted  out  to  the  leaders  of  the  rebellion  and  the 
revolting  cities ;  in  1622  the  Anabaptists  were  compelled 
to  leave  the  land,  and  in  1623-8  the  Brethren's  Union. 

An  imperial  edict  of  9  March,  1628,  ordered  the  re- 
turn to  tne  Catholic  Church,  and  compelled  all  recu- 
sants to  emigrate.  The  Protestant  rehgion,  however, 
continued  under  the  siuf  ace,  especially  in  the  Grerman 
townships.  From  1642  Moravia  was  the  theatre  of 
the  devastating  wars  between  the  imperial  forces  and 
the  Swedes,  who  maintained  a  foothold  in  the  land  un- 
til the  Peace  of  1648  (in  Olmutz  until  1650).  Sixty- 
three  castles,  twenty-two  large  towns,  and  three  him- 
dred  and  thirty  villages  were  destroyed,  and  the 
plague  swept  away  thousands  of  the  inhabitants 
whom  the  war  had  spared.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  the  Catholic  restoration  was  ac- 
tively resumed.  From  Olmtitz,  Brunn,  Iglau.  Znaim, 
and  Hradisch  outwards,  the  Jesuits  displayea  a  fruit- 
ful activity  by  holding  missions  far  and  wicfe,  while  the 
Piarists  performed  valuable  service  by  establishing 
schools  m  numerous  places.  The  huck  of  secular 
deigy,  however,  continued  for  a  long  time  an  obsta- 
cle to  complete  Catholicization.  Under  Leopold  I, 
Joseph  I,  and  Charles  VI,  Moravia  enjoyed  as  a  rule 
peaceful  conditions,  although  in  1633  the  Tiu-ks  and 
Tatars  penetrated  as  far  as  Olmiitz  and  Brunn,  dev- 
astating the  land.  The  wars  begim  by  Frederick  II 
of  Prussia  for  the  possession  of  Silesia  reduced  Mora- 
via to  a  piteous  state,  especially  northern  Moravia 
and  OlmQtz.  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II  intro- 
duced extensive  alterations  in  almost  all  branches  of 
the  administrative  system.  The  administration  was 
greatly  centralized,  the  autonomy  of  the  estates  and 
the  Inetwas  abolished,  and  in  1782  Moravia  was 
united  with  Silesia  for  purposes  of  administration.  In 
favour  of  the  Protestants  a  patent  of  tolerance  was 


issued,  while  on  the  other  hand  thirteen  monasteries 
for  men  and  six  for  women  were  suppressed.  The 
University  of  Olmiitz,  deserted  after  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuit  Order,  was  transferred  in  1778  to  Briinn, 
where  a  bishopric  had  been  founded  in  1777,  Olmiitz 
being  simultaneously  raised  to  an  archdiocese.  Em- 
peror Leopold  restored  to  the  estates  a  certain  inde- 
pendence. 

The  Napoleonic  era  did  not  pass  by  without  leaving 
a  landmark  in  Moravia,  for  at  Austerlitz.  in  the  centre 
of  the  land,  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  of  the 
Third  Coalition  War,  and  the  subsequent  contest  be- 
tween Austria  and  Napoleon  took  place  partly  in 
Moravia  (Battle  of  Znaim).  The  Restoration  was 
followed  by  many  years  of  peace.  The  Austrian  Revo- 
lution of  1848  gave  Moravia  and  the  other  crown  lands 
of  Austria  a  constitution,  substantially  unaltered  to- 
day, and  admitted  the  co-operation  of  the  people  in 
the  making  of  laws.  In  1866  Moravia  was  the  scene 
of  the  latest  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  which 
was  decided  at  the  Battle  of  Koniggratz,  and  a  Mora- 
vian town,  Nikolsburg,  witness^  the  preliminary 
negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  Peace  of  Prague. 
In  the  subsequent  era  of  peace  Moravia  made  great 
strides  in  cultural  and  economical  development  The 
national  quarrels  between  the  Germans  and  Czechs, 
which  even  to-day  (1910)  convulse  Austria  and  es- 
pecially the  portion  of  Bohemia  bordering  on  Mora- 
via, foimd  a  friendly  settlement  in  Moravia  in  1005. 
The  electoral  conditions  were  altered  so  as  to  include 
— ^in  addition  to  the  three  electoral  classes  of  the  landed 
interests,  the  cities,  and  the  rural  districts — a  fourth 
general  electoral  class  consisting  of  every  qualified 
voter;  separate  German  and  Czech  electoral  districts 
were  established  according  to  the  national  land  regis- 
ters, and  curise  of  the  separate  nationalities  were  insti- 
tuted to  settle  all  disputes  involving  the  question  of  nar 
tionality.  The  question  of  language  in  the  case  of  the 
autonomous  national  and  distnct  authorities  has  been 
settled  on  a  bilingual  basis,  and  the  division  of  the 
school  board  according  to  nationality  accomplished. 
Although,  by  the  acceptance  of  this  franchise  reform, 
the  Germans  lost  their  previous  majority  in  the  Diet, 
they  gave  their  consent  to  the  change  in  the  interests 
of  public  peace. 

Politically  speaking  the  Margraviate  of  Moravia  is 
an  Austrian  crown  land,  the  mghest  administrative 
authority  being  vested  in  the  govemor  at  Briinn.  The 
Diet  consists  of  149  deputies:  2  members  with  individ- 
ual vote,  the  Archbishop  of  Olmiitz  and  the  Bishop  of 
Briinn;  30  members  of  the  landed  interests  (10  uer- 
man,  20  Czech);  3  deputies  from  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  Olmiitz  and  from  that  of  Briinn ;  40  repre- 
sentatives of  the  towns  (20  German,  20  Czech) ;  51  rep- 
resentatives of  the  rural  communes  (14  Cxerman);  20 
deputies  from  the  electoral  curiffi  (6  German).  In  the 
Imperial  Diet  of  the  Austrian  Crownlands  Moravia 
is  represented  by  49  deputies.  Ecclesiasticallv,  the 
land  is  divided  into  the  dioceses  of  Olmiitz  and  Briinn, 
which  are  treated  in  separate  articles.  The  Protes- 
tants have  1  SuperinUiidenturf  14  SemoratSf  and  45 
Sarishes;  the  Jews  50  cultural  districts.  The  area  of 
loravia  is  8573  square  miles.  According  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1900  the  population  of  Moravia  was  2,437,706 
inhabitants,  including  2,325,574  Catholics,  185 
Uniats,  66,365  Protestants,  44,255  Jews;  and,  accord- 
ing to  nationality,  695,492  (jiermans  and  1,727,270 
Czechs.  At  the  beginning  of  1909  the  population  was 
estimated  at  2,591,980. 

PrrrsB,  Montutieon  hielor,  dipiomai.  omnium  Moravia  mona^ 
•tonorum  (11  vola.,  1760);  Codex  diphmat,  d  epiat,  Moravia  (16 
voU.,  Olm&U  and  Briinn.  1836-1903);  Ekbbn  axtd  Emlsb,  B^ 
oesta  diplomat,  neenon  epist.  Bohemia  et  Moravia  (19  vola.,  Prague. 
1855);  A.  WoLNT,  Die  Markgraftchafl  Mdhren  (6  toIb.,  BrQnn, 
1835);  O.  WoLNT.  KirehL  Topooraphie  von  AfdArm(8  vols.,  Briinn, 
1855) ;  DuniK,  Mdhrene  alia,  Qeach,  (12  vola.  and  index,  Briinn, 
1860-88) ;  Wbinbbenker,  MOhren  u.  doM  Bietum  BrUnn  (Vienna, 
1877);  Bbstholi,  Cfeach.  Mokrenv  (2  vols.,  Briinn,  1893-6); 
Tbautxnbbboeb,  Chronik  der  LandeahaupUtadt  Brlknn  (6  volkt 


MOftAVZAX 


504 


Brftxm.  l9Q»^;DU9d0ntidLMonankUinWortu,Bad,  XVn: 
Mdhrm  «.  Schtnim  CVimnm,  1807);  Pbokok  jroArm  tn  faifut- 
MwMdktf.  BctwAmitf  (4  yoIi.,  Brann,  1004);  Dvorak,  GMdL  dar 
Markgrnfaekaft  JfdArm  (Brann,  1006): ZMlaeAr. in dMtodUn  Ftr. 
far  GmcJL  J#tf*r«M  «.  fidUMinu  (1807). 

JOBXPH  LiNB. 

KonTlaii  Bnthren*    See  Bohsmian  Brsthbbn. 

BSonnone,  Ii^  See  Mauuchxlli,  Pistbo 
Francesco. 

Moreelll»  Stbpano  Antonio,  an  Italian  Jesuit 
and  learned  epigraphist;  b.  17  January,  1737,  at 
Chiari  near  Brescia;  d.  there  1  January,  1822.  He 
studied  at  the  Jesuit  College  of  Brescia  and  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Society  of  Jesus,  3  Nov.,  1753.  He 
Bucoessivdy  taught  gramm^  at  Fermo,  humanities 
at  Ragusa,  and  oratory  at  the  Roman  College'  where 
he  established  an  acaoemy  of  archeology  at  the  Kir- 
cher  Museum.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Societv 
of  Jesus  (1773)  he  became  liorarian  to  Cardinal  Al- 
bani  and  in  1791  was  appointed  to  a  provostship  in 
his  native  town.  He  declined  the  offer  of  the  Axch- 
bishopric  of  Rasusa  and  died  a  member  of  the  re- 
storea  Societ3r  of  Jesus.  He  owes  his  fame  not  only 
to  his  extensive  knowledge  of  ancient  inscriptions, 
but  also  to  his  classical  Latinity.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  (1)  "De 
stilo  inscriptionum  latinarum"  (Rome,  1781);  (2) 
"Inscriptionescommentariissubjectis''  (Itome,  1783) 
— ^to  a  second  edition  of  these  two  works  was  added 
the  '*  Parergon  Inscriptionum  novissimarum  "  (Padua, 
1818-22);  (3)  ''MiivoX^tor  rAr  l&^yytUtap  h^a^rucQw 
sive  Kalendarium  Ecclesiie  Constantinopolitanie"  etc. 
(Rome,  1788);  (4)  "Africa  Christiana"  (Brescia, 
1816-7);  (5)  '^OpusooU  Ascetid"  (Brescia,  1819  or 
1820). 

SoMMMBTOOSL,  BibL  d$  U  C.  d$  JUua,  V,  1200-1305  (Pwia. 
1804). 

N.  A.  Wbbul 

Mors,  Hblbn  fDAMS  Gbrtbxtdb),  Benedictine  nun 
of  the  English  Congregation;  b.  at  Low  Leyton, 
Essex,  England,  25  March,  1606;  d.  at  Cambrai, 
France,  17  August,  1633.  Her  father,  Cresacre  More, 
was  great-jj^randson  of  Blessed  Thomas  More:  her 
mother,  Elizabeth  Gage,  was  sister  of  Sir  John  Gage, 
Baronet,  of  Firle,  Sussex,  lord  chamberlain  to  Queen 
Mary.  Her  mother  d3ring  at  an  early  age,  Helen's 
care  and  education  now  devolved  upon  her  father. 
By^  persuasion  of  Dom  Benet  Jones,  O.S.B..  she 
iomea  his  projected  foundation  at  Cambrai,  ana  was 
first  among  nine  postulants  admitted  to  the  order,  31 
Dec.,  1623,  but  vacillation  of  mind  so  disquieted  her 
novitiate,  that  only  with  the  greatest  hesitation  she 
pronounced  her  vows  on  1  January,  1625;  nor  was  she 
even  then  quite  free  from  scruples  and  temptations, 
until  she  had  availed  herself  of  Dom  Augustine  Baker's 
prudent  guidance.  A  year  or  two  later^  having  now 
Decome  Dame  Gertrude,  learning  from  him  the  use  of 
affective  prayer,  a  complete  chan^  was  wrought  in 
her;  rapioly  advancing  m  the  interior  life,  she  became 
a  source  of  edification  to  the  infant  community,  and, 
in  1629,  when  a  choice  of  abbess  must  be  made^  her 
name,  conjointly  with  that  of  Catharine  Gascoigne, 
was  sent  to  Rome  for  a  dispensation  on  point  of  age. 
Catharine  was  eventually  chosen,  but  Gertrude  was 
always  honoured  as  chief  foundr^.  Supporting  her 
abb^  by  lifelong  devotion,  promoting  peace  and 
good  observance,  she  was  universally  beloved.  None 
suffered  more  nor  with  more  edif3ring  fortitude  than 
Dame  Gertrude,  under  a  heavy  trial  to  which  the 
community  was  subjected  through  interference  of  the 
vicar,  Dom  F.  Hull,  with  Father  Baker's  teachings. 
Later,  doubts  arising  as  to  her  mode  of  prayer,  formal 
inquiry  was  made,  resulting  in  approvsJ  at  the  (General 
Chapter  in  1633,  during  the  sessions  of  which,  how- 
ever, Gertrude  was  attacked  by  small-pox  and  died  a 
peaceful  death. 


Some  papers  found  af tor  her  death  and  amiiged  by 
Father  Baker,  were  afterwards  published  in  two 
separate  works:  one  entitled  "The  Hoiv  PimctaoeB  of 
a  Divine  Lover,  or  the  SaincUy  Ideot's  DevoticHis'' 
(Paris,  1657):  the  other,  "Confesmones  Amantis",  or 
"Spiritual  Ebrerdses",  or  "Ideot's  Devotioss".  to 
which  was  prefixed  her  "Apology"  for  hefsdf  and  for 
her  spiritual  guide  (Paris,  165o),  both  recently  re- 
publimed. 

Baku,  Lif*  and  Dtaih  </  Danu  Gtrtmdt  M«n  (M&,  writteo 
■oon^ter  her  death — reiy  nra);   Wbld-Blvmdku.,  Innw  UH 


and  WrUino9  e/D.  OartrwU  Man  (2  yoto..  London,  1010); 
KBT.  Uf€  and  SpirU  of  Faiktr  BaJfc«r  (London.  1861);  W: 
Chronotojnad  Not4»  (Stanbrook,  1881);  Lam-Fox,  - 
to  his  edition  of  Th§  Bo^  FfaeHcaa  </  o  ZHvum 
Augustue,  1008). 

E.  B.  Wbld-BlunhHiL. 


(Fort- 


Mors,  HxNRT,  great-grandson  of  the  martyred 
EngUsh  chancellor:  b^  1586;  d.  at  Watten  in  1661. 
Having  studied  at  St.  Omer  and  Valladolid,  he  entoed 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  after  his  profesBion,  and  ful- 
filling various  subordinate  posts  in  the  colleges,  he  wu 
sent  on  the  English  Mission  where  he  was  twice  ar- 
rested and  imprisoned  (1632,  1640),  ^diile  acting  as 
chaplain  to  John,  the  first  Lord  Petre.  He  became 
provincial  in  1635,  and  in  that  capacity  had  a  good 
deal  to  do  with  the  negotiations  of  Pansani,  Conn,  and 
Rossetti,  the  i>apal  agents  at  the  court  of  Queen 
Henrietta  Maria.  He  was  rector  of  St.  Omer  in 
1649-1652,  and  again  in  1657-1660.  During  these 
latter  years  he  wrote  his  important  h]8t<uy  of  the 
English  Jesuits:  "Historia  Missionis  An^eaoe,  ab 
anno  MDLXXX  ad  MDCXXXV"  (St.  Otoer,  1660. 
fol.).  Besides  translating  Jerome  Platus's  "Happi- 
ness of  the  Reliraous  State"  (1632).  and  the  " Manual 
of  Meditations^  by  Thomas  de  Villa  Castin  (1618), 
he  wrote  "  Vita  et  Doctrina  Christi  Domini  in  medita- 
tiones  quotidianas  per  annum  digesta'*  fAntwero, 
1649).  followed  bv an  En^^sh  version,  entitled,  " life 
and  Doctrines  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ"  (Uhent, 
1656,  in  two  parts;  London,  1880). 

FoLBT,  Rteordt  eftht  EngUth  /Vonnot  S,  J^  VU,  516;  MoBBa. 
Uf0  d  FaAm'  John  Qmtrd  (London,  1881). 

J.  H.  POLXXN. 

Mora,  Snt  Thomas.  See  Thomas  Mobb,  Bxjssssd* 

Moral,  Galiv  a  poet,  scholar,  asthete,  and  edo- 
cationist,  b.  at  St.  Fiden,  Switzerland,  on  24  March, 
1803;  d.  at  the  Abbey  of  Einsiedebi  on  16  December, 
1872.  His  baptismid  name  was  Benedict,  but  in 
the  monastery  he  took  the  name  of  GalL  In  1814, 
he  entered  the  gymnasium  at  St.  Gall.  A  pilgrimage 
to  Einsiedeln  in  1817  influenced  him  deq>ly,  and  soon 
afterwards  he  entered  tiie  monasteiy  school  as  a 
novice.  In  1820  he  took  the  final  vows,  and  after 
several  3rears  so^t  in  theok>gical  and  phitoaoii^ueal 
studies^  was  oraained  priest  in  1826,  being  appointed 
forthwith  instructor  in  the  monastery  sehooL  fVom 
this  period  his  life  presents  a  picture  of  extraordinary 
activity.  From  1826  to  1832  he  was  professor  of 
rhetoric,  and  until  1835  he  lectured  on  phikaonhy. 
In  this  latter  year  he  became  librarian  of  the  abbcnr, 
and  retained  this  office  to  the  end  of  his  life,  whue 
also  fulfilling  the  offices  of  choral  director  (1835-40), 
prefect  (1836),  and  rector  (1848)  of  the  abbey  school, 
archivist  of  the  abbey  (1839-45),  counsellor  of  educa- 
tion of  the  Canton  Schwyx  (1843-^),  and  subprior 
of  the  abbey  (1846-52).  . 

In  spite  of  the  many  demands  upon  his  tune  and 
strength,  the  industrious  monk  exhibited  a  many-sidDd 
literary  activity.  He  is  best  known  as  a  poet,  ten 
volumes  of  lyric,  didactic,  and  dramatic  verse  testify* 
ing  to  his  prolific  poetical  talent.  Endowed  by 
nature  in  so  many  directions,  it  has  been  said  that 
in  his  poems,  ''he  shows  himself  now  as  a  diiMHke 
pious  monk,  now  as  a  good-natured  humorist,  now  as 
a  man  fully  conversant  with  worldl^^  affairs,  and  often 
as  a  keen  satirist,  forceful  and  epigrammatie  in  ex- 


MOBILL                              565  MOBKLOS 

preanon."  Thou^  Morel  may  not  rank  among  the  faculty.  This,  was  giuned  in  1608,  when  she  publicly 
princes  of  verse,  still  his  modest  muse  produced  many  maintained  her  law  theses  at  the  papal  palace  of  the 
a  poem  of  enduring  worth.  But  Morel  also  proved  vice-legate  before  a  distinguished  audience,  among 
himself  a  scholar  of  ffn&t  versatility.  Under  his  whom  was  the  Princesse  de  Cond6.  Disregarding 
care  the  library  of  Einsiedeln  was  enriched  in  thirty-  wealth  and  a  desirable  marriage,  she  entered  during 
seven  years  by  more  than  26{000  volumes;  many  the  same  year  the  convent  of  Sainte-PraxMe  at  Avi- 
of  these  are  most  valuable,  especially  the  manuscripts,  gnon.  In  1609  she  received  the  habit  of  the  order,  and 
which  include  a  tenth-century  MS.  of  Horace,  rescued  on  20  June,  1610,  took  the  vows.  Just  as  she  had  dis- 
bjr  Morel  from  the  bindinss  of  books,  and  named  after  tinguished  herseu  in  secular  life  by  her  learning,  so  in 
him  "Codex  Morellianus".  Drawing  on  these  liter-  the  order  she  excelled  all  others  in  piety,  humility,  and 
ary  tressures.  Morel  published  the  ''Lateinische  faithful  observance  of  the  rules,  being  on  three  occa- 
Hymnen  des  Mittelalters'',  "Offenbarungen  der  sions,  notwithstanding  her  reluctance,  named  prior- 
Sonwester  Mechtild  von  Magdeburg",  and  other  ess.  In  this  manner  tne  pious  nun  spent  the  remain- 
works.  Another  publication  was  the  ''Regesten  der  der  of  her  Ufe  in  the  order,  well-pleasing  to  God  and 
Archive  der  schweuerischen  Eidgenossenschaft " ;  and  beloved  by  the  sisters^  For  two  years  before  her  end 
he  also  compiled  the  Regesta  of  the  Benedictine  she  was  in  great  bodily  suffering  and  her  death  agony 
Abbey  of  Einsiedeln.  Morel's  compilations  and  cat-  lasted  five  days.  She  left  a  number  of  religious  writ- 
alogues  are  models  of  accuracv  and  arrangement,  ings:  (1)  a  tnmslation  of  the  "Vita  SpirituaJis''  of  St. 
He  was  associate  founder  of  the  Swiss  Society  for  Vincent  Ferrer,  with  comments  and  notes  to  the  vari- 
Historical  Research  (1840),  and  wrote  many  valuable  ous  chapters  (Lyons,  1617;  Paris,  1619);  (2)  "Exer- 
eontributions  for  its  "Archiv''.  He  likewise  assisted  cices  spirituels  sur  I'^temit^"  (Avignon,  1637);  (3) 
-  in  the  formation  of  "  Verein  der  fOnf  alten  Orte",  French  translation  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  with 
and  was  a  contributor  to  its  organ,  the  "Geschichts-  addition  of  various  explanations  and  observations  for 
freund".  the  purpose  of  instruction  (Avignon,  1680);  (4)  Hifr- 

In  aesthetics.  Morel  became  an  authority  by  pains-  tory  of  the  reform  of  the  convent  of  St.  Praxedis,  with 

taking  stud^r  and  repeated  art  journeys  to  Munich,  hves  of  some  pious  sisters,  in  manuscript;  (5)  Latin 

Vienna,  Venice,  Milan,  Rome,  and  Paris.    His  con-  and  French  poems,  some  printed  and  some  in  manu- 

ception  of  aesthetics  was  concisely  expressed  in  the  script. 

words  that  he  considers  it  the  prime  object  of  aesthet-  „  Quinr  akd  Echabd.  Scripf.  Ord.  Prmd.,  II  (1721),  845  aqa.: 

ics  to  reconstruct  creation:  the  Divine  ideas  by  the  fim)!^t^       '    '      *  ^^^^'°»  B^iiotheca  hupanaAt 

understanding  in  philosophy,  the  Divinely  picturesque  *         *                                            "^^  Schbid. 
by  our  fancy  m  art,  and  God's  creation  bv  our  will  in 

our  lives.    An  accomplished  violinist.  Morel  criti-  MoreloSi  JobA  MarIa,  Mexican  patriot,  b.  at  Val- 

cally  treated  music  as  an  important  branch  of  aesthet-  ladolid  (now  called  Morelia  in  his  honour),  Mexico, 

ics.     Morel's  services  as  an  educationist  for  nearly  on  30  September,  1766;  shot  at  San  Crist6balEcatepeo 

fifty  years  are  easier  to  estimate  than  to  describe.   His  on  22  December,  1815.    His  father  died  while  he 

•energy  and  his  ouickening  influence  over  teachers  and  was  still  a  youth,  and,  being  left  destitute,  he  worked 

scholars  raised  tne  humble /iC2(>8ter8cAtiie  to  a  high  rank  for  some  tune  as  a  muleteer,  until  he  succeeded  in 

.among  institutions  of  learning.    In  this  connexion  obtaining  admission,  as  an  extern,  to  the  CoU^e  of 

special  mention  must  be  made  of  his  efforts  to  foster  San  Nicolas  at  Valladolid,  the  rector  of  which  insti- 

aohool  drama,  including  the  publication  of  two  vol-  tution  was  at  that  time  the  reverend  Don  Miguel 

tunes  entitled  '' Jugend-  und  Schultheater".    In  the  Hidalgo.    Having  been  ordained  priest,  he  was  ap- 

apt  words  of  Bishop  Greith  of  St.  Gall,  '' Father  Gall  point^  parish  priest  of  Caricuaro  and  Nucup^taro 

Morel  was  a  living  vindication  of  the  monastic  and  m  Michoacan.    When  Hidalgo  left  Valladohd  for 

cloistered  life  against  the  attacks  of  misunderstanding  Mexico  City,  after  uttering   his  GrUo  de  DoloreSf 

and  prejudice.''^  Morelos  offered  himself  to  him  at  Charo,  and  Hidalgo 

KtiHx*,p,aaUMora,einM(hM^UAmatu  commissioned  him  to  raise  troops  for  the  cause  of 

1^tliiS!.')iJ!Si^  Independence  on  the  southern  coast,  snd  to  get  pos- 

1896),  394  aqq.  scssion  of  the  port  of  Acapulco.    Retummg  to  his 

N.  Schbid.  parish,  he  collected  a  few  ill-armed  men,  marched 

towards  Zacatula,  and,  following  the  coast,  reached 

Morall,  JxTUANA,  Dominican  nun,  b.  at  Barce-  Acapulco  with  some  3000  men  whom  he  had  recruited 

lona^pain^  16  February,  1594;  d.  at  the  convent  of  on  the  way  and  supplied  with  arms  taken  from  the 

the  jOomimcan  nuns  at  Avignon,  FVance,  26  June,  royalists.    After  d^eating  Paris,  who  had  come  from 

1653.    The  accounts  of  the  leahiing  of  this  celebrated  Oaxaca  with  the  object  of  relieving  Acapulco,  he  left 

Spanish  lady  seem  to  border  on  the  miraculous.    In  a  part  of  his  forces  to  continue  the  siege  and  made  for 

l»idatoiy  poem  Lope  de  Vega  speaks  of  her  "as  the  Chilpancingo.     Forming  a  junction  there  with  the 

fourth  of  tne  Graces  and  the  tenth  Muse'',  and  savs  brothers  Galiana  and  Bravo,  he  marched  to  Chilapa 

that  she  was  an  angel  who  publicly  taught  all  the  and  captured  that  town.  As  the  viceroy,  Venegas,  was 


sciences  from  the  professorial  chairs  and  in  schools'*,  keying  all  the  colonial  troops  occupied  with  the  siege 
The  apparently  extravagant  praise  of  the  poet  is  of  Zitacuaro,  Morelos,  who  had  been  joined  at  Jante- 
oonfirmed  by  the  reports  of  contemporaries.  Left  telco  by  his  fellow-priest  Mariano  Matamoros — ^thence- 
motherless  when  very  young,  Juliana  s  first  training  forward  his  right  hand  in  almost  every  enterprise — 
received  from  the  Dominican  nuns  at  Barcelona,  organized  four  armies,  which  he  distributed  in  various 


At  the  age  of  four  she  began  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  parts  of  Mexico.    But  the  easy  surrender  of  Zitacuaro 

at  home  tmder  competent  teachers,  and,  when  not  yet  to  Calleja,  and  the  approach  of  that  commander  with 

seven  vears  old,  wrote  a  pretty  Latin  letter  to  her  fa-  all  lus  forces,  placed  Morelos,  with  some  4000  men, 

ther  who  was  away.    Accused  of  taking  part  in  a  mur-  in  the  situation  of  being  besieged  at  Cuautla  by  8000 

der,  the  father  fled  to  Lyons  with  his  daughter,  then  of  the  best  troops  of  the  viceroyalty.     With  indomi- 

eight  years  old.    At  Lyons  Juliana  continued  her  table  courage,  fighting  day  after  day,  Morelos  held  out 

studies,  devoting  nine  hours  daily  to  rhetoric,  dialec-  for  seventy-three  days,  until  at  last  he  succeeded  in 

tics,  eilucs,  and  music.    At  the  age  of  twelve  she  de-  breaking  away  with  all  that  remained  of  his  army, 

fended  in  public  her  theses  in  ethics  and  dialectics  He  then  passed  over  to  Huajuapan,  from  thence  to 

''flumma  cum  laude".    She  then  applied  herself  to  Orisaba  and  so  on  to  Oaxaca,  capturing  all  those 

physics,  metaphysics,  and  canon  and  civil  law.     Her  places,  and  defeating  every  body  of  troops  that  en- 

tather,  who  had  meanwhile  settled  at  Avignon,  wanted  countered  him. 
hiB  daughter  to  obtain  a  doctorate  in  the  last-named        On  14  September,   1813,  ^e  fir^t  Independent 


M0BIL08  566  1IOBIL08 

Congreas  aesembled  at  Chilpancingo  and  there  passed  he  did  not  believe  the  excommunications  vafid.    (2) 

the  decree:  ''That  dependence  upon  the  Spanish  Not  recitins  the  Divine  Office  while  he  was  in  prison. 

Throne  has  ceased  forever  and  been  dissolved.    That  He  declarea  that  he  could  not  recite  it  in  the  dungeon 

the  said  Consress  neither  professes  nor  recognises  any  for  want  of  light.    (3)  Ha\ing  been  lax  in  his  eondfuct 

religion  but  the  Catholic,  nor  will  it  permit  or  tolerate  This  he  granted,  but  denied  that  "^»*!^i<»  had  been 

the  practice,  public  or  private,  of  any  other;  that  it  given,  since  it  was  not  publicly  known  that  he  had 

will  protect  with  all  its  power,  and  will  watch  over,  begotten  children.    (4)  Having  sent  his  son  to  the 

the  purity  of  the  Faith  and  its  dogmas  and  the  main-  United  States  to  be  educated  in  Protestant  principles, 

tenance  of  the  regular  bodies ".    From  Chilpancingo  He  declared  that,  so  far  from  wishing  the  son  v^iom  he 

he  turned  towards  his  native  Valladolid,  which  was  had  sent  to  the  United  States — as  ne  could  not  place 

.then  held  by  the  royalist  leaders  Iturbide  and  liano;  him  in  an^  institution  within  the  kingdom — to  be 

driven  back  there  he  moved  on  Chupio.    AtPuruardn  brought  up  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation^  he  had 

his  brave  companion  Matamoros  was  captured,  and  directed  him  to  be  placed  in  a  college  where  he  wodd 

was  shot  at  Valladolid,  3  February,  1814.    These  re-  not  run  that  risk.    In  spite  of  these  arguments,  the 

verses  were  followed  l^the  recapture  of  Oaxaca  by  tribunal  decided:  ''that  the  priest  Don  Jqb6  Mordos 

the  royalist  troops.    The  independent  Congress  of  was  a  formal  negative  heretic,  a  favourer  of  heretics,  a 

Chilpancingo  haa  removed  to  Apatzingan.  where  it  persecutor  and  disturber  of  the  ecclesiastical  hier- 

?romulgat^  the  Constitution  of  22  October,  1814.  archy,  a  profaner  of  the  holy  sacraments,  a  traitor  to 

'hen  it  determined  to  remove  again  from  Apatzingan  God,  the  King,  and  the  pop^  and  as  sudi  was  dedared 

to  Tehuacin,  Morelos  accompanied  it  to  protect  it,  forever  irregular,  deposed  from  all  offices  and  bene- 

and  engaged  in  the  Battle  ot  Tesmalaca,  where  he  fices,  and  condemned  to  be  present  at  his  ovio  in  the 

was  made  prisoner.  ^  garb  of  a  penitent,  with  collarless  cassock  and  a  ^reen 

Having  been  taken  to  Menco  City,  on  22  Novem-  candle,  to  make  a  ^general  confession  and  a  spintual 

ber,  1815,  proceedings  were  instituted  against  him  by  retreat;  and  that,  m  the  tmexpected  and  very  re- 

both  the  military  and  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal,  and  mote  case  of  his  Uf  e  being  spared,  he  was  condemned 

an  advocate  was  appointed  for  him.    The  principal  for  the  remiunder  of  it  to  confinement  in  Afirica  at  the 

charges  against  him  were:  (1)  Having  committed  the  disposition  of  the  inquisitor  ^^eneral,  with  the  obliga- 

crime  of  treason,  failing  in  his  fealty  to  the  king,  by  tion  of  reciting  every  Friday  m  the  year  the  jieniten- 

promoting  independence  and  causing  it  to  be  pro-  tial  psalms  and  the  rosary  of  the  Blessed  "S^mru  and 

claimed  in  the  Congress  assembled  at  Chilpancingo.  to  have  his  sambenito  (penitential  inscriptiony  placed 

Morelos  answered  to  this  that,  as  there  was  no  king  in  in  the  cathedral  church  of  Mexico  as  that  of  a  reoon- 

Sp^ain  (Ferdinand  VII  having  been  taken  to  France,  a  ciled  formal  heretic". 

prisoner),  he  could  not  have  been  fabie  to  the  Idng;  It  was  one  of  the  decrees  of  the  Inquifidtlon  wluch 
and  that,  as  to  the  declaration  of  independence,  of  the  have  done  most  to  damage  the  reputation  of  that  tri- 
said  Congress,  he  had  concurred  in  it  by  his  vote  be-  bunal  in  New  Spun.  The  proceedings  lacked  the  legal- 
cause  he  believed  that  the  king  would  not  return  from  ity  and  judicial  correctness  which  should  have  mailed 
France  and  that,  even  if  he  should  return,  he  had  ren-  them.^  Alorelos  was  out  of  the  juriatUction  of  the  In- 
dered  himsdf  unworthy  of  fealty  by  handing  over  quisition  both  as  an  Indian  and  as  having  been  al- 
Spain  and  its  colonies  to  France  like  a  flock  of  sheep,  ready  tried  and  condemned  by  another,  competoit, 
(2)  Having  ordered  a  number  of  prisoners  to  be  shot,  tribunal;  nor  was  there  any  reason  in  condemning  him 
He  declared  that  he  had  done  this  in  obedience  to  for  changes  to  which  he  had  made  satisfactory  replies. 
orders  sent  first  by  the  Junta  at  Zitacuaro  and  then  by  It  may  be  that  the  tribunal,  re-establi^ed  in  New 
the  (Congress  at  Chilpancingo,  by  way  of  reprisals,  more-  Spain  only  a  littie  more  than  one  year  before  this,  and 
over,  because  the  viceregal  Government  had  not  ac-  carried  away  by  an  indiscreet  seal,  was  unwilling  to 
cepted  the  exchange  of  prisoners  proposed  instead  of  miss  the  opportunitv  presented  by  so  famous  a  case  to 
General  Matamoros.  (3)  Having  ignored  the  excom-  ingratiate  itself  with  the  Government  and  cail  attoi- 
munication  fulminated  against  him  and  the  Independ-  tion  to  its  activity. 

ents  by  the  bishops  and  the  Inquisition.  He  declared  Morelos,  d^;raaed  in  pursuance  of  his  sentence,  ac- 
that  he  had  not  considered  these  excommunications  .  cording  to  the  ritual  provided  by  the  Church  in  such 

v^id,  believing  that  they  could  not  be  imposed  upon  cases,  was  transferred  from  the  prison  of  the  Inquia- 

an  independent  nation,  such  as  the  insurgents  must  be  tion  to  the  citadel  of  Mexico  ana  put  in  irons.    On  22 

considered  to  constitute,  so  long  as  they  (the  sen-  December  he  was  taken  from  the  city  to  San  Cristobal 

tences)  were  not  those  of  a  pope  or  an  cecumenical  Ecatepec,  where  he  was  shot.    As  a  guerilla  leader, 

council.     (4)  Having  celebrated  Mass  during  the  time  Morelos  must  occupy  a  prominent  place  among  those 

of  the  Revolution.    He  denied  this,  ance  he  had  re-  who  struggled  and  died  for  Mexican  independence, 

garded  himself  as  under  irregularity  from  the  time  He  appeared  at  the  moment  when  the  first  peat  army 

when  blood  began  to  be  shed  in  the  territory  under  his  of  the  Independents  had  been  routed  at  the  Bridge  « 

command.  Calder6n,  and  when  its  first  leaders  were  b^ig 


The  case  having  been  concluded  in  the  military  cuted  at  Chihuahua,  and  he  achieved  his  first  suc- 
tribunal  that  court  requested  of  the  ecclesiastical  tn-  cesses  in  the  ru^sged  mountains  of  tiie  south.  He  be- 
bunal  the  degradation^and  surrender  of  the  condemned  gan  his  campaigns  without  materials  of  war  of  any 
priest,  in  accordance  with  the  formalities  prescribed  Kind,  expecting  to  take  what  he  needed  from  tlw 
by  the  canons;  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  granted  both  enemy,  and  iio  one  ever  used  the  resources  of  war  bet- 
requests,  and  communicated  its  decision  to  the  vice-  ter  than  he  did,  for  the  extension  of  the  national  terri- 
ro^-  It  was  at  this  point  that  the  tribunal  of  the  In-  tory.  Profoundly  astute  and  reserved,  he  confided 
ouisition  intervened,  requesting  the  vicero3r,  Calleja  his  plans  not  even  to  those  of  his  lieutenants  for  whom 
(who  had  succeeded  Venegas)  to  delay  execution  of  the  he  felt  the  most  affectionate  re^ud.  The  stan^  of 
sentence  four  days,  and  citing  Morelos  to  a  public  genius  is  discernible  in  the  astonishing  sagacity  with 
aiUo  de  fe  on  27  November.  On  that  occasion,  with  which  he  handled  the  most  difficult  piroblems  of 
all  the  formalities  proper  to  such  proceedings,  twenty-  government,  and  in  multiplied  instances  of  his  rafud 
three  charges  were  preferred  against  him:  the  Inquisi-  and  unerring  insight  into  actual  conditions.  WImhi, 
tors  added  to  the  charges  brought  at  the  former  trial  after  the  ill-starred  campaign  of  Valladolid,  the  hour 


others  which  they  believed  themselves  competent  to  of  adversity  came  upon  him,  he  faced  disaster  as 

try,  as  implying,  accordini^  to  them,  suspicions  of  her-  renely  as  he  had  previously  accepted  good  fortune, 

esy.  These  were:  (1)  Having  received  Communion  in  and,  m  that  famous  retreat  upon  Tehuacan^  c"  *'* 

spite  of  ^e  excommunications  which  he  had  incurred,  ately  gave  his  own  life  to  save  the  lives  of  his 

Morelos  answered  that  he  had  communicated  because  ates  in  the  Independent  Government. 


VMudM»«idilM>uI«,  m(Bkralou);AuMiK,?Uiir^        In  1654  twelve  of  hia  plays  were  published  in  one 

Mi^^ik  ^lk"k^^^'^;  vt'^.;f c™SSS«"jfrHi  volume  under  the  title  of  ^'  First  Part  of  the  Comedi«. 

—  "   ■     'jmntadiadalaHtjimad*  ot  Moreto' ,    AmonK  them  may  be  mentioned     El 

Undo  Don  Diego",  "Lob  jueces  de  Castilla"  dealing 

Ktu-na  CamsLLi.  ^ith  the  Ute  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  "San  Franco  de 

Morfri,  Loui.,  eneyelop^diat,  b.  at  Barjemont,  ^^^t";  ^,'7u'''SJSt'Z^iL  ™..i™  „„i„.  «l 
in  the  Dioce«!  ol  Frfji  rfance,  M  Mareh,  1643:  d         **  »  ""'.  ""'•<«  '"''"J  ''j  ™»'  Y",!?,""'  '5 

S  Pi™,  iTMy,  1680.    HiTmndlSer 'Sph  ?»?"  »'  ^S  °°'Y^'"S:^'  ^"'.t  S^  "^t'^iS 

Chatmnk,  a  nati™  of  Dijon,  h«Kttled  in  (-rovence  "  ft^^j^Z  t,Sf,^ikZ  S^JIZ    H.  STS? 

under  ChilM  IX  and  taken  the  name  of  the  village  """i  S'  ^,,      "^  ?  m  evolmg  h»  plola     He  atei  ei- 

rf  Mortri,  the  uignloiy  of  whieh  he  hLd  L™iSd  f  ""''».'"•'?,;' '?l'""""j"i"te'.f5 

through  iarriag.     Young  Moriri  .ludied  humani-  t,"2^  J"f?iZHT;  ■™.  ^  Kln^K^'i™,,? 

tie.  at  DiaguiSSan,  theloSe  at  the  Jeeuit  College  of  "T"?.'  '"Sfftl  ?  J  ,°  t  J      ^     a  humorou. 

'^r^Sil'-S'.   D"~«'^'r'?"'»  S?reoSf?f'tJSS  'aSCyeTlS."Ht 

?  '.■.I?jSKi^SS,u™;,^ff      "niJS'  1»«  Elay  "El  do«i«n  eon  el  de«i«n^  {Diriain  met 

Uque  dela  perfeolion  chrttienneet  "Iwe-ge    (1867),  ^,^  SSdain),  pubbahed  at  Valencia  in  1676,  U  bot- 

ts^^'X'E'.^SiSt'sfhfpSa'SfyXfo;  r'"""j*Tr'"d'""'*^''"oi'3» 

;ESi™,S^^..iiii^f  i:5S.tSS,.iS;2  d'EUde",  tned  to  reSat  Moteto'.  .ucce-,  but  feU 

that  would  contain  aU  the  intateeting  da  aof  hnMty  ,     ^     ■  ,  ^  ^^^{"ihe  "Biblioleea  do  Autore. 

rr°fiHJ?™S.    il  5i  C„W«^    k  '  S  EepaiolM",   XXXIX   (Madrid,    1856),   contain,  a 

yJi^i^^JS'^S  ^  1?£V™.3^     fc  collection  ol  Moreto'.  play,  "ilt  a  hiiraphy  of  the 

deicatedthe  tot  rtitjon  otto  encyclop«dui.    In  ,„thor  by  Lui.  FeminJe.  Guerra. 

1675  he  accompamed  that  prelate  to  Pan.  where  he      "        ,    l   .j      i     i  ■     j  ,■,  ^    f.  t 

b«.rne  aequmted  mth  de  "Pomponne  who  gave  him  ..JSyTS.Sl  Sr(SSt:;T™)"F,>i;?o™^liIS 

employment  in  bis  omcee.     Alter  the  downfall  of  that  m^ni  o/  SpaniM  LU.  (Naw  York,  leosj. 
minister  in  1678,  he  returned  to  his  studies,  but  over-  Ventura  FuBNTBa. 

work  bad  undermined  bis  constitution  and  he  died  of       __  ,.,>».. 

consumption  in  1680.  Uoretto  dft  BmoU.  II.   See  Bonvicino,    Albs- 

Mor&  was  a  man  of  great  erudition  but  lacked  8AMDK0, 

i^S.wS'KSf.i.iS.SljTiSSS'.^"'.!       Morpwnl,  GioTANm  Bathbta,  oaUed  by  Vir- 

irork  tnat  can  Itaraly  be  considered  as  niB  own  after  all       .    _  ,t     i.w  .1 »  kj.j  u.iw.i »  .  ^j:j.:_ 

the  changM  which  it  has  undergone.    Baylc,  who  in-  chow, jhe-'FathCT  of  Modei^  Pathology  ,  a  distin- 

ii^dSiake  up  the  defiSeS  of  Morfri^;  diction-  «?^^  H'^Tri,''o?''^T  ""*  'f^^  '5**^?  ^.I^^l^' 

:S«  'i^'^TerroS  burEh^yTi^^el  gCof  ™  ^^^^^  »^  '"°"--  «  — >  "^  ^^^ 

which  their  successors  ought  never  to  deprive  them.  ^"P  ,SdM«t^ 

Moriri  has  given  himaelf  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  has  ■         devoted   her 

be«n  useful  to  everybody,  and  has  given  sufficient  iSf'to  the  educa- 

information  to  many."    Moron's  enoyclopicdia  ap-  »■  „  „r  k„  ,^(,~j 

peai«d  for  the  flm  time  in  Lyons  in  1674,  under  tfie  *'°''     At   .'^ 

title:  "Le  groJid  Dictionnaire  historique,  ou  melange  Tr  '.„t    ,„   .u. 

ourip«.deTM.toire  UcrSe  rt  profane."  .  It  wa.  d,^  u„ivT„ily  of  £, 

fective  m  many  respects  and  was  greatly  improved  in  il     '  („  kioKinVioi- 

later  editions  which  appeared  in  Paris  or  Amsterdam.  Sf«  where  b^ 

The  bMt  edition  is  the  twentieth  and  last,  published  at  f^^\  "^^^ 

Pans,ml759.  «.„,„„„  tion  he  attracted 

P.  J.  Maeiqdb.  ^tt^ntion   by  his 

Biwsto  T  Oftballa,  AnaTTSTtN,  Spanish    drama-  powers  of  obaer- 

tist;  b.  at  Madrid  9  April,  1618;  d.  at  Toledo,  28  vation.    His  two 

October,   1660.     He   received  what  little  academic  great   teachers, 

tr&ining  he  had  at  the  University  of  AlcaU  de  Henares  Albertini  and  Val- 

and  graduated  Licentiate  in  Arts  in  1639.     From  a  salva,     became 

Tery  early  age  he  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  it  deeply  interested 

is  known  that  from  1640,  probably  through  hts  friend-  in  him,  and  Val- 

ebip  with  Ca]der6n,  his  plays  began  to  be  produced,  ealva  picked  him 

The  SiHuiish  drama  had  reached  the  height  of  its  out  as  his  apedal 

success  duritt((  Moreto'e  boyhood,  and  a  gradual  de-  assistant    in    an- 

cline  had  set  m.    The  clergy  began  to  preach  against  atomy.      In    the 

plays  as  they  were  then  given,  and  in  1644  the  Royal  year   following 

Council  instituted  radical  reforms  by  reducing  the  hisgraduationas  Doctor  of  Medicine  and  Philosophy, 

number   of    dramatic    companies,    modifying   stage  thoughnotyet  twenty-two,  he  was  sometimes  allowed 

coetumes,  and  establishing  a  strict  censorwip.    It  to  take  Valsalva's  classes  duriiiK  his  master's  absence. 

was  furthermore  ordered  that  thenceforth  no  come-  He  became  a  leader  in  thought  among  the  j^oung 

dies  were  to  be  played   but  those  of  an  historical  men  and  founded  a  society  called  the  "  Academia  In- 

nature,  or  those  dealmg  with  the  lives  of  the  saints,  quietonim  "  (the  Academy  of  the  Restleas),  a  title  in- 

Thia  accounts  for  the  fact  that,  for  a  time,  Moreto  dicating  that   the  members  were  not  satisfied  with 

devoted  himself  to  this  kind  of  drama.    Like  many  previous  knowledge  but  wanted  to  get  at  science  for 

famouBwritersofhistime.MoretoreceivedHolyorders  themselves  by  direct  observation  and  experiment. 

toward  the  end  of  his  hfe,  though  it  is  not  known  After  several  years  of  graduate  work  at  Bolc^a 

exactly  when  he  did  so.    He  entered  the  household  of  Morgagni  spent  a  year  m  special  medical  investi^ 

the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  Don  Baltasar  de  tions  at  the  Universities  of  Pisa  and  Padua.     His  m- 

MoBcoeo,  and  in  1650  joined  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  cessant  work  impaired  his  sight  and  he  returned  to 

Peter.  hia  native  town  to  recuperate.    At  the  age  of  24  he 


ItOftOAtt 


56S 


MOftOHIM 


went  to  Bologna  to  lecture  on  anatomv,  and  there  pub- 
lished a  series  of  notes  called  "Adveraaria  Anato- 
mical' (1706).  These  gained  him  such  a  reputation 
that  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Padua,  and 
later  became  second  professor  of  anatomy  at  Bolopna. 

He  studied  particularly^  the  throat,  and  the  smus 
and  hydatid  of  Morgagni  in  this  region  perpetuate  his 
name.  After  a  few  years  he  succeeded  to  the  first  pro- 
fessorship of  anatomy,  the  most  important  post  in  the 
medical  school,  for  anatomy  was  to  medicme  at  that 
time  what  pathology  is  now.  Here  Morgagni  wrote 
his  great  book,  ''De  sedibus  et  causis  morborum  per 
anatomen  indigatis'' — ''On  the  Seats  and  Causes  of 
Disease" — (Venice,  1771.  trans.  French,  English,  and 
German)  which  laid  the  foundation  of  modem  patho- 
logy. Beniamin  Ward  Richardson  said  (Disciples  of 
.^sculapius) :  "To  this  day  no  medical  scholar  can 
help  bemK  delighted  and  mstructed  by  this  wonder- 
ful book. "  Morgagni's  studies  in  aneurisms  and  in 
certain  phases  of  pulmonary  disease  were  especially 
valuable.  He  thought  tuberculosis  contagious  and 
refused  to  make  autopsies  on  tuberculous  subjects. 
As  a  consequence  of  his  teaching  laws  were  introduced 
at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  Rome  and 
Naples,  declaring  tuberculosis  contagious  and  requir- 
ing upon  the  death  of  the  patients  that  their  rooms  be 
disinfected  and  their  clothing  burned.  Venesection 
was  one  of  the  fads  of  his  time,  but  Morgagni  refused 
to  credit  its  power  for  good  and  would  not  allow  it  to 
be  performed  on  himself.  He  studied  the  pulse,  and 
especially  palpitation  of  the  heart  apart  from  organic 
cardiac  affection,  thus  anticipating  most  of  our 
modem  teaching.  With  regard  to  cancer,  Morgagni 
insisted  that  though  it  was  the  custon  to  try  many 
remedies,  the  knife  was  the  only  remedy  that  gave 
fruitful  results. 

Morgagni  was  most  happy  in  his  private  Ufe.  He 
lived  with  such  simplicity  that  he  was  blamed  for 
parsimony,  but  his  secret  charities,  revealed  after  his 
death,  disprove  this  charge.  Of  his  fifteen  children 
there  were  three  sons,  one  of  whom  died  in  childhood, 
another  became  a  Jesuit  and  did  some  striking  scien- 
tific work  after  the  suppression  of  the  Society,  while  the 
third  followed  his  father's  profession  but  (ued  young. 
All  of  Morgagni's  daughters  who  grew  to  womanhood, 
eight  in  number,  became  nuns.  The  estimation  in 
which  he  was  generally  held  can  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  twice,  when  invading  armies  laid  siege  to 
Bologna,  their  commanders  gave  strict  orders  that  no 
harm  was  to  come  to  Morgagni.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  profoundly  learned  men  of  his  time  not  only  in 
science,  but  in  the  literature  of  science.  The  Royal 
Society  of  England  elected  him  a  fellow  in  1724,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  made  him  a  member  in 
1731,  the  Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1735, 
and  the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1754.  He  was  in  corre- 
spondence with  most  of  the  great  scientists  of  his 
tmie,  among  them  such  men  as  Ruysch,  Boerhaave, 
Sir  Richard  Meade,  Haller,  and  Meckel.  Cooke,  his 
English  biographer  J  declares  ''that  the  learned  and 
great  who  came  mto  his  neighbourhood  did  not 
depart  without  a  visit  to  Morgagni''.  The  patri- 
cians of  Venice  counted  him  a  personal  friend.  King 
Emanuel  III  of  Sardinia  often  turned  to  him  for 
advice.  The  five  popes  of  the  second  half  of  his  life 
consulted  him  on  eoucational  and  medical  matters. 
Benedict  XIV  (De  Beatificatione)  mentions  him  in 
special  terms  of  commendation.  Clement  XIII 
lodged  him  at  the  papal  palace  on  his  visits  to  Rome. 
He  was  probably  the  most  respected  man  of  his  time 
and  even  more  beloved  than  respected. 

Ckx>KV.  8ke^  of  McTQagni  in  StaU  and  Cauaes  of  Dueeue  (Lon- 
don, 1822) ;  VxRCHOW,  Moroagni  and  Anatomical  Thomfht  in  Brit, 
Med.  Journal,  I  (1894),  726;  Richabdbon,  DiteipUt  of  jBaeula^ 
pttM  (London,  1001) ;  Wau»h,  Mahert  of  Modem  Medicine  (Ford- 
hMQ  Univeraity  Preai,  New  York.  1907);  Nxcholb,  Morgagni, 
Father  eif  Modem  PathoUtgy  in  Montreal  Medical  Journal  (1903). 

Jambb  J.  Walsh. 


Mdrgan,  Edwabd,  Vbnxbablb,  Welsh  priest, 
martyr,  b.  at  Bettid&eld,  Hanmer,  Flmtshire,  executed 
at  Tyburn,  London,  26  April.  1642.  His  father's 
Christian  name  was  William.  Of  his  mother  we  know 
nothing  except  that  one  of  her  kindred  was  lieuten- 
ant of  the  Tower  of  London.  From  the  fact  that  the 
martyr  was  Imown  at  St.  Omer  as  John  Singleton, 
Mr.  Gillow  thinks  that  she  was  one  of  the  Sin^etons 
of  Steyning  Hall,  near  Blackpool,  in  Lancashire.  Of 
his  reported  education  at  Douai,  no  evidence  appears; 
but  he  certainly  was  a  scholar  at  St.  Omer,  ana  at  the 
English  colleges  at  Rome,  Valladolid,  and  Madrid. 
For  a  brief  period  in  1609  he  was  a  Jesuit  novice,  hav- 
ing been  one  of  the  numerous  converts  of  Father  John 
Bennett,  S.J.  Ordained  priest  at  Salamanca,  he  was 
sent  on  the  English  Mission  in  1621.  He  seems  to 
have  laboured  in  his  fatherland,  and  in  April,  1629. 
was  in  prison  in  Flintshire,  for  refusing  the  oath  ot 
allegiance.  Later  about  1632  he  was  condemned  in 
the  Star  Chamber  to  have  his  ears  nailed  to  the  piUoiy 
for  havinff  accused  certain  judges  of  treason,  inmie- 
diately  afterwards  he  was  committed  to  the  Fleet 
Prison  in  London,  where  he  remained  until  a  few  days 
before  his  death.  He  was  condemned  at  the  Old 
Bailey  for  being  a  priest  under  the  provisions  of  27 
Elis.,  c.  2  on  St.  George's  Day,  23  April,  1642.  At  the 
same  lime  was  condemned  John  Francis  Quashet, 
a  Scots  Minim,  who  subsequently  died  in  New|Eate 
Prison.  The  last  scene  of  the  mart}rrdom  is  fuUy  given 
(apparently  by  an  eye  witness)  in  Father  Pollen's 
worK  cited  below. 

Challonkr,  Memoirt  of  Mieeionary  PrieaU,  II  (Mftnobeater, 
1803).  110;  GxLLOW,  Bibl.  Did.  Bng.  Cath.,  ■.  t.:  Pollbn.  Aela 
of  Bnolieh  Martyre  (London,  1891).  843:  Calendar  SlaU  Papon 
Domeeiic  1698-99;  leSl-SS  (London.  185&-18a2).  paeeim. 

John  B.  Wainewbigbt. 
Morganfttlc  Marriage.    See  Marriagb. 

Morghen,  Raffaello,  an  Italian  engraver,  b.  at 
Portici,  19  June,  1758  (1761?) ;  d.  at  Florence,  8  April, 
1833.  His  father,  Filippo,  came  of  a  family  of  German 
engravers,  bis  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Liani,  court 
pamter  to  Charles  lU.  Raffaello's  first  teachers  were 
nis  father  and  his 
uncle  Jean,and  be- 
fore he  was  twelve 
he  had  achieved  a 
good  plate.  When 
only  twenty  he 
produced  seven 
noteworthy  plates 
illustrating  the 
carnival  of  1778, 
and  later  went  to 
study  in  Rome, 
under  Volpato, 
whose  daughter  he 
married.'  Im- 
pressed with  San- 
zio's  pictures  in 
the  Vatican,  Mop- 
ghen  engraved  his 
^*Poetry"  and 
"Theology".  In 
1787  he  finished 
one  of  his  princi- 
pal works.  Quido's 
"Aurora"  from 
the  fresco  in  the  garden-house  of  the  Rospiglioa 
Palace,  his  art  and  his  time  beins  far  better  suited 
to  this  style  than  to  translatins  the  woric  of  greater 
masters.  When  he  visited  Naples  in  1790,  the 
court  offered  him  a  salary  of  six  hundred  ducats, 
which  he  declined,  but  later  accepted  (1793)  the  invi- 
tation of  Ferdinand  of  Tuscanv  to  live  in  Florence. 
Here  he  received  only  four  hundred  soudi,  but  he  was 
free  to  found  a  school  of  engraving,  to  engrave  what  he 
G^ose,  and  own  all  the  prints  from  nis  plates.    His  next 


lUvTAmxo  M< 


XOBURTT  569  UOBIQI 

importiuitpbt«,Ri4^iM]'B"TraaBfigiiTstii>n",waBbe-  foi  prieBta,  and  hia  addreaees  vrbich  h&ve  oome  down 

gun  in  1796,  butoo  mapy  were  hia  oommisBioris  that  it  to  us  under  the  title  "Allocutions  to  the  Clergy"  are 

waa  not  finimed  until  1812.    While  somewhat  lacking  cbaracteriied  by  profound  thought,  expressed  in  an 

in  tone  and  aerial  pernwotive,  thia  engraving  exhibits  elevated  and  oratorical  style.    In  his  political  views 

brilliant  technique  ana  immense  dexterity.    The  first  he  ran  counter  to  much  of  the  popular  feeling  of  the 


edition  brought  him  one  hundred  and  forty  thousand  time,  and  was  a  notable  opponent  of  the  Feniaii  organ- 
francs.  The  dedication  of  this  plate  to  N^xtleon  I  iaatKm,  which  he  denounced  HtrooKly.  Still,  he  was  a 
lesulted  in  a  summons  to  Paris,  where  he  was  urged  to    patriot  of  the  type  of  O'Ccnnell,  for  whom  he  had  a 


establish  a  school  of  engraving;  but  the  French  pro-  ^«at  admiration.    His  principal  works  are:  "Allocu- 

tested  that  this  would  oe  detrimmtal  to  their  own  tions  to  the  Clergy"  and  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
artists  and  the  plan  was  never  carried  out.    Morghen  dad 

eograved  a  portrait  of  Napoleon,  poor  in  resemblance  "■  "■■  Bkbchbb. 

and  weak  in  executJon.  „  ^_,  ,„  ^    „  ,,., 

The  most  celebrated  woA  of  the  Volpato  School  and        Morlgl  (CAnATAaaio)(  Michblanqblo,  Milanese 
Mordien'e  tM-tPmutre  was  hia  engraving  frcra  da  painter,  b,  at  Caravaggio  m  1569;  d.  at  Porto  d'Ercole 
yin^  "Laat  Supper",  begun  in  1794  and  published  m  1609.    Hia  family  name  was  Morigi,  but  he  aa- 
in  1800,    It  was  immensely  succeesful  despite  the  fact  aumod  that  of  his  birthplace,  and  was  known  by  that 
that  it  is  flat  and  the  figurw  reaemble  Sanrio's  more  almost  .exclusively.     He  was  the  son  of  a  mason,  and 
than  da  Vind'a.    Tlus  flatnese,  however,  is  not  a  as  a  boy  worked  at  preparing  the  plaster  for  the  fresco 
seiiooa  fault,  since  the  origuial  is  piacUcally  in  one  painteia  of  Milan,  acquiring  from  them  a  great  desire 
plane.     Morghen's  greatest  artistic  success  is  the  to  become  an  artist.    He  received  no  instruction  u  a 
equestrian  portrut  of  Frangois  de  Moncade  (Van  youth,buttrainedhimseIf  by  copying  natural  objects, 
I^dt),  wherein  he  showa  more  of  sentiment,  tempera-  doing    the    work 
ment,  and  vigour  than  in  any  of  his  two  hundrea  and  with  such  rigid  ac- 
fifty-four  enKravingB.    His  plates  are  pleasing,  quiet,  curacy  that  m  later 
hannonioua,  typifyinE  the  graver's  art  at  the  be^n-  life  he  was  seldom 
Ding  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  mark  the  revival  able  to  rid  himself 
of  classieid  line  engraving  in  Italy.    Great  paintings  of  a  habit  of  sla- 
Wtte  to  liim  more  tbemee  for  technical  skill  than  viah  and  almost 
models  to  be  rigorously  followed;  hence  his  reproduo-  inechanical  imita- 
tions of  the  Masters  are  all  much  alike.    Hia  prolific  tion.       After  five 
burin  "flew  over  the  plate"  to  witness  hia  ma^ty  of  years  of  strenuous 
hatch,  dot,  and  flick.    Morghen  began  many  of  his  work  he  found  hia 
plates  by  etching  the  salient  linea  and  waa  probably  way  to   Venice, 
the  first  eiw^ver  to  dry-point  the  flesh-tbts  of  his  where  he  carefully 
portraits.    He  etched  some  veiy  spirited  and  delicate  studied  the  works 
coppers  and  produced  many  vignettes.    He  was  pro-  of  Giorgione,  and 
fessor   in   the   Florence   Academy,   engraver  to   the  recaved      inatruc- 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  and  associate  of  the  Ituiitut  tion  from  an  un- 
dt  France  (ISOS).    Louis  XVHI  gave  him  the  ConJon  known    painter. 
de  St.  Miekd,  and  made  him  a  member  of  the  lAgion  Thence    oe    went 
iHowumr.    When  he  died  Italy  resounded  with  son-  to  Rome,  and  on 
nets  to  "the  imperishable  glory  of  the  illustrious  account      "'     ""'" 
engraver  of  the  Laat  Supper".     '            < .          ■ 


_    ver  of  the  Laat  Supper".     Among  his  works  poverty     engaged 

should  be  noted  the  "Miracle  of  Bolsena"  (Raphael  himsell  to  Cesare  .._. 

Saniio).  "Charity"  (Correg^o),  and  "Shepherda  in  d'Arpino,  who  em-  BybimHlf 

Arcady     (Pousdn).  ployed  him  to  execute  the  floral  and  ornamental  parts 

D»C&«i™»Ti*™.Hk*.itoCm<An«d*groniMinE'-4T«(i88B):  of  tuB  pictures.     He  BOon,  however,  acquired  a  reputa- 

^::i:i:-JSr?^^i^':'l^7^'"^Jb^iivl'^^  tion  for  his  own  work,  andhU  accurate  mutations  of 

(Pwto.  1843)  (•fMt  Pklmitfi'i  Mt»io«u»).  natural  objects  were  attractive.    The  artist's  hot  tem- 

Leiqh  Hunt.  per,  however,  led  him  into  trouble,  and  in  a  fit  of  anger 

he  killed  one  of  his  frieada  and  had  to  leave  Rome  in 

Koriwt;,  DAvm,  bishop  and  pulpit  orator,  b.  in  baste.    For  a  while  he  was  at  Naples,  and  then  in 

Aidfert,  Co.  Kerry,  in  1812;  d.  1  October,  1877,    He  Malta,  where  twice  he  painted  the  portrait  of  the 

rea«vea  his  early  education  in  a  claencal  achool  of  his  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  but  he  quar- 

native  diocese,  and  later  was  sent  to  Boulogne-eur-  relied  with  one  of  the  Order,  who  threw  him  inf^i 

Uer,  France.     From  there  he  passed  to  Maynooth,  prison,  and  it  waa  with  difficulty  that  he  escaped,  fled 

and  after  a  distinguished  course  in  theology  waa  to  Syracuse  and  returned  to  Naples.    There  he  ob- 

deoted  to   the   Dunboyne  establishment,  where  he  tained  a  pardon  for  the  manslaughter  of  hia  compan- 

spent  two  years.    While  yet  a  young  pnest  he  waa  ion,  set  out  again  for  Rome,  waa  taken  prisoner  on  the 

CDOsen   by  the  episcopal   management  of   the  Irish  way  by  some  Spaniards  who  mistook  him  for  another 

College  in  Paris,  aa  vice^resident  of  that  inatitution;  person,  and  when  set  at  liberty  found  tiiat  he  had  lost 

whidi  pcution  he  occupied  for  about  four  years.     So  nis  boat  and  all  that  it  contained.     At  Porto  d'Ercole 

satisfactory  waa  hia  work  that,  on  the  death  of  Father  he  fell  ill  and  died  of  a  violent  fever. 
Hand,  he  was  appointed  President  of  All  Hallows        Bis  paintings  are  to  be  found  at  Rome,  Berlin, 

misnonary  collie.   Dublin;    and  for  years  Kuided,  Dresden,  Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  Malta,  Copenhagen, 

fashioned,  and  maae  ^ective  the  discipline  anateach-  Munich,  and  in  the  Natianal  GaJlery,  London.    J3ia 


ing  of  that  wgl!  known  inatitution.    It  waa  during  this  colouring  is  vigorous,  extraordinary,  and  daring;  in 

time  he  gave  evidence  of  the  noble  oratory,  ho  chaste,  design  be  ia  often  careleaa,  in  drawing  frequently  mac- 

BO  elevated,  so  various,  and  so  convincing,  that  has  curate,  but  his  Qesh  tints  are  exce^ia^y  good,  and 

came  to  be  aasociated  with  his  name.    In  1854  he  was  hia  skill  in  lighting,  although  inaccurate  and  full  of 

u>pointed  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  succession,  to  tricks,  ia  very  attractive.     His  picture  are  distin- 

the  See  of  Kerry,  under  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Anti-  guished  by  startling  contrasts  in  light  and  shadow  and 

eonia;    and  two  years  later  succeeded  to  that  see.  by  extraordinary  effects  of  light  on  half-length  Bgures, 

His  woric  as  bishop  is  testified  to  by  several  churches  giving  the  desired  appearance  of  high  relief,  the  gen- 

and  schools,  a  diocesan  college,  and  many  conventual  era!  effect  of  the  remainder  of  Uie  picture  b^ng  over 

eetftbliahmentB-    Se  fwnd  time  to  conaut^  retreat^  aombre. 


MOBXMOND  570 

BAMgruoci.  JVoj«jd«'  Prof€uori dd diMono.  II  (1688) ;  Laioi.        His  chief  wotks  are:  "HiBtoire  de  la  d^veranoe  de 

Fitfonco.  I C1800).  ,^„ar.*T  TEglise  chrfitienne  par  I'empereup  GoDBtaatin  et  de  la 

Gbobob  Charles  Wiluabison.  gn^^eur  et  aouverainet^  t^poreUe  dciiiii6e  k  VE^ 

Morimdnd,  Abbey  op,  fourth  daughter  of  Ctteaux,  romaine  par  lea  rois  de  France"  (Paris,  ld30);  ''J^est- 

situated  in  Champagne^  Diocese  of  Langres,  France;  dtationes  ecclesiastiofe  in  utrumque  Samaritanorom 

was  founded  in  1115  by  Odelric  d'Aigremont  and  his  Pentateuchum"  (Paris,  1631),  in  which  he  maiiitidned 

wife,  Adeline  de  Choiseul.    Arnold,  its  first  abbot,  a  that  the  Samaritan  text  and  the  Septusjpnt  should  be 

member  of  one  of  the  noblest  families  of  Germany,  preferred  to  the  Hebrew  text,  a  position  he  upheld 

was  for  many  years  considered  as  one  of  the  columns  again  in  the  f crowing  work:  "Ezerdtationes  bmlioe 

of  the  dHstercian  Order.   Thanks  to  his  zeal  and  influ-  de  Hdl>nei  Gnecique  textus  sinoeritate  .  .  ."  (Paris, 

ence,  Morimond  took  on  a  rapid  growth;  numerous  1663,  1669,  1686);  ''Commentarius  historicus  de  dis- 

colonies  therefrom  established  themselves  in  France,  ciplina  in  administratione   sacramenti    Poenitentin 

Germany,  Poland,  Bohemia,  Spain,  and  the  Island  of  XIII primus ssculis"  (Paris,  1651);"Commentariusde 

Cyprus.    Amongst  the  most  celebrated  foundations  sacrisEcdesiffiordinationibus"  (Paris,  1655:  Antwerp, 

were  Ebrach  (1 126)  the  most  flourishing  in  Germany;  1695;  Rome,  1751).  The  two  preceding  woncs  are  very 

Holy  Cross  (1134)^  the  glory  of  the  Oroer  in  Austria;  important  for  the  history  of  the  sacraments.    Morin 

Aiguebelle  (1 137),  m  France,  which  the  Reformed  Cis-  also  published :  '*  Biblia  grseca  stve  Vetus  testamentum 

tercians  have  now  resuscitated  from  its  ruins.    This  secundum  Septuasinta"  (Paris,  1628);  and  in  Lejay's 

extension  was  so  prodigious  that  toward  the  end  of  the  "  Polyglotte'%  vof  V  (1645),  "Pentateuchus  hebreo- 

ei^teenth  century  Morimond  counted  amongst  its  samaritanus"  and '^Pentateuchussamaritanus".    He 

filiations  nearlv  seven  hundred  monasteries  for  both  left  several  manuscript  works, 
sexes.    Briefs  from  various  popes  placed  the  principal       CoN«PAimw,  8^»onph%a  •*«  /.  MoritU  .(Pvio.  i«80);  Nic<- 

MiUtapr  OkI«;b  of  Spain  under  the  spiritual  juri«fic-  "2^-  :SS^''^JLSS!^V:S!iS. ^^ISJS^ct;^ 

tion  of  the  Abbot  of  Monmond:    the  Order  of  Gala-  1682):  a  satin  rather  than  a  life :BATTBRSL.llliiioiF«*(lMiea(««iM>j. 

trava  (1187);  of  Alcantara  (1214);  the  Militia  of  i^436;Gppw.JVo<ie«tt»-Morjn(Bioi8.  1840){Ram^ 
Christ,  m  Portugal  (1319),  and  later  on  those  of  St.  '•^' ^' ^^'* ^"«*">' **~*  *» '^"^T* vTpT^ir  1* 
Maurice  and  StTLazarus,  in  Savoy.  The  vast  wealth  ^'  ^'  ^'  "'QO"^- 
that  graduallv  accumulated,  and  the  continual  wars  MonnoBByOrtheCHxniCHOPjBSUsCHBurropLAT- 
wherefrom  Niorimond  had  particularly  to  suffer,  on  tbb-Day  Saints. — ^This  religious  body  had  its  origin 
account  of  its  geographical  position,  became  the  cause  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  oenturv. 
of  decadence.  Various  attempts  at  reform  were  made,  Joseph  Smith,  the  founder  and  fitst  president  of  the 
but  the  constant  political  disorders  paralyzed  the  sect,  was  the  son  of  a  Vermont  farmer,  and  was  bom 
efforts  of  the  reformers.  In  1791  the  religious  were  in  Sharon  township, 'V^Hndsor  (jounty,  in  that  state,  on 
dispersed,  and  Moripond  ceased  to  exist.  23  December,  1805.  In  the  spring  of  1820,  while  liv- 
Morimond  had  sheltered  a  great  number  of  religious,  ing  with  his  parents  at  Manchester,  Ontario  (now 
renowned  both  for  sanctity  and  science.  The  abbatial  Wayne)  County,  New  York,  he  became  deeply  con- 
chair  was  often  filled  by  abbots  whose  names  are  yet  cemed  upon  the  subject  of  his  salvation,  a  condition 
celebrated,  to  whom  kings  and  emperors  had  confided  partly  induced  by  a  religious  revival  which  prosely- 
tasks  of  the  most  delicate  importance,  and  whom  the  tized  a  few  of  his  relatives  to  the  Presbyterian  Faitn. 
popes  had  honoured  with  their  confidence.  A  large  Joseph  himself  was  inclined  toward  Methodism:  to 
number  of  bishops  and  several  cardinals  were  given  satidy  his  mind  as  to  which  one  of  the  existing  sects 
to  the  CJhurch  by  Morimond;  and  Benedict  XII,  be-  he  should  join,  he  sought  Divine  guidance,  and 
fore  his  election,  was  a  monk  of  affiliation  of  this  abbey,  claimed  to  have  received  in  answer  to  prayer  a  visrta- 
Of  the  magnificent  buildings  that  formed  the  abbey  tion  from  two  glorious  beingSi  who  told  mm  not  to  oon- 
and  its  church,  so  remarkable  for  architectural  beauty  nect  himself  with  any  of  these  Churches,  but  to  bide 
and  the  richness  of  ornamentation,  nothing  now  re-  the  coming  of  the  Church  of  (Christ,  ^diich  was  about 
mains  but  ruins;  nevertheless  the  organ,  one  of  the  to  be  re-established.  According  to  his  own  statement, 
most  wonderful  in  France,  and  the  choir-stalls  now  there  appeared  to  him  on  the  night  of  21  S^itember, 
^HJ:^^X.*'^®.*^^^\^J^^^^  ^^JF®^*  «.  ,.  ,  .  .  1823,  aneavenly  messenger,  who  gave  his  name  as  Mo- 
d.aSSSSS'^VJ^Siir&r<i.%^  «>«»».  ?»d  revealed  the  existence  of  an  «dmt  record 

mand  (Dijon.  1852);    Manbiqub.  AnnaUt  Cutereientea  (Lyons,  COntammg  the  fullneSS  of  the  Gospd  of  Chlist   as 

1642);  Jakaubctkk.  Oriijtnwm  CitUreiennum,  I  (Vienna,  i87p;  taught  by  the  Saviour  after  His  Resurrection  to  the 

JoNOtTELiNua,  NotUvx  AbbattoTum  O.  Cxst.  (Cologne,  1640);  Lb  "M^nViit^  n.  hrflnr>Yi  rtf  ffiA  TTniiM>  nf  TnrAAl  wlit«*Yi  in- 

Nadj,  Eami de vhutoir^ de  Vordv de  cueaux  (Paris.  1606).  f" 9??^^»_*  Drancn  ot  tne  nouse  01  Israel  wmcft  m- 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht.  habited  the  American  contment  ages  prior  to  its  dis- 
covery by  Columbus.  Moroni  in  mortal  life  had  been 
Morin,  Jean,  a  French  priest  of  the  Oratory,  b.  at  a  Nephite  prophet,  the  son  of  another  prophet  named 
Blois,  in  1591 ;  d.  at  Paris,  28  Feb.,  1659.  According  to  Mormon,  who  was  the  compiler  of  the  record  buried  in 
Dupin,  whose  judgment  posterity  has  confinned,  he  was  a  hill  anciently  called  Cumorah.  situated  about  two 
the  most  learned  Catholic  author  of  the  seventeenth  miles  from  the  modem  village  of  Af  anchester.  Joseph 
century.  Bom  a  Calvinist,  he  was  converted  by  Car-  Smith  states  that  he  received  the  record  from  tne 
dinal  Duperron,  and  in  1618  joined  the  Oratory  at  Paris.  Angel  Moroni  in  September,  1827.  It  was,  he  alleges, 
At  first  he  was  superior  in  houses  of  his  congregation  engraved  upon  metallic  plates  having  the  appearance 
at  Orleans  and  Angers;  in  1625  he  was  in  attendance  of  gold  and  each  a  little  thiimer  than  ordiniu^  tin,  the 
on  Queen  Henrietta  of  FVance  in  England  |  in  1628  he  whole  forming  a  book  about  eight  inches  long,  six 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  inches  wide,  and  six  inches  thick,  bound  together  by 
with  the  exception  of  a  sojourn  of  a  few  months  in  rings.  The  characters  engraved  upon  the  plates  were 
Rome,  whither  he  had  been  called  by  Urban  VIII  in  in  a  language  styled  the  Rdormed  Egyptian,  and  with 
1640  to  aid  in  bringing  about  the  union  of  the  Greeks  the  book  were  interpreters — Urim  and  Thummim — 
and  Latins.  An  order  from  Richelieu  recalled  him  to  by  means  of  which  these  characters  were  to  be  trans- 
Paris,  where  he  continued  the  publishing  of  his  learned  lated  into  English.  The  result  was  the  "  Book  of  Mor- 
works,  at  the  same  time  labouring  to  convert  heretics  mon",  published  at  Palmyra,  New  York,  in  March. 
and  Jews,  many  of  whom  he  brought  to  the  true  Faith.  1830;  in  the  preface  eleven  witnesses,  exclusive  of 
The  General  Assemblies  of  the  French  clergy  often  Joseph  Smith,  the  translator,  claim  to  have  seen 
appealed  to  his  great  emdition,  and  entrusted  him  the  platen  from  which  it  was  taken.  On  renouncing 
with  various  tasks.  He  kept  up  a  correspondence  and  Mormonism  subsequently,  Cowdery,  Whitmer.  and 
was  often  in  controversy  with  the  noted  savants  of  the  Harris,  the  three  principal  witnesBes,  declared  this 
day,  such  as  Muis,  Buxtorf ,  etc.  testimony  false. 


^  MORMONS  571  M0BM0N8 

The  "Book  of  Mormon''  i>urport8  to  be  an  abridged  Almighty  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  our  con- 

aooount  of  Qod's  dealings  with  the  two  great  races  of  science,  and  allow  all  men  the  same  privilege;  let  them 

prehistoric  Americans — ^the  Jaredites,  who  were  led  worship  how,  where,  or  what  they  may. 
from  Uie  Tower  of  Babel  at  the  time  of  the  confusion        ''  (12)    We  believe  in  being  subject  to  kings,  presi- 

of  tongues,  and  the  Nephites,  who  came  from  Jerusa-  dents,  rulers  and  magistrates,  in  obeying,  honouring 

lem  just  prior  to  the  Babylonian  captivity  (600  b.  c.)*  ai^d  sustaining  that  law. 

AcoordinK  to  this  book,  America  is  the  "Land  of        "(13)    We  believe  in  beine  honest,  true,  chaste, 

Zion",  where  the  New  Jerusalem  will  be  built  by  a  benevolent,  virtuous,  and  in  doing  good  to  all  men; 

gathering  of  scattered  Israel  before  the  second  coming  indeed,  we  may  say  that  we  follow  the  admonition 

of  the  Messiah.    The  labours  of  such  men  as  Colum-  of  Paul,  'We  believe  all  things,  we  hope  all  things', 

bus,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  and  the  patriots  of  the  Revo-  we  have  endiu«d  many  things,  and  hope  to  be  able 

lution,  are  pointed  out  as  preparatory  to  that  consum-  to  endure  all  things.    If  there  is  anything  virtuous, 

mation.  The  work  of  Joseph  Smith  is  also  prophetically  lovely  or  of  good  report,  or  praiseworthy,  we  seek  after 

indicated,  he  being  represented  as  a  Uneal  descendant  these  things." 

of  the  Joseph  of  old,  commissioned  to  begin  the  gath-        Six  months  after  its  inception,  the  Mormon  Church 

ering  of  Isiuel  foretold  by  Isaias  (xi,  10-16)  and  other  sent  its  first  mission  to  the  American  Indians — called 

ancient  prophets.    In  another  part  of  his  narrative  in  the  "Book  of  Mormon"  the  LamanUeSf  the  de- 

Joeeph  Smitik   affirms  that,   while  translating  the  generate  renmants  of  the  Nephite  nation.    Oliver 

"  Book  of  Mormon",  he  and  his  scribe,  Oliver  Cow-  Cowdery  was  placed  at  the  head  of  this  mission,  which 

dery,  were  visited  by  an  angel,  who  declared  himself  to  also  included  Parley  P.  Pratt,  a  former  preacher  of 

be  John  the  Biu)tist  and  ordamed  them  to  the  Aaronic  the  Reformed  Baptists,  or  Campbellites.    The  mi&- 

priesthood;  ana  that  subsequently  they  were  ordained  sionaries  proceeded  to  northern  Ohio,  then  almost  a 

to  the  priesthood  of  Melcnisedech  by  the  Apostles  wilderness,  where  Elder  Pratt  presented  to  his  former 

Pete^  James,  and  John.    According  to  Smith  and  pastor,  Sidney  Rigdon,  a  copy  of  the  "Book  of  Mor- 

Cowaery,  the  Aaronic  priesthood  gave  them  authority  mon",  published  several  months  before.    Up  to  that 

to  preach  faith  and  repentance,  to  baptize  b}r  immer-  time  Rigdon  had  never  seen  the  book,  which  he  was 

sion  for  the  remission  of  sins,  and  to  administer  the  accused  of  helping  Smith  to  write.    The  Mormont  ^re 

sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  the  priesthood  of  equally  emphatic  in  their  denial  of  the  identity  of 

Melchisedech  empowered  them  to  lay  on  hands  and  the  "Book  of  Mormon"  with  Spaulding's  "Manu- 

bestow  the  Hol^r  Ghoet.^   The  "Book  of  Mormon"  script  Story",  now  in  Oberlin  College;  they  quote 

being  published,  it^peculiar  doctrines,  including  those  in  this  connexion  James  H.  Fairchila,  president  of 

just  set  forth,  were  preached  in  western  New  York  and  that  institution,  who,  in  a  communication  to  the 

northern  Penni^lvania.    Those  who  accepted  them  "New  York  Observer"  (5  February,  1885),  states 

were  termed  "Mormons",  but  they  called  themselves  that  Mr.  L.  L.  Rice  and  he,  ^ter  comparing  the 

"Latter-Day  Saints^  in  contradistmction  to  the  saints  "Book  of  Mormon"  and  the  Spaulding  romance, 

of  former  times.    The  "Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  "could  detect  no  resemblance  between  the  two,  in 

LatterDaySaints"wa8organizedon6  April,  1830,  at  general  or  detail".    Elder  Cowdery  and  his  com- 

Fayette,  Seneca  County,  New  York;  Joseph  Smith  panions,  after  baptizing  about  one  himdred  persons 

was  accepted  as  first  elder,    and   subsequently   as  m   Ohio,  went   to   western  Missouri,  and,  thence 

prophet,  seer,  and  revelator.    The  articles  of  faith  for-  crossing  over  at  Independence  into  what  is  now  the 

mulatea  by  him  are  as  follows:  State  of  Kansas,  laboured  for  a  time  among  the 

"  (1)  We  believe  in  God.  the  Eternal  Father,  and  in  Indians  there.    Meanwhile   the   Mormons   of   the 

His  Son^esus  Christ,  ana  in  the  Holy  Ghost.  East,  to  escape  the  opposition  awakened  by  their 

->^(2)  We  believe  that  men  will  be  pimished  for  their  extraordinary  claims,  and  to  be  nearer  their  proposed 

own  sins,  and  not  for  Adam's  transgression.  ultimate  destination,  moved  their  headquarters  to 

"  (3)  We  believe  that  through  the  atonement  of  Kirtland,  Ohio,  from  which  place,  in  the  summer  of 

Christ  all  men  may  be  saved,  by  obedience  to  the  1831,  departed  its  first  colony  into  Missouri,  Jackson 

laws  and  ordinances  of  the  Gospel.  County  m  that  state  having  been  designated  as  the 

"  (4)  We  believe  that  these  ordinances  are:  First,  site  of  the  New  Jerusalem.     Both  at  Kirtland  and  at 

faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  second,  repentance:  Independence  efforts  were  made  to  establish  "The 

third,  baptism  by  immersion  for  the  remission  ot  United  Order",  a  commimal  system  of  an  industrial 

Bins;fourth,  laying  on  of  hands  for  the  gift  of  the  Holy  character,  designed  to  make  the  church  members 

Ghost.  equal  in  things  spiritual  and  temporal.    The  prophet 

"  (5)  We  believe  that  a  man  must  be  called  of  God  taught  that  sucn  a  system  had  sanctified  the  City 

by  prophecy,  and  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  those  of  Enoch,  whose  people  were  called  "Zion,  because 

who  are  in  authority,  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  admin-  they  were  of  one  heart  and  one  mind,  and  dwelt  in 

ister  the  ordinances  thereof .  righteousness,"  with  "no  poor  among  them".    He 

"  (6)  We  believe  in  the  same  organization  that  ex-  idso  declared  that  the  ancient  Apostles  had  endeav- 

iBted  in  the  primitive  church,  viz.  apostles,  prophets,  oured  to  establish  such  an  order  at  Jerusalem  (Acts, 

pastors^achers,  evangelists,  etc.  iv,  32-37),  and  that,  according  to  the  "Book  ot 

"(7)  We  believe  in  the  gift  of  tongues,  prophecy,  rev-  Mormon",  it  had  prevailed  among  the  Nephites  for 

elation,  vuuons,  healing,  interpretation  of  tongues,  two  centuries  after  Christ.     In  the  latter  part  of 

etc.  1833  trouble  arose  between  the  Mormons  and  the 

"  (8)  We  believe  the  Bible  to  be  the  word  of  God,  as  Missourians,   based   largely,   say   Mormon  writers, 

far  as  it  is  translated  correctly;  we  also  believe  the  upon  a  feeling  of  apprehension  concerning  the  aims 

'  Book  of  Mormon'  to  be  the  word  of  God.  and  motives  of  the  new  settlers.    Coming  from  the 

"  (9)  We  believe  all  that  God  has.  revealed,  all  north  and  the  east,  they  were  suspected  of  being 

that  He  does  now  reveal,  and  we  believe  that  He  abolitionists,  which  was  sufficient  of  itself  to  make 

will  yet  reveal  many  great  and  important  things  them  unpopular  in  Missouri.    It  was  also  charged 

pertamilg  to  the  Kingdom  of  God.  that  they  intended  to  unite  with  the  Indians  and 

"  (10)  We  believe  in  the  literal  gathering  of  drive  the  older  settlers  from  the  land.  The  Mormons 
Israel  and  in  the  restoration  of  the  Ten  Tnbes.  asserted  their  innocence  of  these  and  other  charges, 
That  Zion  will  be  built  upon  this  continent.  That  but  tiieir  denial  did  not  avail.  Armed  mobs  came 
Christ  will  reign  personally  upon  the  earth,  and  that  upon  them,  and  the  whole  colony — ^twelve  hundred 
the  earth  will  be  renewed  and  receive  its  paradisaic  men,  women,  and  children — ^were  driven  from  Jack- 
glory.  '  son  County,  and  forbidden  on  pain  of  death  to 
_J*(11)    We   claim   the  privilege  of  worshipping  return. 


MOEMONS                            572  MORMONS 

In  Ohio  the  Mormons  proeperedy  though  even  council,  its  printins-office  being  deetroyed  and  its 

there  they  had  their  vicissitudes.    At  Kirtland  a  editor,  Foster,  eo^dled.    This  summanr  act  unified 

temple  was  built,  and  a  more  complete  organisation  anti-Monnon  sentiment,  and,  on  Smith's  preparing 

of    the    priesthood    effected.    Mormonism's    first  to  resist  by  force  the  warrant  procured  by  Foster  for 

foreign  mission  was  opened  in  the  summer  of  1837,  his  arrest,  the  militia  were  (»lled  out  and  armed 

when  Heber  C.  Kimball  and  Orson  Hyde,  two  of  the  mobs   b^gan   to    threaten   Nauvoo.    At   Carthage 

"twelve  apostles  of  the  Church",  were  sent  with  was  a  lam  body  of  militia,  mustered  under  Govenior 

other  elders  to  England  for  that  purpose.    While  Thomas  Ford  to  compel  the  surrender  of  Nauvoo. 

this  work  of  proselytizing  was  in  progress,  disaffection  Smith  submitted  and  repaired  to  Carthage,  where 

was  rife  at  Kirtland,  and  the  ill-feeling  grew  and  in-  he  and  his  brother  Hjrrum,  with  others,  were  placed 

tensified  until  the  "prophet"  was  compelled  to  flee  for  in  jail.    Feuful  of  a  bloody  collision,  the  governor 

his  life.    It  is  of  importance  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  disbanded  most  of  his  force,  and  with  the  remainder 

opposition  to  the  Mormons  in  the  localities  where  they  marched  to  Nauvoo,  where  the  Mormons  laid  down 

settled  is,   from  the  contradictory  and  divergent  their  arms.    Dunns  the  governor's  absence,  a  por- 

statements  made  by  the  Latter-Dav  Saints  and  the  tion  of  the  disban^d  miutia  returned  to  Uarthafte 

nei^bours  not  of  their  belief,  difficult  of  explanation,  and  assaulted  the  jail  in  which  the  Mormon  l^ia- 

It  IS  safe  to  assume  that  there  was  provocation  on  ers  were  imprisoned,  shooting  Joseph  and  Hyrum 

both  sides.    The  main  body  of  the  Mormons,  fol-  Smith,  and  all  but  fatallv  wounding  John  Taylor; 

lowing  their  leader  to  Missouri,  settled  in  and  around  Willaixi  Richards,  their  fdlow-prisoner,  escaped  un- 

Far  West,  Caldwell  County,  which  now  became  the  hurt. 

chief  gathering-place.    The  sect  had  been  organized  In  the  exodus  that  ensued,  Brigham  Youn^  led  the 

»ple  westward.    Passing  over  the  frosen  MissisnpDi 


bv  six  men,  and  a  year  later  it  was  said  to  number    people  westward.    Passing    ^^_ 

about  two  thousand  souls.    In  Missouri  it  increased  (February,  1846),  the  main  body  made  their  wa^ 

to  twelve  thousand.    A  brief  season  of  peace  was  across  the  prairies  of  Iowa,  readiing  the  Missouri 

followed  by  a  series  of  calamities,  occasioned  by  River  about  the  middle  of  June.    A  Mormon  colony. 

religious  and  political  differences.    Tlie  trouble  began  sailing  from  New  York,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and 

in  August,  1838,  and  during  the  strife  considerable  landed  at  Yerba  Buena  (San  Francisco)  in  July,  1846. 

blood  was  shed  and  much  property  destroyed,  the  Prior  to  that  time  only  a  few  thousand  Americans 

final  act  in  the  drama  being  the  mid-winter  expul-  had  settled  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  mostly  in  Oregon, 

sion  of  the  entire   Mormon  community  from  the  which  wais  then  claimed  both  by  Great  Britain  ana 

state.  the  United  States.    So  far  as  mown,  no  American 

In  Illinois,  where  they  were  kindly  received,  they  had  then  made  a  permanent  home  in  what  was 

built  aroimd  the  small  village  of  Commerce,  in  Han-  called  ''The  Great  Basin''.    The  desert  region,  now 

cock  County,  the  city  of  Nauvoo,  gathering  in  that  known  as  Salt  Lake  Valley,  was  then  a  purt  of  the 

vicinity  to  the  number  of  twenty  thousand.    An-  Mexican  province  of  California,  but  was  uninhabited 

other  temple  was  erected,  several  towns  founded,  and  save  by  Indians  and  a  few  wandering  trappers  and 

the    surrounding    ooimtry    occupied.    Up    to    this  hunters.    The  Mormon  pioneers,  marching  trom  the 

time  there  had  been  no  Mormon  recnuting  from  Missouri  River  in  April,  1847,  arrived  in  Salt  Lake 

abroad,  all  the  converts  to  the  new  sect  coming  Valley  on  24  July.    Thjs  company,  numbering  143 

from  various  states  in  the  Union  and  from  Canada,  men,  3  women,  and  2  children,  was  led  by  Brigham 

In   184^-1   Brigham  Young  and  other  emissaries  Young.    Most  of  the  exiles  from  Nauvoo  remained 

visited  Great  Britain,  preaching  in  all  the  principal  in  temporary  shelters  on  the  frontier,  where  they 

cities  and  towns.    Here  they  baptized  a  numSer  entered  into  winter  <iuarter8  in  what  is  now  Nebraska, 

of  people,  published  a  new  edition  of  the  ''Book  of  Well  armed  and  disciplined,  they  accomplished  the 

Mormon'',  founded  a  periodical  called  the  ''MiUen-  journey  of  over  a  thousand  miles  to  Salt  Lake  Valley 

nial  Star'*,  and  established  a  permanent  emigration  without  one  fatality.    A  few  days  after  their  arriviu 

agency.    The  first  Mormon  emigrants  from  a  fordgn  they  laid  out  Salt  Lake  City.    The  people  left  upon 

land — a  small  company  of  British  converts — reached  the  Missouri  migrated  in  the  autumn  of  1848,  and  after 

Nauvoo,  by  wav  of  New  York,  in  the  summer  of  1840.  them  came  yearly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  generally 

Subsequently  the  emigration  came  via  New  Orleans,  in  Church  wagons  sent  to  the  frontier  to  meet  them. 

The  Legislature  of  Illinois 'granted  a  Ubera]  charter  to  Mormon  emigrants  from  the  states,  from  Europe,  ana 

Nauvoo,  and,  as  a  protection  against  mob  violence  and  from  other  lands  to  which  missionaries  continued  to  be 

further  drivings  and  spoliations,  the  Mormons  were  sent.    Most  of  the  converts  were  drawn  from  the 

permitted  to  organize  the  "Nauvoo  Lesion'',   an  middle  and  working  classes,  but  some  professional  peo- 

all  but  independent  military  body,  thouf^  part  of  pie  were  amon^  them. 

the  state  militia,  commanded  by^  Joseph  Smith  as  While  awaiting  the  time  for  the  establishment  of  a 

lieutenant-general.     Moreover,  a  municipal  court  was  civic  government,  the  Mormons  were  under  ecclesiasti- 

instituted,  having  jurisdiction  in  civil  cases,  as  a  bar  cal  nue.    Secular  officers  were  appointed,  however,  to 

to  legal  proceedings  of  a  persecuting  or  vexatious  preserve  the  peace,  administer  justice,  and  cany  on 

character.    Similar  causes  to  those  which  had  re-  public  improvements.    These  officers  were  often  se* 

suited  in  the  exodus  of  the  Mormons  from  Missouri  lected  at  church  meetings,  and  civil  and  religious  fono- 

broug^t  about  their  expulsion  from  Illinois,  prior  tions  were  frequently  united  in  the  same  person.    But 

to  which  a  tragic  event  robbed  them  of  their  prophet,  this  state  of  aSain  did  not  continue  long.  As  soon  as  a 

Joseph  Smith,  and  their  patriarch,  Hjrrum  Snuth,  who  civic  government  was  oivani^ed,  many  of  the  forms  of 

were  killed  by  a  mob  in  Carthage  jail  on  27  June,  pohtical  procedure  alreadv  in  use  in  American  common- 

1844.     The  immediate  cause  of  the  murder  of  the  wealths  were  introduced,  and  remained  in  force  tall 

two  brothers  was  the  destruction  of  the  press  of  the  statehood  was  secured  for  Utah.    In  March,  1849, 

Nauvoo  ''Expositor",  a  paper  established  by  seceders  thirteen  months  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  by 

from  Mormonism  to  give  voice  to  the  wide  indigna-  which  Mexico  ceded  this  region  to  the  United  Stiatee^ 

tion  caused  by  the  promulgation  of  Smith's  revelation  the  settlers  in  Salt  Lake  Valley  founded  the  provi* 

of  12  July,  1843,  establishing  polygamy,  which  had  sional  Government  of  the  State  of  Deseret,  pending 

been  practised  personally  by  the  prophet  for  several  action  by  the  American  Congress  upon  th^  petition 

years.    Another  avowed  purpose  of  tnis  paper  was  to  for  admission  into  the  Union.     Deseret  is  a  word 

secure  the  repeal  of  the  Nauvoo  Charter,  which  the  taken  from  the  "Book  of  Mormon",  and  signifies 

Mormons  looked  upon  as  the  bulwark  of  their  liber-  honey-bee.    Brigham  Young  was  elected  governor^ 

ties.    The  "Expositor"  issued  but  once,  when  it  was  and  a  l^islature,  with  a  full  set  of  executive  offieeza, 

condemned  as  a  public  nuisance  by  order  of  the  dty  was  also  chosen.    Congress  denied  the  petition  for 


lt6lUi6N8  573  MOBMOttH  ^ 

statehood,  and  orgaiiiEed  the  Territory  of  Utah,  nam-  Church,  and  will  be  liable  to  be  dealt  with  according 

ing  it  after  a  lociu  tribe  of  Indians.    Brigham  Young  to  the  rules  and  regulations  thereof,  and  excommuni- 

was  ajMX>inted  governor  bv  President  Millard  Fill-  cated  therefrom, 
more  ^ptember;  1850)  and  four  years  later  was  reap-  Joseph  F.  Smith, 

eS^TsKri^KSnf^^oh'Se'K  Preddent  of  Uie  Church  of  Jeaua  Christ  of 

mons  defied  the  authority  of  the  Federal  Govern-  Latteisday  Saints." 

ment,  is  one  of  the  least  creditable  chapters  of  their 

history.  In  an  "  Address  to  the  Worid",  adopted  at  the  Gen- 
One  reason  g^ven  for  the  persistent  hostility  to  the  eral  Conf^ence  of  ApriL  1907,  President  Smith  and 
Mormons  was  the  dislike  caused  by  the  acrimoni-  his  counsellors,  John  11.  Winder  and  Anthon  H.  Lund. 
ous  controversy  over  polygamv  or  plural  marriage,  in  behalf  of  the  Church,  reaffirmed  its  attitude  of 
Joseph  Smith,  the  f oimder  of  Mormonism,  claimed  to  obedience  to  the  laws  of  Congress.  The  practice  of 
have  receivea  a  revelation  and  a  command  ordering  plural  marriage  is  indeed  fast  becoming  a  thing  of  the 
him  to  re-introduce  plural  marriage  and  restore  the  past. 

polygamous  condition  tolerated  among  thepre-Judsio  Mormonism  announces  as  one  of  its  principal  aims 
tribes.  Polsrgamy  now  became  a  principle  of  the  the  preparation  of  a  people  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord; 
cz«ed  of  the  Latter-Day  Saints,  and,  though  not  en-  a  people  who  will  build  the  New  Jerusalem,  and  there 
forced  by  the  laws  of  the  Mormon  hierarchy,  was  await  His  coming.  The  United  Order,  the  means  of 
preached  by  the  elders  and  practised  bv  the  chiefs  of  preparation,  is  at  present  in  abeyance,  but  the  prelim- 
the  cult  ana  by  many  of  the  people.  The  violation  by  inary  work  of  gathering  Israel  goes  on,  not  to  Zion 
the  Mormons  of  the  monogamous  law  of  Christianity  proper  (Jackson  County,  Missouri),  but  to  the  Stakes 
and  of  the  United  States  was  brought  to  the  attention  of  2ion,  now  numbering  sixtv-one,  most  of  them  in 
of  Congress,  which  prohibited  under  penalty  of  fine  Utah;  the  others  are  in  Idaho,  Arizona,  Wyoming, 
and  imprisonment  the  perpetuation  of  the  anti-  Colorado,  Oregon^  Canada,  and  Mexico.  A  stake  is  a 
Christian  practice,  refusing,  however,  to  make  the  pro-  division  of  the  Mormon  Church,  organized  in  such  a 
hibition  retroactive.  The  Mormons  appealed  to  the  way  as  to  constitute  almost  a  "church ''  in  itself;  in 
Supreme  Court,  which  sustained  the  action  of  Con-  each  stake  are  subdivisions  called  wards,  also  fully  or- 
gress,  and  established  the  constitutionality  of  the  anti-  ganized.  The  area  of  a  stake  is  usually  that  of  a 
polygamy  statu  tes.  The  Latter-Dav  Saints,  strangely  county,  though  the  extent  of  territory  differs  according 
enough,  submitted  to  the  decrees  of  Congress,  unwit-  to  population  or  other  conditions.  £ach  stake  is  pre- 
tingly  admitting  by  their  submission  that  the  revela^  sided  over  by  three  high-priests,  who,  with  twelve  high 
tion  of  their  founder  and  prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  could  councilors,  constitute  a  tribunal  for  the  adjudication 
not  have  come  from  God.  If  the  command  to  restore  of  differences  among  church  members  within  their 
polygamy  to  the  modem  world  was  from  on  High,  jurisdiction.  Each  ward  has  a  bishopric  of  three,  a 
then,  by  submitting  to  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  lower  tribimal,  from  whose  decisions  appeals  may  be 
Court,  the  Mormon  hierarchv  reversed  the  apostolic  taken  to  the  high  council.  The  extreme  penalty  in- 
proclamation  and  acknowledged  it  was  better  "to  flicted  bv  the  church  courts  is  excommunication.  In 
obey  man  than  to  obey  God".  each  stake  are  quorums  of  high-priests,  seventies,  and 
&  long  as  Utah  remained  a  territory  there  was  elders,  officers  and  callings  in  the  Melchisedech  priest- 
much  bitterness  between  her  Mormon  and  non-Mor-  hood:  and  in  each  ward,  quorums  of  priests,  teachers, 
mon  citizens,  the  latter  termed  "Gentiles".  The  and  deacons,  who  officiate  in  the  Aaronic  priesthood. 
Mormons  suomitted,  however,  and  their  president.  This  lesser  authority  ministers  in  temporal  thin^, 
Wilford  Woodruff,  issued  a  "  Manifesto  ",  which,  being  while  the  higher  priesthood  ministers  in  things  spint- 
accepted  by  the  letter-Day  Saints  in  General  Confer-  uaL  which  include  the  temporal. 
ence,  withdrew  the  sanction  of  the  Church  from  the  Presiding  over  the  entire  Church  is  a  supreme  coun- 
f iirther  solemnization  of  any  marriages  forbidden  by  cil  of  three  high-priests,  called  the  First  Presidency, 
the  law  of  the  land.  One  of  the  results  of  this  action  otherwise  known  as  the  president  and  his  counsellors. 
was  the  admission  of  UtiJi  into  the  Union  of  States  on  Next  to  these  are  the  twelve  apostles,  e<iual  in  author- 
6  January,  1896.  ity  to  the  First  Presidency,  though  subject  to  and  act- 
Instances  of  the  violation  of  the  anti-polygamy  laws  ing  under  their  direction.  Whenever  the  First  Presi- 
subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  "Manifesto"  having  dency  is  dissolved,  which  occurs  at  the  death  of  the 
been  brought  to  Ught,  the  present  head  of  the  Church,  president,  the  apostles  take  the  government  and  reor- 
President  Joseph  F.  Smith,  in  April.  1904,  made  the  ganize  the  supreme  coimcil — always,  however,  with 
following  statement  to  the  General  Conference  assem-  the  consent  of  the  Church,  whose  members  are  called 
bled  atSalt  Lake  City,  and  it  was  endorsed  by  resolu-  to  vote  for  or  against  this  or  any  other  proposition  sub- 
lion  and  adopted  by  unanimous  vote:  mitted  to  them.    The  manner  of  voting  is  with  the 

uplifted  right  hand,  women  voting  as  well  as  men. 

"  OFFICIAL  STATEMENT.  Besides  the  general  conferences  held  semi-annually 

and  the  usual  Sabbath  meetings,  there  are  stake  and 

"  Inasmuch  as  there  are  numerous  reports  in  circula-  ward  conferences,  in  which  the  consent  of  the  people  is 

tion,  that  plural  marriages  have  been  entered  into,  con-  obtained  before  any  important  action  is  taken.    The 

trary  to  the  official  declaration  of  President  Woodruff,  special  function  of  the  apostles  is  to  preach  the  Gospel, 

of  September  24th,  1890,  commonly  called  the '  Mani-  or  have  it  preached,  in  all  nations,  and  to  set  in  oraer, 

f esto  ,  which  was  issued  by  President  Woodruff  and  whenever  necessary,  the  affairs  oi  the  entire  Mormon 

adopted  by  the  Church  at  its  General  Conference  Church.    Among  the  general  authorities  there  is  also 

October  6tn,  1890,  which  forbade  any  marriages  vio-  a  presiding  patriarch,  who,  with  his  subordinates 

lative  of  the  law  of  the  land;  I,  Joseph  F.  Smith,  Presi-  in  the  various  stakes,  nves  blessing  to  the  people 

dent  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day  and  comforts  them  with  sacred  ministrations.     The 

Saints,  hereby  affirm  and  declare  that  no  such  mar-  first  council  of  the  Seventies^  seven  in  number,  assist 

riages  have  t)een  solemnized  with  the  sanction,  con-  the  twelve  apostles,  and  preside  over  all  the  quorums 

sent,  or  Imowledge  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  of  seventies.     Upon  a  presiding  bishopric  of  three 

Latter-day  Saints;  and  devolves  the  duty  of  receiving  and  disbursing  the 

"I  hereby  announce  that  all  such  marriages  are  pro-  revenues  of  the  Church,  and  otherwise  manawng 

hibited,  and  if  any  officer  or  member  of  the  Church  its  business,  under  the  general  direction  of  the  first 

shall  assume  to  solemnize  or  enter  into  any  such  mar-  presidency. 
riage,  he  will  be  deemed  in  transgression  against  the        The  Mormon  Church  is  supported  by  the  tithes  and 

T//^  CAT^  ^^  f  ^i/J!'/  ^ 

^he  New  York  Public  Library  flffeVfr^^  0  P^J^/A  ^^^^^ 


MOBOCCO 


674 


jit6K6c66 


offerings  of  its  members,  most  of  whom  reside  in  the 
Stakes  of  Zion,  though  a  good  number  remain  in  the 
several  missions,  scattered  in  various  countries  of  the 
globe.  About  two  thousand  missionaries  are  kept  in 
me  field;  while  they  consider  themselves  under  the 
Divine  injunction  to  "preach  the  Gospel  to  every 
creature",  they  have  special  instructions  to  baptize  no 
married  woman  without  the  consent  of  her  husband, 
and  no  child  under  age  without  the  consent  of  its  par- 
ents. The  tithes  are  used  for  the  building  of  temples 
and  other  places  of  worship,  the  work  of  the  ministry, 
the  furtherance  of  education,  the  support  of  the  sick 
and  indigent,  and  for  charitable  and  pnilanthropic  pur- 
poses in  general.  Nearly  every  msue  member  ot  the 
Church  holds  some  office  in  the  priesthood,  but  only 
those  who  devote  their  entire  time  to  its  service  re- 
ceive support.  In  every  stake  are  institutions  known 
as  auxiliaries,  such  as  relief  societies,  sabbath  schools, 
young  men's  and  ^^ung  ladi^'  mutual  improve- 
ment associations,  primary  associations,  and  religious 
classes.  The  Relief  Society  is  a  woman's  organisa- 
tion, having  a  special  mission  for  the  relief  of  the  desti- 
tute and  the  care  of  the  sick.  An  "Old  Folks  Com- 
mittee" is  appointed  to  care  for  the  aged.  The 
Church  school  system  comprises  the  Brigham  Young 
University  at  Provo,  the  Brigham  Young  College  at 
Logan,  and  the  Latter-Day  Saints  University  at  Salt 
Lske  City.  There  are  also  nearly  a  score  of  stake 
academies.  There  are  four  Mormon  temples  in  Utah, 
the  principal  one  being  at  Salt  Lake  City.  It  was  be- 
(^un  in  April,  1853,  and  completed  in  April,  1893,  cost- 
ing, it  IS  said,  about  $4,000,000.  In  these  temples  ordi- 
nances are  administered  Doth  for  the  living  and  the 
dead.  It  is  held  that  vicarious  work  of  this  character, 
such  as  baptisms,  endowments  etc..  will  be  effectual  in 
saving  soius,  once  mortal,  who  believe  and  repent  in 
the  spirit  state.  The  Mormons  claim  a  total  member- 
ship of  584,000.  According  to  the  United  States  Cen- 
sus Report  of  21  May,  1910^  there  are  256,647  Mor- 
mons within  the  Federal  Umon. 

R0BEBT8,  Joteph  Smith:  Hist,  of  the  Church,  perMtmal  narratiw^ 
with  introduetion  and  nolest  5  vols,  already  iBsued  (Salt  Lake  City, 
1902-9);  Pratt,  Autolnog.  (S.  L.  City,  1874);  Ford,  HiH.  of  lUi- 
noia  (Chicago,  1854):  Kjlne,  Th«  Mormons,  a  Lecture  before  the 
Hut.  Soc.  of  Philadelphia  (Philadelphia,  1850) ;  Gunnison,  The 
Mormone,  their  Hist,  and  Retig.  (Philadelphia,  1852) ;  Stansburt. 
U,  8.  A.  Kxpediiion  (Philadelphia,  1852);  Qrselt,  Overland 
Journey  (New  York,  1800) ;  Burton.  City  of  the  SaxnU  (New 
York,  1862) ;  Tullidge,  Life  of  Joaeph  the  Prophet  (S.  L.  Citv, 
1878) ;  Idem,  Life  of  B.  Young,  or,  Utah  and  her  Founders  (S.  L. 
City,  1877);  Idem,  The  Women  of  Mormondom  (S.  L.  City,  1877); 
Idem,  Hiat.  of  3.  L.  City  (S.  L.  City,  1886) ;  Robinson.  Sinnera 
and  Sainta  (Boston,  1883) ;  Bancrovt,  Hiat.  of  Utah  (San  Fran- 
cisco, 1890) ;  Cannon.  Life  of  J.  Smith  the  Prophet  (8.  L.  City. 
1888);  Whitney,  Hiat.  of  Utah  (4  vols..  8.  L.  City,  1892-1904); 
Idem,  Life  ofH.  C.  Kimball  (S.  L.  City,  1888) ;  Idem,  Making  of  a 
State  (S.  L.  City.  1908) ;  Roberts,  Life  of  John  Taylor  (S.  L.  City, 
1892);  Idem.  Hiat.  of  the  M.  Church  in  Americana,  iV-VI  (New 
York,  1909-10);  Idem,  Outlinea  of  Ecdeaiaatical  Hiat.  (S.  L.  City, 
1893);  Stenhousb,  The  Rocky  Mountain  Sainta  (New  York, 
1873) ;  CowLET,  Life  and  Labora  of  Wilford  Woodruff  (8.  L.  City, 
1909):  JENBON,  Hiatorieal  Record  (S.  L.  City,  i889) ; Idem,  LaUer- 
Day  Sainta,  Biogr.  Bncyd.  (8.  L.  City.  1901). 

W.  R.  Harris. 

Morocco,  Prefecture  Apostolic  op. — ^The  coun- 
try known  as  Morocco  (from  Marrakesh,  the  name  of 
one  of  its  chief  cities)  forms  the  northwest  comer  of 
the  Continent  of  Africa,  being  separated  from  French 
Algeria  bv  an  imaginary  line,  about  217  miles  in  length, 
running  from  Nemours  to  Tenish  es  Sassi.  It  is  the 
Gatulia  or  Mauretania  Tingitana  (from  rin^03= Tan- 

g'er)  of  the  ancient  Romans.  The  natives  call  it 
harb  {We8t)f  or  Magreb  el  Akaa  (Extreme  West). 
The  total  area  is  a  little  more  than  308,000  square 
miles;  the  population,  about  10,000,000.  Excepting 
Abvssinia,  it  is  now  the  only  independent  native  state 
in  Africa,  and  is  one  of  the  most  aifficult  countries  for 
Europeans  to  penetrate.  Though  Morocco  is  often 
spoken  of  as  an  empire,  the  authority  of  the  sovereign 
is  a  mere  fiction  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  ter- 
ritory, which  is,  on  this  account,  dividea,  more  or  less 


precisely,  into  the  Bled  d  Maksen,  or  ''country  subject 
to  taxes  .  and  the  Bled  es  SibOj  or  ''unsubdued  coun- 
try **,  Pnysically,  the  surface  is  broken  up  into  three 
parallel  mountam-chains:  the  most  important  d[ 
these,  the  Great  Atlas,  forms  a  plateau,  forty  to  fifty 
miles  in  width,  from  which  rise  peaks,  often  snow- 
clad,  10,000  to  13,000  feet  high.  Facing  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  the  mountains  of  the  Riff,  below  whidi 
stretches  the  well-watered  and  fertile  range  of  the 
Tell.  On  the  other  side,  to  the  extreme  souQi  lies  the 
arid  Sahara,  broken  only  by  a  few  oases.  Between 
the  Mediterranean  littoral  and  the  Sahara,  the  Atlas 
Plateau,  broken  by  ravines  and  valleys,  rivers  and 
smaller  streams,  contains  many  tracts  of  marvel- 
louslv  fertile  country.  The  sea^coast  of  Morocco  is 
for  the  most  part  dangerous,  and  offers  few  advan- 
tages for  commerce.  The  best  harbours  are  those  of 
Tangier,  Mogador,  and  Agadir.  El  Aralds,  or  Lar- 
ache.  and  Tanker  are  the  maritime  outlets  for  Fea, 
which  is  one  of  uie  three  capitals  of  Morocco,  the  other 
two  being  Marrakesh  and  Meknes.  Owing  to  Uie 
high  mountains,  the  sea  breezes  and  the  openness  of 
the  country,  the  climate  is  healthy,  temperate,  and 
equable.  The  temperature  is  much  higher  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north,  the  heat,  in  certain  districts, 
becoming  at  times  insufferable.  The  soil  is  adapted 
to  every  kind  of  crop,  and  sometimes  yields  three  nar- 
vests  in  a  year.  Cattle-breeding  is  also  carried  on. 
There  is  very  little  industry,  and  commerce  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  Europeans  and  Jews. 

From  the  earliest  period  known  to  history,  Morocco 
has  been  inhabited  oy  the  Berbers  (whence  the  name 
Barbary).  These  people  were  known  to  the  Romans 
as  Numida^  but  to  the  Phcenicians  as  Mahurin 
(Westerners);  from  the  Phcenician  name  the  Greeks, 
and,  after  them,  Latin  writers,  made  Mauri,  whence 
the  English  Moors.  These  Moors,  Numioians,  or 
Berbers,  were  subjugated  by  the  Romans,  then  by  the 
Vandals,  the  Byzantines,  the  Visigoths,  and,  lastly, 
the  Arabs,  whose  political  and  religious  conquest  be- 
pan  in  681.  Arabs  and  Berbers  together  crossed  over 
mto  Spain,  and  thence  into  France,  where  their  proff- 
ress  was  stopped  at  Poitiers  (732)  by  Charles  Martd. 
Not  until  1492,  when  Granada  fell,  were  the  Christians 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  definitively  rid  of  the  Moors 
on  European  soil,  and  able  to  carry  the  war  against 
them  into  Africa.  Portugal  no  lon^  retains  any  of 
her  possessions  in  Morocco;  but  Spam  still  holds  eight 
ports,  known  as  the  presidios,  one  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  and  seven  on  the  Mediterranean.  Besides  the 
Berbers,  the  population  of  Morocco  includes  Jews, 
who  in  all  the  cities  are  confined  to  separate  quarters 
(mellc^)j  Sudanese  negroes,  mostly  slaves,  and  Euro- 
peans engaged  in  commerce  on  the  coast,  chiefly  at 
Tangier  and  Mogador.  For  two  hundred  years  Mo- 
rocco has  been  ruled  by  a  dynasty  of  Arab  sherifs, 
who  claim  descent  from  Ali,  the  uncle  and  son-in- 
law  of  Mohammed.  The  sherif,  or  sultan,  is  theo- 
retically supreme  in  both  temporal  and  spiritual 
affairs,  his  wishes  being  carried  out  by  viziers,  or 
secretaries,  in  the  various  bf'anches  of  the  admini»- 
tration  (maghzen) .  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  normal 
condition  of  the  country  is  revolution  and  anarchy. 
In  1906  the  International  Conference  of  Algeciraa 
provided  for  a  combined  French  and  Spanish  ^stem 
of  police,  but  the  Morocco  question  is  still  (1910) 
unset  tlea. 

With  the  exception  of  the  European  residents,  the 
segregated  Jews  mentioned  above,  and  a  bodv  of 
aborigines  (Berbers),  living  in  the  Atlas,  who  nave 

Srov^  refractory  to  Islam,  the  whole  population  of 
lorocco  is  Mohammedan,  and  is  inaccessible  to 
Christian  propaganda.  The  first  Catholic  mission  to 
this  country  was  organized  in  1234,  when  Father  An- 
gelo,  a  Franciscan  friar  and  papal  legate^  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Morocco.  The  succession  lasted 
until  1566,  when  the  see  was  suppressed,  and  its  jur^ 


MOBONX 


575 


MOBONX 


diction  given  to  the  Archbishop  of  Seville.  In  1631 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Morocco  was  founded;  its 
first  incumbent,  blessed  Giovanni  da  Prado.  O.F.M., 
was  martyred  at  Marrakesh  in  that  year,  ana  his  feast 
is  kept  by  the  Franciscan  Order  on  29  May.  Other 
missionaries  continued  to  exercise  their  ministry 
through  trials  and  persecutions  of  every  kind  until 
1859,  when  the  prefecture  was  reorganized  on  its  pres- 
ent basis.  It  is  administered  bv  the  Franciscans  of 
the  College  of  Compostela.  There  are  in  Morocco 
about  10,000  Cathobcs,  nearly  all  Europeans;  24  mis- 
sionaries, 8  stations  (in  the  leading  ports),  16  schools, 
with  1200  children,  and  a  hospital  at  Tangier,  where 
the  prefect  Apostolic  resides. 

Siat€aman*B  Year  Book  (London,  1010);    Miaaumot  CathoUem 
(Rome,  1907),  372. 

A.  Lb  Rot. 

Morone,  Giovanni,  Cardinal,  Bishop  of  Modena, 
b.  at  Milan  26  Jan.,  1509;  d.  at  Rome,  1  Dec.,  1580.  He 
belonged  to  a  distinguished  Milanese  family,  raised  to 
the  nobility  in  the  twelfth  century.  His  father  held 
the  dignitv  of  chancellor  of  Milan,  and  it  was  probably 
to  bind  the  father  to  his  interest  that  Clement  VII 
in  1529  named  his  son  Giovanni,  then  only  twenty 
years  of  age,  to  the  See  of  Modena.  By  this  appoint- 
ment great  offence  was  given  to  Cardinal  Ipx)olito 
d'Este,  who  on  the  pretext  that  the  See  of  Modena 
had  previously  been  promised  to  himself,  invoked  the 
aid  of  Duke  Alfonso  of  Ferrara  and  took  forcible 
possession  of  the  see,  appropriating  all  its  revenues. 
The  dispute  was  not  settled  until  1532,  when  Morone 
at  last  bought  off  the  opposition  of  d'Este  by  agreeing 
to  pay  him  an  annual  pension  of  400  ducats.  Even 
as  early  as  1529,  the  young  bishop-elect,  whose 
talents  had  already  attracted  attention  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Padua,  was  chosen  by  Clement  VII  for  a  diplo- 
matic mission  to  France.  Under  Paul  III  Morone's 
eifts  as  a  negotiator  placed  him  at  once  in  the  very 
nt>nt  rank  of  ecclesiastical  politicians.  He  was  sent 
as  papal  envoy  to  Duke  Sforza  of  Milan  in  1535, 
and  in  the  following  year  accepted  ^  not  altogether 
without  reluctance,  the  important  mission  of  nuncio 
at  the  court  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  the  Romans. 
Win  instructions  were  to  press  on  the  affair  of 
the  council  in  Hungary  ana  Bohemia.  He  was  to 
obtain  from  Ferdinand  a  safe-conduct  for  those  who 
intended  to  take  part  in  it,  and  to  insist  upon 
Mantua  or  some  other  Italian  city  as  the  place  of 
meeting. 

With  the  exception  of  an  interval  from  September, 
1538  to  July,  1539,  and  another  in  1541,  Morone 
remained  at  his  post  in  Germany  for  nearly  six  years^ 
and  he  was  present  at  the  diets  of  Hagenau  in  1540 
and  Ratisbon  in  1541,  while  at  the  important  meet- 
ing of  Spiers  in  1542  he  appeared  as  the  pope's  special 
representative,  and  plaved  a  leading  part,  though 
even  his  great  tact  and  resolution  were  able  to  do 
little  in  the  complicated  tangle  of  German  religious 
affairs.  During  these  early  years  in  Germany,  and 
indeed  throughout  his  life,  Morone  remained  a  con- 
spicuous member  of  a  little  group  of  moderate  and 
intellectual  men  who  saw  that  in  the  deadly  struggle 
with  Lutheranism,  the  faults  were  not  all  on  one 
side.  When  Cardinal  Sadoleto  in  1537  for  addressing 
a  courteously  worded  appeal  to  Melanchthon  was 
denoimced  by  many  of  his  own  side  as  little  better 
than  a  traitor  and  a  heretic,  Morone  wrote  the  cardi- 
nal a  letter  of  sympathy.  *  *  There  are  in  theseparts  ", 
he  said,  "many  reputed  defenders  of  the  Catholic 
faith  who  think  that  our  religion  consists  in  nothing 
but  hatred  of  the  Lutherans  ....  and  they  are 
so  wedded  to  this  point  of  view  that,  without  ever 
looking  into  the  matter  itself,  thev  take  in  bad  part 
not  om^  all  negotiations  with  the  Luth^'ans,  but 
every  sm^e  word  spoken  about  them  which  is  not 
abusive".    Morone    further    advises    Sadoleto    to 


treat  hb  critics  with  silent  contempt,  and  states  hk 
own  conviction  that  to  show  charity  to  heretics  was 
a  better  way  than  to  overwhelm  them  with  abusive 
language,  adding:  "if  only  this  course  had  been 
adopted  from  the  first,  there  would  probably  be  less 
difficulty  than  there  is  in  bringine  about  the  union  of 
the  Church"  (see  the  letter  in  "Archiv  f.  Reforma- 
tionsgeschichte",  1904,  I,  80-81). 

On  22  May,  1542,  Paul  III  published  his  Bull, 
whidi  had  been  drafted  by  Sadoleto,  summoning  the 
council  to  meet  at  Trent,  on  1  Nov.,  of  the  same  year. 
On  2  June,  Morone  was  created  a  cardinal,  and  on 
16  Oct.,  he  and  Cardinals  Parisio  and  Pole  were  named 
legates  to  preside  over  the  assembly  as  the  pope's 
representatives.  But  this  first  attempt  to  launch  the 
long-desired  council  was  a  failure.  Morone  went 
to  Trent  and  waited  until  the  handful  of  representa- 
tives, who  never  met  in  public  session,  gradually 
dispersed,  the  council  being  formally  prorogued 
6  July,  1543.  Before  the  assembly  was  asain  con- 
vened Morone  was  named  legate  (practicaUy  papal 
governor)  at  Bologna,  and  he  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  sessions  of  the  council  which  took  place  at  Trent 
between  December,  1545  and  June,  1546,  though 
after  the  council  had  been  ostensibly  transferred  to 
Bologna,  he  was  named  by  Julius  III  as  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  arrange  for  its  return  to  Trent.  In  1555 
he  was  sent  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  but  the  death 
of  Julius  necessitated  his  recall  and  under  the  Pontifi- 
cate of  Paul  IV  Morone,  who  owing  to  his  wide  and 
Uberal  views  had  the  misfortune  to  awaJcen  the  pope's 
suspicions  when  the  latter  presided  over  the  Roman 
Inquisition,  was  arrested  by  the  pontiff's  order, 
comined  in  the  Castle  of  Saint  Anjgelo  (31  May, 
1557),  and  made  the  object  of  a  formal  prosecution 
for  heresy,  in  which  his  views  on  justification,  the 
invocation  of  saints,  the  veneration  of  rdics  and 
other  matters  were  incriminated  and  submitted  to 
rigid  inquiiy. 

The  cardinal  strenuously  repudiated  thesb  charges, 
but  he  was  kept  in  confinement  until  the  death  of 
Paul  IV.  In  1560  his  successor  Pius  IV  authorised 
a  revision  of  the  process  against  Morone,  and  as  a  re- 
sult the  imprisonment  of  the  cardinal  and  the  whole 
procedure  against  him  were  declared  to  be  entirely 
without  justification;  the  judgment  also  recorded  in 
the  most  formal  terms  that  not  the  least  suspicion 
rested  upon  his  orthodoxy.  A  few  years  later  when 
the  carcunaJ  legates  Gonzaga  and  Seripandi  died  at 
Trent,  Morone  and  Cardinal  Navagero  were  appointed 
to  succeed  them,  and  the  former  eventually  presided 
over  the  concluaing  sessions  of  the  council  with  con- 
spicuous tact  and  dignity.  He  was  also  placed  upon 
the  commission  appointed  to  see  that  the  concil- 
iar  decrees  were  diuy  carried  into  execution.  Under 
the  succeeding  pontiffs  his  credit  was  in  no  way  im- 
paired. He  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Genoa  in  1575. 
and  in  1576  was  appointed  to  attend  the  Diet  ox 
Ratisbon  as  papal  legate.  As  Cardinal  Protector  of 
England,  Morone  in  1578-1579  had  much  to  do  with 
the  administration  of  the  English  College  (see 
Catholic  Record  Society,  "Miscellanea",  II,  London, 
1906);  and  when  he  died  he  had  been  for  some  time 
Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia.  Few  ecclesiastics  in  that 
century  were  so  successful  in  retaining  the  esteem  of 
men  of  all  parties  and  all  creeds  as  this  large-minded 
and  eminently  able  and  honest  churchman.  His  re- 
ports as  nuncio,  recently  publieJied  of  late  years  in 
the  German  series  of  ^'Nuntiaturberichten",  throw 
a  flood  of  li^ht  upon  the  religious  conditions  of  the 
empire,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  "Clau- 
dius intemuntius"  whose  letters  were  so  often  turned 
to  good  account  by  Raynaldi  proves  to  be  no  other 
than  Morone  himself  (see  Ehses  in  '^Romische  Quar- 
talschrif t " ,  1903).  It  may  be  mentioned  in  conclusion 
that  Morone  had  much  to  do  with  the  founding 
of  the  important  CoUec^um  Germanicum  in  Rome, 


HOSOMI 


K  work  in  which  he  wh  closely  UBOciftt«d  with  St. 
IniatiuB  Ix^oU. 

^utA.  autntidirllaiia,  II.  (TumL  ISIU):  Currt,  n  CarM- 
naU  Oiomnni  Maront  io  AM  lUT  fiuttlWs  lAnAords  (Tuiia. 
ISaa);  BmrABU,  Vita  <M  C7<iril>iu/>  iforarM  (Modau.  ISHt). 
The  mort  iDlanatini  *nd  Htufutory  outeruli  lor  Mhoob's  lilg 
ftia  Io  ba  found  La  hii  owd  cLaipaLahv  wJtd  in  tha  prtf U!«  csatrib- 
ul«d  by  bii  edilon;  (Ba  FuiDmsHuiia,  iVwUvUwAincAln  am 
CnitKUaml.  put  I.  II  (Qolbit,  1892};  DrmicH.  QiuOm  wtd 
For>ai»vfli  on/  d.  OMtU  it  OfckittUt,  I  (PiideHwn.  ISM); 
Ideu  la  »i«0nliiA«  /oArfruA,  IV  (Bonn,  1SS3) ;  Uutu,  Ma- 
fitiinnCa  Vaticana  (Fnlburi.  ISOI);  MiKELE,  Coru^ii.  TridmnL 
Diaria  (Fniburi,  1901);  Ehbm,  CimciJIuM  IVidfiUiiiiiiit.  IT 
(Ifreibura.  1904);  &TimHn»M,  QtA.  i.  CtUmHtii  <5m».  (ht4- 
tmra,  IBM);  Taccmi  Viktdbi.  La  Vila  Rdigiota  in  fldio.  I 
(Rome,  1910),  in  Ihe  appendLi.  pp.  SS4-4S,  li  printed  Falbar  Sil- 
XbflroD'i  eridciuM  before  the  InquiiltioQ  slvflfl  in  MoroiH'e  triftl. 
P«ro»,  OHckiclJt  lUr  Piv^,  V  (FreibiM,  1909) ;  Ihi.  ]>it  work 

HxBBERT  Thcrbton. 


U  pATtioululy  Ti 


Horonl,  Gaetano,  author  of  the  well-known 
"Diiionario  di  erudicione  Btorico-eccleriastica",  b,  at 
Romi:,  17  October,  1802;  d.  there,  3  Novenber,  1883. 
He  received  hia  early  education  from  the  Brothen  of 
the  Christian  School  at 
Rome.  Apprenticed  later  to 
a  barber,  his  duties  frequent- 
ly took  him  to  the  Cam- 
aldolese  convent  of  San 
Gregorio  on  the  Ciclian  Hill; 
there  the  abbot,  Mauir>  Cap- 
pellari,  and  several  of  the 
lathers  reeogQiied  his  ex- 
ceptional gifts,  and  made  use 
of  him  in  B  auasi-»ecretarial 
capacity.  When  Cappellari 
became  a  cardinal,  he  made 
Morani  his  cameriere:  and 
when  he  became  pope,  as 
Gregory  XVI,  he  took  Mo- 
roni for  vrimo  aivlante  di 
camera,  employing  him  also 
as  private  secretary,  in 
which  capacity  Moroni  wrote 
over  100,000  letters.  Moroni 
also  served  Pius  IX  as 
(nu/anl«  di  camera.  Among 
the  books  of  the  Camsl- 
dolese  convent  and  of  the 
cardin&l,  as  well  as  from 
conversation  with  learned 
people.  Moroni  acquired  a 
vast  store  of  information. 
He  also  gradually  collected 

aconeidemble  private  library  "Tb>  1 

bearing  on  eccleaiastical  ques-  QioriHsi  Bat 

tions,   while  he  made   notee  national  (jau 

from  the  daily  papers  and  from  other  publications  for 
hiaown  instruction.  The  subeeouent  arrangement  of 
these  notes  in  order  suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  turn- 
ing his  labours  to  the  benefit  of  the  public,  an  idea  which 
he  realised  in  the  "Dizionario"  (Venice,  1840-61;  in- 
dex, 1878-6),  a  mine  of  interesting  data  and  authori- 
tative in  matters  concerning  the  Pontifical  Court,  the 
oi^nisation  of  the  Curia  and  the  Church,  and  the  ad- 
mmistration  of  the  Pontifical  States.  In  matters  of 
history,  it  depends  on  the  writers  whom  its  author 
consulted.  It  ia,  however,  not  a  well-ordered  or 
homogeneous  work:  but  these  defects  may  be  readily 
for^ven  in  view  of  the  fact  that  ita  author  did  his 
woric  alone,  without  real  collaboration,  and  wrote  at 
times  sixteen  hours  a  dav.  He  was  also  the  author  of 
official  articles  on  papal  ceremonies,  the  journeys  of 
the  popes,  etc.  During  the  conclaves  of  1829  and 
1831,  he  wrote  the  "Giomale  storico-poUtico-cererao- 
niole  della  sede  vacante  e  11  conclave  per  I'cletione  di 
Pio  VIII  e  Gregorio  XVI",  which,  hke  othera  of  his 
writings,  remained  unpublished.  As  a  member  of  the 
household  of  Gregory  XVI,  Moroni  was  the  object  of 
much  sectarian  hatred.    He  was  a  friend  of  many  car- 


dinals, including  Wiseman,  and  irf  other  i 

men.    In  the  index  erf  the  "Disionario"  («.  v.,  Mo- 
ronl),  he  indicates  the  various  passaees  of  uie  work  in 
which  he  speaks  of  himself,  ana  which  thus 
a  kind  of  autobiogruiby. 

U. 

Morani,  Giovanni  Battibta,  painter,  b.  at  Boodo, 
near  Albino,  in  the  territ«iy  of  B^gamo,  between  1520 
and  1525;  d.  at  Bergamo,  m  1578.  Be  was  the  pujMl 
of  Aleesandro  Bonvidno,  called  Moretto  d&  fircsaa 
(about  1408-1555),  and  one  of  the  best  imitabn 
of  his  style.  Moroni's  work  was  done  chiefly  U 
Bergamo  and  in  the  vicinity.  Be  was  remarkable  *b 
a  portrait  painter,  and  as  such  was  not  inferior  to  his 
maeter.  He  has  the  same  sincerity  and  nobility, 
but  more  originohty.  His  portraitji  are  amoDgtbe 
most  vigorous  of  the  Renaissance;  of  these  we  mav 
mention  a  "Scholar  with  an  open  book  befoie  him'' 
and  a  "Man  in  Black"  at  theUffiii  (Floren^);  at  the 

GalleryofBergamos"YounBMan"anda 

of  excellent  wc 
at  the  Brera  (Mil  .  . 
portrait  <tf  Antonio  Nava- 
^ero,  podesti  of  Bersamo; 
at  the  AmbitMJana  Library 
in  Milan,  a  "Man  of  nckly 
st)peaiance" ;  at  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  (London), 
portrait  of  a  member  (rf  the 
Feuaroli  family,  "The 
Tulor",  and  Canon  Lodo- 
vico  Teni  of  Bernmo;  at 
the  Louvre  "An  Old  man 
seated  holding  a  book",  "of 
large,  firm  wotknianship. 
somewhat  heavy  as  in  some 
of  Tintoretto's  portraits"  |E. 
MQnU);  in  the  Dublin  Mu- 
seum, "A  Gentltman  and 
bis  two  children";  in  the 
Museum  of  Madrid  a  "Ven- 
etian Captain";  in  the 
DRsden  Gallery,  cortnit  of 
a  man;  in  the  Gallery  of 
"' rtrait       ' 


is  infarior  to  Moretto,  espe- 
cially in  drawing  and  inven- 
tiveness, but  his  colouting,  of 
a  clear  grayish t<HK.  is  notdif- 
BEreeable.  "It  is  only  in 
his  last  works  that  the 
a  becomes  monotonous  and  soft,  toeetbcr 
Bureuksidt 


b  a  rather  hsjd  reddish  colouring" 


Bergamo;  the  "Last  Judgment"  for  the  pvish 
church  of  Gorlago,  near  Beraamo;"VirBin  and  Sainis" 
and  "St.  Jerome"  at  the  Carrara  Acaduny  of  Ber- 
gamo; the  "Assumption  of  the  Virpn",  the  "Virgin 
surrounded  bySwnta"  (two  pictures)  at  the  Brera  cf 
Milan;  "The  Jesuit"  (portnut  of  Ercole  Taaso),»t 
Stafford  House,  the  London  residence  of  the  Duke  of 
Sutherland. 

BtjjiQ,  Hut.  da  jHiJttm  di  iaiUi  la  faol«  (Puia,  ISU-TT): 
ScdIit  Tinititttni:  LObu.  Oadt.  do-  ilaJiniKta  Italrrwi.  II 
(Stuttnrt,  1S7S).  821;  D«(1»h.  CBAUruH  ahd  PsauiK 
Cvriap.  el  Pamttrt  and  PavnUitai.  Ill  (London  ud  New  V«k 
1888) ;  BDRCiHAnDT  and  Bods.  T-  CiemHt.  II.  7U;  Fraaeb  ti. 
□tiuitD  (PiriL  1802);  MCvn,  Hill,  it  Tori  pmdiuit  la  Anuir- 
Hn«.  Ill  (Puu.  ISSS),  eeO;  BaTAH,  DiH.  of  Paitdmrt  oW  S>- 
VraHTi.  in  (LondoD,  ISM).  I.  T. 

Gaston  Sobtaib. 

Monis,  John. canon,  afterwards  Jesuit,  F.S^.,  b.  in 
India,  4  July.  1826;  d .  at  Wimbledon^  Oct.,  1893,  son 
of  John  Cunac  M<»Tis,  F.ILS.    Be  Wm  educ*t«d 


MORRIS  577 

partlv  in  India,  partly  at  Harrow,  partly  in  reading  Mis^rioorde,  HammerBmith,  which  post  he  occupied 

or  Cambridge  with  Dean  Alford,  the  New  Testament  till  his  death.    After  lus  conversion  he  contributed  to 

Msholar.    Under  him  a  great  chanse  passed  over  Mor-  the  "Dublin  Review",  the  "Lamp''  and  other  Catho- 

[is's  ideas.    Giving  up  the  thousht  of  taking  the  law  lie  periodicals;  and  wrote  "Jesus  the  Son  of  Mary" 

IS  his  profession,  he  became  enthusiastic  for  ecclesias-  (1851),  a  treatise  on  the  Incarnation  and  devotion  to 


in  October,  1845,  he  became  the  friend,  and  then  ttie  ^T«"*  (17  April.  1880);  T%m$»  (12  April,  1880);  Oillow,  DieL 

3upU  of  F.  A.  Pal^,  grandson  of  the  well-known  di-  ^^'  *'^*'^-  ^*^*-  ■•  ^-                 A.  A.  MacErlean. 

/ine,  and  already  one  of  the  leading  Gredc  scholars  of  ^M^^mtm  \m           vi^           _  i               j  •    •  x  u 

ihe 'university/ The.  conveSr%)f  Newman,   fol-  ,  SSl^li^^JT^^t^i.^'^V^Il^'iali.^ 

owed  by  the  receptions  of  so  many  others,  deep|y  im-  L^h^f^^  l^^ilK,^?'     t^I^aIS  tS: 

pressed  him,  and  he  waa  r«concU^  by  Bwhop  War©-  <«°*e'j; !«».  »*  Waehmgton,  D.  C.    Emended  from 

ng,  20  May,  1846.    A  storm  foUow^,  beginning  in  »^J™  ^**''-J**'  ^f^"^^'  ^u-  '[^^^J"*****  **  G^rgo- 

;he  "Times^',  which  made  itself  felt  eVaTnPaflia-  *»^  ^^f!^*'^'  ^^^  ^^±1"  ^J^^^^^t 

nent.    Paley  had  to  leave  Cambridge  (which  led  to  1?^;,  ?"  ^f  S?S  ^•T^'™**"'  entered  the  Jeemt 

lis  subsequently  joining  the  ChurcE),  whUe  Morris  fc**^*!L*S^^'l?''i  ^^i!  to  pi«P««  >«?«eJf.  ^ »' 

)vas  pr^cally  cait  of!  By  his  family.    He  then  went  &"T'*^ViJ°».'?-      ''i^  ^T''^  Yt  "^"^X 

x>  the  English  College,  Rime,  under  Dr.  Grant  (q.  v.),  ^S^f^'il^'^JJ^.'"^  r^}^^T'i'^  1?^  "^^tcH 

ind  WM  there  duSg  the  H^volution  of  1848.  ^^  '^f  «/  ^  '^^'^  *"^'t.'  scholarly  tastM  and  luA 

ifter  the  restoration  of  the  English  Hierarchy  in  1850,  "^rf.  Btandards,  he  was  m  every  w^  fitted,    flu 

le  was  made  Canon  of  NortEampton,  an/ then  rel  ^^*'S^;K^J''[Tl^~"•^"*>^*^'*^'!f^'^^ 

.umed  as  vice-iector  to  Rome  (1853-1866).    He  now  °1  j"'!****'*  l*^*, ^ u***!??'^  ^SP^^  ^?  his  mother 

>ecame  ptwrfufator  for  the  English  MartyiB  (q.  v.),  SPlSfJ^M^"  }^  ""^ 5^"? J^^  P"*"!!? ?^ wT 

vhose  ca\we  owes  peihaps  mo^  to  him  tlian  to  any  t^^^'l!^' }^"y^'  f^'^  "l>^^^**^'4  %^^ 

>ther  person.    Retuminrto  England,  he  took  part  ih  S<5^°  *?  «iterinto  partnership  with  the  late  Ibchard 

^^^"^  ?^^  Trl'i^tfc^x^Sei?  Miir^d  ^i^TAe  ^rt^of^'^^'^M^s^i 

r^on&aA  In^d  I^^  undef  aShS  fflJT^'^^''  ^T^'.S  ^''^^''I'^'P  with  Geo^^e  E. 

Vlanning  (q.  v.),  until  l^e  became  a  Jesuit  in  1867.  hS  fei**'^^'*  ~''*"*l^  "^^-^r'^  ***  practise  his  pro- 

»ught  Church  kistory  from  1873-1874;  he  was  Rec-  f^"?' ,?*","«  connected  with  important  litigation 

»r  of  St.  Ignatius'  College,  Malta,  f^m  1877-78;  both  m  the  loca^  courts  and  m  the  aipreme  Court,  un- 

naster  of  nonces  in  1879rri;d  director  of  the  writer^  i^.^SST'SlK^Vrf  An^lr^f"  thf nwri^^ 

)f  the  English  Province  in  1888.    Always  remarkable  J"8t»<*  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  the  District  of 

or  his  arfent  affectionate  natuHs,  his  i^tiring  energy  ^'^  iJloli^  .mLSf^W  ^T^^lffi^InS"!^.^ 

ind  earnest  holiness  of  life,  he  ^  also  an  ScceUiSt  I^'i^^^kL^ZS^  &  ^a^J^^^^A^i 

Kjholar,  an  eloquent  speakW,  and  a  higb-orindpled  T'  ^*    "  '*^     -^^  **  °^^  practice,  and  yet. 

eader  if  souls^  His  d^b«fetted  his  bTe:for  he  «-  ,^'Z?ri!!f«?.^"^A'l^!S  W^^r  ^JintrMi 

jired  in  the  pulpit,  uttering  the  words,  ''Render  to  ™  the  tnal  of  cases.    A  dalled  lawyer,  standmg  hiph 

3od  the  thinm  tEat  are  GoJs."    His  pi^cipal  works  ?» his  Profession,  judicial  labours  did  not  prevent  hun 

^"Tlie  Life^and  Martyrdomof  St.  TtomasBeckVr  5??"  *'*^  ?°  '«'*{r*'  "5*«»«*  '?«'»<'  ""^  T'H^  ~°- 

xLdon,  1869  and  1885)r"The  Life  of  Father  John  ^^^'  ZJ?^ ^M^^^J^'^nf'^^tuJZ/Tt 

5erard"   (London,   1881),  translated  into  French,  sej^hes  into  the  fidds  of  science,  of  litwiture,  and  of 

3ermM,  Spanish,  ind  Poli^;  "Troubles  of  our  CathI  *[*•    '^"^^k*'''  interested  m  his  Alma  Mat«r,  and  in 

jr«^!«if.t».»»"'«  «ni.    T-„;^An  1»7^U1«T7^•«<I^-  the  growth  and  devdopmentof  Catholic  eduwition, 

iwn  Law  School 
the  late  P.  F. 


ievfew",  "  Arch«olo»a",  and  other  periodicab.  ^^T'{\'"-''-'J^!3 1""^  ^wi.'Tn*?^.*^,.^^*  ^t» 

ToiiMH.Lif,af^  Utterfo/ rlMtr  John  Uclri$  (London.  1898):  •  5**;"''^  C0nduct«l  law  BChooU  m  thlS  country.     In 

ifomu,  JmmaU  k*^  during  Timn  of  Rttreat  Oondon.  1896);  1877  he  received  from  Georgetown,  in  recogmtion  of 

kiiatuToaau  BM.  iota  C.  do  Jfnu,  V,  P-  ▼-™>:  ^'  •**•  his  nobility  of  character,  his  broad  scholarship,  and 

J.  H.  Pollen.  achievements  as  la^er  and  judge,  the  degree  of 

Morris.  John  B.    See  Littlb  Rock,  Diocbbs  of.  LL-D-     He  wrote  "Lectures  on  the  History  of  the 

Development  of  Constitutional  and  Civil  Liberty 

Monis,  John  Brandb,  b.  at  Brentford,  Middle-  (1898);  also  numerous  monographs  and  addressee. 

ex.  4  September,  1812;  d.  at  HammoBmith,  London,  GBORaE  E.  Hamiuton. 
I  April,  1880;  he  studied  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford, 

praouatrng  in  1834  (B.A.  honours)  and  1837  (M.A.).  Morse  (Lat.  morsus),  also  called  the  Monilb,  Fi» 

le  was  at  once  elected  Petrean  Fellow  of  Exeter  Col-  bula.  Firm  ale,  Pectorale,  ori^nally  the  rectan- 

ege,  and  lectured  on  Hebrew.    His  favourite  field  of  gular  ornamented  piece  of  matenal  attached  to  the 

tudy  was  Eastern  and  patristic  theology.    While  at  two  front  edges  of  the  cope  near  the  breast  to  pre- 

>xford  he  wrote  an  "EeaaY  towards  the  Conversion  of  vent  the  vestment  from  slipping  from  the  shoulaers. 

earned  and  Philosophical  Hindus''  (1843);  a  poem  Morses  were  provided  with  nook  and  eye,  and  were 

ntitled  *' Nature:  a  Parable"  (1842);  and  translated  often  richly  ornamented  with  embroidery  or  precious 

'Select  Homilies  from  St.  Ephraem"  from  the  Syriac  stones.    The  name  was  also  applied  to  metal  clasps 

1846),  likewise  St.  Chrysostom's  "Homilies  on  the  used  instead  of  such  pieces  of  woven  fabric.    As  early 

iomans"  (1841)  for  the  ''Libraiy  of  the  Fathers'',  as  the  eleventh  century  such  metal  clasps  are  found 

laving  joined  the  Tractarian  Movement,  he  was  re-  represented  in  miniatures  and  mentioned  in  inven-                v 

«ived  into  the  Church,  16  January,  1846,  resigning  tories.    These  clasps,  however,  gradually  lost  their 

lis  Oxford  fellowship  a  few  days  later.    He  was  or-  .  practical  use  and  became  mere  ornaments,  which 

lained  at  Osoott  in  1851  and  in  the  same  year  was  ap-  were  sometimes  sewn  fiirmly  to  the  flaps  that  served 

lointed  professor  at  Prior  Park,  near  Bath.    He  soon  to  fasten  the  cope,  sometimes  only  attached  to  the                ^ 

»^an  parish  work  and  for  the  next  nineteen  vears  flaps  by  hooks,  so  that,  after  the  vestment  had  been                ^ 

oinistered  in  Plymouth,  Shortwood  (Somersetshire),  worn,  the  clasps  could  be  removed  and  cared  for  sep- 

Lnd  other  parts  of  England.    He  was  for  a  time  chap-  arately.     This  latter  was  especially  the  case  when, 

ain  to  Sir  John  Acton  and  Coventry  Patmore.    In  as  frequently  happened  at  least  in  the  later  Middle 

.870  he  became  spiritual  dii^ctor  of  tb9  Sceurs  d^  Ages,  the  clasp  was  verjr  heav^  or  very  valuable.    As 
7i' — 37 


MOBn  578  MOBTDPIOAIXON 

eariy  as  tbe  thirteenth  centuiy  inventoriee  mention    after  the  flesh",  says  the  apostle,  "you  shall  die^  but 
'    ~  formed  distinct  ornaments  in  themselves,    if  through  the  spirit  you  mori^j^  the  deeds  of  tlie 


daspewhich „  .       . 

Many  chiirches  had  a  large  number  of  such  morses,  you  shall  live"  (Rom.,  viil,  13;  of.  also  Col.,  iii,  5,  and 

They  were  generally  made  of  silver  covered  with  gold,  GaL,  v,  24).   f^om  this  original  use  of  the  term  we  see 

and  were  ornamented  with  pearls,  precious  stones,  that  mortification,  though  under  one  aspect  it  is  a  lav 

enamel,    niello-work,    architectural    designs,    small  of  death,  under  another  and  mote  fundamental  aspect 

figures  of  saints,  ornamental  work  in  flowers  and  it  is  a  law  of  life,  and  so  does  not  destroy  but  elevatei 

vmes,  and  similar  designs.    Such  clasps  were  fre-  nature.    What  it  slays  is  the  disease  of  the  soul,  and 

auently  the  finest  products  of  the  goldsmith's  art;  by  slaying  this  it  restores  and  invigorates  tbe  soul's 

'tev  were  generally  either  round,  square,  quatrefoil,  true  life, 
or  like  a  rosette  in  form;  yet  there  were  also  more       Of  the  diseastw  it  sets  itself  to  slay,  ozi,  tbe  one 

elaborate  and  at  times  peculiar  shapes.     Abundant  mortal  disease  of  the  soul,  holds  the  first  pkoe.    Sn 

proof  of  the  derire  for  costly  clasps  for  the  cope  is  committed  it  destroys,  by  impelling  to  true  peniteDoe 

shown  by  the  old  inventories  and  by  the  numerous  and  to  the  use  of  those  means  of  forgiveness  and  resto- 

medievaf  morses  preserved  (especially  in  Germany)  in  ration  which  our  Lord  has  confided  to  His  ChurdL 

churches  and  museums.    According  to  present  Ro-  Temptations  to  sin  it  overcomes  by  inducing  tt>e  will 

man  usage  the  morse  is  reserved  to  cardinals  and  to  accept  hardships,  however  grave,  rather  than  yield 

bishops  C'Cser.  epiSc.",  I,  c.  vii,  n.  1;  S.  R.  C,  15  to  the  temptations.    To  this  extent,  mortification  is 

September,  1753).  obligatory  on  all,  but  those  who  wish  to  be  more  tb«^ 

Bock,  Qach.  dtr  liiuro.  Otaandtr  da  it.  A.,  II  (Bonn,  1866).  ough  in  the  service  of  Christ,  cany  it  further,  and 

fSLVL ^^?'£^J"^-  '^""^"^  ¥»  0«*^  «•  O^**^  stnve  with  its  lud  to  subdue,  so  far  as  is  poedble  in 

d^mbu.,,  1907).  821 «»,.  Joseph  Brato.  t^is  life,  that  "rebellion"  oV  the  flesh  a^t  the 

Morse.  Hbnbt,  Venebabib,  martyr:  b.  1695  in  spirit  which  w  the  interoal  incentive  to  an.  What  is 
Norfolk;  d.  at  Tyburn,  1  February.  164^-  He  was  re-  "^^ded  to  achieve  this  victory  »  that  the  passion* 
ceived  iito  the  Churcli  at  Doum,  6  June,  1614,  after  «»?  sf"*^  concupiscences,  which  when  freely  in- 
various  journeys  was  ordained  at  Rome,  and  left  for  ^'^!'^^'^.  ^  Pe™«oiM  «i  mfluenoe  on  human 
the  misfflon,  19  June,  1624.  He  was  admitted  to  the  conduct,  should  be  tramed  by  judicious  repression  to 
Society  of  Jesus  at  Heaton;  then  he  was  arrested,  and  subordinate  and  coirform  th«r  d^res  to  the  rufe  of 
impriimed  for  three  yeari  in  York  Castle,  wheie  he  ^^J"  *».<*  ^*i*^{J?"  i^T^*  ^  ^^  °^**--  ??*  '* 
made  his  novitiate  under  his  fellow-prisoner  Father  ^.*^P^i*' .**  "^f^^a^^  ^^  sufficMmt  to  re- 
John  Robinson,  S.J.,  and  took  simple  vows.  After-  «t«*^  *»»««  ^f^''^!^  ^^^  only  when  tiieir  de- 
wards  he  was  a  missionary  to  the  English  repments  in  ™«»a8  are  unlawful.  They  representa  twist  m^ 
tiie  Low  Countries.  Retiming  to  EHglandIt  the  end  nature,  and  must  be  ti«ated  as  <me  tn^ta  a  tested 
.  of  1633  he  laboured  in  LondoS,  and  in  1636  he  is  re-  wire  when  endeavouring  to  strai^ten  yt,  namel)-,  by 
ported  to  have  received  about  ninety  Protestant  twwtipg  »*  the  opposite  way.  Thus  m  the  wwus 
JamiUes  into  tiie  Church.    He  himself  contracted  the  departments  of  asoetus  obeerwnce,  earnest  Catiiohcs 


with  having  withdrawn  the  kmg's  subjects  from  their  J»^'*»  "^^  mptantrng  good  ones,  has  its  reeo^iied 

fidtii  and  illegiance.    He  was  founef  guilty  on  the  place  in  tiie  methods  evwi  of  tiiosewho  are  engaged  m 

first  count,  notguUty  on  the  second,  andsentence  was  W«^  P^^Jy.  "^t"*?  ^^s.    What  »  P«culur  to 

deferred.    On  ^  April  he  made  his  solemn  nrofcssion  Christian  mortification  is,  tiiat  it  rehes  for  the  attam- 

of  the  tiuee  vows  to  Fr.  Edward  Lusher,    fie  was  re-  '^'»*  ^^  '*?  spiritual  objects,  not  merely  on  this  natura^ 

leased  on  bail  for  10,000  florins,  20  June,  1637,  at  the  «®9»«y  <»'  ite  methods,  but  stiU  more  on  the  aids  of 

instance  of  Queen  faenrietta  karia.     in   oi^er  to  diyme gnwe,  fw which, by  ite eamestneaam self-diso- 

free  his  sureties  he  voluntarily  went  into  exile  when  P^e  and  tiie  (Christian  motove  wluch  inspires  rt.  Aj^ 

the  royal  proclamation  was  ia^ed  oidering  all  priests  pkadw  powerfully  witii  God.    And  here,  as  further 

to  leave  the  country  before  7  April,  1641,  and  liecame  «»ntnbuting  to  mCTease  ite  rointual  efficacy  anotiier 

chaplain  to  Gage's  English  reguneiit  in  the  service  of  motive  for  which  it  is  practised  comes  in.    It  is  prae- 

SpMn."  In  16«  he  retumecTto  England;  arrested  *^^^T^-J^^^?^}^J'J'",^?'°^^^^ 

after  about  a  year  and  a  half,  he  was  impnsoned  at  *^,^^  '"V*  5l*''t!*    „    ^P^}"  ^"^  ^ 

Durham  and  Newcastle,  and  l^nt  by  sea  to  London,  although  only  tiie  Atonement  of  Chnst  can  offerade- 

On  30  January  he  was  ^Igain  brought  to  the  bar  and  q«ate  expiation  for  the  ans  of  man,  mm  ought  not  to 

condemned  on  his  prev^us  conviction.    On  the  day  T'^i^J,* "  ««»>?/or  doing  nothing  tiiemselves.  but 

of  his  execution  his  hurdle  was  drawn  by  four  horsei,  should  ratiier  take  it  as  an  mcentive  to  add  their  own 

and  tiie  French  Ambassador  attended  with  aU  hb  «P»ations  to  tiie  eirtent  of  tiieu-  power,  and  shoukl 

suite,  as  also  did  the  Count  of  Egmont  and  the  Por-  J^,SJJ*  Personal  wpiations  as  very  pfeasing  to 

tugu^  Ambassador.    The  martyr  was  allowed  to  ^.^  explains  why  many  of  tte  mortificatioiis 

hi^g  until  he  was  dead.    At  the  quartering  the  foot-  Pjactwed  by  devout  pwsons  sre  notdujectijr  curative 

men  of  the  French  Ambassador  aid  of  tiie  Count  of  ».^  «^  propensities,  but  take  theform  of  painful  exei- 

Egmont  dipped  their  handkerchiefs  in  the  martyr's  ST "' ^"flf*-*'^  "^"bi^^f^.^T  rf ^ *^i 'l^ 

bSod.    In  1647  many  persons  possessed  by  evil  spfrits  l"^' "•  «"  ^•f*^'iT^,^t^°*'f^^^it^ 

were  relieved  through  the  applWation  of  hU  relici.  Pleasure,  ete.  Not  tiuit  th«»e  external  mortifications 

FoixT.  B«ord.  of  (^  BnaiuiTpTorinee  s.  J.  (London,  1877-  ^P  of  themselves  available,  for  spintual  wnters  never 

1883),  1, 666-611;  VI,  288-9;  VII,  S28, 658, 1198, 1200;  Chait  tire  of  insisting  that  the  mtemsl  mortification  of  pnde 

LOHZB,  Mtmoin  of  MunmamPTieti,.  II  (Manchester,  1803).  and  self-love  in  their  various  forms  are  essential,  but 

181-8!  Takmer,  Soetetat  Jmu  (Pranue,  1675),  126-131;  Hamil-  *,,«»  ~_i-_.i  ____«»  __  ...uul  »«!.>  «  r«.  ..  Vk.» 

lOM.  CaUndar  Sua*  Paver,  Domeuitie40-i  (ix>ndon.  1882),  292.  that  external  pepanoes  are_  good  only  so  far  a«  they 

John  B.  Wainewrioht.  spring  from  this  internal  spint,  and  react  by  promot- 
ing it  (see  Asceticism). 

Mortifleation,  one  of  the  methods  which  Christian  ^  ^."J'^S". "",  L'S'  P'tT'^S*"**^  !*S??j""*?5  ^,  *''**^ 

asceticism  employs  in  training  the  soul  to  virtuous  and  \jJ^i^:'^^f^^„^^,^^^!i&^S^S^pl^. 

holy  tiving.     The  term  onginated  with  St.  Paul,  who  Lb  Gaudier,  De  perfeotUme  vUa  aptriluaiU (Paris.  1856) ;  Scaiu- 

traces  an  instructive  analogy  between  Christ  dying  to  mei^.  Dtrerfpnwn  A«cdticum  (Ixmd^  SWf 

a  mortal  and  rising  to  anVortal  life  and  6«  fpl-  i^t^j:;^J::':rSf^,S^^^  ^JW^'fSiJ^':^ 

lowers  who  renounce  their  past  life  of  sm  and  rise  190?V 
through  grace  to  a  new  life  of  holiness.    "If  you  Uve  Btdjc^T  F-  Smit^, 


UO&nCAXN 


679 


HOftTMAIM 


Mortmain  (Old  Fr.,  marie  meyn),  dead-hand,  or 
'such  a  state  of  poeaesffion  of  land  as  makes  it  in- 
iienable"  (Wharton,  ''Law  Lexicon",  10th  ed., 
jondon,  1002,  s.  v.)i  is  ''the  possession  of  land  or 
enements  by  any  corporation"  (Bouvier,  "Law 
Dictionary",  Boston,  1897,  s.  v.),  or  "where  the  use 
sme  ad  manum  morttuim,  which  was  when  it  came  to 
ome  coiporation"  (Lord  Bacon,  "Reading  on  the 
>tatute  of  Uses"),  alienation  of  kmds  or  tenements  to 
k  corporation  being  termed  alienation  in  mortmain 
Stephen,  "  New  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Eng- 
Guid",  15th  ed.,  London,  1908,  I,  296).  The  aliena- 
ion  was  formerly  expressed  by  the  now  obsolete 
p'ords  amortizaHan  and  amorHzemerUf  the  person  so 
Jienating  being  said  to  amortue  (Murray,  "r^ew  Eng« 
ish  Dictionary",  Oxford  and  New  York,  1888),  a 
^erb  used  by  Chaucer  in  connexion  with  good  works 
'amortised  by  sinne  following"  (The  Persones  Tale), 
n  Old  French  amortiasement  was  used  in  connexion 
with  licences  termed  eharUa  d'amortiasemerU,  validat- 
Qg  an  alienation,  amortir  being  defined  iteindre  en  tout 
ni  en  partie  lee  droiU  de  la  seianeurie  f^odale  ("La 
]rrande  Encvclop^die",  Paris,  s.  d.  j  "  Century  Diction- 
Lry",  New  York.  s.  d.,  s.  v.  amortization;  ct.  the  same 
Lse  of  the  English  woid  in  statute  15  Richard  II,  c.  5). 

Corporate  ownership,  recognized  by  the  Roman 
j&Wf  aid  not  become  obsolete  under  feudcdism  (q.  v.). 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ap^ee  there  were  numerous 
issociations  having,  by  their  titles  of  association,  "  a 
perpetual  body  "  or  "  aperpetual  commonalty".  Such 
vere  the  mayors,  bailiffs,  and  commons  of  cities,  or  of 
loroughs  and  towns,  and  such,  too,  were  various  guilds 
ind  fraternities.  * 

These  associations  "of  many  individuals  united 
nto  one  body,  under  a  special  denomination  having 
>erpetual  succession  under  an  artificial  form"  (Shel- 
ora,  "  A  practical  treatise  on  the  Law  of  Mortmain. 
ic",  Philadelphia,  1842,  22)  had  become  establishea 
or  puiposes  which,  in  respect  to  any  property  they 
^ere  allowed  to  acquire  or  to  retain,  impliea  an  owner- 
hip  free  from  the  vicissitudes  and  limited  duration  of 
ownership  by  natural  persons. 

The  Catholic  Church,  having  been  reco^zed 
'since  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Constantine"  in  the 
^untries  which  adopted  the  feudal  system  "  as  pos- 
essing  a  legal  personality  and  the  capacity  to  take 
ind  acquire  property"  (Ponce  vs.  Roman  Catholic 
I)hurch,  210  United  States  Supreme  Court  Reports, 
tU),  feudalism  recognized  not  only  the  Church,  but 
ts  reli^ous  communities,  as  spiritual  corporations. 
luch  a  community  has  been  thought  to  be  appropri- 
ktely  described  to  be  gens  cetema  eadem  perpetuo  per^ 
nanene  quasi  in  ea  nemo  unqwim  moritur  (an  everlast- 
ng  body  continuing  perpetually  the  same  as  if  in  it 
lo  one  may  ever  die).  The  communities  might  con- 
ist  of  men,  each  of  whom  was  deemed,  because  of  his 
rows,  civilly  dead.  But  to  the  communities  them- 
lelves,  viri  reUgiosij  "people  of  religion",  gens  de  main 
norte,  the  law  attributed  a  perpetual  existence  and 
)en)etual  ownership  of  property. 

En^ish  Law.  admitting  the  corporate  existence  of 
LSBOciations,  which  were  corporations  aggregate,  and 
dso  allowing;  of  such  an  sulificial  existence  in  an 
>fiicial  individual,  considered  not  only  the  king,  but 
iach  bishop,  parson,  and  vicar  as  a  corporation  sole, 
^d  such  might  be  a  chantry  (q.  v.)  pnest,  to  whom 
and  had  been  given  by  its  owner,  subject  to  a  per- 
yetxial  service  a  ehaunter  pur  ly  e  pur  ces  heyrs  a  tou 
ours  (see  Year  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward 
ihe  First,  Years  XX-XXI.  London,  1866,  265). 

Corporate  ownership  of  land,  however,  by  subjects 
>f  the  realm  was  repugnant  to  feudal  theoiy .  Accord- 
ng  to  this  theory  allland  of  subjects  was  deemed  to 
lave  been  acquired,  immediately  or  mediately,  by 
^rant  of  the  king.  Of  land  directly  acquired  f ron^  the 
dng,  the  person  to  whom  the  grant  or  feoffment  was 
Dade,  the  feoflfee,  held  as  tenant  in  oapUe  of  the 


Crown.  If  the  tenant  in  capUe  made  a  feoffment,  he 
became  immediate  lord  of  his  feoffee,  and  as  to  the 
king  a  mediate  lord.  And  thus  from  successive  fe- 
offments there  might  result  a  long  succession  of  lords, 
mediate  and  immediate,  the  king  being  ultimate  lord 
of  all  land  in  the  kingdom  which  was  held  by  feudal 
tenure.  A  freeman  who  became  a  landowner  was 
bound  in  many  instances  to  render  military  service  to 
his  immediate  lord,  and  liable  to  forfeit  the  land  for 
crime.  Should  he  die  without  a  proper  heir,  the  land 
escheated.  If  he  left  a  male  heir  under  age,  the  lord 
was  entitled  to  his  guardianship  (a.  v.).  In  the  case 
of  a  female  heir,  the  lord  was  entitled  to  her  disposal 
in  marriage  (Stephen,  op.  cit.,  I,  10^140). 

The  Magna  Carta  of  King  Henry  III  (9  Henry 
III,  c.  32 ;  1224),  afterwards  repealed  as  to  this  provision 
by  implication  (Shelf ord,  op.  cit.,  15),  prohioited  the 
giving  or  selling  by  a  freeman  of  so  much  of  his  land 
as  that  the  unsold  residue  should  be  insufficient  to 
render  to  the  lord  of  the  fee  the  services  due  to  him. 

Feudal  theory,  therefore,  favoured  ownership  of 
land  by  some  natural  person  liable  to  death  and  capa- 
ble of  committing  crime,  or  according  to  the  Nor- 
man expression,  homme  vivarUf  mowrant  et  confiscant 
(Thornton  vs.  Robin,  I,  Moore's  Privy  Council  Re- 
ports, 452).  An  artificial  being,  existmg  in  contem- 
plation of  law,  not  competent  to  render  military  ser- 
vice, incapable  of  crime,  and  not  subject  to  death,  was 
thus  not  possessed  of  the  attributes  which,  according 
to  feudal  polity,  became  a  landowner. 

In  France  a  custom  arose  of  the  gens  de  main  morte 
supplying  a  knight  to  fulfil  the  services  of  a  feudal  vas- 
sal. As  early,  however,  as  1159  this  custom  began  to 
be  superseded  by  chartes  d'amoriissementf  and  these 
hcences  became,  in  the  course  of  time,  an  important ' 
fiscal  resource  of  the  Crown.  Of  the  conferring  of  re- 
lief from  feudal  obligations  a  notable  instance  was 
the  exemption  given  in  1156  by  Frederick  Barbarossa 
to  the  Dukes  of  Austria  from  all  service,  except  al- 
most nominal  military  service.  Land  held  by  indi- 
viduals free  from  feudal  liabilities  was  designated  as 
allodial  (Fr.  aUeu)^  or  a  fief  de  Dieu,  or  in  Germany 
as  Sonnemehn, 

A  third  of  the  value  of  property  is  said  to  have  heen 
sometimes  the  price  of  its  am^ortissement  (Littr^,  "  Dio- 
tionnaire  de  la  langue  fran^aise",  Paris,  1889,  s.  v.). 

William  the  Conqueror  sought '  to  promote  in  Eng- 
land holding  of  land  by  feudal  tenure.  That  allo- 
dial holdings  were  known  in  England  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest  seems  quite  possible  (see  "La  Grande  En- 
cyclopedic", s.  V.  Alleu).  And  many  of  the  holders 
woula  doubtless  consent  to  chang[e  to  the  feudal  ten- 
ure, which  implied  feudal  protection. 

But  there  appears  to  have  arisen  a  somewhat  wide- 
spread repugnance  on  the  part  of  landowners  to  hold 
land  subject  to  the  faith  and  homage  which  accorded 
with  the  law  doctrines  of  the  Norman  feudists.  A 
method  of  escape  was  resorted  to,  which  the  Mama 
Carta  of  King  Henry  III  indicates.  Owners  avtuled 
themselves  of  the  property  rights  of  the  religious  com- 
munities in  order  to  hold  land  under  these  communi- 
ties. For  to  contrivances  of  this  kmd  the  Charter  evi- 
dently alludes,  prohibiting  the  same  land  being  raven 
to  and  taken  again  from  any  religious  house,  and  for- 
bidding any  house  of  religion  to  take  land  under  an 
agreement  of  returning  it  to  its  former  owner,  terram 
cSicujus  sic  accipere  quod  tradai  illam  ei  a  quo  ipsam 
recepit  tenendam  (see  c.  36). 

This  early  statute  of  mortmain  applies  only  to  ao* 
tion  by  religious  houses  in  the  way  of  enabling  lay  own- 
ers to  hold  their  lands.  The  statute  does  not  seem 
directed  against  the  holding  by  the  houses  of  land  in 
their  own  possession.  The  correctness  of  Sir  William 
Blackstone's  surmise  that  even  before  the  Conquest 
licences  in  mortmain  had  become  necessary  ''among 
the  Saxons"  (Commentaries,  B.  11^  c.  18,  269)  does 
not  appear  to  be  confirmed  by  this  Magna  CartSi 


HOfttMAm                          5S0  MOSTMAIM 

Qor.  in  any  general  sense,  by  the  fact  that  the  aUumon  tun  penon  to  ^ve  a  pazxsel  of  land  to  a  certain  priol 

in  the  Constitutions  of  Ularendon  (1164)  to  mortmain  and  convent  to  be  held  mbi  et  «ucceMortZm<  auis  in 

was  confined  to  advowsons  (ibid.)-  perpeiuumf  but  subject  to  the  due  and  accustomed 

The  mortmain  statute  of  Edward  I,  known  as  "St&-  services  to  the  cajjiudibus  dominis  f<Bdi  iUius  (Year 

tutum  de  viris  reli^osis^',  7  Edward  I,  enacted  in  Books  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  I,  years  XXXII- 

1279,  and  so  often  referred  to  by  writers  on  EngUsh  XXXIII,  London,  1864,  499).    This  licence  recites 

real  property  law,  recites  that  religious  men  have  en-  that  it  is  ipven  ob  affeciionem  et  henevcientiam  to- 

teiea  into  their  own  fees  as  weJl  as  into  the  fees  of  wards  the  religious  oraer.    Nor  do  licences  in  mort- 

other  men,  and  that  those  services  due  "and  which  at  main  seem  to  have  ever  become  in  England,  as  in 

the  beginning  were  provided  for  the  defence  of  the  France,  recognized  sources  of  ro3ral  revenue. 

Realm^  are  wrongfully  withdrawn  and  the  escheats  Legal  devices,  too,  as  in  the  times  before  the  Magna 

lost  to  the  chief  lords  (Duke,  ''The  Law  of  Charitable  Carta  of  Henry  III,  were  resorted  to  for  the  purpose 

Uses",  London,  1805,  193).  of  escaping  the  oi>eration  of  the  statute,  such  as  pur- 

The  statute  thereupon  oidains  that  "no  person,  re-  chases  alluded  to  in  the  statute  of  Richard  II  "to  the 
lig^ous  or  other",  ntulue  reUgiosiui  out  aliiL8  quicumr  use"  of  persons  other  than  those  to  whom  the  legal 
gue,  shall  buy  or  sell  lands  or  tenem^its  or  receive  title  was  transferred.  These  devices  have  produced 
them,  or  appropriate  them  (under  pain  of  forfeiture)  far-reaching  and  endurins  influence  on  the  develop- 
so  as  to  cause  Uie  land  to  come  into  mortmain,  per  ment  of  English  jurisprudence.  Concerning  English 
quod  ad  manum  martuam  terra  et  tenemerUa  kujusmodi  aggregate  ecclesiastical  bodies  of  former  tmies.  Sir 
deveniant  quoquo  modo.  Edward  Coke  observes  in  language  which  we  might 

A  violation  of  the  statute  renders  lawful  to  the  king  imagine  to  be  applied  to  modem  ^'trusts"  and  com- 
mand other  chief  lords  of  the  fee  immediate",  nobia  et  binations  of  capital,  that  those  bodies  "in  this  were  to 
aliis  immediatie  oomitalibus  dominie  fcedi,  to  enter  and  be  commended,  that  they  ever  had  of  their  counsd 
hold  the  land.  Tne  chief  lord  immediate  is  afforded  the  best  learned  men  that  they  could  get"  (Black- 
a  year  to  enter,  the  next  chief  lord  immediate  the  stone.  "CommenUuies",  B.  11,  c.  18,  270). 
half-year  next  ensuing,  and  so  every  lord  immediate  Before  the  coming  of  the  Conqueror  and  his  feudal 
may  enter  into  such  Tand,  if  the  next  lord  be  n^i-  lawyers  much  land  m  England  had  been  acquired  to 
gent  in  entering.  If  all  the  chief  lords  who  are  "of  be  held  b^r  the  spiritual  tenure  of  frankalmoign,  a 
niU  age,  within  the  four  seas  and  out  of  prison  be  tenure  subjecting  the  holders  to  what  was  termed  the 
negligent  or  slack",  "we",  the  king,  namely,  "e^all  trinoda  neceeeiiae  (or  threefold  obligation)  of  repairing 
take  such  lands  ana  tenements  into  our  own  hands",  highways,  building  castles,  and  repdlinpr  invasions,  but 
capumua  in  manum  no^ram,  otherwise  to  no  service  other  than  praymg  for  the  souls 

The  term  manue  mortua  is  not  applied  to  the  sove-  of  the  donor  and  his  heirs,  dead  or  ahve  (Stephen,  op. 

reign,  yet  land  so  taken  "in  manum  nostram"  is  not  to  cit.,  1, 139. 140).    To  such  pious  foundations  already 

be  retained.    Such  a  retuning  would  be  in  mortmfdn.  established  none  of  the  mortmain   lespblatbn   ap- 

And  the  king  promises  to  convey  the  land  to  other  per-  plied. 

sons  subject  to  services  from  which  ownership  by  the  When  Heniy  VIII  commenced  his  eocledastical 

"reli«^ous  men"  or  others  had  withdrawn  it,  services  alterations,  the  general  body  of  the  parochial  clergy 


cheats  and  other  services".    A  statute  of  1290  per-  head  of  the  church  of  England",  and  thus  continued 

mits  any  freeman  to  part  with  his  land,  the  feoffee  to  to  hold  their  lands  by  the  Saxon  tenure,  by  which  "the 

hold  of  the  same  lord  and  by  the  same  services  as  his  parochial  cler^  and  very  many  ecclemastical  and 

feoffor  held.    But'the  statute  cautiously  adds  that  in  eleemo^ary  Toundations",  observes  Seigeant  8te- 

no  wise  are  the  lands  to  come  into  mortmain  against  phen,  "hold  them  at  this  day"  (op.  cit.,  1, 139). 

the  statute  (see  18  Edward  I,  c.  I,  c.  II,  c.  III).  Land  held  in  mortmain  Dv  some  of  the  reU^ous 

Where  churches  stood  "the  ground  itself  was  hal-  coiporations  were  confiscated  oy  the  statute  27  Henry 
lowed"  (see  Ponce  vs.  Roman  Catholic  Church,  210  Vlll.  c.  28  (1535),  and  thus,  according  to  Lord  Ba- 
United  States  Supreme  (Ik)urt  Reports,  312).  And  a  con  (Reading  on  the  Statute  of  Uses),  "The  posses- 
statute  of  Richaid  II  (15  Richard  II,  c.  V;  1391)  re-  sions  that  had  been  in  mortmain  began  to  stir 
cites  that  "some  religious  persons,  parsons,  vicars  and  abroad",  a  "stir"  extended  by  the  statute  37  Heniy 
other  spiritual  persons  have  entered  in  divers  lands  VIII,  c.  4  (1545),  to  other  religious  houses  and  to 
and  tenements,  which  be  adjoining  to  their  churches  chantries,  this  statute  transferring  their  lands  to  the 
and  of  the  same  by  sufferance  and  assent  of  the  ten-  sovereign's  possession  in  consideration  of  His  Ma>» 
ants,  have  made  churchyards  and  by  bulls  of  the  esty's  great  costs  and  charges  in  his  then  ware  with 
bishop  of  Rome  [(sic) — the  French  and  more  authori-  France  and  Scotland. 

tative  text  reads:  par  huUes  del  appoatoill]  have  dedi-  During  the  brief  period  of  reaction  after  the  death 

cated  and  hallowed  the  same"  and  in  these  make  of  King  Edward  VI,  the  statutes  of  mortmain,  in  so 

"parochial  burying".   Therefore  all  persons  possessed  far  as  they  applied  to  future  conveyances  to  spiritual 

of  land  " to theuseof  reli^ous  people  or  other  spiritual  corporations,  were  suspended  (1554)  for  twenty  years 

persons",  of  which  these  latter  take  the  pronts,  are  (1  and  2  Philip  and  Mary.  c.  8,  sec.  LI), 

required  upon  pun  of  forfeiture  to  procure  licence  of  The  expressions  quoted  from  Lord  Bacon,  and  an 

amortization  within  a  time  limitea,  or  to  "sell  and  allusion  of  his  to  "plenty  and  purchasing"^  suggest 

aliene "  to  some  other  use.  the  view  that  holding  of  land  in^  mortmain,  being 

This  statute  does  not  confine  its  operation  to  "spirit-  opposed  to  land  stirring  abroad  aiid  its  ready  purchase, 
ual  persons"  and  churchyards,  but  enacts  that  the  was  in  the  nature  of  a  public  inconvenience  or  mis- 
statute  of  1279  shall  "be  observed  of  all  lands,  tene-  chief.    Similar  views  had  not  actuated  the  English 


Cities,  Boroughs  and  other  towns  that  have  a  perpetual  an  inconvenience  or  mischief  to  the  public  from  a 

commonalty",  all  of  whom  are  forbidden  to  purchase,  stagnation  of  property",  realizing,  however,  that,  "as 

Licences  allowing,  in  particular  instances,  transfers  the  land  was  given  to  Cxod,  the  kins  and  the  baztsns 

into  mortmeun,  notwithstanding  the  statute,  were  i»-  lost  all  the  usual  profits  of  what  was  held  under  them" 

sued  from  time  to  time.    The  text  of  a  licence  of  Ed-  (ibid.), 

ward  I  himself  has  been  preserved,  permitting  a  cer*  But  opposition  to  mortmain  holdings  as  being  per- 


UttMtABk 


m 


ittRTMA^ 


petuities  appears  in  a  statute  of  Henr^r  VIII,  which 
preceded  the  confiscating  statutes.  Tms  is  the  stat- 
ute 23  Henry  VIII,  c.  X  (1531),  directed  against 
holding  of  laAds,  "to  the  use  of  parish  churches,  chap- 
els, churchwardens,  guilds,  fraternities,  commonalties, 
companies,  or  brotherhoods '^  purposes  previously 
acknowledged  as  charitable  and  religious. 

Excluding  from  its  operation  cities  and  towns  cor^ 
porate,  havmg,  by  their  ancient  customs,  power  to 
''devise  into  mortmain'',  the  statute  alluded  to  de- 
clares trusts  or  assurances  to  the  uses  just  mentioned 
"erected  and  made  of  devotions  or  by  common  assent 
of  the  people  without  any  corporation",  or  "to  the 
uses  and  intents  to  have  obites  perpetual  or  a  con- 
tinual service  of  a  priest  forever",  or  for  sixty  or 
eighty  years,  to  be  within  the  mischiefs  of  alienation 
"into  mortmain",  and  as  to  future  gifts  void  except 
for  terms  not  exceeding  twenty  years  (cf .  1  Edwuxl 
VI,  c.  XIV). 

Sir  Eklward  Coke  explains  this  statute  to  have  been 
directed  against  some  purposes  which  were  thence- 
forth to  be  condemned  as  superstitious,  although 
formerlv  approved  as  charitable,  "such  superstitious 
uses",  he  points  out,  "as  to  pray  for  souls  supposed 
to  be  in  purgatory,  and  the  like  ".  Not  long  before  the 
date  of  the  statute,  Coke  observes  "by  the  light  of 
God's  word  ",  "  diverse  superstitions  and  errors  in  the 
Christian  religion  which  had  a  pretence  and  semblance 
of  charity  and  devotion  were  discovered ' ' .  With  true 
charity,  he  claims,  the  statute  was  not  intended  to 
interfere.  For,  he  observes,  "no  time  was  so  bar- 
barous as  to  abolish  learning  and  knowledge  nor  so 
uncharitable  as  to  prohibit  relieving  the  poor"  (op. 
ci t .,  24  a) .  And  he  allows  us  to  infer  such  to  be  the  fact, 
even  though  the  charity  might  constitute  a  perpetuity. 

Dispositions  for  charity,  which  the  law  would  spe- 
ciallycommend,  a  statute  of  Queen  Elisabeth  mentions 
(43  Elizabeth,  c.  IV,  1601).  Dispositions  in  aid  of 
"superstitions"  were  not  to  be  deemed  charitable, 
and  these  the  courts  were  to  ascertain  and  condemn, 
in  the  varying  light  of  English  Statutes,  as  evils  like 
to  alienations  in  mortmain. 

An  authority  on  the  law  of  charitable  uses  (Duke, 
op.  cit.,  125)  states  that  "religion  being  variable,  ac- 
cording to  the  pleasure  of  succeeding  princes,  that 
which  at  one  time  is  held  for  orthodoxy  may  at  an- 
other be  accounted  superstitious".  And  accordingly 
the  English  courts  even  condemned  as  superstitious 
the  charge  on  land  of  an  annual  sum  for  ecfucation  of 
Scotchmen  to  propagate  in  Scotland  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church  of  England .  For,  by  statute,  presb3rteries 
had  been  settled  in  that  portion  of  the  United  King- 
dom [Methodist  Church  vs.  Remington,  1  Watts 
(Pa.),  Reports,  p.  224]. 

The  manner  of  establishing  a  charity  was  in  the 
coarse  of  time  restricted  by  "the  statute  of  mortmain 
commonly  so  called  ",  remarks  the  Master  of  the  Rolls 
in  Corbyn  vs.  French,  4  Vesey's  Reports,  427,  "but",- 
he  adds, "  verv  improperly,  for  it  does  not  prevent  the 
alienation  of  land  in  mortmain,  nor  was  tnat  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Act". 

Reciting  that  gifts  of  lands  in  mortmain  are  re- 
strained by  Magna  Carta,  and  other  laws  as  against 
the  public  utility,  but  that  "nevertheless  this  public 
mischief  has  of  late  greatly  increased  by  many  la^e 
and  improvident  alienations  or  dispositions  to  uses 
called  charitable  uses",  this  statute  (9  George  II,  c. 
XXXVI,  1736)  provides  that  thenceforth  such  dis- 
positions shall  be  "null  and  void",  unless  execi^ted 
with  certain  prescribed  solemnities,  and  not  less  than 
twelve  months  before  the  death  of  the  donor. 

The  statutes  23  Henry  VIII  and  this  statute  of 
Geon;e  II,  in  their  effect  on  the  dispositions  of  land, 
which  they  prohibit,  differ  from  ttie  old  mortmain 
acts.  The  statutes  referred  to  render  such  disposi- 
tions void,  that  is,  of  no  effect  whatsoever.  But 
alienations  in  mortmain  properly  so  termed  were  not 


mere  nullities,  but  were  effectual  to  transfer  owner- 
ship  of  land  to  a  corporation,  by  which  the  land  might 
be  retained  until  its  forfeiture. 

Enforcement  of  a  forfeiture  and  the  declaring  void 
a  charge  on,  or  use  of,  land  are  in  their  nature  and 
result  verv  different. 

Notwithstanding  the  statement  in  the  case  cited  from 
Vesey's  Reports  that  devises  for  charitable  uses  are 
not  in  themselves  alienations  in  mortmain,  the  latter 
word's  meaning  has  yet  been  claimed  to  embrace  any 

Eerpetual  holding  of  land  "in  a  dead  or  unserviceable 
and  ".  And  such,  it  is  claimed, " is  the  characteristic 
of  alienations  to  charitable  uses  ".  Land  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  charity  and  religion  is  said  to  be  "  prac- 
tically inalienable '  * ,  falecause  any  disposition  of  it,  which 
is  incompatible  with  the  carrying  out  or  continuity  of 
the  benevolent  purposes  of  the  conveyance,  will  be 
restrained  by  Courts  of  Equity  (Lewis,  "A  practical 
treatise  on  the  Law  of  Perpetuity".  Philadelphia, 
1846,  689),  in  England  the  Court  of  Chancery. 

For,  notwithstanding  mortmain  statutes,  and  as  if 
to  protect  the  sovereign  from  the  reproach  which,  ac- 
coniing  to  Coke,  he  might  otherwise  have  incurred, 
the  lora  chancellors  seem,  from  a  period  long  previous 
to  that  of  King  Henry  VIII,  to  nave  protected  and 
guarded  trusts  or  uses  in  favour  of  charity.  The 
chancellors  seem  to  have  administered  this  duty  in 
their  capacity  as  guardians  of  the  king's  conscience, 
and  by  force  of  an  assumed,  if  not  expressed,  delega- 
tion of  the  royal  prerogative  and  sovereign  will. 

We  cannot  here  consider  the  subject  of  royal  pre- 
rogative, nor  how  the  modem  differs  from  the  ancient 
theory  concerning  it.  Whether  modem  legislation 
against  perpetual  holdings  of  land  is  to  be  deemed  to 
prohibit  by  implication  trusts  for  charity,  because 
they  imply  perpetual  ownership,  has  been  the  subject 
of  extensive  legal  discussion  and  of  discordant  judi- 
cial decisions. 

But  according  to  the  existing  law  of  England  we 
learn  from  Sergeant  Stephen  (op.  cit..  Ill,  174)  that 
"there  is  now  practically  no  restraint  whatsoever  on 
gifts  of  land  by  will  for  charitable  purposes.  Pure 
personal  estate^',  he  addsf  "may.  of  course,  be  freely 
bequeathed  for  these  purposes".  AH  corporations, 
however,  are  yet  precluded  by  English  law  from  puiv 
chasing  land  "except  by  licence  in  mortmain  from 
the  Crown"  (ibid.,  26). 

As  to  what  dispositions  of  property  which  other- 
wise would  be  charitable  are  to  be  deemed  legally 
superstitious,  the  modem  law  of  England  is  less  narrow 
and  ri^d  than  the  law  was  formerly  interpreted  to  be 
(ibid.,  180). 

The  statutes  of  mortmain  themselves  were  not  ex- 
tended to  the  colonies.  And  respecting  the  United 
States  Chancellor  Kent  observes,  "We  have  not  in 
this  country  re-enacted  the  Statutes  of  Mortmain  or 
generally  assumed  them  to  be  in  force;  and  the  only 
legal  check  to  the  acquisition  of  lands  by  corporations 
consists  in  those  special  restrictions  contained  in  the 
acts  by  which  they  are  incorporated  ....  and  in  the 
force  to  be  given  to  the  exception  of  corporations  out 
of  the  Statute  of  Wills"  (dlommentaries  on  American 
law,  14th  ed.,  Boston,  1896,  II,  282).  The  com- 
mentator states,  by  way  of  exception,  that  the  stat- 
utes of  mortmain  arc  in  force  in  tne  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  supreme  court  of  that  State,  in  1832, 
stated  that  these  statutes  had  been  extenaed  to  the 
State  "only  so  far  as  they  prohibit  dedications  of 
property  to  superstitious  uses  and  grants  to  corpora- 
tions without  a  statutory  licence"  (1  Watts  Reports, 
224).  The  court  had  in  mind,  but  seemed  reluctant 
to  follow,  the  "Report  of  the  Judges"  made  in  1808, 
and  which  is  to  be  found  in  3  Binney's  Reports.  The 
"Report"  almost  follows  the  statute  of  Henry  VIII, 
in  declaring  all  conveyances  "void  made  either  to  an 
individual  or  to  any  number  of  persons  associated, 
but  not  incorporated,  if  the  said  conveyances  are  tor 


MORTON 


S82 


MOSAIC 


!2M8  or  purposes  of  a  Buperstitions  nature,  and  not  cal- 
culated to  promote  objects  of  charity  or  utility''. 

Notwithstanding  this  early  declaration,  no  such 
doctrine  as  that  of  the  English  courts  on  tne  subject 
of  superstitious  uses  or  trusts  can  well  have  a  place  in 
tlie  jurisprudence  of  the  United  States,  where  ''all  re- 
ligious beliefs,  doctrines  and  forms  of  worship  are 
free"  (Holland  vs.  Alcock,  108  New  York  Court  of 
Appeals  Reports,  329). 

The  people  of  the  States  make  known  their  sever- 
ed will  b^  enactments  of  the  State  legislatures,  to 
which  bodies  the  prerogatives  of  soverei^ty  have 
been  delegated.  And,  therefore,  the  validity  of  dis- 
positions of  land  in  favour  of  charity  is  controlled  by 
the  law  of  the  State  where  the  land  is  situated,  and 
without  any  implied  delegation  of  prerogative  to  any 
judicial  officer.  And  the  same  remark  applies  to  the 
general  power  of  corporations  to  acquire  and  to  hold 
land  in  the  several  States.  (See  Propebtt,  Ecclesi- 
astical.) 

PicxzBiNO,  Tfie  Statutea  at  Larga  (Cambridge.  1800);  Stubbs, 
8d€el  Ckartera  and  other  iUiutrationM  of  Bnglish  CoruiitiUumal  HU- 
tory  (5th  ed.,  Oxford,  1884) ;  Burgs,  Commentariea  on  Colonial 
and  Foreign  Law  generaUy  (London.  1838)  ,11, 466. 458 ;  Vidal ««. 
Girord't  Sxeeuiora,  M  Howard,  United  States  Supreme  Court  Reporte, 
▼,  194, 105;  Fountain  v.  Ravenel,  17  do.,  v,  384,  385.  380;  Dillon, 
Bwiueete  for  Maeeee  for  the  Soule  of  deceased  pereona  (Chicago, 
1806) ;  Holmea  m.  Mead,  St  New  York  Court  of  Appeals  ReporU, 
832;  Alien  m.  Steeens,  161  do.,  122:  Thompson,  ComtMntaries  on 
the  law  of  Private  Corvorations  (IndwDapolis,  1009).  sectiona  2365- 
2400;    Haluubt,  The  Laws  of  Bnoland  (London,  1000),  a.  ▼. 


CorporofftOfM. 


Charles  W.  Sloans. 


Morton^  John,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
buiy,  b.  in  DorseteMre  about  1420;  a.  at  Enowle. 
Kent,  15  Sept.,  1500.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford 
(Balhol  College)  where  he  graduated  D.C.L.  Being 
ordained  priest  he  practised  in  London  as  an  eccle^- 
astical  lawyer.  The  patronage  of  Cardinal  Bourchier 
obtained  for  him  much  preferment  and  he  became 
privy  coimcillor,  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall, 
master  in  Chancery,  subdean  of  Lincoln  (1450),  prin- 
cipal of  Peckwater  Inn,  Oxford  (1453),  and  preben- 
dary of  Salisbury  and  Lincoln  (1458).  Durmg  the 
Civil  War  he  joined  the  Lancastrians,  was  attiunted  by 
tiie  Yorkists  and  lost  all  his  offices.  During  the  reign 
of  Edward  IV  his  attainder  was  reversed  on  his  sub- 
mission, and  he  was  made  Master  of  the  RoUs  (16 
March,  1472-3),  Archdeacon  of  Winchester  and  Ches- 
ter (1474),  and  was  elected  Bishop  of  Ely  on  31  Jan., 
1478-9.  During  the  reign  of  Ricnard  III  he  was  im- 
prisoned but  escaped  to  Flanders,  returning  to  Eng- 
land when  Henry  Vll  became  king  in  1485.  He  was 
much  trusted  W  the  king  and  was  all-powerful  in  the 

government.  He  was  elected  Archbisnop  of  Canter- 
uiy,  8  Oct.,  I486,  and  in  the  following  March  be- 
came Lord  Chancellor  of  England.  In  1493  Alexan- 
der VI  created  him  Cardinal  of  St.  Anastasia.  He 
was  made  Chancellor  of  Oxford  in  1495.  It  is  prob- 
able that  he  was  the  author  of  the ''  History  of  Richard 
III '\  usually  ascribed  to  Blessed  Thomas  More,  who 
as  a  boy  was  a  page  in  his  household  and  who  subse- 
quently translated  it  into  English. 

Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  (London,  1860- 
84) ;  Williams,  Lives  of  the  Bnglish  Cardinals  (London,  1877) ; 
Abchbold  in  Diet,  Nat,  Biog,,  with  list  of  contemporary  refer* 

Edwin  Burton. 

Morton,  Robert,  Vbnerabijs,  English  priest  and 
martyr,  b.  at  Bawtry,  Yorks,  about  1548;  executed  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  London,  Wednesday,  28  August, 
1588  (the  catalogue  probably  compiled  by  Fr.  John 
Gerard,  S.J.,  and  printed  by  Fr.  Pollen,  S.J.,  in  "Cath. 
Rec.  Soc.  Publ.",  V,  28^-293;  gives  the  date  of  the 
deaths  of  the  Venerabiles  Morton,  Moor,  Holford, 
Claxton,  and  Felton  as  30  August,  but  this  seems  to 
be  an  error).  He  was  the  son  of  Robert  Morton,  and 
nephew  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Morton,  was  ordained  dea^ 
OOQ  fit  TlAme  nod  priest  at  Rdms  in  1587,  and  con- 


demned at  Newgate  26  Aiigust  merelv  for  bein^  a 
priest  contrary  to  27  Eliz^  c.  2.  At  Uie  same  time 
and  place  suffered  Hugh  Moor,  a  lasrman,  aged  25,  of 
Grantham,  Lincolnshire,  and  Gray's  Inn,  London,  for 
having  been  reconciled  to  the  Church  by  Fr.  Thomas 
Stephenson,  S.J.  On  the  ssune  day  suffered  (1)  at 
Mile  End,  William  Dcan^  a  priest  (q.  v.);  and  Heniy 
Weblev,  a  layman,  bom  m  tne  city  of  Gloucester;  (2) 
near  the  Theatre,  William  Gunter,  a  priest,  bom  at 
Raglan,  Monmouthshire,  educatea  at  Rdms;  (3)  at 
Clerkenwell,  Thomas  Holford,  a  priest,  bom  at  Aston, 
in  Acton,  Cheshire,  educated  at  Reims,  who  was 
hanged  only;  and  (4)  between  Brentford  and  Houna- 
low,  Middlesex,  James  Claxton  or  Clarkson,  apriest, 
bom  in  Yorkshire  and  educated  at  Reims;  and  Tnomas 
Felton,  bom  at  Bermondsey  Abbey  in  1567,  son  of  B. 
John  Felton,  tonsured  1583  and  about  to  be  professed 
a  Minim,  who  had  suffered  terrible  tortures  in  prison. 
According  to  one  account  there  also  suffered  on  the 
same  day  at  Holywell,  London,  one  Richard  Williams, 
a  Welsh  priest  of  Queen  Mary's  reign.  Another,  how- 
ever, puts  his  death  in  1592  or  1593.  Fr.  Pollen 
tMnks  his  name  occurs  in  this  year  in  mistake  for  that 
of  John  Harrison,  aliaa  Symonds,  a  letter  carrier,  who 
was  it  seems  executed  at  Tyburn,  5  October,  1588. 

PoLLBN,  Bnolish  Martyrs  1684-1608  in  Cath,  Rec.  Soc  PubL,  V 
(privately  printed,  London,  1908) ;  Idem.  Acts  of  Bnglish  Martyrs 
(London,  1891) :  Chaxxonkb,  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priesis,  I 
(Manohflotar,  1802). 

J.  B.  Wainewright. 

Mosaie  LegiBlation,  the  body  of  mridical,  moral, 
and  ceremonial  institutions,  laws,  ana  decisions  com- 
prised in  the  last  four  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 
ascribed  by  Christian  and  Hebrew  tradition  to  Moses. 
Name. — As  early  as  the  Davidic  era,  the  name  mvv 
t&rOh  was  popularly  used  to  designate  this  compila- 
tion, which,  however,  might  not  then  have  embraced 
all  tne  enactments  it  now  contains.  After  the  captiv- 
Hy,  the  term  became  synonymous  with  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  this  usage  has  obtained  ever  since.  Side 
by  side  with  these  meanings  are  others  less  compro- 
hensive  and  more  ancient.  If,  as  is  generallv  ad- 
mitted, ydrOh  (to  cast)  be  the  root,  there  would:  be  a 
peculiar  historic  interest  attaching  to  the  word,  be- 
cause of  the  implication  that  the  nrst  t&r6lh,  or  deci- 
sions, of  whatever  kind,  were  arrived  at  chidSy,  or  at 
least  in  important  cases,  by  the  casting  of  lots.  The 
deity  would  then  be  regaraed  as  the  author  of  them. 
More  developed  than  these  are  the  first  avulable  hia> 
toric  i&r6tiiy  such  as  were  pronounced  in  cases  of  pri- 
vate litigation  at  Raphidim  (Ex.,  xviii,  13  so.)  by 
Moses,  rdying  for  his  direction  on  the  analogies  oi  prec- 
edent or  custom.  On  the  lips  of  the  priests  and 
prophets  i&rdh  was  sometimes  referred  to  the  moral 
and  reli^ous  prescriptions  of  the  Law  alone,  or  again, 
to  the  ceremonial  pcut  of  it,  whether  in  theory  o; 
practice;  in  short,  to  any  direction,  written  or  oraL 
given  in  JehovcJi  s  name  by  one  enjoying  an  official 
capacity. 

Quite  naturally,  when  the  period  of  formal  codifica- 
tion set  in,  each  new  code  was  styled  a  i&rahj  and  these 
separate  i&rdth  were  the  stepping-stones  to,  and  after- 
wards the  constituent  parts  of,  the  ''Torsn"  or  Cor- 
Sus,  which  has  always  been  identified  with  the  name  of 
loses. — More  restricted  in  thdr  signification  are  the 
following  Biblical  terms:  DHIpB,  pS/gjWIm.  precepts; 
mVD,  mlgwah,  commandment;  nnj;.  *ed{w)6ih,  testi- 
monies, i.  e.  expressions  of  God's  will  to  man,  chiefly 
in  moral  and  reu^ous  matters;  DfidD,  mUhpOi,  a  judg- 
ment, usually  though  not  exclusively  relating  to  dvil 
or  criminal  law,  and,  eventually,  imp1}dng  an  obliga- 
tory force  arising  from  the  nature  of  moral  rectitude, 
which  is  enhanced,  not  obscured,  by  the  notion  of  theo- 
cratic economy;  and  pn,  npn,  Aflg,  hHqqdh  (root,  to  en- 
grave), statute,  or  thing  engra^d  (e.  g.  on  Btone), 
thereby  becoming  fixed,  so  to  speak,  aa  an  ordinance. 
iVom  this  varied  terminology,  however  indiaeriminate 


MOSAIC 


583 


MOSAIC 


the  use  made  of  it  mav  have  been  as  time  went  on,  it 
seems  ri^t  to  conclude  that  its  originators  had  more 
than  a  faint  perception  of  the  distinction  between  the 
different  classes  of  law,  and  of  their  respective  binding 
force.  If,  in  given  cases,  equal  penalties  were  meted 
out  for  delinquencies  from  tne  moral  and  ceremonial 
laws,  it  was  because  the  nearness  of  the  latter  to  the 
national  God  by  reason  of  thdr  imiversal  character, 
seemed  to  ^ve  offences  against  them  a  peculiar  hei- 
nousness,  not  found  in  other  crimes.  The  legislators 
understood  well  that  when  monotheistic  ceremonies 
declined,  polytheistic  institutions  would  supplant 
them,  and  then  there  would  be  no  morality  left  to 
guara. 

Origin. — ^The  Torah,  as  a  whole,  was  neither  mir- 
aculously conmaunicatod  from  heaven,  nor  was  it 
laboriously  thought  out  and  put  togetner  by  Moses 
independently  of  external  influences.  It  is  some- 
times hazardously  asserted  that  it  antedated  Moses 
by  a  thousand  years  or  more,  since  much  that 
is  in  the  Torah  is  found  also  in  the  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi. Indeed,  certain  decrees  in  the  Babylonian 
code  are  more  excellent  than  their  Mosaic  paraUels; 
in  more  important  ones,  however,  the  Tor^  takes 

Erecedenoe.  It  was  the  primitive  condition  of  He- 
rew  society  that  dictatea  Israel's  first  laws,  by  lead- 
ing to  the  establishment  of  famil3^  and  tribal  customs. 
Yet  it  would  be  wrong  to  maintain  with  too  much  as- 
surance that  the  same  or  a  similar  collection  of  laws 
would  have  resulted  spontaneously  and  independently 
from  the  same  natural  conditions  in  any  other  pe- 
riod or  clime.  There  had  been  precedents  of  just  such 
customs  and  practices  as  Israel  adopted,  among  other 
races  with  wnich  the  founders  of  Israel's  laws  had 
come  in  contact,  and  it;  seems  an  irresistible  conclu- 
sion that,  since  Israel  borrowed  its  language  from  its 
neighbours  and  could  be  so  easily  won  over  to  heathen 
rites  as  to  defy  the  vigilance  of  judges,  priests,  and 
prophets,  it  could  not  but  be  influenced  by  the  social 
and  political  life  of  the  neighbouring  peoples. 

The  possibilities  then,  are  the  following:  the  mi^a^ 
tion  of  Abraham  from  Chaldea  would  be  responsible 
for  the  nucleus  of  Mosaic  Legislation,  which  is  pecu- 
liarly Semitic.  The  sojourn  of  the  patriarchs  among 
the  Canaanites.  coupled  with  their  relations  with  the 
Pharaohs,  would  impart  a  forei^  colouring,  with  a 
slight  strengthening  of  the  original  stock  during 
Jacob's  rstreat  to  Mesopotamia.  The  Eg^tian  op- 
pression would  certainly  eUcit  some  well-denned  views 
regarding  justice  and  right.  The  education  of  Moses 
by  Pharaoh's  daughter  would  prepare  a  master-mind 
for  tribal  unification,  while  his  experiences  among 
the  Semitic  Midianites  would  teach  him  the  necessity 
of  certain  institutions  peculiar  to  desert  life,  with  a  due 
respect  for  established  usages,  such  as  must  be  taken 
into  account  even  to-day  in  dealing  with  the  Sinaitic 
tribes.  Any  real  influence  from  the  Ckxle  of  Ham- 
murabi would  have  to  operate,  as  it  likely  did, 
through  one  or  other  of  these  channels.  The  direct 
result  of  these  antecedents  would  be  a  transmission  of 
principles  through  the  knowled^^e  of  concrete  exam- 
ples illustrating  them,  the  primitive  mind  not  being 
^pable  of  grasping  or  forming  bare  abstractions. 
What  these  traditionary  laws  were,  and  how  they 
were  reduced  to  practice  in  domestic  and  political  life, 
is  set  forth  at  large  in  the  article  on  Bibucal  An- 
TiQurriEs. 

No  matter  how  much,  or  how  little  can  be  ex- 
plained in  this  way,  room  must  always  be  left  for 
direct,  external,  and  Divine  intervention,  that  is  for 
an  historic  revelation  made  by  God  of  Himself  to  the 
chosen  people,  in  such  a  way  as  to  guarantee  them 
a  special  Providence  and  direction  in  working  out 
their  high  destiny.  Since  such  direction  could  be 
secured  to  future  generations  only  through  the  Law  by 
which  they  would  be  governed,  the  Sinaitic  manifesta- 
tions must  be  explained  as  placing  a  Divine  seal  upon 


existing  laws,  which  they  did  not  abrogate,  and  upon 
any  normal  development  of  them  in  the  future  which 
would  be  calculated  to  carry  out  the  designs  of 
Jehovah  more  efficieqtlv.  Then,  too,  there  must  have 
been  something  settled  and  fixed  on  the  spot,  as  a 
norm  to  which  subseauent  prophets  might  appeal  in 
their  judgments  of  future  laws  and  contingencies. 
It  would  be  strange  if  some  such  remote  preparation 
had  not  been  made  for  a  stupendous  event  like  the 
Incarnation.  Hence  it  is  that  the  more  reflecting 
among  Christian  critics,  whatever  be  their  views  as  to 
the  literary  composition  of  the  Pentateuch,  are  at  one 
in  asserting  that  the  Pentateuchal  laws,  even  those  of  a 
ceremonialcharacter,  are  traceable  back  to  Moses  as 
their  founder;  hence,  too,  the  peculiar  psvchological 
phenomenon  all  through  Israel's  history,  that  observ- 
ance of  the  law  or  an^  of  its  parts  was  superior  to 
(non-compulsory)  sacrifice,  because  it  was  a  homage 
of  obedience  paid  directly  to  the  nation's  God. 

Codification. — In  its  present  form  the  Mosaic  Leg- 
islation appears  without  logical  order,  and  inter- 
spersed with  historical  reminiscences.  It  is  largely 
casuistic,  as  mi^t  be  expected  from  the  manner  of 
its  early  transmission,  (l)  The  Decalogue,  with  its 
two  versions  (Ex.,  xx,  2-17;  Deut.,  v,  6-21)  is  basic, 
setting  forth,  as  it  does,  the  sovereignty  and  spiritual- 
ity of  God,  together  with  the  sacminess  of  His  and 
the  neighbour's  rights.  (2)  The  "Book  of  the  Cove- 
nant", so  called  in  Ex.^  xxiv,  7,  embraces  Ex..  xxi- 
xxiii,  19  (or  xx,  20-xxiu,  33),  and  contains  juoicial, 
moral,  and  religious  regulations  for  people  hving  in 
primitive  agricultural  conditions.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  humanitarian  character.  (3)  The  Deuterono- 
mic  code  amplifies  the  preceding  and  adapts  it  to  new 
conditions.  (4)  The  "Law  of  Holiness"  as  oontuned 
in  Lev.,  xvii-xxvi  has  reference  chiefly  to  holiness 
of  a  moral  and  ceremonial  nature.  It  forms  a  small 
part  of  what  is  now  critically  styled  the  (5)  "Priest's 
Code".  This  last  group  aboimds  in  ceremonial 
enactments,  and  comprises  nearly  all  Leviticus  and 
Numbers,  with  a  few  chapters  of  Exodus.  In  the  light 
of  criticism  there  is  no  need  of  abandoning  the  tra- 
ditional belief  that  Moses  compiled,  imder  the  influ- 
ence of  inspiration,  any  or  all  of  these  codes  as  they 
stood  ori^nally,  or  in  that  stage  of  development  they 
had  attamed  in  his  time.  The  literary  peculiarities 
of  the  Pentateucj^  merely  entitle  us  to  assert  that 
these  various  divisions  were  bv  later  writers  revised, 
enlarged,  and  brought  up  to  date,  while  the  changes 
in  Israel  s  life,  from  a  nomadic  to  a  sedentarv  state, 
from  a  dispersed  to  a  kin^-ruled  nation,  explain  full 
well  the  appearance,  as  tune  went  on,  of  a  limited 
amount  of  new  legislation  quite  consonant  with  the 
soul  and  spirit  of  the  old.  Common  Law,  as  it  were, 
grew  and  developed,  but  the  statutory  enactments 
remained  inviolable. 

Contents. — ^Abstracting  from  the  distinction  of 
codes,  the  Torah  exhibits  a  dogmatic  system  that  is 
rigorously  monotheistic.  A  moral  standard  issues 
from  this,  having  as  its  peculiar  feature  the  identifi- 
cation ot  civil,  social,  and  religious  observance, 
with  service  performed  directly  and  immediately  for 
Jahweh,  and  at  His  bidding.  A  ceremonial  charac- 
terized by  its  pictiu*esqueness  and  wealth  of  detail 
follows,  the  evident  purpose  of  which  was  to  keep 
the  people  constantly  in  mind  of  the  Covenant  into 
which  tney  or  their  ancestors  had  entered,  and  to  as- 
sure them  of  God's  fidelity  to  His  promises,  if  only 
they  would  do  their  part.  The  civil  and  criminal 
enactments  are  sufliciently  well  explained  elsewhere. 
The  article  on  Biblical  Antiquities  dispenses  us 
from  treating  in  detail  any  of  these  topics  save  the 
ceremonial.  Even  that  is  largely  dealt  with  in 
the  paragraph  on  Sacred  Antiquities  (loc.  cit.)  and  the 
articles  Atonement,  Dedication,  Jubilee,  Pasch, 
Pentbcobt,  Pubim,  SAnBATH,  Tabebnaclbs^  Tktjm- 

PBTSt 


The  Ttkbemule  wm  the  centre  of  public  worship. 


parts,  the  Holy  Plsce  and  the  amBJler  Holy  of  Houes. 
Tlie  latter  contained  only  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant, 
sad  mipfat  be  entered  by  no  one  but  Mosm  aod  the 
U^  pnesta.  Any  priest  might  enter  the  Holy  Place. 
Teub  waa  rumiahed  with  a  table  for  the  Loaves  of 
PropoaitioD,  a  seven-branched  solden  candlestick,  and 
the  Altar  of  Incense.  Outwde,  in  the  sunounding 
court,  were  the  Altar  of  Holocausta  and  the  bracea 
laver  for  priestly  ablutions.  The  tribe  of  Levi  fur- 
nished the  ministerB,  the  descendants  of  Aaron  being 
priests,  and  the  remainmg  ma- 
jority, Lcvites  properly  eo- 
caUed.  The  pnests  were  con- 
secrated, wore  special  vest- 
ments,  offered  eacrifice,  at- 
tended to  the  Holy  Place,  and 
acted  as  judses  and  teachers. 
For  the  peciiiiar  distinction  of 
highpriesthood,  see  the  article 
Aabon  (section  II).  The  Le- 
vites  were  the  priests'  assist- 
ants. They  carried  the  Tab- 
ernacle whenever  it  was  moved. 
Bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices 
were  prescribed.  The  former 
class  embraced  the  Holocaust, 
in  which  the  entire  victim  was 
consumed  on  the  altar  by  Gre 
and  the  Expiatory  and  Pacific 
sacrifices,  when  only  the  fat  was 
burned  on  the  altar.  The  rest 
was  either  burned  elsewhere  or 
given  to  the  priest  ss  in  the 
firat  instance,  but  divided  be- 
tween priest  and  offerer  as  in 
the  second,  and  followed  by  a 
sacrificial  meal.  The  Unbloody 
sacrifices  included  first-fruits, 
tithes,  meat  and  drink  ofTeringa, 
and  incense.  Both  oblations 
and  sacrifices  were  seasoned 
with  salt. 

The  most  atriking  feature  of 
the  ceremonial  legislation  is  the 
distinction  between  legal  clean- 
ness and  uncleanness,  with  its 
concomitant  provision  for  nu- 
merous external  purifications. 
The  faithful  Hebrew  had  al- 
ways to  ^>stain  from  blood. 
He  might  not  use  for  food  any 

rwlmped  that  did  not  divide 
hoof  and  chew  the  cud,  nor  *'"™  Pompeii,  nir 
any  fish  that  did  not  have  both  fins  and  scales,  nor 
birds  of  prey,  nor  water  (owl,  nor  reptiles,  nor  insects, 
the  locust  excepted.  To  do  so  would  make  him  un- 
clean. The  use  of  marriage,  childbirth,  and  leprosy 
also  induced  uncleanness.  It  is  true  that  this  legis- 
lation is  largely  hygienic,  but  the  Hebrews  did  not 
commonly  conceive  it  in  that  light.  As  diseases  were 
regarded  as  direct  from  Jahwen,  precautions  against 
them  were  designt^primarily  to  avert  them  by  appeas- 
ing the  sender.  Those,  therefore,  who  failed  to  take 
such  precautions,  either  necessarily  or  otherwise,  were 
dji^leasing  to  Jahweh,  and  legal  defilement  was  the  re- 
■ult.  How  effectually  the  Torah  prepared  the  Hebrews 
for  the  accpptance  of  the  New  Law  is  attested  by  the 
work  of  Christ,  who  came  not  to  destroy  but  to  perfect 
it.  It  was  only  those  who,  while  sitting  in  the  chair  of 
Moses,  preferred  for  their  personal  guidance  the  tradi- 
tions of  men,  who  proved  inimical  to  our  Saviour's  work . 
GiooT.  OuUiiM  J  Jrmili  //lUfMT,  (New  York,  1S97);    Hor- 


■  uMh  XXIX'XXXIX 


.  (Pan,  ISST) 

Thos.  I  K.  Rbiu,t. 

Uoulea,  as  a  term,  according  to  the  usual  author 
itiea  is  derived  through  goierations  of  gradual  chanra 
from  the  Greek  iwvirtwi,     appertuning  to  the  Muses. ' 
In  the  later  Latin  there  are  the  terms  optu  munrum, 
"moaaie  work,"  munmnua.  "mosaic  worker";  but 
probably  the  English   word    "mosaic"    is   derived 
unmediately  from  the  French  motaime,  which  with 
its  earlier   form   rtunitaique   can   only   be   borrowed 
from  the  Itahan  or   Provvofsl, 
and  cannot  be  the  descendant 
of    the   earlier    Fr«ich    form 
mjuike.     It  is,  however,  ques- 
tionable  if   these  terms  were 
applied  to  all  the  different  epe- 
cies  of  woric  which  may  now  be 
ckissed  as  "mosaic",  and  it  is 
probable  that  they  were   only 
properly  applied  to  the  prod- 
ucts   of    the  worker    in    ofmt 
Ittsclialum     or     iirrmiculaluni, 
formed  of  small  cubes  of  glass, 
matble  or  other  material.      " 


:    defiof 


I  col- 


OxNulaii 


location   of  piectw-  of  marble. 
glass,  ceramic  material,  or 
precious   stone    embedded    in 
some  apecies  of  cement  ao  as 
to  form  an  ornamental  entity, 
we  should  have  to  include  Ibe 
opui  Al^xandnnum,  and  other 
ordinary  pavings  such  aa  were 
used  for  the  less  dignified  por 
tjons  of  Roman  houses.    The 
term    moaaie    would    also  be 
made  to  apply  to  the  opua  mc- 
lile  (Vitruvius.  VII  i)  made  of 
pieces  of  marble  and  kIbsb  fonn- 
uig  geometrical  or  foUat«d  pat- 
terns, each  piece  b^ng  ground 
eraclly  to  fit  into  the  desgn, 
or  ID  the  case  of  tnctures,  ground 
to  make  the  shapes  necessary 
for  the  completion  of  the  sub- 
ject.   We  also  apply  thctenn 
to  the  pavement  work  of  later 
date,    like    that   In   St.  Mary 
Major's  in  Rome,  end  that  in 
Canterbury  Cathedral  and  in 
the  sanctuary  of  Westminster 
Abbev  in  England,  as  well  as  to 
Nuionii  Miueum,  Nitiis       mosaics  of  a  miniature  species 
'    used  for  jewellery  and  small  pictures — suchas  the  Head 
of  Our  Lord  which  was  presented  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV  to 
Philip  de  Croy  in  1475  and  is  now  in  the  Treasury  of 
SU.  Peter  and  Paul's  Chimay.     TWs  latter  tradition  of 
work  still  exists,  and  every  viutor  to  Rome  or  south- 
ern Italy  is  acquainted  with  the  cheap  but  wonder- 
fully executed  mosaic  jewellery  which  is  sold  in  most 
of  the  rfiops,  and  even  m  the  streets  of  Rome.     TTiere 
is  little  doubt  but  that  mosaic  in  jewellery  is  of  con- 
siderable antiquity. 

Hitlory. — In  passing  theee  various  spedea  in  his- 
torical review,  the  earliest  to  be  mentioned  is  that 
in  Exodus,  a  pavement  (udv,  10),  "a  work  of  sap- 
phire stones",  and  the  pavement  of  Ahasuerus  at 
Susa  "paved  with  porphyry  and  white  marble,  and 
embellished  with  pwnting  of  wonderful  variety", 
which  here,  probably,  means  varied  inlaid  colour, 
since  surface  punting  would  be  out  of  place  on  a 
pavement.  And  we  may  well  believe  that  the  Per- 
sians knew  of  teaaellated  work  when  we  conmder  the 
enamelled  bricks,  which  may  be  cttlled  ft  Urge  Ipik) 


MOSAICS  5! 

of  "tcflsdlatum,"  now  in  the  Louvre  from  this  same 
palace  al-Susa.  This  is  the  only  record  earlier  than 
the  ezistiQK  examples  in  the  Roman  pavements  of 
the  Republic  and  Empire  such  as  remain  in  the 
Regia,  the  Temple  of  Caator,  the  House  of  Livia, 
Pomp^,  etc.  Suetonius  says  that  Cffsar  was  ac- 
cuatomed  to  carry  in  his  campaign  both  tessellated 
and  sectile  pavements.  It  appears  according  to 
Pliny  (XXXVl,  i)  that  in  the  theatres  and  basihcaa, 
aa  well  as  in  certain  palaces  of  noble  Romans,  the 
pavements  were  in  tessellated  work  or  in  maifole 
sectile,  and  the  walls  decorated  with  marble  or  glass 


S  MOSAICS 

that  these  worics  precede  the  Chiiatian  Era.  Then 
perfection  argues  a  development  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity, the  {genesis  of  which  is  at  present  unknown. 
Of  the  Bubndiary  work  in  mosaic  of  Roman  pave- 
ments, mention  has  already  been  mode — it  consists  of 
patteiiu  in  black  and  white,  plun  floors  with  oma- 


^vas  Edile,  caused  a  wonderfull  piece  of  worke  to  be 
made,  and  exceeding  all  that  had  ever  been  knoune 
wrought  by  man's  hand  .  ,  .  and  a  theatre  it  was: 
th«  stage  had  three  lofts  one  above  another  .  .  .  the 
base  or  nethermost  part  of  the  stage  was  all  of  marble, 
the  middle  of  glass,  an  excessive  superfluitie  never 
heard  of  before  or  after."  Signor  Luigi  Visconti  in- 
formed HeiTvon  Minutoli  (UeDcr  die  Anf ertigung  und 
die  neu-Anwendung  dcr  f^igen  Ul&ser  bei  den 
Alten",p.  13,  Beriln,  L8:i6)  that  the  walla  of  a  cham- 
ber in  a  palace  between  the  gate  of  St.  Sebastian  and 
that  of  St.  Paul  at  Rome  were  found  covered  up  to  five 
or  six  feet  from  the  pavement  with  beautiful  marbles 
and   above  that   with    coloured    glass    plaques  and 

Eattems.  Some  existing  examples  appear  to  have 
een  of  curious  structure,  the  pieces  of  coloured  glass 
were  laid  upon  a  flat  surface  and  a  sheet  of  glass  laid 
over  these  and  melted  to  a  suSicient  heat  to  join 
them  together. 

Concerning  the  method  called  "tessellatum"  we 
have  existing  remains  to  prove  the  perfection  to 
which  the  art  was  carried  by  the  Romans  in  the  pave- 
ments, and  in  remains  of  wall  glaa  mosaic  at  Pompeii. 
One  of  the  finest  examples  of  pavements  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  "Battle  of  Ihbub"  from  the  Casa 
del  Fauno  at  Pompeii  [Fig.  1],  now  in  the  N^lea 
Museum.    Many  of  the  pictures  and  mosaics  in 


Flu.  3 — SpmeiVBK  or^ItoiUN  favuibnt 

Fonod  mt  SUchHter,  Enaluid 

Pompdi  are  supposed  to  be  traditional  copies  of 
celebrated  antiaue  paintings^  and  it  is  suggested 
that  this  "Battle"  is  a  trwlitional  copy  of  a  cele- 
brated picture  by  Helen,  a  daughter  of  Timon,  of 
the  Egyptian  Hellenic  school.  From  Pompeii  came 
further  the  very  beautiful  columns  in  glass  mosiuc 
now  in  the  Naples  Museum  [Fig.  2].  Pompeii,  as 
m  know,  was  destroved  on  24  August,  a.  n.  79,  so 


mental  borders;  groups  of  still  life,  festoons  of  flowers, 
and  other  designs.  These  exist  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  show  bow  general  was  their  use.  That  mosaio 
pavements  continued  in  use  during  the  Christian 
era  is  proved  by  the  numerous  examples  that  have 
been  discovered,  apparently  of  Roman  ori^,  at  places 
as  distant  from  one  another  as  Carthwe,  Dalma- 
tia,  Germany,  France,  and  Enf(knd.  In  England 
a  great  variety  have  been  found  m  London  and  m  all 
parts  of  the  country  dominated  by  the  Romansjan 
example  from  Silchester  is  given  m  Figure  3.  The 
Britiss  Museum  contains  manj^  mosaic  fragments; 
amongst  these  is  the  fine  specimen  of  wonc  from 
Carthage  [Fig.  4].  Some  of  the  earlier  Carthaginian 
pavements  have  glass  tessene;  the  latsr  ones  are  of 
marble  or  ceramic  cubes. 

Entirely  different  in  method  from  the  work  formed 
of  cubes  was  the  opus  aeclite,  where,  as  already  de- 
scribed, the  ornament  or  picture  was  formed  of  pieces 
of  marijie,  stone,  or  glass  of  different  colours  cut  to  a 
rei^uired  shape,  in  the  same  way  that  a  ptunted  glass 
window  is  now  made.  The  manufacture  of  the  nec- 
essary opaque  glass  was  carried  to  a  very  great  per- 
fection by  the  Romans,  as  is  testified  by  the  multi- 
tude of  fragments  that  have  been  found  in  mounds  of 
rubbish  or  in  the  Tiber.  Opiu  lectUe  as  a  wall 
decoration  seems  to  have  been  very  subject  to  decay, 
the  pieces  of  glass  becoming  detached  by  their  own 
weight,  on  the  wall  becoming  damp,  decayed,  or 
shaken.  There  are  some  very  fine  specimens  in  the 
K^aples  Museum;  others  have  been  found  in  the 
chureh  of  St.  Andrea  in  Catabarbara,  Rome,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  been  originally  the  basilica  of  the 
house  of  the  Basm  on  the  Esquiline,  dating  from 
about  A,  D,  317.  Front  this  house  comes  the  spirited 
work  [Fig.  5)  of  the  "Tiger  and  Heifer,"  nowpreaerved 
in  the  church  of  St.  Antonio  Abbate.  Ine  back- 
ground and  stri^  of  the  tiger  are  In  green  porphyry, 
the  rest  of  the  tiger's  skin  of  giaU/)  aniico;  the  heifer 
is  pale  fawn  marble,  and  its  eyes  of  modier-of-pearl. 
Other  decorations  of  the  same  house  ^owed  that 
the  walls  had  opu*  teetiie  in  glass  ornament  and 
figures,  much  in  the  manner  described  in  the  quotes 


tion  from  Pliny,  already  given.    Sectile  work  in  glaaa    litUe  of  the  oripnal  remEuns.    What  reauune  of  tlie 


440.    The.  mosaicB  of  the  church  of  Sointa  Coaniae  aad 

e  buildinga  may  be  of  glass.    Thisuseof  mar-    Damian  (526-530)  were  restored  in  1660.  At  Ravenna 

ble  probably  arose  from  the  decay  in  the  manufacture  the  mosaic  work  in  the  various  churches  is  the  finest  of 
of  me  special  glaaa  and  the  difflculty  of  cutting  and  its  period.  That  in  the  baptistery  of  the  cathedral 
dedicated  to  St.  John  the  Baptist  [¥ig.  6|  is  an 
esjiecially  good  example,  the  church  being  originally 
built  at  the  end  of  tne  fourth  century  but  burnt  in 
434.  The  mos^ca  of  the  Mausoleum  of  Galla 
Placidia  (4.50)  are  also  of  excellent  design  and  work- 
manship. Unfortunately  some  of  these  have  been 
restored  with  ptunt«d  stucco.  Those  in  the  chape) 
of  the  arehiepiscopal  palace  and  of  the  church  of 
St.  John  the  Evangelist  are  too  of  this  period.  The 
mosaics  of  the  cathedrals  of  Novara  and  Aosta  and 
the  chapel  of  9t.  Sati™  in  fit,  Ambrose's,  Milan, 
ar^  also  of  the  fifth  century.  In  France  at  Nantes, 
Clermont,  and  Toulouse  historians  record  the  pladng 
of  mosaics  which  no  longer  remain. 

Thp  greatest  works  of  the  sixth  century,  and  per- 
haps the  greatest  of  all  mosaic  works  in  ext«nt,  were 
those  carried  out  under  the  Emperor  Justinian  in 
Sancta  Sophia.  Constantinople.  In  633,  a  fire  de- 
'■  (  Bin  stroyed  what  then  existed,  but  in  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
R^      "  [uryihe  restoration  was  commenced  under  Anthcmios 

a,  itcpDM  ^.j  J  ^g,(jore,  who,  it  is  recorded,  emplowd  ten  thou- 

^rinding  it  exactly  to  the  forms.     Sectile  in  marbles     sand  builders,  craftsmen,  and  artists.     The  colour  is 
IS  found  in  Santa  Sabina,  Rome  (425-450);  in  the    subdued,  ana  the  design  and  execution  good  of  ita 
baptistery  of  the  cathedral,  Ravenna;  in  San  Vitale,     period.     Justinian  also  caused  the  church  of  Sancta 
Ravenna  (sixth  century);  at  Parenzo  (sixth  century);  in     Sophia  at  Thcssalonica  to  be  built,  and  decorated 
Sancta  Sophia  at  Constantiaople  and  at  Thessalonica,    with  mosaic.     Further  great  works  were  executed  at 
(sixth  century);  its  use  thus  baa  been  continuous  ever     Ravenna  at  the  same  period.     After  the  conquest 
since,  and  was  an  es))ecia]  feature  of  the  Renaissance,    by  Belisarius  in  539,  it  oecame  the  rcddence  of  the 
The  portion  of  this  theme  of  the  greatest  impor-     exarchs  in  552,  and  8.  Apollinare  Nuoto  |Fig.  8],  S. 
tance  in  the  present  article  is  that  concerned  with    Maria  in  Cosmedin  (553^566),  8.  Vitale  (624-634) 
the  glass  mosaic  of  Christian  churches.     The  initial     [Fig.  9],  and  S.  ApoUinare-in-Classe  (534-549)  were 
steps  by  which  it  gradually  emerged  from  Pagan  art    buLIt  and  filled  with  mosaics.    It  will  be  otwerved 
are  in  a  measure  lost,  for  it  rises  suddenly  like  a    that   these   churches  were  commenced   under   the 
phsnix  from  the  ashes,  complete,  entire  in  its  ma-     Ostrogoths  and  finished  under  Justinian,  who  prob- 
nipulation,  whilst  the  character  of  the  subjects  and    ably  nad   the   mosaics  executed   by   local   artists, 
designs  represeoted  bespeak  the  traditions  adopted 
by   the   artists  of   the   catacombs.     Mosaic,   as   far 
as  one  can  at  present  ascertain,  became  a  vehicle  of 
Christian  art   in  the  fourth  century.     The  earliest 
examples,  such  as  those  of  the  first  basilica  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  are  all  destroyed.     In  the  church 
of  St.  Costanza  on  the  Via  Nomentana  there  still  re- 
mains interesting  work.    We  have  also  preserved  in 
the  Chigi  Library  some  mosaic  from  the  catacomb  of 
C^riacus,    A  mosaic  of  St.  Agnes  in  the  catacomb 
of  St.  Callistus  was,  however,  so  decayed,  that  the 
existing  picture  was  painted  over  it  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury.    Other  mosaics  have  been  found  on  sarcophao 
in  the  catacombs.    The  most  interesting  early  work 
iil,  however,  that  now  existing  in  the  apse  of  the 
church  of  St.  Pudeatiana  (39S)  [fig.  7J.     It  has  been 
much  restored  in  parts  and  was  added  to  in  1988,  but 
the  design  remains.     Of  the  same  period  is  the  mos^c 
in  the  baptistery  at  Naples.    It  is  uncertain  whether 
the  apse  of  St.  Rufinus's  is  of   the  fourth  or  fifth 
century,  but  it  is  interesting  as  early  work. 

A  ^reat  impetus  to  the  art  occurred  when  Constan- 
tine,  m  establishing  himself  on  the  throne  of  Byzan- 
tium, commenced  to  give  his  capital  an  imperial  ap- 
pearance as  far  as  art  was  concerned.  He  gathered 
together  artists  from  all  celebrated  centres,  and  gave 

to  them  special  legal  and  civil  or  civic  favours.     Of  Pio.  6— FocBTH-ciimnii  Mouic 

the  works  carried  out  by  them,  the  mosaics  of  the  Ftam  BBpluiety  of  Csihodral,  ruvomui,  Italy 

church  of  St.  George  at  Thessalonica  in  many  cases  The  names  of  Euserius,  Faulus,  Statius,  Stephano, 

Set   occupy   their   original   position.     The   nave   of  etc.  are  recorded.  Greeks  may  have  worlua   with 

t.  Mary  Major's  in  Rome  still  retains  some  of  the  them.     The  design   of   the   work   in   St.  ApoUinaie 

fine  mosaics  placed  there  in  the  fifth  century  (430-440)  Nuovo  is  new  to  western  art  and  consists  of  two  pro- 

and  the  churches  of  St.  Sabina  (422-433),  of  St.  Paul  cessions  of  figures,  all  very  similar,  which  extend  amng 

without  the  walls,  aad  of  St.  John  Lateran  were  also  the  whole  of  the  nave  over  the  arches.     It  is  curious 

so  decorated  in  the  same  era  (446-^*2).    St.  Paul's,  that  in  the  mosaics  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi, 

destroyed  by  fire  in  1823,  has  since  been  restored  and  the  Magi  wear  the  some  Perman  ooatume  we  find 


MOSAICS 


587 


MOSAICS 


mini  by  Pecsana  in  the  Fompoian  moaaic  of  the  ornamented  with  a.  mosaic  of  Chrigt  appearing  to 
"Battle  of  IsBua"  [Fig.  1]  which  is  not  unlike  that  the  Apostles.  On  the  sides  were  the  groups  of 
in  the  painting  of  the  three  children  in  the  furnace,  Christ  and  St.  Sylvester,  Constantine,  Copronicus, 
in  the  catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla,  and  that  in  the  andSt.PeterwithLeoIIIandCharlemagne— all  these 
moaaic  of  the  prophet  Daniel  at  Daphne.  The  mosses,  never  of  high  class,  were  injured  by  removal 
mosaic  from  S.  Michele-in-affrisco  at  Ravenna  waa     and    restoration    in   the    eighteenth    century.     The 

cathedral  of  Aachen 
executed  from  the 
orders  of  Charle- 
magne at  this  period 
was  injured  by  fire 
in  1650,  and  utterly 
destroyed  soon  after- 
wards. Certain  mo- 
saics are  known  to 
bave  existed  in  Pic- 


____    I   t- 

Charlemagne  to  take 
what  he  chose  of  mar- 
ble and  moaaio  for 
his  cathedral  at 
Aachen.  In  Rome 
the  church  of  Saints 
Cosmos  and  Damian 
(526-530)  has  mo- 
saics of  an  entirely 
different  character 
from  Chose  at  Ra- 
venna and  of  a  ruder 


tusi\y_  destroyed  by 
&re  in  the  twelfth 
century.  Some  good 
fragments  of  inter- 
type.  In  Rome  eetmg  mosaic  of  the 
UBO  the  basiUca  of  early  ninth  century 
St.  Lawrence  was  rem^n  at  Germingy- 
decorated  with  mo-  des-Pr^s,  Loiret. 
Baic  (577-590).  France. 
These  have  been  re-  In  the  ninth  cen- 
etored.  In  Paris  the  tuiy,  although  the 
Church  of  the  ApMj  p^  7-F«u»nKTOro»T  tSo^a  decadence  in  mosaic 
ties  which  occupied  Ptam  4»  oi  St.  P»d«ititiu\  Rome  ''o*  "M  complete, 
the  site  where  the  there  was,  however, 
Pantheon  now  is  was  decorated  with  mos^c  about  an  attempt  at  aslight  revival.  In  Rome  mosaics  were 
this  period.  placed  in  the  churches  of  Sts.  Nereua  and  Achillea 
Notwithstanding  the  deplorable  condition  of  Rome  (795-816),  S.  Maria  (817-824),  S.  Prassede,  S.  Ce- 
in  the  seventh  century,  the  arts  were  still  kept  alive  cilia,  St.  Mark,  Sts.  Sylvester  and  Martin  (844r-847), 
and  Pope  Honoriua  decorated  the  tribune  of  the  and  portions  of  St,  Peter's  and  of  S.  Maria  in  Traste- 
^we  of  St.  Ames's  with  a  beautifully  designed  mo-  vere  (885-888).  Mos^c  was  placed  in  S.  Margaretta 
eaic  which  still  remains.  The  compoution  repre-  in  Venice  (837),  in  St.  Ambrose's,  Milan,  and  in 
aents  in  the  centre  St.  Agnes,  above  ner  the  Divine  Sancta  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  and  some  subjects 
Hand  blessing,  and  the  popes  Honorius  and  Sym-  were  inserted  in  the  cathedrab  of  Capua  and  Padua. 
'                         '                                                                                                                           Probably    the    moat 


side.  The  woric  ap- 
pears to  be  Greek. 
In  the  chapel  of  8t, 
Venantius  at  St. 
John  Lateran's,  and 
at  St.  Stephen's  on 
the  CiElian  Hill  some 
mosaics  were  placed 
by  John  IV:  other 
works  were  done  at 
St.Peter'sand  atSt. 
CoBtania's  on  the 
Via  Nomentana.  Mo- 
SEUcs  were  also  exe- 
cutfid  for  Autun  and 
Auxerre  in  France. 
An  immense  and  very 
fine  pavement  of  this 

Sriod  was  found  by 
.  Renan  in  ancient 
Tyie,  but  it  is  not 
Christian  art.  Of  the 
eighth  century  very 
Uttle    mosaic     re 
mains.     Consider- 
able work  was  done  in  the  old  baolica  of  St.  Peter, 
of  which  only  a  fragment,  which  came  from  one  of  the 
chapels,  exists.     It  is  in  S.  Maria  in  Cosmedin,  and 
represents  part  of  the  "Adoration  of  the  Wise  Men" 
and  strikingly  resembles  the  design  of  same  subject 

in  onnmsl  nn  fhs  "PhaauiHn  Hiiv''       Th  "  -' 


.  _  ting  of  the 

Kriod  are  those  In  S, 
assede,  where  that 
in  the  apse  appears 
to  be  an  adaptation 
of  an  older  design  in 
Smnts  Cosmas  and 
Damian'e.  In  the 
tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  some  mo- 
saics were  placea  in 
St.  Mark's,  i'enice, 
one  subject  repre- 
Benling  Christ,  with 
the  Blessed  Virgin 
and  St.  John  on  each 
side,  and  in  1071- 
1084  the  Doge  Do- 
menico    Selyo    had 

cuted.  notably  in  the 
^rand  dome,  and  por- 
tions of  the  pave- 
ment. It  is  likely 
that  the  tmaiti  were 
made  by  the  Greeks,  who  were  also  probably  the  de- 


period 


A  comparison  of  the  western  works  of  tl —  ^ 

with  those  in  the  east  is  very  unfavourable  to  the  for- 
mer. The  art  had  been  degenerating  in  the  West,  and 
_nenamelon  the  "Chasscde  Huy  .  Themosaicwas  in  cert^n  instances,  such  as  that  of  Sancta  Maria 
commissioned  by  John  VII  in  705-8.  In  the  apse  Antiqua,  panting  on  the  wall  had  taken  its  place. 
of  St,  "Theodore's,  restored  in  the  last  quarter  of  Evidence  of  thin  decay,  both  in  design  and  practice  is 
the  eighth  century,  there  is  a  "majesty":  Christ  is  showninthefact  that whenAbbotDesiderius, formerly 
seated  on  an  orb,  with  Sts.  Peter,  Paiu,  and  Theo-  legat«  at  Constantinople  and  who  became  pope  aa 
don.    The  tncliuiura  of  the  Lateran   Palace  waa    Victor  III,  wished  to  decorate  the  monastery  of 


MOSAICS  588  K08AICB 

Honto  Caamno  with  mosaics,  he  brought  artiata  and  Bethldmn;  thoae  io  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
workmen  from  Constftnlinople  in  1066  for  that  pur-  chre.  and  the  Moaque  of  Omar.  The  moeaics  of  this 
pose.  These  mosfucs  are  lost  or  decayed,  but  it  is  pmod  in  the  chui«hc8  of  Mount  Athos  are  all  lost 
not  unlikely  that  the  artists  so  engaged,  designed  and  excepting  a  few  Sgures  at  Vatopedi.  In  France, 
woriced  on  the  wall  painliatp  of  Sant'  An^elo-wv-  Abbot  Suger  had  mosaics  executed  for  the  church  of 
formii,  a  subddiary  cnurch  of  the  monastery  near  Saint  Denis,  and  there  are  records  of  such  work  at 
Lyons  and  Troyes. 

The  great  period  of  Christian  mosaic  wsa  probable 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  Rome,  Florence,  Pisa, 
Venice,  Parenzo.  and  Spoleto  still  possess  great  works 
of  this  era,  and  the  names  of  Cunabue,  Giotto,  P. 
Cavallini.  Gaddo  Gaddi,  Jacobus  Toniti,  Tafi,  Apo!- 
lonio,  and  others  are  connected  with  the  craft.  Tor- 
riti  did  important  work  in  St.  Mary  Major's  and 
St.  John  Latersn's;  Pietro  CavaJlim  designed  the 
subjects  under  the  apse  of  S.  Maris  in  Trsst«vere; 
important  mosaics  were  done  in  St.  Peter's,  St. 
Clement's,  and  other  churches.  In  1308  the  grrat 
Giotto  was  called  to  Rome  to  design  the  "Davicclta" 
for  the  Porch  of  3  Peter's;  that  now  in  tUv  is  a  res- 
toration. In  Florence  the  mosaics  of  the  baptLatery 
commenced  in  1225  by  Jacobus,  a  Fntnciscau,  were 
continued  at  the  end  of  the  century  by  Andrea  Tafi, 
Gaddo  Gaddl,  Apollonio,  and  afterwards  by  Agnokr 
Gaddi.  Gnddo  Gaddi  also  did  the  beautiful  "Ms- 
donna"  at  Santa  Maria  del  Fiote.  and  the  "majextv" 
Fio.  10— TViLrtH-ciirrnBT  Mmaio  at  San  Miniato  is  also  attributed  to  him,  but  it  is  so 

FVtMD  .o.  of  Cih«i™i  of  c>f.i;i.  Bidl,  ^uch  roitored  that  it  is  difficult  to  pass  judgment 

Capua.    These  most  interesting  paintings  ar*  still  in    upoo  it.    At  the  end  of  the  century   (1298-1301) 
a  fair  state  of  preservation.     It  is  probable  that  this     there  was  executed  the  celrfjrated  "majesty"  in  the 
action  of  Draidcrius  had  a  far-reaching  influence  in     apse  of  the  cathedral   at   Pisa      This  lias   gcnerallv 
imporliug   fresh    energy,   especially   when   he   came     b*«n  attributed  to  Cimsbiie  and  the  side  fieures  to 
to  occupy  the  papal  chair.     The  schools  of  Paulus     Vicino.     To  this  opinion  Ventun  a,lhercs  with  strong 
Laurentius  and  Riunerius  were  founded,  which  were     evidence   (Storia   dell     Arte   Ualinna,    V,   239-240). 
ultimately   influenced   by   the  Cosmos,   and   all   the     Gerspach,  however,  will  not  have  Cimabue  amongst 
work  of  this  character  was  at  one  time  erroneously    the  mosaicista  (La  Mosaique,  127).     At  CivitA  Cae- 
called  cotmali  work.     The  generation  of  these  schools 
is  of  ooaaderable  interest  in  the  history  of  mosuc, 
and  is  given  by  Mr.  A.  L.  Frothingham,  in  the 
"American  Journal  of  Arch«o!ogy",   I,  182.    The 
mun  features  of  the  decorative  mosaic  of  the  Roman 
School  were  derived  from  southem  Italy,  indirectly 
from  Bytantium,  in  the  eleventh  century.    The  mo- 
BMce  of  the  twelfth  century  are  remarkable  bolh  for 
their  number  and  the    development  of  design  in 

Christian   art.     A   new   period  was   inaugurated   in  I 

Rome  imder  innocent  II.     In  It^,   in  Greece,  in  I 

Arabia,  as  well  as  in  Germain'  and  France,  important  I 

examples   are   preserved.     In   Rome,  S.  Maria   in  i 

Trastevere  (where  the  deeign  and  execution  of  the 
mosaic  in  the  apse  is  extremely  grand),  S.  Crisogouo, 
S.  Maria,  and  S.  Francesca  Romana  were  also  eo 
decorated 

The  Roman  artisls  exerted  great  influence  in 
Ilmbria,  and  the  Abruizi,  including  the  Marches. 
These  men  were  at  times  both  architects,  mui«I 
painters,  and  mosiuc  workers.  From  the  Roman  cen- 
tre their  work  went  west  to  considerable  distances. 
Other  great  works  in  Italy  of  this  period  are  in  the 
cathedral  of  Turcello,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Zeno,  and 
in  the  apee  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  1159:  in  the  Pala- 
tine chapel,  in  S.  Maria  Martorana  or  S.  Maria  dcIl' 
Ammira^o  in  Faleraio,  in  other  Sicilian  churches 
bothofMonrealeandotCefalQ[Fig.  10]  (1140)— in  the 
Falatina  chtqiel  Arab  workmen  assisting  the  Greeks 
both  in  the  demgn  and  execution.  The  Mohamme- 
dans themselves,  notwithstanding  the  order  of  the  -^  .    . 

prophet,  had  occasionally  figure  (fesign  in  the  mosaic  p,™  roof  of™  .™^  «—*  .M^, 

of  then-  moeques;  that  of  Abd-el-Melik  at  Jerusftlem 

has  figures  ol  prophets  in  the  poreh,  and  on  the  walls  telUna  there  is  oonsiderable  work  b^r  the  Coanati, 
ia«dean  Inferno  and  a  Mohammedan  Parodist,  The  whopj^^o'sscdaechool  of  architects,  artiste,  andmoeoi- 
mosaio  ornamentation  in  the  moetjues  of  Koville,  cists  They  not  only  did  mneaic  pictures  or  subjects, 
Cordova,  and  Granada  are  well  known  to  travellers,  but  enriched  the  altars,  pulpits,  column^  pavements, 
In  Greece  there  still  remain  most  interesting  mosnio  jind  other  portions  of  the  architecture  witn  gecHnelri- 
of  the  churches  of  Daphne,  and  of  St,  Luke  of  Stiris     cal  mosaic  patterns, 

in  Phocis  [Rg.  11).  In  Syria,  there  remain  the  cele-  The  earliest  Christian  mosaics  in  England  are  of 
bratcd  seriee  of  mosaics  in  the  church  of  the  Nativity,     this  century,  when  the  beautiful  pavement  pUc«d  b^ 


MOSAICS                             589  H0SAIC8 

fore  the  shrine  of  St.  ThomaH  in  Cutterbury  cathe-  dency  to  what  may  be  called  Gothic  development. 

dral,  and  that  of  the  sanctuary  of  Weetminntcr  Abbey  Bis  acoeasories  show  his  cosmateeque  affinity:  thia  is 

was  laid,  and  the  shrine  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor,  verv  noticeable  in  the  throne  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in 

with   its  inlaid  mosaic,   was  executed.     Concerning  8.  Crisopono. 

this  last,  Robert  de  Ware  was  sent  bv  the  king  to  Mosaic  work  of  the  period   remajos  at  Salerno, 

Rome  ID  12Q7  to  procure  workmen  for  toe  ornamenta-  Naples  and  Ravcllo;  at  Feranio  there  are  mosaics  by 

tioD  of  Westminster  Abbev  and  to  erect  a  new  monii-  Deodato  Cosmos  (1332);  at  Orvieto  by  two  religious, 

ment  to  St.  Eklward  the  Confessor,  that  made  in  1241  Ceco  Vanni  and  Francesco;  at  Rsa  (in  1321)  by  Vi- 

□ot  beinx  good  enough.    The  abbot  brought  back  cino,  who  finished  that  commenced  by  Cimabue  from 

with  him  one  "Petrus",  who  laid  the  moatuc  pave-  the  designs  of  Gaddo  Gaddi.    Andrea  di  Mino  and 

ment  before  the  high  altar  and  executed  the  tomb  for  Michele  worked  in  the  cathedral  of  Sienna,  and  Deo- 

the  golden  shrine  of  St.  Edward.    That  this  Petrus  data  Cosmos  worked  at  Teramo.    Charles  IV  called 

WAS  an  enunent  person  is  without  doubt.  There  an  Italian  mosuciste  to  Prague;  they  also  norked  nt 


From  St.  Luke'a  monutcty.  SDiu.  Phooii 

recorded  many  artists  of  this  name,  but  he  who,  in  Marienweide  and  Marienburg,  but  the  art  did  not 

the  opinion  of  Mr.  Frothingham  (American  Journal  apparently  thrive  in  Germany.      Mosaic  was,   how- 

ot  AriduBology,  1889,  186),  did  the  work  in  St.  IJM-  ever,  being  rapidly  BUpetseded  by  fresco,  which  as 

ward's  Chapel  was  Petrus  Orderisi,  son  of  Andmss.  a  primary  art  giving  the  sentiment  and  cnaracter  of 

Horace  Walpole  (HiBtory  of  Panting  in  England,  I,  the  artists  immediately,  was  of  course  much  more 

17)  conmdera  that  the  artist  so  called  was  Pietro  esteemed  by  persons  of  discrimination  than  a  mere 

Cavallini;  both  these  artists  may  be  termed  Coima-  copy  in  tessera),  or  slabs  of  opaque  glass.     Hence  in 

leacki.    A  portion  of  the  inscription  reads;  BOC  opus  the  fifteenth  century  the  cessation  of  mosaic  work 

EST  FACTDH  qaoD  PBTKDS  DcXFT  IN  ACTCM  ROUANUB  in  Italy  generally  was  very  notable,  except  in  the 

Cins.  case  of  churches  in  which  it  had  been  commenced. 

Theworicof  the  fourteenth  century  in  Rome  and  in  Some  little  was  done  in  St.  Peter's,  ^d  the  work  in 

ItaJy  generally  was  a  continuation  of  that  of  the  thir-  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  was  continued  in'  H30,  when  in 

teentl^  the  design  towards  the  end  of  the  era  becoming  the  chapel  of  the   Mascoli  the  "Life  of  the  Blessed 

influenced  by  the  rising  art  of  the  more  western  styles.  Virgin"  was  designed  and  executed  by  Grambono. 

In  St.  Mary  Major's  the  "Coronation  of  The  Blessed  Mosaicista  named  Petrus,  Lazarus.  Sylvester,  and 

Virgin"  was  commenced  at  the  conclusion  of  the  thir-  Antonius  also  worked  there.     In  Florence,  Alcssan- 

teenthandoompletedeorlyin  the  fourteenth  century;  dro  Qaldovinetti  (1425-1450)  did  a  mosaic  for  St. 

it  is  signed  by  the  celebrated  artist  and  mosucist,  John's  and  restored  that  in  San  Miniato;  he  studied 

Jacobus  Torriti.    Gaddo  Gaddi  designed  the  smaller  the  making  of  smalli,  etc.  from  a  German  and  wrote  a 

subjects   underneath,   soon   afterwards.     The   same  work  on  the  technique  of  the  art.     He  was  the  master 

artist  is  said  to  have  completed  the  work  in  St.  Peter's  of  Domenico  Ghirlandajo.  who  not  only  did  the  mo- 

l^t  by  Torriti.     He  was  then  called  to  Arezzo  to  do  saJc  of  the  "Assumption'   over  a  porch  of  the  cathe- 

tbe  vault  of  the  cathedral,  which  fell  away  before  the  dral  and  those  unfinished  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Zeno> 

end  of  the  century.     Torriti  also  did  the  apse  of  St.  biiis,  but  also  designed  some  of  the  painted  windows 

John  Lateran's;   Filippo  Riuuti  designed  the  "maj'  in  S.  Maria  Nuova,  and   whose  brother  David  also 

esty",  and  Gaddo  Gaddi  the  lower  subject  of  the  fa-  followed  the  same  vocation  and  in  1497  worked  at 

cade   of  St.   Mary   Major's,   Rome.      A   mosaic  by  Orviebi  and  Siena.     A  specimen  of  David's  work  is 

Munio  de  Zomaro,  a  Dominican  who  died  in  1300,  is  in  the  Mus^  de  Cluny.     Ridolfo  Ghirlandajo,  son  of 

on  the  floor  of  St.  Sabina's.     At  the  beginning  of  the  Domenico  and  a  friend  of  Raphael,  has  certain  later 

century  the  work  in  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  was  contin-  mosaics  attributed  to  him. 

ued.    A  mosaicist,  Solferino,  did  the  dome  at  Spoleto;        In  the  sixteenth  century  the  work  of  St.  Mark's  was 

and  the  apse  at  Parenzo  was  filled  with  moasic.     Per-  still  carried  on  and  a  great  many  artists  of  reputation 

haps  the  moat  important  developments  of  the  art  are  were  engaged  on  the  deeif^.    The  mosaics  executed  in 

shown  in  the  subjects  decorating  the  lower  part  of  the  this  catheoral,  commencmg  in  1530,  are  far  too  numer- 

apse  of  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere  [Ftg.  12};  in  1291  these  oub  to  recapitulate  here,  and  are  perhaps  less  fitted  to 

subiects  were  commenced  by  Pietro  Cavallini.  who  is  the  building  than  any  hitherto  placed;  in  fact,  that 

s<ua  by  Vasari  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Giotto,  although  greatest  of  painters,  Titian,  when  rendered  in  mo- 

this  is  questioned  by  modern  critics  on  fairly  substan-  saic,  becomes  coarse,  heavy,  and,  on  occasions,  gro- 

tial  evidence.     He  was  the  most  celebrated  Roman  tesque.     Other  worits  were  designed  by  Tintoretto, 

artist  of  his  time  and  his  designs,  while  adhering  more  Salviati,  and  the  best  Venetian  artists  of  the  day,  and 

to  the  Bviantine  than  those  of  Giotto  did,  show  a  ten-  rendered  in  mosaic  by  Zuccati,  Riio,  Mariano,  and 


MOSAICS  590  MOSAICS 

other*,  UnfOThuiately  many  of  the  earlier  mosses  Mr.  Watts,  RA.  The  mMudeuni  t*  Fitmaon  it 
were  detrtroyed  by  the  senate,  it  is  said,  on  the  advice  also  elaborately  decorated  with  mosaic,  as  is  ^  moo- 
of  Titian,  to  make  room  tor  the  new  work.  The  oon-  ument  ot  Prince  Albert  in  Hyde  Park,  both  dsgned 
ditionof  many  of  them  was  bad.  Amongst  hia  many  by  John  Clayton,  who  \b  also  resp<mmble  for  the 
other  works,  Raphael  designed  for  mosaic.  The  Brampton  chapel  in  Westminster  cathedral.  Mr 
Creation  of  the  World"  in  the  Chigi  Chapel,  SanU  W.  0,  Symons  designed  the  mosoice  for  the  chape] 
Mana  del  Popolo,  Rome,  from  his  design,  is  very  fine,  of  the  Holy  Souls  of  Westminster  cathedral  in  which 
It  was  done  m  mosaic  by  Luigi  di  Pace,  who  came  mosaic  work  is  still  being  inserted  in  the  various 
from  Vemce  for  the  purpose.  Baldassare  PeruB«i  also  chapels.  Thewriter  of  the  present  article  d^gned  > 
deeded  mosaic  for  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  and  mosaic  ot  the  "Last  Judgment"  for  the  church  of  the 
F.  Zucchio  executed  a  mosaic  in  Santa  Maria  Seals-  Amiunciation  Chiselhurst;  afigureof  BlaasedGiacomo 
C«h,  whilst  the  work  in  St.  Peter's  was  commenced  di  Ulma  for  South-Kensington,  and  an  "Epiphany" 
under  Muiiano  da  Brescia.  That  the  mosaic  art  had  for  the  frontal  ot  an  altar  at  the  Assumption  Church, 
degenerated  altogether  and  lost  its  vitality  is  evi-     Warwick  Street,  with  other  works  elsewhere. 

In  Aachen  the  mosaic  of  the  dome  of  Chariemagne 
was  restored,  or  rather  redone,  in  1869,  In  Franre. 
various  mosaicsof  fair  excellence  have  been  executed, 
but  unfortunately  the  grand  style  ot  the  e&rly  cen< 
tunes,  BO  exceptionally  suitable  to  the  art,  has  not 
been  attempted.  The  modem  French  mosaic  ap- 
pears to  have  been  initiated  by  Signor  Bellini,  one  of 
the  Vatican  mosaicists,  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenili 
century,  who  became  the  principal  of  the  ''manuf^f- 
ture  royalc" — one  of  its  productions  is  in  the  Salle 
de  Melpomene  in  the  Louvre;  thedesiKD  wasby  Baron 
Gerard  and  M.  Baudry  Gamier,  and  the  mosaic  by 
CuTYOQ  Facchino,  The  mosaics  at  the  Opfra  ar? 
of  Italian  execution.  In  1876  a  national  school  nf 
mosaic  was  formed,  when  M.  Gcrapach  was  seal 
to  Rome  and  obtmned,  with  the  consent  of  the  pope, 
the  services  ot  Signor  Poggesi  of  the  Vatican  work; 
The  execution  of  the  apse  of  the  Panth^n  from  di- 
dgns  of  M.  Herbert  was  the  principal  work  that 
followed,  but  the  deagn  is  moderate,  although  con- 
sidered good  in  its  time.  This  national  school  eood 
became  extinct,  and  the  mosaics  since  done  have  been 
by  private  enterprise.    Amonpt  these  is  that  in  tlie 

Tieof  theMadeletne  and  that  over  the  grand  staircsae 
the  Louvre.     M.  Ravoli  has  de»gneasome  mosaica 
FuLia— MiisucoT"AionnicuTi<»i"(l»)l)BTPnnai]CATALuin     for  the  new  cathedral  of  Marsalles. 

From.|wn)f8,  MKT.inTrMlevBre.Romo  Ttchnufue.— The  making  of  a  mosaic  picture  has 

denced  by  the  work  done  in  St,  Peter's,  Rome,  from  differed  in  various  periods  and  under  vanous  manu- 

the  seventeenth  century  under  this  same  Muiiano  da  facturera.  and  the  cements  into  which  the  tessene 

Brescia  (1528-1592)  and  other  artists.  were  fix«l  have  been  the  subject  ot  discusHon  and, 

The  eistabllshment  of  the  pontifical  works  com-  in  some  medieval  examples,  of  secrecy.  Historically 
menced  in  1727  when  the  Cristoferi  were  appointed  no  cement  has  effected  a  permanent  mosaic,  sa  nearly 
superintendents  by  order  of  Benedict  XIII,  After  every  ancient  example  not  destroyed  'is  partially 
occupying  various  localities  these  mosaic  works  were  restored.  The  following  interesting  account  is  from 
finally  settled  in  a  corfi^  ot  the  Vatican  in  1825,  In  the  personal  examination  by  Messrs,  Schulti  and 
the  first  halt  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  painting  Bamaley  of  the  old  work  at  St,  Luke's  of  Stiris: 
and  frescoes  of  the  basilica  begun  to  be  imitated  in  "The  method  of  fixing  the  mosaic  was  as  foUowa: — 
mosaic.  The  quality  of  the  work  errs  on  the  side  of  Over  the  structural  brickwork  of  the  surfaces  to 
excessive  smoothness,  as  much  as  some  modern  work  be  covered,  a  coat  of  plaster  was  spread;  this,  like 
errs  on  that  ot  exceeeive  and  affected  roughness,  the  first  coat  ot  plaster  in  ordinary  wall  coverings. 
Other  works  of  the  eijfhteenth  and  nineteenth  centu-  was  roughened  on  the  face  in  order  to  make  a  second 
riee  and  great  restorations  kept  the  artaUve,  notably  coat  of  finer  etuff  adhere.  On  the  surface  ot  this 
those  of  St,  John  Lateran'a  and  St,  Mark's,  Venice,  by  second  coat,  which  was  evidently  of  a  very  slow- 
the  Italian  mosaicists.  The  "Last  Judgment"  onthe  setting  nature,  the  main  lines  of^the  moeaic  figure 
fagadeof  St.  Mark's  wasdcsigned  by  LataniioQuerano  or  composition  were  sketched  on  in  tone  with  ablush, 
in  1838.  In  1839  a  school  of  mosaicists  arose  in  Rus-  and  the  mosuc  cubes  were  then  pressed  into  this 
na,  its  primary  object  being  the  restoration  of  the  from  the  face,  forcing  up  the  stuff  between  the  cub«e 
mosaicsof  Sancta  Sophia  in  Kieff,  and  eventually  Pius  in  order  to  act  as  a  key.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that, 
IX  allowed  certain  ot  the  pontificaJ  mosaicists  in  1!^  at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  the  single  figures,  the  Gist 
to  go  toSt, Petersburg  andjointheRuBsianmosaicists.  cubes  put  in  position  were  the  double  or  treble  row 
An  example  of  their  work  was  shown  in  the  interna-  ot  gold  tessene  which  enclosed  the  subject;  we  have 
tional  exnibition  held  in  Hyde  Park,  London.  The  found  in  many  cases  that  these  do  not  correspond  with 
moeaics  of  the  Russian  church,  London,  are  not,  how-  the  lines  of  the  figures  as  executed,  odd  spaces  be- 
ever,  very  successful.  tween  the  lines  and  the  final  outline  of  uie  figure 

Numerous  mosaics  have  been  executed  in  England  having  been  filled  up  with  further  gold  cubes  5ter 

during  the  last  half  century,  notably  the  figurea  ot  the  mosaics  of  figure  had  been  finished  in  podtioD. 

peat  painters  in  the  Museum  of  South-Kensington.  ThcbackgroundaareuniversallyformedofgoldteaseTX, 

The  earliest  of  these  were  done  by  Venetians,   but  while  the  figures  ot  subjects  are  composed  of  cubes  of 

some  of  the  more  recent  figures  were  executed  at  the  many  colourH  and  gradations  ot  tone.     The  principal 

works  of   South-Kensingtou   itself.     Many    moeaics  colouredcubesarecut  out  of  sheets  of  opaque  coloured 

were  done  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  London;  thoee  in  ^ass,    while    the    lighter    ones,    such    as    the    Resb 

the  choir  were  designed  by  Sir  W.  B,  lUchmond,  and  tints,  etc,   are   of   marble.     The   pold   mosaics   are 

under  the  dome  some  Btrong  figures  were  designed  by  formed  in  the  usual  manner;  a  piece  of  gold  leaf. 


'n^ 


MOSAIC  MAP  OF  CHRISTIAN  PALESTINE  AND  EGYPT 

FLOOR  OP  A   FIFTH-  OR   SIXTH-CENTOKT 


''  r-^'v  y::k 


'  -'^^  '^^  ^ I 


ttOSCHUS 


691 


ttOSCOW 


Aaving  been  laid  on  glass,  a  thin  transparent  film 
was  then  spread  over  the  same,  and  the  whole  after- 
wards annealed  to  a  solid  mass.  The  cubes  do  not 
vary  greatly  in  size,  the  average  being  about  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch.  They  are,  however,  slightly 
larger  in  the  miun  outlines  of  the  draperies,  etc.,  and 
smaller  in  the  delicate  gradations  of  the  face  and 
hands.  The  main  portion  of  the  gold  background  is 
laid  fairly  regularly  in  horizontal  lines  up  to  the  rows 
enclosing  the  subjects''  (Schultz  and  Bamsley,  ''The 

Monastery  of  St.  Luke  in  Stiris'',  43). 

AiiTONiADBB,  3,  Sophia,  CoTularUinopU  (Athena,  1007); 
BoNi,  II  Duomo  di  Parenzo  (Rome,  1804);  Brockhaub,  Die 
Kurui  in  den  AUu>9  Kloatem  (Lcipsig,  1801);  Bronsblub,  Lee 
Moealquee  de  S.  ApolUnaire  iveu/ (ParU,  1903);  Buunosbub, 
De  Pictura  plaetica  et  sUUuaria  (2  vols.,  Lyons,  1627);  Caron, 

BtUletin  Monumentale  ( ,  1886) ;  Ciampini,  Vetera  Monu- 

tnenta  Roma^  I  (Home,  1747);  Cbowb  and  Cavalcabcllc, 
Hietory  of  Painting  ,  ,  ,  in  Italy  (2  vols.,  London,  1910): 
D'AoiNCOURT,  Hietory  of  Art  by  He  Monumente^  II  and  III 
OLondon,  1847);  Ds  Mabso,  DeUe  BeU'  Arti  in  SicUia;  Delhi, 
The  Glaee  Moeatce  of,  pub.  by  the  Government  of  India;  Dzkhl, 
Moealqitee  Byeantinee  de  Nicie  (1892);  Fowlbr,  Moeaic  Pave- 

mente  (London, );  Idem,  Moeaice  %n  England,  of  the  Roman 

period:  there  ia  a  large  series  of  coloured  plates  in  the  Library  of 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  London:  Frothinohaii,  Qrotta  Per- 
rata  in  Gazette  Archiologique  (1883) ;  FuRism,  De  Mueivie  (Rome, 
1752);  Garrucci,  Outlinee  of  early  Moeaice  in  Storia  deW  Arte 
Chrietiana  (Prato,  1873-81);  Gerbpach,  La  Moealque  (Paris, 
1885) ;  Gravina.  II  Duomo  di  Monreale  (Palermo,  1859) ;  KoN- 
DAKOV,  Die  Moeaiken  der  Kahrie-Djami,  pub.  by  the  Archeo- 
logical  Institute  of  Constantinople;  Iobm,  Handbook  Rueeian 
Iconooraphy,  Vol.  I,  in  Russian  (1905);  Kraub,  Oeeehichte  der 
ChrieUiehen  Kunet  (Freiburg.  1896-1000);  Kuglkr,  Italian 
Painting  (2  vols.,  London,  1887);  Kurtb,  Die  Moeaiken  der 
Chriellichen  Aera  (Leipzig.  1902) ;  Lsval  in  Bulletin  Monumen- 


ing  stories  which  these  ascetics  related  to  hSm, 
Though  the  work  is  devoid  of  critical  discrimination 
and  teems  with  miracles  and  ecstatic  visions,  it  gives 
a  clear  insight  into  the  practices  of  Eastern  monas- 
ticism,  contains  important  data  on  the  religious  cult 
and  ceremonies,  and  acquaints  us  with  the  numerous 
heresies  that  threatened  to  disrupt  the  Church  in  the 
East.  It  was  first  edited  by  Fronton  du  Due  in 
"  Auctarium  biblioth.  patrum'^  II  (Paris,  1624),  1057- 
1159.  A  better  edition  was  brought  out  by  Cotelicr  in 
"Ecdesise  Gnccsc  Monumenta  ,  II  (Paris,  1681), 
which  is  reprinted  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  LXXXVII,  III, 
2851-3112.  A  Latin  translation  by  Bl.  Ambrose  Tra- 
versari,  is  printed  in  Migne.  P.  L.,  LXXIV,  121-240, 
and  an  It^an  version  made  from  the  Latm  of  Tra- 
versari  (Venice,  1475;  Vicenzo,  1479).  Conjointly 
with  Sophronius,  Moschus  wrote  a  life  of  John  the 
Almoner,  a  fragment  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  first 
chapter  of  the  "Vita  S.  Joanni  Eleemosynaiii''  by 
Lcontius,  under  the  name  of  "Simeon  Metaphrastes 
(P.  G.,  CXIV,  895-966). 

Babdsnbswsr,  Patrologie,  tr.  Bhaban,  Palrology  (Freiburg 
im  Br.  and  St.  Louis.  1908),  559-61 ;  Hole  in  Did.  Chriet.  Biog,, 
III,  406-8;  VAXLHi,  St.  Jean  Moech  in  Behoe  d'Orient,  V  (Pans. 
1901),  107-16  and  356-87;  Idkm,  Sophrone  le  eophiete  et  So- 
phrone  le  patriarehe  in  Revue  de  VOrient  chritien,  Vll  (Paris, 
1902;,  360-385:  Vlll  (1903).  32-69.  A  Latin  translation  of  an 
old  life,  originally  in  Greek,  is  printed  in  P.L.,  LXXIV,  119-22, 
and  in  Uscnkb,  Der  hi,  Tychon  (Leipxig,  1907),  91-3. 

Michael  Ott. 


Monumentale   (1880);     Idem,    La  Moealque  chritienn 
1893);  Idem,  LoU  Moeaice  of  Rome  in  American  J 
Arehaology,  VI  (Boston);  Onoania,  La  Baailica  di  Sa 
(Venice,  1881-1838);  Pauloubkij,  Iconographie  de  la 
Palatine  in  Reoue  Archiologique,  3rd  series,  XXV_(1895) 
Die  AUehrietliehe  Freeco  und 
Rbtnard,  ObeerwUione  eur  t 
tine  et  lee  Arabee  in  Revue 

DE  Rossi,  Mueaiei  Crialiani  di  Roma  (Rome.  1876V189~4^ 
ScBUiTT,  Kahrie-Djami  in  Russian,  published  by  Archeilogiea! 
Institute  of  Constantinonle  (1906);  ScBrLTS  and  BAHvaL^T, 
The  Monaetery  of  St,  Luke  in  Stirie  (London.  1908);  Sac- 
CARDO,  Lee  Moeatouen  di  S.  Marco,  Venise  (Venice.  1897);  Tex- 
xbr  AND  PaLLAN,  St.  Oeorije'e,  Theeealonica  (London) ;  Tikkanbn 
in  Act.  Soc.  Pennies,  Xlll  (HelainRfors) ;  Tillt,  Glaee  Moeaice 
of  Burma,  published  by  Burmese  Government  (1901) ;  Venturi, 
Storia  delV  ArU  Italiana,  II  and  III  (Milan.  1902);  Melchior 
DB  VoaUt,  Ijee  Eglieee  de  la  Terre  Sainte  (Paris,  1860);  Wolt- 
ICANN  AND  WoERMANN,  Hietory  of  Painting  (London,  1887, 
New  York,  1880);  Wokrmann.  Geaehichfe  der  Kunet  alter  Zeiten  und 
Vdlker  (Leipzig.  1905);  Wtatt,  Moeaic  Pavemente  (London); 
WiNCKELMAN,  Storia  ddle  Arte,  2  vols.;  see  also  various  articles 
in  Archaeologia,  published  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  London, 
and  various  works  in  course  of  publication  by  Society  of  Bysan- 
tine  Research  (London,  1910). 

N.  H.  J.  Westlakis. 


Moscow  (Russian  Moskva),  the  ancient  capital  of 

rovince) 

^^^_, ^ ^ ___  ..  iuropean 

V'jS^ia*.*  if  1^61%  oh  both  sides  of  the  River  Moskva, 

^Jlf^iWom  win«lviVd^iwe8  its  name;  another  small  stream 

hapelle     Called  the  Yauza,  flows  through  the  eastern  part  of  the 

PoHL,     city.     Moscow  w^b  the  fourth  capital  of  Russia — the 

i   Mosaic  Malerei  (Leipngl  1888):^  Rarixer^  oti^JT-'bAinQ  Novgorod,  Kiefif,  and  Vladimir— 

lrcAlafS,^T^;trien^^  of  the  Tsars  from  1340  until  the 

■    '■  -        —  timeof  Peter<^he(ireatinl711.    It  is  the  holy  city  of 

RnaHift^  ffi^JTnnfit.  «iirpA«fling  in  that  respect  the  city 
bf'Kieff,  and  is  celebrated  in  song  and  story  under  its 
poetic  name  Bidokamennaya,  the  "White- Walled". 
The  population,  according  to  the  latest  (1907)  avail- 
able statistics,  is  1,335,104,  and  it  is  the  greatest  com- 
mercial and  industrial  city  of  Russia.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  Russian  Orthodox  metropoUtan  with  three  aux- 
iliary or  vicar  bishops,  and  has  440  churches,  24 
convents,  over  500  schools  (with  high  schools,  pro- 
fessional schools,  and  the  university  besides),  some 
502  establishments  of  charity,  mercy,  and  hospital 
service,  and  23  cemeteries.  The  population  is  com- 
posed of  1.242,090  Orthodox,  26,320  Old  Ritualists. 
25,540  Catholics.  26,650  Protestants,  8905  Jews,  and 
5336  Mohammedans,  together  with  a  small  scattering 
of  other  denominations. 

Historically,  the  citv  of  Moscow^  which  has  grown 
up  gradually  around  tne  Kremlin,  is  divided  into  five 
principal  parts  or  concentric  divisions,  separated  from 
one  another  by  walls,  some  of  which  have  already 
disappeared  and  their  places  been  taken  by  broad 
boulevards.  These  chief  divisions  are  the  Kremlin, 
Kitaigorod  (Chinese  town),  Bielygorod  (white  town), 
Zemlianoigorod  (earthwork  town),  and  Miestchansk^- 

Sorod  (the  bourgeois  town).  The  actual  muiiici[Ml 
ivision  of  the  city  is  into  seventeen  chasti  or  wania, 
each  of  which  has  a  set  of  local  officials  and  separate 
poUce  sections.  The  city  hall  or  Duma  is  situated  on 
Ascension  Square  near  the  Kremhn.  The  Kremlin 
itself  is  a  walled  acropolis  and  is  the  most  ancient 
part  of  Moscow,  the  place  where  the  city  originated; 
it  is  situated  in  the  very  center  of  the  present  city, 
some  140  feet  above  the  level  of  the  River  Moska. 
The  Kitaigorod,  or  Chinese  town,  is  situated  to  the 
north-east  and  outside  of  the  Kremlin,  and  is  in  turn 
surroimded  by  a  wall  with  several  gates.     It  is  ir- 


MoBchuB  (6  Tov  M6a'xov,  son  of  Moschus),  Johannes, 
a  monk  and  aacetical  writer,  b.  about  550  probably  at 
Damascus;  d.  at  Rome,  619.  He  was  sumamed  The 
Abstemious  (6  t^Kparat),  He  lived  successively  with 
the  monks  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Theodosius  (now 
Deir  Dosi)  in  Jerusalem,  among  the  hermits  in  the 
Jordan  valley,  and  in  the  New  Laura  of  St.  Sabas 
aouth-east  of  Bethlehem.  About  the  year  578  he  went  to 
Egypt  with  Sophronius  (afterwards  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem) and  came  as  far  as  the  Great  Oasis.  After  583 
he  came  to  Mt.  Sinai  and  spent  about  ten  years  in  the 
Laura  of  iSHiatse;  he  then  visited  the  monasteries  near 
Jerusalem  and  the  Dead  Sea.  In  604  he  went  to 
Antioch  but  returned  to  Egypt  in  607.  Later  he  came 
to  Cyprus  and  in  614-615  to  Rome.  On  his  deathbed 
he  requested  Sophronius  to  bury  him,  if  possible,  on 
Mt.  Sinai  or  else  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Theodosius 
in  Jerusalem.  Mt.  Sinai  bein^;  then  invaded  by  the 
Arabs,  Sophronius  buried  him  m  the  monastery  of  St. 
Theodosius.  He  is  the  author  of  one  of  the  earliest 
hagiological  works  entitled  ''Aei/uci>v"  (Pratum  spiri- 
tuflde.  Spiritual  Meadow).  In  it  he  narrates  his  per- 
sonal experiences  with  many  great  ascetics  whom  he 
met  during  his  extensive  travels,  and  repeats  the  edify- 


regularly  built  lip,  contains  the  Stock  Exchange,  the 
Ootlinny  Dvar  (baiaars),  the  Biady  (great  glass  en- 


MOSCOW  50:}  uoscow 

doaed  areadei),  and  the  printing  office  of  the  Holy  whrre  the  Tutain  dwelt  for  a  looi;  tone   after  thitf 

S^mod.     Just  why  it  was  caU«l  the  Chinete  town  a  had  heen  driven  from  Moocow  prtx>er.     Now  it  ■ 

Dot  IcDOwn,  for  no  Chinese  h&ve  ever  scltled  there,  the  Old  Ruaaian  quarter,  where  old-faafaiaaed  mer- 

The  allusion  may  be  U]  the  Tatan,  who  basiexed  and  cliants  dwell  in  Btat«  and  ke«p  up  the  tnannaa  and 

took   Moecow   several   times,   camping  outside   the  cuBtoms  of  their  fathers.     TThe  famous  Tretiakoff  an 

KremUn.  gaUeries  are  situated   here.     There  aie   six   bridge? 

The  Kremlin  and  Kitaigorod  ue  oonrideted  t4>  acrow  the  River  Moekva  connecting  both  paiu  c-f 

gether  and  known  as  the  "City"  (j/orod),  much  M  the  city, 

the  same  word  is  applied  to  •  part  of  London.    The        The  name  Moecow  is  mentkned  in  Ruasan  ditoni- 

enormous  walls  surrounding  them  were  originally  des  for  the  first  time  in  1147.    In  March  of  that  ye&r 

whitewashed  and  of  white  stone,  and  are  even  yet  Yuri  Dojgoruki   (George  the  Long-aimed),  Grud 

white  in  places,  thus  giving  riae  to  the  poetic  name.  Duke  of  KitS  and  son  of  Vladimir  Moi 


Moacxni:  LoouhQ 

Juat  outside  of  it  lies  the  BiHygorod,  or  white  town,  sud  to  have  met  and  entertuned  his  kinsmen  there 

extending  in  a  semicircle  from  the  Moskva  on  the  at  the  village  on  the  Moekva.     So  pleaaed  was  h« 

one  side  until  it  reaches  the  Moskva  again.     The  with  the  reception  which  he  had  received  and  so  im- 

Bielj^rod  is  now  the  most  elegant  and  fashionable  pressed  by  the  commsjiding  location  of  the  situatioo 

part  of  the  city  of  Moscow.     Containing  as  it  does,  that  he  built  a  fortified  place  on  the  hill  where  the 

beautiful   and   imposing   palaces,   many   fine   public  meeting  took  J^ace,  juat  where  the  present  Kremlio 

monuments  and    magnificent   shops,  theatera,  and  is  situated.    The  word  Kremlin   (Ku8«ian  Kreml) 

public  buildings,  it   preeeuts  a  splendid   appearance  seems  to  be  of  Tatar  orif^,  and  means  a  fortified 

worthy  of  its  ancient  history.    Around  this,  in  a  still  place  overlooking  the  surrounding  country.     Many 

wider  semicircln,  is  the  Zcmlianyeorod,  or  earthwork  other  Ruaaian  cities  dating  from  Tatar  timee  have 

town,  so  called  because  of  the  earthen  ramparts  which  kremlins  also,  such  as  Nishni-Novgorod,   Vladimir, 

were  constructed  there  by  Tsar  Michael  Feodorovich  Kazan,  and  Samara. 

in  1620  to  protect  the  growing  city  in  the  Polish  wars.         In   the  beginning  of  its    early   history    Momow 

They  have  been  levelled  and  replaced  by  the  mognifi'  was  nothing  but  a  cluster  of  wooden  nouses  sui^ 

cent  boulevards  known  as  the  Sadcvaya   (Garden  rounded  by  palisades;  in  1237  the  Tatar  Khan  laid 

Avenues).  siege  to  it,  and  his  successors  for  eeveral  ceoturira 

The  wealthy  merchants  and  well-to-do  inh^itants  were  alternately  victors  and  vanquished  before  it. 

dwell  here,  and  fine    buildings  are  seen  on  every  In  1293  Moscow  was  besieged  and  burned  by  the 

wde.     The  remainder  of  the  city  is  given  over  to  the  Mongols  and  Tatars,  but  under  the  rule  of  iJaniel, 

industrial  and  poor  classes,  railwav  stations,  and  fac-  son  of  Alexander  Nevsky,  its  fame  increased  sod  it 

tones  of  all  kinds.     In  addition,  there  is  that  part  of  became  of  importance.     He  conquered  and  annexed 

thecitywhit^liesontheaouthsideof  the  Moskva,  the  several    neightMuring    territories   and    enlarged   his 

•(MulledZamMtoirKAie  (quarter  beyond  the  M""'""'^  dominions  to  the  entire  length  of  the  Ri w  Moafcrv 


MOSCOW  593  MOSCOW 

In  1300  the  Kremlin  was  enclosed  b^  a  etrong  wall  of  aelf  Tsar,  the  Slavonic  name  for  king  or  ruler  found 

earth  and  wooden  palisadcB,  and  it  then  received  in  the  church  litui^,  and  that  name  haa  Hurvived 

its  appellation.     In  1316  the  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  to  the  present  time,  although  Peter  the  Great  again 

changed  bis  see  from  that  dty  to  Vladimir,  and  in  changed    the   title   and    asaumed    the   Latin   name 

1322   thence  to   Moscow.    The  first  cathedral   of  Imperalor  (Emperor).    This  latter  name  is  the  one 

Moscow  was  built  in  1327.     The  example  of  the  met-  now  commonly  used  and  inscribed  on  public  mon- 

rapolitan  was  followed  in  1328  by  Grand  Duke  Ivan  uments  and  buildings  in  Russia.     Moscow  was  al- 

Danilovich,  who  left  Vladimir  and  made  Moscow  his  most  completely  destroved  by  tire  in  1547;  in  1571  it 

capital.     In  1333  he  was  recognised  by  the  Khan  of  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Devlct-Ghirei,  Khan  of  the 

Kaaan  as  the  chief  prince  of  Russia,  and  he  extended  Crimean  Tatars,  and  again  in  1591  the  Tatars  and 

the  fortifications  oi  Moscow.    In  1367  stone  walla  Mongols  under  Kara-Ghirei  for  the  last  time  entered 

were  built  to  enclose  the  Kr^nlin.    Notwithstanding  and  plundered  the  dty,  but  did  not  succeed  in  taking 


Memorial  of  AlsaiidBr  II  Chunh  of  St.  Bn^  lt»  Blcnad. 

this,  the  city  was  again  plundered  by  the  Tatars  two  the  Kremlin.     During  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 

years  later.     During  the  rule  of  Dimitri  Donskoi  in  the  adventurer  Yermak  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains, 

1382  the  city  was  oumed  and  almost  entirely  de-  explored  and  claimed  Siberia  for  Russia;  the  first  code 

etroyed.     Vasih  II  was  the  first  Russian  prince  to  be  of  Russian  laws,  the  Stogltai  (hundred  chapters),  was 

crowned  at  Moscow  (1425).  also  issued  under  this  emperor,  and  the  firat  printing- 

The  city,  although  still  the  greatest  in  Russia,  be-  office  set  up  at  Moscow.     Ivan  was  succeeded  by 

ran  to  decline  until  the  reign  of  Ivan  III  (1462-1606).  Feodor  I,  the  last  of  the  Rurik  dynasty,  during  whose 

He   was  the  first  to  call  himself  "Ruler  of  all  the  reign    (1584-98)   serfdom   was   introduced   and   the 

RuBsias"  (Hoipodar vseya  Ros»ii),  and  made  Moscow  Patriarchate   of    Moscow    established.     During   the 

pre-eminently  the  capital  and  centre  of  Russia,  be-  latter  part  of  the  reian  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  Boris 

sides  constructing  many  beautiful  monuments  and  Godunoff,  a  man  of  nigh  ambitions  who  had  risen 

buildings.  from  the  ranks  of  the  Tatars,  attained   to  great 

His  wife,  who  was  Sophia  Palxologus,  was  a  Greek  t>ower,  which  was  augmented  by  the  marriage  of  his 

princess  from  Constantmople,  whose  marriage  to  him  mster  to  Feodor.    To  ensure  his  brother-in-law's  suc- 

waa  arranged  throng  the  pope,  and  who  brought  cession  to  the  throne,  he  is  said  to  have  caused  the 

with  her  Greek  and  Italian  artists  and  architects  to  murder  of  Ivan's  infant  son,  Demetrius,  at  Uglicb  in 

beautify  the  city.     But  even  after  that  the  Tatars  1582.     When  Feodor  I  died,  Boris  Godunoff  was  made 

wereoftenat  the  gates  of  Moscow,  although  they  only  Tear,  and  ruled  fairly  well  until  1605.    The  year 

once  succeeded  in  taking  it.     Under  Ivan  IV,  sur-  before  his  death  the  "False  Demetrius"  (LihtdimUri) 

named  the  Terrible  (Ivan  Grozny),  the  development  appeared.    He  was  e^d  to  have  gone  under  the  name 

of  the  city  was  continued.     He  made  Novgorod  and  of  Gr^^ry  Otrepieff,  a  monk  of  the  Chudoff  monae- 

PakoS  tributary  to  it,  and  subdued  Kazan  and  Astra-  tcry  (Monastery  of   the  Miracles)   in   the   Kremlin, 

khan.    Be  was  the  first  prince  of  Rusda  to  call  him-  who  fell  into  disgrace,  escaped  to  Poland,  gave  h'"*— " 


MOSCOW 


594 


MOSCOW        MAR   1  3   IS  - 


out  as  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  who 
had  in  some  way  escaped  Boris  Godunoff,  another 
child  having  been  murdered.  King  Sigismund  of 
Poland  espoused  his  claims,  furnished  him  an  army, 
with  which  and  its  Russian  accessions  the  pretender 
fought  his  way  back  to  Moscow,  proclaiming  himself 
the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne.  All  who  looked  on 
Boris  Godunof!  as  a  usurper  flocked  to  his  standard, 
the  widow  of  Ivan,  then  a  nun,  recognized  him  as 
her  son,  and  he  was  crowned  in  the  Kremlin  as  the 
Tsar  of  the  Russias.  For  ten  months  he  ruled,  but, 
as  he  was  too  favourable  to  the  Poles  and  even 
allowed  Catholics  to  come  to  Moscow  and  worship, 
the  tide  then  turned  against  him,  and  in  1606  he 
was  assassinated  at  his  palace  in  the  Kremlin  by  the 
StreUsi  or  sharpshooters  who  formed  the  guard  of  the 
,  Tsars  of  Russia. 

After  seven  years  of  civil  war  and  anarchy  Michael 
Romanoff,  the  founder  of  the  present  djmasty,  was 
elected  Tsar  in  1613.  But  Moscow  never  regained 
its  earlier  pre-eminence,  although  it  became  a  wealthy 
conmiercial  city,  until  the  first  part  of  the  reign  of 
'  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725) .  He  sent  persons  abroad, 
and,  having  observed  the  advancement  and  progress  of 
.Western  Europe,  determined  to  improve  his  realm 
radically  by  introducing  the  forms  of  western  civili- 
zation. All  the  earlier  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
war  with  the  Swedish  invaders  and  the  Polish  kings. 
In  1700  be  abolished  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow, 
left  the  see  vacant,  and  established  the  Holy  Synod. 
These  acts  set  Moscow,  the  old  Russians  and  the 
clergy  against  him,  so  that  in  1712  he  changed  the 
imperial  residence  and  capital  from  Moscow  to  St. 
Petersbu]^,  which  he  had  caused  to  be  constructed 
for  the  new  capital  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva.  After 
the  departure  of  the  Tsars  from  Moscow,  it  di- 
mhushed  in  political  importance,  but  was  always  re- 

farded  as  the  seat  and  centre  of  Russian  patriotism, 
n  1755  the  University  of  Moscow  was  founded.  In 
1812  during  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon,  the 
Russians  cfetermined  after  the  Battle  of  Borodino  to 
evacuate  Moscow  before  the  victorious  French,  and 
on.  14  September.  t812.  the  Russian  troops  deserted 
the  city,  followca  by  tne  greater  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. Shortly  afterwards  the  French  entered,  and 
'Napoleon  fotmd  that  he  had  no  submissive  citizens 
to  view  lus  triumphal  entry,  but  that  the  inhabitants 
were  actually  burning  up  their  entire  city  which  was 
even  then  built  largely  of  wood.  He  revenged  him- 
self by  desecrating  churches  and  destroying  monu- 
.ments.  The  Russian  winter  begins  in  October,  and, 
with 'a  city  in  smoking  ruins  and  without  supplies  or 

Erovisions,  Napoleon  was  compelled  on  19-22  Octo- 
er,  to  evacuate  Moscow  and  retreat  from  Russia. 
Cold  and  privation  were  the  most  effective  allies  of 
the  Russians.  The  reconstruction  of  the  city  com- 
menced theiollowing  year,  and  from  that  time  hardly 
any  wooden  buildings  were  allowed.  In  May,  1896, 
at  the  coronation  of  Nicholas  II,  over  2000  persons 
were  crushed  and  wounded  in  a  panic  just  outside  the 
city.  In  1905  the  Grand  Duke  Sergius  was  assassi- 
nated in  the  Kremlin  and  revolutionary  riots  occurred 
throu^out  the  city.  Although  Moscow  is  no  longer 
the  capital,  it  has  steadily  grown  in  wealth  and  com- 
mercial importance,  and,  while  second  in  pox)ulation 
to  St.  Petersburg,  it  is  the  latter's  close  rival  in  com- 
merce and  industry,  and  is  first  above  all  in  the  heart 
of  every  Russian. 

In  the  religious  development  of  Russia  Moscow 
has  held  perhaps  the  foremost  place.  In  1240  Kieff 
was  taken  by  the  Tatars,  who  in  1299  pillaged  and 
destroyed  much  of  that  mother  city  of  Christian 
Russia.  Peter,  Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  who  was  then 
in  union  with  Rome,  in  1316  changed  his  see  from 
tiiat  city  to  the  city  of  Vladimir  upon  the  Kliazma, 
DOW  about  midway  between  Moscow  and  Nizhni- 
Novgorod,  for  Vladimir  was  then  the  capital  of  Great 


Russia.  In  1322  he  again  changed  it  to  Moscow. 
After  his  death  in  1328  Theognostus.  a  monk  from 
Constantinople,  was  consecrated  Metropolitan  at 
Moscow  under  the  title  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and 
Exarch  of  all  Russia",  and  strove  to  make  Great 
Russia  of  the  north  ecclesiastically  superior  to  Little 
Russia  of  the  south.  In  1371  the  South  Russians 
petitioned  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople:  "Give  us 
another  metropolitan  for  Kieff,  Smolensk,  and  Tver, 
and  for  Little  Russia."  In  1379  Pimen  took  at  Mos- 
cow the  title  of  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Great 
Russia  ",  and  in  1408  Photius,  a  Greek  from  Constanti- 
nople, was  made  "Metropolitan  of  all  Russia''  at 
Moscow.  Shortly  afterwards  an  assembly  of  South 
Russian  bishops  was  held  at  Novogrodck,  and,  deter- 
mined to  become  independent  of  Moscow,  sent  to  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  for  a  local  metropolitan 
to  rule  over  them.  In  1416  Gregory  I  was  made 
"  Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Lithuania'",  independejitly 
of  Photius  who  ruled  at  Moscow.  But  at  the  death 
of  Gregorv  no  successor  was  appointed  for  his  see. 
Gerasim  (1431-5)  was  the  successor  of  Photius  at 
Moscow,  and  had  correspondence  with  Pope  Eugene 
IV  as  to  the  reunion  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches.  The  next  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  was 
the  famous  Greek  monk,  Isidore^  consecrated  under 
the  title  of  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff  and  Moscow". 
When  the  Council  of  Florence  for  the  reunion  of  the 
East  and  the  West  was  held,  he  left  Moscow  in  com- 
pany with  Bishop  Abraham  of  Suzdal  and  a  large 
company  of  Russian  prelates  and  theologians,  at- 
tencied  the  council,  and  signed  the  act  of  union  in 
1439.  Returning  to  Russia,  he  arrived  at  Moscow  in 
the  spring  of  1441,  and  celebrated  a  grand  pontifical 
liturgy  at  the  cathedral  of  the  Assumption  in  the 
Kremlin  in  the  presence  of  Grand  Duke  VasiH  II  and 
the  Russian  clergy  and  nobility.  At  its  close  hiS' chief 
deacon  read  aloud  the  decree  of  the  union  of  the 
churches.  None  of  the  Russian  bishops  or  clergy 
raised  their  voices  in  opposition,  but  the  grand  duke 
loudly  upbraided  Isidore  for  turning  the  Russian 
people  over  to  the  Latins,  and  shortly  afterwards  the 
Russian  bishops  assembled  at  Moscow  followed  their 
royal  master's  command  and  condemned  the  union 
and  the  action  of  Isidore.  He  was  imprisoned,  but 
eventually  escaped  to  Lithuania  and  Kieff,  and  after 
many  adventures  reached  Rome. 

From  this  time  the  two  portions  of  Russia  were 
entirely  distinct,  the  prelates  of  Moscow  bearins  the 
title  "Metropolitan  of  Moscow  and  all  Russia  and 
those  of  Kieff,  "Metropolitan  of  Kieff,  Halich,  and 
all  Russia".  This  division  and  both  titles  were 
sanctioned  by  Pope  Pius  II.  But  Kidf  continued 
Catholic  and  in  communion  with  the  Holy  'See  for 
nearly  a  century,  while  Moscow  rejected  the  union 
and  remained  in  schism.  After  Isidore  the  Musco- 
vites would  have  no  more  metropolitans  sent  to  them 
from  Constantinople,  and  the  grand  duke  thereupon 
selected  the  metropolitan.  Every  effort  was  tnen 
made  to  have  the  metropolitans  of  Moscow  inde- 
pendent of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  After 
the  Turks  had  captured  Constantinople,  the  power 
of  its  patriarch  dwindled  still  more.  When  the 
Bishop  of  Novgorod  declared  in  1470  for  union  with 
Rome,  Philip  I,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  frustrated 
it,  declaring  that,  for  signing  the  union  with  Rome  at 
Florence,  Constantinople  had  been  punished  by  the 
Turks.  This  hatred  of  Rome  was  fomented  to  such 
a  point  that,  rather  than  have  one  who  favoured 
Rome,  a  Jew  named  Zozimas  was  made  Metropolitan 
of  Moscow  (1490-4);  as,  however,  he  openly  sup- 
ported his  brethren,  he  was  finally  deposed  as  an  unoe^ 
liever.  Yet  in  1525  the  metropolitan  Daniel  had  a 
correspondence  with  Pope  Clement  VII  in  regard  to 
the  Florentine  Union,  and  in  1581  the  Jesuit  Possevin 
visited  Ivan  the  Terrible  and  sought  to  have  him 
accept  the  principles  of  the  Union.    In  1586|  after 


F 


1     .  -       1  «         .         '  .    '-r   .  \ 


I 


1  *  i_  u  t  N   I- « . 


n 


MOSTAB                              59d  MOSTAS 

itanding.    It  was  once  a  busy  and  prospisrous  town,  30,000  Nestoriansj  5000  Protestantfl;    and  10,000 

rrading  in  woollen  goods  and  morocco  leather,  but  Jews.    The  Catholics  of  all  the  rites  scattered  through 

luring  the  nineteen^  century,  owing  to  lack  of  com-  the  territory  amount  to  80,000.    The  Mission  has  23 

nunications  with  the  outside  world  and  also  to  the  Latin  priests,  all  Dominicans,  and  15  native  priests 

>penin^  of  the  Suez  canal  which  dianged  the  caravan  who  assist  them  in  teaching.    There  are  9  Latin 

cute,  it  has  decayed.    At  the  present  time  it  is  the  churches,  5  residential  stations  (Mossul,  founded  in 

capital  of  a  vilayet  and  has  70^000  inhabitants.    Its  1750;  Mar-Yakoub  in  1847;  Van  in  1881;  Seert  in 

^rdle  of  wall  more  than  six  miles  in  circumference,  1882;  Djezireh  in  1884),  and  98  secondary  stations 

las  become  too  large  for  it.    The  town  has  sulphur  visited  by  the  missionaries.    In  1910  a  station  waa 

iprings  and  many  very  fine  mosques  and  churches,  founded  m  the  heart  of  the  Nestorian  patriarchate, 

vmong  its  more  famous  citizens  were  Baha  ed-Din,  The  Syro-Chaldean  Seminary,  founded  at  Mossul  in 

]bn    d-Athir,    and    Ibn    Khallikan,    Mussulmans;  1882,  has  educated  more  than  60  priests;  it  has  be- 

Thomas  of  Marga,. Isaac  of  Nineveh,  Hanna  of  Adia-  tween  50  and  60  students.    There  are  50  parochial 

>ene,  etc.  Christians.  schools  for  bo3rB;  8  for  girls;  1  Normal  School  for  Chal- 

In  410j  at  the  council  of  SeleuciarCtesiphon,  the  dean  Catholic  teachers  at  Mar-Yakoub;  3  colleges  for 
Metropolitan  of  Adiabene  had  the  united  titles  of  Ar-  boys;  4  boarding  schools  for  girls;  4  orphanages  opened 
>ela,  Hazza,  Assyria,  and  Mossul  (Chabot,  '^Synodi-  in  consequence  of  the  massacres  of  1895.  The  Do- 
on  oiientale",  265,  619).  This  is  the  earliest  men-  minicanesses  of  the  Presentation  have  houses  at  Mos- 
11  '>n  of  the  See  of  Mossul.    It  continued  under  the  suL  Seert,  and  Van. 

i  VTie  style  up  to  the  seventh  century.    Soon  after  the  ^^^''/.f^.  ^"''^•?,^^*^a  "  i?f '^V-^®?^^'  ®Jl^%  ^'**" 

of  b  invasion  the  title  of  Adiabene  was  replaced  by  ^i)%2.^Sn:    ^  ^^*             '  ^""^  ^^*-  ^^^'°**' 

hofc  of  Assyria  and  Mossul.    Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  •      t         .                                       ^^  yjuhEA. 
il,  1215-1220)  ^ves  a  long  list  of  titulars  from  the 

leventh  to  the  sixteenth  century.    Many  of  the  Ne»-  Mostar  and   Markana-Trebinje,   Dioceses  ov 

orian  patriarchs  of  Mossul  became  converts  and  re-  (Mandatriensib,  Marcanenbib  et  Tbibunenbib). — 

ided  there,  banning  with  Ehas  Denham  in  1751.  When  at  the  Berlin  Conoress  (1878)  Austria-Hungary 

Is  there  was  already  a  Catholic  Chaldean  patriarch  was  allowed  to  occupy  JBosnia  and  Herzegovina,  the 

kt  Diarbekir,  Rome  in  1828  and  especially  in  1830  religious  situation  was  at  once  regulated.    The  re- 

>rought  about  the  union  of  the  two  Churches  and  Mar  hgious  hatred  existing  until  then  between  the  Ortho- 

i]lias,  also  known  as  John  VIII,  was  recognized  as  the  dox  (673,000,  43  per  cent),  Mohammedans  (549,000. 

>n]y  patriarch.    He  transferred  the  residence  of  the  35  per  cent),  Catnolics  (330,000,  21  per  cent),  and 

lee  to  Bagdad,  and  since  that  time  the  Chaldean  patri-  Jews  (8000,  0.5  per  cent),  was  moderated.    In  1881 

u-cha  have  again  taken  up  their  residence  at  Mossul.  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  formed  the  ecclesiastical 

The  Chaldean  archdiocese  numbers  20,000  souls;  45  province  of  Sarajevo  (BosnarSerai;  Sarahimur)  with 

lecular  priests;  12  parishes^  and  13  churches.    In  the  the  three  sees  of  Banjaluka  (Banialucus),  Mostar,  and 

leighbourhood  of  Alkosh  is  the  convent  of  Rabban  Markana-Trebinje  as   suffragans.     The   Bishop  of 

lormuz,  the  home  of  the  Antonian  Congregation  of  Mostar,  through  his  pro-vicar,  administers  Markana- 

)t.  Hormisdas  of  the  Chaldean  rite,  who  have  two  Trebinje,  in  which  there  are  only  eight  secular  priests 

)ther  convents  in  the  diocese.    The  congregation  and  20,000  Catholics. 

lumbers  in  all  63  religious  of  whom  30  are  priests.  Mostar  is  the  capital  of  Herzegovina,  and  numbers 
The  Jacobites  took  up  their  residence  at  Mossul  at  an  15,000  inhabitants,  among  whom  there  are  3500 
tarly  date,  especially  at  the  Convent  of  Mar  Mattal,  Catholics.  Herzegovina,  which  lies  east  of  southern 
he  principal  centre  of  their  activity.  There  also  since  Dalmatia,  received  its  name  from  the  title  of  Herzog 
.089  dwefls  the  **  Maphrian"  or  delegate  of  the  patri-  (duke)  conferred  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  IV  (1448) 
irch  for  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  in  Persia,  a  title  or  on  the  Grand  Wajrwode  Stephan  Vukfiid.  In  1463 
office  now  purely  honorary.  The  Monophysites  are  Stephan  TomaSevid,  the  last  King  of  Bosnia,  was 
rery  numerous  in  the  city  and  the  diocese.  The  Sjrr-  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Turks  and  beheaded,  in  de- 
an Cathohc  diocese  numbers  6,000  souls:  20  priests;  7  fiance  of  a  promise  to  spare  him.  Twenty  years  later 
>arishe8;  and  10  churches.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ..  Herzegovina  came  under  the  rule  of  Turkey.  With 
I,  1559-1564)  gives  a  list  of  Jacobite  titularies  oi  Bosnia  it  received  Christianity  from  the  Romans.  In 
klossul.  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century  the  Slavs  took 

The  Apostolic  Misnon  of  Mossul  was  founded  in  possession.    In  the  eleventh  century  the  Eastern 

750  by  Benedict  XIV  as  a  Pr^ecture  Apostolic  and  Schism  and  the  sect  of  the  Bogomili  did  the  Catholic 

•ntrusted  to  the  Italian  Dominicans  who  had  re-  Church  great  and  unrepaired  narm.    National  writ- 

>eatedly  laboured  in  the  province  from  the  thirteenth  ers  trace  this  sect  to  a  Bulgarian  priest,  Jeremias,  who 

lentury  onwards.    Thanks  to  them,  a  Syrian  Catho-  was  also  called  Bogomil.    His  followers  were  cidled 

ic  diocese  was  erected  at  Mossul  in  that  same  year.  Patarenes;   they   rejected   matrimony,    allowed   no 

n  1780,  the  Nestorian  patriarch  Mar  Yohannan,  who  intercourse  with  those  of  other  religions,  uncondition- 

esided  at  Alkosh,  25  miles  north-east  of  Mossul,  be-  ally  forbade  war  and  tddng  of  oaths,  and  wished  to 

Ame  a  Catholic  together  with  five  bishops  of  his  na-  yield  obedience  to  no  authority  but  God.    In  1483, 

ion,  the  greater  i)art  of  the  inhabitants  of  his  town,  during  the  Turkish  occupation  of  the  countnr,  the 

ind  of  six  villages  in  the  vicinity.    The  French  monks  majority  of  the  Bogomili,  those  of  the  upper  classes, 

rho  replaced  the  Italians  were  able  in  1856,  thanks  to  went   over   to   Mohammedanism.    Those   who   re- 

S/L.  BoT^t  and  to  the  French  Consul,  the  Assyriologist  mained  faithful  to  Christianity  became  outlaws  (Ka- 

Botta,  to  open  boys'  and  gu-ls'  schools,  and  to  found  a  jaka).    After  the  siege  of  Vienna  and  the  retreat  of  the 

o(inting  press  for  Arabic  and  Syriac  works,  and  finally  Turks  in  1683,  the  poor  peasants  repeatedly  took  up 

,  college  at  Mossul.    The  Apostolic  Mission  at  the  arms,  but  only  macfe  their  condition  worse.    During 

resent  day  is  bounded  by  three  other  French  Mis-  this  unhappy  time  the  Franciscans,  unaided  and  with 

ions,  those  of  the  Capuchins  at  Mardin,  the  Carmel-  great  difficulty,  preserved  the  life  of  the  Cathohc 

tes  at  Bagdad,  and  the  Lazarists  in  Persia.    It  in-  Church  in  the  country.    Not  seldom  they  celebrated 

dudes  the  south-east  of  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and  Divine  service  amid  the  cold  and  snow  in  the  open  air. 

,he  north-east  of  Armenia  Major,  a  stretch  of  territory  They  Uved  in  the  most  wretched  poverty,  ana  many 

•overing  the  vilayets  of  Mossul.  6itUs,  Van,  and  a  part  became  martyrs. 

>f  Diarbekir.    Besides  the  Arabs,  Kurds,  and  Mussid-  The  Franciscans  deserved  that  one  of  their  order 

nan  Turks  (about  3,000,000),  and  the  Yezidis  or  should  be  chosen  Bishop  of  Mostar  and  Markanar 

Devil-worshippers  (about  30,000),  the  Mission  num-  Trebinje  in  1881.    The  order  maintains  two  schools 

lers  300»(XX)  schismatic  Armenians:  70.000  Jcuiobites:  and  six  classes  for  the  education  of  the  rising  genera- 


MOST                      600  Monr 

tkm.    There  are  12  secular  priesta  and  64  Frandacaiis  1867;  the  diooeBes  of  Palermo,  Salerno^  Cataastfo, 

in  the  dioceee.  and  the  number  of  Catholics  is  esti-  etc^  use  that  composed  by  Pdre  Gallifet  in  1726. 

mated  at  130,000.  The  feast  of  the  Archconfratemity  of  the  Immami- 

8TBAU8S,  Boanun,  Land  und  isuu  (2  toIs.,  Vienna,  1883.  late  Heart  of  Mary»  refuge  of  sinners,  is  celebrated  od 

1884):  KLij*.  a^Bchiehte  B€^i^  (Lmp««,  1886);  Nikabchi-  ^^j^    Sunday  before  Septuageaima  at  Paris,  Chartreg 

KuUurmiMi<mOe»t€rn%duinBo9nUnundinderHerM€gowinaln  Reims,  LimOgeS,   Vannes,   Nantes^  at  Lucca  m  Tofi- 

iln  ^*r«n  find  SMv«nre»eA  (Vienna,  1008).  351-355  sq.  cana,  in  the  ecclesiastical  provmce  of  St.   Louis, 

C.  WoLFBGRUBBR.  Missouri,  etc. 

(Eutr—  Complkf  du  B.  J  tan  Budet,  XI  (Vannee.  1910).  147 

M08t  Ppn  Hean  OX  IW7,  FBAOT  of  m.—ln  its  bn,ok.  1885);  Holw»ck.  Fatii  Mariani  (Freibur*.  1892). 

pnhcipal  omect  this  feast  is  identical  with  the  feast  of  Frederick  G.  Holwec^. 

the^InnerLifeof  Mary",  celebrated  by  the  Sulpitians       --  _, -,  «      %#  i-w 

on  19  October.   It  commemorates  the  joys  and  sorrows  Moatyn,  Francis.    See  Menevia,  Diocese  of 


of  the  Mother  of  God,  her  virtues  and  perfections,  her  MoBynoupolis,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Trajan- 
love  for  God  and  her  Divine  Son.  and  her  compassion-  opolis  in  Rhodope.  A  single  bishopu  known,  Paul. 
ate  love  for  mankind.  In  a  subordinate  manner,  its  ^o  assisted  at  the  council  of  878,  which  Te-estsh- 
object  is  also  the  physical  Heart  of  Mary,  which,  being  lished  Photius  (Le  Quien,  ''Oriens  christ.",  I,  12l\'i'. 
part  of  her  sinless  and  virginal  body ^  is  the  symbol  and  The  see  is  mentioned  in  the  "Notitia"  of  Leo  the 
sensible  object  representing  the  sentiments  and  virtues  Wise,  about  900  (GeUer.  Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Notiti^ 
of  Mary  (see  Heart  of  Mart,  Devotion  to  the). 
The  feast  originated  with  Blessed  John  Eudes  as  the 

patronal  feast  of  his  congregations  of  priests  and  nuns,     unc__    ._ _  __   , ^ , 

and  was,  since  1644,  kept  at  the  seminary  of  Caen  on  ocles  Synecdemus*',  122).    Tfie  monk  Eplirem  (Ca^ 

20  October.    The  office,  which  is  very  beautiful,'"was  sares,  V.  6695,  in  P.  G.,  CXLIII,  216)  says  that  the 

composed  by  Blessed  John  Eudes  in  1641.  but  its  text  city  was  taken  in  1190  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  oi 

was  not  definitely  fixed  before  1672.    In  1647  the  Swabia:  and  that  Caloian,  Tsar  of  the  BulRanaim. 

date  of  the  feast  was  changed  to  8  February,  the  feast  ravaged  it  about  1206  (Cwsares.  V.  7816).     It  is  not 

being  solemni2ed  publicly  for  the  first  time,  with  the  known  exactly  where  this  town  of  Macedonia  was 

permission  of  Bishop  Kagny,  at  the  cathedral  of  situated  nor  what  name  it  bears  to-day. 

Autun  on  8  February,  1648.    In  1668  Cardinal  Ven-  S.  Vaii-h6. 
d6me  approved  the  office,  and  the  feast  was  adopted 

the  same  year  by  the  French  Franciscans,  the  Bene-  Motet. — A  short  piece  of  muac  set  to  Latin  word^, 
dictine  Nuns  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration,  and  later  and  sung  instead  of,  or  immediately  after,  the  Offer- 
by  a  number  of  dioceses  and  religious  communities,  torium,  or  as  a  detached  number  m  extra-liturgical 
contrary  to  decrees  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  pro-  functions.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  involved  in 
hibiting  the  feast  of  the  Heart  of  Mary.  The  bishops  some  obscurity.  The  most  generally  accepted  deriva- 
of  the  Church  in  France  claimed  at  this  period  tne  tion  is  from  the  Latin  molita,  ''movement";  but  the 
right  to  institute  new  feasts,  and  to  compose  offices  French  mot,  ''word",  or  "phrase",  has  also  been 
and  new  breviaries  without  consulting  the  Roman  suggested.  The  Italian  moUetto  was  originally  (in 
authorities.  In  1672  Blessed  John  Eudes  could  state  the  thirteenth  century)  a  profane  pol3rphonic  species 
that  the  feast  had  spread  over  nearly  all  France.  It  of  music,  the  air,  or  melody,  being  in  the  Tenor  clef, 
was  mostly  kept  on  8  Februaiy,  but  at  the  H^tel-*  taking  the  then  acknowledged  place  of  the  canto /ermo, 
Dieu  of  Quebec  (since  1690)  on  3  July,  and  at  Saint-  or  plainchant,  theme.  Philip  de  Vitr>%  who  died 
Maclou,  Rouen,  on  the  Sunday  after  2S2  August  (Office  Bishop  of  Meaux,  wrote  a  work  entitled  "Ars  com- 
pr.  1765:  triple  of  the  first  class).  positionis  de  motetis",  the  date  of  which  was  probably 
The  Nuns  of  Notre  Dame  de  (Ik>rbeil  (8  Feb.,  1787)  1320.  This  volume  (now  in  the  Paris  Biblioth^ue  Xa- 
were  the  first  to  obtain  papal  sanction  for  the  feast  tionale)  con  tains  our  oldest  specimens  of  sacred  motets, 
from  Pius  VI  (kept  on  22  August  as  a  double  of  the  and  these  continued  in  vogue  for  over  two  centuries, 
first  class  with  octave).  The  same  pope  later  ap-  Gerbert  prints  some  other  motets  of  the  first  half  of 
proved  it  for  the  Carmelites  of  Saint-Denys  (8  Feb.),  the  fourteenth  century,  but  they  are  not  of  any  partic- 
and  for  the  Nuns  of  Fontevrault  (Sunday  after  2  ular  interest,  and  are  mostly  in  two  parts.  It  was  not 
July).  On  22  March,  1799,  it  was  granted  to  the  city  until  the  commencement  of  the  following  century, 
of  Palermo  (third  Sunday  after  Pentecost);  on  13  especidly  between  the  yean  1390  and  1435,  that  a 
Aug.,  1805,  to  the  Clerics  Regular  of  the  Mother  of  number  of  distinguished  composers — e.  g.,  Dunstable. 
God;  in  1806  to  Siena;  in  1807  to  the  Discalced  Car-  Power,  Dufay,  Brasart,  and  Binchois — ^produced 
melites;  on  2  Sept.,  1807,  to  the  Capuchins  and  Her-  polyphonic  motets  that  are  still  worthy  of  attention, 
mits  of  St.  Augustine  for  the  Sunday  after  the  Octave  Dunstable's  "Quam  pulchra  es"  is  a  diarming 
of  the  Assumption;  on  19  Sept.,  1807,  to  Tuscany,  specimenof  a  three-part  motet,  the  concluding  Alleluia 
The  city  of  Rome  adopted  the  feast  in  1879.  In  the  being  far  in  advance  of  any  similar  work  during  the 
Society  of  Jesus  it  is  observed  on  the  Sunday  within  first  quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  betraying  a 
the  Octave  of  the  Assumption.  The  feast  has  not  genuinely  artistic  style.  Equally  beautiful  are  the 
yet  been  extended  to  the  entire  Church.  It  is  kept  as  motets  of  Lionel  Power,  the  manuscripts  of  ^^ch 
the  patronal  feast  of  the  Republic  of  Ecuador,  of  the  are  at  Vienna,  Bologna,  and  Modena.  One  of  his 
(]k)ngregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  Society  of  the  happiest  efforts  is  a  four-part  motet  in  which  the  treat- 
Sacied  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and  of  the  Mis-  ment  is  peculiarly  melodious  and  of  an  Irish  flavour, 
sionanr  Society  of  the  Heart  of  Niary  on  the  Sunday  Dufay,  who  was  a  Walloon,  composed  numerous 
after  22  August.  The  feast  is  celebrated  at  (Dosenza  motets,  including  "Salve  Virgo",  "Flos  flonim", 
(Calabria)  on  7  February  (earthquake.  1783),  by  the  "Alma  Redemptoris",  and  "Ave  Regina  coelomm"; 
English  Benedictines  on  the  first  Sunday  of  May:  in  and  by  his  will  he  ordered  the  last  named  exquisite 
the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Lembei^  on  the  last  composition  to  be  sung  by  the  altar  boys  and  cnoris- 
Saturday  in  May;  at  Bologna,  Pescia,  Volaterra  etc.,  ters  of  Cambrai  cathedral  at  his  death-bed.  Brasart, 
on  the  second  Sunday  in  July;  at  Salerno  on  the  last  also  a  Walloon,  whose  name  appears  among  the 
Sunday  after  Pentecost,  etc.  The  office  of  Blessed  pontifical  mneers  in  1431,  composed  inotets,  including 
John  Eudes,  universally  used  in  France  for  over  a  a  four-part  '^Fortis  cum  quevis  actio"  and  a  very 
hundred  years,  was  finally  approved  for  the  Eudists  pretty  "Ave  Maria".  Binchois,  another  native  of 
(8  Feb.)  in  18ol.  The  office  contained  in  the  Appen-  glanders  has  left  some  motets  in  three  parts,  includ* 
dix  of  tJie  Roman  Breviary  was  granted  on  21  July,  ing  "Beata  Dei  Genitriz",  but  the   treatment  is 


MOTIVE                               601  MOTOLINIA 

LTchaic,  and  not  at  all  comparable  to  the  work  of  have  left  us  beautiful  spQpimens.  However,  in  the 
^ower  or  Dufay.  He  died  in  1460.  Like  Dufay,  he  case  of  Monteverde  (1567-1643),  he  broke  away  from 
7aB  a  priest  and  canon  of  Mons.  From  1435  to  the  old  traditions  and  helped  to  create  the  modem 
.480  the  motet  was  treated  by  such  masters  as  school  of  music,  employing  unprepared  discords  and 
!!^aron^  Okeghem,  and  Obrecht,  and  though  the  style  other  harmonic  devices.  Crooe,  who  was  a  priest, 
8  far  m  advance  of  similar  compositioiis  of  the  mid-  published  many  beautiful  motets,  including  O  sa- 
ifteenth  century,  not  many  of  the  surviving  specimens  crum  convivium".  In  the  mid-seventeenth  century, 
:an  compare  with  the  best  efforts  of  Power  and  Dufay.  owing  to  the  conflict  between  the  older  and  the  newer 
Dkeghem  was  a  priest,  and  was  prindpal  chaplain  to  schools,  no  appreciable  advance  was  made  in  motet- 
!3harles  VII  of  France  and  to  Louis  Al,  being  subse-  writing.  The  onljr  two  composers  who  nobly  upheld 
luently  made  canon  and  treasurer  of  St.  Martin's  at  the  true  pol^honic  school  were  Allegri  and  Cascio- 
Lours.  His  motet,  ''Alma  Redemptoris",  displays  lini.  Allegri  was  a  priest  and  a  pontifical  sineer,  and 
nuch  contrapuntal  ingenuity,  and  ne  also  wrote  a  he  is  best  known  by  his  famous  Miserere  K)r  nine 
notet  for  thirty-six  voices,  probably  performed  by  voices  in  two  choirs.  A  few  of  Cascolini's  motets  are 
lix  choirs  of  six  voices  each.  still  sung.  From  1660  to  1670  the  modem  type  of 
But  it  is  between  the  years  1480  and  1520  that  the  motet,  with  instrumental  accompaniment,  came  into 
notet  as  an  art-form  progressed,  favourled  by  the  nas-  vogue,  and  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  "modal"  treat- 
sent  devices  of  the  modem  school,  with  Josquin  Des-  mcnt  was  superseded  by  the  prevalent  scale-tonality. 
iT6s  as  leeider.  The  outstanding  feature  of  the  mo-  The  masters  of  this  epoch  were  I^eo,  Durante,  Scar- 
,cts  of  this  period  is  the  extraormnary  skill  displayed  latti^  Pergolesi,  Carissimi,  Stradella,  and  Purcell. 
n  weaving  melodious  counterpoint  around  a  short  Dunng  the  eighteenth  century  the  motet  received 
>hrase  of  plainchant  or  secular  melody.  Josquin  adequate  treatment  at  the  hands  of  Johann  Sebastian 
^Canon  of  St-Quentin)  stands  head  and  shoulaers  Bach,  Keiser,  Graun,  Hasse,  Handel,  and  Bononcini. 
>ver  his  fellows,  and  his  motets  were  among  the  earli-  A  further  development,  but  on  different  lines,  took 
»t  printed  by  retrucci,  in  1502-05.  In  all,  one  him-  place  during  the  nineteenth  century,  specimens  of 
irea  and  fifty  of  his  motets  have  been  printed,  the  best  which  may  be  found  in  the  published  works  of  Mozart, 
cnown  being  the  beautiful  one,  founded  on  the  plain-  Haydn,  Cherubini,  and  Mendelssohn.  However,  the 
:hant  theme  of  '*  Requiem  setemam'',  on  the  death  of  motu  ^oprio  of  Pope  Pius  X  has  had  the  happy  effect 
lis  master  Okeghem,  and  the  settings  of  the  genealo-  of  reviving  the  polyphonic  school  of  the  sixteenth  and 
pes  in  the  Go^els  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke.  His  early  seventeenth  centuries,  when  the  motet  in  its 
ellow-pupil,  Pierre  de  la  Rue,  also  composed  some  truest  form  was  at  the  height  of  perfection, 
jharming  motets,  of  which  twenty-five  have  been  Eitn«r,  QudUnUrikon  (Leip«ig,  iwo-04);  Oaova,  Dm*.  oJ 

>rinted     One  of  the  best  known  ia  founds!  on  a  j!f^./l^  ^TI'li^SrAoV'?^ 

:heme  from  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremias.    Another  padie  Did.  o/Mtuic  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1909). 

amous  motet-writer  of  this  period  was  Eleazar  Genet,  W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

setter  known  as  Carpentras  (from  the  place  of  his  Twr***!^*     o^  iwrrxnA*^m«- 

3irth),  a  priest  and  papal  nuncio.    His  "  Motetti  della  «<>«▼••    See  morality. 

x>rona"  were  published  by  Petmcci,  in  1514.  but  he  MotoUnia,  Toribio  db  Benavente.  Franciscan 

a  best  known  for  his  "  Lamentations",  which contin-  missionary,  b.  at  Benavente,  Spain,  at  the  end  of  the 

led  to  be  sung  by  the  pontifical  choir  at  Rome  until  fifteenth  century;  d.  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  10  August, 

L5S7.    A  third  motet-writer  was  Jean  Mouton,  canon  1568.    He  was  one  of  the  first  band  of  Franciscans 

jf  St-Quentin,  whose  '^Quam  pulchra  es"  has  often  who  sailed  for  Mexico  with  Fray  Martin  de  Valencia, 

>een  ascribed  to  Josquin.    A  fourth  is  Jacques  C16m-  and  survived  all  his  compamons.    Upon  enterins 

3nt  (Clemens  non  Papa),  who  issued  seven  books  of  religion,  he  changed  his  name  of  Paredes  for  that  oT 

motets,  published  by  Phal^  (Louvain.  1559).   Three  Benavente,  following  the  then  regular  custom  of  the 

typical  specimens  have  been  reprinted  by  Proske  in  order.    As  he  and  his  companions,  on  their  way  to  the 

tus  "  Musica  divina".    Jacob  Vaett  composed  a  mo-  City  of  Mexico,  passed  through  Tlaxcala,  the  Indians, 

tet  on  thb  French  composer's  death  in  1558.    John  seemg  the  humble  aspect  and  ragged  habits  of  the 

Dygon,  Prior  of  St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury,  was  a  religious,  kept  repeating  to  each  other  the  word  molo- 

3omposer  of  motets,  one  of  which  was  printed  by  linia.    Fray  Tonbio,  having  asked  the  meaning  of  this 

Qawkins.    Other  English  composers  who  cultivated  word  and  leamed  that  it  was  the  Mexican  for  poor, 

this  art-form  in  the  sixteenth  century  were:  Fayrfax,  said:  ''It  is  the  first  word  I  have  leamed  in  this  lan- 

Fallis  (who  wrote  one  in  forty  parts),  Whyto,  Red-  Kuage,  and,  that  I  may  not  forget  it,  it  shall  henceforth 

ford,  Tavemer,  and  Shephera.     Many  of  the  Latin  be  my  name. "     Bemal  Dias  del  Castillo,  an  eyewit- 

motets  by  these  musicians  were  subsequently  adapted  ness  of  the  arrival  of  the  first  friars,  singles  Motolinia 

to  English  words.     Arcadelt,  a  pontifical  singer,  com-  out  from  the  others,  saying  of  him:  ''Whatever  was 

posed  an  eight-part  Pater  Noster;  his  better  known  given  him  he  gave  to  the  Indians,  and  sometimes 

Ave  Maria  is  of  doubtful  authenticity.    Willaert,  was  left  without  food.    He  wore  very  torn  clothing 

maestro  di  cappeUa  at  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  and  "father  and  went  barefoot,  and  the  Indians  loved  him  much. 

of  the  madrigal",  published  three  collections  of  mo-  because  he  was  a  holy  person."    When  Motolinia  and 

bets  for  four,  five,  and  six  voices,  not  a  few  of  which  his  companions  arrived  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  Cortes 

are  extremely  inventive  and  melodious  though  intri-  went  out  to  receive  them,  accompanied  by  all  his  cap- 

cate.  tains  and  the  chief  men  of  the  place.    The  religious 

The  acme  of  motet  composition  was  reached  in  the  carried  wooden  crosses  in  their  hands;  Cortes  and 

Ecriod  from  1560  to  1620,  when  Orlandus  I^issus  (Ro-  those  with  him  knelt  and  kissed  their  hands  with  the 

ind  de  Lattre),  Palestrina,  Morales,  Anerio.  Maren-  deepest  respect,  and  then  conducted  them  to  the 

zio,  Byrd,  de  Roro,  Suriano,  Nanini,  GabrieU,  Croce,  lodgings  prepared  for  them.    The  Indians  wondered 

and  Mocteverde  nourished,  not  forgetting  English  much  when  they  saw  those  whom  they  considered 

Catholic  composers  like  Bevin,  Richard  Dering,  and  supernatural  bemgs  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  these 

Peter  Philips.     Palestrina,  who  has  been  aptly  styled  humble   and   apparently   despicable   men.    Cortes 

Princeps  AfusiccBf  composed  over  300  motets,  some  for  seized  the  opportunity  to  address  a  discourse  to  the 

twelve  voices,  but  mostly  for  from  four  to  ei^t  voices,  caciques  (chiefs)  and  lords  who  accompanied  him, 

of  which  seven  books  were  printed.    One  of  his  ex-  recommending  due  veneration  and  respect,  as  he  him- 

quisite  motets  is,  "  Fratres,  ego  enim  accepi ",  for  eight  self  had  shown,  for  those  who  had  come  to  teach  them 

voices,  while  another  is  the  much  simpler  "Sicut  cer^  the  Christian  religion. 

vus  desiderat".    Lassus  composed  180  Magnificats,  When  Cortes  set  out  on  the  expedition  to  Las  Hi- 

aad  WO  motete.    Th^  Qtber  masters  quoted  abov^  buerw,  the  ijjifluence  gf  U9\9^m  pver  tb^  Indiana 


MOTU  PSOPRIO 


602 


M0UCH7 


was  80  great  that  the  conqueror  commiaBioned  him  to 
see  that  *'no  rising  took  place  in  Mexico  or  the  other 
provinces"  during  his  absence.  Motolinia  subse- 
quently made  a  journey  to  Guatemala,  where  he  made 
use  of  the  faculties  which  he  had  to  administer  con- 
firmation, and  thence  passed  to  Nicaragua.  Re- 
turning to  Mexico,  he  was  guardian  successively  at 
Texooco  and  Tlaxcala,  and  was  chosen  sixth  provin- 
cial of  the  Province  of  Santo  Evangelio.  When  Don 
Sebastian  Ramirez  de  Fuenleal,  president  of  the  sec- 
ond Atidienoa,  decided  to  found  the  settlement  of 
Puebla,  Fray  Toribio,  who  had  joined  in  requesting 
this  foundation,  was  one  of  the  conunissioners  chosen 
to  cany  out  the  work,  with  the  auditor  Don  Juan  de 
Salmeron.  In  association  with  the  guardians  of 
Tlaxcala,  Cholula,  Huexotzingo,  and  Tepeaca,  and 
employing  a  larse  number  of  Indian  labourers,  they 
built  the  city.  Motolinia  said  the  first  Mass  here  on 
16  April,  1530,  and  with  his  companions  made  the  al- 
lotments of  land,  choosing  for  the  convent  the  site 
upon  which  is  still  to  be  seen  the  beautiful  church  of 
San  Francisco.  He  himself  left  in  writing  the  total 
of  baptisms  performed  by  him,  amounting  to  400,000, 
"which,''  says  Padre  Torquemada,  ^'I  who  write  this 
have  seen  confirmed  by  his  name."  The  Indians 
loved  him  tenderly  for  his  virtues  and,  above  all,  for 
his  ardent  charity.  He  died  in  the  convent  of  S. 
F^rancisoo.  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  the  crowd  at  his 
burial  had  to  be  restrained  from  cutting  in  pieces  the 
habit  which  his  corpse  wore,  pieces  of  which  they 
would  have  taken  as  relics  of  a  saint. 

Among  the  writings  of  Motolinia  is  lus  famous 
letter  to  Emperor  Charles  V,  written  on  2  January, 
1555.  It  is  a  virulent  attack  upon  Bishop  Barto- 
lom6  de  las  Casas,  intended  to  discredit  him 
completely,  calling  him  "a  ^evous  man,  restless, 
importunate,  turbulent,  injunous,  and  prejudicial", 
and  moreover  an  apostate  m  that  he  had  renounced 
the  Bishopric  of  Chiapas.  The  monarch  is  even  ad- 
vised to  have  him  shut  up  for  safe  keeping  in  a  mon- 
astery. While  it  is  impossible  to  save  the  memory 
of  Motolinia  from  the  blot  which  this  letter  has 
placed  upon  it,  some  explanation  of  his  conduct  can 
De  raven.  He  mav  have  foreseen  the  extremely  grave 
evifi  that  would  have  resulted  to  the  social  svstem, 
as  it  was  then  established  in  New  Spain,  if  the  theories 
of  Las  Casas  had  become  completely  dominant.  In- 
deed, when  it  is  remembered  that  these  theories 
jeopardized  the  fortunes  of  nearly  all  the  colonists, 
not  only  in  Mexico,  but  also  throughout  the  New 
World — fortunes  which  they  had  perhaps  amassed 
Ulegally,  but,  in  many  instances,  in  good  ffuth  and 
at  the  cost  of  incredible  labours  and  perils— ^it  may 
well  be  understood  why  so  tremendous  an  animosity 
should  have  been  felt  against  the  man  who  not  only 
had  originated  the  theories,  but  had  effected  their 
triumph  at  Court:  who  was  endeavouring  with  in- 
credible tenacity  ot  purpose  to  put  them  into  practice, 
and  who,  in  his  directions  to  confessors,  asserts  that 
all  the  Spaniards  of  the  Indies  must  despoil  them- 
selves of  all  their  property,  except  what  they  have 
acquired  by  commerce,  and  no  longer  hold  encomieiV' 
das  or  slaves.  The  theory  of  encomiendaa  was  not 
in  itself  blameworthy;  for  the  Indians,  being  like  all 
other  subjects  bound  to  contribute  towards  the  ex- 
penses of  government^  it  made  no  difference  to  them 
whether  they  paid  tribute  direct  to  the  government 
or  to  the  holders  of  royal  commissions  (encomiendas). 
What  made  the  system  intolerable  was  the  mass  of 
horrible  abuses  committed  under  its  shadow;  had 
las  Casas  aimed  his  attack  more  surely  agunst  these 
abuses,  he  might  perhaps  have  been  more  successful 
in  benefiting  the  Indians.  It  is  certain  that  the 
''New  Laws",  Uie  greatest  triumph  of  las  Casas, 
remained  virtually  inoperative  in  Mexico;  in  Chiapas 
and  Guatemala  tney  led  to  serious  distuit>ances,  and 
10  P^ru  they  resulted  iu  ^  pivil  war  fraught  witb 


crimes  and  horrors,  amidst  which  the  aborimus 
suffered  greatly.  Such  was  the  man  whom  Motoliiua 
sought  to  oppose,  and  his  attitude  was  shared  by 
men  of  the  most  upright  character,  e.  g.  Bishop 
Marroquin,  the  viceroy,  Don  Antonio  de  Mendoz^ 
and  the  visUadar  Telfo.  However  pardonable  tbe 
intention,  it  is  impossible  to  for^^ve  the  sggnaa^ 
and  virulent  tone  of  the  aforesaid  denunciation. 
He  wrote  some  works  which  were  of  assistance  to 
Mendieta  and  to  Torquemada,  one  of  the  chief  being 
his  "Historia  de  los  Indios  de  Nueva  Espafia". 

BUUBTAIN,  Biblioteea  hUpano^wurieana  atptentrunud  (Aii»- 
OAiDAoa,  1883);  IcAfBALcrrA.  06nM  (Mezieo.  1905);  Alamos. 
DiMTtaoofiM  (Mexioo,  1844);  Bbbnal  Dias  dxl  CAmu.o. 
HiHoria  werdadera  d*  la  eon^iata  ds  la  Nuna  BspaMa  (Meuc&. 
1004);  Bbtancoitbt,  ManUogio  franeiseano  (Mexico,  ISTI;; 
CaRRi6n,  Hut.  dB  PuMa  (Puebla.  1896) ;  Mtgieo  d  trarH  4*  let 
•iolot.  II;  Mbnpibta,  Hui.  teUt.  indiana  (Mezioo.  1870):  Voire 
ci&n  M  Doemm^ntot  para  la  hiatoria  da  Mixieo,  I  (Mexioo,  189>i. 

Camiixus  Cbivelu. 

MotU  PropriOy  the  name  given  to  certain  papal  re- 
scripts on  account  of  the  clause  motuproprio  (of  hia 
own  accord)  used  in  the  document.  The  words  sig- 
nify that  the  provisions  of  the  rescript  were  decided  on 
by  the  pope  personally,  that  is,  not  on  the  advice  of  the 
cardinals  or  others,  but  for  reasons  which  he  himself 
deemed  sufficient.  The  document  has  generally  the 
form  of  a  decree:  in  style,  it  resembles  a  Brief  rather 
than  a  Bull,  but  differs  from  both  especially  in  not 
being  sealed  or  countersigned.  It  issues  from  the 
Dataria  Apostolica,  and  is  usually  written  in  Italian 
or  Latin.  It  begins  by  stating  Uie  reason  inducing 
the  sovereign  pontiff  to  act,  after  which  is  stated  the 
law  or  regiuation  made,  or  the  favour  granted.  It  is 
sigped  personally  by  the  pope,  his  name  and  the  date 
being  always  in  Latin.  A  Motu  Proprio  was  first  is- 
sued by  Innocent  VIII  in  1484.  It  was  always  un- 
popular in  France,  where  it  was  regarded  as  an  iD- 
fringement  of  Gallican  liberties,  for  it  implied  that 
the  sovereign  pontiff  had  an  immediate  jurisdiction  in 
the  affairs  of  the  French  Church.  The  best^cnown 
recent  example  of  a  Motu  Proprio  is  the  instructions 
issued  by  Pius  X  on  22  November,  1903,  for  the  re- 
form of  church  music. 

The  phrase  motu  proprio  is  frec^uently  employed  in 
papal  cfocuments.  One  characteristic  result  of  its  use 
IS  that  a  rescript  containing  it  is  valid  and  produces  lu 
effect  even  in  cases  where  fraud  would  ordinarily  have 
vitiated  the  document,  for  the  words  sicmify  that  the 
pope  in  granting  the  favour  does  not  rcuy  on  the  rea- 
sons alleged.  When  the  clause  is  used  in  dispensa- 
tions, the  latter  are  given  a  broad  interpretation;  a 
favour  granted  motu  proprio  is  valid  even  when  coun- 
ter to  ecclesiastical  law,  or  the  decisions  of  the  pope 
himself.  Consequentl^r,  canonists  call  the  clause  the 
''mother  of  repose" :  "sicut  papaver  gignit  somnum  et 

Suietem,  ita  et  h»c  clausula  habenti  eam."    (See 
Lescripts.) 

RsBur,  Tnut.  eoneordatorum:  De  forma  mandoH  apoaUL  (Pvii, 
1538) ,  B.  y . ;  Rigantx.  Commant.  in  ragttL  eaneaUarua  apoal.  (Koom. 
1744) .  ■.  V.  Oratia  moiu  proprio;  GnuUD.  BibL  aaana  (Milan,  1835). 

■•  ^*  A.  A.  MacEhleam. 

Moaehy,  Antoinb  db  (called  Democbares), 
theolo^an  and  canonist,  b.  1494,  at  Ressons-sur-Mata, 
near  Beauvais,  in  Picaitiy;  d.  8  May^  1574,  at  Paris. 
In  1539  he  was  appointed  rector  or  the  University 
of  Paris.  He  was  also  professor  at  the  Sorboime  and 
canon  Paniteniiariua  of  Nojfon.  As  inquisilor  fidei 
he  exerted  his  influence  against  the  Caivinists.  In 
1562  he  accompanied  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  to  the 
Coimcil  of  Trent,  and  in  1564  was  present  at  the 
Synod  of  Reims.  Mouchy  wrote  a  work  in  defence 
of  the  Mass  (Paris,  1562).  and  edited  the  "Corpus 

1'uris  canonici''   (3  vols,  fol.,  including  the  glossa, 
'aris,  1561;  4  vols.  8vo,  without  the  glossa,  Paris, 
1547-^;  7  vols.  12mo,  Lyons,  1554). 

ScBBBXB  in  KirehimUx^t  a.  v. 


MOOflNa                           603  MOVUNS 

Moufang,  Franz  Chbibtofh  Ignaz,  tkeolodan,  in  reorganizing  and  publishing  the"  Katholik'^whicli 

I.  at  Mainz,  17  Feb.,  1817;  d.  there,  27  Feb.,  1800.  in  collaboration  with  Heinrich  he  edited  from  1851 

lis  early  studies  were  made  at  Mainz.    In  1834  he  until  his  death. 

irent  to  the  University  of  Bonn,  first  taking  up  medi-  His  other  literary  work  was  mainly  in  the  history  of 

ine,    but   soon   turning   to   tneology.    .£nong  his  the  older  Catholic  catechisms  in  Germany.     His  chief 

riasters   were   Klee,    Windischmann,    and    Walter,  works  on  this  subject  are: ''Die  MainzerKatechismen 

n  1837  he  went  to  Munich,  and  the  next  year  took  von  Erfindimg  der  Buchdruckerkunst  bis  zum  Ende 

he  prescribed  theolodcal  examinations  at  Giessen,  des  18.  Jahrhunderts"  (Mainz,  1878);  "Katholische 

iter  which  he  entered  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Katechismen    des    16.    Jahrhunderts    in    deutscher 

^ainz,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  19  Dec.,  1839.  Sprache,  herausgegeben  und  mit  Anmerkungen  ver- 

iis  fint  appointment  was  as  curate  in  Selig^istadt  sehen"  (Mainz.  1881).    Amon^  his  numerous  shorter 

in  the  Mam,  where  his  uncle,  Adam  Franz  Lennig,  writings  are:  ''Die  barmherzigen  Schwestem,  eine 

ater  vicar-general  and  dean  of  the  cathedral  at  Mainz,  Darstdlimg  ihrer  GrQndung,  V erbreitung,  Einrich- 

vQs  pastor.    Lennig  stimulated  in  him  a  broad  in-  tun^  und  Wirksamkeif  (Mainz,  1842);  ''Der  Infor- 

erest  for  the  religious  questions  of  the  time.    Mou-  mativ-Prozess.    Eine  kirchenrechtliche  Er6rterung'' 

ang  also  taught  at  the  pro-gymnasium  at  Seligen-  (Mainz,  1850);  "Diekatholbchen  Pfarrschulen  in  der 

taat.    After  brief  charges  of  the  parish  of  Bensheim.  Stadt  Mainz''  (Mainz,  1863);  "Das  Verbot  der  Ehen 

ind  that  of  St.  Quentin  in  Mainz  he  was  appointed  zwischen     nahen    Verwandten.       Beleuchtung    der 

n  1845  religious  instructor  at  the  Mainz  gymna-  GHinde dieses Verbotes" (Mainz,  1863), I; "Die Hand- 

ium.  werkerfrage"  (Mainz.  1864),  a  speech  delivered  in 

When  Bishop  von  Ketteler  re-established  in  1851  the  Upper  (I!hamber  of  the  Landtag  at  Darmstadt  and 

he  philosophical  and  theolo^cal  school  in  connex-  published  with  notes;  "Die  Kirche  und  die  Versamm- 

on  with  the  seminary  at  Mainz,  he  appointed  Mou-  lungkatholischerGelehrten"  (Mainz,  1864),  a  reply  to 

ang  regent  of  the  seminary  and  professor  of  moral  Dr.  Michelis's  "KircheoderPartei";  "Cardinal  wise- 


he  occasion  of  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  "CarlAugust,  Cardinal  von  Reisach'',  in"  Katholik'', 

)rie8thood  the  theological  faculty  of  Wttrzburg  be-  1870,  I,  129-50;  "Der  besondere  Schutz  Gottes  Uber 

It  owed  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  PapstPiusIX'*  (Mainz,  1871);  "AktenstQckebetref- 

ipon  him.    On  the  death  of  Lennig  in  1866  the  fend  die  Jesuiten  in  Deutschland,  gesammelt  und  mit 

)i8hop  wished  Moufan^;  to  be  hb  successor  as  dean  Erl&uterunsen  versehen''  (Mainz.  1872).     Moufang 

)f  the  cathedral  and  vicar-general.    Moufang,  how-  also  published  a  prayerbook,  "Officium  divinum  , 

(ver,  declined,  preferring  to  devote  himself  to  the  which  is  very  widely  used  and  has  passed  throu^ 

leminary.    In  November,  1868,  he  was  summoned  numerous  editions,  the  first  appearing  at  Mainz,  m 

o  Rome,  for  the  preparatory  work  of  the  Vatican  1851,  the  nineteenth  in  1905. 


_              „                    of  the  seminary  was  closed  Friedrich  Lauchert. 
1877)   by  hostile  legislation.    After  the  death  of 

bishop  von  Ketteler  (13  July,  1877),  the  chapter  Moulinfl,  Diocese  of  (Molinensis),  suffragan  of 

elected  Moufang  administrator  of  the  diocese.    The  Sens — comprises  the   entire   department  of  Allier. 

lostile  attitude  of  the  Prussian  Government  made  this  Under  the  old  regime  Moulins  did  not  even  have  a 

)ffice  very  difficult  during  the  ten  years'  vacancy  of  parish,  the  churches  which  served  as  parishes  were 

he  see.    On  16  April,  1886^  Leo  XIII  made  him  a  succuisal  churches  of  two  neighbouring  country  par- 

iomestic  prelate.    Under  Bishop  Haffner  the  theo-  ishes,  Yseure  and  St-Bonnet.    In  1788  a  see  was 

ogical  school  of  the  seminary  was  reopened  on  25  created  at  MoiUins;  and  des  Gallois  de  la  Tour,  who 

Detober,  1887,  and  Moufang  again  directed  the  semi-  exercised  in  that  city  the  functions  of  vicar-general  to 

lary  as  regent.    But  ill-health  prevented  him  from  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  was  appointed  bishop,  but  had 

emaining  long  at  the  work  that  was  so  dear  to  not  beenpreconized  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  in 

iim.  1789.    Toe  See  of  Moulins  was  re-established  by  the 

Moufang  rendered  great  and  permanent  services  to  Concordat  of  1817,  and  had  titulars  from  1822.    This 

he  Archdiocese  of  Mainz  as  an  educator  of  the  cler^  new  diocese  was  formed  of  dismembered  parts  of  the 

md  in  many  other  ways.    He  was  soon  prominent  m  Dioceses  of  Autun,  Bourges,  and  Clermont-Ferrand, 

he  circle  that  centred  about  Lennig's  strong,  ener^  In  this  diocese  the  cantonal  districts  do  not  bear  their 

;ctic  personality,  and  he  took  £m  eager  paxt  in  all  efforts  geographical  names,  as  in  all  other  dioceses,  but  the 

o  improve  religious  and  social  conditions.    He  as-  name  of  a  saint  which  becomes  the  patron  of  the  dean- 

isted  in  the  formation  of  the  "  Piusverein",  and  as  a  ery :  the  Vichy  deanery,  for  instance,  is  called  the  dean- 

nember  of  the  "St.  Vincenz-  und  Elisabeth-Verein"  ery  of  St-Raphael.    Joan  of  Arc  came  to  Moulins  in 

lid  much  to  promote  its  prosperity.    In  the  regenei^  November,  1429,  and  from  there  wrote  letters  to  all 

ition  of  Catholic  Germany  his  name  is  inseparably  the  important  surrounding  towns,  asking  for  assist- 

inked  with  the  history  of  the  general  conventions  ance.    In  1604  Henry  IV  authorized  the  Jesuits  to 

Generalversammlungen)   of  the  Catholics  of  Ger-  found  a  college  at  Moulins.    The  devotion  to  the  Sa- 

aany .  Like  his  colleague,  Heinrich,  he  was,  for  dmost  cred  Heart  of  Jesus  was  inaugurated  in  1676  at  the 

orty  years,  one  of  the  leading  personalities  and  most  Visitation  monastery  of  Moulins;  St.  Jane  Frances  de 

prominent  speakers.    For  a  number  of  years  he  was  Chantal  died  in  this  convent  in  1641.    The  monas- 

Jso  active  as  a  legislator.    After  1863,  as  representa-  tery  of  Siunt  Lieu  Sept  Fons,  in  the  present  territory 

ive  of  the  bishop,  he  had  a  seat  in  the  upper  chamber  of  the  diocese,  was  founded  in  1132  by  monks  of  Ca- 

»f  the  Hessian  Landtag,  and  repeatedly  took  a  prom-  teaux  on  a  site  where  there  were  seven  spring  (jBeptem 

nent  part  in  the  debates  on  social  and  political  ques-  fontes)  and  a  sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  it  was 

ions,  and  questions  of  Church  policy.     In  1871  he  reformed  in  1663  by  Dom  Eustache  de  Beaufort,  abbot 

ntered  the  German  Reichstag,  where  he  was  held  in  from  1656  to  1709,  a  friend  of  de  Ranc^.     In  1845  the 

;reat  esteem  by  the  Centre  for  his  political  services  monastery  was  restored  by  the  Trappist  Dom  Stanis- 

jid  as  an  intermediary  in  harmonizing  the  differences  laus  Lapierre.    St.  Benot^  Labre  passed  two  months 

letween  North  and  South  Germany.    The  most  there  in  1769.    The  Benedictine  monastery  of  Sou- 

irominent  feature  of  his  literary  activity  was  his  work  vigny,  founded  in  916|  had  a  fine  Gothic  church,  where 


MOmn                           6U4  ItAlWT 

even  yet  the  tombe  of  in&ny  Seicneun  de  Bourbon  can  XVI  temgaed  them  a  houae  on  the  Esquiline,  nt^ar  thd 

be  seen.    Saint  Maveul  (Majcilus),  second  abbot  of  church  of  St.  Norbert,  now  the  chief  house  of  the  ineti- 

Cluny,  died  »t  Souvimy  m  994,  and  St.  Odilo,  third  tute, 

abbot  of  Clunv,  died  uiere  in  1049.    The  town  of  II.  Uisbionart  Societt  of  Mount  Calvaut,  a  con- 

Gannat  arose  aoout  as  ancient  abb^  of  Ausuatinians;  ^gatian  of  secular  priestfi,  formed  in  1633  by  Hubert 

die  town  of  St.  Pour^ain  owes  its  ongin  to  the  monaa-  Charpentier  to  honour  the   Sacred   Passion  and   to 

tery  founded  in  the  sixth  century  oy  the  slave  St.  spread  and  maintain  the  Faith  especially  in  regions 

Pourgain  (Portianus)  who  put  a  stop  to  the  devasto-  under  Huguenot  control.     The  firat  houses  were  at 

tions  of  Thierry,  King  of  Austrasia,  during  his  cam-  Betharram  in  the  Diocese  of  Lcscar  and  at  Notre- 

paign  agunst  Auvergne.     The  preacher  Jean  de  Lin-  Dame  de  Ceraison  in  the  Diocese  of  Auch.      United 

gendes  (lS95~166fi)  and  the  schismatic  Abb6  Chatel,  with  a  simiUr  association  formed  by  the  Capuchin, 

founder  of  the  "French  Cathohc  Church"  (1795-  P^re  Hyacinthe,  at  the  instance  of  Louis  XlII,  on 

1857),  were  bom  in  the  territory  of  the  present  Dio-  Mont^ValSrien  near  Paris,  the  congregation  received 

ccee  of  Mouiins.  royal  confirmation   in   1650.     Later  the  pastors   of 

The  principal  pilgnTnages  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre-  Paris  were  admitted  to  membership,  and  during  Holy 

DamedeSt.uermaindeaFosi^Ithebodyofthehemiit  Week  pilgrimages  were  made  from  different  parishes 

St.  Patroclus  (sixth  of  Paris    to   Moimt 

century)   at   Colom-  Val^rien.     The  soci- 

bier;  the  relics  of  St.  ety  did  not  survive 

MayeulatSouvigny:  the  RevolutJon. 

and    the    church   of  n.C**?^"*"'"..  V'^  ■« 

bt.  George  at  Bout-  ^    ,q,,,„_     ,8,3, 

bon    rArchambault,  thmBER  In  Kirtftnla.: 

which  poeaessee  one  MomtjPMi.  DeffWiwiiuti 

otthe  largest  known  ife)  i™!^  "*"°"- 

fragmentaoftheHoly  Florence'  Rcnoe 

CroBB,   a  rehc  given  McGahan. 
by  St.  Louia  to  his 

son  Robert  of  Oer-  Mount      Oftnoel, 

mont.  Beforethcap-  Feast  or- Odr  Ladt 

pHeation  of  the  Asso-  op.— This  feast  wna 

cintions  Law  ot  1901  instituted     by      the 

there  were  Benedic-  Cftrmelitcs    between 

tines,   Jeauite,   Mar-  1376  and  1386  under 

ista,    Laaarista,    Re-  the  title "Commem- 

demptorists,       Mis-  oratio  B.  Mnritc  Virg. 

siooary    Fathers    of  duplex"  to  celebrate 

the    Sacred    Heart,  the  victory  of  their 

and  several  ordera  of  order  over  its  ene- 

School    Brotheia   in  miea  in  obtaining  the 

the  Diocese  ot  Mou-                            L*™ul  Facabi.  C*th«i>iui.  MouLiin  approbation    of    ils 

lins.     At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  the  name  and  constitution  from  Hononus  III  on  30  Jan., 

relipoua  congregations  ot  the  diocese  had  charge  of :  1226  (aeeColveneriua,  "Kal.  Mar.",  30  Jan.,  "Summa 

1  Cliche,  15  day  nurseries,  2  boys'  orphanages,  10  girls'  Aurea",  III,  737).    The  feast  was  assigned  to  16  July, 

orphanages,  5  mdustrial  rooms,  1  Magdalen  hospital,  because  on  that  date  in  12SI.  according  to  the  Carmel- 

6  '^houaee  ot  mercy  "  for  the  relief  ot  the  poor,  13  hoa-  ite  traditions,  the  scapular  was  given  by  the  Blessed 

pitals  or  asylums,  3  houses  for  the  care  ot  the  wck  in  Virpn  to  St.  Simon  Stock;  it  was  first  approved  by 

their  own  homes.  Sijrtua  V  in  1687.     After  Cardinal  Bellarmine  had  ex- 

In  1908  the  Diocese  of  Mouiins  counted  390,812  amined  the  CarmeUte  traditions  in  1609,  it  was  de- 

bhabitanta,  31  pariahes,  281  succursal  parishea,  55  clared  the  patronal  feast  ot  the  order,  and  is  now  cele- 

vicariatea.  brated  in  the  Carmelite  calendar  as  a  major  double  ot 

AuHi.   Hubnn  it  rHabliHtmtnt  dt  VMdti  it  tfoulint  the  6rat  claaa  with  a  vigil  and  a  privileged  octave  (like 

^lou|ii«  18M) ;  FiTODir^  ^nw.  ™nii^,  MM,  d.  Triua  <*  the  octave  of  Epiphany,  admitting  only  a  double  of 

Vi^^\^\A^^^"B''B"^l,1l  "^Pir^ivt^.  the  first  class)  under  the  title  "Commemoratio  so- 

1B7S):  StTt-Fimt,  U-udtt  hUtoriaaa  nir  Vabbay  dt  NMri  Dtmt  lemnia  B.M.V.  de  Monte  Carmelo".      By  a  privilege 

Sciin<I,MiiS.ntF™, by. monk ottboBblwy  (Moulin.,  1872);  gj^en  by  Clement  X  in  1672,  some  Carmelite  monaa- 

O. h^..^^                ^^^^  ^^^^  «,ie.k»p^.Wpn;heS.„day./«,16J„ly  „,o. 

some  other  bunday  in  July.     In  the  aeventcenth  cen- 

Mount  Oalwy,  Cohorboationb  op. — I.  Dattoh-  tury  the  fcaat  was  adopted  by  several  dioceses  in  the 

TEBS  OF  Mount  Calvary,  foimded  in  1619  by  Virginia  south  of  Italy,  although  its  celebration,  outside  of 

Centurione  (d.  1651),  daughter  of  the  Doge  of  Genoa  Carmelite  churches,  was  prohibited  in  1G28  by  a  de- 

and  wife  of  Gaaparo  Grimaldi  Bracelli  (d.  1625),  who  cree  contra  t^mtut.     On  21  Nov.,  1674,  however,  it 

during  a  time  of  faoiine  gathered  a  number  of  aban-  was  first  granted  by  Clement  X  to  Spain   and   its 

doned  children  into  a  home,  which  she  called  Santa  colonies,  in  1675  to  Austria,  in  1679  to  Portu^  and 

Maria  del  Retugio  dei  Tribolati  in  Monte  Calvario.  its  coloniee,  and  in  1725  to  the  Pnpal  StatM  ot  the 

Under  her  inepiration  those  associated  with  her  in  the  Church,  on  24  Sept.,  1726,  it  waa  extended   to   the 

work  decided  to  lead  a  common  life,  follow  the  rule  ot  entire  Latin  Church  by  Benedict  XIII.     The  lessons 


St.  Francis,  and  pledge  themselves  to  the  service  ot  contain  the  legend  of  the  scapular  (q.  v.);  the  promise 

the  poor  and  sick.    Thev  bound  themselves,  however,  of  the  Sabbatute  privilege  was  inserted  into  the  lee- 

by  no  vows,  but  by  a  solemn  promise  of  peraeverance.  sons  by  Paul  V  about  1614.     The  Greeks  fS  southern 

Among  the  promment  Genoese  who  promoted  the  Italy  and  the  Catholic  Chaldeans  have  aoopted  this 

work  of  the  sist«ra  was  the  Marqueaa  Emmanuele  feast  of  the  "Vestment  of  the  Bl.  Virgin  Maty" 

Brignole,  through  whose  munificence  a  second  house  (NiUea,  "Kal.  Man.",  II,  548,  666).     The  object  of 

was  founded,  in  1641,  att*r  which  the  sisters  were  the  feaat  is  the  special  predilection  of  Mary  tor  those 

often  called  ")e  auore  Briznole".    The  congregation  who  profess  themselves  her  servants  by  wearing  her 

soon  spread  through  norAem  Italy.    In  1815  Pius  scapular  (see  CARUBLiTBa). 

vn  invited  the  sisten  to  Rome,  and  in  1833  Gregory  Holvsck,  FiuU  Mnimi  (Fniburt,  isaz);  Colvwishui. 


MOtmtroftA  605  U6mn 

KatenSaHvm Mttrianum  (Douai,  1636);  AvBxms, BliuhmkrdnM,  The  "Mountain''  already  counted  amoog  its  gradtl* 

IV  (Psderborn.  1894).  191  •QJ;  TT...  w,^  ates  such  men  as  John  Hughes,  later  Archbishop  of 

Frederick  G.  Holwbck.  ^^^  york:  WilUam  Quarterfirst  Bishop  of  Chicigo; 

Mountford  (Mumforo),  Thomas.    See  Downbs,  John  McCloskey,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New  York 

Thomab.  and  Cardinal;  Willaim  Henry  Elder,  Archbishop  of 

•m«^.«..4.  ^  iMi.«.  a*^  rk«T«^«.«.«  h/t^tt^^  Cincinnati;  William  George  McCloskey,  president  of 
Mount  of  OUw.  See  Olivbt,  Mount.  the  Americkn  Collie,  We,  and  later  Bikhop  of  Louis- 
Mount  8t.  Mary's  CoUoge,  the  second  oldest  ville;  Francis  S.  Chatiutl.  president  of  the  Ameri- 
among  the  Catholic  collegiate  institutions  in  the  can  College,  Rome,  and  later  Bishop  of  Vincennes; 
Unit^  States,  is  locate  near  Emmitsburg,  Mary-  Michael  Augustine  Corrigan,  later  Archbishop  of  New 
land,  witl]dn  the  limits  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Balti-  York;  Richard  N.  Whelaxi,  first  Bishop  of  Wheeling; 
more.  Its  situation  on  high  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  Francis  X.  Gartland,  first  Bishop  of  Savannah;  Fran- 
Maryland  range  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  is  re-  cis  P.  McFarland,  third  Bishop  of  Hartford, 
mark^le  for  beauty  and  healthfumess  while  it  affords  Within  three  years  after  the  celebration  of  its 
ample  opportunity  for  pjhysical  exercise.  Moimt  St.  i^lden  jubUee,  the  college  was  confronted  bv  difficul- 
Mary's  Tneological  Seminary  has  been  maintfuned  in  ties  due  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  the  States, 
connexion  with  the  oolleg[e  since  the  foundation  of  the  Though  both  North  and  South  had  strong  partisans  in 
latter.  The  institution  is  directed  by  an  association  the  faculty  as  well  as  in  the  student  body,  the  college 
of  secular  clergymen  who,  with  several  lay  professors,  as  a  whole  remained  neutral.  But  shortly  after  the 
compose  its  faculty.  Its  material  interests  are  con-  beginning  of  hostilities,  an  exodus  of  students  repre- 
trolled  by  a  board  of  directors  of  which  the  Arch-  senting  each  section  took  place  in  such  numbers  that 
bishop  of  Baltimore  is,  ex  officio,  the  premdent.  For  only  seven  were  left  for  the  graduating  class  of  1863, 
the  academic  year  1009-10  the  teaching  corps  in-  and  only  two  for  that  of  1864.  Moreover  as  parents 
eluded  sixteen  professors,  besides  assistant  instructors  were  unable  to  meet  tuition  fees  and  other  expenses 
in  the  various  oranches,  with  298  students  in  the  col-  of  the  pupils  whom  the  college  muntainea  dur- 
lege  and  54  in  the  seminary.  Instruction  is  given  in  ing  the  four  years  of  war,  the  financial  standing 
four  departments:  collegiate,  academic,  commercial,  of  the  institution  was  seriously  compromised,  and 
and  modem  languages.  The  degrees  conferred  are  as  a  result  the  college  at  the  end  of  the  conflict  was 
those  of  bachelor  of  arts  and  master  of  arts.  overwhelmed  with  aebt.  In  June,  1872,  Dr.  J.  J. 
Mount  St.  Mary's  Collej^e  was  ^founded  in  1808  McCaffrey,  in  consequence  of  failing  health,  with- 
when  the  preparatonr  seminary  established  by  the  drew  from  the  presidency  after  thirty-four  years  of 
Sulpidans  at  Pigeon  Hill,  Pa.,  was  transferred  to  Em-  arduous  and  devoted  service.  Father  John  Mc- 
mitabuig.  Eight  students  formed  the  nucleus  out  of  Closkey  was  elected  to  the  office  with  Rev.  H.  S.  Mo- 
which  tne  college  developed.  Its  first  president  was  Murdie  as  vice-president.  Under  their  administn^ 
Rev.  John  Dubois  (c}.  v.)  who  had  been  labouring  for  tion,  the  student  body  varied  from  130  to  165.  Ip 
some  years  in  the  neighbouring  missions  and  had  built  1877  Rev.  John  A.  Watterson  became  president  and 
a  brick  church  on  the  slope  above  the  present  site  of  retained  the  office  \mtil  his  promotion  to  the  See  of 
the  college.  He  had  been  led  to  secure  this  site  by  Columbus  (1880).  He  introduced  a  thorough  system 
Father  (idfterwards  Bishop)  Duboui^p  (q.  v.),  who  of  retrenchment  in  all  departments;  but  the  bulk 
directed  Mother  Seton  also  to  Emmitsburg  for  the  of  the  debt  remained.  After  his  departure.  Father 
establishment  of  St.  Joseph's  Academy.  Father  Dubois  John  McCloskey  once  more  took  up  the  burden  of  the 
had  as  his  assistant  Father  Brut^  (q.  v.)  who  was  con-  presidency,  but  only  for  a  short  time,  as  he  died 
secrated  first  Bishop  of  Vincennes  in  1834.  Father  towards  the  close  of  1880.  In  January.  1881,  Rev. 
Dubois  himself  became  in  1826  Bishop  of  New  York  Wm.  J.  Hill,  of  Brooklyn,  came  to  the  college  andpetx- 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  by  Rev.  Michael  tioned  to  have  a  receiver  appointed.  The  appomtee 
de  Buino  Egan  (1826-28),  Rev.  J.  F.  McGerry  (1828-  was  James  McSherry,  later  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court 
29).  and  Rev.  John  B.  Purcell  (1830-33),  later  Arch-  of  Appeals  of  Maryland.  He  turned  over  the  affairs  of 
bishop  of  Cincinnati.  In  January,  1830,  Father  Purcell  the  institution,  in  June,  1 88 1 ,  to  Very  Rev.  William  M . 
obtained  from  the  General  Assembly  of  Maryland  a  Byrne,  Vicar-General  of  Boston,  whose  firmness,  pni- 
charter  of  incorporation  for  the  college.  This  docu-  dence,  and  wise  economy  restored  prosperityto  the  col- 
ment  prohibited  the  requiring  of  any  religious  test  lege.  His  policy  was  continued  by  Rev.  Edward  P. 
from  students  or  professors,  and  limited  the  tenure  of  AUen,  who  held  office  from  1884  until  he  became 
land  to  1000  acres  and  the  total  value  of  the  college  Bishop  of  Mobile  in  1897.  During  his  administra- 
property  to  $25,000:  all  gifts  or  revenues  in  excess  of  tion,  McCaffrey  Hall  was  completed  (1894);  and 
this  amount,  after  the  payment  of  necessary  debts,  under  his  successor,  Rev.  Wm.L.O'Hara  (1897-1905), 
were  to  be  held  for  the  use  of  the  State  of  Maryland.  Dubois  Hall  was  completed,  improvements  were  con- 
After  the  brief  (five  months)  incumbency  of  Rev.  F.  tinued  to  accommodate  the  increasing  number  of 
Jamison  during  the  latter  half  of  1833,  Kev.  Thomas  students. 

R.  Butler  was  chosen  president  (1834-38).    During        The  presidency  of  his  successor.  Very  Rev.  Dennis 

his  administration,  a  new  charter,  still  in  force,  was  J.Flynn(1905 — ), has  been  marked  by  the  celebration, 

granted  on  4  April,  1836,  wherein  the  college  authori-  in  October,  1908,  of  the  centenary  of  the  college.   This 

ties  are  empowered  to  confer  all  collegiate  honours  and  occasion  brought  to  the  *^  Moimtain^'  a  lar^e  number 

degrees  except  that  of  doctor  of  medicine.    Father  of  men  prominent  in  ecclesiastical,  professional,  and 

Butler's  successor  was  Rev.  John  J.  McCaffrey,  a  man  public  life  who  claim  the  college  as  their  Alma  Mater 

of  great  energy  and  zeal,  whose  long  term  as  president  (for  full  account  see  ''The  Mountaineer'',  Oct.  and 

(1838-1872)  was  marked  on  one  hand  by  the  growth  Nov.,  1908).    It  may  indeed  be  said  that  the  highest 

and  prosperity  of  the  college,  on  the  other  by  reverses  tribute  to  the  college  and  the  best  proof  of  its  effi- 

that   threatened  its  very  existence.    He  was  the  ciency  is  foimd  in  the  careers  of  those  wnom  it  educated, 

builder  of  the  new  church  at  Emmitsburg  which  was  Its  service  to  the  Chiu'ch  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 

dedicated  in  June,  1842.    The  comer-stone  of  Brut4  among  its  officers  and  graduates  at  least  twenty-five 

Hall,  for  which  $12,000  had  been  appropriated,  wss  have  oeen  bishops,  induding  one  cardinal  and  five 

laid  on  2  May.  1843,  and,  in  1852,  tne  foundation  of  archbishops — Whence  its  well  deserved  title,  "Mother 

McCaffrey  Hall.    On  25  June,  1857,  Archbishop  Pur^  of  Bishops".    But  it  has  also  ^ven  to  the  State  and 

cell  laid  the  comer-stone  of  the  church  which  was  to  to  every  department  of  useful  citizen^p  a  larsp  num- 

replace  the  stmcture  on  the  hill.    In  1858  the  college  her  of  men  distinguished  by  ability  and  integrity  (see 

celebrated  its  semi-centennial  with  appropriate  exer-  partial  list  in  "Tlie  Mountaineer",  Oct.,  1908, 34-43). 

cises  in  which  many  distinguished  alumm  took  part.  Among  the  causes  which  explain  this  succeas,  the  most 


MOVABLt                             606  M0X08 

important  is  doubtless  the  united  work  of  clergy  and  aeit  der  Vereinigung  der  Breslauer  und  Frankfurt ei 

laity  in  building  up  the  college,  controlling  its  disci-  Universitftt  bis  auf  die  Gegenwart"  (Leipzig,  1845j. 

pline,  and  conducting  its  courses.      Scarcely  less  effica-  ^  Rammann,  Naehnehten  vondem  La>enundden  SehHflen  Man- 

So™  have  b««  th^tions  between  clJcal  and  lav  5S,^;:;lS^S^:3i?gS^^^ 

students  which,  continued  beyond  the  years  at  col-  nehiehU  der  katholUehen   Theologie   (Munich,    1866).    544-46; 

lege,  have  resulted  in  hearty  cooperation  for  the  high-  Webnbb.  g««cA*cA<«  d«r  avotyjitudktn  und  poUmUektn  Liura- 

est  civic,  moral,  and  religious  purposes,  and  h^e  ^  ^«*^*^'*'"'*'^' '^'^•^*'^-'^„dhich  I^ucin^ 
boimd  all  the  alumni  in  loyal  devotion  to  the  vener- 

able  institution  which  gave  them  their  early  training.  MoKOB  Tndtans  (MoTos  Indians). — According  to 

This  harmonious  spirit  found  its  latest  expression  at  one  authority,  they  are  named  from  Musu^  their  Qui- 

the  dedication  of  tne  new  college  church  on  12  Oct.,  chua  name;  according  to  others,  from  the  Moxos  word, 

1910,  which  called  together  former  graduates,  both  muhaf  erroneousl3r  thought  by  the  Spaniards  to  be  the 

lay  and  clerical,  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  tribal  name.    This  collective  desipiation  is  that  of  a 

(see  "The  Mountaineer",  Nov..  1910).  group  of  tribes  famous  in  the  mission  annals  of  South 

.S^'Hl^*  M'^'S^^^^  ^"^  ^"?^  y,°^J!F*J^iy^'^  America,  originally  ranging  through  the  forests  and 

HutoriealStudxeM  and  Record;  I  (Sew  York,  1900)1  The  Story  ef  pr^n/s  01  ine  Upper  Mamore,  extenoing  east  ana 

tKe  Mountain  (Mt.  St.  Mwry's.  1910).  west  from  the  Guapore  (Itenes)  to  the  Bern,  and  cen- 

Ernbst  Lagardb.  tring  in  the  present  Province  of  Mojos,  Department 

iur#i.«*Ki«  v«««4>     fl^  is^ao^o   i?ri^»oTA»..*^^«  of  Beni,  Bohvia.    They  numbered  altogether  at  least 

MoTtblo  Foart.    See  Feasts,  Ecclbsiastical.  50  oooi>uls,  in  perhaps  a  hundred  smaU  tribes  or  sub- 

MovOTB,   Franz  Karl,  exe^te  and  Orientalist,  tribes,  speaking  at  least  thirteen  distinct  languages, 

b.  at  Koesfeld,  Westphalia,   17  July,   1806;  d.  at  each  witn  dialects,  viz.,  Moxo  (spoken  with  dialectic 

Breslau,  28  Sept.,  1856.    He  attended  the  gynmasium  variation  by  the  Moxos  proper,  Baure,  Ticomeri,  and 

of  his  native  town,  and  from  1822  to  1825  the  gym-  several  small  tribes),  Paicone,  Mopeciana,  Icabicici, 

nasium  at  MUnster.    The  next  four  years  he  studied  Mapiena,  Movima,  Cayubaba,  Itonama,  Sapibocona, 

at  the  academy  of  Mtinster,  taking  up  philosophy,  Cheriba,  Rocotona,  Mure.  Canichana.    Of  these,  the 

theology,  and  especially  Oriental   languages  imder  Moxos  and  Paicone,  with  all  their  dialects,  belone  to  the 

Laurenz  Rdnke.    In  the  autumn  of  1829  he  was  or-  widespread  Arawakan  stock,  which  includes  also  the 

dained  priest  at  Padeibom,  and  then  continued  his  Maipure  (q.  v.)  of  the  Orinoco;  the  Sapibocona  belong 

Oriental  studies  for  a  short  time  at  the  University  to  the  Tacanan  stock  of  Beni  river;  tne  Mure  are  an 

of  Bonn.    After  that  he  remained  as  tutor  for  sevo^  offshoot  from  the  Mura  of  the  great  Tupian  stock  of 

years  with  Baron  von  Geyr  at  Rath,  near  Deutz.    In  eastern  and  central  Brazil;  the  Movima,  Cayubaba, 

1833  he  became  pastor  at  Berkum,  near  Bonn,  in  1839  Itonama,  Canichana,  and  Rocotona  (Ocoiona)  repre- 

extraordinary  professor  of  Old-Testament  exegesis  at  sent  each  a  distinct  stock;  while  the  others  remain  un- 

the  University  of  Breslau,  and  in  1842  ordinary  pro-  classified.    Besides  all  these,  there  were  gathered  in 

fessor  at  the  same  university.  by  the  Jesuits  some  immigrant  Chiquito,  Siriono,  and 

In  the  field  of  exegesis  Movers  published  the  fol-  Chiriguano,  each  of  different  language,  from  the 

lowing  works:  '^Kritische  Untersuchungen  Ober  die  southern  Bolivian  missions.    Of  them  sul,  the  Moxos 

biblische  Chronik,    ein  Beitrag   zur   Einleitung   in  proper  were  the  most  important, 

das  Alte  Testament''  (Bonn,  1834);  ''De  utriusc^ue  The  mode  of  life  of  the  Moxos,  in  their  primitive 

recensionis  Vaticiniorum  Jeremiae,  Grsece  Alexandrinse  condition,  was  determined  by  their  peculiar  environ- 

et  Hebraicse  masorethicse,  indole  et  origine  Com-  ment.    During  the  rainy  season,  lasting  four  months, 

mentatio  critica''  (Hamburg,  1837);    "L«3i  quidam  nearly  the  whole  country  is  inundated,  excepting  cer- 

historiie  canonis  Veteris  Testamenti  illustrati.  Com-  tain  elevated  places,  where  the  scattered  bands  made 

mentatio  critica''  (Breslau,  1842) ;  and  various  essays  their  temporary  villages.    As  the  waters  retreat  the 

which  appeared  in  theological  magazines.  especiaUy  hot  sun  generates  pestilence  in  the  low  grounds  along 

in    "Zeitschrift    fUr    Philoeophie    und    katholische  the  rivers,  while  the  prevailing  oppressive  heat  is 

Theologie",  published  at  Bonn.    The  fiirst  edition  varied  by  spells  of  piercingly  colcf  winds  from  the 

of  the  "Kircnenlexicon"  contains  a  number  of  arti-  mountains  which  prevent  the  ripening  of  com.     The 

des  by  him.  natives  therefore  were  generally  without  agriculture, 

Movers  showed  great  scholarship  as  an  Orientalist  but  subsisted  chiefly  upon  fish  and  roots  during  the 
and  performed  large  and  lasting  services  by  his  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  upon  the  wild  game  of 
studies  of  the  ancient  Phoenicians.  His  chief  work,  the  mountains  when  driven  from  the  low  gnDunds  by 
'*  Die  Phonizier ",  though  never  completed^  is  still  an  the  floods.  They  were  thus  compelled  to  a  wandering 
important  contribution  to  the  subject.  It  appeared  habit,  at  the  same  time  that  thev  were  skilful  fishers 
in  parts  under  separate  titles,  as  follows:  Vol.  I,  and  nver  men.  The  constant  shifting  also  brought 
"Untersuchungen  uber  die  Religion  und  dieGotthei-  the  bands  into  collision,  so  that  each  tribe  was  con- 
ten  der  Phdnizier,  mit  RUcksicht  auf  die  verwandten  stantly  making  war  on  its  neighbours. 
Culte  der  Carthager,  Syrer,  Babylonier,  AsEsyreT.  der  Their  houses  were  low  huts,  occupied  each  by  a  sin- 
Hebrfter  und  der  Aegypter"  (Bonn,  1841);  vol.  II,  gle  family,  instead  of  being  commimal  as  in  so  many 
"Das  phonizische  Alterthum"  in  three  parts,  part  I,  tribes.  The  larger  villages  had  also  well-built  "town- 
"  Politische  Geschichte  und  Staatsverf assung ' '  (Berlin,  houses  "  for  the  celebration  of  tribal  functions.  They 
1849);  part  II,  "Geschichte  der  Colonien''  (Ber-  slept  upon  mats  upon  the  ground  or  in  hammocks, 
lin,  1850);  part  III,  first  half,  "Handel  und  Schiff-  with  a  smouldering  fire  close  at  hand  to  drive  away  the 
fahrt"  (Berlin,  1856).  Movers  gave  a  shorter  com-  swarms  of  mosquitoes  and  other  insects.  They  ate 
pendium  of  the  results  of  his  researches  in  his  article  when  they  could  find  food,  without  regard  to  time, 
"Phdnizien"  in  "  Allgemeine  Encyklopadie  der  Wi»-  feasting  equally  upon  putrid  fish  taken  mm  stagnant 
senschaften  und  Ktlnste"  (1848),  section  III,  part  pools,  and  upon  human  flesh  of  prisoners  taken  in  war, 
XXIV,  pp.  319-443.  In  addition  to  briefer  eaasys  for  all  or  nearly  all  the  tribes  were  cannibal.  Of  game, 
appealing  in  magazines,  Movers  published  "Phdni-  the  monkey  was  their  favourite  food.  They  used  dogs 
zischeTexteerkmrt"  (Breslau,  1845  and  1847).  part  in  hunting.  Thev  were  greatly  addicted  to  drunk- 
I,  "Die  punischen  Texte  im  Pcenulus  des  Plautus  enness,  brought  aoout  by  a  fermented  liquor  of  their 
luitisch  gewOrdigt  und  erkl&rt";  part  II,  "Das  own  manufacture,  and  their  frequent  dance  festivals 
Opferwesen  der  Carthager,  Commentar  zur  Opfer-  always  ended  in  general  intoxication,  frequently  wiUi 
tfliel  von  Marseille".  Another  work  to  be  mentioned  bloody  encounters  in  revenge  for  old  injuries.  Not- 
is  "Denkschrift  aber  den  Zustand  der  katholisch-  withstanding  the  generally  rude  culture,  the  Moxos 
tbeologi8ohe&  Facult&t  an  der  Universitat  lu  Breslau  proper  and  Baure  ezoelfed  in  bammock-weavingi 


H0XO8  607  H0Z08 

boat-making,  pottery,  and  music,  their  favourite  tDUsi-  orphaned  children  also  were  sometimes  killed  by  the 

caJ  inntrument  being  a.  sort  of  pan-pipes  sometimes  six  elaers.    The  authority  of  the  village  chiefs  was  abso* 

feet  in  Icng^.     The   Monos   had  also  a  method  of  lute.     Interment  was  in  the  ground  and  the  property, 

picture  writing.     This  superiority  may  have  been  due  instead  of  beinK  destroyed  as  in  most  tribes,  was  ai- 

iD  a  measure  U)  Peruvian  influence,  the  Inca  emperor  vided  among  the  relatives.     In  several  tnbea  the 

Yupanqui   having  temporarily  subdued  the  Moxos  bonesweredugupafteratime.reduced topowderand 

about  1400  mixed  nith  pounded  com  to  form  a  cake,  which  was 

Id  most  of  the  tribes  both  men  and  women  went  en-  given  to  friends  to  eat  as  the  stroneest  bond  and  token 

tirely  n^»l.  but  painted  their  faces  in  different  col-  of  friendship.    Some  of  tl^  breaawaa  thus  partaken 

oura,  wore  labrets,  nose  pendants,  and  necklaces — par-  of  by  the  first  missiaDariee  before  they  knew  its  com- 

ticularly  of  the  teeth  of  sliun  eoemies — and  various  position. 

decorations  of  feathers.    One  of  their  tribes,  the  Ti-        Their  reli^on  was  a  pure  nature  worship,  special 

boi,  had  heads  of  pyramidal  shape,  produced  by  pres-  reverence  being  paid  to  the  River,  the  Thunder,  and 

eure  upon  the  skml  in  infancy.    Their  hair  was  worn  the  Jaguar.    Their  tribal  ceremonials  and  reU^oua 

at  full  length  in  a  queue.    Th^  weapons  were  the  rituals  were  in  the  keeping  of  their  priests,  who  were 


bow,  with  poisoned  arrows,  and  a  javelin  with  which  put  through  a  severe  course  of  training  and  initiation 
they  could  kill  at  one  hundred  paces.  They  were  very  mvolving  a  year's  abstention  from  all  animal  food,  to- 
cruel  in  war,  being  addicted  to  the  torture  of  prisoners  gether  with  a  battle  with  a  jaguar — regarded  as  an 
— a  practice  rare  in  South  America — as  weU  as  to  can-  embodied  god — until  wounded,  and  thus  marked,  by 
nibalism.  The  Canichana  even  fattened  prisoners  the  divinity.  Their  principal  festivals  were  regulated 
for  their  cannibal  feasts  and  afterwards  fashioned  their  by  the  new  moon,  banning  with  a  day's  fast  and  end- 
akulls  into  drinking  cups.  In  some  cases  prisoners  inswith  a  night  dance  and  drinldng  orgy. 
were  held  as  slaves.  Unlike  the  Iroquois,  who  exoi^  Theearherattempts  to  missionize  the  tribes  of  cen- 
dsed  the  ghosts  of  their  murdered  victims,  the  Moxos  tral  Bolivia  met  with  no  success.  About  the  year 
moved  away  from  the  spot  of  the  sacrifice  to  escape  1673  the  Moxos  province  was  brought  to  the  atten- 
the  vengeance  of  the  dead.  The  savage  Canichana  tion  of  the  Jesuits  of  the  college  at  Lima  by  Jos£  del 
in  particular  were  so  persistent  in  cannibalism  that  Castillo,  a  lav  brother,  author  of  the  valuable  "Re- 
after  coming  into  the  missions  they  would  sometimes  Iaci6n",  whonad  accompanied  some  traders  into  that 
Bte^  children  secretly  for  this  purpose,  even  casting  region  and  had  been  t^eatly  impressed  b^  the  appar- 
lote  among  themselves  to  decide  who  should  give  up  a  ent  docility  of  the  natives.  Father  Cipnano  Barosa. 
child,  until  the  missionaries  took  steps  to  note  each  afterwards  so  noted  as  a  missionary,  at  once  asked 
birth  immediately  upon  delivery.  and  obtained  the  permission  to  undertake  their  con- 
Marriages  were  arranged  between  the  parents,  usu-  vermon.  In  1674,  accompanied  only  by  Brother  Cas- 
ally  without  consulting  the  young  people,  and  polvg-  tillo  and  some  Indian  guides,  he  entered  their  country 
amy  was  permitted,  although  not  common,  but  adiil-  from  Santa  Cruz  by  way  of  a  twelve-days'  canoe  voy- 
tery  was  considered  diraraeeful.  The  wife  was  the  age  down  the  Mamor6  river.  In  four  yeara  he  had 
mistressof  the  householdand  always  chose  the  camp-  won  their  love  and  nearly  mastered  the  language, 
i[^  place.  If  the  mother  died  the  infant  was  buried  when  serious  illness  compelled  his  return  to  the  health* 
olive  with  her,  and  if  twins  were  bom,  one  also  ier  climate  of  Santa  CrUE.  He  employed  his  convalea- 
was  always  buried.  The  woman  who  suffered  mis-  cenne  in  learning  weaving,  in  order  to  induce  them  to 
carriage  was  killed  by  her  own  husband.  The  hdp-  clothe  themselvcSj  as  a  banning  in  civiliiation.  In 
Ifw  a|;ed  were  put  to  death  by  their  cbildren,  and  the  meantime,  however,  Eg  was  asaijfned  tp  l^bpuf 


MOT                                    608  MOT 

amoDK  the  OuriguAno,  udodr  whom  he  spent  five  aDy  of  more  laborious  habits,  hence  thcii  itidustiMs 
years  Deroie  he  was  permittea  to  return  to  his  first  are  greatly  developed,  and  althou^  Uviiig  f&r  from 
choice,  the  Moxoa.  In  1686  he  founded  the  first  the  rarge  towns  and  marketa  the  Mosos  excel  all  ihe 
mission,  Loreto,  followed  in  rapid  succession  by  Trini-  other  Indians  as  weavera,  buildera  aod  wood  Cftrvers" 
dad  (1687),  San  Ignacio  (1689),  San  Xavier  (1690),  (R«clua).  They  are  zealous  Catholics,  entirely  under 
Ban  Jim£  (IGQl),  San  (Fr&ncisco  de)  Borja  (1693),  the  the  spiritual  authority  of  their  priests,  and  Doted  for 
six  missions  soon  containing  altogether  nearly  20,000  their  voluntary  penances,  as  were  their  convert  fore- 
Indiana,  Loreto  alone  in  1691  having  4000.  liat«r  fathers  two  centuries  ago.  Under  the  two  principal 
missions  were:  Son  Pedro  (the  capital,  Ifl9f<),  Santa  names  of  Moxoa  and  Baure,  they  number  now  about 
Ana,Eialtaci6n,  MoKdalena  (aluuSan  Ram6a),Con-  30,000,  not  including  several  tribes — as  the  Cani- 
oepdiSn.  San  Simdn,  San  Joaquin,  San  Martin,  San  cbana,  MavimB,etc. — included  in  the  Moxoe  missions, 
Luis,  San  Pablo,  San  Juan,  San  NIcoIbh,  Santos  but  stiU  retaining  their  distinct  name  and  language. 
R*yes,  San  Judas,  Santa  Rosa  I  (del  Itcnee)  San  f«  di  t W  ™Ut«  to  ih.  primin™  »Bditic«i  m»i  «riT  mi-«. 
Miguel,  Patrocmio,  Santa  Rosa  II,  DespoBonOB,  Santa  hiMon  of  the  Mouii  tribm.  out  piincdpsi  mutboriCKi  mrr  Uk 
Cms.  Of  these,  the  two  missions  of  Santa  Rosa  del  t»Iii«6i»  wriUn«.  of  the  J«uiu  CAmiAo,  Ed««.  ud  Eoniin 
ItoM-  and  San  Miguel  occupi«l  chiefly  by  the  Mure,  ^:J^'^S'i^.^.'^^r,;t:l'>^^^^^^J^<^ 
Meque,  and  Rocotona  tnbes,  were  entirely  broken  Jauii  MAamu.  Biluviu.  £>«:»«€««  pm  l,  Himona  <;«- 
op   by    the    raids    of    the  P'^^™  ^' io  tttpMia,  lU  s^ru. 

Portup,™  .i.v.-hu.i.r.  I  L':r,K,-"p-s"iM"aJii,'; 

(see  GuARANl     Indians;  Uf    Amrriain  Am  (New  YoA. 

Mamkldco)    Bubaequent    to  '^^n-  .Ciiuo.  R.i«^  i,  i. 

1742.  and   the  sun;ivon.   r.y    |  ™ZrE»«."S:^;i«^7JiS^ 

moved  to  other  foundatinns.  Jfniifamntn  fi«i^^^r^Ha(Budi. 

Ware, epidemics,  and  removals  ',J9'.>'    Eouitoj.    Rfiffij^   -u  k 

led  to  the  abandonment  also  ."'"^rXiS"™  ^  V^'^IC 

of  San  Luis,  San  Job£,  San  AmoBm,    p*n    7i     (Wiuiui«ica. 

Fablo,  Patrocinio,  and    San  'ss*);    ™^i«r  tribe^  HtAtB  m 

Juan.    Santa  Rosa  II  (1765),  (K^^  afy.^S^>-'^2S^V» 

Desposorios,  and  Santa  Cruz  uioto  d<  lu  Lne^at,   1   (Ukdnd. 

(de  la  Sierra)  were  the  latest,  ,"1?Vi.'^'lS5^"^*'-*^r^"- 

ind  were  occupied  by  Siriono;  ii"  i^oa' C^.hSnX.'*'.^ 

Chiriguano,     and    Chiquito,  m^uDn  in  td1.ii:  Makbih.  / 

south  of  the  Moxos  province  'Su'^'^n '  ' 

proper.    The  whole  number  iHiMiT'MAMiiii".'  rTifci~Si"'(C 

of  missions  at  one  time  was  Vaiirv  of  u>  Amajtm  in  Jom.  .4(- 

about  twenty,  containing  in  *S?,*      V^tj-^^Hf  *I^*^ 

1736  about  30,000  converts,  l^L     SS.-w'   cSSKJ-  2i 

increased    to    nearly    60,000  Arr*ito  di  Uojot  y  ciiivwiiam  isu- 

before  the  oloeeof  the  Jesuit  l^o^'^'aU^*'  "ii^p"' 

period,  but  again  reduced  to  Iksh™  P*oi.  La  fW.  u>  a^^ 

20,345  souls  in  eleven  missions  tim    rsn/crfcrajun    a*^    Fanrnai 

in  1707,  thirty  years  after  the  "*^.   ^•"}-  -,^^?>-    «»™'*   r** 

expulsion  of  ^h*e  Jesuits.  ^^i:^':^,  rZ  jCi^^^!^  f^ 

Barasa   himself  was  their  York,  irm);  Sormci.  Hitury  of 

great    apostle   and   civiliier.  *«'^'" '^'^S?' '5'"it' *".&!?' 

feeddes  teaming  the  principal  ^ISIS  'iO'^i^l:  TCSS 

languages  and  adapting  hiro-  in  BMda.  pubiiahnd  b^  u»  icirt- 

seiftothe  Indian  life  so  that  ""■"-'  "^^ —  "'  ■■"   ' 

he  was  able  to  penetrate  every 
part  of  the  province  and  thus 

make  successful  dipcovery  of           Moxos  PwurriK  Cmmokml  Fsbr,buaiic«  Mof     OB      Sons,      KabL 

ashorter  mountain  passage  to                                 FrnmEiiBr  Ernst,  Fheihbbr  von,  jurist. 

Peru,  he  introduced  cattle,  weaving,  agriculture,  car-  b.  10  August,  1799,  at  Munich;  d.  I  August,  1S67, 

Eentry,andbricl(-mal:ing.  Themisaionchurchcflreared  at   Innsbruck   (Tyrol).     He  belonged  to  an   ancient 

y  the  Indians  under  his  supervision  rivalled  those  of  noble   family  of  Picardy,  banished   from   France  in 

Peru.     At  lost  after  twenty-seven  years  of  labour  he  1789  and  settled  in  Munich.     After  completing  his 

was  treacherously  murdered  at  the  age  of  sixty-one,  studies  in  his  native  city,  he  became  auditor  in  the 

on  16  Septemhicr,  1702,  among  the  then  unconverted  war  office;  in  1827  privatdocent:  1830-33  attorney  at 

Baure,  a  tribe  of  considerably  higher  native  culture  law,  in  1833  extraordinary  professor  of  natural  and 

than  the  others,  living  in  palisaded  villages  on  the  political  law  at  WUrtiburg;  finally  in  1837  ordinary 

eastern  border  of  the  province.  profeeaor  at  Munich.     Because  of  the  addrcn  by  the 

On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  Spanish  Amei^  Senate  of  the  univermty  to  King  Ludwig  II  concem- 

ica  in  1767  the  Moxos  missions  were  turned  over  to  ing  the  notorious  dancer  Lola  Montes,  he  was  deposed 

the  Franciscans,  under  whom  they  continued  into  the  together  with  several  other  professois  and  appointed 

—                       'los  been  greatly  re-  supernumerary  counsellor  of  the  Court  of  Appeals 

idemlcfeversin  the  at  Ncuburg  on  the  Danube.     Obt^ning  leave  cd  ab- 

w—tp.  »,^™,a^v..,.i,.^<»L,=.,  .,.  v.,e  constant  drain  of  sence  in  1848,  he  went  to  Innsbruck,  where  he  deToted 

the  able-bodied  men  to  the  rubber  forests  of  Brasil,  himself  to  hterary  work   for  the  old   ConsKvative 


whence  few  of  them  ever  return,  their  superiority  as  party  and  in  1851,  after  his  complete  severance  from 

boatmen  rendering  their  services  in  demand  as  far  as  the  service  of  Bavana,  he  accepted  the  chair  of  histoiy 

the  Amazon.     Thev  are  comfortably  dressed  in  cloth-  of  the  German  Empire  and  German  law,  ui  the  uni- 

ing  made  by  themsclvee  from  bark  fibre.     In  physique  vereity  of  that  town.^    In  1863  he  retired  after  having 

they  are  robust,  and  taller  than  most  of  the  Bolivian  transferred   the  chair  of  German  history  to  Rcker. 

tribes.     "They  are  distinguished  by  a  remarkably  In  1860-62  he  was  first  vice-preBidM|t  and  in  1864 

equable  disposition,  a  frank  and  upright  character,  president  of  the  General  Araembfy  of  C^nnan  Catho- 

and  great  industry.    They  give  up  less  time  to  merrr-  Ucs.  A  tireless  champion  of  Cathohc  ideas  m  speech 

Bjaking  than  their  southern  kinsfolk,  and  {ire  gener-  and  wntmg,  on  account  of  m  pmiWM  fliapoBitwo 


M07B  609  MOTLAH 

he  was  never  a  leader  in  the  struggle  for  the  Catholic  Leo   XIU   declared   John   Martin   Venerable   and 

cause.    In  Austrian  politics  he  soon  abandoned  his  authorized   the  introduction  of  the   cause  of  his 

strai^tforward  position  and  became  reconciled  to  beatification  14  Januaiy.  1891. 

the  modem  trena,  warmly  defending  the  Concordat.  ,  Mabchau  vUjU  M,  VAhhi  Move  (Paris,  1872):  Wbilakd. 

Among  his  writinp  in  whidi  he  devoted  the  greatest  ?;^i^fTJ.^£.Ti^  iKSS^r? iTlZTJi  S%Ji^ 

attention  to  careful  research  and  lucid  arrangement,  (Portieux) ;  Robbbacbbr.  Hiuoire  de  VBgliu  (Paris,  1842-48, 

may    be    mentioned    ''Lehrbuch    des    bayerischen  dthed.,  i90i);L«arM  Ai^/lan/M  (Pam).  ^  ^^ 

Staatarechtes"    (Ratisbon,   184(M6);  "De  impedi-  Camillus  P.  Mam. 

mentis  matrimonii"  (Munich,  1827);  "Die  Ehe  und        n**.*!.,,    i?«*«^o    n;«i,^..  ^t  n^^i-    k   -♦  n^^ 

die  SteUung  der  katholischen  Kirche  in  Deutschland  ,^l?^?  •   Nq^^S*'  ^^^u^  ^^  9®^^i  u '  **  ^^ 

nicksichSkh  dieses  Punktes  ihrer  Disciplin"  (LanA^  P9;  d.  m  1815.    He  was  the  son  of  a  nch  merchant 

hutri830):  "DflT  S^ditder  ChSsten  inX  ^^  *^«  V^,  ^fT  '^'^  ^^  impossible  for  him  to  ob- 

moArenlilncischen  und  abendl&ndischen  Kirche  bis  tarn  a  suitable  education  at  home,  he  wsas^^ 

«ur  2eit  Karls  des  Grossen  nach  den  Quellen  daxges-  ^^  y^'^T^  ^^''^'    S*  ^^^^  ^T^  ^^m  ^® 

tS'^tbbon?  1833T^  STm^M  ms  iSst^JSri^  f^^"^^  *^?P*  »  niercantile  calling;  but  young  Moy- 

-Gniidlinien  ^iner  kfosophie  des  Rechtes  vom  ^>.;r??J^*^?..^??«  ^°^if^A»J?.^.F?i?!_^!jl:^ 


Katholischen  Standpunkt"  ^2  vols.,  Vienna,  1854r-  join  the  Carthusians.  Delicate  health,  however,  stood 
57)r"^e  weltUche  Hemchift  des  tap^ind^  ^^  ^^  ^*y+"i^  after  finwhmg  his  course  at  the  Uni- 
!i! 'u*i:i[!r  riS  ",™  H  T?r.-^!.  >»   nJ  JXfi™    t  oom      vcTSity  of  Toulouse,  wheTO  he  was  sraduated  as  doctor 


recht  mit  besonderer  Rficksicht  auf  Oesterreich",  ^L^f^PPJTh^iPtm*^^^^^^ 

later    "  mit    RQcksicht    auch    auf    Deutschland  '^  ^mamed  there  tiU  1775.  whenh©  became  Bishop  of 

/T«««k«.X    ift«;7A    «ki«v»  K^\w«*^  o«  /«I;^a^ik-»  Kerry.  In  1787  he  was  transfeiied  to  the  See  of  Cork 

&voK^e                                          as  far  as  the  and  ^ntinued  to  rule  that  diocese  till  his  death.  Like 

BioffraphUchew  Lexicon  du  Kau€rthum9  OulerrMu,  XIX  ^:/^^X  ^^  ^^^^»  ^'  Moylwi  had  nO  sympathy 

(1868),  166-167;  Attgemeine  dtuUehe  Biograpku,  XXII  (1885),  With  Violence  as  a  means  of  redressing  wrong,  and 

420.  therefore  he   condemned   the  Whiteboys;  and,   in 

Patriciub  Schlaobr.  1796,  he  urged  his  flock  to  resist  the  French,  when 

Providence  (q. 
Lorraine,  27  Jf 

He  was  the  sw  u*  w^o  Murvccu  uiu«xreu  ui  ouim  this.  f or  he  f ound  that  he  had  been  trfcked  by  Pitt  and 

Latin.  «d  he  «.3eted  his  d«Bioal  rtudies  at  the  g^'ri^^if  3^^  ^ereSfu^^lSi^the'ft! 

College  of  PontrftrMouason.    He  then  rtudied  phi-  ^      ^  PrawTtation  Nuns.    He  was  indeed  for 

te Vt^eSlS  ^SL^^f^SSS^onr^te  S-y  y^  «»«  *-^  «««»  -d  »^^  o^  NMU, 

in  the  fall  of^  1751.  ^  Ordained  a  priest  9  Mar^,  1764,  g^.^  i^^  ^f  jf^^  jf^  (I>„Wl^,  1875). 

he  was  appointed  vicar  m  the  episcopal  city  the  9<une  E.  ^.  D^Aiaon. 
month.    His  great  zeal  for  souls  attracted  attention; 

many  pious  ladies  placed  themselves  under  his  firm  Moylan,  Stbphkn,  American  patriot  and  mer- 
and  wise  direction.  This  enabled  him  to  find  some  chant,  b.  in  Ireland  in  1734;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  11 
select  souls  for  the  establishment  of  schools  for  April,  1811.  He  received  his  education  inlrelandy 
country  children  whose  education  he  had  much  at  but  resided  for  some  time  in  England,  and  seems  to 
heart.  He  began  the  work  in  1763;  in  1767  in  spite  have  travelled  considerably  on  the  Continent  before 
of  the  ill-will  of  manv  and  the  persecutions  of  a  tew,  emigrating  to  the  American  Colonies  where  ho  settled 
the  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi-  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  He  gave  his  heartv  sup- 
dence  was  founded.  That  same  year  he  was  appointed  port  to  the  patriot  cause  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution, 
superior  of  the  little  seminary  of  St.  Di^.  Leaving  and,  when  war  was  finally  declared,  hurried  to  ioin 
the  care  of  his  sisterhood  to  two  friends,  Father  Moye  the  Continental  Army  before  Boston  in  1775.  The 
now  determined  to  act  upon  his  long  delayed  desire  readiness  of  his  patriotic  zeal,  coupled  with  a  belief 
to  become  a  missionary.  In  1769  he  joined  the  in  his  business  acumen,  won  him  the  recognition  of 
S^minaire  des  Missions  Etrang^res  at  Paris,  and  in  John  Dickinson,  upon  whose  recommendation  he  was 
1773  he  was  at  work  in  Oriental  Su-tchuen,  China,  placed  in  the  commissariat  department.  Attracted 
Nine  years  of  hard  labour,  frequently  interrupted  by  by  his  unusual  dignity  of  bearing  and  military  manner, 
persecution  and  imprisonment,  made  him  r^ize  Washington,  in  March,  1776,  appointed  him  one  ot 
the  necesfflty  of  native  help.  In  1782  he  founded  the  his  aides-de-camp.  Restless  to  exploit  his  encrdes 
"Christian  Virgins",  religious  women  following  the  in  a  field  of  wider  activity,  he  was  chosen  by  Con- 
rules  of  the  Congre^tion  of  Providence  at  home,  gress,  upon  Washington's  recommendation,  in  June 
devoting  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  to  the  of  the  same  year  to  be  Commissary  General  of  the 
Christian  instruction  of  pagan  Chinese  women  and  Continental  Army.  Restless  again,  seemingly,  for  a 
children  in  their  own  homes.  After  a  hundred  years  more  direct  participation  in  the  conflict^  he  resigned 
of  success,  thev  are  still  active  in  the  Chinese  mission,  this  position  m  the  following  October,  raising  at  once 
Exhausted  by  labours  and  sickness,  Father  Moye  re-  a  troop  of  light  drsfoons,  the  First  Pennsylvania  regi- 
tumed  to  France  in  1784.  He  resumed  the  direction  ment  of  cavalry,  of  which  he  was  colonel.  With  tma 
of  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  and  evangelized  troop  he  served  at  Valley  Forge,  throu^  the  dismal 
Lorraine  and  Alsace  by  preaching  missions.  The  winter  of  1777-8,  at  the  battle  of  Germantown,  on  the 
Revolution  of  1791  drove  him  into  exile,  and  with  Hudson  River,  and  in  Connecticut,  with  Wayne  in 
his  Sisters  he  retired  to  Trier.  After  the  capture  of  Pennsylvania,  and  roimded  out  the  full  measure  of  his 
the  city  by  the  French  troops,  typhoid  fever  broke  service  with  General  Greene  in  his  southern  campaign 
out  and,  helped  by  his  Sisters,  he  devoted  himself  to  at  the  close  of  the  war.  In  acknowledgment  of  his 
hospital  work.  He  contracted  the  virulent  disease  indefatigable  energy  and  bravery,  before  the  war 
and  died,  a  martyr  of  Christian  charity,  1793.  The  closed,  in  1782,  he  was  brevetted  brigadiei^general. 
spot  where  he  was  buried  is  now  a  public  square.  After  the  sucQWful  teimiua^on  of  the  war  he  quietly 
X.~39 


MOZAMBIQUE  610  MOZAXBIQUI 

femuned  his  mercantile  pursuits  in  Philaddphia.    In  suese  captains  (Saldanha,  Almdda,  and  TristAo  dk 

1792  he  was  Register  ana  Recorder  of  Chester  County,  Cunha)  tne  ndghbouiing  country  was  amckly  brought 

Penn.,  and  was  Commissioner  of  Loans  of  Pennsyl-  under  Portuguese  rule.    Although  the  Portuguese 

vania  for  a  few  years  before  his  death.    Duly  allowing  sent  an  expemtion  up  the  Zambesi  about  1565  and  oo- 

for  the  over  excitability  of  the  times,  the  eulo^  of  a  cupied  Tete  in  1632,  they  seem  to  have  paid  scant  at- 

fellow  patriot  quoted  by  Irving  (Life  of  Washington,  tention  to  the  interior.    In  1607  and  1608  the  Dutch 

111.  ch.  30)  remains  a  no  uncertain  estimate  of  esteem:  made  unsuccessful  attempts  on  Mozambique,  but  in 

"  '  There  is  not  in  the  whole  ranp;e  of  my  friends,  ac-  1698  the  resumed  attacks  of  the  Arabs,  supported  by 

Suaintance.  and  I  might  add,  m  the  universe',  ex-  the  Sultan  of  Masoote,  reduced  the  Portuguese  terri- 

laims  Wilkinson,  'a  man  of  more  sublimated  senti-  tory  to  the  country  south  of  Cape  Delgado.     Th« 

ment,  or  who  combined  with  sound  discretion  a  more  waning  political  importance  and  power  of  Portugal 

punctilious  sense  of  honour,  than  Colonel  Moylan'.''  rendered  efficient  colonisation  and  control  impossible 

General  Moylan  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  To  the  great  feebleness  of  the  authorities  at  home  is 

Friendly  Sons  of  St.  Patrick  in  Philadelphia  in  1771,  due  the  late  continuation  of  the  slave  trade  between 

and  was  Its  first  president.    One  of  his  brothers  be-  Mozambique  and  Madamscar,  which  was  carried  on 

came  Bi^op  of  Coric,  Ireland,  and  another,  John,  surreptitiously  until  1877.    The  discovery  of  gold  in 

acted  during  the  war  as  United  States  Clothier  Gen-  the  interior  of  Africa  about  1870  turned  the  tide  of 

eral.  prosperity  again  in  favour  of  Mozambique,  as  its  ports 

Mabquxs  DB  Chastbllux.  Trav^  in  America  (Paris,  1788);  were  the  natural  outlets  for  the  Transvaal  and  the 

Amenean  Manihly  Maoanru,  vol.  VI.  14.  j.„„^  more  northern  territories. 

JARVIB  ABiLBT.  ^j^^  explorations  of  Serpa  Hnto  in  1877  and  subse- 
Moiambiauo  (Mof;AMBiQUE),  the  former  official  (luent  years  also  led  Portugal  to  take  a  keener  interest 
and  still  usual  name  given  to  the  Portugese  posses-  in  its  possesmons.  In  1875  the  dispute  between  £ng- 
sions  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa  opposite  the  island  land  and  Portugal  for  the  possession  of  Delagoa  Bay 
of  Madamscar.  Portuguese  East  Amca  extends  from  was  decided  by  the  arbitrator  Marshal  MacMahon,  in 
Cape  Ddgado  (10^  41'  S.  lat.)  to  the  south  of  Delagoa  favour  of  Portugal.  The  result  of  a  subsequent  col- 
Bay  (25^  58') f  that  is  about  twelve  hundred  miles.  It  is  lision  between  English  and  Portuguese  claims  was  less 
bounded  on  the  north  by  German  East  Africa;  on  the  favourtJble  to  Portugal.  According  to  the  modem 
east  by  the  Mozambique  Channel ;  on  the  south  by  the  theoiy  of  hirUerlandj  Portugal  claimed  dominion  over 
Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  British  South  and  the  territory  situated  betwe^i  her  possessions  on  the 
Central  Africa.  It  is  the  second  largest  Portuguese  col-  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa:  but  when  in  1889  Ene- 
ony,  its  area  approximating  293,0(>D  square  miles  (that  land  proclaimed  its  protectorate  over  Matabeleland, 
of  PortugueseAngola is  about  400,000);  its  population  is  Mashonaland^  Nyassaland  etc.,  Portugal,  notwith- 
between  two  and  three  millions.  The  coasts,  in  general  standing  the  immense  indignation  aroused  by  the  oc- 
low  and  marshy,  are  intersected  here  and  there  by  currence  at  Lisbon,  had  to  acquiesce.  In  1891  lack  of 
rivers  which  terminate  in  almost  eveir  instance  in  capital  compelled  the  Portugese  government  to  lease 
muddy  deltas  or  estuaries  choked  with  sand.  The  with  administrative  authonty  a  large  portion  of  the 
low-lying  tract  between  the  Limpopo  River  and  the  colony  to  the  Mozambique  and  Nyassa  Companies: 
ddta  of  the  Zambesi  is  barren,  sprinkled  with  lagoons,  the  former  controls  the  Alanica  and  Sofala  regions^ 
malarial,  and  infested  by  the  terrible  tsee-ts^  fly,  and  the  latter  the  territory  enclosed  betweoi  the  Ro- 
which  renders  cattle-raising,  the  one  industiy  other-  vuma,  Lake  Nyassa,  and  the  Lurio  River.  It  Ls  gen- 
wise  suited  to  parts  of  this  area,  impossible.  Between  erally  accepted  that  the  Anglo-German  Secret  Treaty 
the  Zambesi  and  the  Rovuma  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  of  1898  dealt  with  the  partition  of  Mozambique  in  the 
especially  in  the  basin  of  the  former  river,  where  the  event  that  Portugid  should  be  unable  to  extricate 
land  is  fertilized  by  periodical  inimdations  and  pro-  itself  from  its  financial  difficulties.  The  chief  exports 
duces  abundant  crops.  The  climate  of  the  regions  of  Mozambique  are  rubber,  sugar,  varioas  ores,  wax, 
along  the  coast  is  torrid,  unhealthy,  and  subject  to  andivory;it  imports  mainlycottons,  hardware,  spirits, 
sudden  and  great  variations;  the  mean  annual  tem-  beer,  and  wine.  Lourenco  Marques  (9849  inhabi- 
perature  is  very  high  (76^  at  Beira) .  As  one  proceeds  tants) ,  the  capital  of  the  colony,  and  Beira  are  thriving 
inland^  the  sou  rises  graduaUy,  terrace  over  terrace,  ports.  The  town  of  Mozambique  (properly  San  Se- 
attaimng  a  great  altitude  in  the  mountains  which  bor-  bastian  of  Mozambique)^  situated  on  the  idand  of  the 
der  on  Lake  Shirwa.  In  the  interior  both  soil  and  cli-  same  name,  has  diminished  greatly  in  importance 
mate  are  favourable  to  cultivation  and  European  life;  since  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  The  college 
the  chief  crops  are  millet,  maize,  rice,  wheat,  sesame,  built  by  the  Jesuits  in  1670,  which  was  made  the  gov- 
earth-nuts,  sugar-cane,  cocoa,  and  tobacco.  The  emor's  residence  after  the  suppression  of  the  order,  is 
large  forests  of  the  interior  yield  ebony,  sandalwood,  a  one  of  the  very  few  buildings  of  importance, 
number  of  other  valuable  timbers,  and  india-rubber.  The  early  explorere  were  accompanied  on  their  voy- 
Besides  an  unusual  variety  of  game,  the  fauna  include  ages  by  Franciscan  fathers  who  founded  under  Alva- 
the  elephant,  antelope,  buffalo,  lion,  leopard,  and,  in  rez  of  Coimbra  the  first  mission  in  Mozambique  in 
certain  districts,  the  rhinoceros  and  the  hippopota-  15(X).  In  1560,  after  the  arrival  of  the  Jesuits,  a  glori- 
mus.  The  mineral  deposits,  including  coal,  iron,  and  ous  future  seemed  to  await  the  mission,  the  King  of 
gold,  are  of  exceptional  importance,  but  not  yet  fully  Inhambane  and  the  Emperor  of  Monomotapa  being 
mvestigated.  baptized  with  numbers  of  their  subjects.  The  Do- 
Long  before  the  arrival  of  the  first  European  explore  minicans  also  laboured  for  a  period  in  this  colony, 
ers,  the  Arabs,  taking  advantage  of  the  regularity  of  their  most  illustrious  representative  being  JoSo  dos 
the  monsoons  which  greatly  facilitated  their  voyages,  Santos  (d.  1622),  whose  work,  "L'Ethiopia  oriental  e 
carried  on  a  brisk  commerce  with  this  ix>rtion  of  East  varia  historia  de  cousas  nataveis  do  Oriente",  was 
•  Africa,  and  were  in  possession  of  the  island  of  Mozam-  long  authoritative  on  the  geography  and  ethnology  of 
bique  when  it  was  discovered  by  Vasco  de  Gama  in  the  countiy.  The  Jesuits  retumea  in  1610  and  were 
1498.  Sofala  had  been  already  discovered  by  Covil-  followed  by  the  Carmelites.  The  work  of  evangeliza- 
ham,  another  Portuguese,  in  1489.  The  Portuguese  tion  was,  however,  attended  with  great  difficulties 
had  at  first  to  contend  with  the  fierce  opposition  of  the  owing  to  the  fickleness  of  the  natives,  the  opposition 
Arabs  who  dominated  all  the  adjacent  country.  In  of  the  Mohammedans,  the  insalubrity  of  the  climate, 
1505  Albuquerque  established  at  the  mouth  of  the  and  the  irregular  communication  with  Europe.  The 
Sofala  River  the  first  European  settlement.  Vasco  de  powerlessness  of  Portugal  to  exercise  a  firm  control 
Gama  captur^i  the  island  of  Mozambique  in  1506,  and  the  demoralizing  effects  of  the  slave  trade  resulted 
8od  thwks  to  his  exertions  and  those  of  other  Portu-  in  an  equally  low  standard  of  morals  in  the  case  of 


MOZABABIC 


611 


MOZABABIO 


)oth  the  whites  and  the  natives.  In  recent  yean  the 
nissionaries  were  still  further  hampered  by  the  anti- 
I^atholic  policy  of  the  Government.  Ecclesiastically 
(peaking,  Mozambique  is  an  exempt  prelature  be- 
onging  to  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Goa.  The 
>relature  formerly  included  all  the  territory  as  far  as 
he  Cape,  but  is  now  confined  to  the  Portuguese  pos- 
essions.  In  1898  it  was  again  entrusted  to  the  Portu- 
gese branch  of  the  Friars  Minor.  According  to  the 
atest  statistics  it  contains:  12  priests  (4  Friars  Minor), 
.3  Sisters,  3500  native  Catholics,  11  churches  and 

shapels,  10  stations. 

JoAO  DOB  Santoo,  VBthiopia  onenial «  varia  hutoria  de  ctmmu 
\ataveis  do  OrienU  (Evora,  1609),  French  tr.  Charft  (Paris.  1684, 
688) ;  KOlb,  MUnonereiaen  naeh  Afrika,  III  (1862);  Spillmann, 
iund  um  AJrika  (3rd.  ed.,  1897),  284  sq<i.;  NBaRUBOS,  Le 
[foiambique  (Paris,  1904) :  Pinon,  La  Cohnie  du  MoMamb%qu§  in 
lerue  dea  Deux  MondM,  II,  6th  period  (Paris,  1901),  5d-86.  Con- 
erning  the  natives  see  Bourquin,  Uao»  «  eoatumet  dot  indigenat 
le  Mo^itUnque  in  Soc  de  geog,  de  lAeboa  (Lisbon,  1909),  420  sqq. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Moiarabic  Bite.— This  subject  will  be  treated 
mder  the  following  heads:  I.  History  and  Origin; 
J.  MSS.  and  Editions;  III.  The  Liturgical  Year; 
V.  The  Divine  Office;  V.  The  Mass;  VI.  The  Occa- 
donal  Services. 

I.  History  and  Origin. — ^The  name  "Mozarabic 
lite"  is  given  to  the  rite  used  generally  in  Spain  and 
Q  what  afterwards  became  Portugal  from  the  earliest 
imes  of  which  we  have  any  information  down  to  the 
alter  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  still  surviving 
a  the  Capilia  Muzdrabe  in  Toledo  cathedral  and  in 
he  chapel  of  San  Salvador  or  Talavera,  in  the  old 
athedral  of  Salamanca.  The  name  is  not  a  good  one. 
t  ori^nated  in  the  fact  that,  after  its  abolition  in 
Christian  Spain,  the  rite  continued  to  be  used  by  the 
Christians  in  the  Moorish  dominions  who  were  known 
Ls  Mozdrabes  or  Mtuedrdbea.  The  form  Moatdrabea  is 
Jso  found.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  not  quite 
.ertain,  but  the  best  theonr  seems  to  be  that  it  is 
nustaWabf  the  participle  of  the  tenth  form  of  the  veri> 
araba,  and  that  it  means  a  naturalized  Arab  or  one 
\rho  has  adopted  Arab  customs  or  nationality,  an 
^rabized  person.  Some,  with  less  probability,  have 
nade  it  a  Latin  or  Spanish  compoimd,  Mixto-Arabic, 
The  meanings,  which  are  not  far  apart,  applied  entirely 
o  the  persons  who  used  the  rite  in  its  later  period,  and 
lot  to  the  rite  itself,  which  has  no  sign  of  any  Arab 
afluence.  The  names  Gothic,  ToUdan,  Isidorian,  have 
Jso  been  applied  to  the  rite — the  first  referring  to  its 
levclopment  durinff  the  time  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom 
)f  Spam,  the  second  to  the  metropolitan  citv  which  was 
is  headquarters,  and  the  third  to  the  idea  that  it  owed, 
f  not  its  existence,  at  any  rate  a  considerable  revision 
o  St.  Isidore  of  Seville.  Dom  F6rotin  (Liber  Or- 
linum)  prefers  RUe  Wisigothique. 

Its  origin  is  still  discussed,  and  the  various  theories 
lave  been  alre^y  set  forth  \mder  Ambrosian  Rite 
q.  v.),  Celtic  Rite  (q.  v.),  and  Gallican  Rite  (q.  v.). 
)ufFice  it  to  say  that  whatever  theonr  applies  to  the 
Gallican  Rite  applies  equally  to  the  Mozarabic,  which 
3  so  nearly  identicsd  with  it  in  construction  as  to  leave 
ID  doubt  of  a  common  origin.  The  theory  of  Pinius 
op.  cit.  in  bibhography)  to  the  effect  that  the  Goths 
wrought  with  them  from  Constantinople  and  Asia 
4inor  a  Greek  Liturgy,  which,  combined  with  the  al- 
eady  existing  Romano-Spanish  Rite,  formed  the  new 
ite  of  Spain,  is  not  founded  on  more  than  conjecture. 
There  is  no  aefinite  information  concerning  the  Span- 
sh  variety  of  the  Hispano-Gallican  Rite  until  the  end 
>f  the  sixth  and  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  (that 
3  to  say,  until  the  period  of  transition  from  Arianism 
o  Catholicism  in  tne  Visigothic  kingdom),  and,  since 
he  whole  of  Spain,  including  the  Suevic  kingdom 
Q  Galicia  which  had  been  annexed  by  the  Visigothic 
dn(^  I>eovimld,  was  then  under  the  ecclesiastical  juris- 
liction  of  Toledo,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  To- 
edo  Rite  was  used  throughout  the  whole  peninsula. 


This  had  not  been  the  case  somewhat  earlier.  In  538 
Profuturus,  Bishop  of  Braga  and  Metropolitan  of  the 
Suevic  kingdom,  had  consulted  Pope  Vigilius  on 
litur^cal  matters.  Vigilius  sent  him  rather  full  in- 
formation concemicm:  the  Roman  usages  in  the  Mass 
and  in  baptism.  The  Council  of  Braga  (561),  held 
at  the  time  of  the  conversion  of  the  Arian  Suevi  to 
Catholicism,  decided  (cc,  iv,  v)  that  the  orders  of 
Mass  and  baptism  obtained  from  Rome  b}!;  Profu- 
turus should  be  exclusively  used  in  the  kingdom. 
This  probably  continued  as  long  as  the  Suevi  re- 
mained independent,  and  perhaps  until  the  conver- 
sion of  the  visigothic  king  Recared  to  Catholicism  in 
589.  Though  until  this  date  the  kings  and  the  Teu- 
tonic ruling  class  were  Arians,  the  native  Spanish 
population  was  largely  Catholic,  and  the  rite — ^which 
was  possibly  revised  and  added  to  by  St.  Leander  of 
Seville  and  the  first  Council  of  Toledo  in  589,  de- 
scribed and  perhaps  arranged  by  his  brother  and  suc- 
cessor, St.  Isidore  (d.  636),  and  regulated  by  the 
Fourth  Council  of  Toledo  in  633-7was  no  doubt  that 
previously  in  use  among  the  Spanish  Catholics.  This 
IS  confirmed  bv  the  scanty  liturgical  decrees  of  the 
various  Spanish  councils  of  the  sixth  century.  What 
the  Arians  used  we  have  no  means  of  knowing,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that,  whatever  it  was,  its 
influence  continued  after  the  conversion  of  Recared 
and  the  submission  of  the  Arian  bishops.  But  the 
rite  described  by  St.  Isidore,  allowing  of  course  for 
the  modifications  and  variations  of  many  centuries, 
is  substantially  that  now  known  as  the  Mozarabic. 

Dom  Marius  F^rotin,  O.S.B.  (to  whom  the  present 
writer  is  indebted  for  much  help)^  in  his  edition  of  the 
Mozarabic  ''Liber  Ordinum'^  dismisses  the  idea  of 
any  Oriental  origin,  and  describes  it  as  a  purely 
Western  rite,  "the  general  framework  and  numerous 
ceremonies  of  which  were  imported  from  Italy  (prob- 
ably from  Rome)",  while  the  remainder  (lessons, 
prayers,  hymns,  etc.)  is  the  work  of  Spanish  bishops 
and  doctors,  with  additions  from  Afnca  and  Gaul. 
Without  accepting  the  Italian  or  Roman  origin  as 
more  than  a  very  reasonable  conjecture,  we  may  take 
this  as  an  excellent  generalization.  There  was  a  pe- 
riod of  development  during  the  seventh  centuiy  under 
St.  Isidore,  who  was  the  moving  spirit  of  the  Council 
of  Toledo  of  633,  Eugenius  III  of  Toledo  (646-57),  to 
whom  the  chant  known  as  ''Melodico''  or  ''Euge- 
niano''  is  attributed,  St.  Ildefonsus  of  Toledo  (657-67), 
to  whom  certain  masses  are  attributed,  and  St.  Julian 
(680-90),  who,  according  to  his  biographer  and  suc- 
cessor, Felix,  wrote  a  Mass-book  de  toto  circulo 
anni",  and  a  book  of  collects,  as  a  revision  of  the  old 
books  with  additions  of  his  own.  But  after  the 
Moorish  invasion,  which  began  in  710,  the  Spanidi 
Christians  had  little  Idsure  for  improving  their  lit- 
urgies, and,  except  for  some  prayers,  hymns,  and 
masses  attributed  to  Abbot  Salvus  of  Albelda  (tenth 
century),  nothing  seems  to  have  been  add^  to  the 
rite  from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh  century.  In  870 
Charles  the  Bald,  King  of  the  Franks,  and  afterwards 
emperor,  wishing  to  see  what  the  ancient  Gallican 
Rite  had  been  like,  had  priests  sent  from  Spain  to  say 
the  Toledan  Mass  before  him.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighth  century,  the  Spanish  Rite  had  fallen  under 
some  suspicion  owing  to  Quotations  cited  by  Elipandos 
of  Toledo  in  support  of  his  Adoptionist  theories,  and 
the  Coun.  U  of  Frankfort  (794)  spoke  somewhat  dis- 
paragingly of  possible  Moslem  innuence  on  it.  Some 
of  the  passages  still  remiun,  in  spite  of  Alcuin's  sug- 
gestion that  the  original  and  proper  readings  must 
have  been  asaumptio  and  asaumvlus,  not  adovtio  and 
adoptattu  (or  adoj^ivus):  but  tney  all  can  near  an 
orthodox  explanation.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this 
suspicion  that  in  924  John  X  sent  a  legate  (Zanelo, 
Zannello,  or  Jannello)  to  Santiago  to  examine  the 
Spanish  Kite.  He  reported  favourably  upon  it.  and 
the  pope  gave  it  a  new  approbation,  changing  only,  as 


MOKAftABtO  612  HOZARABIO 

8r.  Monleda  y  EstabAn  says  (El  Riio  AfMdra5e)  J^e  the  Toledan  was  little  damaged.    No  one  who  hai 

Words  of  Consecration  to  the  Roman  Use.    This  seen  a  Moiarabic  manuscript,  with  its  eztraordinanly 

condition  is  still  observed,  but  whether  that  has  al-  solid  vellum,  will  adopt  anv  hypothesis  of  Divine  in- 

ways  been  the  case  e&noe  924  or  not,  there  is  no  evi-  terposition  here.    But  still  the  king,  influenced  now 

dence  to  show.    The  old  Spanish  fonnula  is  fpven  in  by  his  second  wife  Constance,  dauditer  of  Robert, 

the  modem  books^"ne  antiouitas  ignoretur'\  as  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  son  of  King  Robert  the  I^ous 

Leslie  BsyB  in  his  notes  to  the  Mozarabic  Missal— -but  of  France,  and  by  Bernard,  the  new  Archbishop  d 

the  Roman  is  used  in  actual  practice.  Toledo,  a  Cistercian,  insisted  on  the  introduction  of 

Of  the  existing  manuscripts  of  the  rite,  though  a  the  Roman  Rite,  though  this  time  with  a  compromise, 

very  few  may  possibly  be  of  the  ninth  centuiy,  al-  All  new  churches  were  to  use  the  Roman  Rite,  but  ia 

most  all  are  of  dates  between  the  ratification  by  John  the  six  old  churches,  Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina,  St.  Eula- 

X  and  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  Rite  in  the  sec-  lia,  St.  Sebastian.  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  and  St.  Torqua- 

ond  half  of  the  eleventh  century,  durins  which  period  tus,  the  MosAraoes  might  continue  to  have  their  old 

the  old  Spanish  Rite  held  unaisturbed  possession  of  rite,  and  might  hand  it  on  to  their  descendants, 

the  whole  of  Spain,  whether  under  Christian  or  Moor-  Flores  mentions  also  the  Ermita  de  S.  Marift  de  Alfioen, 

ish  rule.    During  these  centuries  the  Christian  king-  which  is  probably  the  church  of  St.  Mary  which 

doms  were  gradually  driving  back  the  Moors.    Be-  Nealesa>'s"di8appeared,  we  know  not  how,  some  ceo- 

sides  Asturias  and  Navarre,  which  had  never  been  turies  agp."    But  the  rite  still  continued  in  the  Moor^ 

quite  conquered,  Galicia,  Leon,  and  Old  Castile  had  ish  dominions,  as  well  as  in  certain  monasteries,  ap- 

been  regained,  and  the  lungdom  of  Arapon  had  been  parently,  according  to  Rodrigo  Ximenes,  Archbishop 

formed.  In  1064  Cardinal  Hugo  Candidus  was  sent  of  Toledo  (1210-49),  even  in  the  Christian  kingdoms, 
from  Rome  by  Alexander  II  to  abolish  the  Spanish        When  King  James  of  Aragon  conquered  Valencia  in 

Rite,  some  vague  attempts  in  that  direction  havins  1238,  he  found  there  Mosarabic  Christians  using  the 

been  already  made  by  his  predecessor  Nicholas  II,  old  rite,  and  the  same  apparently  happened  when 

who  had  also  wished  to  abolish  the  Ambrosian  Rite  at  Murcia  and  all  Andalusia  except  Granada  were  ood* 

Milan.    The  centralising  policy  of  the  popes  of  that  quered  by  Ferdinand  III  in  1235-51.    When  Ferdi- 

period  included  uniformity  of  liturgical  practice.  The  nand  and  Isabella  took  Granada  in  1492,  there  were 

Spanish  kin^  and  cler^  were  against  the  change  certainly  some  Mosarabic  Christians  there,  as  well  as 

then,  and  Bishops  Munio,  of  Calahorra,  Eximino  of  Christian  merchants  and  prisoners  from  non-Moorish 

Oca,  and  Fortunio  of  Alava  were  sent  to  Italy  with  countries,  but  whether  the  Mosarabic  Rite  was  used 

Spanish  office-books,  including  a  Liber  Ordinum  from  by  them  does  not  appear.    With  the  discouragement 

Albelda.  and  a  Breviary  from  Hirache,  to  defend  the  which  bcsan  with  Alfonso  VI  came  the  period  m  deca- 

rite.    The  books  were  carefully  examined  by  the  dence.    The  civil  privil^es  (fueros)  of  the  Toledo 

Council  of  Mantua  (1067),  and  were  pronounced  not  MostoJl>es,  which,  though  in  1147  Pope  Eugene  III 

only  free  from  heresy  but  also  worthy  of  praise.    But  had  definitely  put  them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

in  Aragon  King  Sancho  Ramirez  was  in  lavour  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  included  a  certain  amount  of  in- 

change,  and  on  22  March,  1071,  the  first  Roman  Mass  dependence,  were  confirmed  by  Alfonso  VII  in  1118, 

was  sung  in  the  presence  of  Cardinal  Hugo  Candidus  by  Peter  in  1350,  b^  Henry  II  in  1379.  and  by  Ferdi- 

and  the  king  in  the  Monastery  of  San  Juan  de  la  Pefia  nand  and  Isabella  m  1480  (later  also  by  Phinp  II  in 

(near  Jaca,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  burial  1564^  by  Charles  II  in  1699,  and  by  Phiup  V  in  1740). 

place  of  the  early  kings  of  Aragon) .    The  Roman  Rite  But  m  spite  of  this  the  Roman  Rite  prevailed  so  much 

was  introduced  into  Navarre  on  the  accession  of  San-  that  it  was  introduced  even  into  Mosarabic  churches, 

oho  of  Aragon  to  the  throne  in  1074,  and  into  Cata-  which  only  used  the  old  rite  for  certain  special  days, 

lufia  a  little  later.     Meanwhile  Alfonso  VI  became  and  that  in  a  corrupted  form  from  old  and  imperfectly 

King  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  St.  Gregory  VII  be-  understood  MSS.    This  and  the  dying  out  of  many 

came  pope.    Alfonso,  influenced  by  the  pope,  by  St.  Mosarabic  families  gradually  brought  the  rite  very 

Hush  of  Climy.  and  by  his  first  wife  Agnes,  dauditer  low.    There  was  a  spasmodic  attempt  at  a  revival, 

of  William,  Duke  of  Gascony  and  Guienne  and  (Jount  when  in  1436  Juan  de  Todesillas,  Bishop  of  Sc^via, 

of  Poitiers,  introduced  the  Roman  Rite  into  Castile  founded  the  college  of  Aniago  (originally  a  Benedio- 

and  Leon  in  1077.    This  was  resisted  by  his  subjects,  tine  house,  a  little  to  the  south-west  of  Valladolid), 

and  on  Palm  Sunday,  1077,  according  to  the  ''Chroni-  where  the  priests  were  to  use  the  (jothic  Rite.     The 

con  Burgense",  occurred  the  incident  of  **  El  Juicio  de  foundation  lasted  five  years  and  then  became  Carthu- 

Dios".    Two  knights — '^oneaCastilianandtheother  sian.    Thus,  when  Francisco  Ximenes  de  Cisneros 

a  Toledan  ",  says  the  chronicle — were  chosen  to  fight  became  Archbishop  of  Toledo  in  1495,  he  found  the  Mo- 

''pro  lege  Romana  et  Toletana".    The  champion  of  sarabic  Rite  in  a  fair  way  to  become  extinct.     He  em- 

the  Spanish  Rite,  Juan  Ruiz  de  Matanzas,  who  was  ployed  the  learned  Alfonso  Ortiz  and  three  Mosarabic 

the  victor,  was  certainly  a  Castilian,  but  it  is  improb-  priests^  Alfonso  Martinez,  parish  priest  of  St.  Eulalia, 

able  that  the  champion  of  the  Roman  Rite,  whose  Antomo  Rodriguez  of  Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina,  and  Jei^ 

name  is  not  recorded,  was  a  Toledan,  and  the  Annals  onymo  Guttierez  of  St.  Luke,  to  prepare  an  edition  of 

of  Compostella  say  that  one  was  a  Castilian  and  the  the  Mozarabic  Missal,  which  appeared  in  1500,  and  of 

other  01  the  king's  party.    The  '^Chronicon  Mallea-  the  Breviary,  which  appeared  in  1502.     He  founded 

cense'',  which  alleges  treachery,  calls  the  latter  "miles  the  Mozarabic  Chapel  m  Toledo  cathedral,  with  an 

exparte  Francorum  ",  and  at  the  later  ordeal  by  fire  in  endowment  for  thirteen  chaplains,  a  sacristan  and  two 

1090  the  Roman  Rite  is  called  impartially  "romano",  mozo8  airvientes,  and  with  provision  for  a  sung  Mass 

''frances",  or '^gallicano".    It  is  said  that  two  bulls,  and  the  Divine  Office  daily.    Soon  afterwards,  in 

one  named  "Roma"  and  the  other  "Toledo",  were  1517,  Rodrigo  Arias  Maldonado  de  Talavera  founded 

set  to  fight,  and  there  also  the  victory  was  with  To-  the  Capilla  de  San  Salvador,  or  de  Talavera,  in  the 

ledo.  Old  Cathedral  of  Salamanca,  where  fifty-five  Mosara- 

But,  in  spite  of  the  result  of  the  trials  by  battle,  bic  Masses  were  to  be  said  yearly.    Iney  were  later 

Alfonso  continued  to  support  the  Roman  Rite,  and  a  reduced  to  six,  and  now  the  rite  is  used  there  only 

Council  of  Burgos  (1080)  decreed  its  use  in  (Jastile.  once  or  twice  a  year. 

In  1085  Toledo  was  taken  and  the  question  of  rites  When  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  at  Valla- 
arose  again.  The  Mozarabic  Christians,  who  had  doUd  was  founded  by  Pedro  de  la  Gasca  in  1567,  an  ar> 
many  churches  in  Toledo  and  no  doubt  in  the  coimtry  rangement  was  made  for  two  Mozarabic  Masses  to  be 
as  well,  resisted  the  change.  This  time  another  form  said  there  every  month.  This  foundation  was  m  ex- 
of  ordeal  was  tried.  The  two  books  were  thrown  into  istence  when  Florez  wrote  of  it  in  1748,  but  is  now  ex- 
a  fire.    By  the  time  tbe  Roman  book  was  consumed,  tinct.    At  that  time  alsu  the  offioss  of  the  titular 


MOZARABIO                            613  MOZABABIC 

saints  were  Bald  according  to  the  Mozarabic  Rite  in  come  dther  from  Toledo  or  from  the  neighbourhood 

the  six  Mosarabio  churches  of  Toledo,  and  in  that  of  of  Bur^oe.    There  is  also  an  interesting  coUection  of 

Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina  the  Mozarabic  feast  of  the  transcripts,  made  from  1752  to  1756  under  the  direo- 

Samaritan  Woman  (first  Sunoay  in  Lent)  was  also  ob-  tion  of  the  Jesuit  Father,  A.  M.  Burriel.  from  Toledo 

served.    Except  for  the  Capilla  Muzirabe  in  the  car  MSS.  in  the  Biblioteca  Nacional  at  Madrid.    All  the 

thedral,  all  else  was  Roman.     In  1553  Pope  Julius  III  original  MSS.  are  anterior  to  the  conquest  of  Toledo 

regulated  mixed  marriages  between  Mozarabic  and  in  1085,  most  of  them  being  of  the  tenth  or  eleventh 

Roman  Christians.    The  children  were  to  follow  the  century.    The  arrangement  of  the  books  of  that  pe- 

rite  of  the  father,  but,  if  the  eldest  daughter  of  a  Mo-  riod  was  peculiar.    The  variable  parts  of  the  Mass  and 

zarab  married  a  Roman,  she  and  her  husband  might  the  Divine  Office,  whether  simg  by  the  choir  or  said 

choose  the  rite  to  which  she  and  her  children  should  by  the  celebrant  or  the  deacon,  were  usually  combined 

belong,  and  if  she  became  a  widow  she  might  return  to  in  one  book,  a  sort  of  mixed  sacramentary,  anti- 

the  Mozarabic  Rite^  if  she  had  left  it  at  her  marriage,  phonaiy,  and  lectionary,  usually  with  mumcal  neumea 

These  rules  are  still  m  force,  and  the  writer  is  informed  to  the  sung  portions.    Most  of  the  MSS.  are  very 

by  Dom  F^rotin  that  the  present  Mozdrabes  are  so  imperfect,  and  it  is  not  quite  clear  under  what  name 

proud  of  their  distinctive  rite,  involving,  as  it  does,  this  composite  book  was  known.    Probably  it  was 

pedigrees  dating  back  to  the  eleventh  century  at  least,  called    ' '  Antiphonarium  "   or   ' '  Antiphonale  " .    But 

that  no  Mozarabic  heiress  will  ever  consent  to  desert  such  books  existed  also  as  antiphoners  with  choir 

her  own  rite  if  she  should  marry  a  member  of  the  Ro-  parts   only    and   sacramentaries   with   the   priest's 

inan  Rite.    In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu-  part  only,  and  the  usual  modern  practice  is  to  call  the 

ries  the  Mozarabic  Rite  attracted  some  attention  composite  books  by  the  descriptive  name  of  "Offices 

amon^  the  liturgical  scholars  of  the  period,  and  cer-  and  Masses".    They  contain  under  each  day  the 

tain  dissertations  were  written  and  texts  published,  of  variables  of  Vespers  and  Matins  and  of  the  Mass. 

which  more  will  be  said  in  the  section  on  MSS.  and  edi-  Sometimes  one  Mass  is  made  fuller  by  the  addition 

tions.    In  1842  all  the  Mozarabic  parishes  in  Toledo  of  some  of  the  invariables,  as  a  model  of  a  complete 

except  two,  Sts.  Justa  and  Ruffina  and  St.  Mark,  were  Mass.    The  Miascde  Omnium  Offereniium^  the  sep- 

suppressed,  and  their  parishioners,  something  under  a  arate  book  answering  to  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass 

thousand  in  number,  were  added  to  those  oF  the  two  (see  Section  V,  The  Mass),  does  not  exist  in  any  early 

surviving  parishes.    By  the  Concordat  of  1851  the  MS.,  but  there  is  a  MiMa  Omnimoda  in  the  pnncipad 

chaplains  of  the  Capilla  Muzirabe  were  reduced  from  Silos  MS.  of  the  "Liber  Ordinum",  which  is  a  model 

thirteen  to  eight,  but  the  continuance  of  the  above  Mass  of  the  type  found  in  that  book.    The  book  of 

two  parishes  was  provided  for,  and  at  that  time  the  "Offices  and  Masses''   was  supplemented  for  the 

parochial  Mass  in  these  was  always  Mozarabic.    It  Divine  Office  bv  the  Psalter,  whicn  in  its  fullest  form 

has  almost  entirely  ceased  to  be  so  now.  and  it  is  only  (as  in  the  British  Museum  Add.  MS.  30851)  contained 

in  the  Capilla  Muzdrabe  in  the  cathedral  and  in  the  Ca-  the  whole  book  of  Psalms,  the  Canticles,  chiefly  from 

pilladeTalavera  at  Salamanca  that  the  rite  can  be  seen  the  Old  Testament,  sixty-seven  to  a  hundred  in 

at  present — in  the  former  daily  (in  a  High  Mass  at  nine  number,  the  Hymns  for  the  year,  and  the  "Horse 

a.m.),  and  in  the  latter  once  or  twice  a  year.   Only  the  Canonicse. "    For  the  Mass  it  would  seem  to  require 

Missal  and  Breviary  were  published  by  Ximenes,  and  no  supplement,  but  the  Prophecies,  Epistles,  and 

only  four  manuscripts  of  the  "Liber  Ordinum"  (which  Gospels  are  found  also  in  a  separate  book  known  as 

contains  the  services  of  the  Ritual  and  Pontifical)  are  "Liber  Comitis",   "Liber  Comicus"  or  "Comes". 

known  to  exist.    Hence  it  is  that  in  all  the  sacraments  The  Prayers  of  Vespers  and  Matins  and  the  Prayers 

except  the  Eucharist,  and  in  all  the  occasional  offices  which  follow  the  Gloria  in  Excdsi8  at  Mass  are  also 

the  Mozdrabes  now  follow  the  Roman  Rite.    One  found  combined  in  the  "Liber  Orationum",  and  the 

effect  of  the  Mozarabic  Rite  yet  remains  in  the  cathe-  Homilies  read  at  Mass  are  collected  in  the  "Homi- 

dral  services  of  the  Roman  Rite.    According  to  Si-  liarum",  though  some  are  also  given  in  the  com- 

monet  (Historia  de  los  Moz^bes  de  Espafia),  the  posite  "Offices  and  Masses".     The  occasional  ser- 

Canto  Melddico  or  Ettgeniano,  attributed  to  Eugenius  vices  of  the  Ritual  and  Pontifical  are  found  in  the 

II,  Archbishop  of  Toledo  (647-57),  is  still  alternated  "liber  Ordinum",  which  contains  also  a  number  of 

with  the  Gregorian  plain  chant  in  all  the  Graduals  of  Masses.    There  is  one  MS.  (at  Silos)  which  contains 

the  Mass  except  on  ferials,  and  certain  hymns  are  still  the  Lessons  of  the  now  obsolete  Nocturnal  Office. 

sung  to  the  Eugenian  melodies.    When  Jeronimo  Ro-  The  following  are  the  MSS.  of  the  several  books: 

mero,  choirmaster  of  Toledo  cathedral,  wrote  his  note  QffUx8  and  Masses, — (a)  Toledo,  Chapter  Library, 

on  the  Canto  Melddico  in  Lorenzana's  edition  of  the  35.4,  eleventh  century.    Contains  from  Easter  to  the 

Mozarabic  Breviary  of  1775,  it  seems  to  have  been  twentynsecond  Sunday  after  Pentecost.    Belonged  to 

still  more  extensively  used,  but  in  the  specimens  which  the  parish  of  St.  Oialla  (Eulalia)  at  Toledo,     (b) 

he  gives  (the  beginning  oi  the  Gradufd  for  Sts.  Peter  35.5,  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  194  flf .    Contains 

and  Paul)  the  textus  or  canto  firmo  is  only  a  variety  of  from  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent  to  the  third  dgr  of 

the  ordinary  plain  chant,  and  the  glossa  duplex  and  Easter  week,     (c)   35.6,   eleventh  century,   100  ff. 

glossa  simpieXt  which  he   calls  "Eugenian",  seem  Contains  from  Easter  to  Pentecost  and  feasts  as  far 

rather  too   modem  counterpoints  for  the  seventh  as  SS.  Just  and  Pastor  (6  Aug.).     (d)  Madrid,  Royal 

century.  Acaden^  of  History,  F.  190,  tenth  or  eleventh  cen- 

II.  MSS.  AND  EDinoNB.— Of  the  existing  MSS.  of  tury,  230  flf.    Belonged  to  the  Monastery  of  San 

the  Mozarabic  Rite  many,  as  might  be  expected,  are  Miflan  (St.  iGmilianus)  de  la  CoeoUa  in  the  Rioja. 

in  the  cathedral  chapter  library  at  Toledo,  but  until  (e)  Madrid,  Biblioteca  Nacional,  formerly  at  Toledo 

quite  recent  times  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Silos,  (35.2).  eleventh  century,  121  flf.    Contains  the  Lenten 

between  thirty  and  forty  miles  to  the  south  of  Burgos,  Offices  up   to   Pahn   Sunday.    Colophon  "Finitur 

potssessed  nearly  as  many.    Most  of  these  are  now  deo  gp^tias  hie  liber  per  manus  ferdinandi  johannis 

elnewhere,  some  having  been  purchased  in  1878  by  the  presbiteri  eglesie  sanctarum  juste  et  rufine  civitatis 

British  Museum,  and  others  by  the  Paris  Bibliothftque  Toleti  in  mense  Aprilis."     (f)  Silos,  eleventh  century, 

Nationale.    There   are   other  MSS.   in  the   Royal  paper  octavo,  154  fif.    (g)   British   Museum.   Add. 

Library,  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  30844,  tenth  century.    Contains  Offices  and  Masses 

History,  and  in  the  Biblioteca  Nacional  at  Madrid,  for  the  Annunciation  (18  Dec.),  St.  Thomas,  Christ- 

in  the  Cathedral  Library  at  Leon,  in  the  University  mas,  St.  Stephen,  St.  Eugenia  (27  Dec.),  St.  James 

Library   at   Santiago   de  Compostela,   and  in   the  the  Less  (28  Dec.),  St.  James  the  Great  (30  Dec.,  but 

chapter  libranr  at  Verona.    It  will  be  seen  from  the  called  St.  John),  St.  Cdumba  (31  Dec.),  the  Circum- 

list  which  follows  that  nearly  all  the  existing  MSS.  cision,  Epiphany,  St.  Peter's  Chair  (22  Feb.)i  the 


MOZABABIC 


614 


MOZABABIC 


Aflcexuion,  and  the  Sunday  after  the  ABoenaon. 
The  Mass  for  the  Annunciation  is  a  model  Maas  with 
some  of  the  invariable  parts  inserted.  Homilies  are 
inserted  in  some  of  the  Masses,  and  the  liturgical  part 
is  preceded  by  a  collection  of  Homilies.  Belonged  to 
the  Abbey  of  Silos,  (h)  British  Museum,  Add. 
30845,  tenth  century.  Contains  Offices  and  Masses 
for  the  Feast  of  St.  Quiriacus  (4  or  20  May),  and  of 
Feasts  from  St.  John  Baptist  (24  June)  to  St.  Emihan 
(12  Nov  J,  thirty-seven  m  all,  though  not  all  in  their 
>roper  order.  Belonged  to  the  Abbey  of  Silos, 
[i)  British  Museum.  Add.  30846,  tenth  century. 
/Ontains  Offices  ana  Masses  for  Easter  Week,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Canticles  for  the  same  period,  and  the 
H3rmns  for  Eastertide  to  Pentecost,  including  the 
Feasts  of  Sts.  Engratia  (16  April),  Torquatus  and 
Philip  (1  May),  and  the  Invention  of  theCross  (3  May). 

ArUiphonerB, — There  is  one  MS.  which  describes 
itself  as  "Antiphonarium  de  toto  anni  circulo,  a 
festivitate  S.  Acisdi  [17  Nov.]  usque  ad  finem'^  con- 
taining the  choir  parts,  but  not  the  priest's  part  of  the 
Offices  and  Masses.  This  is  the  book  known,  auite 
erroneously,  as  the  "Antiphoner  of  King  Wamba", 
preserved  in  the  Cathedral  Library  at  Leon.  It 
IS  a  vellum  MS.  of  the  eleventh  century  (Era  1107  = 
A.  D.  1069),  200  ff.,  transcribed  by  one  Arias,  probably 
from  a  much  older  book,  which  perhaps  did  belong  to 
King  Wamba  (672-80).  Dom  F6rotin  describes  it  as 
very  complete. 

Sacramentaries, — (a)  Toledo  Chapter  Library,  35.3, 
late  tenth  century,  177  fiP.  Contains  Masses  for  the 
year.  In  liie  initial  of  that  for  St.  Peter's  Chair  (22 
Feb.)  are  the  words  ''Elenus  Abbas  Acsi  indignus 
scripsit''.  It  belonged  to  the  parish  of  St.  OTalla 
(Emalia)  at  Toledo.  Dom  F^rotin  describes  it  as 
a  Sacramentcuy,  and  says  that  it  is  complete.  An 
edition  by  him  will  soon  be  publbhed.  (b)  There  is 
another  MS.  at  Toledo  mentioned  but  wilii  no  identi- 
fiable number  by  Burriel,  Eguren^  and  Simonet, 
which  is  said  by  them  to  contain  "Missas  omnes  tam 
de  tempore  quam  de  Sanctis  per  totum  anni  circulum  *\ 
There  is  a  copy  of  it  among  the  Burriel  manuscripts 
at  Madrid,  and  Eguren  ascribes  the  original  to  the 
ninth  century. 

Psalters, — (a)  Madrid,  Biblioteca  Nacional,  for- 
merly at  Toledo  (35.1),  tenth  century,  174  ff.  Con- 
tains the  Psalter  with  antiphons,  the  Canticles,  and 
the  Hymnal.  On  f.  150  are  the  words  "  Abundantius 
presbyter librummauropresbyteroscriptor"  (sic).  The 
prologue  of  the  Hymnal  is  an  acrostic  in  verse  which 
reads  "Mavricvs  obtante  Veraniano  edidyt".  This 
MS.  was  used  by  Cardinal  Lorenzana  for  the  Psalter, 
Canticles,  and  Hyinnfd  in  his  edition  of  the  Mozarabic 
Breviary.  There  is  a  copy  among  the  Burriel  MSS. 
(b)  British  Museum.  Add.  30851,  eleventh  century. 
Contains  Psalter,  Canticles,  Hymnal,  and  ''Horse 
Canonicse'',  the  last  (though  imperfect)  bein^  much 
fuller  than  the  printed  Breviary  and  containing  the 
now  obsolete  Night  Offices,  as  well  as  the  other  Hours 
and  a  number  of  offices  for  special  occasions.  It  has 
been  edited  by  J.  P.  Gilson  for  the  Henry  Bradshaw 
Society,  (c)  Santia^  de  Compostela,  University  Li- 
brary, Gabinete  de  Keservados  No.  1,  dated  Era  1093 
(=  A.  D.  1055),  "  Petnis  erat  scriptor,  Frictosus  de- 
nique  pictor.''  Contains  Psalter,  100  Canticles,  and 
the  Night  Offices,  but  not  the  Hymnal.  The  Psalter 
is  preceded  by  a  poem  addressed  by  Florus  of  Lyons 
to  Hyldradus  (here  called  Ysidorus  Abbas),  Abbot  of 
Novalese  near  Susa  in  Piedmont  (825-7).  There  is  a 
full  description  of  this  MS.  in  F^rotin's  ^'Deux.Manu- 
scrits  wisigothiques  de  la  Biblioth^ue  de  Ferdinand 
I",  (d)  Royal  Library,  Madrid,  2.  J.  5,  dated  Era 
1097  (=  A.  D  1059).  Contains  ninety-nine  Canticles 
nearly  agreeing  with  the  Compostela  Psalter.  There 
is  a  formula  of  confession,  in  which  the  names  of  Queen 
Sancia  and  the  Infanta  Urraca  appear,  and  which  con- 
tain an  extraordinary  list  of  sins.    The  MS.  belonged 


in  the  fourteenth  century  to  the  Benedictine  mona^ 
tery  of  St.  Maria  de  Aniago  near  Simancas,  which  in 
1436  became  for  a  time  a  Mosarabic  chapter  (aee 
Section  I.  Hibtort  and  Origin),  then  to  the  Cole^ 
de  Cuenca  at  Salamanca.  It  is  fully  described  in 
F^rotin's  "Deux  Manuscrits  wisigothiques''.  (e)  A 
Psalter  and  Canticles  of  the  tenth  century,  122  ff .,  sold 
at  the  SUos  sale  in  1878,  present  owner  unknown. 

lAher  Orationum, — (a)  British  Museum,  Add. 
30852,  tenth  century.  Contains  the  OrtUumes  at 
Vespers  and  Matins  and  the  Collects  following  the 
Gloria  in  ExcelHs  at  Maas  from  Advent  to  St.  John 
Baptist  (24  June),  the  Temporale  and  Sanctorale  be- 
ing mixed,  (b)  Verona,  Chapter  Library,  probably 
eleventh  century.  Similar  contents  to  tnose  of  the 
above  MS.  but  continuing  to  St.  Martin  (11  Nov.). 
Printed  in  Bianchini's  edition  of  the  worics  of  Cardi- 
nal Tommasi  (Rome,  1741).  LectUmary. — Silos,  1059, 
90  ff.    Contains  lessons  for  the  Night  Offices. 

Liber  ComicuSy  Liber  ComiliSf  Comes^  containing  the 
Prophecies,  Epistleq,  and  Gospels  used  at  Mass.  (a) 
Pans,  Bibliotn^ue  Nationale,  Nouv.  Acquis.  Lat. 
2171,  eleventh  century.  Belonged  to  Silos  from  1067, 
when  it  was  given  to  the  abbey  bv  Sancho  de  Taba<* 
tiello  to  1878.  Edited  by  Dom  Morin  (Maredsous, 
1893).  (b)  Toledo,  Chapter  library^  35.8,  ninth  or 
tenth  century.  Imperfect,  contaimng  only  from 
'^Dominica  post  infantum''  to  the  Saturday  of  the 
fourth  week  of  Lent,  (c)  Leon,  Cathedral  Library. 
A  little  earlier  than  1071,  when  it  was  given  to  the 
cathedral  by  Bishop  Pelagius.  Begins  with  the  first 
Sunday  of  Advent  and  ends  with  what  it  calls  "  the 
twenty-fourth  Sunday ' ' .  According  to  Dom  Fdrotin  it 
is  rich  in  Votive  Masses,  but  incomplete  in  much  else. 
(d)  Madrid,  Royal  Acadeiny  of  History,  No.  22  (old 
number  F.  192),  dated  Era  1111  (=A.  d.  1073). 
Written  by  Petrus  Abbas.  Belonged  to  the  Benedio 
tine  abbey  of  San  Millan  de  la  O^Ua. 

Homiliarium, — (a)  Toledo  Chapter  Library,  131 
ff.,  mentioned  by  Burriel  and  Simonet.  A  copy  of 
1753  is  among  the  Burriel  MSS.  at  Madrid,  (b) 
Paris,  Biblioth^ue  Nationale,  Nouv.  Acquis.  Lat. 
2176,  eleventh  century,  390  ff.  Contains  Homilies 
from  Christmas  onward.  Formerly  belonged  to  Silos. 
(c)  Nouv.  Acquis.  Lat.  2177,  eleventh  century,  770  ff. 
Contains  homilies  from  Epiphany  to  Christmas.  Be- 
longed to  Silos,  (d)  Bntish  Museum,  Add.  30853, 
eleventh  century,  324  ff.  Contains  Homilies  and  a 
PoDnitentiaJe. 

Liber  Ordinum, — (a)  Silos,  dated  Era  1090  (=a.  d 
1052),  344  ff.  Copied  by  Bartolomseus  Presbyter  for 
Domingo,  Abbot  of  San  Prudentio  de  Laturce  in  the 
Rioja.  Dom  F^rotin  conjectures  that  it  is  the  very 
copy  sent  in  1065  to  Alexander  II.  San  Prudentio 
was  a  cell  of  Albelda.  Of  the  four  books  sent  to  Rome 
one  was ''  Liber  Ordinum  majoris  Albaldenois  Cmobii  **, 
and  one  of  the  deputation,  Eximino  of  Oca,  was  !h 
personal  friend  of  St.  Dominic  of  Silos.  The  MS. 
contains  a  very  full  collection  of  the  Ritual  and  Pon- 
tifical Offices  and  a  large  number  of  votive  and  other 
Masses.  Fully  edited  and  described  by  Dom  Fdrotin 
in  his  "Liber  Ordinum".  (b)  Silos,  dated  Era  1077 
(=A.  D.  1039).  Written  by  Joannes  Presbyter. 
Contains  Calendar,  Baptism,  Visitation  etc.  of  the 
Sick,  Commendation  of  the  Dead,  Matrimony^  a 
largo  collection  of  prayers  and  blessings,  and  Votive 
Masses.  Edited  by  Dom  F^rotin.  (c)  Silos,  elev- 
enth century,  142  ff.  Contains  also  Hours,  which  are 
offices  for  every  hour  of  the  twelve,  as  well  as  Ordo 
Peculiaris  (Aurora),  ante  Completaf  ad  Completa,  po9t 
Completa,  ante  leciulunif  and  in  nociumis.  Edited, 
except  the  Hours,  by  Dom  F6rotin.  (d)  Madrid, 
Royal  Academy  of  History,  No.  56  (old  number  F. 
224),  eleventh  century,  155  ff.  Belonged  to  San 
Millan  de  la  O)golla  in  the  Rioja.  Contains  a  Ritual 
and  a  number  of  Ma.sses.    Edited  by  Dom  Ferotin. 

The  descriptions  of  all  the  above  MSS.  (except 


MOZAKABIC  615  MOZARABIC 

those  in  the  British  Museum,  which  the  writer  haa  were  in  the  Gallican  and  are  now  in  the  Ambroaan. 
examined  for  himself)  are  worked  out  from  those  The  key  day  for  Advent  Sunday  is  therefore  St.  Mar- 
given  by  F^rotin,  Ewald  and  Loewe,  Simonet,  Esuren,  tin  (11  Nov.}i  as  it  is  in  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  and,  as 
fimd  the  list  of  the  Burriel  trwiscripts  in  Fernandez  de  according  to  the  Council  of  Mftcon  (581),  it  was  in  the 
N^avarrete's  ''Coleccion  de  Documentos''  (see  bib-  Gallican,  but  Advent  Sunday  is  that  next  after,  not,  as 
liograph^).  ^^ery  full  descriptions  of  the  principal  in  the  Roman,  that  nearest  to  the  key  day.  TnusAd- 
M§S.  will  appear  in  Dom  F6rotin's  forthcoming  ^-  vent  Simday  may  be  on  any  day  from  12  to  18  Nov. 
tion  of  the  Mozarabic  Sacramentary.  The  lists  of  The  four  feasts  which  follow  Christmas  Day  are  now 
Toledo  MSS.  given  by  Lorenzana  and  Pinius  are  too  the  same  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  including  St.  Thomas 
vaffue  for  purposes  of  identification.  The  four  MSS.  of  Canterbury.  The  next  day  is  the  Translation  of 
(Add.  30847-30850) J  described  in  the  Catalogue  of  St.  James  the  Great  and  the  last  day  of  the  year  is  St. 
Additional  Manuscripts  of  the  British  Museum  for  Columba,  Virgin  and  Martyr^  though  the  Calendar  of 
1878  as  Mozarabic,  are  all  Roman,  three  being  Ro-  the  Missal  includes  also  St.  Silvester.  But,  according 
mano-monastic  and  one  secular.  to  the  Calendar  of  the  Breviarv,  the  twenty-ninth  is 

Printed  Editions:  MisscUe  Mixtum  or  Complete  ''Jacob!  Fratris  Domini'',  and  there  is  an  office  for  his 

Missal. — Cardinal  Ximenes's  edition,  Toledo,  1500,  feast^  as  well  as  a  direction  to  use  the  Common  of  one 

f  ol.     Alexander  Leslie's  edition,  Rome,   1755,  4to.  pontiff  martyr  for  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  and  for 

Cardinal  Lorenzana's  edition,  with  Leslie's  notes  and  the  thirtieth  there  is  an  Office  for  the  feast  (transla- 

additional  notes  by  F.  Arevalo,  Rome,   1804,  fol.  tion) ''SanctiJacobi  Fratris  SanctiJoannis".    In  the 

Rei>rint  of  Leslie's  edition  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  LXXXV,  Missal  St.  James  the  Less  is  not  mentioned  here  in  the 

Paris,  1850.  Calendar,  but  the  Mass  of  the  twenty-ninth  is  his; 

Miasale  Omnium  Offereniium^  containing,  besitles  there  is  nothing  of  St.  Thomas,  and  the  table  of  con- 
the  ''Missa  Omnium  Offerentium",  the  Leaser  Hours  tents  of  the  Ximenes  Missal  refers  to  the  Mass  of  that 
and  the  Commons.  Edition  by  Lorenzana  and  F.  day  as ''in  translatione  Jacobi  Zebedei",  which  it  cer- 
Fabian  y  Fuero.  Angelopoli  (Lbs  Angeles,  Mexico),  tainly  is  not.  There  is  no  Mass  for  the  Translation  of 
1770,  fol.  Reprint,  Toledo,  1875,  fol.  The  "Missa  St.  James  the  Great  in  the  printed  books,  though  that 
Omnium  Offerentium"  is  given  also  in  La  Bigne's  for  his  martyrdom  (25  July)  is  given  as  the  specimen 
"Bibliotheca  Veterum  Patrum",  1609,  1618,  1654;  full  Mass  "Omnium  Offerentium"  instead  of  the  Gr- 
in J.  M.  Neale's  "Tetralogia  Liturgica",  1849;  in  dinary;  but  in  Add.  MS.  30844  (tenth  century)  there 
Hammond's  "Ancient  Liturgies",  1878;  translated  is  one  which  follows  the  Mass  of  St.  James  the  Less, 
and  edited  by  T.  Kranzfelder  in  Reithmaycr's  "  Bib-  thou^  by  mistake  it  is  called  by  the  name  of  St.  John 
liotbek  der  Kirchenvater",  No.  215,  1869,  and  in  the  Evangelist.  In  that  MS.  the  days  after  Christ- 
J.  Perez's  "  Devocionario  Mozdrabe".  Toledo,  1903.  mks  are  St.  Stephen,  St.  Eugenia,  St.  James  (Fraler 

Breviary. — Cardinal    Ximenes's    eoition,    Toledo,  Domini) ^  St.  James  the  Great,  St.  Columba,  leaving 

1502,  fol.  Cardinal  Lorenzana's  edition,  Madrid,  1775,  one  day  imoccupied.    In  Add.  30850,  a  tenth-century 

fol.  Reprint  in  Migne  (P.  L.,  LXXXVI),  Paris,  1850.  Liher  Orationum^  "De  Alisione  Infantum",  which  ac- 

Liber  Ordinum.    Edited  by  Dom  M.F6rotin  in  Ca-  cording  to  the  present  calendars  would  occupy  that 

brol  and  Le  Clerc's  "Monumenta  Ecclesi®  Litur-  day  (28  or  29  December),  is  given  next  after  the  Epiph- 


PsaUer^  Canticles^  Hymnal^  and  Hours, — In  Loren-  Circumcision  is  on  1  January.    If  a  Sunday  occurs  be- 

zana's  Breviary  of  1775  and  the  Migne  reprint,  from  tween  that  day  and  the  Epiphany  it  is  "Dominica 

the  Toledo  manuscript.    In  the  Henry  Bradshaw  So-  ante  Epiphaniam".    The  Mass  is  that  of  the  Kalends 

ciety's  Publications,  vol.  XXX,  edited  by  J.  P.  Gil-  of  January  (i.  e.  New  Year's  Day).    The  three  days 

son,  London,  1905,  from  the  British  Museum  MS.  before  the  Epiphany  are  "  Jejunia  in  Kalendis  Janu- 

LiJber  Camicua, — ^Edited  by  Dom  G.  Morin  from  the  arii",  said  to  have  been  set  apart  as  fasts  in  contemp- 

Paris  MS.  in  "Anecdota  Maredsolana",  I,  Mared-  turn  swperstitionis  gerdiliumy  just  as  fasts  were  forbid- 

sous,  1893.  den  during  Advent  6b  impietaiem  Priscillianistarum, 

III.    The    Litubgical   Year. — In    the    present  who,  denymg  the  Incarnation,  fasted  at  that  season, 

printed  books,  the  offices  are  divided  after  the  Roman  There  are  analogous  instances  of  this  sort  of  fasting 

n  the  Byzantine 

before  Lent  be- 

Armenians 

feasts  from  Christmas  Eve  to  the  Epiphany  (except  and  theNinevit«  Fast  of  the  Jacobites  and  Nestorians. 

that  the  Breviary  puts  two  in  the  ^'Sanctorale")  After  the  Epiphany  (called  also  "Apparitio  Domini") 

come  in  the  "de  Tempore",  and  the  Missal,  but  not  to  Lent  nine  Sundays  are  given,  the  last  beins  "Do- 

the  Breviary,  includes  also  St.  Clement  (23  Nov.),  St.  minica  ante  Cineres^',  the  rest  being  numbered  one  to 

Satuminus  (29  Nov.),  St.  Andrew  (30  Nov.),  St.  Eu-  eight  "Post  octavam  Epiphaniae". 

lalia  (10  Dec.),  the  Annunciation  (18  Dec.),  and  St.  Ash  Wednesday  (Feria  quarla  in  camtej^'unii)  is  an 

Thomas  the  Apostle  (21  Dec.)  in  the  same  part,  evident  late  Roman  borrowing,  rather  clumsily  in- 

though  several  intermediate  feasts  come  in  the  "»anc-  serted,  for  the  Sunday  that  follows,  though  called 

torale".    In  the  manuscripts  (e.  g.  in  the  two  Libri  "DominicaprimaOuadragesim»",hasaMassandan 

Orationum,  Add.  MS.  30852  and  the  Verona  MS.  Office  in  which  Alleluia  is  used,  and  at  Vespers  there  is 

printed  in  Bianchini's  edition  of  Thomasius,  which  has  the  well-known  " Endless  Alleluia"  (AUeluia  Perenne) 

a  very  complete  sequence  of  the  year)  the  two  parts  hymn.    In  the  Hymnal  this  hymn  is  entitled  "Ymnua 

are  not  distinguished,  and  the  whole  set  of  days,  fixed  in  cames  tollendas".    The  true  liturgical  Lent  does 

and  moveable,  are  given  in  one  series.    The ' '  Officium  not  begin  till  the  Monday  after  Ash  Wednesday.    The 

ger  Annum"  of  the  modem  books  begins  with  the  first  old  Mass  Lections  of  the  Simdays  in  Lent  have  been 

uudav  of  Advent,  as  in  the  Roman,  but  the  "Sane-  disturbed  in  their  order  in  consequence  of  the  Gospel 

torale"  begins  with  Sts.  Julianus  and  Basilissa  (7  for  the  first  Sunday  (Christ  in  the  Wilderness)  being  , 

Jan.),  and  ends  in  the  Missal  with  St.  Eugenia  (12  given  to  Ash  Wednesday,  and  that  of  the  second  (The 

Dec.),  while  the  Breviary  includes  in  it  also  Sts.  Justus  Samaritan  Woman)  is  aven  to  the  first,  that  of  the 

and  AbimduB  (16  Dec.),  the  Annunciation  (18  Dec),  third  (The  Healing  of  the  Blind  Man)  to  the  second, 

St.  Thomas  the  Apostle  (21  Dec),  the  Translation  of  while,  so  as  to  keep  the  Gospel  "Jam  autem  die  festo 

St.  James  the  Great  (30  Dec),  and  St.  Columba  (31  mediante"  for  Mid-Lent  Sunday,  that  of  the  fifth  (the 

Pec.)*    There  are  six  Sundays  of  Advent,  as  there  Haisin^  of  Lazarus)  is  ^ven  to  the  third  and  a  new 


MOZABABZO 


616 


MOZABABIC 


Gospel  (The  Good  Shepherd)  is  given  to  the  fifth.  The 
sixth  is  Palm  Sunday,  called  only  ''Dominica  in  Ra- 
mis  Palmarum",  but  including,  between  the  Prophecy 
and  Epistle  at  Mass,  the  Traditio  Symboli  in  the  form 
of  a  '^Sermo  ad  Populiun'\  On  Maundy  Thursday 
there  occurs  the  same  process  of  removing  one  of  two 
consecrated  Hosts  to  tne  Altar  of  Reoose  (called  nuh- 
numentum  and  Sepulchrum)  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  and 
there  is  a  service  ad  lavando8  pedes^  in  both  cases  with 
different  words.  The  Washing  of  the  Feet  takes  place 
''clausis  ostiis  et  laicis  onmibus  foris  projectis  "^  and 
the  feet  of  certain  priests  are  washed  by  the  bishop 
and  dried  by  the  archipresbyter.  "Postea  ad  cenam 
conveniunt.  On  Good  Friday  there  is  a  penitential 
service  "ad  Nonam  pro  indulgentia",  which  consists 
largely  of  preces  interspersed  with  cries  of  various 
cases  of  the  word  ''indulgeatia"  manv  times  repeated, 
and  contiuns  passases  similar  to  the  Improperia  of  the 
Roman  Rite,  as  well  as  lections,  including  the  Passion 
according  to  St.  Matthew.  It  is  the  remuns  of  the 
solemn  reconciliation  of  penitents,  and  is  mentioned 
by  the  fourth  Ck)uncil  of  Toledo  (633),  canon  vi.  TUs 
is  followed  by  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross  and  the  Pro- 
cession and  Communion  of  the  Presanctified.  The 
Easter  Eve  services  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Roman 
Rite:  the  New  Fire,  the  Easter  Candle,  the  Prophecies 
(of  which  there  are  only  ten,  seven  of  which  agree  more 
or  less  with  those  of  the  Roman  Rite,  thousii  not  all  in 
the  same  order),  and  the  Blesmng  of  the  Font.  But 
the  words  used  throughout  are  veiy  different.  Even 
the  "Exultet"  is  not  used,  but  another  h^rmn  of  simi- 
lar import.  Before  the  ''fienedictio  Cerei"  there  is  a 
"Benedictio  Lucenue'',  and  the  litanv  is  used  for  the 
two  processions,  to  the  Font  before  the  Blessing  and 
back  again  after  it. 

From  Easter  to  Pentecost  there  is  no  peculiaritv  ex- 
cept that  the  numbering  of  the  Sundays  includes 
Easter  Day  and  that  the  four  days  before  Whit-Sun- 
day are  fasts.  Formerly  (e.  g.  in  the  time  of  St.  Isi- 
dore) these  fasts  came  after  Pentecost,  though  they 
answered  to  rogation  or  litany  days.  Leslie  conjec- 
tures that  the  alteration  was  made  because  of  the 
Whitsunday  baptisms.  There  is  no  Blessing  of  the 
Font  on  the  vigil  of  Pentecost,  but  there  are  lulusions 
to  baptism  in  the  services  of  the  vigU  and  the  day  it- 
self. The  following  Sunday  only  commemorates  the 
Holy  Trinity  in  certain  of  the  prayers  at  Mass  (for 
which  there  is  a  direction  to  use  those  of  Palm  Sunday 
which  have  allusions  to  the  Trinity,  instead  of  those 
for  the  Sunday,  which  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  fol- 
lowing Tuesc(ay)^  in  the  title  ''in  die  Sanctissims 
Trinitatis",  and  m  the  hymns  in  the  Breviary  Office. 
Otherwise  the  day,  as  far  as  there  is  anything  definite 
about  it,  is  treated  as  the  Octave  of  Pentecost  and  the 
allufflons  are  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  Corpus  Chiisti  is 
kept  on  the  following  Thursday,  and  the  Mass  and 
Office,  though  naturaUy  enough  influenced  by  the  Ro- 
man propers,  are  composed  on  a  purely  Mosarabic 
Elan.  In  the  Missal  seven  Sundays  f^ter  Pentecost 
a«^e  Masses,  as  well  as  the  Sunday  before  the  fast  of 
the  Kalends  of  November.  In  the  Breviary  the  Sun- 
days after  Pentecost  are  only  three.  There  is  a  direc- 
tion in  the  Breviary  that  if  there  is  no  Feast  on  any 
Sunday  during  that  season,  one  of  these  three  offices 
must  be  used.  Two  sets  of  three-day  fasts  occur  in 
this  season,  one  before  the  Feast  of  St.  Cyprian  (13 
Sept.)  and  one  before  that  of  St.  Martin  (11  Nov.). 
They  have  nothing  to  do  with  either  St.  Cyprian  or  St. 
Martin,  whose  days  only  serve  as  key-days  to  them 
(cf .  Holy  Cross  and  St.  Lucy,  as  key-dflons  to  the  Sep- 
tember and  December  embeiMiays).  Tne  November 
fast  is  called  "jejunia  Kalendarum  Novembrium''. 
They  are  really  days  of  Litany  or  Rogation,  and  are 
both  mentioned  by  St.  Isidore;  the  September  fast  is 
evidently  mentioned  by  the  fifth  Council  of  Toledo 
(can.  i),  though  obviously  by  a  mistake  it  calls  it  "dies 
Iduum  Decembrium",  and  the  November  one  by  the 


Council  of  Gerona.  In  the  Sanctorale  there  are  o( 
course  a  large  number  of  Spanish  saints  who  either  do 
not  occur  at  all  or  receive  only  cursory  mention  in  the 
Roman  Calendar,  but  there  are  also  many  that  are 
common  to  the  whole  Church,  and  in  the  modem 
books  a  number  of  feasts,  some  of  which  were  insti- 
tuted after  the  period  of  the  MSS.,  have  been  added. 
There  are  two  modem  forms  of  the  Calendar.  In 
that  prefixed  to  the  Breviary  a  rather  small  number 
of  days  are  marked,  hardly  any  (as  in  the  Ambrosian 
Calendar)  during  the  possible  Lenten  period,  but 
offices  or  references  to  the  Common  are  given  in  a 
large  appendix  for  a  great  number  of  other  saints. 
In  that  prefixed  to  the  Missal  all  these  days  are  put 
in  one  series,  as  their  Masses  are  in  the  body  of  the 
book.  There  are  a  good  many  discrepancies  in  the 
existing  MS.  calendars,  and  it  is  not  always  quite 
easy  to  determine  the  exact  day  of  some  of  the  older 
feasts,  but  now  most  of  the  days  which  are  common 
to  both  have  been  assimilated  to  the  Roman.  The 
Annunciation  is  kept  twice,  on  25  March  and  on 
18  December.  The  last,  called  "Annunciatio  S. 
Maris  Virginia  de  la  O",  is  really  the  "Expectatio 
Partus  B.  M.  V."  Its  name  is  referred  to  a  curious 
custom  in  the  Toledan  Use,  according  to  which  the 
whole  choir  sing  a  loud  and  prolonged  O  at  Vespers 
on  that  day,  to  signify,  it  is  said,  the  eager  desire 
of  the  saints  in  limbo,  the  Angels  in  Heaven,  and 
of  all  the  world  for  the  birth  of  the  Saviour.  This 
or  the  Antiphons  known  as  the  "Great  O's''  may  be 
the  cause  ot  the  name,  which  is  known  outside  Spain. 
The  tenth  Council  of  Toledo  (656)  ordered  the  Annun- 
ciation to  be  kept  on  that  day,  because  25  March 
came  either  in  the  Lenten  or  Easter  period,  and  thus 
was  unsuitable,  and  shortly  afterwaros  St.  Ildefonsus, 
with  reference  to  this  decree,  calls  it  "Expect-atio 
Puerperii  Deipane".  In  the  printed  Missal  the 
same  Mass  is  ordered  also  for  25  March,  but  no  Office 
is  given  in  the  Breviary.  (Cf .  the  Ambrosian  custom 
of  keeping  the  Annunciation  on  the  sixth  Sunday  of 
Advent  for  the  same  reason.)  Sometimes  there  are 
other  disagreements  between  the  modem  Missal  and 
Breviary.  Thus,  the  Decollation  of  St.  John  Baptist 
is  given  for  29  Aug.  (the  Roman,  and  also  the  Byzan- 
tine day)  in  the  Missal,  but  for  24  Sept.  (the  old 
Mosarabic  day,  as  appears  from  the  MSS.)  in  the 
Breviary.  In  both,  1  May  is  Sts.  Philip  and  James, 
and  the  Mass  is  the  same,  mutatis  nominihua,  as  that 
of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  wnile  the  Office  is  similar  to 
that  of  Sts.  Simon  and  Jude.  But  in  the  MSS.  St. 
Philip  alone  is  mentioned,  St.  James  the  Lees  beinj;, 
as  ^7e  have  seen,  already  provided  with  a  day  in 
Christmastide,  not  only  iii  them  but  also  in  the  printed 
books.  But  1  May  ic  also  the  feast  of  St.  Torquatus 
and  his  companions,  the  Apostles  of  Spain,  who 
naturally  eclipse  the  other  Apostles.  The  Sunday 
before  tne  Nativity  of  St.  John  Baptist  is  kept  as 
"Dominica  pro  adventu  S.  Joannis  Baptists''. 
As  its  position  with  regard  to  the  general  sequence 
of  Sundays  is  variable,  its  Mass  and  Office  are  ^ven 
in  the  Sanctorale,  The  classification  of  feasts  is 
very  simple.  There  are  Principal  Sundays,  which  are 
those  of  Lent  anr'  Advent,  and  of  course  Eastor  Day 
and  Whit-Sunday.  Feasts  are  "sex  capparum", 
"quatuor  capparum",  and  "novem  lectionum",  the 
last  being  also  called  "duarum  cappamm".  The 
distribution  of  these  titles  is  occasionally  rather 
arbitrary,  and  the  Missal  and  Breviary  do  not  always 
agree.  If  a  feast  comes  on  a  Principal  Sunday  it  is 
transferred  to  the  next  day.  imless  that  is  a  greater 
feast,  when  it  is  put  off  to  the  next  free  day.  If  two 
equal  feasts  fall  on  the  same  day  (the  example  given 
is  Sts.  Philip  and  James  and  St.  Torquatus),  the  office 
is  that  of  the  saint  who  has  a  proprietas  (propo*), 
unless  the  other  is  the  Vocatio  (patronal  feast)  of  Uie 
church,  in  which  case  the  one  with  a  proper  is  trans- 
feired.    If  a  feast  comes  on  an  ordinary  Sunday,  the 


MOZA&ABIC 


617 


MOZAKABIO 


Sunday  is  omitted  (^ia  saHa  habehit  locum  per 
annum)  and  the  feast  is  kept.  During  the  Octaves 
which  are  kept  ''secundum  Kegtilam  Uregorianum'\ 
any  vacant  aay  is  of  the  Octave^  but  the  Office  is 
not  said  Botemniler  except  on  the  Octave  day.  If  a 
greater  feast  is  followed  by  a  lesser  one,  the  Vespers 
is  of  the  greater  but  the  last  Lauda,  with  its  prater, 
is  of  the  lesser.  These  rules,  which  do  not  differ 
in  principle  from  those  of  the  Roman  Rite,  are  pre- 
fixed to  the  printed  Breviary.  Their  comparative 
simplicity  is  probablv  more  apparent  than  real. 

ly.  The  Divine  Office. — The  present  Mozarabic 
Divine  Office  differs  from  all  others  in  several  points. 
As  a  general  rule,  which  applies  to  every  other  rite, 
Eastern  or  Western,  the  Divine  Office  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  recitation  of  the  Psalter  with  accompany- 
ing antiphons,  lections,  prayers,  canticles,  etc.,  and 
the  nucleus  is  the  more  or  less  regular  distribution 
of  the  Psalter  through  the  Canonical  Hours,  generally 
of  one  week.    In  the  Mozarabic  Rite  there  is  now  no 
such  distribution  of  the  Psalter.    Psalms  are  used  at 
all  the  Hours  except  Vespers — when,  except  in  fasting 
time,  there  are  none — ^but  they  are  as  a  rule  fixed 
psalms.     In  the  first  three  weeks  of  Lent  and  during 
the  three-day  fasts  before  the  Epiphany,  St.  Cyprian's 
Day,  and  St.  Martin's  Day,  and  the  four-day  fast 
before  Pentecost,   there  are  three  selected  psalms 
(or  sometimes  one  or  two  psalms  divided  into  three) 
at    Matins,   Terce.   Sext,   and  generally  at   None, 
and  usually  one  selected  psalm  at  Vespers,  but  there 
is  no  consecutive  order;  some  psalms  are  repeated 
many  times,  while  others  are  omitted  altogether. 
In  the  week  after  the  first  Sunday  after  the  Epiphany, 
psalms  i  •  •  .  xxi,  xxiii,  xxiv  are  said  consecutively 
at  Matins  and  Terce,  three  psalms  or  divisions  of 
psalms  at  each  until  the  Thursday,  two  at  Terce 
on   the  Friday,   and  none  except  the  usual  fijced 
psalms  on  the  Saturday.     In  the  MSS.  (e.  g.  in  the 
Psalter  in  Add.  MS.  30851)  there  are  indications 
of  a  more  regular  distribution  of  the  psalms.     At 
Matins,  which  is  a  morning  and  not  a  night  Office, 
there  are  no  lessons  like  those  of  the  Roman  Rite 
and  its  variants,  but  a  certain  similarity  of  construc- 
tion exists  in  the  sets  of  three  AntiphancB  followed  by  a 
responsoiy,  which  sets,  though  normally  there  is  only 
one,  are  increased  to  two,  three,  four,  and  even  five 
on  certain  days,  though  this  increase  is  rather  capri- 
cious  and   inconsistent.    The   Silos   Lectionary   of 
1059  consists  of  lessons  for  the  now  obsolete  Night 
Office;  such  lessons  as  there  are  now  occur  at  Lauds, 
where  there  is  one  variable  with  the  day,  which  is 
sometimes  called  Prophetia^  and  at  Prime,  Terce, 
Sext,  and  None,  where  there  are  two  short  Lessons,  a 
Propheiia  from  one  of  the  Prophets  or  from  tne 
Apocalypse  and  an  Epistola  from  one  of  the  Epistles. 
Tnese  have  about  four  variations  with  the  seasons, 
except  during  the  fasts,  when  there  are  long  addi- 
tional lessons  at  Terce,  Sext,  and  None   (cf.  the 
lessons  at  Terce  during  Lent  in  the  Ambrosian  Rite), 
varying  every  day  and  also  of  varying  number.     An- 
other peculiarity  is  the  existence  of  an  extra  hour, 
called  Aurora  (also  Ordo  Peculiari8)f  before  Prime. 
In  a  L^)er  Ordinum  at  Silos,  besides  the  usual  Hours 
and  this  Ordo  PeculiariSf  Offices  are  given  for  all  the 
intermediate  hours  of  the  twelve,  as  well  as  ante 
CompUUit  post  CompUta,  and  ante  Leclulum,   Vespers, 
Matins,  and  Lauds  are  very  variable,  but  there  is 
much  less  variability  in  the  Lesser  Hours  and  Com- 
pline.   A  considerable  part  of  the  Office  is  made  up 
of  reeponaoriaf  constructed  on  similar  principles  to 
those  of  the  Roman  Rite,  but  called  by  the  various 
names  of  Antiphona,  Lauda^  Sono  (or  Sonos),  or  Matur 
Hnarium  according  to  their  position  in  the  Office. 
(Antiphana  also  means  the  antiphon  of  a  psalm  or 
canticle,  which  is  of  the  same  form  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite.)     They  vary  in  form,  but  the  general  plan 
is:  Verse,  Response,  Verse,  repetition  of  first  Response, 


Gloria,  second  repetition  of  Response  or  of  first 
Verse  and  Response.  The  first  Lauda  at  Vespers 
and  the  Sono  are  generally  without  the  Gloria  and 
the  second  repetition  of  the  Response.  These  various 
responsories  and  also  the  psalms,  canticles,  etc.  are 

?;enerally  followed  by  Orationea,  which  are  usually 
ounded  on  them,  with  or  without  special  reference 
to  the  day  or  season. 

The  construction  of  the  Hours  is  as  follows:  Before 
every  Hour  except  Lauds,  which  follows  on  after 
Matins:  Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eldson,  Kyrie  eleison; 
Pater  Noster;  Ave  Maria,  are  said  secretly,  kneeling. 
Then,  standing.  In  nomine  D.N.J.C.  lumen  cum  pace. 
R.  Deo  gratias.  V.  Dominus  sit  semper  vobiscum.  R. 
Et  cum  spiritu  tuo.  This  elongated  form  of  the 
Domiiius  vobiscum  is  said  very  frequently  after  col- 
lects and  responsories  and  in  various  other  places. 
The  form  of  the  Gloria,  which  also  occurs  very  fre- 
quently ^  is:  Gloria  et  honor  Patri  et  Filio  et  Spiritui 
Sancto  m  sscula  sseculorum.    Amen. 

Vespers  (Ad  Vesperoa). — (1)  Lauda  followed  by  its 
oraiio.  Alternative  names  are  vaalmue  and  vesper^ 
ttnum,  and  the  words  are  nearly  always  from  the 
psalms.  This  form  of  Lauda  has  no  Glona.  (2)  Sono 
on  Simdays  and  feasts,  but  not  on  ferials  except  in 
paschal  time.  This  is  also  without  Gloria.  (3)  Alle- 
luia, followed  by  an  aniiphona  with  Gloria.  Some- 
times there  are  two  aniiphoncBf  each  followed  by  its 
oraiio.  In  Lent,  on  the  fasts,  and  in  the  week  after 
the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany,  a  selected  psalm  witii 
its  antiphon  takes  the  place  of  this  antiphona,  (4) 
Second  Lauda^  with  Alleluias  interspersed  in  rather 
variable  fashions,  with  Gloria.  The  Heffida  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  &eviary  has  this  definition:  "iin(i- 
phona  est  ()use  dicitur  sine  Alleluia]  et  Lauda  quse  cum 
Alleluia  dicitur '^  but  this  is  not  an  exhaustive  defi- 
nition, and,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite,  Alleluia  is  not  used 
in  Lent.  (5)  Hymn.  This  of  course  varies  with  the 
day.  There  is  a  great  wealth  of  hymns  in  the  Mo- 
zarabic Breviary.  (6)  SupplicatiOf  a  Bidding  Prayer 
generally  beginning  ''Oremus  Redemptorem  mundi 
D.N.J.C.,  cimi  omni  supplicatione  rogemus",  and 
conUnuing  with  a  clause  applicable  to  the  day,  with 
response:  ''Prssta  seteme  omnipotens  Deus^',  and 
Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  lC3Tie  eleison.  (7) 
Cajoitulaf  a  prayer  of  the  diffuse  Gallican  type,  often 
emDodying[  the  idea  of  the  Supplicaiio,  (8)  Pater 
noster,  divided  into  petitions  with  a  response  of  Amen 
to  each  except "  Panem  nostrum  etc."  wnen  it  is ''  Quia 
Deus  es  ",  and  followed  by  an  occasionally  varying  Em- 
holiemus,  (9)  Benedidio  in  four  clauses  with  Amen 
after  each,  and  preceded  by  "Humiliate  vos  ad  bene- 
dictionem".  (10)  Third  Lauda^  with  Gloria.  Some- 
times there  are  more  than  one  of  these,  each  followed 
by  an  orolio.  On  feasts  sex  capparum  the  altar  is 
censed  while  this  Lauda  is  sung.  (11)  Then  foUow 
Commemorations  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  short 
Lauda  and  oratio,  (12)  Dismissal: ''In  nomine  D.N. 
J.C.  perficiamus  in  pace.  R.  Deo  Gratias."  The 
orationes  at  Vespers,  unlike  those  at  Matins  and 
Lauds,  begin  immediately  without  ''Dominus  sit  sem- 
per vobiscum '  * .  Each  has  two  Amens,  one  before  and 
one  after  the  final  clause,  "Per  misericordiam  etc." 

Compline  (Compleloria), — (1)  Ps.  iv.  7-10,  followed 
bv  three  Alleluias.  (2)  Ps.  cxxxiii,  followed  by  three 
Alleluias.  (3)  Six  selected  psalms  and  other  verses. 
(4)  HjnoMi,  "Sol  Angelorum  respice",  with  Ps.  xii, 

4,  as  verside  and  response.     (5)  Ps.  xc.     (6)  Ps.  xc, 

5,  and  Ps.  cxxxiii,  Z-5,  with  "Memor  esto  md  Do- 
mine"  as  response  to  each  verse,  and  Gloria.  (7) 
Hymn,  "Cultor  Dei  memento".  (8)  Three  Suppli- 
cationes  of  similar  form  to  that  at  Vespers.  (9) 
Pater  noster,  with  Embolismus.  (10)  Benedidio, 
(11)  Dismissal,  as  at  Vespers.  (12)  Commemoratio, 
Ps.  xvi.,  8,  9,  as  Lauda,  followed  by  an  oraiio.  (13) 
"  In  nomine  D.N.J.C.  in  hac  nocte  dormiamus  et  r&- 

lus  in  pace.    R.  Deo  Gratias".    There  are  a 


MOZARABIO 


618 


MOZARABie 


in 


i 


few  additions  on  Saturdays,  the  prindpal  Feasts,  i 
Lent  (when  there  is  also  a  snort  ''Ordo  ante  Comple- 
toria"),  and  "De  traditione  Domini''  (Pasinontide) 
after  the  i>sahnB,  some  variant  hymns,  and  "Misera- 
tiones"  with  variant  capitukB  and  Benedidumes  for 
each  day  of  the  week,  and  for  the  "Traditio  Domini". 
Matins  (Ad  Maiutinum). — The  week-day  form  is: 
1)  Antiphon  of  Our  Lady,  Ave  Regina  CcBlorum.  (2) 
n  nomine  D.N.J.C.  etc.,  as  before  the  other  Hours. 

(3)  Generally  Ps.  1  with  a  variable  antiphon  (in  the 
Roman  sense)  before  and  after  it,  and  an  oratio. 
Sometimes  Ps.  iii  is  used  here  (e.  g.  during  Lent  and 
on  other  fasts  and  during  Paschal  time),  and  some- 
times Ps.  Ivi.  (4)  Hie  AnliphofUE.  These  are  in  sets 
of  three  arUipkonoB  and  a  re8i>onsorium.  The  last  only 
differs  horn,  the  anliphoruE  in  name.  To  each  is  ap- 
pended its  oratio.  During  the  first  three  weeks  of 
Lent  and  the  fasts  of  Epiphany,  Pentecost,  St. 
Cyprian,  and  St.  Martin,  and  on  four  days  of  the 
week  after  the  Octave  of  the  Epiphany,  three  vary- 
ing psalms  with  antiphons  and  orationes  followed  by 
a  reaponaorium  and  oratio  take  the  place  of  the  anti' 
phones.  There  is  usually  only  one  set  of  AntiphonoB 
etc.,  but  there  may  be  (e.  g.  on  the  Feast  of  Sts.  Fruc- 
tuosus,  Augurius,  and  Eulogius)  as  many  as  five.  On 
Sundays  Matins  begins  with  the  hymn  ''iEterne  re- 
rum  conditor'',  and,  except  during  Paschal  time  Twhen 
only  Ps.  iii  is  said),  there  are  three  psalms  (iii.  1,  and 
Ivi)  with  their  oraiionesj  instead  of  only  one  of  these. 

Lauds  (In  Laudibus)  follows  immediately  on  Mat- 
ins with  no  preliminary  except  "  Dominus  sit  semper 
vobbcum''.  Its  order  is:  (1)  A  variable  Canticle 
from  the  Old  and  occasionally  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  an  antiphon  before  and  after  it.  Some- 
times an  oratio  follows.  On  Christmas  Day  the 
Magnificat  is  said  in  addition  to  the  first  Canticle  and 
on  the  Annunciation  instead  of  it.  (2)  On  Sundays 
and  feasts,  the  Canticle  ''Benedictus  es  Domine  Deus 
Patrum  nostrorum''  (Daniel,  iii,  52  sq.),  which  in- 
cludes a  very  much  compressed  form  ot  the  Bene- 
dicUe.  It  is  sometimes  followed  by  an  oratio.  On 
ferials  an  antiphona  or  responsoriumf  called  Matuti' 
narium.  takes  the  place  of  this  canticle.  (3)  The^Sono, 
senerally  the  same  as  that  at  Vespers.  Thb,  as  at 
Vespers,  is  not  used  on  ferials,  except  in  Paschal  time. 

(4)  The  Laudate  Psalms  (cxlviii,  cxTix,  cl)  preceded  by 
a  variable  Lauda,  On  some  ferials  only  Ps.  cl  is 
ordered.  (5)  The  Propketia,  a  lection  from  the  Old 
Testament,  or  in  Pascnal  time  from  the  Apocalypse. 
(6)  The  Hymn  of  the  day.  (7)  SupplicatiOf  as  at 
Vespers.  (8)  Capittdaj  as  at  Vespers.  (9)  Pater 
noster  and  Embolismtuif  as  at  Vespers.  (10)  Lauda, 
as  at  Vespers,  (11)  Benediction  as  at  Vespers.  The 
Vesper  order  of  these  last  two  is  reversed.  The  last 
six  are  as  a  rule  a  different  set  from  those  at  Vesp^s. 
(12)  CommemorationeSj  as  at  Vespers.  (13)  Dis- 
missal, as  at  Vespers.  In  Lent  and  in  the  other  fasts. 
Lauds  begins  with  Psalm  1  and  its  antiphon.  On 
these  occasions  Ps.  iii  is  used  at  Matins. 

Aurora. — ^A  very  simple  office,  without  variations, 
said  before  Prime  only  on  ferials.  (1)  Ps.  Ixix,  cxviii, 
pts.  1-3,  under  the  one  antiphon,  ''Deus  in  adjuto- 
riumetc.''  (2)  Lauda.  (3)  Hymn  "Jammetanoctis 
transiit",  with  its  versicle,  of  which  there  are  three 
variants.  (4)  Kyrie  eleison  etc.  (5)  Pater  noster  with 
EmbolismuSf  said  as  at  Vespers.  (6)  Preces^  a  short 
litany  for  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men.  There  are 
two  forms  of  this. 

Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None. — These  are  constructed 
on  the  same  plan,  and  may  be  taken  together.  The 
order  is:  (1)  The  Psalms.  At  Prime,  seven  (Ixvi; 
C3diy,  1-12;  cxliv,  13-21;  cxii;  cxviii,  pts.  4-6);  at 
Terce,  four  (xciv,  cxviii,  pts.  7-9);  at  Sext,  four  (liii; 
czviii,  pts.  16,  17.  18);  at  None,  four  (cxlv;  cxxi; 
isxxii ;  cxxiii),  in  eacn  case  under  one  antiphon.  (2)  Re- 
%ponsarium,  varying  with  the  day.  Tnese  variations 
are  chiefly  "commons"  of  classes  of  saints  and  for 


Lent,  Advent,  Christmas,  and  Easter.  The  PBahns 
and  ResponsorUi  are  without  orationes,  (3)  Propheiia, 
a  lection  from  the  Old  Testament  or  Apoca]>'p$>e. 
(4)  Epistola,  a  lection  from  the  EpistJes.  At  Prune 
these  lections  do  not  vary  and  are  v^y  short:  at 
Terce,  Sext,  and  None  there  is  more  variety,  and  dur- 
ing Lent  and  on  the  fasts,  when  these  Hours  are  differ- 
ently arranged,  there  are  very  long  lections.  (5) 
Lauda,  with  Alleluias  or  "  Laus  tibi  etc."  (6)  Hymn. 
There  are  a  few  variants  for  different  seasons  in  each 
hour.  (7)  At  Prime  on  Sundays  and  Feasts  here 
follow  the  Te  Deum,  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  and  Credo;  on 
ferials,  instead  of  the  first  two,  the  Benedictus  es  Do- 
mine Deus  (Dan.,  iii)  and  the  Miserere  (Ps.  1)  are  said. 
At  the  other  three  Hours  the  Clamores,  short  suppli- 
cations for  mercy  and  pardon  (a  different  set  for  each 
Hour),  are  said  here.  (8)  Supplicatio,  as  at  Vespers. 
(9)  CapittUa,  as  at  Vespers.  (10)  Pater  noster  etc..  as 
at  Vespers.  (11)  Benediciio,  as  at  Vespers.  The  laft 
four  have  only  a  few  variants,  and  generally  have  ref- 
erence to  the  usual  events  commemorated  at  the  Hours. 
On  the  fasts  and  in  the  week  after  Epiphany  there  are 
special  lessons  varying  in  number,  ana  these  are  gen- 
erally followed  by  three  psalms,  with  their  antiphons 
and  orationes  ana  a  responsorium  with  its  oratio^  as  at 
the  Matins  of  those  seasons.  Then  follow  Prcces,  the 
Hymn,  Capitula,  and  the  rest  as  on  the  other  davs. 

At  the  end  of  Vespers,  Compline^  and  Lauds  cer- 
tain fixed  Commemorationes,  appropriate  to  the  Hour, 
are  said,  and  after  Compline  and  the  Lesser  Hours, 
Salve  Regina  is  said  throughout  the  year,  but  after 
Lauds,  Salve  Regina,  Alma  Redemploris  Mater,  Ecce 
Maria  genuit  Scdvatorem,  Sub  tuum  prctsidium,  and 
Regina  cadi  according  to  the  season.  There  are  many 
other  variations,  for  at  Vespers,  Matins,  and  Lauc& 
nearly  everything  is  variable  according  to  the  day  and 
the  season,  and  a  good  deal  is  so  at  the  Lesser  Hours. 
Some  few  things  may  have  been  altered  and  added 
since,  but  the  Divine  OflSce  as  described  above,  which 
is  that  in  present  use,  does  not  seem  to  differ  mate- 
rially in  structure  from  that  indicated  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  century  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  except 
that  there  were  formerly  also  certain  Night  Offices — 
"Ordo  ante  Lectulum",  "Ad  Noctumos^  "Ad  Me- 
dium Noctis"  etc. — which  are  given  in  Add.  30851  and 
elsewhere.  Possibly  these  were  only  for  monastic 
use. 

V.  The  Mass. — In  the  present  Mozarabic  Mass  two 
books  are  used,  the  Missale  Omnium  Offereniium  and 
the  complete  Missal.  The  Missale  Omnium  Offeren- 
iium contains  what  in  the  Roman  Rite  would  be  called 
the  Ordinary  and  Canon.  As  nearly  the  whole  Mass 
varies  with  the  day,  this  book  contains  a  specimen 
Mass  (that  of  the  Feast  of  St.  James  the  Great)  set  out 
in  full  with  all  its  component  parts,  variable  or  fixed, 
in  their  proper  order.  On  all  other  days  the  variables 
are  read  from  the  complete  Missal.  The  reason  of  the 
name  Omnium  Offereniium  has  not  been  very  satisfac- 
torily determined.  It  would  naturally  mean  "of  all 
who.  offer'',  and  the  phrase  "et  omnium  offerentium 
.  .  .  peccata  indulge  occurs  at  the  oblation  of  the 
chalice.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  reason  wh^' 
this  one  phrase,  which  is  not  in  a  very  striking  posi- 
tion, should  give  its  name  to  the  whole  service,  unless 
those  are  rig^t  who  (like  Perez  in  his  "Devocionario 
Mozdrabe'O  apply  the  name  only  to  the  Missa  Cate- 
chumenorum.  There  are  indeed  quite  as  improbable 
origins  as  this  in  liturgical  nomenclature.  But  it  Lb 
possible  to  conjecture  another  origin.  In  the  Celtic 
tankages  the  word  for  Mass  is  derived  from  some 
Latin  word  whose  origin  was  the  verb  offero.  The 
Cornish,  Welsh,  and  Breton  have  offeren;  the  Craelic 
aifrionn  or  aifreann.  These  are  generally  referred  to 
offerendum,  and  in  support  of  this  we  find  the  French 
offrande  and  Spanish  ofrenda,  both  in  the  sense  of  a  re- 
ligious offering,  equivalent  to  the  Welsh  offnrm  and 
Cornish  offryn.    But  the  Celtic  words  are  more  prob- 


MOZAKABIO                            619  MOZAKABIO 

ably  derived  from  affererUia,  a  word  which  is  used  by  erence  to  what  they  follow — post  Ajus^  post  Prophe^ 

Tertullian  (Adv.  M^c,  xxiv)  in  the  general  sense  of  tiam^  vost  Nomina,  post  Pacem  etc.    This  OraHo  on  a 

the  act  of  presenting  an  offering,  but  which  was  perhaps  considerable  number  of  days  merely  continues  the  idea 

used  for  a  time  in  Celtic  countries  in  the  special  sense  of  the  Gloria  with  little  or  no  reference  to  the  day,  even 

of  the  Holy  Offering.   Thus  it  m&y  be  conjectured  that  on  the  Sundays  of  Advent,  when  the  Gloria  itself  is 
the  Spanish  expression  was  origmally  ''Missale  Om-  .  omitted.     These  are  mostly  in  the  Temporale,  and 

nium  Offerentiarum  ".  ''Missal  of  all  Masses",  which  is  there  are  nine  Orationea  of  frequent  use;  out  on  cer- 

just  what  it  is.     It  has  been  suggested  that  offerens  tain  days  (e.  g.  Christmas  Day,  the  Sunday  before  the 

may  have  been  used  in  very  debased  Latin  in  the  sense  Epiphany.  Epiphany,  Ascension,  Pentecost,  Corpus 

of  an  act  of  offering  as  well  as  of  one  who  offers.    This  Cnnsti,  all  tne  Commons,  and  between  tmrty  and 

would  explain  the  Mozarabic  phrase  still  better.  forty  days  in  the  Sanctoraie)  this  Oraiio  refers  to  the 

The  Order  of  the  Mass  is  as  follows:  day  and  not  to  the  Gloria. 

(1)  The  Preparation. — ^This  consists  of  prayers  dur-  *  (6)  The  Prophecy. — ^This  is  a  lection  usually  from 
ing  vesting,  wnich  for  the  most  part  resemble  those  of  the  Old  Testament,  except  in  Paschal  time,  when  it  is 
the  Roman  Rite  in  meaning  and  sometimes  in  actual  from  the  Apocalypse.  (See  Ambrosian  Rite.)  During 
wording.  These  are  followed  by  a  responsory  and  Lent  and  other  Fasts,  there  are  two  of  these  lections, 
oraiio  for  pardon  and  purity,  after  which  the  priest  one  from  one  of  the  books  of  Solomon  and  the  other 

foes  to  the  altar  and  says  Ave  Maria,  In  nomine  from  the  Pentateuch  or  one  of  the  Historical  Books. 

).N.J.C.f  Sancti  Spiritus  adsit  nobis  gratia,  Jvdica  me,  (7)  The  Hymnus  Trium  Puerorum  occasionally  fol- 

with  the  Antiphon  Introibo,  Confiteor,  with  the  absolu-  lows  the  Prophecy.    This  is  the  Benedictus  es  (Dan., 

tion  and  the  subsequent  versicles  and  responses.    The  iii,  52-5)  with  an  abridged  form  of  the  BenedicUe,  the 

Confiteor  differs  from  the  Roman  form  and  there  aro  wnole  preceded  by  Dan.,  iii,  49-51,  rather  freely 

versicles  and  responses  before  it.    Then  Aufer  a  nobis,  ouoted.    The  fourth  Council  of  Toledo  (can.  xiv)  or- 

a  longer  form  tnan  the  Roman.    Then  follows  the  aered  this  ''in  omnium  missarum  solemnitate".    It 

Salutation  of  the  Cross.    The  priest  makes  the  sign  of  occurs  in  the  MSS.  on  days  when  it  is  not  given  in  the 

the  cross  on  the  altar,  kisses  the  altar,  and  says  a  re-  printed  books.     It  used  to  be  followed  oy  Ps.  cv, 

sponsory  "Salve  crux  pretiosa''  ana  an  oraHo.    A  Confitemini,  but  now  this  is  reduced  to  one  verse, 

good  deal  of  this  preliminary  matter  was  borrowed  bv  (8)  PsaUendo  (a  responsory).— On  the  second  and 

Cardinal  Ximenes  from  the  Toletan  (Roman)  Missal,  third  Sundays  and  on  weekdays  in  Lent  it  is  a  Trac- 

and  is  not  Mozarabic.    On  great  feasts  the  priest  di-  tits,  which  consists  of  psalm  verses  without  repeti- 

rectly  he  enters  sings  to  a  rather  florid  piece  of  plain  tions,  as  in  the  Roman  Rite.    The  Tract  or  Psauendo 

chant  a  prayer  "Per  gloriam  nominis  tui  etc."  for  on  Sundavs  of  Lent,  except  Palm  Sundav  when  the 

help.  Traditio  Syniboli  comes  here,  is  followed  by  the  Pre^ 

(2)  The  Preparation  of  the  Chalice  and  Paten. — ^The  ces,  a  short  penitential  litany,  differing  eacn  Sunday, 
corporal  is  unfolded,  the  chalice  and  paten  are  cere-  Neale  points  out  that  these  are  in  verse,  though  not 
monially  purified,  the  wine  is  poured  into  the  chalice,  written  so. 

the  water  is  blessed  and  pourod  in,  and  the  bread  is  (9)  The  Epistle,  or  in  Paschal  time  a  lection  from  the 

placed  on  the  paten.    To  each  of  these  act«  there  is  a  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  preceded  by  "silentium  facite'\ 

prayer  or  a  blessing.    A  preparation  of  the  chalice  proclaimed  by  the  deacon. 

before  Mass,  instead  of  at  the  Offertory,  is  to  be  in-  (10)  The  Uospd,  preceded  only  by  a  short  prayer 

f erred  from  the  Irish  tracts  (see  Celtic  Rite),    It  is  "(Jomforta  me  Rex  Sanctorum"  and  the  "Munda  cor 

still  the  Byzantine  practice,  and  is  retained  by  the  meum  corpusque  ac  labia"  (the  rest  as  in  the  Roman 

Dominicans  at  low  Mass.    Yet  in  the  Mozarabic  Missa  Rite),  followed  by  the  Blessing,  which  is  not  in  the  Ro- 

Omnium  Offerentium  there  is  a  direction  to  put  wine  man  form.    These  of  course  are  said  secretly.    TTbe 

into  the  chalice  during  the  Epistle,  but  it  is  not  done,  ^ving  out  of  the  Gospel  and  the  response  and  the  cens- 

(3)  Ad  Missam  Officium. — ^This  is  the  Introit.  Offir  mg  are  similar  to  the  Roman.  After  the  reading  the 
eium  is  a  common  alternative  name,  used,  among  priest  signs  the  Grospel  with  the  cross  and  kisses  it,  say- 
other  places,  in  the  Sarum  Missal.  Tne  old  Mozara-  ing:  "Ave  Verbum  Divinum:  refonnatio  virtutum: 
bic  term  (see  Add.  MS.  30844)  was  Pralegendum  or  restitutio  sanitatum." 

ProUgendum.    Antiphona  ad  prcdegendum  is  the  name  (11)  The  Offertory. — This  consists  of :  (a)  The  Lauda, 

given  by  St.  Germanus  of  Paris.    It  is  in  the  form  of  a  a  verse  between  two  Alleluias.     It  is  what  St.  Ger- 

responsory,  with  Alleluias  and  Gloria.  manus  calls  the  Somts^  sung  during  the  procession  of 

(4)  The  Canticle  or  CarUides. — This  is  now  Gloria  in  the  Oblation.  There  is  now  no  procession,  but  while 
Excelsis,  omitted  in  Advent  (except  on  Feasts)  and  it  is  being  sung  the  Oblation  ceremonies  go  on.  (b) 
Lent.  On  Easter  Day  a  Latin  farced  Trisagion,  The  oblation  of  the  bread  and  wine,  with  prayers  re- 
"Sanctus  Deus,  qui  sedes  super  cherubim,  etc.",  with  sembling  but  not  identical  with  the  Roman.  It  is  at 
optionally  also  the  BenedicUe  in  its  abridged  form,  and  •  the  covering  of  the  chalice  with  the  filiola  (pall)  that 
on  the  Sunday  in  Adventu  S.  Joannis  Baptistos  the  the  prayer  containing  the  words  "omnium  offeren- 
Benedictus  are  sung  as  well.  In  Add.  MS.  30844  the  tium"  (see  above)  is  said,  (c)  The  Blessing  of  the 
Trisagion  (dyu>t  6  0t6s,  ic.r.X.)  is  given  in  Greek  (trans-  Oblation,  for  which  two  alternative  prayers  are  given, 
litcratcd)  and  Latin  in  this  place  on  the  Annunciation  one  of  which,  that  generally  used,  is  the  "In  spiritu 
(18  Dec.,  the  Mass  for  which  day  is  in  that  manuscript  humiUtatis"  and  "  Veni  sanctificator  "  of  the  Roman 
a  fuller  one  than  the  othen^  and  like  the  Mass  for  Ad-  Rite,  (d)  The  censing,  with  a  blessing  similar  to  the 
vent  Sunday  in  the  printed  Missal  is  given  by  way  of  Roman  blessing  at  thebeginning  of  Mass,  but  a  differ- 
an  Ordinary  of  the  Mass)  and  the  Circumcision,  and  ent  prayer,  (e)  "Adjuvate  me  fratres",  with  re- 
the  Latin  farced  Trisagion  now  used  on  Easter  Day  is  sponse — the  Mozarabic  form  of  the  "Orate  fratres". 
given  for  Christmas  Day.  This  shows  that  the  Ajtis  (f)  TTie  Sacrificium,  which  is  what  St.  Germanus  calls 
of  St.  Germanus  and  the  Bobbio  Missal  was  certainly  Laudes.  This  with  the  Lavda  forms  the  equivalent  of 
the  Trisagion.  the  Roman  Offertorium,  here  divided  in  the  books  by 

(5)  Oratio. — ^Though  this  takes  the  position  of  the  the  ceremonies  of  the  Oblation,  though  in  practice 
Roman  Collect,  it  is  really  a  supplementary  prayer  to  there  is  very  little  division,  (g)  When  there  are  offer- 
the  Gloria  in  excelsis.  It  is  the  usual  practice  (though  ings,  the  priest  is  directed  to  receive  them  and  say  to 
like  most  things  Mozarabic,  not  invanable)  for  psalms,  the  offerer:  "Centuplum  accipias  et  vitam  possideas 
h3rmns,  canticles,  and  every  sort  of  responsory  to  be  fol-  in  Regno  Dei."  TMs  is  the  remains  of  the  Offering  by 
lowed  by  prayers  which  more  or  less  sum  up  tne  leading  the  people.  (See  Ambrosian  Rfte.)  The  words  are 
ideas  of  what  they  follow.  This  is  why  so  many  Mozar-  retamea,  but  the  offering  is  no  longer  made.  This  is 
abic,  Gallican,  and  Celtic  prayers  are  named  with  ref-  followed  in  the  books  by  the  Benedictio  Panis  (cf .  the 


MOZARABXO  020  MOZUUBIC 

Pain  BHiil  still  used  in  France,  and  formerly  in  Eng-  t^^  r&riw  or  its  equivalent.      In  St.  Mark  aad 

land).    The  form  of  this  is  nearly  identical  with  the  in  the  Roman  it  does  not  occur,  but  in  the  l&tter 

first  of  those  given  in  the  Roman  and  Sarum  Missals,  ever  since  the  late  fourth,  or  early   fifth   century 

But  it  is  now  no  longer  used,     (h)  The  Lavabot  with  at   least,  the  Pax  has  been   associated    with  the 

only  the  first  three  verses  of  the  psalm.     It  is  followed  Communion,  not  with  the  beginning  of  the  Miua 

by  a  final  blessing  ''super  oblationcm  cum  tribus  Fidelium.    In  the  Galilean  the  Pox  came  as  in  the 

digitis ".  Mosarabic.    The  Ambroeian  now  follows  the  Roman, 

(12)  The  Prayer  of  Humble  Aecese,  said  with  but  probably  did  not  always  do  so.  (See  Ahbrosiak 
bowed  head  by  the  priest.  Rite;  Celtic  Rite;  Gallican  Rite.)     In  the  Mo- 

St.  Isidore  in  his"  Etymolodes"  (vi,  19)  mentions  a  sarabic  Mass,  the  priest  says  ''Quomodo  adstatis 

dismissal  of  catechumens  witn  a  deacon's  Prodama-  pacem  facite,"  ana  the  choir  sing  a  responsoiy, 

tion  as  occurring  at  this  point.  ''Pacem  meam  do  vobis  etc.",  "Novum  mandatum 

Here  begins  the  Misea  FideUum,  which  contuns-  do  vobis,  etc.",  during  which  "acciplat  Saoerdos 

the  Seven  Prayers  spoken  of  by  St.  Isidore.    These  pacem  de  patena",  saym^  "Habete  oeculum  dile^ 

seven  prayers  are: —  tionis  et  pacis'ut  apt!  sitis  sacroeanctis  mystoiia 

(13)  Ad  Missam  Oratio,  Oralio  Missa,  or  simply  Dei",  ana  gives  the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  deacon 
Miesa, — ^This  is  often,  but  not  always,  a  Biddmg  (vel  puero),  who  passes  it  on  to  the  people. 
Prayer.  The  Galilean  name  is  Pntfalio,  It  is  (17)  The  lUatio  or  Inlalio. — ^This  is  called  Prafatio 
followed  in  the  Mosarabic  by  "A^os,  Agios,  Agios,  in  the  Roman  and  Contestaiio  or  ImirudaHo  in  the 
Domine  Rex  seteme,  tibi  laudes  et  gratias"  sung  by  Galilean.  With  the  Post-Sanctus  it  forms  St 
the  choir,  preceded  by  Oremus  (one  of  the  only  two  Isidore's  fifth  prayer.  There  are  proper  lUationes 
instances  of  this  word),  and  followed  by  a  short  in-  to  every  Mass.  The  form  is  similar  to  the  Roman 
vitation  to  intercessory  prayer,  a  very  much  com-  Preface,  but  generally  longer  and  more  diffuse,  u 
pressed  form  of  the  Prex  (see  Celtic  Rite;  Galucan  in  the  Galilean.  It  is  preceded  by  a  longer  dialogue 
Rjte),  sung  by  the  priest.  than  the  usual  one:  ''Introibo  ad  altare  Dei  mei. 

(14)  Alia  Oratio, — ^This,  in  the  Galilean  books,  is  Q.  Ad  Deum  qui  Istificat  iuventutem  meam.  V. 
generally  headed  "Collectiosequitur".  TheReichenau  Auree  ad  Dominum.  Q.  Habemus  ad  Dominum. 
fragments  (see  Gallic  an  Rite)  are  not  always  quite  V.  Sursum  Corda.  Q.  Levemus  ad  Dominum. 
clear  as  to  whether  there  are  one  or  two  prayers  here,  V.  Deo  ac  D.  N.  J.  C.  qui  est  in  coelis  dignas  laudes, 
and  whether  this  is  to  be  identified  with  the  CoUectio  dignaraue  gratias  referamus.  Q.  Dignum  et  justum 
or  the  Anle  Nomina  of  those  leaves,  but  neither  of  est.  V.  Dignum  et  justum  est,  etc."  The  lUaHo 
these  have  reference  to  the  Nomina  which  follow,  ends  in  all  manner  of  ways,  but  always  leading  by 
nor  has  the  Mozarabic  Alia  Oratio.  except  in  the  un-  way  of  the  angels  to  the  Sanctus.  This  is  "Sanctus, 
varying  ending  "Per  misericorcuam  tuam,  Deus  Sanctus,  Sanctus,  Dominus  Deus  Sabaoth.  Pleni 
noster,  in  cujus  conspectu  sanctorum  Apostolorum  et  sunt  coeli  et  terra  gloria  majestatis  tu».  Osanna 
Martyrum.  C>>nfe8sorum  atque  Virginum  nomina  filio  David.  Benedictus  etc.  Agyos,  Agyos,  Agyos, 
recitantur.      This  is  followed  by  another  fixed  passage  Kyrie  o  Theos." 

reciting  how  "Sacerdotes  nostri  [here,  accoraing  to        (18)  The  PoetrSanctue,  part  oi  St.  Isidore's  fifth 

Leslie,  the  Deacon  recited  the  names  of  the  Arch-  prayer,  is  variable  according  to  the  day,  but  alrocwt 

bishop  of  Toledo  and  other  metropolitans  of  Spain]  always  begins  "Vere  sanctus,  vere  benedictus  D.  N. 

Papa  Romensis  [here  the  name  of  the  reigning  pope  J.  C.  ,  ana  generally  ends  "Ipse  Dominus  ac  Redemp- 

was  inserted]  et  reliqui  [i.  e.  according  to  Leslie's  tor  SBtemu?'.    All  liturgies  except  the  Roman  and 

coniecture,  the  Bishops  of  Carthage,  Milan,  Lyons  the  Romanized  Celtic  have  some  form  of  a  very  similar 

etc.],"   and  all   priests,   deacons,   clerks,   and   bot-  Poet-Sanctus,  which  leads  up  to  the  Recital  of  the 

rounding  peoples  offer  the  oblation  for  themselves  Institution.    Even  the  Ambro^an  has  one  for  East£T 

andfor  all  the  brotherhood  with  a  response:  "Off erunt  Eve.    The  occurrence  of  a  part  of  the  Intercession 

pro  se  et  pro  universa  fratemitate".    Tlien  follow  after  the  Sanctus  in  the  Roman  makes  a  great  differ- 

the   Diptychs   or   lists   of   names   oonmiemorated,  ence  here.     The  last  words  of  the  Mozarabic  Post- 
which  are  in  two 
consisting  of  Our 

tistX    the    Innocents,     «u^    ^>.|^vrDwv«>    cmau    k^i;.    *«<.<»«  n.    c»uu  *u<p^m/i^   uv  <><i.^v^^^m.i/.w   i^«.>>*u^«v«.  «««      ,   «»  «..%»u^./~^- 

St.  Luke.    To  this  there  is  a  response  "et  omnium  — as  follows:  "  Adesto.  adesto,  Jesu  bone  Pontifex  in 

Martyrum".    The  second  list  is 'Item  pro  spiritibus  medio   nostri    sicut   fuisti    in   medio   discipulonim 

pausantium",    with   fort3r-6even   names,    beginning  tuonun,  et  sancti  t  fica  hanc  oblationem  t  ut  saocti- 

with  Sts.  Hilary,  Athanasius,  Martin,  Ambrose,  and  ficata  sumamus  per  manus  sancti  Angeli  tui  |cf.  the 

Augustine,  and  goin^  on  with  a  list  of  Spanish  persons,  clause  "  Supplices  te  rogamus"  of  the  Koman  Canon) 

many  of  them  archbishops  of  Toledo,  both  before  ana  sancte   Domine  et  Rmemptor  steme."     The  a«e 

after  the  Conquest.    To  this  the  response,  as  in  the  of  the  interpolation  is  unknown,  but  it  is  probably 

Stowe  Missal   (see  Celtic   Rite),  is  "et  omnium  much  older  than  the  Ximenian  Missal,  thou^  it  does 

pausantium".  not  occur  in  the  Missa  Omnimoda  in  the  Sdos  L^ 

(15)  The  Oratio  Post  Nomina  continues  the  intei^  Ordinum  of  1052.  It  may  have  originated  as  a 
cesfflon.  This^  the  third  prayer  of  St.  Isidore's  list,  sort  of  parenthetical  ejaculation  (influenced  by  the 
is  variable  with  the  day,  except  for  the  ending,  Roman  Canon)  said  secretly  by  the  priest  with  bowed 
"Quia  tu  es  vita  vivorum,  sahitas  infiirmorum  et  head  before  banning  the  Recital  of  the  Institution, 

? ? /•  J^«; J    *  .  .  •  «  •    «        1.1  ii         T>       i    fS A. :i_l xl _A«<i 


dilectio 
sit  semper 

Eastern  litu_^, ^ _„, ,^.««,^^ 

from  II  Cor.,  xiii,  is  separated  from  the  Fax  and  num  of  1052  begins  as  at  mresent,  and  in  Toledo 

comes  immediatelv  before   the  Suraum  carda  dia-  35.6   it    begins  "Quoniam  Dominus    Jesu   in  qu* 

jogue,   its   place   before  the  Pax  being  taken  by  nocte."    It  is  certain  that  the  Roman  form  of  the 


MOZAKABIC                            621  MOZARABIC 

Words  of  Institution  was  not  used  by  tlie  Spanish  able  according  to  the  day,  with  a  response  of  Amen  to 

Church  before  the  mission  of  Zannello  (see  above)  each  clause.    In  the  Gallican  Rite  the  long  Benedic- 

in  924.    It  was  then  that  the  practice  arose  of  saying  tion  was  reserved  for  bishops  only,  a  shortform  (Pax 

the  Roman  form,  instead  of  what  was  written,  and  et  caritas  D.  N.  J.  C.  et  oonununicatio  sanctorum 

that  is  what  is  done  now.    In  the  Ximenian  edition  omniimi  sit  semper  nobiscum)  being  sfdd  by  priests. 

the  Roman  Words  were  not  printed  at  first,  but  later  The  Benedictions  continued  in  FVance  long  alter  the 

were  printed  on  separate  sups  and  gmnmed  on  to  extinction  of  the  Gallican  Rite  (see  Galxjcan  Rite) 

the  margin.    In  the  later  editions  the^  appear  as  and  in  England.    In  the  Sarum  Manual  of  1554  di- 

footnotes.    Elevation  is  ordered  in  the  printed  Missal  rections  are  ^ven  for  Episcoi>al  Benedictions,  with  the 

after  the  Consecration  of  each  species.  same  prelimmary  proclamation  as  in  the  Mozarabic. 

(19)  The  Po9t-Pridie, — St.  Isidore  calls  it  con)Srma<to  (22)  The  Communion. — ^The  choir  sing  a  fixed  re- 
aaeramenlif  ^'ut  oblatio  qus  Deo  ofTertur  sanctificata  sponsory  called  Ad  AccidenteSf  beginning' 'Gustate  et 
per  Sanctum  Spiritum  corpori  Christi  et  sanguine  videte",  composed  of  Ps.  xxxiii,  8,  1,  22^  with  Alle- 
confirmetur  ",  which  seems  as  if  he  took  it  to  be  an  luias  after  each  verse.  There  are  variants  m  Lent  and 
EpikUsia  (q.  v.),  needed  to  complete  the  consecration,  Eastertide  (cf.  Csi/nc  Rite;  Gai;lican  Rrrs).  The 
but  (in  Ep.  vii  ad  Redemptorem,  sect.  2)  he  speaks  also  same  verses  are  mentioned  by  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
of ''verba  Dei  .  .  .  sdhoet,  Hoc  est  corpus  meum",  and  occur  in  some  Eastern  liturgies.  Then  foUows 
bong  the  "substantia  sacramenti''.  In  the  Gsdlican  the  antiphon  which  answers  to  the  Roman  Communio 
books  there  are  several  of  these  prayers  with  some  sort  which  is  usually ' '  Ref ecti  Christi  Coroore  et  Sanguine, 
of  Invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  some  qpite  unmis-  te  laudamus,  Domine.  Alleluia  (3) ",  with  a  variant 
takable,  others  quite  vague.  The  majority  have  no  in  Lent  "Repletum  est  gaudio  os  nostrum,  etc."  This 
tarn  of  any  EpudeaiSf  and  this  is  the  case  with  the  is  followed  by  the  Post-Communion,  a  prayer  or  a 
Mozarabic,  perhaps  fourteen  or  fifteen  Masses  have  Bidding  I^yer  variable  with  the  day,  out  with  a 
either  a  definite  Epikieais  or  what  with  some  ingenuity  rather  small  selection,  onl^  a  few  days  having  sepa- 
and  emendation  can  be  made  to  look  like  one,  while  in  rate  proper  Post-Commumons  of  their  own,  four  or  nve 
the  rest  it  is  generally  the  Great  Oblation,  often  with  being  used  over  and  over  agedn,  one  for  Feasts  of  our 
allusions  to  the  day.  It  is  followed  by  a  nxed  prater  Lora  and  another  for  sainter  da}^,  varied  only  in  the 
resembling  the  clause  Per  auem  hoc  omnia  in  tne  Ko-  name  of  the  feast.  During  the  singing  of  the  Ad  Ao- 
man  Canon,  and  a  second  devation  preceded  by  "  Do-  cidentes  and  Communio  the  priest  inakes  hb  commim-' 
minus  sit  semper  vobiscum  etc."  and  "Fidem  quam  ion,  with  private  devotions  not  unlike  those  of  the  Ro- 
corde  credimus  ore  autem  dicamus".  On  Sundays  man  Rite,  but  including  the  two  "Aveinsevum.  etc.", 
and  most  feasts  «ex  capparum  and  qtuUuiOr  oapparum  passaees  which  are  found  also  in  the  Sarum  and  other 
the  Creed  is  recited;  this  has  several  verbal  differences  focal  Missals.  Just  before  his  communion  the  priest 
from  the  Roman  form,  among  others,  credimuSf  con-  holds  the  particle  Regnum  over  the  chalice  sasdng 
iUemurBBdeospectamiu,vudficaUfremfad!orandumetcon'  aloud  "Memento  pro  mortuis"  (or  "pro  defunctis  , 
alorificandum,  Omousion  Patri,  hoc  est  ejusdem  cum  for  both  forms  are  found). 

Poire  subatantuB  etc.  St.  Isidore  (De  Eccl.  Off.,  I,  (23)  The  Diemiesal,— Of  this  there  are  two  forms, 
xvi)  mentions  the  recitation  of  the  Creed  "tempore  that  for  ordinary  davs  bdng  "Missa  acta  est  in  no- 
saciificii",  but  with  him  sacrificium  sometimes  means  mine  D.  N.  J.  C.  perficiamus  cum  pace.  R.  Deo  gra- 
the  ofifertory,  sometimes  the  whole  Mass.  On  certain  tias",  and  that  for  greater  feasts,  '^Solemnia  oompleta 
days,  chiefly  in  Lent  and  in  votive  Masses,  there  is  an  sunt  m  nomine  D.  N.  J.  C.  votum  nostrum  sit  accep- 
Aniiphona  ad  ConfracUonem  Panis  (cf.  the  Confrac-  turn  cum  pace.  R.  Deo  gratias".  Then  follows 
torium  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite),  said  instead  of  the  "  Salve Regina"  with  versicle  and  responses  and  the  col- 
"  Fidem  quam  corde  credimus  etc."  During  it  or  the  lect,  "  Concede  nos  famulos  tuos  etc.^',  which  of  course 
Creed  the  Fraction  takes  place.  The  Host  is  first  di-  is  not  Mozarabic,  and  after  that  the  Blessinff  "In 
vided  into  two  halves,  then  one  half  is  divided  into  unitate  Sancti  Spiritus  benedicat  vos  Pater  et  fuius". 
five  and  the  other  into  four  parts.  Seven  of  these  par-  It  will  be  seen  that  the  fixed  elements  of  this  Mass 
tides  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  five,  named  are  very  few.  These  are:  the  Preparations;  generally 
Corporalio  (Incarnation),  NatintctSf  CircumcieiOf  Ajh  the  Olaria;  the  Prayers  etc.  of  the  Offertonr;  the 
parilio  (Epiphany),  and  Paasio  forming  the  uprignt  Nomina;  Uie  PaXj  but  not  its  prayer;  the  Swreum 
part,  and  two,  named  More  and  ResurrrediOf  the  arms.  Corda;  the  Sanctue;  the  Recital  of  the  Inistitution  with 
These  last  are  arranged  on  either  side  of  the  Particle  its  preliminary  prayer;  a  prayer  following  the  Post- 
Naiimiae  with  the  Gloria  and  Regnum,  placed  to-  Priaie;  the  Creed;  the  priest's  part  of  the  fraction, 
^ther  on  one  side.  (For  instances  of  complicated  Commixture,  and  Communion;  the  Lord's  Prayer  ana 
Fractions,  see  Celtic  Rite;  Galucan  RrrE.)  Then  Emholiemua,  but  not  its  introduction;  and  the  Saiioe 
the  priest  washes  his  fingers,  "purget  bene  digitos",  Regina  and  Blessing.  The  variables,  which  in  point 
and,  the  chalice  being  covered,  says  aloud  "  Memento  of  time  and  written  space  take  up  by  far  the  lar^  pro- 
pro  vivis".  portion  of  the  Mass,  are:  The  Qmcium  (Introit);  ihe 

(20)  The  Ad  Orationem  Dominicam,  St.  Isidore's  Oratio  after  the  Gloria,  the  Prophecy,  the  Peauendo; 
seventh  and  last  prayer,  varies  with  the  day,  and,  like  the  Epistle;  the  Gospel;  the  Lauda;  the  Sacrificium; 
the  Agyoe  after  the  Ad  Mieeam  Oratio  is  preceded  by  Ad  Miesam  Oralio;  Alia  Oratio;  Post  Nomina;  Ad  Pc^ 
Oremua.  It  ends  introducing  the  Pater  iMoster,  sung  cem;  lUatio;  PoatrSandua;  Poat-Pridie;  Anliphcma  ad 
by  the  priest,  the  choir  responding  Amen  to  each  clause  Confraciionem  Pania;  Ad  Orationem  Dominicam;  the 
except^' Panem  nostrum  ^uotidianum  da  nobis  hodie"  Benediction;  Ad  Accidentea;  Commixnio;  Post-Com- 
when  the  response  is  "Quia  Deus  es".  The  invariable  munion;  the  Dismissal.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
Emholiamua  is  a  long  intercessory  prayer  followed  by  additional  Canticles  on  certain  dajrs. 

the  Commixture.    The  particle  Regnum  b  held  over  VI.    The  Occasional  Services. — ^At  the  P[es- 

the  chalice,   during  Paschal  time  and  on  Corpus  ent  day  those  who  belong  to  the  Mozarabic  Kite 

Christi,  with  the  words  "Vicit  Leo  ex  tribuJuda,  radix  use  the  Roman  Ritual,  and,  as  their  bic^op  b  the 

David,  Alleluia.    Qui  sedes  super  cherubim,  radix  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  who  b  of  the  Roman  Rite,  the 

David.  Alleluia",  and  then  dropped  into  the  chalice,  Roman  Pontifical  b  also  used  for  them.    The  date  at 

with  the  words  "Sancta  Sanctb  et  conjimctio    Cor-  which  the  old  Spanish  Ritual  and  Pontifical  services 

pons  D.  N.  J.  C.  fiit  sumentibus  et  potantibus  nobb  ad  ceased  to  be  used  b  not  known.    The  four  exbting 

▼eniam  et  defimctb  fidelibus  prsstetur  ad  requiem."  MSS.  of  the  lAber  Ordinum,  which  contains  these  ser- 

J 21)  The  Benediction. — The  deacon  proclaims  "Hu-  vices,  are  all  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  belonged 

iate  vos  ad  Benedictionem",  and  the  priest  pro-  either  to  Silos  or  to  San  MiUan  de  la  Cogolla.    There 

nounoes  a  Blessing  in  three,  four,  or  five  dausesi  van-  are  none  at  or  from  Toledo,  and,  when  Cardinal 


MOZAKABIO 


622 


HOZABABIC 


Ximcaies  had  the  Missal  and  Breviarv  printed,  there 
was  evidently  no  need  to  print  a  Ritual  and  Pontifical, 
as  they  were  probably  no  longer  used.  Of  the  elev- 
enth centui^y  MSS.  of  the  Libar  Ordinum  published  by 
Dom  Fdrotin,  one  (the  Silos  MSS.  of  1052)  contains  a 
very  complete  set  of  occasional  services.  They  con- 
sist of:  (1)  The  Blessing  of  Oil,  Salt,  and  Water:  (2) 
Baptism:  (3)  Ordinations:  (4)  The  Unction  and  Visi- 
tation 01  the  Sick;  (5)  The  Blessing  of  Virgins,  Ab- 
besses, Widows,  and  Convern;  (6)  The  Order  of  Pen- 
ance and  Reconciliation  of  heretics  and  schismatics 
and  for  the  conversion  of  Jews:  (7)  The  Order  of 
Death  and  Burial;  (8)  RUus  pro  Rege  observanthu;  (9) 
Various  Blessings;  (10)  Orders  for  Holy  Week  and 
Easter ;  (1 1 )  The  Order  of  Matrimony.  These  are  fol- 
lowed by  a  large  nimiber  of  Masses,  chiefly  votive.  Of 
these  services  the  following  may  be  noted : — 

( 1 )  Baptism, — ^The  order  is . — (a)  Insufflation.  The 
priest  breathes  thrice,  with  the  words  ''Exordso  te 
immunde  spiritus  hostis  humani  generis '\  (b)  Insig- 
nation.  The  sign  of  the  Cross  on  the  forehead,  and 
exorcism  towards  the  west,  (c)  Unction  with  oil  on 
mouth  and  ears,  with  '^Effeta,  effeta  cum  sancto 
spiritu  in  odorem  suavitatis.  Bene  omnia  fecit  et 
surdos  fecit  audire  et  mutes  loqui''.  (d)  Imposition 
of  hands,  (e)  Tradiiio  symboli,  (f)  Blessing  of  the 
font  preceded  by  exorcism,  (g)  Interrogations  and 
Renunciations,  (h)  Baptism,  with  "Ego  te  Imptizo 
in  Nomine  etc.,  ut  hab^  vitieun  sBternam."  (i)  Quris- 
mation  on  forehead,  with  ''Signum  vitse  eetemae  quod 
dedit  Deus  Pater  Omnipotens  per  Jesum  Christum 
Filium  suum  credentibus  in  saJutem.''  (k)  Imposi- 
tion of  hands,  with  prayer.  0)  "Post  hsec  velantur  a 
sacerdote  infantes  ipsi  oui  baptizati  sunt  caput:  quo 
peracto  communicat  eos  (i.  e.  the  Vesting  and  Com- 
munion). On  the  third  day  the  children  are  brought 
to  the  priest,  who  says  over  them  the  "  Benedictio  de 
Albis'\  Except  in  the  case  of  converts  from  Arian- 
ism,  no  separate  order  of  Confirmation  is  given.  The 
Chnsmation  and  Imposition  of  hands  after  Baptism, 
followed  as  it  was  by  Communion,  was  evidently  the 
only  normal  form  of  Confirmation.  In  the  case  of  Arian 
converts  the  words  are: "  Et  ego  te  chrismoin  Nomine 
etc.,  in  remissionem  omnium  peccatorum  ut  habeas 
vitam  seternam^  followed  by  the  imposition  of  hands 
and  a  praver.  Tne  ceremonv  of  feet-washing,  retained 
in  the  Cditic  and  Gallican  Baptisms,  does  not  appear 
in  the  Spanish  Liber  Ordinumj  though  mentioned  by 
the  Council  of  Elvira  in  305  (see  Galucan  Rfte). 

(2)  Ordinations, — ^The  minor  ordinations  are  those 
of  clericuSf  sacristaf  and  cuatos  librorum.  These  oi^ 
ders  are  preceded  by  **  Oratio  super  eum  qui  capillos  in 
sola  fronte  tondere  vult" — ^which  looks  like  a  relic  of 
the  Celtic  tonsure  (see  Celtic  Rite),  but,  as  Dom 
F^^rotin  conjectures,  is  probably  of  the  nature  of  an 

C,  offering  "des  pr^miU^es  de  la  chevelure"  (cf.  the 
TpixoKoypta,  seven  dayA  after  Baptism,  in  the  Byzan- 
tine Rite) — ^by  "Oratio  super  parvulum  quern  par- 
en  tes  ad  doctnnam  offerunt"  and  ''  Benedictio  super 
parvulum  qui  in  ecclesia  ad  ministerium  Dei  detondi- 
tur  ".  The  "  clericus  "  of  the  next  section  is  evidently 
also ' '  parvulus ' ' .  The  aacrista  has  a  ring  given  to  him 
with  the  words:  "Esto  ianitor  adituum  et  prsepositus 
ostiarionim".  The  custoa  librorum  receives  "anulum 
de  Bcriniis",  and  is  also  appointed  ''senior  scribarum". 
Then  follows  a  curious  Ordo  super  eum  qui  barbam 
tangere  cupit".  The  priest  takes  wax  from  a  taper 
and  puts  a  crumb  of  it  on  the  right,  left,  and  middle  of 
the  chin.  Prayers  are  said  alluding  to  the  anointing 
of  Aaron's  beard.  Then  "lata  explicita  intromittit 
in  anulo  barbam  cum  cera  et  in  anulo  barbam  et  ceram 
capulat  qui  barbam  tangit  dicens,  In  Nomine  etc.  et 
accipit  in  linteo  nitido.  Peracta  ista  omnia  absolvit 
diaconus  dicens,  Missa  acta  est.  Et  post  haec  si  est 
monachus  radit  barbam".  The  ordinations  of  sub- 
deacon,  deacon,  archdeacon,  priest,  archpriest,  and 
abbot  are  very  simple     To  the  subaeaoon  is  given  by 


the  archdeacon  the  "ministerium  ad  manus  Uvandos** 
and  a  chalice  and  paten.  The  bishop  gives  him  the  book 
of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  The  bishop  puts  the  stole  {qra- 
rium)  on  the  Im  shoulder  of  a  deacon,  and  delivers  a 
"  ferula '' to  an  archdeacon  and  archpriest,  a  "manuale  " 
(book  of  sacraments)  to  a  priest,  and  a  staff  and  book 
of  the  Rule  to  an  id>bot.  In  each  case  these  are  ac- 
companied by  prayers,  and  a  confirmatio  addressed  to 
the  newly  oraamed,  which  is  more  or  less  an  explana- 
tion of  his  duties  and  status.  In  the  case  of  a  priest  the 
assistant  priests  are  directed  to  lav  thdr  hands  on  him 
as,  vested  in  stole  and  chasuble,  he  kneels  before  the 
altar,  and,  thou^  there  is  no  direction  for  the  bishop 
to  do  so,  it  is  evident  from  the  wording  of  his  "  Bene- 
dictio'' that  he  lays  his  hands  on  him  also.  There  is 
no  order  given  for  the  consecration  of  a  bishop.  The 
blessings  of  nuns  and  other  reUg^ous  are  quite  simple, 
veiling  with  prayer  and  benediction,  and  for  an  abbess 
the  ddivery  of  a  staff  and  the  putting  on  of  a  mitre. 

(3)  The  unction  of  the  Sick  is  given  toother  with  an 
order  for  the  blessing  of  the  unguent.  This  was  done 
on  the  Feast  of  Sts.  Cosmas  and  Damian,  the  physician- 
martyrs  (27  Sept.),  not,  as  elsewhere  in  the  West,  od 
Maimdy  Thursday.  The  bishop  makes  a  cross  (a 
cross  paitSe  with  a  pendant  and  the  A  and  O  is  figured 
in  the  book)  with  a  graphium  (style),  saying  an  anti- 
phon  ''Sicut  unguentum  in  capite  etc.".  and  a  prayer 
and  benediction,  both  referring  to  the  healing  of  the 
sick.  The  Unction  of  the  sick  was  on  the  head  only, 
with  the  sign  of  the  Cross  and  the  words  "  In  Nomine 
Patris  etc.  Antiphons  referring  to  sickness  and  its 
healing  are  then  said.  There  is  provision  for  anoint- 
ingmany  sick  persons  at  the  same  time. 

The  rest  of  the  occasional  services  do  not  call  for 
much  remark.  They  are  for  the  most  part  very  8im- 
ple  blessings  and  prayers,  not  unlike  tnoee  found  in 
the  Roman  Ritual.  They  include,  however,  a  few  of 
a  type  found  also  in  the  Greek  Euchologion  for  the 
cleansing  of  any  polluted  person,  place,  or  thing,  e.  g. 
"  super  his  qui  morticinum  comedunt  vel  suffocatum  , 
''super  vas  m  quo  (sic)  aliquid  immundum  ceciderit ", 
etc.,  and  the  Orders  when  the  king  goes  out  to  battle 
with  his  army,  and  when  he  returns,  have  a  consider* 
able  historical  interest. 

PiNius.  De  LUurgia  Antigua  HUpaniea  in  Acta  SS.,  Jul>\  VI. 
1-112,  reprinted  in  Bianchini's  edition  of  ThomAsiiu:  Tboua- 
BIU8,  Opera  omnia^  ed.  Bianchini,  I  (Rome,  1741);  Florcx, 
Eapana  Sagrada  (Madrid.  1748);  FAiiotin.  LOm-  Ordinum  in 
Cabrol.  and  Lbcubrcq.  Monum.  Bcclet.  Lthirg,^  V  (Parix, 
1004);  FArotin,  H%9t.  de  fAbbaye  de  SUoe  (Paris.  1S97);  Idem. 
Deux  ManuecriU  wiaigolhiauea  d«  la  Biblidhique  d*  Ferdinand 
I  in  Revue  de  VBcoU  de  Charter  LXII  (1901) ;  P.  L.:  yd. 
LXXXIII.  St.  Isidors;  vol.  LXXXV.  Motarabic  MUeal,  ed. 
Lcsuc;  vol.  LXXXVI,  Moaarabie  Breviarv,  ed.  Lorbksana 
vol.  XCVI.  St.  iLDBroNsna  and  St.  Juuan  or  Tolbix>;  Mo- 
BALXDA  T  E0TABAN.  El  Rtto  Moadrobe  (Toledo,  1857);  Hbrxam* 
DBi  DB  ViBRA,  Rubricot  geiterolee  de  la  Miea  Goikiea  Muzdraht 
(Salamanca,  1772);  Pbrbx.  Devocionario  Jliutdrab€  (Toledo, 
1903);  Nbalb,  The  MotanUnc  LUurgy  in  his  Bseaya  on  Liturgi- 
clogy  (London.  1863);  W.  C.  Bmhop,  The  Mozarabie  RiU  in 
Church  Quarterly  (Oct.,  1906:  Jan.,  1907) ;  Simokbt,  Hietoria  de 
Ion  Motdrabee  in  Memoriae  de  la  Real  Aead4mia  de  la  HiHoria, 
XIII  (Madrid,  1903):  Buldd,  Hieioria  de  la  IgUna  de  Bapul^ 
(Barcelona.  1856-7);  Parro,  Toledo  «n  la  mano  (Toledo.  1857); 
Gamero,  Hieioria  de  la  eiudad  de  Toledo  (Toledo.  1862):  P^a. 
Deeeripeion  de  la  imperial  eiudad  de  Toledo  (Toledo,  1605'); 
BuRRiEL,  Correepondeneia^  etc,  in  vol.  XIII  (1848)  of  Fernaic- 
DBI  DB  Navabrbttb,  btc.,  CoUccidn  de  doeumentoe  inid^oe  para 
la  hiatoria  de  EepaAa  (Madrid,  1842 — );  Idkii.  Paleografia  et* 
paliola  (Madrid,  1758);  Eourbn.  Memoria  deeeriptiva  de  iot 
eddicee  nolabUe  eoneervadoe  en  loe  arckitoe  ecleeidrtieoe  de  Jf»> 
palia  (Madrid,  1859);  RiAftES,  CriHcal  and  bibliograpkieai  nola 
on  early  Spanieh  music  (London,  1887);  Ewald  and  Loevi, 
Bzemjua  eeriptura  Vieigotica  (Heidelberg.  1883);  Beei, 
HandechrifteneehdUe  Spaniene  in  SiltungeberiehUt  Phitotif- 
phiech-Historisehe  CUuee  der  kaiaerL  Akad.  der  WtMaena^nfltn 
Wiena,  CXXI-CXXIV;  Addrt,  Iter  Hiapanicum  (Paris,  1908); 
DucHBBNB,  Originea  du  cuUe  chrUien  (Paris.  1902:  tr.  Lon- 
don, 1904);  Probst.  Die  abendland.  Meaae  vom  /Qnfien  bia 
aum  achten  Jahrh,  (MQnater,  1896);  Mabzllon.  Dt  Liturg. 
Oallicana  (Paris,  1685);  Mora  tori,  LUurgia  Romana  Yetua 
(Venice,  1748);  Nbalb  and  Forbbs,  Ancier%t  Liturgy  of  the 
Oallican  Chuixh  (Burntisland.  1855-67);  Lucas,  J7aWy  Gal' 
lican  Liturgiea  in  DulUin  Review  (July,  1893:  Jan.,  1S94); 
Motes,  Moaarabie  Rite  and  Anglican  Ordara  in  Tho  Jbblat  (15» 
22.  29  Jan.,  1910),  86-8,  123-4.  165-6;  Hajimokd.  Antieni 
Liturgiea  (Oxford.  1878);  BaCmbb.  Geaek.  dst  Brmitn  (VM 


bare,  ISSS:  PrcDcfa  tr 


•.lKIS);a.BnB0r,Ki/ri4SIti4mm 

Danmiidi  RcWio.  XIX  (1M0|:  L^HBi.  Sacrmim  CoaaliBrum 
•UH  H  ampluMima  csUcAid  (Flarenoe.  1756—);  Antonio, 
BMuthaa  Aiiimu  Vitiu  (Madiid,  ITSS);  Iscu,  SibliHAua 
Aiiiana  JVota  (Mudrid,  1783-88).    Cf.  iLh  the  vsrioij  edi- 

ele  on  mauiucripU  Md  editiou. 

Eenky  Jxnneb. 
Mourt,  JoHANM  Chrtsostouos  Wolfqano  Aua- 
DEU8,  one  of  the  greatest  mui^cal  geniuees  in  history, 

b.  at  Salzburg,  Austria,  27  Jan.,  1756;  d.  at  Vienna,  5 
Dec.,  1791.  Eia  father,  Leopold  Moiart,  assistant 
choir-master  and  court  muHician  to  the  Prince-Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg,  ivaa  one  of  the  most  distineuished 
musicians  of  his  time.  He  was  the  author  of  tne  best 
method  for  violin-playing  written  up  to  that  period, 
and  WBA  a  man  ol  thorough  education  and  sterling 
character.  Realizing  his  son's  extraordinary  endow- 
mente,  apd  also  (he  great  musical  gifts  of  his  dau^ter 
Maria  Anna,  five  years  Wolfgang's  senior,  he  devoted 
all  his  energy  and  knowledge 
to  their  education.  Wolfgang 
■  ■ '  i  age  of  three  i 

(UBcovering^  to  his  great  joy, 
consonant  intervals,  and  was 
not  yet  four  when  he  began  to 
receive  from  his  father  syste- 
matic training  in  piano-playing 
and  in  the  theory  of  tnuaic,  im- 
provising even  before  he  could 
write  notes.  Violin  -  playing 
came  to  him  practically  by  in- 
tuition, a  tact  which  he  demon- 
strated to  the  astonishment  of 
his  father  and  a  company  of 
artists,  by  performing  at  firet 
sight  the  second  violin  part  in 
a  trio  for  stringed  instruments. 
He  was  not  yet  five  when  his 
father  wrote  for  him  a  theme 
for  the  piano  with  variations, 
which  he  had  himself  con^ 
posed.  So  correct  was  the 
child's  ear  that  he  would  re- 
member the  tone  pitch  of  a 
violin  which  hehad  heard  even 
weeks  before.  His  sensitive- 
ness was  such  that  harsh 
sounds  were  distressing  to 
bim,  a  blast  of  a  trumpet  almost  cauNog  him  to  faint 

Wolfgang  was  not  yet  eight  years  old  when  his 
father  undertook  a  concert  tour  with  his  two  chil- 
dren, visiting  Munich,  Vienna,  and  Presburg.  Every- 
where theirperformances,  especially  the  boy  s,  created 
great  astonishment.  In  1763  Leopold  Mozart  vis- 
ited Paris  with  his  prodigies,  and  the  following  April 
Ijondon,  where  they  remained  until  July,  1764.  Re- 
ceived and  fSted  by  royalty  and  people  of  high  station, 
the  Moiart  children,  but  particularly  Wolfgang,  were 
considered  the  musical  wonders  of  the  world.  On 
th»r  way  back  to  Salzburg  they  visited  The  Hague 
and  the  principal  cities  of  France  and  Switzerland. 
During  all  these  travels,  and  the  distraction  and  ex- 
citement incident  thereto,  Wolfgang  made  progress  in 
all  branches  of  musical  and  other  knowledge.  He  com- 
posed constantly  and  in  almost  every  known  instru- 
mental form.  Returned  home,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  mastery  of  counterpoint,  and  the  perfecting  of  his 
technique  m  piano,  violin,  and  organ-ptaying.  His 
patron.  Archbishop  von  Schlatterbacb,  sceptical  re- 
garding the  boy's  reported  achievements  as  a  com- 
poser, invited  Wolfgang  to  his  palace,  forbidding 
communication  of  any  Kind  with  him,  and  giving 
him  the  text  of  the  first  part  of  an  oratorio,  prepared 
by  the  archbishop,  to  set  to  music.  The  second  and 
tbird  Darts  of  this  work  were  comooeed  by  Michael 


!3  MOZA&T 

Haydn  and  Anton  Cajetan  Adl^ssser  reapeotivdy. 
It  was  published  at  Salzburg  m  1767,  and  per- 
formed during  Lent  of  the  same  year.  A  year  later,  at 
the  age  of  twelve,  Wolfgang  visited  Vienna  anew,  and 
was  commissioned  to  write  an  opera  bv^a,  "Larinta 
Semplice",  for  which  Marco  Coltellini  furnished  the 
libretto.  Intrigues  of  all  kinds,  especially  on  the  part 
of  the  members  of  the  theatre  orchestra,  who  objected 
to  playing  under  the  direction  of  a  twelve-yoarold 
boy,  prevented  its  performance. 

Returning  to  Salzburg,  Wolfgang  was  appointed 
concert^master,  at   first   without  compensation,  but 
later  was  allowed  a  monthly  stipend  of  twelve  florins. 
Leopold  Mozart,  chafing  under  Wolfgang's  lack  of 
recwnition,  made  every  effort  to  secure  for  him  a 
suit^le  apDointment  in  the  larger  field  of  Munich  and 
Vienna,  and  also  Florence,  but  not  succeeding,  he  finally 
decided  to  visit  Italy,  with  a  view  to  gaining  there  the 
prestige  which  success  in  that  country  then  carried  with 
it.     In  Bologna  thev  became 
acquainted  with  Padre  Giam- 
battista  Martini  (1706-1784), 
the  most  learned  musician  oi 
his    time.    This    master   put 
Wolfgang  through  testa  in  con- 
trapuntal writing,  which  the 
latter  withstood  with  ease  and 
consummate  skill.    In  Rome 
young  Mozart  performed  bia 
I  .lamousfeat  of  scoring  Allan's 
"Miserere"  for  double  chorus, 
after  listening  to  its  perform- 
ance on  Wednesday  of  Holy 
Week.  Hearing   the  work  re- 
peated on  the  following  Friday, 
ne  had  but  a  few  minor  cor- 
rections to  make  in  his  man- 
uscript.    After  being  created 
Knight  of  the   Golden   Spur, 
f£tea,  and  acclaimed  through- 
out Italy  by  the  artistic  and 
aristocratic  world  as  the  great- 
est living  musical  genius,  Wolf- 
gang returned  to  his  modest 
position   in   Salzburg.     Again 
and  again  he  tried  to  find  a 
more  congenial  atmosphere  in 
Munich,  Mannheim,  Paris,  and 
elsewhere,  but  without  succew. 
He  continued,  except  for  occasional  visits  to  other 
cities  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  new  works,  to 
reside   in  Salzburg  until  his  twenty-first  year,  when 
he  took  up  his  permanent  abode  in  Vienna. 

An  offer  from  Frederick  William  II  of  Pniaaia  to  be- 
come court  conductor  at  Berlin  at  a  salary  of  three 
thousand  thalers  he  refused  on  patriotic  grounds. 
Mozart  was  now  in  the  full  maturity  of  his  powers, 
creating  with  astonishing  rapidity  works  which  will 
remain  classic  for  all  time:  operas,  symphonies,  quai^ 
tets,  concertos,  etc.,  all  of  which  increased  his  fame,  but 
did  not  ameliorate  his  material  condition.  Not  only 
was  due  recognition  denied  him,  but  his  life  was  one 
continuous  battle  for  existence.  His  application  for 
the  assistant  conductorship  of  the  imperial  opera 
house  failed.  He  applied  for  a  similar  position  at  the 
cjithedral  of  St.  Stcpiien,  in  the  hope  ol  ultimate  pro- 
motion to  the  post  of  choir-master.  Onlyonhisdeath- 
bed  did  he  receive  the  news  of  his  appointment.  The 
great  master  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-four  and  was 
buried,  with  the  least  possible  expense  because  of  ex- 
treme poverty,  in  a  pauper's  grave,  his  exact  reating- 
elace  being  now  unknown.  Only  a  few  persons 
illowed  his  remains  to  the  cemetery. 
Mosart's  individuality  was  of  an  exquimtely  deli- 
cate, tender,  and  noble  character.  His  operas,  "Don 
Juao", ''The  Maitic  Flute", "The  MarriMe  of  FigoTo", 
"Cod  fan  tuttc",  "LaClemenia  di  Tita",  on  m* 


M02amBKA 


624 


count  of  their  melodic  beauty  and  truth  of  expreeedon, 
have  as  strong  a  hold  upon  the  afifections  of  the  musi- 
cal public  to-day  as  they  did  at  the  end  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  His  instrumental  works  continue  to 
delight  musicians  the  world  over.  As  a  composer  for 
the  Church,  however,  he  does  not,  even  artistically, 
reach  the  high  level  he  maintained  in  other  fields.  In 
his  day  the  music  of  the  Church,  Gregorian  chant,  was 
practically  ignored  in  Germany,  and  sadly  neglected 
m  other  countries.  Mozart  had  but  Uttle  knowledge 
of  the  masters  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  conse- 
quently his  stvle  of  writing  for  the  Church  could  not 
have  been  influenced  by  them.  The  proper  of  the 
Mass,  which  brines  singers  and  congregation  in  inti- 
mate touch  with  the  Hturgy  of  the  particular  day,  was 
rarely  sung.  The  fifteen  masses,  utanies,  offertories, 
his  great  ^Requiem",  as  well  as  many  smaller  set- 
tings, most  of  them  written  for  solif  chorus,  and  or- 
chestra, in  the  identical  style  of  his  secular  works,  do 
not  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  universal  Church,  but 
rather  the  subjective  conception  and  mood  of  the 
composer  and  the  Josephinist  spirit  of  the  age. 
What  Mosart,  with  his  Raphaelesque  imagination 
and  temperament,  would  have  been  for  church  music 
had  he  lived  at  a  different  time  and  in  different  sui> 
roundinss,  or  risen  above  his  own,  can  easily  be 
imagined. 

Jahit,  W,  a,  MoMort,  tr.  Townsbnd  (London,  1883);  Nobl, 
Moaari^a  £«b«n,  tr.  Lalor  (Chicago,  1803);  Nottxbohm,  MoaarU 
iana  (1880);  KAcbbl,  CkrontiXooiaehAMmiUiachea  Verteichnia 
admmUieher  Tonwerke  W,  A,  MoaarVa  (Leiniis.  1862-1880); 
MuirABDTTB,  Moaart  ain  KUnatUrUban  (Leipiig,  1882). 

Joseph  Ottbn. 

Moietena  Indiana. — A  group  of  some  half  dozen 
tribes  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic  stock  upon  the 
headwaters  of  the  Beni  river,  Department  of  Beni,  in 
north-western  Bolivia.  Among  their  peculiar  customs 
is  the  couvade.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  through  the  efforts  oi  the  Jesuits,  a  part  of 
them  were  Christianized.  They  now  number  about 
13(X),  and  are  tiving  in  three  mission  towns,  viz.,  Mu- 
chanes  (founded  1725),  Santa  Ana,  and  Magdalena, 
all  on  the  Beni  river,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Mapisi. 

Brimton,  iiiiMriean  Aace  (New  York,  1801) ;  Hxatr  in  Kanaaa 
City  Rewiew  of  Seienea.  VI  (Kaniaa  City,  1883);  Wbdobll,  Vm/aga 
dona  U  Nord  da  la  Bolivia  (Paris,  1863). 

Jamsb  Moonet. 

Mouetta,  a  short,  cape^aped  garment,  covering 
the  shoulders  and  reaching  onW  to  the  elbow,  with 
an  open  front,  which  may  be  fastened  by  means  of 
a  row  of  small  buttons;  at  the  neck  it  has  a  very  small 
and  purely  ornamental  hood.  The  pri\dlege  of 
wearing  the  mozzetta  belongs  properlv  to  no  one 
but  the  pope,  cardinals,  exempt  abbots,  i^bots 
general,  and  the  four  prelates  di  fiochetti;  only  through 
a  special  privilege  may  it  be  worn  by  other  ecclesias- 
tics, abbots,  canons,  etc.  Cardinals  wear  the  mozzetta 
over  the  mantelletta,  but  bishops  wear  it  without 
the  mantelletta;  the  latter,  however,  may  wear  the 
mozzetta  only  within  their  own  jurisdiction,  outside 
of  which  the  mantelletta  must  be  worn  instead  of  the 
mozzetta.  Canons  who  have  the  privilege  of  wearing 
the  mozzetta  may  not  use  it  outside  of  the  church, 
save  when  the  chapter  appears  in  corpore  (as  a  coi^ 
porate  body).  The  pope's  mozzetta  is  always  red, 
except  that,  in  Easter  week,  he  wears  a  white  one. 
As  regards  material,  his  mozzetta  during  the  winter 
half-year,  that  is,  from  the  feast  of  St.  Catherine  to 
Ascension  Day,  is  made  of  velvet  or  of  cloth  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  day  or  ceremony;  in  the 
summer  half-vear  it  is  made  of  satin  or  fine  wool- 
len material  (merino).  It  is  edged  with  ermine  onXj 
in  the  winter  half-year.  A  cardinal's  mozzetta  is 
senerallv  red;  the  colour  is  pink  on  Gaudete  and 
Jjoetare  Sundays,  and  violet  in  penitential  seasons  and 
for  mourning.  According  to  the  time  of  vear,  it 
is  made  of  silk  or  wool.  When  worn  by  bishops, 
prelates,  canons,  etc.,  the  mozzetta  is  violet  or  black 


in  colour:  the  material  for  these  dignitaries  is  properly 
not  silk  but  wool  (camlet).  Xl^ardinals  and  bi&ope 
who  belong  to  an  oider  wearing  a  distinctive  reli^ous 
habit  (e.  g.  the  Benedictines,  Dominicans,  etc.)  retain 
for  the  mozzetta  the  colour  of  the  outer  garment  of  the 
habit  of  the  respective  order.  This  also  applies  to 
abbots  and  Reformed  Augustinian  canons  wno  have 
the  privilege  of  wearing  the  mozzetta.  The  mozzetta 
is  not  a  liturgical  vestment,  consequently,  for  example, 
it  cannot  be  worn  at  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments. Sometimes  it  is  traced  back  to  the  cappa, 
this  making  it  merely  a  shortened  c^pa;  sometimes 
to  the  almutia.  From  which  of  the  two  it  is  derived, 
is  uncertain.  The  name  mozzetta  permits  both  deri- 
vations. In  all  probability  the  garment  did  not  come 
into  use  until  the  latter  Middle  Ages.  It  was  cer- 
tainly worn  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
as  is  proved  b^  the  fresco  of  Melozzo  da  ForB  painted 
in  1477:  "Sixtus  IV  giving  the  Custodv  of  the 
Vatican  Library  to  Platina  .  From  the  beginning 
the  mozzetta  has  been  a  garment  distinctive  of  the 
higher  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  the  pope,  cardinals, 
and  bishops.     (See  Hood.) 

Brauk,  Dia  liturg.  Oawandung  im  Oecidani  «.  Oriani  (Fresburc 
1007).  367  aq.;  Babbibr  ds  Montault,  Traiti  pratique  da  la  eon- 
atruetion  daa  igliaaa,  II  (Pario,  1878),  606,  610,  641.  661;  Caaramon, 
apiac,  I,  i.  n.  8;  m,  nn,  1-4.  JosEPH  BraUN. 

Bloiii,  LuiGi,  controversialist,  b.  at  Bergamo,  26 
May.  1746;  d.  near  Milan,  24  June,  1813.  He  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1763,  and  on  its  suppres- 
sion was  received  into  the  Diocese  of  Bergamo,  where 
he  was  shortly  made  a  canon,  and  appointed  arch- 

?riest  and  examiner  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood, 
'he  zeal  and  ability  with  which  he  opposed  the  prog- 
ress of  Jansenism  in  Italy  gained  him  a  welHnerited 
reputation,  and  Pius  VI  called  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
became  an  Apostolic  missionary.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Accademia  degli  Arcadi  (see  Academ- 
ies, Roman).  In  1804  he  hastened  to  rejoin  the  Soci- 
ety, which  had  been  restored  in  Naples.  Worn  out  at 
length  by  his  charitable  labours  and  penitential  prac- 
tices, he  retired  to  the  residence  of  Marquis  Scotti  near 
Milan,  where  he  died.  Among  his  important  writings 
are:  "Veraideadel  Giansenismo''  (1781) ; ''  Storia  com- 
pendiosa  della  scisma  della  nuova  chiesa  d'Utrecht" 
(Ferrara,  1785) ; "  Storia  delle  revoluzioni  della  Chiesa 
d'Utrecht"  (Venice,  1787) ;  ''Compendio  storieo-crono- 
losico  .  .  .  sopra  il  Baianismo,  Giansenismo  e  Ques- 
nellismo"  (Foli^o,  1792),  all  against  Jansenism;  "II 
f  also  discepolo  di  S.  Agostino  e  di  S.  Tommaso"  (Venice, 
1 779) ,  a  defence  of  Molinism .  He  translated  from  the 
English  the  Duke  of  Brunswick's  "Fifty  Reasons  for 
preferring  the  Roman  Catholic  Religion"  (Bassano, 
1789) ;  and  from  the  French.  "  Les  projets  des  incr6- 
dules  pour  la  mine  de  la  religion,  d^voil^s  dans  les 
ceuvres  de  Fr^d^ric,  roi  de  Prusse"  (Assisi,  1791). 

HusTEB.  NomanekUor,  III,  640;  Vita  dal  P,  L,  Moaai  (Novaxm, 

^*^^-  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

BCrak,  loNATinB,  second  Bishop  <A  Marquette, 
U.  S.  A.,  b.  16  October,  1818,  in  Hotovle,  m  the 
Diocese  of  Laibach  (Carinthia),  Austria;  d.  at  Mar- 
(juette,  2  Jan.,  1901.  He  made  his  classical  studies 
in  the  gymnasium  of  Laibach  and  his  theology  in 
the  local  diocesan  seminary.  On  13  August,  1837, 
Prince-Bishop  Anton  Aloys  Wolf  raised  him  to  the 
priesthood.  To  qualify  for  a  tutorship  in  the  house 
of  Field-Marshal  Baron  Peter  Pirc^uet,  the  young 
priest  passed  a  rigorous  state  examination,  and  so- 
joumea  two  years  at  Legnago  near  Verona,  Italy, 
then  an  Austnan  possession.  In  1840  he  returned  to 
his  native  diocese,  and  occupied  several  positions  as 
assistant  before  emigrating  to  the  United  States  five 
years  later.  Bishop  Lefebre  of  Detroit  received  him 
cordially,  and  sent  him  immediately  to  Arbre  Croche 
to  assist  the  celebrated  Indian  missionaiy,  Father 
Francis    Pien.    For   two   years    the   miBsionariet 


MUGHAB 


625 


KUHLBACHEB 


loMATiua  Mbak 


veorked  fruitfully  together,  and,  when  in  1851  Piers 
lemoved  to  Minnesota,  Mrak  retained  charge  of  the 
Indian  mission.  For  his  devotion  to  the  red  race 
Baraga  appointed  him  his  vicar-general,  and  upon  the 
death  of  baraga  he  was  created  second  Bishop  of 
Marquette,  f^r  a  long  time  he  refused  to  accept, 
but,  finally  jrielding  to  the  urgen<r|r  of  Archbishop 
Purcell,  he  was  consecrated  at  Cincinnati  on  9 
February,  1869.  After  ten  years*  devotion  to  the 
administration  of  the  diocese,  although  he  was  not 
unaccustomed  to  hardships^  his  health  b^an  to  fail, 
and  he  was  permitted  to  resign  in  1879,  ana  was  made 

titular  Bishop  of 
Antinoe.  For 
some  yean  he  re- 
mained with  lus 
successor,  Bishop 
Vertin^  and,  when 
necessity  reouired, 
performed  the 
duties  of  an  ordi- 
nary pastor.  With 
the  return  of  his 
health,  his  love  for 
the  Indians  awoke, 
and  he  returned  to 
the  Lidian  mis- 
sions, which  he  had 
left  BO  reluctantly 
to  accept  the  epis- 
copate. Bishop 
Richter  of  Grand 
Rapids  most  cor- 
dially welcomed 
him,  and  at  his  own 
request  gave  him 
the  Indiui  mission 
at  Easle  Town, 
Leeland  County. 
Here  he  lived  a  simple  life  sharing  his  small  annuity 
of  eight  hundred  dollars  with  the  two  Dominican  Sis- 
ters whom  he  had  induced  to  open  a  school  for  lus 
charges.    In  his  eighty-first  year  he  retired  to  Mar- 

Siette,  and  filled  thenc^orth  a  chaplaincy  at  St.  Mary's 
ospital  to  the  last  day  of  his  life.  His  charity  was  as 
proverbisJ  as  his  humility.  He  outlived  his  successor 
m  the  episcopate,  and  saw  the  election  of  the  fourth 
bishop,  whom  he  himself  had  r^sed  to  the  priesthood. 
His  body  rests  in  the  vault  under  the  cathedral  be- 
side those  of  his  predecessors,  Baraga  and  Vertin. 

Rbsbk,  Hiaiory  of  the  Dioceae  of  SauU  SU.  MarU  and  MarqudU 
(Houghton,  Michigan,  1006) ;  Vbbwtst,  Life  of  Bithop  Baroga 
(Milwaukee,  1900) ;  Berichu  der  iMmoldintn  8t%fhma  im  Kauer- 
thume  Oeaterrrich  (Vienna,  1832-65);  Diocetan  AreMtea  (Mar- 
quette). 

Antoinb  Ivan  Rbzek. 

Muehar,  Albert  Anton  von,  historian,  b.  at  Lines, 
Tyrol,  22  Nov.,  1781 ;  d.  at  Graz,  Styria,  6  June,  1849. 
He  wos  descenaed  from  the  noble  and  ancient  family 
of  the  Muchars  of  Bied  and  Rangfeld,  studied  at  the 
lyceum  in  Graz,  entered  the  Benedictine  Order,  and 
made  his  vows  on  16  Oct.,  1808,  at  Admont.  Or- 
dained a  priest  shortly  afterwards,  he  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  the  study  of  the  oriental  laxiguages, 
became  librarian  and  keeper  of  the  archives  in  1813, 
and  later  on  professor  of  Greek  and  Oriental  languages 
at  the  theological  school  of  his  monastery.  From 
1823  to  1825  he  was  supplementary  professor  of  Bib- 
lical science,  becoming  afterwards  professor  of  aes- 
thetics and  classical  philology  at  the  University  of 
Graz.  Pure  philological  studies,  however,  did  not 
suit  his  taste,  and  in  this  branch  we  possess  from  him 
only  a  somewhat  mediocre  edition  of  Horace  with 
German  translation,  which  appeared  in  1835  at 
Graz.  His  researches  dealt  chiefly  with  the  history 
of  Austria,  for  which  purpose  he  made  extensive 
viata  to  the  libraries  of  Austria,  Bavaria^  and  Upper 
X.— 40 


Italy;  thus,  nearly  all  his  historical  works  are  based 
upon  caretul  examination  of  the  original  sources. 
In  1829  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna  elected 
him  a  member  in  reoo^tion  of  his  important  con- 
tributions to  national  history,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Historical  Society  for  Inner  Austria. 
Of  his  more  important  works  may  be  mentioned: 
"Das  rdmische  Norikum"  (2  vols.,  Graz,  1825-6); 
"Geschichte  des  Herzogtums  Steiermark''  (Graz, 
1845-74)  in  nine  volumes,  of  which  the  first  four  were 
edited  by  himself,  the  following  two  bv  his  colleagues, 
Pran^er  and  von  Grftfenstein,  and  the  last  three  by 
the  Historical  Society  of  Styria.  Beside  this  he 
wrote  numerous  excellent  essays  for  historical  period- 
icals, e.  ^.  Hormayr's  "  Archiv",  the  "Steiermarkische 
Zeitschnft'\  and  the  "Archiv  fUr  Kunde  dsterreich- 
ischer  Geschichtsquellen"  (in  which  he  published  his 
valuable  "Urkundenregesten  ftir  die  G^schichte  In- 
nerSsterreichs  vom  Jahre  1312-1500"  (Vienna,  1849). 
The  library  of  Admont  possesses  in  manuscripts  some 
still  more  extensive  works,  which  show  Muchar's  great 
diligence  os  a  compiler. 

iLwour,  Albert  ton  Jiuehar  in  Mitteil.  dee  hieto.  Vereine  Stotcr* 
mark,  faao.  ziv  (Qiaa,  1866);  AUg,  Deuteehe  Biogr,,  XXII  (Leipsig. 
1885).486-«. 

PATBiaUB  SCHLAGBB. 

MfUiIbacher,  Engblbbrt,  historian,  b.  at  Gresten, 
Austria.  4  Oct.,  1843 ;  d.  at  Vienna,  17  July,  1903.  He 
received  his  classical  education  at  Vienna,  his  father's 
native  city.  In  1862  he  became  a  novice  among  the 
Austin  Canons  at  St.  Florian.  After  completing  his 
theological  studies  there,  he  was  ordajnea  i)rie8t  in 
1867.  As  Ameth  relates  in  his  memoire,  historical 
studies  had  been  successfullv  cultivated  at  St. 
Florian's  since  Provost  Ameth's  time,  and  Mllhl- 
badier  was  soon  active  in  this  domain.  Among  his 
writings  are  articles  on  St.  Florian's  Gerhoh  von 
ReichersberK,  and  the  literary  productions  of  St. 
Florian's.  In  1872  we  find  MQhlbacher  studying 
under  Julius  Ficker  at  Innsbruck,  where  after  two 
years  he  received  liie  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology. 
He  then  hastened  to  Vienna  to  finish  his  historical 
training  under  Sickd's  guidance.  When  Ficker  en- 
trusted the  youthful  scholar  with  the  revision  of  the 
Carlovingian  period  of  Bdhmer's  "Regesta",  he  was 
directing  nim  to  a  domain  in  which  he  was  to  do  im- 
perishable work.  In  1878  he  was  formallv  received 
as  academical  lecturer  into  the  philosophical  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Innsbruck,  and  between  1880  and 
1889  published  his  masterly  edition  of  the  imperial 
"Regesta"  of  the  Carlovingian  period.  As  Redlich 
says,  ''the  technique  of  compiling  regesta  received 
exemplary  development  at  Mtihlbachers  hands,  and 
his  work  served  as  a  model  for  the  entire  new  edition 
of  the  imperial  "Regesta".  In  1892  MOhlbacher 
was  entrusted  with  the  editing  of  the  Carlovingian 
documents  for  the  "Monumenta  Germanise  Histor- 
ical. At  the  same  time  it  became  necessary  to 
bring  out  a  new  edition  of  his  Carlovingian  **  Regesta". 
The  two  works  proved  of  mutual  assistance,  and 
MC^bacher  devoted  i^e  greatest  care  and  diligence 
to  his  tasks.  He  was  able  to  see  only  the  first  part 
of  each  work  through  the  press,  but  left  considerable 
material  for  the  use  of  nis  successors.  No  other 
German  sdiolar  was  so  well  qualified  to  write  the 
"Deutsche  Geschichte  unter  den  Karolingem", 
which  appeared  in  1896.  Since  1879  Mtihlbacher 
edited  tne  "  Mitteilungen  des  Instituts  ftir  dster- 
rdchische  Geschichtsforschung".  In  1881  he  was 
appointed  extraordinary,  and  in  1896  ordinary 
professor  at  Vienna.  In  1895  Ficker  turned  over  to 
nim  tiie  management  of  the  "Regesta  Imperii". 
With  the  utmost  eneray  he  took  in  hand  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Austrian  State  Archives,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  more  recent  history  of  Austna.  His 
learning  and  efforts  did  not  fail  to  receive  due  recog- 
nition.   He  was  chosen  an  active  member  of  the 


MULDOON 


626 


MlfLUBB 


Imperial  Academj  of  Sciences  in  Vienna.  MUhl- 
bacher's  unwearying  labours  continued  until  his  all 
too  early  death. 

Rbduch,   OI>%tuarv  in  MiUeil,  dtt  InatUutea  fUr  6»terr,  (?•- 
§eh%efUafor»ehyng,  XXV  (Ixmsbruck.  1904),  201-7,  with  portrait. 

C.  WOLFSGRUBBR. 

Muldoon,  Peter  Jambb.    See  Rockford,  Dio* 

CE8E  OF. 


[ulhall,  Michael  George,  statistician,  b.  in  Dub- 
lin, 29  September,  1829:  d.  there  13  Dec.,  1900.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Irish  Ck)llege,  Rome.  Going 
to  Buefios  Aires  he  established  there  in  1861  the 
"Standard'',  the  first  paper  in  English  publii^ed  in 
South  America.  In  1869  he  brought  out  "  The  Hand- 
book of  the  River  Plate  "^  the  first  English  book 
printed  in  Argentina.  This  was  followed  by  his 
^* Prow-ess  of  the  World"  (1880);  "Balance  Sheet  of 
the  World,  1873-1880"  (1881);  "Dictionary  of 
Statistics"  (1883),  a  standard  work  of  reference,  few 
modem  compilations  having  been  more  extensively 
used;  "History  of  Prices  since  1850"  (1885).  In 
1896  he  travelled  extensively  in  Europe  collecting 
material  for  the  Committee  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment reporting  on  a  proposed  department  of  agricul- 
ture for  Ireland.  The  pope  decorated  him  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  literary  work,  in  which  his  wife,  Marion 
McMurrough  Mulhall,  who  has  also  written  exten- 
sively, was  his  active  and  practical  assistant. 

Tbblet  (LoDdon.  22  Deo.,  1900). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Mulholland,  St.  Clair  AuonsTiNE,  soldier,  b. 
at  Lisbum,  Co.  Antrim,  Ireland,  1  April,  1839;  a.  at 
Philadelphia,  17  Feb.,  1910.  Emigrating  to  Phila- 
delphia with  his  parents  while  a  boy,  his  youthful 
tastes  inclined  him  to  military  affairs  and  he  became 
active  in  the  ranks  of  the  militia.  At  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  commissioned  Lieutenant 
Colonel  of  the  116th  Pennsylvania  Volunteers  which 
was  attached  to  Meagher's  Irish  Brigade,  and  later 
was  made  its  colonel.  He  was  wounded  during  the 
famous  charge  of  the  Irish  Brigade  up  Marye's 
Heights,  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  13  Dec., 

1862,  At  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville,  3,  4  May. 

1863,  he  led  his  regiment  and  distinguished  himself 
by  saving  the  guns  of  the  Fifth  Maine  Battery  that 
had  been  abandoned  to  the  enemy.  For  this  he 
was  complimented  in  general  orders  and  received  the 
Medal  of  Honor  from  Congress.  In  this  campaign 
he  was  given  the  command  of  the  picket-line  by 
General  Hancock  and  covered  the  retreat  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  across  the  Rappahannock.  At  Get- 
tysburg his  own  regiment  was  so  badly  cut  up  in  the 
first  day's  fight,  that  he  changed  to  the  140tn  Penn. 
Volunteers  and  led  it  into  action.  He  was  wounded 
a  second  time  at  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  5  May. 

1864,  and  for  his  gallant  conduct  was  breve ttea 
brigadier-general.  At  Po  River  he  was  wounded 
a  third  time  but  remained  in  hospital  only  ten  days, 
and  resuming  his  command  was  dangerously  wounded 
again  at  Tolpotomoy.  He  recovered  rapidly  and 
commanded  his  brigade  in  all  the  actions  around 
Petersburg,  particularly  distinguishing  himself  by 
storming  a  fort  for  which  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general  27  October,  1864.  Returning  to  civil  life 
after  the  war  he  was  appointed  Chief  of  Police  in 
Philadelphia  in  1868,  and  signalized  his  administra- 
tion by  the  good  order  in  which  he  kept  both  the 
force  and  the  city.  President  Cleveland  appointed 
him  United  States  Pension  Agent,  in  which  office  he 
was  continued  by  Presidents  McKinley  and  Roosevelt. 
He  was  considered  an  authority  on  the  science  of  penol- 
ogy, and  also  devoted  much  of  his  leisure  time  to  art 
studies,  and  as  a  lecturer  and  writer  on  the  Civil 
War  and  its  records.  He  compiled  a  history  of  the 
116th  Regiment  of  Pennsylvania  Volunteers,  and  an- 
other of  those  to  whom  Congress  voted  the  Medal 


of  Honor.  In  the  Catholic  affurs  of  Philadelphia 
he  was  always  active  and  a  leader  among  the  oest 
known  and  most  respected  laymen. 

CoNTHOHAii.  The  Irith  Brigada  and  iU  Campaign*  (BtMrton. 
1869):  Anuriea  (New  York.  26  Feb..  1910).  files;  Cath.  Sfamdoni 
tmd  Timm  (Philadelphu,  26  Feb..  1910).  files. 

Thomas  F.  Msehan. 

Mnllanjphy,  John,  merchant,  philanthropist,  b. 
near  Enniskulen,  Go.  Fermanagh,  Ireland,  1758;  d. 
at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  U.  S.  A.,  29  August,  1833. 
At  twenty  he  went  to  France  where  he  served  in  the 
Irish  Brigade  until  the  Revolution  drove  him  back  to 
Ireland.  In  1792  with  his  wife  and  child  he  emigrated 
to  Philadelphia,  thence  going  to  Baltimore  where  he 
remained  until  1799.  He  next  went  to  Kentucky 
where  he  opened  a  store  at  Frankfort,  but  left  there  in 
1804,  and  settled  finally  in  St.  Louis,  then  a  French 
settlement.  His  enterprise  in  business  brought  him 
large  returns  which  he  invested  in  real  estate.  He  waj 
in  Baltimore  during  the  War  of  1812  with  England, 
and  took  part  in  its  defence,  and  later  was  with 
Jackson  in  1815  at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  His 
business  instinct  prompted  him  to  then  buy  a  large 
Quantity  of  cotton  at  low  rates,  which  the  ending  of 
the  war  enabled  him  to  sell  at  an  immense  profit.  He 
had  fifteen  children,  and  spent  his  last  ^ears  m  dispens- 
ing much  of  his  great  fortune  in  chant  v.  In  1827  he 
established  the  St.  Louis  Convent  of  the  Religious  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  the  second  in  the  United  States. 
The  following  year  he  gave  a  hospital  to  the  Sisters  of 
Charity.  A  church,  the  Jesuit  novitiate,  and  a  con- 
vent for  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  Florisant,  were  also 
his  gifts,  and  when  he  died  25,000  doUars  was  left  in 
his  will  for  education  and  charity.  His  children  con- 
tinued his  benefactions.  His  only  son  Bryan,  who 
died  in  1851,  a  bachelor,  lived  an  eccentric  life.  He 
was  mavor  of  St.  Louis  in  1847,  and  for  four  years 
judge  of  the  County  Court.  His  will  left  one  third  of 
nis  estate  ^about  200,000  dollars)  as  a  trust  fund  ''to 
furnish  rehef  to  all  poor  emigrants  passing  through 
St.  Louis  to  settle  in  the  West".  Changed  conditions 
have  frustrated  that  intention,  and  it  is  now  devoted 
to  charity.  John  Mullanphy's  name  is  perpetuated  in 
St.  Louis  by  the  hospital  and  oiphan  asylum  so  desig- 
nated, and  the  name  of  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Ann  Biddle, 
is  preserved  in  the  Biddle  Home  and  St.  Ann's  Found- 
ling Asylum  which  she  founded. 

The  Memenger  (New  York,  Julv.  1908);  Church  Progm*  (St. 
Louis,  Februaiy.  March,  1906),  files;  Darbt,  RecotUctume  of&L 
Louie  (St.  Louis);  BRAcxKinuDaB,  ReooUeetione  ofPenoneand 
Placee  in  the  Weal  (1834);  Bneydopedia  of  the  Hietvry  of  St. 
Louie, 

Thoicas  F.  Meehan. 

• 

Mtlller,  Adam  Heinrich,  publicist  and  political 
economist,  convert,  b.  at  Berlin,  30  June,  1779;  d.  at 
Vienna,  17  Jan.,  1829.  It  was  intended  that  he 
should  study  Protestant  theology,  but  from  1798  he 
devoted  himself  in  Gottingen  to  the  study  of  law, 

Ehilosophy,  and  natural  science.  Returning  to  Ber- 
n,  he  was  persuaded  by  his  friend  Gentz  to  take  up 
political  science.  After  workins  for  some  time  as 
referendary  in  the  Kurm&rkische  Rammer  in  Berlin,  he 
travelled  in  Sweden  and  Denmark,  spent  about  two 
years  in  Poland,  and  then  went  to  Vienna,  where  he 
was  converted  to  the  Catholic  Faith  on  30  April,  1805. 
From  1806  to  1809  he  lived  at  Dresden  as  tutor  of  a 
prince  of  the  Saxe-Weimar  family  and  lecturer  on 
German  literature,  dramatic  art,  and  political  science. 
In  1808  he  edited  with  Heinrich  von  Kleist  the  poi- 
odical  "Phoebus".  In  1809  he  returned  to  Berlin, 
and  in  1811  to  Vienna,  where  he  lived  in  the  house  of 
Archduke  Maximilian  of  Austria-Este  and  became  the 
friend  of  Clement  Maria  Hoffbauer.  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  imperial  commissioner  and  major  of  the 
nne-corps  in  Tyrol,  and  took  part  in  the  ware  for  lib- 
erty ana  later  on,  as  counsellor  of  the  government,  in 
the  reorganization  of  the  country.    In  181$  he  was 


called  to  Vieana,  and  went  to  Park  with  the  ImppriaJ ' 
staff.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace,  he  became  Aua- 
trian  consul-general  for  Saxony  at  Ijeipiig,  and  agent 
for  Anhalt  and  Schworzburg.  He  edited  here  the 
periodicala:  "Deutficber  Staateanteiger"  (1813-18) 
and  "  Unparteiiacher  Lit^ratur-  und  Kirchenkorra- 
HDondent  ,  and  attended  the  ininisterial  conferenccfl  at 
Cariabad  and  Vienna  (1819-20).  In  1826,  at  the  in- 
atance  of  Prince  von  Mettemich,  he  was  eaaobled  u 
Ritter  von  Nitteredorf,  was  reeaUed  to  Vienna  (1827), 
appointed  imperial  counsellor,  and  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  chancery. 

MuUcr  was  a  raan  of  great  and  versatile  talents,  an 
excellent  orator,  and  a  suggestive  writer.  SeveraJ  of 
his  works  were  based  upon  his  own  lectures;  the  most 
important  (besides  the  above-mentioned  periodicals) 
are:  "Die  Lehre  von  Gegensali"  (Berlin,  1804); 
"  Vorleaungen  Uber  die  deutsche  Wisscnschaft  u.  Lit- 
eratiir"  (Dresden,  1806;  2nd  ed.,  1807);  "Von  der 
Idee  der  Schonheit"  (lectures;  Berlin,  1809)-  "Die 
Elemente  der  Staatskunst"  Oectures;  3  parts,  Berlin, 
1809);  "Ueber  Kflnig  Friedrich  11.  u.  die  Natur 
WUrde  u.  Beetimmung  der  preussischen  Monarchie 
Oectures;  Berlin,  1810);  "Die Theorie  der  Staatshaue- 
haltung  u.  ihre  Fortachritte  in  Deutschland  u.  Eng- 
land Beit  Adam  Smith"  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1812); 
"Vermisehte  Schritten  Uber  Staat,  Philoeophie  u. 
Kunst"  (2  vols.,  Vienna,  1812;  2nd  ed.,  _1817);  "Ver- 
such  ^er  neuen  Theorie  des  Geldes,  mit  beeondercr 
RUcksicht  auf  Grossbritaunien"  (Leipzig,  1816): 
"  Zwolf  Reden  liber  die  Beredsamkcit  u.  deren  VerfsJI 
in  Deutschland"  (Leipzig,  1817);  "Die  Fortschritte 
der  naUonal6konomischen  Wissenschaft  in  England" 
(Leipzig,  1817);  "Von  der  Notwendigkeit  einer  theo- 
l<^pschen  Grundlage  der  gcaamten  Staatswissenschaf- 
ten  u.  der  Staatswirtschaft  insljeeondere"  (Leipzig, 
1820;  newed.,  Vienna,  1898);  "DieGewerbe-Poliiciin 
Beziebung  aui  den  Landbau"  (Leipzig,  1824);  "Vor- 
Bchlag  zu  einem  historischen  Ferien-Cursus"  (Vienna, 
1829).  A  critical  pamphlet,  which  was  written  in 
1817  on  the  occasion  of  the  Protestant  jubilee  of  the 
Reformation  and  entitled,  "Etwas  das  Goethe  gesagt 
bat.  Beieuchtet  von  Adam  MUller.  LeipEis  den  31 
Oktober,  1817",  was  printed  but  not  published  (re- 
printed in  Vienna,  1910).  Nevertheless,  Traugott 
Krug'B  reply,  entitled  "F.twas,  das  Herr  Adam  Mifller 
geeagt  hat  liber  etwas,  das  Goethe  geeeft  hat,  und 
noch  etwas,  das  Luther  geeogt  hat"  (Leipzig,  1817), 
appeared  in  two  editions. 

In  the  field  of  hterature  and  lesthetics.M  tiller  be- 
longa  to  the  Romantic  achool.  He  is  a  Romanticist 
even  in  his  specialty,  politics  and  political  economy. 
Am  EichendorfT  save  in  his  "Geschichte  der  poetischen 
Lit«ratur  Deutschlands"  (new  ed.,  by  W.  Koeeh, 
Kempten,  1906,  p.  352),  Mliller  "mapped  out  a  do- 


himself  declares:  "The  reconciliation  of  science  and 
art  and  of  their  noblest  ideas  with  serious  political  life 
was  the  purpose  of  m^  larger  works"  (Vermiscbte 
Scbriften,  I,  p.  iii).  'His  chid  work  is  the  "Elemente 
der  Staatskunst",  originating  in  lectures  delivered  be- 
fore Prince  Bemhard  of  Saxe-Weimar  and  an  as- 
sembly of  politicians  and  diplomats  at  Dresden  in  the 
winter  1808-09.  _  It  treats  in  six  books  of  the  state,  of 
right,  of  the  spirit  of  legislation  in  antiquity  and  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  of  money  and  national  wealth,  of 
the  economical  factors  of  the  state  and  trade,  of  the 
relation  between  the  state  and  religion.  Midler  en- 
deavoured to  comprehend  the  connexion  between 
political  and  social  science,  and,  while  using  the  lua- 
torical  method,  to  base  them  upon  philosophy  and  re- 
Uraon.  (Gf.  the  preface  to  the  first  volume  of  the 
"Elemente",  where  he  treats  exhaustively  of  the 
differences  between  his  work  and  Montesquieu's  "  Es- 
prit des  lois";  cf.  also  the  sixth  book  of  this  work,  and 
the  Bbove-mentioned  work  of  1820.)    With  Edmund 


!7  UttLLIB 

Burke,  Friedrich  von  Gentz,  Joseph  de  Maistre,  and 
Karl  Ludwig  von  Haller,  he  must  oe  reckoned  among 
the  chief  opponents  of  revolutionary  ideas  in  poKtics. 
In  his  worK,  "Von  der  NotwendiAeit  einer  theolo- 
gischen  Grundlage  der  gesammten  l^taalswissenschaf- 
ten"  (1820),  MtUler  rejects,  like  Hatler  (Restauration 
der  Staatswiasenschaften,  1816),  the  distinction  be- 
tween constitutional  and  civil  law,  which  rests  en> 
tirely  on  the  false  idea  of  the  state's  omnipotence. 
His  ideal  is  medieval  feudalism,  on  which  the  reoi> 
ganication  of  modem  pohtical  institutions  should  be 
modelled.  His  position  in  pohtical  economy  is  de- 
fined by  his  strong  opposition  to  Adaro  Smith's  aya- 
tem  of  materialist! c-tiberal  (so-called  classical)  polite 
ical  economy,  or  the  so-caDed  industry  ss^tem.  He 
is  thus  also  an  adversary  of  free  trade.  In  contrast 
with  the  economical  individualism  of  Adam  Smith,  he 
emphasizee  the  ethical  element  in  national  economy, 
the  duty  of  the  state  toward  the  individual,  and  the 
religious  baaia  which  ia  also  necessary  in  this  fidd. 
MUUer's  importance  in  the  history  of  political  econ- 
omy is  acknowledged  even  by  the  opponents  of  hia 
leli^ous  and  political  point  of  view.  His  reaction 
BKainst  Adam  Smith,  aays  Roecher  (Geschichte  d^ 
Nation ol-Oekonomik,  p.  763),  "is  not  blind  or  hostile, 
but  is  important,  and  often  truly  helpful."  The  re- 
actionary and  feudalistic  thou^t  in  his  writings, 
which  agreed  so  little  with  the  spuit  of  the  times,  pre- 
vented his  political  ideas  from  exerting  a  more  not- 
able and  lasting  influence  on  his  age,  while  their  re- 
ligious character  prevented  them  from  beingjuatly 
appreciated. 
WuniBACH,  Bicaraph.  La.  da  KautHumt  Oetttmicl,.  XIX 
,™„.    322^.   MtiCBLE^  ia  AUe.  druUcSt  Siot:  XXll 


i  Ord 


MllHer,   JoHANN,   physiologist   and   comparative 
anatomist,  b.  at  CoblenU,  14  July,  1801;  d.  at  Ber- 
lin, 28  April,  1858.     He  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker, 
but    his   mother  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining;  for 
him  a  good  education. 
During  his  college 
course  at  Coblentz,  ne 
devoted  himself  to  the 
classics  and  made  hia 
own    translations   of 
Aristotle.      His    first 
intention  was  to  be  a 

Eriest,  but  at  eighteen 
ia  love  for  natural 
science  turned  him  to 
medicine  and  he  en- 
tered  the   University 


of   I 


I  1819 


JoHiHM  MOuxa 


While  a  student  he 
won  a  prize  for  origj- 
nal  work  on  "Respi- 
ration of  the  FiEtus", 
a  thesis  that  baa  been 
declared  the  best  scientific  work  ever  presented  by  a 
student  in  a  prize  competition.  He  received  his  de- 
gree of  doctor  for  a  theaia  on  animal  movement. 
In  1824  he  became  Prwabioeent  at  Bonn,  and  in  1830 
ordinary- prof easor  of  medicine.  Before  teaching  at 
Bonn  he  had  studied  for  two  yeara  with  Rudolpm  at 
Berlin,  and  in  1S32  was  appointed  hia  successor  in 
the  professorship  of  anatomy  there.  In  1847  he  wm 
elected  Rector  of  the  Univeraity. 

Mliller  is  justly  r^^arded  as  tne  founder  of  modem 
physiology.  His  claim  to  this  title  rests  not  only 
upon  his  personal  contributions  to  the  acience,  but 
aleo  upon  nis  nower  of  coordinating  the  results  o^ 


XiJLLIB 


628 


HULUB 


tained  bjr  hiB  predccoaaorB,  and  of  directmg  into  new 
fields  of  investigation  the  disciples  who  profited  by 
his  suKgestive  teaching.  To  accuracy  of  observation 
he  added  such  a  grasp  of  principles  and  so  clear  a  com- 
prehension of  the  bearing  of  other  sciences  upon 
physiolonr  that  his  reasoning,  based  throughout  upon 
facts,  is  philosophical  in  breadth  and  penetration. 

His  first  monog^ph,  an  elaboration  of  his  prise  e»- 
say.  **  De  respiratione  fcetus",  was  published  m  1823, 
and  was  followed  (1826)  by  two  others  on  optical  illu- 
sions and  on  the  comparative  physiology  of  vidon. 
The  last-named  abounds  in  observations  upon  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  ^e  in  lower  animals, 
especiallv  in  insects.  Among  the  other  subjects  to 
which  Mtlller  devoted  careful  and  successful  research 
may  be  mentioned:  reflex  action,  the  chemical  com- 
position of  blood  plasma,  the  presence  of  chondrin  in 
cartilage,  hermapnroditism  in  numan  bdngs,  the  mi- 
nute structure  and  origin  of  slands  in  man  and  ani- 
maJs,  the  lymph  hearts  of  amphibia,  and  those  ducts  of 
the  preliminary  kidney  in  the  foetus  which  have  since 
been  called  by  his  name.  His  study  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals resulted  in  the  discovery  of  alternate  generations 
and  in  a  satisfactory  account  of  the  metamorphoses  of 
echinodermata. 

From  1834  to  1840  he  edited  the ''Archives  of  Anat- 
omy and  Physiology"  ^Mtlller's  Archives)  and  con- 
tributed articles  to  various  scientific  reviews.  His 
own  contributions  to  medical  literature  number  over 
two  hundred,  most  of  them  of  great  significance.  His 
principal  work  is  the  "  Handbuch  der  Physiologie  des 
Menschen",  which  was  published  In  1833  and  has 
appealed  in  numerous  editions  and  translations.  But 
the  b^iefit  which  he  rendered  to  science  as  an  original 
investigator  and  medical  editor  is  surpassed  by  his 
work  as  a  teacher.  Among  his  pupils  were  most  of 
the  men  who  made  Germany  the  Alecca  for  scientific 
students  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
They  included  Virchow,  Helmholtz,  Schwann,  I/u 
Bois-Reymond,  Lieberktmn,  Max  Schultze,  Brticke, 
Clapar^de,  Haeckel,  Henle,  Guido  Wagener,Ileichert, 
Luawig^  Vierordt,  and  Kolliker.  All  of  these  men 
agreed  m  proclaiming  him  the  foremost  physiolog^t 
oi  his  time.  Most  of  the  important  scientific  societies 
of  the  world  honoured  him.  Throughout  his  life  he 
was  loyal  in  his  adherence  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  his  fellow-Catholics  of  the  Rhine  land  have  erected 
a  noble  monument  to  his  memory  at  Coblentz. 

ViBCROw.  Johann  MOiUr  (Berlin,  1858);  BrOcks.  Mtdioal 
TiffiM  and  OoM^Ue  (London,  17  July,  1858);  Du  Boib-Rbtiiond, 
O^dOchtnianredt  auj  Johanna  Mullar  (Berlin,  1860);  Walbh, 
Makera  of  Modem  Mtdicine  (New  York,  1910). 

Jambb  J.  Wai£h. 


MtUIer  (Rbgiomontanus),  JoHAim,  German 
tronomer,  b.  in  or  near  Kdnigsberg,  a  small  town  in 
lower  Franconia  (Dukedom  of  Coburg),  6  June,  1436; 
d.  in  Rome,  6  July,  1476.  The  name  of  the  family 
agreed  with  the  tirade  of  the  father  who  operated  a 
i]^.  Re^omontanus  sipined  himself  Johannes  de 
Monteregio,  while  in  foreign  countries  he  was  known 
as  Joannes  Germanus  or  Francus.  His  calendars 
were  published  under  various  names,  like  Meister 
Hans  von  Kungsberg.  About  the  age  of  twelve  he 
*  was  sent  to  Leipzig  to  study  dialectics.  In  the  uni- 
versity matriculations  (pubu^ed  by  Erler,  1895)  his 
name  is  not  registered.  Hearing  of  the  celebrated  as- 
tronomer Peiirbach  (George  of  Peurbach  in  Upper 
Austria,  1423-61),  Mtlller  left  Leipzig  for  Vienna, 
where  he  was  matriculated  in  1450  as  Johannes  Mo- 
litoris  de  Kimigsperg.  In  1452  he  received  the  bacca- 
laureate and  in  1457  the  title  M agister.  Lectures  of 
his  at  the  university  are  recorded  as  follows:  in  1458 
on  perspective,  in  1460  on  Euclid,  in  1461  on  Virgirs 
Bucolics.  His  master  and  friend  Peurbadi  ehowed 
him  how  incorrect  were  the  Alphonsine  Tables  and 
how  false  the  Latin  translations  of  the  Greek  astron- 
omers from  intermediate  Arabic  translations.    To- 


gether they  observed  the  planet  Man  two  degrees  00 
the  place  assigned  to  it  and  a  lunar  eclipse  over  an  hour 
late  on  the  Tables.  A  new  field  opened  to  the  two 
astronomers  with  the  arrival  in  Vienna  of  the  Greek 
scholar  Cardinal  Bessarion  of  Trebisond,  then  pafuJ 
legate  to  the  emperor j  and  his  brother  Sigismund,  for 
the  purpose  of  adjusting  differences  and  imitifig  them 
against  the  Turks.  Having  changed  to  the  Latin  Rite, 
Bessarion  mastered  the  Latin  language  like  his  own, 
and  commenced  translating  Ptolemy  directly  from  the 
Greek.  On  the  other  hand  Peurbach  was  engaged  in 
composing  an  epitome  on  Ptolemv's  "Almagest". 
The  double  circumstance  that  neither  of  them  was 
able  to  accomplish  his  task,  the  one  for  want  of  time, 
the  other  for  not  knowing  Greek,  brought  about  an 
agreement  that  Peurbach  should  accompany  Bes- 
sarion to  Italy  together  with  Regiomontanus.  Peur- 
bach died  8  April,  1461,  not  yet  thirt^r-eight  years  old, 
and  left  the  ^'Epitome"  to  his  pupil  to  be  finished 
and  published  as  a  sacred  legacy. 

In  companv  with  his  new  patron,  MfiDer  reached 
Rome  in  tne  Fall  of  1461 .  Under  George  of  Trebixond 
and  other  teachers  he  acquired  so  much  knowledge  of 
Greek  that  he  understood  all  of  the  obscure  points  of 
the  "Epitome"  of  his  late  master.  During  his  stay 
in  Italy  jMUller  continually  observed  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  planets,  and  searched  the  hbraries  for  Greek 
manuscnnts.  He  found  another  lunar  ecUpse  over  an 
hour  in  advance  of  the  Tables.  What  manuscripts  he 
could  not  acquire  he  had  cooled.  A  new  Testament, 
written  in  Greek  by  his  own  nand,  was  his  companion. 
The  summer  of  1462  was  spent  at  Viterbo,  and  when 
Bessarion  left  for  Greece  in  the  Fall  of  the  same  year, 
Mtlller  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Venice.  On  the 
recommendation  of  his  patron,  Mtlller  was  well  re- 
ceived in  various  Italian  cities.  In  Ferrara  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  an  old  friend  of  Peurbach. 
Bianchim.  then  ninet^r  jrears  of  age,  with  Theodore  m 
Gasa,  and  with  Guarim.  He  profited  so  well  in  the 
knowledge  of  Greek  that  he  understood  the  whole  of 
Ptolemv,  and  was  able  to  complete  the  "Epitome" 
of  Peurbach  by  adding  seven  books  to  the  six  already 
written  by  his  master.  In  Padua  he  was  at  once  en- 
rolled among  the  Academicians  and  was  invited  to 
lecture.  Wmle  awaiting  the  return  of  his  patron  in 
Venice,  he  discovered  a  portion  of  the  Greek  Arith- 
metic of  Diophantus,  continued  his  observations,  re- 
futed the  quadrature  of  the  circle  given  by  Cuse,  and 
computed  a  calendar  with  the  places  of  sun  and  moon, 
the  eclipses  and  the  dates  of  Easter  for  the  next  thirty 
years.  After  two  years'  absence  from  Rome,  Mailer 
returned  there  alone  in  October,  1464,  to  sp^d  four 
more  years  in  studying  and  copving.  His  rich  col- 
lection of  manuscripts  comprised  at  that  time  Bes- 
sarion's  own  copy  of  the  Greek  ''Almagest".  Miiller 
was  now  able  to  point  out  grave  errors  m  the  commen- 
taries on  Ptolemy  and  Tlieon  bv  George  of  Trebixond. 
The  consequent  enmity  of  the  latter,  and  the  absence 
of  his  patron,  may  have  induced  him  to  leave  Italy  in 
1468. 

The  university  registers  in  Vienna  contain  no  record 
of  Mtlller  ever  resuming  his  lectures  after  his  return. 
The  next  three  years,  or  part  of  them,  he  seems  to 
have  spent  in  Buda,  being  reoommendea  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Gran  to  King  Matthias  Corvinus  of  Hun- 
gary as  custodian  of  the  tibrary,  so  rich  in  spoils  from 
Athens  and  Constantinople.  Tne  ensuing  wars  of  the 
king  in  Bohemia  led  Miifier  to  look  for  a  place  where 
he  could  carry  out  his  life's  plan:  the  determination 
of  the  astronomical  constants  by  observation  and  the 
publication  of  the  literary  treasures  in  print.  N  tirem- 
berg,  then  the  centre  of  industry  and  commerce  in 
southern  Germany,  was  his  choice,  and  in  ^e  FaO  of 
1471  he  was  admitted  to  the  city  and  even  invited  to 
lecture.  A  wealthy  citizen,  Bonhard  Walthcn-,  fur- 
nished the  means  for  an  instrument  shop,  an  obmrva- 
iory,  and  a  printing  office  and  joined  Aitiner  in  the 


HijLLUt                              629  MULLOCK 

work.  The  fruita  soon  appeared.  The  latitude  of  Mtillor.  Kabl,  professor  at  DQsseldorf ,  b.  at  Darm- 
the  place  (49^^  24')  and  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  stadt,  29  Oct.,  1818;  d.  at  Neuenahr,  15  Aus.,  1893,  be- 
(23^  28'}  were  determined  free  from  the  efifects  of  re-  longs  to  the  more  recent  members  of  a  schooiof  German 
fraction :  the  planet  Venus  was  made  the  link  between  reliiious  painters  known  as  the  "  Nazarenes  ",  who  suo- 
the  fixed  stars  and  the  sun,  instead  of  the  moon;  the  ceededfelicitouslv  in i>opular  but  beautiful  representa- 
great  comet  of  1472  was  observed  during  January  and  tion  of  religious  devotion,  and  gave  new  renown  to  the 
February  in  such  a  way  that  its  orbit  could  be  calcu-  Dtlsseldorfschool  even  in  fordgn  lands.  His  style,  deli- 
lated.  &alley  writes:  ''This  comet  is  the  very  first  cate  even  to  softness,  exhibits,  however,  as  much  nat- 
of  which  any  proper  observations  have  been  handed  lualness,  fresh,  simple  piety  and  spiritual  peace  as 
down  tons"  (Phil.  Trans.,  XXIV,  1706,  p.  1883).  The  the  subjects  demand.  Schadow,  director  of  the  DUs- 
earlier  observations  of  the  comet  of  1456  by  Tosca-  seldoif  academy,  had  selected  in  1837  the  nineteen 
nelli,  were  unknown  to  Halley,  althou^^  the  comet  year  old  student,  along  with  his  brother  Andreas,  and 
happened  to  be  the  one  that  bears  his  name.  The  Deger  (who  were  later  joined  by  Ittenbach),  for  the  con- 
prmting  office  of  Walther,  with  the  improved  methods  templated  fresco  paintinns  in  the  FUrstenburg  church 
and  t3rpes  of  MtlUer,  tiuned  out  reurbach's  New  ontneApollinarisbergatKemaKen.  Thev  had  first  to 
Theory  of  the  Comets  and  an  astronomical  poem  of  study  carefully  in  Italy  the  technique  of  fresco  paint- 
Manihus  (1472-73) ;  then  MUller's  own  "  Calendarium  ing,  then  little  known.  Karl  MCiller  arrived  in  Kome 
Novum"  and  his  astronomical  "Ephemerides"  at  the  end  of  1839.  The  study  and  imitation  of  the 
1473-74)  with  the  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  art  treasures  of  the  Eternal  City,  as  later  of  those  of 
planets,  and  the  eclipses  from  1475  to  1506.  The  lat-  Florence,  Pisa,  Assisi,  and  other  places,  brought  to 
ter  guided  Columbus  to  America  and  enabled  him  to  maturity  his  great  natural  talent.  His  taste  for  land- 
predict  the  lunar  eclipse  of  29  February,  1504.  scape,  which  he  brought  with  him  from  DOsseldorf ,  now 
MuUer's  scientific  activity  in  Nuremb^  was  found  the  greatest  encouragement;  he  re^krded  more- 
brought  to  a  close  by  a  letter  of  Sixtus  IV  cidling  him  over  the  study  of  models  as  indispensable  in  the  prao- 
to  Rome  for  the  purpose  of  finally  settling  the  reform  tical  exercise  of  his  art.  A  large  circle  of  German  and 
of  the  calendar.  Gassendi  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Italian  friends  mutuaUy  helped  each  other  by  artistic 
Peter  Ramus  (1515-72)  and  of  Paul  Jovius  (Giovio:  excursions.  His  evemngs  ne  spent  in  composition 
1483-1552),  both  humanists,  that  Mtiller  was  created  and  the  like.  At  the  end  of  four  years  the  master 
Bishop  of  Ratisbon.  Jovius  writes  in  his  ''Eulocies  brought  home  his  chiuiicteriBtic  German  religious 
appended  to  the  true  pictures  of  celebrated  men"  in  style,  li^tty  min|[led  with  some  southern  elements, 
the  museum  of  Como  (p.  75):  "Ab  hac  commenda-  In  his  principal  pamtings  of  the  "Crowning"  and  the 
tione  eruditi  nominis  creatus  est  a  Xysto  Quarto  "Birthof  Mary  (entirely  finished  in  1850)  lie  showed 
Ratisponensis  Episcopus"  etc.  This  testimony  of  a  himself,  according  to  the  judgment  of  connoisseurs,  the 
man  contemporary  of  Regiomontanus  is  not  improb-  equal  or  the  elder  De^er.  llie  former  painting  unfor- 
able,  since  by  this  digniti^  title  the  pope  coula  rave  tunately  is  in  a  bad  hght  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
more  force  to  his  invitation.  Yet  it  seems  certain  tnat  The  lower  part^  the  Apostles  by  the  grave,  out  of 
Mtiller  never  occupied  the  episcopal  chair.  Whether  which  spring  lihes  and  roses,  is  widely  known.  The 
a  papal  command  was  needed,  or  whether  the  world's  leading  scene  in  the  upper  part  presents  the  Virgin 
problem  of  adjusting  the  calendar  had  in  itself  sufficient  Mother  bowed  before  tne  Saviour  in  a  Raphaeute 
attraction,  MUller  was  again  in  Rome  towards  the  end  '  beauty  of  colour.  The  painter  worked  so  long  over 
of  1475.  Death  overtook  him  in  lees  than  a  year  at  the  **  Birth  of  Mary"  that  he  hoped  to  succeed  in  some 
the  age  of  forty,  and  the  Panth^n  is  said  to  be  his  degree  in  satisfying  the  spirit  at  once  of  Raphael  and 
resting-place,  although  his  tomb  is  unknown.  The  of  pOrer.  In  this  work  the  eight  typical  women  es- 
cause  of  his  death  was,  according  to  Jovius,  a  ]>esti-  pecially  deserve  to  be  noticed.  Besides  these  there 
lence  then  ra^ng  in  Rome;  but  according  to  Ramus,  belong  to  Muller  in  the  same  church  the  "Annuncia- 
poison  administered  to  him  by  the  sons  of  his  enemy,  tion",  the  "Visitation",  the  "Wedding  of  the  Vir- 
George  of  Trebizond.  The  historical  exactness  oi  gin",  and  the  "Lamb  oi  God",  adored  by  angels  in 
Ramus,  however,  is  very  doubtful  from  his  poetical  the  midst  of  the  symbols  of  the  Evangelists  on  a  tri- 
stories  of  the  iron  fly  and  the  wooden  ea^le,  said  to  umphant  arch.  In  1859  a  contract  was  made  with 
have  been  constructed  in  the  laboratories  of  NU-  the  authorities  of  the  church  of  Notre-Dame  de  La 
remberg.  In  consequence  of  the  untimely  death  of  Garde  at  Marseilles  in  regard  to  a  great  pictorial 
MUller,  many  of  his  works  and  manuscripts  were  lost,  scheme,  unfortunately  never  carried  out.  The  upper 
in  particular  eversrthing  on  the  reform  of  the  calendar,  part  of  the  cartoon  of  a  new  " Coronation  of  Mary". 
Some  works  were  published  posthumously,  like  the  wonderful  in  execution,  is  in  the  Berlin  National 
five  books  on  triangles  and  the  quadrature  of  the  Gallery.  For  the  cathedral  church  at  £k)nn,  under- 
circle  (Nuremberg,  1533):  his  trigonometxy  (1541);  taken  m  1866,  eighteen  paintings  were  contemplated, 
the  "Scripta  CI.  Math.  to.  Regiomontani"  (1544);  The  objections  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  also 
the  "Epitome"  on  Ptolemy's  Almagest  (Venice,  caused  this  monumental  work,  to  the  master's  un- 
1496);  and  part  of  his  correspondence  with  Bcssarion,  utterable  sorrow,  to  fail.  His  easel  pictures,  how- 
Roder,  Bianchini,  and  other  scientists.  The  principal  ever,  are  all  the  better  known:  "The  Magnificat", 
works  are  reviewed  by  Gassendi;  the  astronomical  "Wonder  of  Roses",  "Immaculate  Concej^tion", 
books  are  described  by  Delambre;  and  the  mathe-  "Joseph  with  the  Boy  Jesus",  "The  Disciples  m  Em- 
matical  treatises  are  discussed  by  Cantor.  Bibli-  maus  ;  the  popular  round  pictures;  "Mary  and 
ographies  on  Regiomontanus  are  enumerated  by  Elizabeth",  the  "Holy  Family  at  Work",  also  "The 
Stem  and  Ziegler.  A  statue  of  Muller  was  erected  in  Holv  Family",  "The  Holy  Night",  and  so  on.  Of 
the  market-place  of  Konigsberg  in  1873.  the  highest  value  in  art  are  the  altar  painting,  "Christ 

JovnJ^  Imaoine,  dararum  nrorum;  Ramus.  ScKotarum  math^  with  the  Disciples  at  EmmaUS,"  W^ch  he  Undertook 

maiiearum  lihri  XXXI  (Basle.  1569).  66;   Gassbndi.  Opera,  V  for  the  Church  Of  St.  RemiglUS  at  Bonn,  and  his  last 

(Lyons,  1668),  MiseeUanea;   Montdcla,  Hiatoire  det  Maih^  cartoon  for  the  Same  church.  Completed  by  his  ncphew 

matimte$  (Ann.  VII),  I,  541-547;  Delambbe,  Hiatoire  de  Vaetro-  Fnin«  MnllAf 

natme  du  Moyen  Age  (Paris,  1819),  285-366;    »neRN  in  Esch-  ^71  utn      a   ^  n        rv^  u*  -*  tonox  v           mt    i  irvii 

GmvBm'B  Encydopadi^,  II  (Leipn«;i843).  206-213;  Aschback.  r^' ^^i^'i^'"^'*/^  (Pra^ort,  1893) ;  Fint ^  JToW  Jfflfljr. 

Ceeeh,  der  Wiener^nivereitM,  f  (Vienna.  1866),  637-667;   ZbioI  feJ^-J*-  .*^^1  i?!^'*^^' i^^^^^^'^^^^^f^'^'  ^^^*^  ^ 

UEB.  RetfiommUanue,  ein  aeiatreicKer  VarlAnfer  dei  Columbui  (Dn».  ^»««W«r/«r  Kunet  (DQaseldorf.  1902).           Q.  GlETMANN. 
den.  1874) ;  WoL.r.  Oetek.  der  Aatronomie  (MuniolK  1877) ;  QOn- 

SnlJ;^SrJJSr  g-I^SSS^^i^iJlA^'cJIfJ :  ,  n^ock.  John  T.,  BW,op.of  St.  John's,  New- 

iMeraturt.,  41-63;  lDKM,VorUsungcniiberOeeeh.derMathematik,  foundland,  b.  m  1807  at  Limenck,  Ireland:  d.  at  St. 

II  (Ldpiic,  1900).  264-^89.                     J.  Q.  Haqen.  John's,  Newfoundland,  26  March,  1869.    He  became 


MUNCH-BELLINOHAnSIN 


630 


MUNOBIT 


a  Franciscan  and  was  educated  at  St.  Bonaventure's 
College,  Seville,  and  at  St.  ladore's,  Rome,  where  in 
1830  ne  wos  ordained  priest.  After  long  service  in 
Ireland,  particularly  at  Ennis,  he  was  appointed  in 
1847  coaojutor  to  Bishop  Fleming  of  St.  John's,  New- 
foundlancf,  with  the  right  of  succession,  and  was  con- 
secrated by  Cardinal  Fransoni  on  27  December,  1847. 
at  St.  Isidore's,  Rome.  In  July,  1850,  he  succeeded 
Bishop  Fleming.  The  church  made  great  prosress  in 
Newfoundland  during  the  episcopate  of  Dr.  Mullock, 
a  new  diocese — Harbour  Grace — ^being  erected.  The 
splendid  cathedral  of  St.  John's,  begun  hi  1841,  was 
consecrated  on  9  September,  1855.  Dr.  Mullock  al- 
ways took  a  keen  interest  in  the  commercial  develop- 
ment of  Newfoundland,  and  was  most  enthusiastic 
about  its  natural  resources.  He  was  frequently  con- 
sulted bv  the  governor  on  matters  relating  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  colony,  and  many  of  his  suggestions  relat- 
ing to  the  fisheries  and  other  matters  were  adopted. 
Bdore  leaving  Ireland  he  was  a  f reauent  contributor 
to  the  periodical  literature  of  the  day,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Irish  literary  movement  of  the 
forties.  Long  before  the  first  attempts  to  lay  a  sub- 
marine cable  across  the  Atlantic  was  made  (1857), 
Dr.  Mullock  had  on  several  occasions  publicly  pro- 
pounded the  feasibility  of  connecting  Europe  with 
America  by  means  of  submarine  telegraph.  He  was 
the  first  to  bring  before  the  English-speaking  world 
the  life  and  works  of  the  great  Samt  Alphonsus  Maria 
Liguori,  publishing  his  ''Life"  at  Dubhn  in  1846,  and 
in  the  following  year  a  translation  of  the  saint's 
"  History  of  Heresies  and  their  Refutation ".  In  1847 
appeared  at  Dublin  his  ''Short  History  of  the  Irish 
Franciscan  Province",  translated  from  the  Latin  work 
of  Francis  Ward;  he  also  wrote  "The  Cathedral  of  St. 
John's,  Newfoimdland  and  its  consecration"  (Dub- 
lin, 1856). 

Gams,  Seria  tpitc.  eeel,  eath.;  Howlbt,  Scd.  Hut.  of  ATetr- 
foundland  (Boston,  1888);  oontemporary  files  of  the  NaJtion 
(Dublin),  TabUl  (London),  and  Cork  Sxaminer;  MS3.  in  the 
FnnoisoAn  Convent,  Dublin. 

Greoort  Cleabt. 

Mtiach-Belliiighaiiflaa,  Baron  Eligius  Frank 
Joseph  von  (pseudon3rm:  Friedrtch  Halm),  an  Aus- 
trian dramatist,  b.  at  Cracow,  2  April,  1806;  d.  at 
Vienna,  22  May,  1871.  He  was  educated  at  the  sem- 
inary of  Melk  and  later  at  Vienna,  where  he  studied 
Ehilosophv  and  jurisprudence,  and  where  he  began 
is  official  career  in  1826.  Even  as  a  boy  he  took  a 
keen  interest  in  the  theatre  and  since  1833  enjoyed 
the  friendship  of  his  former  teacher,  the  Benedictine 
Michael  Leopold  Enk  von  der  Burg,  who  himself  had 
a  strong  bent  for  the  drama  and  encouraged  the  poet 
to  offer  his  drama  '^Griseldis"  to  the  Hofburg  thea- 
tre. Its  successful  production  in  1835  established 
Halm's  reputation  as  a  pla3rwright  and  henceforth  he 
continued  to  write  for  the  stage  with  varying  success. 
In  the  meantime  he  advanced  in  his  official  career,  be- 
coming Government  councillor  in  1840  and  Ku8to8 
(chief  keeper)  of  the  Court  Library  in  1844,  a  position 
that  Grillparzer  had  sought  in  vain.  He  was  elected 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1852  and  life 
member  of  the  Upper  House  of  Parliament  in  1861. 
In  1867  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  two 
court-theatres,  but  three  years  later  resigned  this  po- 
sition which  disputes  had  made  distasteful  to  him. 
His  health  also  had  been  failing. 

Of  his  many  dramatic  works  the  best  known  are 
"Griseldis"  (1837);  "Der  Sohn  der  Wildnis"  (1842); 
and  "Der  Fechter  von  Ravenna"  (1857).  "Gri- 
seldis''  is  based  on  the  well-known  story  of  the  faith- 
ful wife  whose  loyalty  and  devotion  are  put  to  the 
severest  tests  but  who  triumphs  in  the  end.  "Der 
Sohn  der  Wildnis''  (The  Son  of  the  Wilderness)  is  a 
romantic  drama  depicting  the  power  of  womanly  love 
and  virtue  over  rude  barbarian  strength.  It  was  pre- 
sented on  the  English  stage  under  the  title  of  "Ingo- 


mar  the  Barbarian '^  "Der  Fechter  von  Ravenna" 
(The  Gladiator  of  Ravenna),  regarded  as  Halm's  best 
work,  is  a  tragedy  having  for  its  hero  Thumeliciu 
the  son  of  Arminius,  the  liberator  of  Germany  from 
Roman  rule.  Theatrically  these  plays  are  very  effec- 
tive, but  the  characters  are  improbable  and  the  situa- 
tions are  often  strained.  Their  popularity,  ^ch 
they  owe  largely  to  their  smooth,  polianed  diction  and 
skilfully  interspersed  lyrics,  has  not  been  lasting. 
Of  Halm's  numerous  other  dramas  we  may  mention 
"Iphigenie  in  Delphi"  (1856);  "Begum  Sonrni" 
(1863); "  Wildfeuer'^  (1864):  and  a  German  version  of 
Shakespeare's  "Cymbeline  that  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  1842.  Halm  is  also  the  author  of  lyrics,  short 
stories,  and  of  a  narrative  poem  "Charfreita^"  (Good 
Friday)  (1864).  A  complete  edition  of  his  works, 
arranged  m  chronological  order^  appeared  at  Vienna 
(1856r-64)  in  8  vols.:  four  additional  volumes  were 
edited  posthumously  D3r  Faust  Pachler  and  Emil  Kuh 
(Vienna,  1872);  selections  were  edited  by  Anion 
Schlossar  (Leipsig,  — ), 

See  the  introduction  to  8chlomar*b  edition;  8Bn»L  in  ABntm 
dtUrrtieh.  DiehUr  (Vienna,  1850),  139  aq.;  Rudolf  GomcHAU^ 
PortrdU  und  Shtdien,  V  (Leipsis.  1870).  83-129;  Hans  Hoptcx. 
StreUfroifen  und  Erinnerungen  (Stuttcart,  1876). 

AirrauB  F.  J.  Remt. 

Mundan,  John,  Vensrablb.  See  Hatdock, 
Gkobqe,  Venbrablb. 

Mundwiter,  Fintan,  abbot  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  St.  Meinrad,  Indiana,  b.  at  Dietikon  in 
Switzerland,  12  July,  1835;  d.  at  St.  Meinrad's  Abbey, 
14  Februaiy,  1898.  He  studied  at  the  monastic 
school  of  Einsiedeln  in  Switserland,  where  he  took  the 
Benedictine  habit  in  1854,  made  profession  on  14  Oct., 
1855,  and  was  raised  to  the  priesthood  on  11  Sept., 
1859.  A  year  later  he  accompanied  his  confrere, 
Martin  Marty,  afterwards  Bishop  of  St.  Cloud,  to  the 
newl^  founded  monastery  of  St.  Meinrad  in  Indiana. 
Having  arrived  there  in  September,  1860,  he  taught 
in  the  seminarv  and  attended  a  few  neighbouring 
missions.  While  stationed  at  Terre  Haute,  Indiana 
(1864).  he  organised  the  German  Catholic  Congrega- 
tion ol  St.  Benedict,  for  which  he  built  a  church  in 
1865.  In  1869,  when  St.  Meinrad  was  raised  to  an 
abbey  and  Father  Marty  became  its  first  abbots 
Father  Fintan  was  appointed  prior  and  master  of 
novices.  While  Abbot  Marty  worked  among  the 
Indians  m  Dakota  (1876-80),  Prior  Fintan  was  ad- 
ministrator of  the  aboey,  and,  upon  the  resignation  of 
the  former,  who  had  meanwhile  been  appointed  \lcar 
Apostolic  of  Dakota,  Fintan  was  elected  Abbot  of  St. 
Meinrad  on  3  February,  1880,  and  received  abbatial 
benediction  from  Bishop  Chatard  of  Vincennes  on  16 
May,  1880.  Though  above  all  intent  upon  the  ob- 
servance of  monastic  discipline,  he  in  no  way  neg- 
lected the  secular  interests  of  his  abbey.  He  enlarg«l 
the  college,  founded  the  Priory  (now  Abbey)  of  Sub- 
iaco  in  Arkansas  and  the  Priory  (now  Abbey)  of  St. 
Joseph  in  Louisiana,  and  obtained  from  Rome  the 
pennission  to  erect  the  Helvetico-American  Congre- 
gation of  Benedictines,  of  which  he  became  the  mist 
President.  When  St.  Meinrad's  Abbey  was  destro>Td 
y  fire  on  2  Sept.,  1887,  the  undaunted  abbot  rebuilt 
the  monastery  on  even  a  greater  scale,  founded  a  com- 
mercial college  at  Jasper,  Indiana,  and  assisted  in  the 
foundation  of  the  Priory  of  St.  Gall  in  North  Dakota. 
But,  in  the  midst  of  temporal  cares,  he  remained  a  man 
of  prayer.  He  laboured  most  zealously  for  ^e  spread 
of  the  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  was  a 
fervent  promoter  of  the  Priest's  Eucharistic  League. 
In  1893  ne  took  part  in  the  Eucharistic  Congress  held 
at  Jerusalem. 

Neerologiea  in  ParadietnfHl^ie,  III  (St.  Meinnkd.  Tndiana. 
1898).  &i-8',  St,  John'B  Univtrtity  lUeord,  IX  (CoUegeville. 
Minnesota.  1898),  31-2;  Rnut  BhOdietiiu,  XV  (Maredwui. 
1898),  188-90.  MiCHABL  OtT, 

Mungroti  School  or.  See  Ldcebick,  Diogbsb  or. 


ICUMICH-FBIZSXNO 


631 


KUNXCH-TBUSXNG 


Munieh-Vrelslng,  Archdiocese  op  (Monacen- 
818  BT  Frisinoensis)^  in  Bavaria. — ^This  archdiocese 
originated  in  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Freising.  The 
Church  of  Freising  dates  back  to  St.  Corbinian,  who, 
after  his  consecration,  came  in  716  to  organize  the 
Church  in  Bavaria.  On  a  mountain  near  Freising  the 
saint  erected  a  Benedictine  monastery  and  a  school. 
He  was  succe^ed  in  the  government  of  the  abbey  by 
his  brother  Erembert.  When  St.  Boniface  in  738 
regulated  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Bavaria  Inr  the  crea- 
tion of  four  dioceses,  Erembert  was  chosen  nrst  Bishop 
of  Freising,  which  see  was  made  suffragan  to  Mainz. 
The  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady,  which  existed  on  the 
mountain  near  Freising  before  the  coming  of  St.  Cor- 
binian^  became  the  cathedral,  and  was  served  by  the 
Benedictine  monks.  At  the  time  the  diocese  em- 
braced the  country  of  the  Upper  Isar  as  far  east  as  the 
Inn  and  south  to  the  watershed  of  the  Inn  and  the 
Isar.  The  third  bishop,  Joseph  of  Verona  (747-64), 
established  a  collegiate  church  in  Isen.  and  shared  in 
the  founding  of  the  convents  of  Sch&ftlam  and 
Schamitz,  placing  the  government  of  the  latter  in  the 
hands  of  Abbot  Atto.  The  last-named  foundation 
was  particularly  8if;nificant,  in  view  of  the  later 
acquisitions  of  the  diocese  in  the  Pustertal. 

Other  important  convents  of  the  diocese  were  Te- 
gemsee,  Moosburg,  Ilmmunster,  AltomUnster,  Schli- 
ersee,  and  Rot-on-the-Inn.  The  learned  Aribo,  or 
Arbeo  (764-84),  the  biographer  of  St.  Corbinian, 
translate  the  remains  of  this  saint  from  Mais  to 
Freising  and  interred  them  in  the  Semdchrum  Corbini- 
ani  which  he  had  built  (765-68)  in  tne  church  of  Our 
Lady.  During  his  episcopate,  Duke  Tassilo  II  pre- 
Bented  Innichen  to  the  Abbot  of  Schamitz.  With 
the  newl^  acquired  territory,  Freising  gained  a  port 
of  entr^r  into  Carinthia,  and  the  diocese  soon  acouired 
possessions  also  in  Styria  and  Camiola.  Atto,  Abbot 
of  Schamitz,  also  Archbishop  of  Freising  (784-810), 
sealously  undertook  the  task  of  Christianizing  the 
Slavs  of  the  Pustertal.  On  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tain upon  which  Freising  cathedral  stood  he  erected  a 
second  Benedictine  monastery  under  the  same  govern- 
ment as  the  first.  During  ms  time  the  diocese  was 
made  suffragan  to  Salzburg.  Hitto  (811-34)  made  a 
visitation  of  his  diocese:  he  installed  a  provost  and 
six  secular  canons  in  the  church  on  the  mountain 
Weihenstephan  near  Freisins. 

During  the  episcopate  of  his  successor  Erchambert 
(835-54).  a  deed  of  gift  for  the  first  time  mentions 
cathedral  canons,  who  were  not  monks  (842  and  845). 
the  cathedral  chapter  being  thereafter  composed  ot 
monks  and  canons.  Under  Bishops  Anno  (855-75), 
Arnold  (875-83).  and  Waldo  (883-903),  brother  of 
Bishop  Salomo  ot  Constance,  the  monastic  element  in 
the  cathedral  chapter  gradually  withdrew*  the  Bene- 
dictines of  the  cathedral  mountain  seem  to  have  aban- 
doned it  and  to  have  established  themselves  at  the 
foot  of  the  Weihenstephan.  Waldo  rebuilt  the  cathe- 
dral, which  had  been  burned  down;  he  was  given  juris- 
diction over  the  neighbouring  Abbey  of  Moosburg.  and 
received  from  Louis  the  Child  in  006  the  right  of  free 
choice  of  bishops  for  the  cathedral  chapter. 

The  Hunganans  gained  an  entry  into  Bavaria  and 
destroyed  almost  entirely  the  spiritual  life  of  the  coun- 
try. Bishop  Utto  fell  in  a  battle  against  them  in  908. 
Under  St.  Lantpert  (938-57),  Freising  was  set  on  fire 
by  the  Hungarians  and  almost  entirely  destroyed, 
^ter  the  victory  of  Otto  I  at  Lechfeld,  peace  came 
again  to  the  city,  and  the  Church  of  Freising,  under 
the  guidance  of  competent  rulers,  rose  from  its  ruins, 
and  acquired  new  possessions.  Abraham,  of  the  race 
of  the  counts  of  Gon  (956-94),  obtained  for  his  dio- 
cese from  the  Emperor  Otto  II  (973)  extendve  posses- 
sions in  Camiola.  Gottschalk,  Kni^t  of  Hagenau 
(994-l(X)6).  obtained  for  Freising  a  coinage,  the  privi- 
lege of  holoing  fairs,  and  civic  nghts;  and  Ej^bert  of 
Moosburg  (1006-39),  the  founder  of  the  Benedictine 


Abbey  of  Weihenstephan,  which  replaced  the  old  con- 
vent of  the  canons,  was  the  recipient  of  additional 
lands  in  Upper  Camiola.  In  Austria  and  in  the  Tyrol 
the  colonies  founded  from  the  diocese  were  remark- 
ably successful  in  development  and  stability.  During 
tihe  disturbances  resulting  from  the  conflict  of  investi- 
tures, Ellenhard,  Coimt  of  Meran  (1052-78),  was  ever 
to  be  foimd  on  the  side  of  Henrv  IV,  who  repeatedly 
visited  the  bishop  in  Freising;  Me^nhard,  Count  of 
Scheyem  (1078-98),  who  distinguished  himself  by 
spreading  the  Christian  doctrine  in  Bohemia,  was 
more  favourable  to  the  pope;  Heinrich  I,  of  Ebersdorf 
(1098-1137),  was  in  his  turn  an  adherent  of  the  em- 
peror. Heinrich  I  lived  to  see  the  destruction  of 
Freising  b]r  Duke  Welf  ^  and,  when  d3riQg,  bequeathed 
his  possessions  to  the  diocese. 

He  was  succeeded  by  the  most  distinguished  bishop. 
Otto  I  (1137-58),  the  historian  and  philosopher.  He 
saved  the  see  from  the  ruin  which  threatened  it,  re- 
established many  monasteries,  and  delivered  the  dio- 
cese from  the  oppressive  jurisdiction  of  the  counts  of 
Scheyem.  A  Cistercian  himself,  he  once  more  estab- 
lished  monastic  discipline  and  austerity.  In  the  last 
years  of  his  administration  occurred  the  destruction 
of  the  episcopal  bridge,  custom  houses,  mint,  and  salt 
works  near  Oberfohring  by  Duke  Henry  the  Lion, 
who  transferred  the  custom  houses  and  bridge  site  to 
the  upper  part  of  Oberfohring,  placing  them  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Munich  on  the  Isar.  Albert  I  (1158-84) 
brought  the  diocese  safely  through  the  conflicts  of 
Barbarossa  with  the  pope;  he  rebuilt  the  cathedral, 
which  had  been  burned  down  in  1169,  making  it  larger 
and  more  magnificent;  his  successor  Otto  II  (1184- 
1220)  completed  the  work,  the  cathedral  bein^^  conse- 
crated in  1205.  The  troubled  period  of  the  thirteenth 
century  was  generally  unfavourable  to  the  spiritual 
life  of  the  diocese;  in  addition,  the  acquisition  of  prop- 
ertv  through  donation  ceased  altogether,  and  the 
bisnops,  in  particular  Konrad  of  Wittelsbach  (1258- 
1278)  and  Emicho  of  Wittelsbach  (1283-1311),  or- 
ganized and  brought  together  their  scattered  posses- 
sions by  purchase,  sale,  and  exchange.  By  inheriting 
Werdenfels  (1294),  the  diocese  became  an  immediate 
principality  of  the  empire. 

The  schism  which  occurred  under  Louis  the  Bavar- 
ian also  divided  the  Church  of  Freising.  In  opposi- 
tion to  the  bishops  chosen  by  the  cathedral  chapter, 
which  was  favourable  to  the  emperor,  three  others 
were  named  in  succession  by  the  pope,  and  for  moro 
than  a  century  afterwards  the  popes  appointed  the 
bishops  of  this  diocese,  ignoring  the  privilege  of  free 
choice  possessed  by  the  chapter.  Under  the  rule  of 
Bishop  Albert  of  Hohenberg  (1349-59),  chancellor  of 
Charles  IV,  the  diocese  recovered  from  the  evil  effects 
produced  by  the  schism.    His  successors  were  in  great 

Sart  lords  from  Austrian  territory.  In  opposition  to 
iishop  Nicodemus  of  Scala  (1421-43),  named  by  Mar- 
tin V,  who  proved  himself  an  excellent  regent  and  pro- 
moter of  ecclesiastical  reform,  the  cathedral  chapter 
chose  the  vicar-generaL  Johann  Griinwalder,  recog- 
nized by  the  antipope,  Felix  V,  and  by  Duke  Albert  of 
Bavaria;  but  after  the  resignation  of  Heinrich  II  of 
Schlick  (1443-48),  appointed  by  the  pope,  he  obtained 
general  recognition  as  bishop,  and  showed  himself  to  be 
eminently  fitted  for  the  office  (1448-52).  His  succes- 
sor, Johann  IV  of  Tuelbeck  (1453-73),  was  the  first 
bishop  in  many  years  to  owe  his  election  to  the  cathe- 
dral chapter.  He  resigned  in  favour  of  his  chancellor, 
the  pious  Sixtus  of  Tannberg,  who  worked  zealously 
for  reform  and  for  the  maintenance  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline.  During  his  time,  Veit  Ampeck  wrote  his 
history  of  Bavaria  and  of  Freising. 

After  the  death  of  Sixtus,  the  chapter  elected  in  suc- 
cession three  brothers  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach: 
Ruprecht  (1495-98),  Philipp  (1499-1541),  and  Hein- 
rich (1541-1551);  of  these,  however,  only  Philipp  re- 
ceived consecration.    Given  up  to  field  sports,  Philipp 


aCUNIGH-miSINO  632  aCUNIGH-nxZSXKO 

nevertheless  steadfastly  opposed  the  ecclesiastical  in-  archbishop  and  the  cathedral  chapter  in  Munich.  The 

novations  which  seemd  about  to  ^ain  a  footing  in  his  new  archoiocese  was  also  to  comprise  those  portions 

diocese.    Philipp  was  also  administrator  of  the  Dio-  of  the  former  Prince-Bishopric  of  Salxburs  which  lay 

cese  of  Naimibiug.    Under  Bishop  Leo  (1552-59),  a  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Inn.    On  the  other  hand,  those 


visitation  of  the  bishopric  took  place.    Morits  of  Sandi-    parishes  in  the  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  Camiola,  etc.,  which 
sell  (159&~66),  an  admirable  administrator,  resigned  in    were  formerly  under  the  bishops  of  Frei^ng 
favour  of  Duke  Ernest  of  Bavaria  (155&-1612).    The    Chiemsee,  were  subjected  to  the  Ordinaries  of  Sals- 


latter  was  at  the  same  time  Bishoj}  of  Hildesheim,  of  burg  and  Brixen.   Tne  church  of  Our  Lady  in  Munich 

Li^e,  Elector  of  Cologne,  and  Bishop  of  Mtlnster.  was  made  the  cathedral.    The  Bishops  of  Augsburg, 

On  account  of  his  zealous  activity  in  toe  North  Ger^  Passau,  and  Ratisbon  became  the  suffraffans  of  the 

man  sees,  he  was  unable  to  remam  long  at  Freising.  new  ecclesiastical  province.   ThepapalBunof  drCum- 

Nevertheless  he  introduced  many  reforms,  established  scription,  ''Dei  ac  Domini  nostn",  bears  the  date  of 

a  ducal  and  ecclesiastical  town  council  in  Munich,  1  April,  1818. 

and  promulgated  the  first  Bavarian  concordat  (1583).  Lothar  Anselm,  Freiherr  von  Gebsattel,  dean  of 

Under  the  pious  Vitus  Adam  von  Gebeck  (1618-51),  the  cathedral  of  WQrzburg  and  a  personal  friend 

the  bishopric  was  shockingly  devastated  by  the  Thirty  of  the  king,  was  named  the  first  archbishop  (1817). 

Years  War.    Emperor  Ferdinand  II  comerred  upon  As,  at  the  same  time  as  the  publication  of  the  cObcor- 

him  and  his  successors  the  dignity  of  Prince-bishops,  dat,  a  reli^ous  edict  had  been  promulf^ated  as  part  of 

Once  more  two  princes  of  the  house  of  Bavaria  were  the  constitution,  which  agam  unfairiy  abrogated 
elected  to  the  See  of  Freising:  Albert  Sigismund  (1652-  many  of  the  stipulations  of  the  concordat,  GebsjEirttel 
85),  at  the  same  time  Bishop  of  Ratisbon  and  Provost  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  abide  by  the  constitution; 
of  EUwangen.  an  art-loving  prince,  who  adorned  the  and  it  was  only  after  the  Tegemsee  proclamation  of 
cathedral  witn  a  magnificent  portal;  and  Joseph  Klem-  the  king,  15  Sept.,  1821,  that  he  was  consecrated  in 
ens  (1685-94),  brother  of  the  Elector  Max  Emanuel,  the  cathedral  of  Munich  (1821).  He  attained  great 
an  ostentatious  and  extravagant  prince,  lUso  Bishop  of  distinction  by  his  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  anairs. 
Ratisbon,  Elector  of  Cologne,  and  Bishop  of  Liege.  Under  his  rule,  a  laree  number  of  monasteries  were 
Papal  confirmation  of  his  appointment  to  the  last-  re-established  or  newly  founded,  and  many  churches 
named  see  was  given  only  in  the  event  that  he  should  and  charitable  institutions  were  erected.  In  Freising, 
resi^  from  the  Sees  of  Freising  and  Ratisbon.  In  on  the  site  of  the  old  episcopal  residence,  which  Louis 
Freising  he  was  succeeded  by  Johann  «ron  Kapfing  had  restored  to  the  bishop  in  1826,  an  ecclesiastical 
(1695-1727),  who  caused  the  cathedral  to  be  deco-  seminary  was  established,  to  which  were  added  later 
rated  by  the  Asam  brothers,  erected  a  number  of  a  lesser  seminaiy,  a  ^mnasium,  and  a  lyceum. 
schools  and  charitable  institutions,  made  numerous  His  successor  was  Karl  August,  Ck>unt  of  Reisach, 
visitations,  and  founded  a  lyceum  at  Freising,  one  of  previously  Bishop  of  Eichst&tt,  and  coadjutor  of 
the  professors  being  the  learned  Benedictine  Meichel-  Munich.  He  became  unpopular  under  Maximilian 
beck,  who  wrote  the  history  of  the  bishops  of  Freising.  II  because  of  his  efforts  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the 
Johann  Theodor,  Duke  of  Bavaria  (1727-63).  in  Church.  The  king  finally  used  his  influence  to  have 
whose  hands  were  united  the  Dioceses  of  Ratisbon,  him  withdrawn,  and  Pius  IX  in  1855  raised  him  to  the 
Li^e,  and  Freising,  built  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  cardinalate  and  called  him  to  Rome.  Gregor  von  Scherr 
Munich  (1735).  Klemens  Wenceslaus  of  Saxony  (1856-77),  former  Abbot  of  Metten,  endeavoured  to 
(1763-68),  who  from  1764  was  also  Bishop  of  Ratis-  preserve  the  Catholic  character  of  the  schools.  For 
Don  and  coadjutor  of  Augsburg,  resigned  the  See  of  the  maintenance  of  the  lesser  seminaries  of  the  dioceee 
Freising  when,  in  1768,  he  was  chosen  Elector  of  which  had  been  obliged  to  receive  an  exceptionally 
Trier.  Ludwig  Joseph  von  Welden  (1769-88)  was  large  number  of  candidates  to  the  priesthood,  he 
specially  distinguished  for  his  erection  of  schools  for  founded  St.  Corbinian's  Association,  and  erected  a 
tne  people.  During  his  episcopate,  a  papal  nuncia-  lesser  seminanr  in  Freising.  He  introduced  into  his 
ture  for  the  lands  of  Elector  Karl  Theoaor  was  es-  diocese  the  devotion  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration 
tablished  in  Munich  (1786),  which  was  t^e  immediate  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  instituted  pastoral  con- 
cause  of  the  convoking  of  the  Congress  of  Ems.  Max-  ferences  of  the  clergy.  At  the  Vatican  Council,  he 
imilian  Prokop,  (Dount  of  Torrin^-Jettenbach  (1788-  voted  with  the  minority,  but  submitted  at  once  to  the 
89),  was  succeeded  by  the  last  Prmce-Bishop  of  Frei-  decision  of  the  council.  The  last  years  of  his  episco- 
sing,  Joseph  Konrad  von  Schroffenberg  (1780-1803),  pate  were  embittered  by  the  support  which  the  Ba- 
the dissolution  of  the  diocese  taking  place  during  his  varian  Government,  under  the  leadership  of  Luts, 
lifetime  (d.  4  April,  1803,  at  BerchtSsgaden).  minister  of  worship,  gave  to  the  Old  Catholic  move- 

At  the  time  of  the  secularization  of  church  prop-  ment,  whose  founder  (D6Uinger)  and  most  zealous 

erty,  the  prince-bishopric  fell  to  Bavaria,  the  parts  champions  were  resident  in  Munich. 

Iving  in  Austria  and  the  Tyrol  being  turned  over  to  His  successor,  Anton  von  Steichele  (1878-89).  the 

Salzburg.    The  reformers  undertook  the  destruction  learned  church  historian  and  historiof^rapher  ot  the 

of  monasteries  and  diocese,  numerous  churches  were  Diocese  of  Au^burg,  by  the  foundation  of  Church 

sold  for  the  material  they  contained,  graves  were  dese-  Building  Associations  kept  pace  with  the  ever-grow- 


of  the  cathedral  chapter  by  the  Bavarian  Govern-  to  a  conference  at  Freising,  which  resulted  in  a  resolu- 

ment.  the  election  of  a  vicar  capitular  was  impossible,  tion  to  send  to  the  Government  ajoint  memorandum 

and  tne  spiritual  guidance  of  the  diocese  was  entrustea  in  regard  to  the  status  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 

to  the  vicar-general,  Heckenstaller,  appointed  from  Bavaria,  which  when  carried  into  effect  brought  about 

Salzburg,  who.  in  1819,  was  named  vicar  Apostolic  of  a  better  arrangement  of  the  relations  between  Church 

the  abandonea  diocese.    The  most  important  episco-  and  State  and  guaranteed  to  the  Church  a  greater  in- 

pal  functions  were  performed  by  the  coadjutor  Bishop  fluence  upon  the  intermediate  and  higher  schools, 

of  Ratisbon,  Johann  Nepomuk  von  Wolf.    After  the  Under  Archbishop  Antonius  von  Thoma  (1889-97), 

concordat  between  Pius  VII  and  King  Max  Joseph  I  the  Old  Catholic  question  was  finaUv  settled  in  a 

(5  June,  1817),  an  orderly  condition  of  affairs  was  manner  favourable  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  to 

af^ain  finally  inaugurated.    From  the  territory  of  the  justice.    Franz  Joseph  von  Stein  (1897-1909)  fear^ 

dissolved  Sees  of  Freising  and  Chiemsee,  and  the  for-  lessly  espoused  in  the  Bavarian  Chamber  of  the 

mer  Provostsbip  of  Berchtesgaden  was  created  the  Council  of  the  Empire  the  cause  of  the  Catholic 

Archdiocese  of  Munich-Freising,  with  the  seat  of  the  Church  regarding  iDStructiony  upholding  Catholic 


THE  KZW  y-vjf 

PUBLIC  LI,?:;;..:// 


AtJ(.H,  Lr;,;. ;,    \      , 
«  i. 


MUNICH-niEISDra  633  MUNICH-raxZSXNG 

knowledge  as  opposed  to  the  unchecked  freedom  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  7  sisteis;  Briggitines,  1  house, 

of  university  teaching.    In  accordance  with  the  re-  41  sisters;  Dominicans,  1  establishment,  16  sisters; 

quirements  of  the  times,  he  bestowed  special  care  Franciscans,  6  houses,  139  sisters;  Franciscans  from 

upon  the  encouragement  of  Catholic    orders  and  the  mother-house  of  Maria-Stern,  in  Augsburg,  12 

associations,  the  fostering  of  Christian  charity,  the  establishments,  83  sisters;  Poor  Franciscans  of  the 

education  of  the  clerpy,  and  the  awakening  and  con-  Third  Order,  from  Mallersdorf,  65  houses,  429  sisters; 

servation  of  the  spint  of  the  Church  in  the  hearts  of  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Joseph  of  Ursberg. 

the  people.    The  present  archbishop  is  Frans  Bet-  2  houses,  31  sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1 

tinger,    appointed  on  23  May,    1909,    and   conse-  house  in  Munich,  94  sisters;  Carmelites,  1  nouse,  9 

crated,  15  Aug.  sisters;  Salesians,  3  establishments,  179  sisters;  Poor 

Statistics. — ^The  archdiocese  comprises  the  Bavar-  School  Sisters,  with  a  general  mother-house,  Sankt 
ian  district  of  Upper  Bavaria,  excepting  those  por-  Jacob  am  Anger,  in  Munich,  and  49  filial  convents,  in 
tions]3ring  west  and  north  of  the  DanuDe,  48  communes  all,  764  sisters;  Ursulines  in  Landshut,  55  sisters; 
in  the  domains  of  Landshut,  and  Vilsbiburg  in  the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer  from  the  mother- 
district  of  Lower  Bavaria.  The  suffragan  dioceses  house  at  Niederbronn  (Alsace),  23  establishments, 
are  Augsburg,  Passau,  and  Ratisbon.    Tue  diocese  is  203  sisters. 

divided  into  36  deaneries,  3  town  commissariats  Of  the  associations  in  the  archdiocese,  the  following, 
(Munich,  Landshut,  and  Freising),  417  parishes,  20  more  or  less  widespread,  may  be  named:  Ludwig- 
expasUuren  (parishes  in  all  but  the  name)  and  vica-  missionsverein  (Louis  missionary  union),  the  Associa- 
riates.  The  diocese  has  460  benefices  and  manual  tion  of  the  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus,  tne  Society  of 
benefices  (i.  e.,  benefices  the  incumbents  of  which  may  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  Elizabeth's  Guild,  the  Arch- 
be  removed  at  the  will  of  a  superior),  400  curacies,  and  confraternity  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the 
100  other  places  where  church  services  are  held.  Blessed  Sacrament,  Catholic  Geaellenvereine  (Jour- 
The  clergy  numbers  (1910)  412  pastors,  162  invested  neymen's  Unions)  and  Arheitervereine  (Unions  of 
beneficiaries,  677  other  priests,  210  regular  priests  Labourers),  Catholic  Students'  Unions,  Catholic 
(in  all  1461  priests).  Tne  number  of  Catholics  is  Associations  for  the  Young,  Unions  of  Clerks  and  Em- 
1,069,300.  In  addition  to  the  cathedral  chapter,  ployees.  Servants'  Unions,  Associations  for  the  Edu- 
there  are  three  collegiate  churches:  in  Munich  (St.  cation  of  Neglected  Children,  and  so  forth. 
Cajetan's),  Laufen,  and  Tittmoning.  Of  the  churches  of  the  archdiocese,  those  of  the  city 

For  the  education  of  the  clergy  there  are  lesser  of  Munich  arts  especially  noteworthy;  this  is  so  in  pa> 
seminaries  in  Scheyem  (conducted  by  the  Benedie^^  tkfaIB^  of  Iffie  Pathe4ral  of  Our  Lady,  a  brick  builaing 
tines)  and  in  Freising,  having  respectively  175iand^:J|i)tbArSk)thit'^yle,. which  dates  from  1468-88,  with 

215  students^  as  well  as  two  ecclesiastical  seminaries  J  lt\c94P¥^^3«H  ft*  jn  height,  whose  copper  cupolas,  the 

viz..  the  archiepisoopal  seminary  in  Freising,  witli  lYfl  iWrtalUd-^^wHlschen,  Kappen"  (Romanesque  caps), 

students,  and  the  Georgianimi,  founded  in  149^  by  are    the    town's    most  famous    landmarkis.    Other 

Duke  Georg  the  Rich  at  Ingolstadt,  now  transferred  churches  are  St.  Petier's,  the  oldest  parish  church  of 
to  Munich  and  administered  by  the  State,  with]10^,v,t}^9:  vAtf*'  dAtlug^-frc^  the  year  1180,  built  in  the 

students,  of  which,  however,  only  23  belong  tojtj^e  .Gk)thiQjwadiki49nBtbred  in  the  Baroque  style;  Sai^ 

Diocese  of  Municn-Freising.    The  students  attefid'  Jacob' am  Anger^  the  oldest  church  in  Munich,  still  re- 

the  philosophical  and    theological    lectures  at  jthe  Haining  jts  Qrigmjekl  iorm  and  dating  from  the  thir- 
University  of  Munich  and  at  the  state  lyceums'tct  "teenth  century;  the  court  church  of  St.  Michael,  built 

Freising.  for  the  Jesuits,  1583-97,  the  most  distinguished  ec- 

The  lollowing  orders  are  represented  in  the  arch-  clesiastical  production  of  the  German  Renaissance; 

diocese: — ^The  Benedictines  possess  the  two  Abbeys  of  the  court  church  of  St.  Cajetan,  built  (1663-75)  for 

Scheyem  and  St.  Boniface  in  Munich,  founded  by  the  Theatines,  in  the  Baroque  style;  the  church  of  St. 

King  Louis  I,  as  well  as  the  Abbeys  of  Ettal  and  Louis,  built  (1830-44),  mainly  through  the  generosity 

Sch&ftlam,  and  2  colleges  for  students  in  Munich, —  of  King  Louis  I,  in  medieval  Italian  style,  containing 

in  all   (1910)   91  fathers,  27  scholastics,  and   162  the  famous  fresco  of  the  ''Last  Judgment"  by  Cor- 

brothers.    The  Franciscans  have  5  convents,  with  49  nelius;  the  court  of  All  Saints,  built  in  1827-37  in  the 

fathers,  23  scholastics,  and  58  lay  brothers;  the  Ca-  Romanesoue-Byzantine  style;  and  the  Basilica  of  St. 

puchins,  5  convents,  with  43  fathers,  9  novices,  and  Boniface,  Duilt  (1835-50)  for  the  Benedictines,  in  the 

53  lay  brothers;  the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  2  convents,  form  of  an  early  Christian  basilica,  containing  frescoes 

with  3  fathers,  and  47  brothers;  the  Minorites,  1  ttdcen  from  the  life  of  St.  Boniface.    The  numerous 

hospital,  with  3  fathers,  and  3  lay  brothers;  the  Re-  churches  of  the  most  varied  styles  which  have  been 

demptorists,  2  colleges,  with  28  fathers,  29  scholar-  erected  in  Munich  during  the  last  ten  years,  and 

tics,  and  46  lay  brothers;  the  Augustinians,  1  convent,  constitute  one  of  the  beauties  of  the  city,  e.  g.,  those 

witn  4  fathers,  and  6  lay  brothers.  of  St.  Anna,  St.  Paul,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Rupert,  bear 

Numerous  female  orders  and  congregations  are  to  witness  to  the  people's  devotion. 
be  found  in  the  archdiocese.    Of  the  ancient  con-        Of  the  other  churches  of  the  archdiocese,  the  follow- 

vents  of  women  only  a  few  are  still  in  existence,  ing  are  worthy  of  mention:  the  cathedral  of  Freisins, 

notably  the  Benedictines  of  the  Island  of  Frauenchiem-  built  1161-1205,  often  restored  and  altered,  in  which 

see,  with  an  educational  establishment  and  72  sisters,  is  to  be  found  the  shrine  containing  the  relics  of  St. 

ana  the  convent  of  the  Servites,  near  the  pilgrimage  Corbinian;  the  Gothic  church  of  St.  Martin,  in  the 

church  of  the  ducal  hospital  in  Munich,  with  55  sistera.  city  of  Landshut,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  and 

The  recent  congregations  are  occupied  entirely  with  fifteenth  centuries,  siumounted  by  the  highest  tower 

the  instruction  of  girls,  with  the  care  of  the  sick  and  in  Bavaria;  in  the  same  city  the  church  of  St.  Jodock, 

the  orphans,  with  the  management  of  Catholic  in-  also  in  the  Gothic  style,  built  in  1338-68;  the  Roman- 

stitutions,  and  so  on,  while  the  Brigittines  and  the  esquechurchofMoosburg,  erected  1160;  the  collegiate 

Carmelites  give  themselves  up  to  contemplation.  churches  of  Tegemsee,  Isen,  Berchtesgaden,  Ilmmttn- 

Besides  the  two  establishments  already  named,  ster,  Dietramszell,  and  others.  The  places  of  pil- 
thereexist  (1910)  in  the  archdiocese:  Sisters  of  Charity  erimage  include  the  church  of  the  Ducal  Hospital  in 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  the  mother-house  in  Munich,  Maria-Eich,  Maria-Rammersdorf,  Maria- 
Munich.  61  convents,  842  sisters;  Sisters  of  Charity  Blutenburg  in  Munich,  Maria-Eich  at  Traunstein, 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  the  mother-house  in  Tuntenhausen,  Ettsl,  Scheyem,  Mariadorfen,  Birken- 
Augsburg,  5  establishments.  35  sisters;  English  Ladies  stein,  Heiligblut  at  Erding. 

(Institute  of  Mary),  1  motner-house  and  15  filial  in-        XlNivERsmr  of  Munich. — ^It  was  first  established 

otttutes,  609  sisteis;  1  establishment  of  the  Missionaiy  (1472)  at  Ingolstadt  (q.  v.  for  its  history  up  to  1800). 


MUNKicS  634 

In  1800  it  was  transferred  to  Landahut,  and,  later,  by  nation  in  1458.  In  King  Wladislaw  II'b  documenta 
decree  of  Ludwig  I  (3  Oct.,  1826)  to  Munich,  where  it  a  certain  John  Lb  mentioned  as  bishop  in  1491  and 
has  developed  in  peace.  Its  earliest  location  was  the  1498;  thence  until  1551  we  hear  nothing  more  about 
former  collie  of  the  Jesuits,  but  in  1840  it  removed  the  bishops,  nor  are  we  even  sure  that  the  see  was  occu- 
to  a  new  building  which  has  recently  ( 1908)  been  con-  pied.  The  nrst  document  recording  the  actual  appoint- 
siderably  enlarged.  Through  the  munificence  of  the  ment  of  a  bishop  dates  from  16^.  In  1641,  under 
Wittelsbach  dynasty,  abundant  provision  has  been  Bishop  Theodore  Tharassovics  (1639-48),  union  with 
made  for  its  organization  and  equipment,  and  it  now  Rome  was  facilitated  by  the  wish  to  have  done  with  de- 
ranks  as  the  second  largest  among  the  German  uni-  pendence  on  the  lords  of  Munkics.  but  George 
versities.  The  revised  statutes  were  pubUi^ed  in  Rik6czi  I  of  Transylvania,  Lord  of  MunkAcs,  being 
1835,  and  new  regulations  for  the  stuaent  body  in  unfavourably  disposed  towards  union,  took  Thara»- 
1849.  The  fourth  centenary  of  the  university  was  sovics  prisoner,  and,  although  the  latter  obtained  his 
celebrated  in  August,  1872.  The  facultjr  of  theology  freedom  in  1642,  he  did  not  regain  possession  of  the 
at  Munich  has  a  long  list  of  distinguished  names:  see.  In  1649  the  union  with  Home  was  again  pro- 
Allioli,  Dollin^er,  Haneberg,  Hereenr6ther,  Klee,  claimed  by  the  cler^  of  Munk^Lcs  influenced  by 
Mdhler,  Philhps,  Perman^er,  Keischl.  Schegg,  Bishop  Geoige  Jakusich  of  Eger;  henceforth,  espe- 
Thalhofer.  The  Ck>llegium  Georgianum,  founded  in  cially  from  1689,  date  the  efforts  of  the  bishops  of 
1494  b;^  George  the  Rich  for  the  special  benefit  of  Eger  to  bring  Munkdcs  into  close  subjection, 
theological  students,  was  transferred  to  Mimich  with  After  the  union  of  1649,  Peter  Parthenius  was  ap- 
the  rest  of  the  university,  and  still  serves  its  original  pointed  Bishop  of  Munkdcs,  and  was  confirmed  both 
purpose.  The  faculty  numbers  (1910)  twelve  pro-  by  King  Leopold  and  the  pope.  His  death  was  fol- 
lessors  and  nine  Dozente;  there  are  150  theological  lowed  by  a  period  of  decadence:  the  diocese  was  di- 
students.  Among  illustrious  representatives  of  the  vided  into  several  parts,  administered  more  or  less  in- 
other  sciences  may  be  mentioned:  in  philosophy,  dependently  of  one  another,  and  conflicts  arose 
Schelling  (1827-41);  In  chemistry,  Liebig  (1852-73);  between  the  emperor,  the  pope,  and  the  RAk6cia 
in  surpery,  Thiersch  (1848-95),  and  Nussbaum  (186(>-  family,  concerning  the  right  of  nomination  to  the  see. 
90);  m  medicine,  Ringseis  (1817-80):  in  history.  Appointed  bishop  in  1689  through  the  efforts  of 
Giesbrecht  (1862-89):  in  Germanic  philology,  Schmel-  Archbishop  Kolonics,  Joseph  de  Camelis»  a  Greeks 
ler  (1827-29);  in  Celtic  philology,  Zeuss  (1847-56).  devoted  his  chief  energy  towards  fostering  the  re- 
in 1910  the  total  number  of  instructors  was  252;  of  ligious  life  of  the  people  and  extirpating  incontinence 
students,  6890.  among  the  clergy.  To  promote  tnese  objects  he  held 
Mbichblbtck,  ffMtorio  Frmnaen«*  (2  vols.,  Aug^^  twelve  synods  within  three  years,  that  of  Szatm^ 

^iri5KSih^2t:'DSSn'H?SrD2"««^"SS^  bein^  of  special  importance.    After  Camelis's  d«.th 

Bittunu  Preinng  (3  vola.,  Munich.  1849-50) ;  Idem,  BeUr&gt  tur  the  nght  Of  appointment  Was  asain  disputed.      King 

Oe»ehichie,  Topogra'DhUwui^^^  Joseph  I  appointed  Joseph  Hodermarsiky  bishop  in 

fl?S>1t»chfe^o^)^^^^^^  ^  1705;  Francf  IUk6cEi  if  as  Ix>rd  of  Mmikic«,  filed 

FrtUing  und  ihrer  B\»ch6fe  (Freiaing.  1854);  von  Hitnd.  Urkun-  the  episcopal  office  mdependently;  the  HoIy  See,  on 

den  dea  BiatunuFreinno  ^Mimich.  1873) ;  ZABv,Codex-dij^anuui-  its  part,  appointed  an  administrator,  not  regarding  the 

r?»  4CSS2SS.rSSi.M'«2SSS;;i  ill  B^li'J'lf?,':  see Jegally  eetabliahed  for  lack  of  canonical  creation. 

ehm^Freinng  (3  vols..  Munich  and  Ratiabon.  1879-^84) ;  Scblbcht,  Hodermarsskv  had  to  resign  the  See  m  1715,  and  the 

Ba^tmt  Xircjenprorin^  (Munich.  1902);  BiTTiEiiAur.  /)»«  Tra-  endeavouHS  of  the  bishops  of  Eger  to  treat  Munkics 

lung  der  BrMdxd*€»€  MUnehen-FrHning,  I-V  (Munich.  1821-98);  "    a    SUffragan    thUS    tnumphcd.      Hodermareiky  8 

Paatoraiblatt  lAmublatt  since  1880]  far  die  Ertdidtett  Munchen-  succcssor,  Gennadius  Bizanczi  (1716-33),  had  already 

Frnnng  (Munich,  !»«>—};  Schematumwt  der  GfiBtiichkeit  des  acted  as  vicar  Apostolic.    Both  he  and  still  more  his 

J^SjJ/r  IS^^H^rJ^^'thuuilrlis^U^::^  -rf^^''  Michael  Ol8av«ky,  oont^  the  authority 

UaU  des  hiatoriaehen   Vertina  Freiaing  (Praising.  1894—).     Re-  of  the  Blshop  of  Eger;  Olsavszky  S  SUCCesSor,  John 

prding  the  churches  see;  Siohabt.  Der  Dom  inFrnainn  (Lands-  Braddcs,  Continued  the  conflict,  and  finally  triumphed. 

hut,    1852);   iDXii,  Die   mtUetaUerliche  Kunai  %n  der  Bradxdaeae  t_  iT'Tt  ♦k«  Q<wi.  «.*  \/l%mwx\,A^^  «.«<>  <w>4^«V.i:-U.»urJ  ...JL^^: 

MUnehen-Freiaing  (Freising.  1855) ;  Die  KunatdenkmOUr  Bavema,  "^,PP  ^®  ^^  °i.5?.^*^*?.^¥  estabhshed  Canoni- 

I;  Regierungabetirk  Oberbayem  (Munich.  1892—).  cally  by  Clement  XIV.  Bradacs  becoming  first  canon- 

Joseph  Linb.  ical  bishop.    Under  nim  the  chapter,  with  seven 

canons,  was  also  established.    In  1816  the  See  of 

Munklci,   Diocese  of,  in  Hungary,  of  Greek  Eperjes  was  separated  from  Munkilcs,  and  in  1856 

Catholic  Rite,  suffragan  of  Gran.    It  dates  from  the  ninety-four  parishes  were  incorporated  in  the  new 

fifteenth  century.    Until  then  the  Greek  Ruthenians  See  of  Szamosujvdr.    Basil  Popovics  (1837-64)  made 

who  had  emigrated  to  Hungary  a  generation  before,  a  lasting  impression  on  the  religious  hfe  of  the  diocese; 

1254,  were  subject  to  the  See  of  Przemysl.     In  1458  Stephen  Pankovics  (1866-74)  displayed  great  acti\'ity 

the  Diocese  of  Munkics  is  mentioned  for  the  first  in  the  domain  of  diocesan  administration,  and  John 

time  in  a  document  of  King  Mathias  as  a  parish  with  Ptot^lyi-Kovdcs    (1879-94)    performed    especially 

episcopal  jurisdiction.     It  was  probably  established  prominent  service  in  the  cause  of  public  education, 

between  1439  and  1458,  as  the  document  mentions  Since   1894  Julius  Firczdk  has  been  bishop.    The 

that  Lucas,  the  occupant  of  the  see,  had  already  residence  is  at  Ungvdr.    The  see  is  divided  into  two 

exercised  tne  usual  jurisdiction  for  a  considerable  vicariates    (Mdrmaros    and    Hajdu-Dorog),    seven 

gsriod.    Its  history  is  connected  with  that  of  the  archdeaneries,    and    forty-eight    vice-archdeaneries. 

asilian  monastery  at  Csemekhegy  near  Munkdcs,  The  parishes  number  387,  the  right  of  patronage  being 

established  supposedly  in  1360  by  Duke  Theodore  exercised  by  ninety  patrons,  the  parochial  r'ergy  over 

Koriatovics,  but  demonstrably  as  late  as  1418.    The  500.    There  are  five  monasteries,  and  tl     chapter 

history  of  the  diocese  falls  naturally  into  three  periods,  consists  of  six  canons. 

Until  1641,  when  union  with  Rome  took  place,  Mun-  ,„H°"''.^^,?"^*^^'*«;?',f5?^^^••^*f"^^^ 

kics  endeavoured  to  extend  its  episcopal  jurisdiction  i®*gliJi?JL**~'""=  ^^^•^  ^""*^  CBudEp«it.  1902).  Eoth 
over  the  thirteen  districts  (Komitate)  of  Hungary,  later  A.«  AloXbt. 

its  territory.    The  second  period  lasts  from  1641  to 

1771.  when  the  see  was  canonically  established.  A  Mtbistar,  Diocese  of  (Monastbrienbib),  in  the 
thira  period  brings  its  history  down  to  the  present.  Of  Prussian  Province  of  Westphalia,  suffragan  of  Co- 
its  history  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  logne. 

we  know  very  little,  especially  in  regard  to  the  mode        I.  Secular  History. — ^The  earfiest  name  of  MOn* 

of  episcopal  appointment,  although  it  was  probably  by  ster  was  Mimegemeford,  the  later  form  being  Mimi- 

election  until  1561,  with  the  exception  of  the  nomi-  gardeford,  while  from  1076  it  was  called  by  the  Latin 


KtfNsnB  635  icthrsnft 

name  Monasterium.    It  is  first  mentioned  in  795,    council  acted  as  a  board  of  aasessore  in  the  city  oomi. 
when  St.  Ludger  founded  a  monastery  here,  and  the    The  extendve  commerce  of  the  city  rapidly  increased 


place  became  his  see  when  he  was  consecrated  bishop,  its  imporuuice.   As  early  as  1253  it  formed  a  defensive 

Even  at  this  early  date  it  must  have  been  a  place  of  alliance  with  the  neighbouring  cities  of  OsnabrUck, 

some  importance.    Among  the  earliest  possessions  of  Dortmund,  Soest,  and  lippstadt,  and  one  with  the 

the  Church  at  MUnster  were  three  large  landed  estates,  cathedral  chapter  in  1257.    At  a  later  date  it  joined 

apparently  the  gift  of  Charlemagne.    These  lands,  at  the  confederation  of  the  cities  of  the  Rhine,  and  about 

least  in  part,  lav  within  the  area  of  the  later  city.  1368  entered  the  Hanseatic  League.    In  this  period 

They  were  callea  the  Brockhof,  the  Kampwordeshof ,  the  conunercial  relations  of  MUnster  extended  as  far 

and  the  Bispinghof .    The  last-named  belonged  to  the  as  England  and  Flanders,  and  eastwards  to  Livonia 

bishop  and,  probably  for  this  reason,  bore  ids  name,  and  Novgorod. 

The  Brockhof  was  owned  by  the  cathedral  chapter,        Diuing  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  im- 

the  Kampwordeshof  belonged  later  to  the  collegiate  portant  chances  appeared  in  the  government  of  the 

church  oi  St.  Merits,  to  which  it  was  apparently  as-  city.    In  medieval  times  the  population  consisted  of 

signed  when  the  church  was  founded.    The  fourth  citizens  and  non-citizens.    The  citizen  body  was  di- 

great  estate,  and  one  that  is  mentioned  from  the  ear-  vided  into  the  ruling  patricians,  who  from  the  six- 

Eest  davB,  tne  Judefelderhof,  appears  to  have  belonged  teenth  century  were  also  called  ''hereditary  proi>rie- 

originauy  to  the  Church,  by  which  it  was  given  in  fief  tors  ",  and  the  commonalty.   A  body  of  city  patricians 

to  a  family  called  Jttdefeld.    In  1386  the  cathedral  can  be  proved  to  have  existed  at  MUnster  from  the 

chapter  obtained  it  by  purchase.     Near  these  four  thirteenth  century.    At  least  the  burgomasters  and 

estates  were  quite  a  number  of  farms  owned  indepen-  the  members  of  the  city  council  were  chosen  from  a 

dently  by  free  peasants;  many  of  these  in  the  course  limited  number  of  famihes.   From  the  fourteenth  cen- 

of  time  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Church.    The  tury  the  patricians  had  control  of  the  court  of  the  city : 

monastOTy  of  St.  Ludger  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  they  maintained  themselves  in  the  sole  ownership  ot 

these  properties  on  the  ground  now  surrounding  the  the  city  government  up  into  the  fifteenth  century, 

cathechl.    From  the  beginning  the  monastery  was  The  representatives  of  the  city  were  the  burgomasters, 

independent  of  the  jurisoiction  of  the  count.    How  first  mentioned  in  1253,  and  the  assessors,  mentioned 

large  a  district  enjoyed  this  immunity  cannot  now  be  in  1221.    Besides  its  judicial  authority,  the  body  of 

ascertained.    Neither,  for  lack  of  original  authorities,  assessors  performed  the  duties  of  a  city  council.    It 

can  the  extent  of  the  guild  in  which  the  free  peasants  was  presided  over  by  the  burgomasters,  who,  from 

were  united  be  positively  settled,  nor  the  earhest  state  1268,  were  not  appointed  by  the  bishop,  out  by  those 

of  the  commumty  and  the  legal  jurisdiction  exercised  citizens  (aiulen  tuden)  who  had  the  n^t  of  voting, 

in  it.  In  regard  to  the  public  administration  of  justice.  Taking;  advantage  of  the  bishop's  pecuniary  needs,  the 

MUnster  was  from  the  earliest  times  under  the  author-  municipality  graaually  obtained  large  rights  and  priv- 

it^r  of  the  Counts  of  Dreingau  untU,  on  account  of  the  ileges.    Thus,  besides  its  own  autonomy,  it  acquired 

privileges  granted  by  Otto  I,  the  rights  of  the  count  the  military  authority,  the  administration  of  a  number 

were  trannerred  to  the  bishop,  who  exercised  them,  of  church  prebends,  and  supreme  jurisdiction  in  certain 

e8peciall}r  the  higher  jurisdiction,  through  governors,  courts  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  villages.    In  the 

The  relation  of  the  bishop  to  the  commune  in  the  early  fourteenth  century  it  had  a  court  formed  from  its  own 

period  is  not  entirely  clear,  though  it  is  evident  that  he  council.    After  1309  it  was  represented  in  the  diet  of 

exercised  a  certain  influence  over  the  affairs  of  the  the  diocese  along  with  the  cathedral  chapter  and  the 

community.  lower  nobility. 

At  first  the  population  was  very  small:  there  ap-  Nevertheless,  the  bishop  always  appointed  the 
pears  to  have  been  a  lar^e  increase  in  the  elevenUi  judges  and  reserved  to  himself  the  confirmation  of 
century,  when,  in  addition  to  the  cathedral,  the  sentence  in  important  cases.  He  levied  ihe  town- 
churches  of  Ueberwasser  (1040),  St.  Moritz  (about  taxes  which,  however,  he  generally  mortgaged;  he 
1070),  and  St.  Lambert  (after  1085)  were  built,  owned  the  mint,  and  claimed  certain  rights  at  the 
MUnster  at  this  time  offered  great  advantages  to  mer-  death  of  every  citizen.  The  guilds  formed  by  the 
chants  and  mechanics,  besides  being  the  see  of  a  leading  trades  in  the  fourteenth  century  (in  the  six- 
bishop,  with  a  chapter  and  cathedral  school.  Thus,  teenth  century  seventeen  guilds  are  mentioned)  orig- 
cloee  to  the  episcopal  castle,  that  had  been  built  near  inally  exercised  no  control  over  the  city  government; 
the  minster,  there  arose  an  outlying  city  in  which  in  the  second  half  of  that  century  they  formed  a  con- 
oommerce  and  trade  were  fairly  prosperous,  as  early  federation.  Thus  confederated,  the  guilds  were  able 
as  the  twelfth  century.  In  1115  the  castle  was  pro-  to  influence  both  the  internal  and  external  affairs  of 
vided  with  waUs,  gateways,  and  a  moat.  In  the  the  dtv,  working  apparently  in  amicable  agreement 
twelfth  century  three  more  parish  churches  were  built,  with  the  Council.  In  1447  the  confederateid  guilds 
those  of  St.  Ludger,  mentioned  in  1173,  St.  iEgidius  were  regarded  as  a  ruling  corporation  co-ordinate  and 
(1181),  and  St.  Martin  (before  1199).  By  the  end  of  acting  in  union  with  the  Council.  Their  veto  could 
the  twelfth  century  the  place  was  virtually  a  city,  stop  anv  proceedings  of  the  Council,  which  was  still 
although  it  cannot  now  be  ascertained  when  the  dis-  chosen  from  the  patrician  body.  On  the  other  hand, 
tinctive  municipal  privileges  were  secured  by  it.  the  Council  retained  a  certain  nght  of  supervision  over 
From  not  later  than  1168  the  city  formed  a  separate  the  internal  affairs  of  the  guilds.  A  good  understand- 
judicial  district,  and  with  this  the  development  into  a  in^  between  Council  and  guilds  was,  therefore,  the 
municipality  was  essentially  complete.  Yet  MUnster  primary  condition  for  a  prosperous  development  of  the 
was  not  a  H&e  imperial  city;  it  was  always  dependent  city.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  two  bodies  worked  har- 
on  the  h\aif4p.  In  1173  the  risht  of  administering  the  moniously  together  until  the^outbreak  of  the  diocesan 
city  passed  to  the  bishop  and  the  cathedral  chapter,  feud  which  split  the  city  into  two  armed  camps  (see 
From  the  thirteenth  century  these  two  powers  en-  below,  under  II).  In  1454,  after  the  close  of  this  feud, 
trusted  the"  exercise  of  legal  jurisdiction  to  officials  it  was  decided  to  choose  the  burgomasters  and  mem* 
(minuterialen)  of  the  bishop.  From  the  thirteenth  bers  of  the  Council  thenceforward  from  both  the 
century,  in  addition  to  the  judge  appointed  by  the  patricians  and  mass  of  the  citizens.  This  arrangement 
bishop,  thenSfwere  city  judges,  who  are  first  mentioned  was  maintained  until  the  An^aptist  outbr^k.  In* 
in  1255.  They  were  appomted  by  the  burgomasters  temal  peace  promoted  prosperity  and  schools  and 
from  the  members  of  the  city  council.  When  court  learning  flourished  greatly.  MUnster  was  regarded  as 
was  held  they  sat  by  the  judge,  who  was  the  bishop's  the  leading  commercial  city  between  the  Rhine  and 
appointee  in' order  to  guard  the  interests  of  the  city,  the  Weser,  and  the  school  conducted  by  the  Canon 
but  outside  of  this  had  not  much  influence.   The  city  Rudolf  of  Langen  had  a  great  reputation. 


mUnstib 


636 


mVnstib 


In  1533^5,  however,  MCknster  was  the  Boene  of  the 
wild  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists.  Duringthe  episco- 
pate of  Bishop  Frederick  Ul,  brother  of  Hermann  of 
Wied,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  the  doctrines  of  Luther 
spread  widely  in  the  Diocese  of  Mtlnster.  In  his  agree- 
ment with  the  city  (14  February,  1633)  Bishop  Franz 
of  Waldeck  ceded  to  it  full  religious  liberty  and 
granted  the  six  parish  churches  to  the  adherents  of  the 
new  doctrine,  in  return  for  which  the  city  promised 
him  obedience  and  support  against  the  cathedral 
chapter.  From  1533  the  city  undertook  the  prepara- 
tion of  new  church  ordinances.  The  drawing  up  of  a 
form  of  worship  was  assigned  to  Bemt  Rothmann.  a 
preacher  of  Anabaptist  proclivities.  Supported  by 
some  i>reachers  from  Wassenberg  in  JiiUch  and  bv  the 
Melchiorites  (followers  of  Melchior  Hoffmann),  he 
began  to  spread  his  views.  The  strength  of  the  Ana- 
baptist partv  was  steadily  increased  by  accessions 
from  Holland,  untilj  in  February,  1534,  their  leaders, 
John  of  Levden,  a  tailor,  and  Jan  Matthiesen,  a  baker, 
came  to  NlQnster  from  Haarlem,  when  the  sect  gained 
oomi)lete  control  of  the  city,  ana  the  peaceable  minor- 
ity either  left  the  city  voluntarily  or  were  expelled. 
The  Anabaptists  now  mdulged  in  the  wildest  oi^es  in 
"the  New  Jerusalem*'  &s  they  called  MOnster,  intro- 
ducing polygamy  ana  communism,  plundering  and 
selling  churches  and  monasteries. 

Notwithstanding  his  inclination  to  Protestantism, 
the  bishop  was  now  obliged  to  go  to  war  with  the 
city  in  onier  to  maintain  his  secular  authority.  In 
alliance  with  Philip  of  Hesse,  he  began  (28  February, 
1534)  a  siege  of  the  city  in  which  John  of  I^eyden,  as 
king  of  the  New  Zion,  had  established  a  reign  of  terror. 
After  a  siege  of  sixteen  months  the  city  was  taken  in  a 
bloody  assault  (25  June,  1535).  The  leaders  of  the 
insurrection  were  executed  with  horrible  tortures  and 
their  bodies  were  exposed  in  three  cages  hung  on  the 
tower  of  St.  Lambert's  Church.  The  return  of  the  ex- 
pelled citizens  and  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic 
Church  proceeded  slowly.  A  small  Protestant  com- 
munity was  still  maintained.  In  1553  the  city  re- 
gained its  old  privileges  and  rights.  Trade,  com- 
merce, and  learning  once  more  flourished.  Although 
disputes  now  arose  between  the  guilds  and  the  town 
council,  and  these  two  combined  against  the  growing 
importance  of  the  bishop,  Mttnster  enjoyed  general 
peace  and  prosperity  until  the  Thirty  Years' War. 
Several  times  during  that  war  the  city  was  obliged 
to  pay  heavy  contributions,  but  it  was  not  utterly 
impoverished  like  so  many  other  cities. 

The  peace  negotiations  carried  on  at  Mtlnster  by  the 
Catholic  Powers,  beginning  in  1643,  led  to  the  neutral- 
ization of  the  city  and  its  substantial  benefit.  Thus 
encouraged,  the  C)ouncil,  a  few  years  after  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia,  persuaded  the  citizens  to  make  a  bold 
attempt  to  throw  off  the  sovereignty  of  the  bishop  and 
raise  MUnster  to  the  rank  of  a  free  city  of  the  empire. 
In  the  strug^e  with  the  Prince-Bishop  Christopher 
Bemhard  ofUalen,  MUnster  was  defeated  in  March, 
1661.  It  lost  its  privileges,  and  an  episcopal  citadel, 
the  Paulsburg,  was  erected  in  the  western  part  of  the 
city.  Never,  while  the  prince-bishops  remained 
rulers,  did  MUnster  regain  its  full  civic  liberty.  After 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  during  which  MUnster  was  not 
able  to  hold  out  against  a  second  siege,  in  1759,  the 
fortifications  were  turned  into  promenades,  and  the  cit- 
adel razed.  In  place  of  the  latter  a  castle  was  built  in 
1768  as  a  residence  for  the  prince-bishop.  In  1780 
a  university  was  founded  with  the  property  of  the 
suppressed  Jesuits  and  of  the  Abbey  of  Ueberwasser. 
A  circle  of  learned  men  gathered  at  MUnster  around 
the  Princess  Galitzin,  amongst  them  being  Frederick 
Leopold  Count  zu  Stolberg  and  Overbeck. 

By  the  Imperial  delegate's  enactment,  the  city  of 
MUnster  and  apart  of  the  diocese  fell  to  Prussia,  which 
had  already  (23  May,  1802)  made  an  agreement  con- 
cerning ;♦  wut«  *\yQ  Consul  Bonaparte.    The  Prussian 


troops  under  BlUcher  entered  the  dty,  3  August.  A 
commission  accompfmied  the  army  to  shape  the  con- 
stitution and  administration  of  the  newiy-acquired 
district  conformably  with  the  Prussian  model.  Al- 
though the  president  of  the  commission,  Freiherr  von 
Stein,  showed  a  very  friendly  spirit  towards  the  city, 
yet  the  suppression  of  its  inaependence  and  the  over- 
bearing behaviour  of  the  Prussian  officers  disgusted 
the  citizens  with  Prussian  supremacy.  MUnster  joy- 
fully welcomed  the  French,  who  entered  it  in  1806, 
after  the  defeat  of  Prussia  at  Jena  and  Auerstidt.  In 
1808  the  city  was  assigned  to  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Berjg,  in  1810  to  Holland,  and  in  1811  to  France,  as 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Lippe.  The  old  city- 
government  was  dissolved  and  replaced  by  the  French 
municipal  organization.  Manv  good  measures  of  ad- 
ministration were  introduced,  but  the  enthusiasm  for 
them  was  rapidly  chilled  by  the  extensive  billetin|^  of 
soldiers  upon  the  citizens,  and  by  arbitrary  action, 
especiidly  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  When,  tnerefore, 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Napoleonic  power  at  the 
battle  of  Leipzig,  the  Prussians  again  entered  MUnster, 
they,  in  turn,  were  greeted  with  great  joy.  The  Prus- 
sian Government  was  wise  enough  to  retain  many  im- 
provements made  by  the  French,  which  they  further 
developed,  so  that  the  city  quickly  reached  an  unpre- 
cedented prosperity.  In  1836  the  Prussian  municii>al 
ordinance  was  applied  to  MUnster.  The  population, 
13,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
rapidly  increased  with  the  growth  of  commerce  and 
traffic,  and,  as  capital  of  the  Province  of  Westphalia, 
the  quiet  cathedral  city  developed  into  an  important 
centre  of  traffic  for  North-Westem  Germany. 

According  to  the  census  taken  at  the  close  of  1905, 
MUnster  had  81,468  inhabitants,  of  whom  67,221 
were  Catholics,  13,612  Protestants,  and  555  Jevrs;  in 
1910  the  population  was  about  87,000,  including  72,- 
800  Catholics.  The  city  has  25  Catholic  churches 
and  chapels,  including  12  parish  churches.  Catholic 
institutions  of  learning  are:  the  theological  faculty  of 
the  university  with  (in  the  summer  of  1910)  316  stu- 
dents; the  seminary  for  priests;  2  preparatory  semi- 
naries, namely,  the  Collegium  Borromsum  and  the 
Colle^um  Ludgerianum ;  a  Catholic  state  gymnasium ; 
a  seminary  for  teachers;  a  high  school  for  girls. 

II.  Diocesan  History.— Towards  the  end  of  the 
Saxon  War,  Charlemagne  founded,  about  795,  several 
Saxon  dioceses,  all  suffragans  of  Cologne,  among  them 
MUnster,  or  Mimigemdford.  The  first  bishop  was 
Lud^er,  who,  since  the  year  787,  had  been  a  sealous 
missionary  in  five  Frisian  ''hundreds",  or  districts. 
The  territory  of  the  Diocese  of  MUnster  was  bounded 
on  the  west,  south,  and  north-west  by  the  Dioceses  of 
Cologne  and  Utrecht,  on  the  east  and  north-east  by 
OsnskbrUck.  The  diocese  also  included  districts  re- 
mote from  the  bulk  of  its  territory,  namely,  the  five 
Frisian  himdreds  on  the  lower  Ems  (Hugmerki,  Hu- 
nusgau,  Fivelgau.  Federitgau,  and  Emsgau),  also  the 
island  of  Bant,  which  has  disappeared,  leaving  bdiind 
it  the  islands  of  Borkum,  Juist,  and  Nordemey.  Men- 
tion has  already  been  made  above  (see  I)  of  the  earliest 
landed  estates  of  the  see.  Most  of  the  territory  over 
which  the  bishop  eventually  exercised  sovereign  rights 
lay  north  of  the  River  Lippe,  extending  as  far  as  the 
upper  Ems  and  the  Teutoburg  Forest.  The  most  im- 
portant accesfloon  was  in  1252,  when  the  see  purchased 
the  Countship  of  Vechta  and  the  district  of  the  Ems 
with  the  town  of  Meppen.  The  country  between 
these  new  districts  was  acquired  later:  in  1403  the  d]»- 
trict  about  Cloppenburg  and  03rte  was  guned.  in  1406 
the  manorial  domain  of  Ahaus  and  the  castle  of  Strom- 
berg  with  its  jurisdiction;  and  in  1429  Wideshauaen 
in  pledge  from  the  Archdiocese  of  Bremen.  This  last 
addition  made  the  new  territory,  which  was  entirely 
separate  from  the  southern  part  of  the  diocese,  a  com- 
pact body  subsequently  known  as  "the  lower  dio- 
cese"; it  remained  an  integral  part  of  the  Diocese  of 


MtJNSTIB 


637 


XCttNSTIE 


MQnster  until  the  Reformation,  which  Bomewhat 
duced  its  mze;  what  was  left  waa  retained  until  the 
secularization. 

St.  Ludger  established  his  see  as  Mimegemeford 
and  foundeid  there  a  monastery^  following  the  rule  of 
Bi^op  Chrodegang  of  Metz,  bishop  and  clergy  living 
in  community.  But  the  most  important  monastery 
founded  by  St.  Ludger  was  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of 
Werden,  which  became  a  nursery  for  the  clergy  of  the 
diocese.  He  also  assisted  in  founding  the  convent  of 
Nottuln^  imder  his  sister  Heriburg.  He  waa  suc- 
ceeded m  the  administration  of  the  diocese  by  two 
nephews,  Gerfrid  (809-30)  and  Altfrid  (83^-49),  both 
of  whom  also  presided  over  the  monastcnry  of  Werden. 
The  special  connexion  of  Werden  with  the  diocese 
ceased  on  ihe  appointment  of  the  next  bishop,  Luit- 
bert  (849-71),  wno  was  not  related  to  the  family  of  the 
founder.  There  were  even  disputes  between  the 
bishop  and  the  monastery,  which  the  Synod  of  Mainz 
settled  in  favour  of  the  latter,  awarding  it  the  right  of 
freely  electing  its  abbot.  Bishop  Wulmelm  (875-95) 
changed  the  collegiate  body  founded  by  Ludger  into  a 
calh^ral  chai)ter,  with  which  he  divided  the  property 
till  then  held  in  common,  the  bishop  havii^  thence- 
forth his  special  residence.  Among  the  religious  foim- 
dations  of  the  diocese  in  the  ninth  century  should  be 
mentioned  the  monasteries  for  women  at  Liesbom 
(814),  Vreden  (about  839),  Freckenhorst  (before  857), 
and  Metelen  (before  889).  The  development  of  reU- 
gious  and  intellectual  life  was  checked  in  the  first  part 
of  the  tentii  century  by  political  disquiet.  Better  oays 
did  not  beg^  imtif  the  reign  of  Emperor  Otto  I  (936- 
73).  Under  Bishop  Duodo  (867-93),  in  968,  the  abbey 
of  Borghorst  was  founded  for  women ;  the  same  bishop 
built  a  stone  cathedral  near  the  old  wooden  one. 
Hermann  I  (1032-42)  foimded  the  Abbey  of  Our  Lady 
of  Ueberwasser;  Bishop  Frederick  I,  Count  of  Wettin 
(1064-84),  establishea  the  collegiate  church  of  St. 
Moritz  at  Mttnster;  Bishop  Erpho  (1085-97)  built  the 
church  of  St.  Lambert.  Both  tne  two  just  named  and 
Bishop  Burchard  of  Holte  (1098-1118)  were  partisans 
of  the  emperor  in  the  investiture  conflict.  During 
the  episcopate  of  Dietrich  II,  Count  of  Zutphen 
(1118-27),  several  Prsemonstratensian  and  Cistercian 
abbe>;s  arose.  Hermann  II  (1174-1203)  founded 
collegiate  churches  for  the  canons  of  St.  Ludger  and 
St.  Martin. 

The  twelfth  centurv  was  marked  by  a  considerable 
ETowtii  of  the  bishops  secular  power.  Bishop  Ludwig 
17  Count  of  Tecklenourg  (1169-73),  restored  to  the  see 
the  temporal  jurisdiction  over  its  domains  previously 
exercised  by  the  Counts  of  TecklenburK.  Hermann 
II,  like  his  immediate  predecessois.  Frederick  II, 
Count  of  Are  (1152-68),  and  Ludwig  I,  was  a  partisan 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa.  With  the  overtnrow  of 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  the  last  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  the  complete  sovereignty  of  the  bishops  was 
removed,  and  Hermann  appears  as  a  great  feudatory  of 
the  empire.  During  the  episcopate  of  his  second  suc- 
cessor. Dietrich  III  of  Isenbuig  (1218-26),  the  posi- 
tion of  the  bishop  as  a  prince  of  the  empire  was  for- 
mally acknowledged  in  1220  by  Frederick  ll .  Hermann 
II  was  the  last  bishop  directly  appointed  by  the  em- 
peror. Dissensions  arose  about  the  election  of  his 
successor,  Otto  I,  Count  of  Oldenburg  (1204-18),  and 
Emperor  Otto  IV  decreed  that  thenceforward  the  cathe- 
dral chapter  alone  should  elect  the  bishop.  The  See 
of  Colore  retained  the  right  of  confirmation,  and  the 
emperor  that  of  investiture.  The  bishop's  temporal 
outnority  was  limited  in  important  matters,  particu- 
larly in  taxation,  the  consent  of  representative  bodies 
of  luB  subjects  was  necessary.  Amon^  these,  the  cathe- 
dral chapter  ^>pears  early  in  the  tlurteenth  century; 
later,  the  lower  nobility,  and,  lastly,  the  city  of  Mon- 
ster. In  oouive  of  time  tne  cathedral  chapter  extended 
itfi  righte  by  agreements  made  with  bishops  before 
election. 


The  temporal  power  of  the  see  increased  greatly 
during  the  episcopate  of  Bishop  Otto  11^  Count  of 
Lippe  (1247-^9).  The  city,  at  the  same  time,  stnig- 
^ed  to  become  independent  of  the  bishop,  not,  how- 
ever, with  complete  success,  notwithstanding  ite 
alliance  with  the  cathedral  chapter.  Even  as  eany  as 
the  eleventh  century  the  bishops  all  belonged  to  noble 
families,  generally  to  those  possessing  lands  in  the 
neighbourhood;  only  too  of  ten  the  diocese  was  admin- 
ist^«d  for  the  benefit  rather  of  the  bishop's  family 
than  of  ihe  Church.  The  bishops  were,  in  conse- 
quence, frequently  involved  in  the  quarrels  of  the 
nobility;  ecclesiastical  affairs  were  neglected  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  prince-bishoprio 
suffcared.  Conditions  were  at  their  worst  during  what 
is  known  as  the  Milnster  Diocesan  Feud  (1450-67). 
The  arbitrary  conduct  of  Bishop  Henry  II  of  Mdrs 
(1424-50)  had  aroused  a  very  bitter  feeling  in  the  city. 
After  lus  death  the  majority  of  the  cathedral  chapter 
elected  Wabram  of  Mdrs,  brother  of  Henry  and  also  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  while  the  cit^  and  a  minor- 
il^  of  the  chapter  demanded  the  election  of  Eric  of 
Hoya,  brother  of  Count  John  of  Hova.  Although  the 
election  of  Walram  was  confirmed  bv  the  pope,  open 
war  for  the  possession  of  the  see  broke  out.  ana  Wal- 
ram was  unable  to  niin  possession  of  tne  city  of 
Mttnster.  In  1457^  luter  his  death,  a  compact  waa 
made  by  which  Enc  of  Ho^  received  a  life  income, 
and  the  privileges  of  the  city  were  confirmed,  while 
both  parties  recognized  the  new*  bishop  appointed  by 
the  pope,  John  IlT  Count  Palatine  of  Simmem  (1457- 
66).  After  order  had  been  re-established,  the  ecclesi- 
astical reform  of  the  diocese  was  taken  seriously  in 
hand.  Bishop  Henry  III  of  Schwarsbuiv  (1466-96), 
Conrad  of  Rietberg  (1407-1508),  and  Eric  of  Saze- 
Lauenbuig  (150^22)  produced  excellent  resulto  by 
holding  synods  and  r^ormins  religious  foundations. 
Rudolf  of  Langen  and  John  Murmdhus  made  the  ce^ 
thedral  school  a  nursery  of  humanism. 

Under  the  indolent  and  thoroughly  worldly  Fred- 
erick III  (1522-32),  brother  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  Hermann  of  Wied,  Lutheranism  spread 
rapidly  after  1524,  especially  in  the  city.  Scarcely 
any  opposition  to  the  innovation  was  made  by  the 
next  bishop,  Franz  of  Waldeck  (1532-53),  who  from 
the  first  planned  to  aid  the  Reformation  in  his  three 
dioceses  of  Mttnster.  Minden,  and  Osnabrttck,  in  or- 
der to  form  out  of  these  three  a  secular  principality 
for  himself.  He  was  obliged,  indeed,  for  the  sake  of 
his  endangered  authority^  to  proceed  against  the  Ana- 
baptiste  in  the  city  of  Mttnster;  but  he  did  little  for 
the  restoration  of  the  Faith,  and  at  last  joined  the 
Smalkaldic  League.  William  of  Ketteler  (1553-57) 
was  more  Protestant  than  Catholic:  although  he  re- 
garded himself  as  an  administrator  of  the  old  Church, 
and  took  the  Tridentine  oath,  he  refused  to  comply 
with  the  demands  of  Rome,  and  resigned  in  1557. 
Bemhard  of  Raesfeld  (1557-66)  was  genuinely  de» 
voted  to  the  Catholic  Faith,  but  he,  too,  finding  him- 
self unequal  to  the  difiSculties  of  his  position,  resigned. 
John  of  Hoya  (1566-74),  a  faithful  Catholic,  in  order 
to  reorganize  ecclesiastical  affairs,  undertook  a  gen- 
eral visitation  of  the  diocese  in  the  years  1571-73. 
The  visitation  revealed  shocking  conditions  amons 
clergy  and  people,  and  showed  to  what  extent  the  ReN 
ormation  had  spread  in  the  diocese  under  previous 
bishops.  Not  only  were  Protestant  ideas  predomi- 
nant m  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  or  "lower 
diocese'',  but  the  western  part  as  well  hacl  been  almost 
entirely  lost  to  the  Church.  In  the  cities  in  other  parte 
of  the  diocese,  too,  the  Faith  had  suffered  greatly. 

The  good  this  bishop  accomplished  was  almost  un- 
done after  his  death.  His  successor,  John  William  of 
Cleves  (1574-85),  inherited  the  Duchy  of  Cleves  in 
1575,  married,  and  gave  up  the  administration  of  the 
diocese.  A  long  diplomatic  battle  as  to  his  successor 
arose  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  powers^ 


M0N8TBB                             638  KOnSTIB 

during  which  the  diocese  was  administered  by  Cleves.  pleted  bv  the  Bull  of  16  July)  1821,  "De  salute  anl- 
Tfae  maintenance  of  Catholicism  in  the  diocese  was  marum",  the  diocese  was  given  its  present  boun- 
assured  by  the  victory  of  Ernst  of  Bavaria  (1585-  daries  (see  below).  The  see  had  been  vacant  for 
1612),  who  was  also  Bishop  of  Freising,  Hildesheim,  twenty  years  when  Ferdinand  von  Lunninck  (1821- 
and  Lii^e,  and  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  He  zealously  25),  formerly  Prince-Bishop  of  Corvey,  was  appointed, 
undertook  the  (Dounter-Reformation,  invited  the  Jes-  On  account  of  illness,  he  left  the  aoministration  to 
uits  to  aid  him,  and  encouraged  the  founding  of  monas-  Jodok  Hermann  von  Zurmuhlen,  already  an  old  man, 
teries  of  the  old  orders,  although  he  could  not  repair  all  whom  he  made  pro-vicar.  The  succeeding  bishop  was 
the  losses.  The  western  part  of  the  Frisian  oistrict  Caspar  Max,  Freiherr  von  Droste-Vischering  (1824- 
under  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  MUnster  was  46),  who,  having  been  auxiliary  bishop  of  the  diocese 
transferred,  in  1569,  to  the  newlv-founded  bishoprics  since  1795,  had  confirmed  many  hundreds  of  thou* 
of  Groningen  and  Deventer,  ana  with  them  fell  into  sands  and  ordained  over  2200  priests.  His  adminis- 
Rt)testantism.  In  the  same  way  the  possessions  of  tration  was  greatly  hampered  oy  the  petty  and  far- 
the  Counts  of  Bentheim-Steinfurt  and  some  other  for-  reaching  supervision  of  the  Government.  In  place  of 
tified  towns  passed  from  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  the  university,  suppressed  in  1818,  he  was  able  to 
of  the  bishop.  The  two  immediate  successors  of  open,  in  1832,  an  academy  with  philosophical  and  the- 
Bishop  Ernst  laboured  in  the  same  spirit.  Ferdinand  ological  faculties;  in  1902  this  academy  became  a  uni- 
of  Bavaria  (1612-50)  was  at  the  same  time  Elector  of  versity.  Ecclesiastical  life  in  the  diocese  was  in  a  some- 
Cologne  and  Bishop  of  Paderbom,  Hildesheim,  and  what  unsatisfactory  condition,  the  clergy  being  largely 
Li^e.  He  found^  a  seminary,  which  he  placed  under  inclined  to  Rationalistic  and  Hermesian  opinions, 
the  direction  of  Jesuits.  Christopher  Bemhard  of  An  intellectual  and  religious  revival  throughout 
Galen  (1650-78)  was  equally  efficient  both  as  bishop  Germany  followed  the  events  at  Cologne  in  1837  (see 
and  as  secular  ruler:  he  forced  the  refractory  city  of  CoLoaNE).  This  revival  and  the  larger  freedom 
Miinster,  after  a  long  siege,  to  acknowledge  his  sover-  nanted  the  Catholic  Church  of  Prussia  under  King 
eign  rights,  succeed^  in  freeing  his  territory  from  for-  Frederick  William  IV  produced  excellent  results  in  the 
eigntroops^ainedpartsof  the  Archdiocese  of  Bremen  diocese.  During  the  episcopate  of  John  Gregory 
and  of  the  Diocese  of  Werden  in  a  war  with  Sweden,  Mtiller  (1847-70),  fruitful  popular  missions  were  held 
restored  church  discipline,  and  established  a  school  in  many  places,  many  churches  were  rebuilt,  and  a 
system  for  his  territory.  lar^e  number  of  religious  houses  and  benevolent  insti- 

The  immediate  successors  of  the  three  distinguished  tutions  were  founded  with  the  active  assistance  of  the 

rulers  just  mentioned  were  Ferdinand  II  of  Rirsten-  laity.     His  successor,   John   Bemhard   Brinkmann 

berg  (1678-83),  Maximilian  Henry  of  Bavaria  (1683-  (1870-89),  laboured  in  the  same  apostolic  spirit.   Dur- 

88).  Frederick  Christian  of  Plettenber^  (1688-1712),  ing  the  Ktdturkampf  he  suffered  fines,  imprisonment, 

ana  Francis  Arnold  of  Wolf-Mettemich  (1708-18).  and,  from  1875  to  1884,  banishment.    Hewasobhgea 

Unfortunately,  imder  these  men  church  discipline  de-  to  witness  the  destruction  of  much  that  had  been  es- 

clined,  and  much  that  was  excellent  decayed  for  lack  tablished  by  his  predecessors  and  by  himself.    Tlie 

of  proper  care,  or,  like  the  seminary  for  pnests,  ceased  present  bishop  is  Hermann  Dingelstad,  bom  2  March, 

to  exist.    The  next  bishop  was  the  frivolous,  vain,  1835,  elected  15  August,  1889,  consecrated  24  Febru- 

and  pomp-loving  Clement  Augustus  of  Bavaria  (1719-  ary,  1890. 

61).  who  was  also  Elector  of  Ck>logne,  and  Bishop  of  Statiatics. — ^The  Diocese  of  Miinster  includes:  the 

Paderbom,   Hildesheim,   and    OsnabrUck.     During  Prussian  Department  of  Miinster  in  Westphalia;  the 

his  episcopate  the  diocese  suffered  terribly,  in  1734-35  parish  of  Lette,  in  the  Department  of  Minden;  three 

and  during  the  Seven  Years  War.  being  almost  ruined  enclaves  in  the  Department  of  Arensbeig:  the  city 

financially.    The    succeeding    bishop,    Maximihan  district  of  Duisberg;  the  districts  of  Dinslaken,  Rees, 

Frederick  of  Konigsegg-Rottenfels  (1761-84),  who  Cleves,  Gildem,  Kempen,  and  Mdrs  in  Rhenish  Prua- 

was  also  Elector  of  Cologne,  was  a  weak,  though  well-  sia;   the  city  of  Wilhelmshaven  in  the  Province  of 

meaning,  man.    Happily,  ne  left  the  administration  Hanover;  the  Duchy  of  Oldenburg.   The  408  parishes 

of  the  Diocese  of  Miinster  to  a  young  cathedral  canon,  of  the  diocese  are  distributed  in  22  deaneries,  of  which 

Franz  Friedrich  Wilhelm  von  Fiirstenberg  (q.  v.),  12  are  in  Westphalia,  8  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  2  in 

during  whose  administration  the  diocese  attained  un-  Oldenburg.    In  1910  there  were  in  the  diocese  1,427,- 

exampled  prosperity.    At  the  election  of  an  auxiliary  203  Catholics,  664,737  Protestants,  8758  Jews.    The 

bishop,  von  Fiirstenberg  was  defeated  by  Maximilian  diocesan  priests  numbered  1333.  of  whom  1259  were 

Franz  of  Austria,  who  became  the  last  Prince-Bishop  engsjged  in  parochial  work,  teaching,  or  ecclesiastical 

of  Miinster  and  Elector  of  Cologne  (1774-1801).  Upon  administration;  74  were  absent  on  leave  or  were  re- 

the  death  of  Maximilian  Franz,  his  nephew,  the  Arch-  tired;  there  were  133  regulars.    In  addition,  38  ecde- 

duke  Anthony  Victor,  was  elected,  but  could  not  siastics  not  belonging  to  the  diocese  were  domiciled 

enter  upon  the  administration  on  account  of  the  op-  in  it.     There  has  been  an  imbroken  succession  of 

position  of  Prussia,  which  had  long  coveted  the  do-  auxiliary  bishops  since  1218.    The  cathedral  chapter 

mains  of  the  Church  in  Northern  Germanv.  consists  of  a  provost,  dean,  8  canons,  and  6  honorary 

In  1803  the  diocese  was  secularized  by  the  Imperial  canons.     The  vicariate-general  is  composed  of  the 

Delegates  Enactment  and  broken  up  into  numerous  vicar-general,  6  ecclesiastical  counciUors,  a  notary 

parts.     The  larger  share  was  assigned  to  Prussia,  Apostohc  for  the  diocese,  a  justiciary,  3  secretaries, 

which  took  possession  in  March,   1803.     The  rich  and  7  other  officials.    Besides  the  oj^SctoZit^  at  Miinster, 

treasury  of  the  cathedral  was  transferred  to  Magde-  there  is  also  one  at  Vechta  for  the  Oldenburg'  section 

buig  and  has  never  been   returned.     Freiherr  von  of  the  diocese.    The  diocesan  institutions  are:    the 

Fiirstenberg  administered  as  vicar-general  the  ecclesi-  seminar^r  for  priests  (36  students  who  were  already 

astical  affairs  of  the  diocese  even  during  the  short  deacons  in  1910).  the  Collegium  Borromsum  for  theo- 

CRipremacy  of  the  French  (1806-13).    After  his  death,  logical  students  (182  students),  the  Collegium  Ludger- 

in  1810,  the  administrator  was  his  former  coadjutor,  ianum  (111  pupils),  the  institute  for  Church  music — 

Clement  Augustus  von  Droste-Vischering,  later  Arch-  all  at  Miinster;  at  Gaesdonck,  near  Goch,  an  epi»- 

bishop  of  Cologne.  In  the  years  1813-15  the  diocese  was  copal  seminary  for  assistant  priests,  and  the  Collegium 

administered,  without  the  authorization  of  the  pope,  Augustinianum:   4   episcopal    institutions  for   poor 

by  Count  Ferdinand  Augustus  von  Spiegel,  arbitrarily  children,  and  the  Maria-Hilf  institute  at  Tilbeck  for 

appointed  by  Napoleon,  and  to  whom  von  Drost^  epileptic  women  and  girls.    There  are  13  ecclesiastical 

Visdiering  had  given  his  faculties  by  subdelegation.  professors  in  the  theoloncal  faculty  and  one  in  the 

fn  1813  the  principality  was  again  ceded  to  Prussia,  philosophical  faculty  at  Miinster.    Among  the  state- 

IJpon  the  ecclesiastical  reorganization  of  Prussia,  com-  aided  Catholic  higher  schools  are  11  GymnwriOf  oom 


MtfNSTBB 


639 


MtJNSTEB 


Realachvle,  6  seminaries  for  male  and  2  for  female 
teachers.  There  are  also  a  large  number  of  high 
schools  for  girls,  generally  carried  on  by  nuns. 

The  city  of  MUnster  contains  27  houses  of  religious 
orders  and  congregations.     The  members  conduct 
most  of  the  25  Catholic  institutions  for  public  benefit 
and  charity  in  the  municipality.   The  male  orders  and 
congr^ations  represented  in  tne  diocese  are:  Francis- 
canSi  5  monasteries,  40  fathers,  13  clerical  novices,  11 
lay  brothers;  Capuchins,  4  monasteries,  34  fathers,  9 
clerics,  23  brothers;  Trappists  in  the  colony  for  men 
out  of  work  at  Maria-Venn,  8  fathers,  12  brothers; 
Benedictines,  an  abbey  and  a  priory,  15  fathers,  28 
brothers;  Dominicans,  2  monasteries,  12  fathers^  lay 
brothers;  Society  of  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus,  1  house,  19  missionaries;  Alexian  Brothers, 
1  institution  for  the  care  of  insane  men,  46  brothers: 
Brothers  of  Mercy,  2  houses,  41  brothers;  Brothers  of 
St.  Francis,  3  houses,  19  brothers.    Female  religious 
orders  and  congregations:    Benedictine  nuns  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration,  3  houses,  151  sisters;  Sisters  of 
the  Visitation  of  Mary,  1  house,  35  sisters;    Poor 
Clares,  3  houses,  92  sisters;    Ursulines  at  Dorsten, 
where  they  have  a  higher  school  for  girls,  a  boarding- 
school,  a  seminary  for  female  teachers  etc.,  60  sisters; 
Sisters   of    Mercy^    mother-house   at    MUnster,    81 
branches  in  the  diocese,  240  sisters;   Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  mother-house 
and  branch  house,  125  sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Divine 
Providence,  a  mother-house,  63  filial  houses,  and  640 
sisters  who  conduct  a  large  number  of  schools  for  girls, 
homes  for  girls,  houses  for  the  needy  and  helpless, 
etc. ;  Nursing  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
a  mother-house,  83  branch  houses,  894  sisters;  Sisters 
of  Our  Lady,  a  mother-house,  41  branch-houses,  which 
carry  on  boarding  schools,  day-schools,  homes  for 
girls  etc.,  590  sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Christian  Schools 
of  Mercy,  who  conduct  higher  schools  for  girls,  day- 
nurseries,  sewing-schools,  take  care  of  the  sick,  etc., 
24  houses,  146  sisters;  Poor  Serving  Maids  of  Jesus 
Christ.  4  nouses,  47  sisters;  Poor  Franciscans  of  the 
Sacrea  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  a  hospital  with  7 
sisters;  Sisters  of  Penitence  and  Christian  Charity  of 
the  Third  Older  of  St.  Francis,  3  houses,  152  sisters; 
Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  at  Cleves,  13  sisters; 
Grey  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,    1   house,  8  sisters; 
Dau^ters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  4  houses,  99  sisters; 
Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  a 
mother-house,  78  sisters;  Dominican  Nuns  from  the 
mother-house  at  Arenberg  in  the  Diocese  of  Trier,  3 
houses.  10  sisters.     Among  the  religious  associations 
are:  tne  association  of  priests,  young  men's  associa- 
tions (84),    Marian  sodalities  for  young  men  (262), 
journeymen's  unions  in  81  towns,  merchants'  associa- 
tions (36),  workmen's  unions  (134),  miners'  unions 
(47),  sodalities  for  men  (77),  congr^ations  of  Cath- 
olic young  women  (250),  societies  of  Christian  mothers 
(325),  the  Bonifaciusverein.  the  Societies  of  St.  Vin- 
cent, of  Blessed  Albertus  Magnus,  etc. 

The  principal  churches  are:  tne  cathedral  (built 
for  the  most  part  between  1225  and  1265,  in  the 
transition  period  from  Romanesque  to  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, while  the  great  doorway,  Duilt  in  1516,  is  late 
Gothic  in  style);  the  Gothic  church  of  St.  Lambert, 
built,  on  the  site  of  an  old  parish  church,  in  the  second 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  with  a  new  Gothic 
tower,  about  312  feet  hi^h,  added  in  1887-90,  to  re- 
place the  old  one  on  which  had  hung  the  iron  cages 
that  held  the  bodies  of  the  executed  Anabaptists;  the 
church  of  Our  Lady,  a  fine  fourteenth-century  Gothic 
building  erected  on  the  site  of  the  chapelof  the  Virgin, 
built  by  St.  Ludger;  the  church  of  St.  Ludger,  built 
about  1170,  enlarged  1383;  the  collegiate  church  of 
St.  Moritz,  founded  1070,  and  enlarged,  1862,  in 
Romanesque  style.  Besides  these,  the  following  de- 
serve particular  mention:  the  Romanesoue  churches 
of  Freckenhorst  and  Emmerich;  the  Qotnic  churches 


at  Xantcn  (Cathedral  of  St.  Victor),  LUdlnghausen, 
Cleves,  Kalten^  Kempen,  and  Nottuln. 

Works  on  the  City  of  MOnater:  Wilckxnb,  Verauch  einer  oU^*- 
meinen  Geachie/Ue  der  Stadt  MUnater  (MOnster  and  Hamm,  1824) ; 
NiEAEBT,  BeUrdQt  m  einem  mUnaUriachen  Urkundenbuch  (2  vols., 
MQnster,  1823) ;  Idem,  MantUriaehe  UrkunderuamnUuna  (7  vols., 
Coesfeld.  1826-37);  Erbabo,  OtackichU  MUnatera  (MQnstar. 
1837) :  TiBua,  Die  Stadt  MUnater  (MQnster.  1882) ;  von  Dktten, 
MUnater  in  We9i/aUn.aein«  Entatehuno  und  daa  KvUurbild  aei- 
ner  tauaendjdhrigen  Bntwicklung  (MQnster,  1887);  Quellen  und 
Porachungen  aur  Gaaehichte  der  Stadi  MUnaler,  I  (Manster.  1889) ; 
PixPER,  Dia  aUe  Uniteraitdt  MUnater  (MQnster,  1002)  ^Savelb,  Der 
Dom  tu  MUnater  (MQnster,  1004) ;  B6mbr,  Daa  literanache  Leben  in 
MUnater  bia  ntr  endqUUigen  Rexeption  daa  Humaniamua  (MQnster, 
1006);  HuppERTB,  MUnater  im  r-jdhrigen  Krieg  (MQnster,  1008). 

On  the  Diocese:  Weatfdliachea  Urkundenbuch,  I-VIII  (MQnster, 
1847-1008)  (especially  II  and  VIII);  Die  GeachichtaquelUn  dea 
Biatuma  MUnater,  I-VI  (MQnster,  1851-1000);  Codex  Traditionum 
TF««f/a/uxxrum  (6  vols.,  MQnster,  1872-1007);  Tibus,  (TrOmfttti^s- 
geaehiehU  der  Slifler^  P/arrkirehen,  Kl6^er  und  KapeUen  im  Be- 
reich  dea  alien  Biatuma  MUnater  (MQnster,  1893) ;  Bablmann.  Der 
Regierungabetirk  MUnater  (MQnster,  1803);  Stappbb,  Dia  dUeate 
Agenda  dea  Biatuma  MUnater  (MQnster,  1006);  Sehematiamua  der 
LHoztae  MUnater  (MQnster.  1010). — On  the  Diocesan  Feud  and 
the  Period  of  the  Counter-Reformation:  Hansen  in  Publikationen 
aua  den  k.  preuaeiachen  Staaiaarchiven,  XLII  (Leipsig,  1800); 
Keller,  ibid.,  IX,  XXXIII  (Leipsig.  1881  and  1887).— On  the 
Episcopate  of  Bishop  Galen:  TCckino,  Geachickte  dea  Stifia  MUn^ 
ater  unlet  Ch.  B.  von  Galen  (MQnster,  1865) ;  HObinq,  FUratbiacho/ 
Ch.  B.  von  Galen  (MQnster,  1887).— -On  the  Secularisation  of  the 
Diocese:  von  Outers,  Beitrdge  xur  Geaehiehle  der  Verfaaaung  und 
der  ZeratUekelung  dea  Oberattfla  MUnater  f  MQnster,  1848).— Nu- 
merous contributions  to  the  history  of  tne  city  and  diocese  of 
MQnster  are  to  be  found  in  the  following:  Zeitachrifl  fUr  voter' 
Idndiache  Geaehiehle  und  AUertumskunde  (MQnster)  C67  vols,  up 
to  1010) ;  Beitrdge  aur  Geaehiehle  Niedermehaena  una  Weatfalene 
(Hildesheim)  (22  parts  up  to  1010);  MUnaleriache  Beitrdge  aur 
Geachiehlaforachung  (MQnster)  (26  parts  up  to  1010).  See  also 
Anabaptxbtb;  Westphalia.  JosepH  Lins. 

Untversitt  of  Mt^NBTER. — ^The  town  of  MQnster  in 
Westphalia  obtained  its  university  in  1771  through 
the  initiative  of  the  prince-bishop's  vicar-general, 
Freiherr  von  Ftirstenberg. 

The  foundation  for  the  university  was  the  cathedral 
school  at  Miinster,  which  dated  from  the  Middle 
Ages.  This  school,  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
centuiy,  had  reached  a  flourishing  condition  through 
the  efforts  of  the  famous  humanist  Rudolph  von 
Langen  (1438-1519).  The  disturbances  caused  by 
the  Anabaptists  (1533-35)  had  a  depressing  influence, 
but  Dean  Gottfried  von  Raesfeld  succeeded  in  restor- 
ing it  to  its  former  i)06ition  by  turning  its  supervision 
over  to  the  Jesuits  in  1588.  The  school,  now  cfdled 
Gymnasium  Paulinum,  was  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  courses  in  philosophy  and  theology  for  the  scien- 
tific education  of  priests,  and  was  raised  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII  to  the  rank  ot  an  academy,  9  Sept.,  1629. 
The  latter  action  was  taken  at  the  urgent  request  of 
Prince-Bishop  Ferdinand  I  (1612-31),  who  also  ob^ 
tained  from  the  Emperor  Fenlinand  II  the  document 
of  21  May,  1631,  in  which  the  latter  ^"anted  permis- 
sion to  found  a  complete  university  with  four  facul- 
ties. The  death  of  the  bishop,  the  disturbances  of 
the  Thirty  Years*  War  and  the  want  of  funds  pre- 
vented the  execution  of  this  plan  during  the  next  cen- 
tury and  a  half.  The  clever  work  of  Vicar-General 
Franz  Friedrich  von  Furstenberg  finally  accomplished 
the  desired  end:  on  4  August,  1771,  Prince-Bishop 
Maximilian  Friedrich  von  Konigseck-Rotcnfels  signed 
the  document  making  Munster  a  univcreit^.  Pope 
Clement  XIV  granted  to  the  university,  m  a  bull 
dated  28  May,  1773,  all  the  privileges,  indults  and 
liberties  which  other  univereities  enjoyed.  The  char- 
ter, signed  by  Emperor  Joseph  II  in  Vienna,  is  dated 
8  Oct.  of  the  same  year.  For  more  than  thirty  years 
Furstenberg,  as  curator,  laboured  earnestly  for  the 
development  of  the  university.  He  filled  it  with  the 
spirit  of  positive  Christianity,  so  that  it  had  a  benefi- 
cent influence  at  a  time  when  rationalistic  philosophy 
and  false  enlightenment  appeared  everywhere.  In 
1803  MQnster  was  ceded  to  Prussia  by  the  imperial 
deputation  assembled  at  Ratisbon.  The  Prussian  ad- 
ministrator of  Munster^  Baron  von  Stein,  showed 
great  interest  in  the  umversity,  but  endeavoured  to 
00  away  with  its  Catholic  character.    His  successor^ 


MthlTZ 


640 


bcDntz 


Pk«ddent  von  Vincke,  accompliBhed  tlus  purpoee  and 
diamissed  FUrstenbergi  the  founder  of  the  universityy 
in  1805.  In  the  autumn  of  1806  the  French  took  poe- 
Beasion  of  the  town.  During  the  seven  years'  sway  of 
the  foreigners  no  remarkable  progress  was  made  in  the 
university.  After  MUnster  nad  again  become  Prus- 
sian in  1813|  the  Protestant  ^vemment  raised  the 
(|uestion  whether  the  imiversity  should  be  reorgan- 
ised or  removed  to  another  town.  No  decision  was 
reached  until  King  Frederick  William  III  in  1815 
promised  his  new  subjects  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Khine  that  a  university  would  be  established  on  the 
Rhine.  The  founding  of  the  university  at  Bonn  ca]> 
ried  with  it  the  abolition  of  that  of  MUnster,  which 
took  place  in  the  summer  of  1818.  Only  one  theo- 
logical course,  and,  by  way  of  preparation  for  the 
same,  a  philological  and  scientific  course,  remained, 
under  the  name  of  an  academy.  While  this  academy 
possessed  the  character  of  a  imiversity  and  the  right 
of  conferring  degrees,  it  was  conducted  on  a  rather 
modest  scale.  A  department  of  medicine^  which  had 
been  started  in  1821,  was  discontinued  m  1848.  It 
was  not  imtil  1870  that  the  increasing  importance  of 
Germany  as  a  nation  infused  new  life  into  the  en- 
deavour to  uplift  the  academy.  In  1880  the  model- 
ling of  the  present  magnificent  main  edifice  of  the 
umversity  was  completed,  and  in  1886  there  was 
added  to  the  academy  a  pharmaceutical  institute. 
The  continued  efforts  of  the  town  and  of  the  province 
of  Westphalia  finally  led  to  the  issue  of  a  royal  decree, 
dated  1  July.  1902,  restoring  to  the  academy  a  faculty 
of  law  and  the  title  "University"  (since  1907  "  West- 
phalische  Wilhelms-Universit&t",  in  honour  of  the 
Emperor  William  II).  In  1906  there  followed  the 
estaolishment  of  the  chairs  and  institutions  required 
for  the  first  half  of  the  course  in  medicine,  the  further  ex- 
tension of  which  may  be  expected  in  the  next  few  years. 

Noteworthy  among  the  teachers  of  the  old  epis- 
copal imiversity  were:  Clemens  Becker,  S.J.,  professor 
of  canon  law  and  moral  theology  (d.  1790);  Joh. 
Hyac.  Kistemaker,  philologist  and  theologian,  who 
taught  the  classical  languages  from  1786  te  1834.  and, 
later  on,  exegesis.  A.  M.  Sprickmann  laboured  as  a 
jurist  in  Mdnster  from  1778  to  1814.  when  he  was 
called  to  the  University  of  Breslau  ana  later,  in  1817. 
to  Berlin.  Anton  Bruchhausen,  S.J.,  professor  of 
physics  (1773-82),  gained  a  great  reputation  among 
German  scientists  through  his  "Institutiones  phy- 
sics" (1775);  and  the  philosopher  Havichhorst 
(1773-83)  through  his  "Institutiones  logics". 
George  Hermes  was  professor  of  dogmatic  theology 
m  MUnster  from  1807-20;  he  founded  the  so-called 
Hermesianism,  a  rationalistic  tendency  in  theology, 
and  d.  in  1831  at  Bonn,  where  he  taught  from  1820; 
his  teachings  were  condemned  at  Rome  in  1836.  J. 
Th.  H.  Katerkamp,  who  was  counted  among  the 
friends  of  Princess  Galitzin,  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy. Of  the  teachers  in  the  academy  there  deserve  to 
be  mentioned  the  neo-scholastic  Stdckl,  professor  of 
philosophy  (1862-71);  furthermore.  Wilhelm  Storck, 
mterpreter  of  Portuguese  poems  ((jamoens)  and  pro- 
fessor of  German  literature  (1859-1905) ;  and  especially 
Johann  Wilhelm  Hlttorf.  since  1852  professor  of 
physics  and  chemistry,  wno  discovered  tne  cathode 
rays,  and  made  valuable  investigations  concerning 
electric  phenomena  in  vacuum  tubes  and  contribu- 
tions to  the  theory  of  ions.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  Professors  Berlage  (dogmatics),  Reinke  (Old 
Testament  exegetics),  and  Bisping  (New  Test,  ex- 
egetus),  Schwane  (dogmatics). 

The  nimiber  of  matriculated  students  is  at  present: 
summer  of  1910,  2008  (including  68  women);  there 
are  besides  115  auditors.  Teachers:  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty,  9  ordinary  and  2  extraordinary  pro- 
fessors, 2  dozents  and  1  lecturer;  in  the  law  faculty, 
7  ordinarv  and  3  extraordinary  professors,  4  dosents; 
i»  the  philosophical  faculty,  28  ordinary  and  6  oxtm^r- 


dinary  professors,  14  dosents,  and  4  lecturers;  in 
the  medical  faculty,  1  extraordinary  and  2  ordinary 
professors,  2  lecturers,  1  dozent. 

PiXPBit,  Die  aite  UnivernUU  MUntter  (MQnater.  1902);  Ram- 
iiAifN,  MUfuterldndUeKe  Sakri/UUOer  (Manater.  1866):  Anom.. 
Brinnerungen  am  alter  und  ntuer  ZeU  von  einem  alten  MUrutenmer 
(Monster,  1880) ;  see  alao  the  oflficial  axmual  reports,  two  senate 
memorials  (190l,  1010),  on  the  development  of  the  univeraitpr  and 
another  on  the  same  subject  by  the  Magistrate  of  the  City  of 
Monster  (1910).  W.  EngelkempER. 

MtintB,  EuGliNE. — ^French  savant  and  historian;  b. 
at  Soulz-souB-For6ts^  near  Mttlhausen,  Alsace,  11 
June,  1845:  d.  at  Pans,  2  November,  1902.  He  took 
up  the  study  of  law.  but  turned  aside  from  the  legal 
profession  to  contribute  to  the  "Revue  Alsacienne'' 
certain  articles  which  caused  much  comment.  Just 
at  that  timey— following  upon  the  great  efflorescence  of 
learned  criticism  in  Germany — attention  wa^  being 
directed  in  France  to  the  organised  study  of  history. 
Albert  Dumont  founded  at  Rome  the  Ecole  Fran9aifie, 
in  the  Famese  Palace,  and  Eug^e  MOntz  became 
one  of  its  first  pupils.  Among  Ms  fellow-students  was 
Louis  Duchesne,  who  afterwards  became  director  of 
the  school.  MGbits  explored  the  Vatican  Archives 
and  Library^  and  began  to  amass  that  vast  fund  of 
erudition  which  he  revealed  in  later  years.  From  that 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  the  task  of  unravelling  the 
history  of  art  in  Italy.  About  the  year  1880,  he,  to- 
gether with  such  men  as  Morelli  and  Milanesi,  contrib- 
uted immensely  to  this  branch  of  study,  and  applied  to 
it  the  positive  method  of  inquiry.  MQntz's  work  is 
based  on  an  exact  acquaintance  with  original  docu- 
ments—papers preserved  in  archives,  memoranda,  bills, 
inventones,  contracts — supported  by  an  extensive  and 
profound  knowledge  of  monuments.  He  never  loses 
si^t  of  the  bond  fcNetween  the  arts^  that  close  relation- 
ship by  which  all  the  art  industnes  of  a  period — its 
engraving,  its  tapestry-weaving,  its  potteiy,  its  cabi- 
net-making— contribute,  as  so  many  expressionsof  con- 
temporary thoughtj  to  form  the  genius  of  its  painters, 
sculptors,  and  architects.  Captivated  by  that  Rome 
where  the  fairest  years  of  his  life  had  been  spent  in 
studious  research,  he  never  ceased  to  regard  the  Rome 
of  Julius  II  and  Leo  X.  of  Bramante,  Michelangelo, 
and  Raphael,  as  the  hignest  expression  of  human  civi- 
lization. This  attitude  of  mind  at  times  hindered  his 
doing  justice  to  other  schools — ^for  instance,  to  those  of 
Venice  and  Siena. 

The  earliest  works  of  Mlintz  at  once  won  for  him  a 
high  place  among  the  historians  of  art.  In  "Lea  Arts 
k  la  oour  des  papes  pendant  le  XV®  et  XVP  si^cles  "  (4 
vols.,  1875-98)  he  has  collected  evidence  to  show  the 
n>lendid  part  played  by  the  papacy  as  leader  of  the 
Renaissance.  Wnen  two  volumes  of  this  work  had 
appeared,  its  author  issued ''  Pr^curseurs  de  la  Renais- 
sance" (1881),  and  followed  this  with  "Raphael",  to 
which  it  is  a  sort  of  introduction.  The  "  Pr&urseurs  " 
and  "Raphael"  are  still  classics  (1st  ed.  1881;  2nd  ed. 
1886);  to  them  must  be  added  a  small  but  important 
volume  "Les  Historiens  et  les  critiques  de  Rapha§l" 
(1884),  in  which  MUntz  defends  traditional  against 
modem  criticism,  especially  against  Morelli.  He 
afterwards  developed  his  cherished  ideas  in  a  woik 
which  became  the  most  popular  manual  in  France  on 
Italian  art,  "Histoire  de  I'art  en  Italic  pendant  la 
Renaissance"  (I,  "Les  Primitifs",  1888;  II,  "L'Agc 
d*Or",  1891;  III,  "La  Fin  de  la  Renaissance",  1895). 
His  views  are  not  very  original,  his  taste  is  somewhat 
academic,  with  a  bourgeois  tinge;  but  this  history  is 
nevertheless  a  most  valuable  popular  treatment  of 
that  glorious  period.  His  picture  of  the  Renaissance 
is  completed  by  an  excellent  study,  '^Uonard  de 
Vinci ".  which  appeared  in  1898.  These  books  form  a 
group  mr  themselves;  MOntz  published  many  others, 
some  of  them  works  of  sheer  erudite  research,  but 
most  of  them  bearing  on  the  main  work  of  his  life,  and 
forming  supplements  or  additions  to  it.  Among  the 
fQrm^r  «kre:  "Note§  sur  le^  mosalques  d'ltali^"  (1874- 


MUKA  641  MUBATOBI 

91];  "EtudesBurrhistntre  dRlapeintureet  del'icono-  appointed  him   archivist  and  librarian  in  Modena, 

graphie chrfitiennes" (1882);"  Etudes icononraphiques  which  position  he  held  until  his  death.  In  1716  Mu- 
et  archMogiquee  sur le  Moyen'Age "  (18M8).  Among  ratori  became,  in  addition,  provost  of  St.  Maria  dcUa 
the  latter  we  may  mention:  "Donatello"  (1885);  "Le  Pompoaa,  and  conducted  this  parish  with  freat  zeal 
Palais  des  pupee  k  Avi^oa"  (1886-92);  "La  Biblio-  until  1733.  He  continued  publishing  unedited  writ- 
thiquedu  Vaticanauxvi'siMe"  (writtenincollabora-  ings,  fint  among  which  was  a  volume,  "Anecdota 
tionwithP.Fabre — 1887J;  "CoUectionsdesMidiciaau  gr«ca"  (Padua,  1709).  At  the  same  time  he  culti- 
xv'st^le"  (1887);  "  Antiquity  de  Rome  au  )dv',  xv*,  vated  literature,  aa  is  shown  by  his  works,  "Delia 
etxvi*siicles"(1887);"FlorenceetlaTo8cane"(l897)i  perfetta  poesia  italiana"  (Modena,  1706)  and  "Ri- 
"La  Tiare  Pontificale  du  viii°  ai^le  au  xvi"  si^cle  nessioni  sopra  il  buon  gueto  nellcscienzc  e  oelle  arti" 
(1897).  In  a  third  aeries  of  works  he  took  up  the  (Vi-nice,  17((S).  He  even  intended  to  c.ilabliah  some- 
Study  of  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  in  tiling  like  a  general  a  >ciety  of  Italian  literature,  and  aa 
other  European  countriea,  especially  France;  "La  early  as  170;t  published  tor  this  purpose,  under  the 
Reoaiaaance  en  Italie  et  en  France  it  I'^poque  de  p.-ieui!unvin  "ijunindo  Pritanio".  a  plan  "Primi  di- 
CharlesVIU"  (1885);  "Le Chateau dcFontainebleiui  s'gni  ddlla  republica  letteraria  d'ltalia".  In  1708 
au  xvi"  micle"  (1886),  in  which  he  collaborated  with  a  quarrel  broke  out  between  the  Holy  See  (aided 
Molinier.  He  contemplated  extending  these  studiits  by  the  emperor) 
to  the  whole  of  Europe  when  death  interrupted  them,  and  the  Dukes 
tn  Miintz'a  writings  we  should  look  in  vain  for  a  of  Estc,  over  the 
personal  view,  or  for  any  such  syHlein  or  philosophy  aa  possession  of  Co- 

B'vcs  a  work  a  loftier  scope  than  the  merely  historical,  niachio,     which 

is  cannot  compare  with  the  great  histories  of  the  involved  the  sov- 

Renaisaance  given  us  by  Tainc,  Uurckhardt,  or  John  ereignty     of    the 

Addington  Symonda.     Still  it  is  a  treasury  of  in-  district  of  Ferrara. 

formation.    It  presents  in  an  easy  agreeable  form  a  Muratori    eup- 

r^uni6  of  what  research  has  discovered  and  criticise)  ported  the  claims 

accepted.    The  complete  edition  of  this  History  wa?  of    his    sovereign 

the  nrst  model  for  that  claas  of  de  luxe  books  which,  and  of  the  house 

thanks  to  modern  processes  of  reproduction,  have  of  Este  against  the 

done  so  much  in  the  lost  thirty  years  to  spread  infor-  pope  by  means  of 

mation  on  art  and  to  improve  the  public  tasl«.     After  numerous   histor- 

1S78  Mtints  was  connected  with  the  Ecole  dea  Beaux-  ical       researches. 

Arts,  where  he  took  Taine's  place  in  the  chair  of  )m-  wliich  he  later  on 

thetics  from  1885  to  1892.      He  entered  the  Instituta  utilised  in  the 

in  1893.  preparation  of  a 

Louia  GiLLBT.  great    historical  ,  :  ~r. 

.  .  „  „  ...  ^o^k,  "Antichitil  I^i»v.co  A»™m,o  Md«to™ 
Hura,  Saint,  b.  m  Co.  Donegal,  Ireland,  about  Estend  ed  Italiane"  (2  vols.,  Modena;  1st  vol.,  1717; 
550.  He  was  appointed  Abbot  of  Fahan  by  St.  Co-  2nd  vol.,  1740).  He  continued  studying  the  sourccfl 
lumba.  The  monastery  was  anciently  known  as  for  a  history  of  Italy,  and  aa  a  fruit  of  his  untiring  re- 
Othan  Mor,  but  after  the  death  of  our  saint  was  scarchi*  there  appeared  the  monumental  work,  ''Re- 
called  Fahan  Mura.  HewashighlyesteemedbyHugh,  rum  italicarum  Scriptores  ab  anno  lenc  christians 
Head  King  of  Ireland,  whose  obit  is  chronicled  in  500  ad  anniuu  1500  .  It  was  published  in  twenty- 
607.  Numerous  legends  are  told  of  Mura;  he  wrote  eight  folio  volumes  with  the  assistance  of  the  "So- 
many  works,  including  chronicles  and  a  rhymed  life  cieti  Palatina"  of  Milan  (Milan,  1723-51).  A  new 
of  St.  Columba  which  is  ouoted  in  the  Martyrology  critical  edition  is  now  (since  1900)  appearing  in  serial 
of  Denial.  He  is  regarded  as  the  special  patron  form  under  the  direction  of  Giosue  Carducci  and  Vit- 
8«ntoftheO'Neillclan,beingsixthindescentfromthe  torio  Fiorini  in  "CittA  di  Castello".  J.  Calligaris, 
founder,  whose  name  survives  in  Innishowen  (Inis  J.  Filippi,  and  C.  Merkel  published  "Indices  chrono- 
Eoghan).  His  death  occurred  about  645,  and  his  logic!'' (Turin,  1885)  for  the  same.  At  the  same  time 
feast  is  observed  on  12  March.  Among  his  relics  Muratori  edited  a  collection  of  seventy-five  essays  on 
still  preserved  are  his  croiier  (BocAoU  Mura),  now  in  different  historical  themes,  entitled  "Antiquilatca 
the  National  Museum,  Dublin,  and  his  bell-shrine,  jtaliwe  medii  asvi"  (6  vols,  fola.,  Milan,  1738-12),  as 
now  in  the  Wallace  Collection,  London.  In  the  an  elucidation  and  supplement  to  his  work  on  the 
ruined  church  of  St.  Mura  at  Fahan  is  a  beautiful  sources.  In  the  tliird  volume  of  this  collection  there 
Irish  cross,  and  not  far  off  is  St.  Mura's  Well.  is  found  the  Muratorian  canon  (q.  v.)  whirh  is  of  the 
ih^^ia^i^m\-D^\^^V)''Q-QaVT£t^^^\^VDa^  greatest  importance  for  the  history  of  the  New  Tcsta- 
liu,  1002).  '  •  ■  ■  •  ■  ment  canon.  In  order  to  render  these  researches  ac- 
W.  H.  Gratthh-Flood.  cessible  to  greater  masses  of  his  countnTnen,  he  him- 
self published  a  new  edition  in  Italian,  Disscrtazioni 
Hnntqiii  Lmoi  Antonio,  librarian  in  Modena,  sopra  le  Antichit^  italiane"  (3  vols.,  Milan,  1751). 
one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  b.  21  Oct.,  Other  important  publications  of  sources  are  his  col- 
1672' d.  23  Jan.,  1750.  Though  he  came  from  a  poor  lections  of  ancient  inscriptions  ("Novua  thesaurus 
family  of  Vignola.  in  the  district  of  Modena,  he  veterum  inscriptionum",  4  vols.,  Milan,  1739-42), 
received  opportunities  to  devote  himself  to  the  higher  the  fourth  volume  containingalsotheancient  Christian 
studies.  Having  firat  been  instructed  by  the  Jesuits,  inscriptions;  and  the  e<litJon  of  the  Roman  Sacramen- 
hc  studied  law,  philosophy,  and  theology  at  the  taries  ("Litur]giaromanavetus",2voi8.,Venice,1748), 
University  of  Modena,  where  he  plainly  showed  his  of  value  to  this  day.  He  wrote  a  great  chronolMtical 
extraordinary  talents,  especially  in  literature  and  representationof  Italian  history  ("Annalid' Italia",  12 
history.  In  1894  he  was  ordmned  priest.  In  1695  vols,  quarto,  Milan,  1744-49},  based  upon  the  numer- 
Count  Charles  Borromeo  called  him  to  the  college  of  ous  sources  which  he  published  or  which  otherwise 
"Dottori"  at  the  Ambrosian  library  in  Milan,  where  were  known.  After  his  death  this  work  was  recited 
he  immediately^  started  collecting  unedited  ancient  and  continued(Milan,1753-56inl7  vois.;nGweditioii 
writings  of  various  kinds.     His  first  publication  was  in  IS  vols.,  1818-21). 

the  "Anecdota  latina  ex  Ambrosianfe  BibUothecie        The   great  mind  of  this  learned  man  was  not 

codicibus"  (2  voIh,,  Milan,  1697-98),  followed  by  two  limited    to   the   wide   province  of  history;   he  was 

other  volumes  (Padua.  1713).     DukeRinaldoI  (1700)  also  interested  in  religious  questionsand  he  published 


MURATOBIAN                           642  MUBBT 

a  work,  which  attracted  considerable  attention,  on  served  entire,  concerning  the  third  and  fourth  Gospels, 

the  question  as  to  how  far  freedom  of  thinking  might  Then  there  are  mentioned:  The  Acts,  8t.  Paul's  Epis- 

fSp  in  religious  mattersi  ''  De  ingeniorum  moderatione  ties  (including  those  to  Philemon,  Titus,  and  Timotny ; 

m  religionis  nepotio"  (Paris,  1714).    Many  of  his  the  spurious  ones  to  the  Laodiceans  and  Alexandrians 

views  and  opinions  were  openly  challenged;  for  in-  are  rejected);  furthermore,  the  Epistle  of  St.  Jude 

stance  those  concerning  the  lounaculate  Conception  and  two  Epistles  of  St.  John;  among  the  Scriptures 

of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  manner  of  worshipping  which  "in  catholica  habentur",  are  cited  the     Si^>i- 

the  saints.    Another  work,  which  touches  upon  re-  entia  ab  amicis  Salomonis  in  honorem  ipsius  scripta", 

ligious   questions,    "Delia   regolata   divosione   de'  as  well  as  the  Apocalypses  of  St.  John  and  St.  Peter, 

Gristiani^'  (Venice,  1723^,  also  called  out  attacks,  but  with  tJie  remark  that  some  will  not  allow  the 

He  defended  himself  in  his  work,  "  De  superstittone  latter  to  be  read  in  the  church.    Then  mention  is 

vitanda"    (Milan,    1742).     In    the   quarrel   about  made  of  the  Pastor  of  Hennas,  which  may  be  read 

Hermesianism,  his  book,  "De  ingeniorum  moderar  anywhere  but  not  in  the  divine  service;  and,  finally, 

tione",  was  translated  into  German  by  Biunde  and  there    are   rejected    false    Scriptures,    which    were 

Braun  (Coblenz,  1837)  in  the  interest  of  the  followers  used  by  heretics.    In  consequence  of  the  barbarous 

of  the  Hermesian  doctrines.    Charity  is  discussed  by  Latin  there  is  no  complete  understanding  of  the  ct)r- 

Muratori  in  his  "Delia  carit&  cristiana"  (Modena,  rect  meaning  of  some  of  the  sentences.    As  to  the 

1723).    He  still  continued  his  literary  studies,  as  is  author,  many  conjectures  were  made  (Papias,  Hege- 

shown  by  his  works  on  Petrarch  ("Vita  e  rime  di  F.  sippus,  Caius  of  Rome,  Hippolytus  of  Rome,  Rhodon. 

Petrarca",  Modena,  1711)  and  Castelvetro  ("Vita  ed  Melito  of  Sardis  were  proposed);  but  no  well  founded 

opere  di  L.  Castelvetro  ,  Milan,  1727).    On  phi-  hypothesis  has  been  adduced  up  to  the  present.     The 

loBophy  he  wrote,  "Filosofia  morale  esposta"  (Yen-  Muratorian  Canon  was  newly  edited  by  Tregelles, 

ice,  1735),  "Delle  forze  delF  intendimento  umano"  "Canon  Muratorianus"   (Oxford,  1867);  Westcott, 

(Venice,   1735),   and   "Delle  forze  della  fantasia"  "  A  general  survey  of  the  history  of  the  canon "  (6th 

(Venice,  1745).    Law  and  politics  are  treated  in  ed.,  1889);  Buchanan,  in  "Journal  of  Theol.  Stud.", 

"Govemo  della  Peste  politico,  medico  ed  ecclesias-  VIII (1907), 540-42 ;  Hamack in" Zeitschr.f. Kirchen- 

tico"   (Modenaj  1714;  frequently  reprinted),  "Do-  sesch.",  Ill,  595-99:  Preuschen  in  "Analecta,kQrzere 

fetti  della  Giunsprudenza"  (1741),  "JDella  pubblica  Texte  zur  Geschicnte   der   alten   Kirche   und   des 

felicitJL"  (1749).    Muratori  really  proved  hunself  to  Kanons"  (2nd  ed.,  Tubingen,  1910),  27-35;  Rauschen, 

be  a  universal  genius  of  rare  cahbre,  at  home  in  all  "Floril^um  patristicum".  III  (Bonn,  1905). 

fields  of  human  knowledge.    He  showed  extraordi-  ^Zahn,  06»eh.deMneute8i.KanonM,h  i  (1890).  i-^M-  Kchw. 

•.««..  ^..ni:«  :»a  «a  w^Ji,^4-  «*«^^A«. .  1>A  «»«ci  .AAlrx.ia  :««  *Ua,  Do*  Mtaratonteh*  Fragment  (1892) ;  Chapman  m  Renu  binidtctxn^ 

nary  qualities  as  pnest  and  man;  he  was  zealous  m  the  (1904),  240  aq.,  seg^JTRoBiNBON.  The  AuUiorehip  of  the  Af um- 

mmistry.  charitable  to  the  poor,  and  dlhgent  m  visit-  torian  Canon  m  The  Sxpontor,  l  (I9O6).  481  aq.;  Baxtlst.  /bid.. 

ing  the  abandoned  and  imprisoned.    He  corresponded  II  (i906),2iOBq.                                    t   t>   ir 

with  a  large  cirele  of  acquaintances.     A  collection  J*  ^'  Kibbch. 

of  his  letters  by  Selmi  appeared  in  Venice  (2  vols.,  Murda.    See  Cabtaqsna.  Diocesb  of. 

1789) ;  another  by  Ceruti  m  Modena  (1886).    A  com;  Murder.    See  Homicide. 

plete  edition  is  being  published  by   M.  Campon  «-      ^    ,,         .                ^      ,    .^          .      , 

("EpistolariodiL.  A.  Muratori",  Modena,  1901  so.).  ^  Mwet,  Mabo-Antoinb,  French  humanist,  b.  at 

In  spite  of  many  attacks  which  he  had  to  suffer  for  Muret,  near  Limoges,  m  1526;  d.  at  Rome,  m  1685. 

his  religious  views,  and  notwithstanding  many  of  his  He  studied  at  Poitiers  and  was  greatly  mfluenced  by 

opinions  regarding  ecclesiastical  politics  were  not  ap-  Scaliger,  whom  he  twice  visited  at  Agen.    He  taught 

proved  of  in  Rome,  he  was  highly  esteemed  in  the  most  fluccessively  at  Poitiers  (1546)^  Bordeaux  (1547),  and 

exalted  ecclesiastical  circles,  as  is  shown  in  the  let-  Pans-    Becoming  intimate  with  Dorat,  Joachim  du 

ter  which  Benedict  XIV.,  on  15  Sept.,  1748,  wrote  to  Bellay,  and  the  poets  of  the  Pleiad,  he  published  in 

him  with  the  intention  of  easing  his  troubled  mind.  Fre?ch  a  commentary  on  the  " Amours''  of  Ronsard 

Cardinal  Ganganelli,  later  on  Clement  XIV,  also  sent  (155?)  and  a  coUection  of  Latm  verses,  the  "  Juve- 

him  a  letter  in  1748,  in  which  he  assured  him  of  his  niha".    His  prosperity  seemed  unclouded,  when  accu- 

highest  esteem  and  respect.  sations  of  heresy  and  immorality  drove  him  from 

MunATORi.  Vita  dd  proposto  L.  A.  Muraton  (Venioe.  1756);  Pans  to  Toulouse,  and  thenoe  to  Lombardy.    At  last 


(ABti,  1885).  J.  p.  K1B8CH.  editions  for  Paulus  Manutius,  of  Horace,  Terence 

(1555),  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertiua  (1558),  to 
Muratorian  Oanon,  or  Muratorian  Fragment,  which  must  be  added  the  three  orations  "Destudiis 
after  the  name  of  the  discoverer  and  first  editor,  litterarum"  (1555).  It  was  at  Venice  that  he  became 
L.  A.  Muratori  (in  the  "Antiquitates  italicsB ''.  III.  connected  with  Lambinus.  In  1559  Muret  pub- 
Milan,  1740, 851  sq.),  the  oldest  known  canon  or  list  of  lished  the  first  eight  books  of  his  "  Varise  lectiones  ", 
books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  MS.  containing  which  occasioned  Lambinus  to  accuse  him  of  plamar- 
the  canon  originally  belonged  to  Bobbio  and  is  now  ism  and  brought  their  friendship  to  an  end.  With 
in  the  Bibliotheca  Ambrosiana  at  Milan  (Cod.  J  101  the  year  1559  began  the  insecure  period  of  Muret's 
sup.) .  Written  in  the  eighth  century ^t  plainly  shows  life,  when  he  devoted  himself  to  private  tuition.  He 
the  uncultured  Latin  of  that  time.  The  fragment  is  next  entered  the  service  of  Ippouto  d'Este,  Cardinal 
of  the  highest  imix>rtance  for  the  history  of  the  Bib-  of  Ferrara,  in  whose  suite  he  went  to  Paris,  and  thence 
lical  canon.  It  was  written  in  Rome  itself  or  in  its  to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
environs  about  180-200;  probably  the  original  was  in  (1563-85)  expoimding  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Plato,  Juvo^ 
Greek,  from  which  it  was  translated  into  Latin.  This  nal,  and  Tacitus,  and  teaching  jurisprudence.  In  1576 
Latin  text  is  preserved  solely  in  the  MS.  of  the  Am-  he  received  Holy  orders. 

brosiana.  A  few  sentences  of  the  Muratorian  Canon  are        Muret's  editions  of  Latin  authors  and  translations 

preserved  in  some  other  MSS.,  especially  in  codices  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  while  they  hardly  entitled  him 

of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  in  Monte  Caasino.    The  canon  to  rank  with  the  great  philologists  of  his  time,  show 

consists  of  no  mere  list  of  the  Scriptures,  but  of  a  good  taste,  acumen,  and  care.    As  a  stylist,  he  was 

surve3r,  which  supplies  at  the  same  time  historical  and  long  esteemed  one  of  the  modem  masters  of  Latinity. 

other  information  regarding  each  book.    The  begin-  He  succeeded  in  imitating  Cicero  rather  by  a  fdici* 

ning  Lb  missing;  the  preserved  text  besins  with  the  last  tons  resemblance  between  his  own  temperament  and 

line  concerning  the  second  Gospel  and  the  notices,  pr&-  that  of  his  model  than  by  any  painfully  laborious 


MUBI                                 643  MUBI 

Bearch  for  Ciceronian  locutions,  and  he  felt  oompeOed  disastrous  conflagrations,  in  1300  and  in  1363;  wars 

to  protest  against  the  exaggerations  of  oontempEorary  and  risings  checked  for  a  time  its  prosperity.    It  re- 

Ciceronians.    He  himself  tS\a  of  an  amusing  incident,  covered  somewhat  of  its  old  life  under  Abbot  Conrad 

when  he  puipoeely  employed,  in  speaking  Latin,  a  II,  only  to  suffer  again  under  his  successor  George 

word  not  to  be  found  in  Nizolius's  Ciceronian  Led-  Russinger  in  the  war  between  Austria  and  Switzer- 

con:  some  of  his  hearers  exclaimed  in  horror  at  the  land.    Russinger  had  taken  part  in  the  Council  of 

apparent  slip,  and  then,  when  he  showed  them  the  Constance  anohad  caught  something  of  the  reforming 

word  in  Cicero's  own  text,  were  equally  enthusiastic  spirit  of  that  assembly.    He  was  the  means  of  aggre- 

in  their  plaudits.    GQs  most  interesting  work,  "  Va-  gpating  his  community  to  the  newly  formed  Congr^a- 

rue  lectiones"  (1559,  1580,  1585),  contains  not  only  tion  of  Bursfeld,  the  first  serious  attempt  to  brmg 

observations  on  ancient  authors,  but  notes  of  real  about  among  the  continental  monasteries  of  northern 

value  in  relation  to  the  history  of  his  own  times.  Europe  a  sane  and  much  needed  reform  of  the  Black 

Such,  for  instance,  is  his  accotmt  of  a  conversation  Monks  of  St.  Benedict.    It  was  owing  to  him  too  that 

with  his  patron,  tne  Cardinal  of  Ferrara,  about  St.  the  Helvetic  Confederation  took  over,  as  it  were,  the 

Pius  V,  whose  election  had  put  an  end  to  the  cardi-  old  Hapsbuig  friendliness  towutis  his  abbey  which, 

naVs  ambitions  (X  VI,  4) .    Muret's  works  were  edited  thus  strengthened  both  in  its  inner  life  and  observance. 

by  Ruhnken  (Leyden,  4  vols.,  1789),  and  another  and  safe  under  the  protection  of  the  new  political 

edition  appeared  at  Verona  (5  vols.,  1727-30).    Be-  powers,  was  enabled  to  withstand  the  shocK  of  the 

sides  the  editions  of  authors  above  mentioned,  we  are  religdous  wars  and  ecclesiastical  upheavals  which 

indebt^i  to  him  for  Cicero's  Catalinian  Orations  marked  the  advent  of  the  Rrotestant  Reformation. 

(Paris,  1581),  the  first  book  of  his  Tusculan  Dispu-  When  the  first  fury  of  that  movement  had  abated 

tations,  his  Philippics  (Paris,  1562),  Seneca's  "ue  Muri  was  fortunate  in  having  as  abbot  a  man  of  re- 

providentia",  and  some  notes  on  Sallust  and  Tacitus,  markable  ability.    Dom  John  Jodoc  Singisen  elected 

Dbjob,  Marc-Antoine  Afurrf  (Pam,  1881J ;  Sandts.  A  Hitiory  in  1596  proved  himself  a  second  founder  of  his  mon- 

0/  cianxcol  Schoiarshtp.  II  (Cambridge.  i«>3)  •  "«•  astenr,  ^d  extending  his  care  to  the  other  Benedio- 

BJAT.  ^^  houses  of  Switzerland  is  rightly  revered  as  one  of 

Mnzl  ^uri-Grtes),  an  abbey  of  monks  of  the  the  founders  of  the  Swiss  Congregation  established 

Order  of  S.  Benedict,  which  flourished  for  over  ei^t  in  1602.    Largely  through  his  efforts  discipline  was 

centuries  at  Muri  near  Basle  in  Switzerland,  and  which  everywhere  restored;  monks  of  piety  and  letters  went 

is  now  established  under  Austrian  rule  at  Gries  near  forth  from  Muri  to  repeople  the  hau  ruined  cloisters; 

Bosen  in  Tyrol.                                      ^  by  his  wisdom  suitable  constitutions  were  drawn  up 

The  monastery  of  St.  Martin  at  Muri  in  the  Canton  for  such  communities  of  nims  as  had  survived  so  many 

of  Aargau,  in  the  Diocese  of  Basle  (but  originallv  in  revolutions.    His  successor  Dom  Dominic  Tschudi 

that  of  Constance),  was  founded  in  1027  by  the  ifius-  was  a  man  of  like  mould,  and  a  scholar  whose  works 

trious  house  of  Hapsburg.    Rha,  a  daiighter  of  Fred-  were  held  in  great  r^ute.    He  was  bom  at  Baden  in 

erick,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  married  Rabets,  Count  1595  and  died  there  m  1654.    His  "Origo  et  genealo- 

of  Hapsburg,  and  Werner.  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  witl^  gia  comitum  de  Hapsbuig"  is  his  best  known  work. 

one  accord  gave  the  lands,  which  each  possessed  at  With  the  ei^teenth  centurv  fresh  honours  came  to 

Muri,  to  a  monastery  whicn  they  established  in  that  Muri.    The  Emperor  Leopold  I  created  Abbot  Placid 

place.    To  people  the  new  foundation  a  colony  of  Zurlauben  and  nis  successors  Princes  of  the  Holy 

monks  was  drawn  from  the  Abbey  of  St.  Meinrad  at  Roman  Empire,  and  spent  a  vast  sum  of  money  in  re- 

Einsiedcln,  under  the  leadership  of  Prior  Reginbold,  building  and  embellii^ing  the  monastery  and  church, 

on  whose  death  in  1055  the  first  abbot  was  chosen  in  the  ancient  mausoleima  of  the  imperial  family.    The 

the  person  of  Burchard.    During  his  rule  the  abbey  abbey  continued  to  prosper  in  every  wav;  good  disci* 

church  was  consecrated  in  1064;   it  was  for  many  pline  was  kept  up  and  many  distinguished  ecclcsias- 

ycars  the  burial  place  of  the  Hapsburg  dvnasty.  tics  and  learned  men  were  educated  within  its  walls. 

About  this  time  the  community  was  reinforced  by  the  With  the  spread  of  revolutionary  ideas,  however,  a 

accession  of  a  new  colony  of  monks  from  the  Abbey  of  great  and  disastrous  change  was  impending.    Some  of 

St.   Blaise  in  the  BlacK  Forest,  one  of  whom,  the  the  Swiss  Cantons,  Aargau  among  them,  following  the 

blessed  Luitfrid.  continued  the  government  of  both  melancholy  example  of  the  revolutionary  part^r  which 

communities  till  his  holy  death  31  December,  1096.  had  wrecked  religion  in  France,  turned  all  their  ener- 

During  the  Middle  A^es  the  monasterv,  like  so  many  ^es  to  the  overthrow  of  the  monasteries,  the  confisca- 

hundreds  of  similar  institutions  of  the  Benedictine  tion  of  their  estates,  and  the  elimination  of  Cathoho 

Order,  pursued  its  quiet  work  of  religion  and  civiliza-  influence  from  civil  life.    They  were  only  too  success- 

tion,  and  enjoyed  the  advantage  of  being  governed  by  ful.    Muri  after  a  long  series  of  attacks  was  obliged  to 

a  remarkable  succession  of  able  men.    Among  the  succumb.    Its  abbot,  an  old  man.  had  withdrawn  to 

names  of  its  more  distinguished  abbots  are  those  of  the  monastery  of  Engelberg,  more  favourably  situated, 

Ranzelin;  Cuno.  founder  of  its  school,  and  a  generous  and  there  died  on  5  November.  1838,  leaving  to  his 

benefactor  to  tne  library  of  the  monastery;    Heniy  successor,  D.  Adalbert  Regli,  tne  brunt  of  the  final 

Scheuk  who  greatly  increased  its  landed  property;  conflict.    The  crisis  came  when  on  a  winter's  day  in 

and  Henry  de  Schoenwerd.    The  history  ot  the  last  1841  an  armed  force  drove  the  monks  into  exile  and 

oamed  presents  a  curious  instance,  almost  without  the  cantonal  authorities  seized  the  abbey  and  its  es- 

Earallel,  of  a  whole  family  embracing  the  religious  tates.    Despite  this  violent  expulsion  the  community 

fc.     The  father  with  his  sons  entered  the  abbey  of  never  wholly  disbanded:  the  abbot  and  some  of  the 

the  monks,  whilst  his  wife  and  daughters  betook  them-  monks  held  together  ana  soon  found  a  welcome  from 

selves  to  the  adjoining  convent  of  nuns,  a  community  the  Catholic  Canton  of  Unterwalden,  which  invited 

-which  later  on  was  transferred  to  Hermetschwil^  a  them  to  undertake  the  management  of  the  cantonal 

mile  or  two  distant  from  Muri.    The  good  reputation  college  at  Samen.    The  kindly  offer  was  accepted, 

enjoyed  by  the  Abbey  of  Muri  procured  it  many  and  there  the  main  body  of  the  monks  resided,  the 

friends.     In  1114  the  Emperor  Henry  V  took  it  under  Lord  Abbot  himself  taking  his  share  in  the  school 

his  special  protection;  and  the  popes  on  their  side  work,  until  the  Austrian  Emperor,  Ferdinand  I,  of- 

werc  not  less  solicitous  for  its  welfare;  it  would  seem,  fered  them  a  residence  at  Gries  near  Bozen  in  Tyrol,  in 

however,  that  the  use  of  pontificalia  was  not  granted  an  old  priory  of  Augustinian  Canons  of  the  Lateran 

to  the  abbots  of  Muri  until  the  time  of  Pope  Julius  which  had  been  unoccupied  since  1807.    The  Holy 

11(1503-1513).                                            ,       _    ^  See  concurred  in  the  grant,  and  confirmed  the  transfer 

Like  all  other  institutions  the  place  had  its  vicissi-  of  the  community  of  Muri  to  Gries  by  a  Brief  of 

t.udc8  of  good  and  bad  fortune.    It  was  laid  low  by  two  Gregory  XVI,  dated  16  September,  1844.    In  oider 


UUKILLO 


644 


MUBILLO 


to  avoid  complications  the  house  of  Gries  was  con- 
tinued in  its  former  status  as  a  priory  and  incorporated 
with  the  Swiss  Abbey  of  Muri,  wluch  is  regarded  as 
temporarily  located  in  its  Austrian  dependency,  the 
Abbot  of  Mun  bein^  at  the  same  time  Prior  of  Gries. 
The  persecution  which  drove  the  community  from  its 
stately  home  at  Muri  seems  in  no  way  to  have  lessened 
the  numbers  and  good  works  of  the  monks;  indeed 
there  has  been  a  notable  increase  in  the  personnel  of 
the  convent  in  recent  years  and  fresh  ctemands  are 
ever  being  made  on  their  manifold  activities.  At 
Gries  itself,  the  centre  of  this  fraternity  of  nearly  a 
hundred  monks  (over  seventy  priests  and  clerics,  the 
rest  lay-brothers),  who  constitute  the  monastic  family 
of  St.  Martin  of  Muri,  the  monks  conduct  a  college  of 
158  boys,  and  also  a  training  college  for  schoolmastc^i's 
attended  by  nearly  sixty  students;  while  at  Samon  in 
Switzerland  their  collogc  educates  about  two  hundred 
and  forty  boys,  and  at  the  technical  school  in  the  same 
place,  carried  on  by  the  monks^  the  chisaes  number 
usually  between  seventy  and  eighty  scholars.  The 
Abbot  of  Muri  has  under  his  care  five  " incorporated*' 
parishes  with  two  chapels  of  ease  serving  for  the  spir- 
itual needs  of  about  nine  thousand  souls;  another  par- 
ish, not  incorporated  with  the  abbey,  minij^tors  to 
about  418  people;  and  the  oversight  of  the  convent 
long  established  at  Ilcrmetschwil-IIabsthal  near 
Muri  is  also  included  in  the  work  of  the  monks  of 
Muri-Gries. 

Album  Benedictinum  (St.  Vincent's,  Pennsylvania,  1880);  SS. 
PaJLriarcha  Benedicti  famila  conjadcraia  (Rome,  Vatican  Presa, 
1905). 

John  Gilbert  Dolan. 

Murillo,  &artolom£  Esteban,  Spanioh  painter; 
b.  at  Seville,  31  December,  1G17;  d.  there  5  April, 
1GS2.  His  family  surname  was  lOsteban;  that  of 
Murillo,  which  he  assumed  in  accordance  with  an  An- 
dalusian  custom,  was  his  mother's.  His  father  was  an 
artisan-  An  orphan  at  the  age  of  ten,  liartolonic  was 
brouf^Iit  up  by  his  uncle,  J.  A.  Lagartvs,  a  barber.  He 
became  the  pupil,  probably  while  still  very  young,  of 
Juan  del  Castillo,  a  mediocre  painter,  but  good 
teacher,  whose  atelier  was  at  that  time  much  fre- 
quented. It  is  said -that,  to  gain  a  living,  the  young 
man  in  those  days  made  sarins — choup  pointings  on 
rough  canvas  sold  at  country  fcrias  (fairs),  and 
shij^ped  to  America  by  traders.  The  Museum  of  Ca- 
diz claim.s,  but  without  proof,  that  one  of  thr^e  Mu- 
rillo sargas  is  in  its  possos.sion.  In  1040  Castillo  went 
to  live  at  Cadiz.  In  the  meantime,  Moya,  having 
just  arrived  from  England,  where  he  hatl  been  Van 
Dyck's  pup.l,  showed  xMurillo,  who  was  an  old  friend 
of  his,  tiie  cartoons,  drawing.s,  co]7irs,  and  engravings 
he  had  brought  with  him.  ^lurillo  set  out  on  a  jour- 
ney to  study  the  great  masters,  but  went  no  farther 
than  Madrid.  Vehisquez,  the  king's  painter  and  the 
friend  of  OHvares,  was  himself  a  native  of  Seville;  he 
welcomed  his  young  compalriot  and  pave  him  the  e?i- 
trec  to  all  the  royal  galleries,  where  JVlurillo  saw  the 
masterpieces  of  litian,  Veronese,  Tintoretto,  and  Ru- 
bens, not  to  mention  Velasquez  himself.  lie  spent 
throe  years  here,  and  this  was  all  his  travel.  He  re- 
turned to  Seville  in  1G44.  After  this  he  left  Seville 
but  once,  in  1681,  when  he  went  to  C:idiz  to  paint  an 
altar  for  the  Capuchins  which  he  never  had  the  time  to 
finish.  A  fall  from  his  scaffolding  or  else  a  serious  ill- 
ness— accounts  differ — forced  him  to  let  himself  be 
taken  back,  hurriedly,  to  Seville,  where  he  died  after  a 
brief  period  of  suffering. 

His  was  a  very  pure  life,  and  perfectly  happy,  all 
spent  within  that  one  Sevillian  horizon  which  the  art- 
ist never  wished  to  change  for  any  other.  His  paint- 
ings in  the  porferia  of  the  Minimri  made  a  celebrity  of 
him  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight  (1640).  From  that 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  work  on  a  large  scale  for 
the  convents  of  his  native  Seville,  work  which,  in  some 
respects,  recalls  the  Giottesque  paintings  of  the  four- 


teenth century.  In  contrast  with  Velasguez  and  the 
Madrid  school,  Murillo  is  wholly  a  religious  painter. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  portraits  and  some  goire 
pieces,  not  one  profane  pictune  of  his  is  known  to  ei- 
ist.  The  product  of  his  life's  work  is  summed  up  in 
the  great  cycles  of  Santa  Maria  la  Blanea  (1666),  of 
the  Caridad  Hospital  (1670-74).  of  the  Capuchins 
(1676),  of  the  Venerables  Sac^otes  (1678),  of  the 
Augustinians  (1680),  and,  lastly,  of  the  Cadis  Capu- 
chins, together  with  a  large  number  of  pictures  made 
at  different  times  for  the  cathedral  of  Seville  or  other 
churches  and  many  devotional  works  for  private  in- 
dividuals. Murillo 
was  the  national 
painter  of  a  coun- 
try where  all  sen- 
timent was  still 
merged  in  the  one 
sentiment  of  re- 
ligion. The  critics 
have  distin- 
guished  three  pe- 
riods, or  manners, 
in  his  work:  the 
cold,  the  hot,  and 
the  "vaporous". 
Ihe  classification 
is  foolish  and 
pedantic.  It  is 
enough  to  look  at 
his  "Angels' Kit- 
chen" (1646),  his  MuBiuA 
' '  Birth  of  the  Vir-  Pointing  hy bSmaelf— Ensimvincby 
gin"  (1655),  and  CaUmtta 
his  "Holy  Family"  (1670),  all  in  the  Louvrc:  here  we 
can  see  nothing  but  the  natural  evolution  of  a  t^dent 
which  from  first  to  last  pursued  but  one  ideal — t  be 
poetical  transfiguration  of  facts  and  ideas. 

Tins  ideal  is  alreadv  fully  percentible  in  the  first  of 
the  examples  cited,  or  in  the  "  Death  of  St.  Clare" 
(Dresden  Museum),  which  also  belongs  to  tha  por/t^f/i 
serit^.  In  the  "Angels*  Kitchen",  as  in  many  others 
of  his  paintings,  the  artist's  problem  is  to  combine  the 
supernatural  with  the  real  and  familiar.  .Here  we 
have  a  holy  Franciscan  in  ecstasy,  lifted  from  thr 
ground,  while  angels  with  shining  wings  attend  to  xhf 
service  of  the  refectory  and  wash  the  pans;  and  lastly, 
some  spectators  are  peeping  through  a  half-open  dwr. 
The  whole  scene  is  displayed  with  admirable  cleomc*^. 
without  a  suggestion  of  hiatus  between  the  three  part^^ 
which  are  so  diverse  in  character. 

From  this  period  date  those  few  genre  paintings 
which  may  be  regarded  as  exceptional  works  oi 
Murillo,  the  most  famous  example  being  the  "Puu- 
illeux"  of  the  Louvre.  Like  every  great  Spanish 
painter,  Murillo  is  a  realist,  and  goes  as  far  as  anvonc 
in  the  pathetic  painting  of  suffering.  But  he  refuses 
to  paint  these  horrors  with  the  frightful  dilettantism, 
the  cold,  cruel  detachment,  of  other  Spanish  artists. 
For  him,  pain  and  misery  are  obiects  of^ity,  not  of 
curiosity  or  pleasure.  Alone  of  the  great  painters  of 
his  race,  his  genius  is  tender,  affectionate.  Murillo's 
realism,  however  exact  and  sound,  is  never  altogether 
impersonal  or  objective.  In  spite  of  himself,  he  com- 
municates, together  with  the  record  of  the  reality,  the 
emotions  which  it  produces  in  himself;  he  does  not 
alter  its  form,  but  he  adds  to  it  something  of  his  own. 
In  Spain,  the  classic  land  of  brutal  observation,  of  the 
"slice  taken  from  life"  served  up  raw  and  bleeding, 
Murillo  invents,  combines,  achieves  compositions. 
He  has  an  imagination,  and  he  docs  not  make  a  point 
of  honour  of  i^oring  it.  With  more  than  av»:age 
gifts  for  portraiture — ^as  witness  his  portrait  of  Padre 
Cabanillas,  at  Madrid,  or  the  admirable  figure  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Hispanic  Society  in  New  York — ^he 
made  very  few  portraits.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has 
the  gift  and  the  instinct  for  stoiy-telUng.    Hie  Itahar* 


baetolomE  esteban  murillo 

UAI>OMNA   AND   CHILD  MADONNA   A 


T" 


THE  KCW  YCI^K 
PUBLIC  LIP.r^ARY 


H  L 


MUBNEB  645 

sense  of  fine  arrangement,  of  a  happy  s^nnmetry  and  1475;  d.  there,  1537.    Dunne  the  epoch  immediately 

harmonious  balance  of  grouping,  as  in  his  Holy  Fami-  preceding  and  during  the  earlv  years  of  the  Reforma- 

lies,  in  the  Louvre^  is  a  quality  which  he  alone  seems  tion,  three  figures  are  especially  prominent  among  the 

to  have  possessed  m  his  age.  loyal  champions  of  the  Church  m  Germanvi  namely 

Murillo  was  a  great  painter  of  sentiment.    Like  Johann  Geuer  von  Kaysersberg,  his  friend  Sebastian, 

Rembrandt,  he  understood  that  the  true  lan^aee  of  the  well-known  satirist,  and  Thomas  Mumer,  the 

the  Gospel  was  the  language  of  the  people.    Like  him,  ablest  and  most  formidable  of  Luther's  opponents. 

he  especially  delighted  in  the  merciful  and  tender  as-  In  1481  Mumer's  parents,  pious  people  in  conjfortable 

pects  of  the  Gospel.    Nothing  can  be  more  touch-  circumstances,  settled  in  otrasburg,  where  his  father 

mg  than  the  '^ Prodigal  Son''  of  the  Hermitage — ^not  practised  as  an  advocate.    Thomas,  who  was  of  deli* 

even  Rembrandt's  treatment  of  that  subject — or  his  cate  health,  entered  the  Franciscan  Order  at  the  age  of 

sketches  on  the  same  parable  in  the  Prado.    Like  sixteen.    After  his  ordination,  he  began  his  restless 

Rembrandt,  he  loves  to  bring  the  sacred  truths  near  to  and  unsettled  life,  visiting  the  most  celebrated  univer- 

us,  to  mak^  us  see  them  as  intimate  and  familiar  real-  sities  either  as  a  student  or  as  a  teacher.    He  studied 

ities,  to  show  us  the  Divine  all  about  us  in  our  lives,  theology  at  Paris,  philosophy  and  mathematics  at 

Munllo,  no  doubt,  has  the  defects  of  these  Qualities.  Cracow,  and  law  at  Freiburg,  where  he  was  awarded 

He  never  suffered  enough.    His  optimism,  nis  bon-  thedegreeof  Bachelor  of  Theology  in  1500*.   Six  years 

homie,  his  grace,  lack  the  seriousness  that  trials  should  later,  when  again  at  Freiburg,  he  was  made  Doctor  of 

have  imparted.    His  serene  smile  lacks  that  intangi-  Theolog^r.    In  1518  he  graduated  Doctor  of  Laws  at 

ble  qualit]^  of  having  been  through  sorrow.    Failing  Basle.   His  impulse  towards  a  roving  life  was  due,  not 

this  experience,  the  soul  tends  somewhat  to  levity  only  to  his  love  of  learning,  but  also  to  his  mission  as  a 

and  to  preciosity.  preacher  and  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  his  order. 

His  pre-eminence  as,  superlatively,  the  painter  of  From  1519  he  took  part  in  the  controversies  which 

the  Immaculate  Conception  seems  to  have  been  fore-  began  with  the  appearance  of  Luther  as  a  reformer. 

shadowed  in  the  circumstances  of  his  birth.    At  Se-  In  1523  he  went  to  England  and  was  cordially  received 

ville,  in  1617,  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Concep-  by  Henry  VIII,  whose  book  on  the  sacraments  he  had 

tion  was  solemnly  promulgated  for  Spain;  and  this  translated  into  German  the  previous  year.    On  his 

splendid  celebration  took  place  in  Murillo's  native  return  to  Strasburg,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  fly 

city  only  a  few  months  before  his  birth.    The  pictorial  before  the  rebellious  peasants  and  seek  refuge  at  Lu- 

treatment  of  the  subject  had  long  been  determined,  in  ceme.    Here  he  became  the  most  determine  adver- 

its  main  outlines^  by  a  vision  said  to  have  been  vouch-  sary  of  Zwingli.    Together  with  Dr.  Eck,  he  took  part 

safed  to  a  Franciscan  of  the  sixteenth  century,  i^nd" fl" "  hrtlf6"tf6flM»lis  'Sisaiission  at  Baden  in  1526.    When 

hundred  examples  of  it  are  found  among  earlier  j^int^'^J^ttc^tlS^^'fv^  ti(ken  jjn  the  first  War  of  Kappel  (1529), 

ers.    The  mere  theological  dogma  of  the  Imma(|Lil(itp.^Muj3i^;^<a$.to,i^Ye  been  given  up.    Sie  managed. 

Conception — exemption  from  the  original  tamt^W  Ji6Sevier,.'to{  escape, *5and,  after  many  wanderings,  was 

necessarily  eluded  all  material  representation:  the  appointed  pastor  iii  his  birth-place,  where  he  spent 

eauivalent  chosen  was  the  theme  of  the  Assumption,  the  rest  of  nis  days.! 

Tne  bodv  is  seen  exempt  from  all  the  laws  of  graidtarv ; ;   ./As^aoj  aathor/\M^mer  was  at  first  an  enthusiastio 

tion.    Murillo  has  treated   this   theme  more  jthan^  ,f)^i34jOf,«Hum9^^         In  Cracow  he  lectured  on  hter- 

twenty  times,  without  repeating  himself  or  ever  w^a*ty-  *aj'y'sbstheticis,.a^     in  Freiburg  on  Vergil,  whose 

ing:  SIX  versions  at  Madrid,  six  others  at  Seville:  the^  ''^neid"  he  had  translated.    In  token  of  gratitude 

famous  Louvre  picture  (dated  1678),  and  still  others  '  fofhis  apporntmeftt  as  poet-laureate  in  1505,  he  dedi- 

scattered  over  Europe — all  these  did  not  exhaust  the  cated  this  translation  to  Emperor  Maximilian.    In  his 

painter's  enthusiasm  or  his  power  of  expressing  apoth-  '^ Ludus  studentum  Fribursensium"  (1511),  Mumer 

eosis.  explains  the  rules  of  prosody  and  quantity  after  the 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  these  pictures,  which  fashion  of  a  game  of  chess  and  backgammon.    This 

represent  the  most  transcendently  spiritual  action,  method  he  had  alreadv  employed  four  years  before  at 

are  the  most  thoroughly  feminine  paintings  in  Spain.  Cracow  in  his ''  Chartiludium  logicse  ",  but  his  applica- 

But  for  religious  representations  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  tion  of  it  to  jurisprudence  provoked  the  derision  of  the 

and  the  saints,  indeed,  woman  is  almost  absent  from  lawyers.    His  sympathy  with  Humanism  did  not  save 

Spanish  painting.     The  most  famous  portraits  of  him  from  the  resentment  of  the  Alsacian  Humanists, 

women,  the  infantas  or  meninas  of  Velasquez,  retain  when  he  attacked  Wimpfeling's  ^^Germania",  which 

nothing  of  feminine  charm:  they  are  simuLacra  and  aimed  at  proving  that  Alsace  had  never  belonged  to 

phantoms  without  verisimiUtude.    Side  by  side  with  France.    Mumer s  defence  of  his  position,  the  '^Ger- 

these  apparitions,  Murillo's  Virgins  produce  a  com-  mania  nova",  was  suppressed  by  the  Strasburg  au- 

forting  effect  of  relief.  Here  are  women,  true  and  vital,  thorities:  a  further  attempt  at  justif3dng  himself 

with  the  most  thoroughly  external  charms  of  their  sex.  against  the  attacks  of  the  partisans  of  Wimpf  eling  also 

In  them  the  impulse  of  love  rises  to  ecstasy,  and  with-  proved  unsuccessful,  and  did  not  prevent  his  opponents 

out  Murillo  Spanish  painting  would  be  deprived  of  its  from  distorting  his  name  into  Mumar  (growhng  fool). 

most  beautiful  love  poems.     Many  persons,  it  is  true.  Even,  in  this  early  controversy,  Mumer  had  shown  a 

see  in  this  style  of  painting  the  symptoms  of  decadence  sharp  eye  for  his  opponents'  weaknesses,  and  a  marked 

in  Spanish  rehgious  sentiment.     This  question  of  the  gift  for  exposing  them  to  ridicule:  in  his  subsequent 

soundness  or  unsoimdness  of  his  devotional  tendencies  writings,  he  is  revealed  as  a  master  of  satire.    Just  as 

cannot  be  treated  here,  but  it  may  at  least  be  claimed  Geiler  illustrated  his  popular  sermons  with  compari- 

for  Murillo  that  his  art — notably  in  these  Immaculate  sons  drawn  from  everyday  life,  Mumer  compares,  in 

Conceptions — is  no  less*  genuinely  religious  than  the  his  "  Andachtige  geistliche  Badefahrt"  (1511),  the  for- 

dry  productions  of,  say,  a  Philippe  de  Champaigne.  giveness  of  sins  to  a  hydropathic  treatment.    In ''  Nai^ 

pA.zx>iitNo.  Noticiaa,  Eiogios  y  Vidaa  de  loa  Piruores  (Madrid,  renbeschw6rung "  and  "Schelmenzunft"  he  deals  with 

1711^-24);  Cban  Bbrmudez^  x>^^^^^  de  losmd^iiltu--  ^he  same  subject  as  Brant's  "Narrenschiff ",  but  his 

ires  vrofeaarea  {Maarid,  1800);  YixniiOT,  Notices  aurUa  principaiix  •,   .         .>     i         ••i'a        a  a.       jx  e  

peirurei  de  VEapagne  (Parifl,  1839);  Pasbavant.  Die  chriatiiche  work  IS  entirely  on^nal  m  treatment  and  far  suipasses 

Ktmat  in  Spanien  (Leiprig,  18.53);  Tubino.  Murillo,  »u  ipoea,  «u  the  earlier  work  in  its  popular  appeal,  its  wit,  and  its 

•y^' f*"  '^^.  f^li^®'i?%iSTS?"i7'i^Q?,"  vigour— <iegenerating,  indeed,  at  times  into  coarse- 

(London,    1883):  Juan,   Munllo   (Leipzig,    1892);   Knackfubs,  ®        -ri-         u  1       a*  h/^i-      u       ax>i  /t?     i  » 

MuriUo  (Leipiig,  1897);  Calvaebt.  MuriUo  (London.  1908).  ness.    Uis  subsequent  satu^,     Gauchmatt     (J<ools 

Louis  GiLLET.  Meadow)  and  "Die  Muhle  von  Schwindelsheim  und 

Gretmtillerin  Jahrzeit",  in  which  he  severely  criticizes 

Bfurzier,  Thomas,  greatest  German  satirist  of  the  a  special  kind  of  fools,  the  ''fools  of  love",  form  a 

sixteenth  century,  b.  nt  Oberehnheim,  Alsace,  24  Dec,  kind  of  sequel  to  the  '*Schelmenzunft".    There  is  no 


MUBO-LUCANO  646  MUBBiLT 

flCationy  either  clerical  or  lay,  that  ia  spared  from  lin.  He  was  educated  at  Dr.  Betagh's  school  m  Dobfin 

hi9  castigation.  ^  and  at  Salamanca  and  ordained  priest  in  1790.     After 

The  appearance  of  Luther  diverted  Mumer's  satire  some  years  as  curate  in  Dublin  ne  was  transferred  to 

into  a  new  course.    Regarding  the  Wittenbeig  monk  Arklow,  and  was  there  in  1798  when  the  rebellion 

at  first  as  a  well-intentioned  ally  in  the  battle  against  broke  out.    The  soldiers  shot  the  parish  priest  in  bed» 

the  evils  afflicting  the  Church,  Mumer  addreeaed  to  and  Murray,  to  escape  a  similar  fate^  flea  to  the  city, 

fajm  in  1520  an  appeal  entitled  "Christliche  und  brQ*  where  for  several  years  after  he  ministered  as  curate. 

derliche  Ennahnung  an  den  hochgelehrten  Doctor  In  1809  at  the  request  of  Archbishop  TVoy  he  was  ap- 

Martin  Luther",  wmch  was  follow^  by  other  pam*  pointed  coadjutor-bishop^  and  in  1823.  on  Dr.  Troy's 

pUets  refuting  and  warning  him  and  beseeching  hmi  to  death,  he  became  Archoishop  of  Dublin.    While  oo- 

abandon  his  ruinous  undertaking.   In  his  **  Neues  lied  adjutor  he  had  filled  for  one  year  the  position  of  preot- 

Tom  Untergang  des  christlichen  Glaubens"  (1521),  dent  of  Ma3rnooth  College.    Dr.  Murray  was  an  un- 

Mumer  ^ves  feeling  expression  to  his  sorrow  over  the  compromising  opponent  of  the  "veto"  and  a  strong 

destructive  tendencies  of  the  religious  innovation,  supporter  of  the  Cathohc  Association.    On   other 

But,  when  the  sole  effect  of  his  attempts  at  conciUa-  questions  he  was  less  advanced,  and  was  in  such  fa- 

tion  was  to  bring  upon  him  a  shower  of  lies  and  calum-  your  at  Dublin  Castle  that  he  was  once  offered  a  seat 

nies,  Mumer  dealt  Luther  a  crushing  blow  in  his  work,  on  the  Priory  Council,  which  he  declined.    He  sup- 

"Von  dem  grossen  Lutherischen  Narren  wie  ihn  Doc-  ported  Stanley's  National  Education  scheme  and  was 

tor  Mumer  beschworen  hat".    Here  Mumer  rises  to  amone  the  first  Education  Commiasioners;  he  also 

heights  of  satire  elsewhere  unattained  during  this  wished  to  tolerate  the  (Queen's  Colleges,  in  opposation 

whole  epoch.    All  the  reformatory  endeavours  are  to  the  views  of  Archbishop  MacHale.    He  had  no 

embodied  in  the   ''Great  Fool",   and  the  newly-  hesitation,  however,  in  accepting  the  adverse  decision 

founded  church  is  treated  allegorically  as  Luthers  of  Rome,  and  was Jpresent  at  Uie  S3rnod  of  lliUTles 

daughter  Adelheid,  who  "has  a  snocking  scald-heBid."  where  the  Queen's  Collies  were  fonnaUy  condemned. 

Mumer  wrote  many  other  satires  against  the  reform-  He  was  a  cnaritable,  kindly  man,  respected  even  by 

ers,  but  none  which  in  energy  and  wit  equals  this  his  opponents, 

work.    This  work,  so  full  of  fight  and  honest  zeal  for  ,  D' Alton,  ArdOfukop*  of^lhAlin  (DubUn.  18M):  H«ai.t,  r«. 

thtk  nIH  Faifh    w*ui  RiihiPof^  to  miirti  niiltimnv  atirl  *f*<"V  atttory  of  Maynoaih  CotUoe  (Dublin,  1885);  Mkaobcb, 

tne  oia  raitn,  was  8upject«i  to  mucn  caiumny  ana  j^^  of  ArchbUhon  Murrav  rDubUn.  issa^.-  FmPATucK.  i^u  «/ 
dension  during  his  ufetmie,  but  was  never  vanquished 


in  controversy.    Later  generations  did  him  justice.  ^.  ^^.  .^  *»*.-. ^, 

Le8singintendedtowritea"defence"of  Mumer,  and  nr,,--.-    Ta.»o  n     a^  n^^^ J^i^ITL  *V,«  T^r  ™ 

literary  historiographers  (especiaUy  Kurtz,  Vilmar,  ApoS^'of                         Cooktown,  Vicariate 

and  Gddeke)  have  recognizeci  his  great  importance  in  -'^'"^^^^^c  of. 

the  history  of  literature.  Critics  have  pointed  out  in  Murray,  Patrick,  theologian,  b.  in  Clones,  County 
his  works  a  peculiar  and  original  metrical  and  rhyth-  Mona^han,  Ireland,  18  November,  1811;  d.  15  Nov., 
mical  system,  which  distinguished  him  from  all  poets  1882,  m  Maynooth  College.  He  received  his  early 
of  his  time.  His  writings  show  that  he  possesseo  in  a  education  in  his  native  town  of  Clones,  entered  May- 
conspicuous  degree  the  culture  of  his  age.  No  doubt  nooth  College  25  August,  1829^  the  year  of  Cath- 
is  entertained  to-<iay  of  the  purity  of  nis  intentions  ohc  emancipation,  among  the  nrst  class  of  emanci- 
and  the  probity  of  his  character.  pated  entrants,  went  through  the  ordinary  course  with 
GoDBKB.  CnmafriM  (2nd  od.,  1884-1904),  II.  215-20,  mentions  great  distinction  and  was  elected  a  Dunboyne,  or  sen- 

All  Murners  (50)  works.    Recently  edited  are:  Scheltfitmunfl  hy  f^^  -♦ti^*k«+   ;•«   Ti«««<>    iqqk       i^-n-^.wI- au/ «-»j  ^r  *u 

Matthias;  GauchmaU  by  Uhl;   Sarrenbetehw&rung  by  Spanieiu  5?^  Student  m  June,  1835.      TowardS  the  end  Of  the 

Consult  Popp,  Die  Afetnk  u.  Rhythmik  M,'a  (1808);  Orr,  Ueber  Dunboyne  coursc  he  accepted  a  curacy  m  Francis 

M.'9  VerhaUnistuGeiUr  {AUemania,  23).   Murner  is,  of  course.  Street,  Dubhn,  where  in  a  short  time  he  acquired  the 

not  forgotten  in  the  numerous  Protestant  wntiDcs  on  the  Retor-  «-.-,,,* „*:^„    ^f    •    .^^.l^.*..    »^-L.a.    «,*^    ..^    «.i.«^..  «* 

mntionT  which  generally  criticise  him  seveT«lyTAmon«  recent  reputation    Of    a    SealOUS    WOrkCT    and    sn    eloquent 

Catholic  writings  of  Janbsen-Pastor.  Getch.  det  deut9chen  Volket,  preacher.      He  Was  appomted  profcssor  Of  Knglmh  and 

yi  (15th  ed..  1901) ;  Salzer,  Iji^rierie  GeMch,  iUr  d»uUchtn  Lit,  French  in  Maynooth,  on  7  Sept.,  1838,  after  the  usual 

(in  course  of  pubUcauon),  pp.  620-24.  concursus,  or  examiiaUon,  iad  Bitei  three  years  in 

this  position  he  was  appointed  professor  of  tneology, 

Muro-Lncano,  Diocese  of  (Muranbnsis),  m  the  after  another  brilliant  concursus,  on  27  August,  1841. 

province  of  Potenza,  in  Basilicata,  southern  Italy.  The  The  remainder  of  his  life  he  devoted  midnly  to  theo- 

town  is  situated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Numistri.  at  logical  science.    In  1879  he  was  appointed  prefect  of 

the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  the  scene  of  a  battle  be-  the  Dunboyne  Establishment,  which  position  he  re- 

tween  Hannibal  and  Marcellus  in  the  second  Punic  tained  until  his  death  in  1882.    His  principal  woAs 

war.    The  town  has  a  beautiful  cathedral;  and  it  was  are:  " Essays.  Chiefly  Theological''  (4  vols,,  Dublin, 

in  its  castle  that  Queen  Joan  of  Naples  was  killed  by  1850-53);  ^'De  Eccfesia  Chnsti"  (3  vols.,  Dublin, 

order  of  her  adopted  son  Carlo  of  Durazso.    The  first  1860-62-66);  "  De  Ecclesia  Christi",  compendium 

Bishop  of  Muro  of  whom  there  is  mention  was  Leo  (Dublin.  1874);  "De  Gratia"  (Dublin,  1877);  "De 

(1049).    Its  bishop  Antonio  (1376)  became  a  partisan  Veneratione  et  Invocatione  Sanctorum",  etc.;  "De 

of  the  antipope  Clement  VII;  he  was  therefore  driven  Impedimentis    MatrimonI   Dirimentibus^'    (Dublin, 

by  Carlo  of  Durazzo  to  seek  refuge  at  Polsino,  where-  1881);  "Prose  and  Verse"  (Dublin,  1867);  "Lectures 

upon  Clement  VII  suppressed  the  Diocese  of  Muro.  (on  Moore's  poetry)  before  Cork  Yoimg  Men's  So- 

In  1418,  however,  Guicfuccio  de  Porta  was  appointed  ciety"  (Cork,  1856). 

to  this  see;  he  was  a  virtuous  man,  and  learned  m  civil.  Dr.  Murray  was  a  man  of  high  intellectual  power, 

as  well  as  in  canon  law;  among  his  successors  were  of  big  projects,  and  of  great  activity  and  peraeverance. 

Flavio  Orsini  (1560),  who  became  a  cardinal;  the  poet  He  would  certainly  have  risen  to  great  eminence  in  the 

Gian  Carlo  Coppola  (1643),  who  later  became  Bishop  world  of  literature,  had  he  remained  professor  of  Eng- 

of  Gallipoli,  his  native  town;  Alfonso  Pacello  (1674),  liah,  as  he  was  possessed  of  literary  and  poetic  gifts 

founder  of  a  congregation  of  priests  for  the  care  of  the  of  a  high  order.    But  he  chose  the  domain  of  theology, 

sick  of  the  diocese.     The  see  is  suffragan  of  (Donza;  it  He  wrote  for  the  Dublin  Review  and  for  magazines, 

has  12  parishes,  with  40,280  inhabitants,  100  secular  In  1850  he  announced  his  intention  of  publishing  a 

priests,  2  religious  houses  of  women,  and  an  educa-  series  of  volumes  on  subjects  chiefly  theological,  to 

tional  establishment  for  girls.  supply  the  Catholic  laity  with  exact  and  reluible  in- 

Cappelleth,  Lt  Chiese  d'ltaiia,  XX  (Venice.  1^7).  formation  on  the  debated  reUgious  questions  of  the 

U.  iJENiGNi.  ^lay.     He  published  four  volumes  under  the  title: 

Murray,  Daniel,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  b.  1768,  "Essays,  Chiefly  Theological".    But  though  he  in- 

at  Sheepwaik,  near  Arklow,  Ireland ;  d.  1852  at  Dub-  tended  at  the  beginning  to  extend  the  work  to  seven  or 


MUSEUMS  647  MUSH 

eight  volumes,  he  discontinued  the  Essays  after  the  portant  collections  of  Christian  antiquities  arc  lose 

fourth  volume^  devote  himself  to  the  great  work  of  numerous,  although  those  of  Cairo,  Alexandria,  Ath« 

hia  Ufe,  his  "De  Ecclesia  Christi".    This  work  in-  ens,  of  St.  Louis  of  Carthage  (the  Lavigerie  Museum), 

volved  immense  labour.    It  is  a  work  of  great  learn-  of  Aries,  Autun,  Trier,  etc.  deserve  mention.    The 

ing,  a  masterpiece  in  positive  and  controversial  theol-  museums  of  the  great  capitals,  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 

ogy,  which  at  once  placed  its  author  in  the  front  etc.,  and  the  treasuries  of  some  churches,  e.  g.,  the 

rank  of  dogmatic  theologians.  While  not  neglecting  cathedral  of  Sens,  have  ivories  and  various  woven  stuffs 

the  views  of  the  continental  reformers,  the  author  dating  from  the  early  Christian  epoch.    Such  woven 

made  a  special  study  of  the  works  of  all  the  leading  An-  stuffs,  principally  of  Coptic  origin,  and  verv  ancient, 

glican  divines;  and  hence  his  work  became  the  stand-  have  lately  been  introauced  into  many  collections. 

ard  authority  for  the  exposition  and  refutation  of  the        Church  treasuries,  especially  the  richer  ones  of  some 

then  current   Anglican   views   about   the   Church.  German  churches  (cathedrals  of  Cologne,  Trier,  Hil- 

Though  writing  in  1860,  ten  years  before  the  Vatican  desheim,  Bamberg  and  the  abbatial  church  of  ICssen, 

definition,  the  author  with  ^reat  power  establishes  etc.).  are  noted  for  their  medieval  relics  and  may  pass 

the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibihty.    The  treatise,  "  De  for  the  oldest  Christian  musciuns. 

Gratia'',  excellent  in  itself,  was  intended  as  a  text-        In  addition  to  the  large  museums  of  all  countries, 

book  for  students;  as  was  also  the  less  perfect  work,  many  museums  of  industrial  art,  provincial  museums, 

''De  Veneratione  et  Invocatione  Sanctorum''.    Dr.  private  collections  and  archaeological  societies,  also 

Murray  was  ever  kind  and  considerate  for  his  stu-  episcopal  museums,  e.  g.,  the  rich  ones  of  Cologne  and 

dents,  by  whom  he  was  always  respected  and  loved.  Utrecht,  contain  many  valuable  and  ancient  Christian 

He  was  of  a  retiring  disposition,  of  a  deeply  religious  relics  of  an  artistic  kind.    As  a  Christian  museum  of 

nature,  and  of  great  saintliness  of  life.  the  Middle  A^es,  the  Schntltgen  collection  at  Cologne 

Hbalt,  Maynooih  CoUegt;  lia  Centenary  Hietory,  1795-1  SOS  deserves  special  notice.    It  Contains  many  religious 

(Dublin,  1896).  Daniel  CoaHLAN.  objects,   chalices,    crosses,   ecclesiastical  vestments, 

etc.,  and  offers  a  better  opportunity  than  any  other 

Miumiins,  Christian. — ^Though  applicable  to  col-  collection  for  studying  the  changing  forms  of  these 

lections  composed  of  Christian  objects  representative  objects  from  age  to  age.  A  word  is  due  to  the  museums 

of  all  epochs,  this  term  is  usually  reserved  to  those  of  copies  or  reproductions  annexed  to  certain  institu- 

museums  which  abound  chiefly  in  Christian  objects  tions  of  higher  education.    The  most  remarkable 

antedating  the  Middle  Ages,  namely,  sarcodhagi,  in-  Christian  museum  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the  Univer- 

scriptions  and  products  of  the  minor  arts.    These  ob-  sity  of  Berlin,  founded  1849-1855  by  Ferdinand  Piper, 

jects,  as  also  tnose  peculiar  to  the  Middle  Ages,  are  Although  lai^ly  representative  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

found  in  a  lar^e  nuniber  of  museums,  but  not  many  of  it  is  unparalleled  for  its  facsimiles  of  Christian  an- 

these  institutions  are  exclusively  or  even  primarily  de-  tiquities.    More  recently  M.  G.  Millet  founded  at  the 

voted  to  them.    The  first  collections  that  were  formed  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  in  Paris,  a  Byzantine  mu- 

(by  humanists,  by  the  Medici  in  Florence,  etc.)  occa-  seum,  rich  in  copies  and  stereotypes  gathered  during 

sionally  included  the  earlier  types  or  works  of  medi-  the  explorations  and  study  tours  made  by  French 

eval  art,  but  more  on  account  of  their  artistic  merit  scholars.    (See  Lateran,  Christian  Museum  of; 

than  because  of  their  Christian  character.    CoUec-  Vatican.) 

tions  of  inscriptions  had  been  made  from  the  time  of  ,  J^^iJ*^*™,*  ^«~*«^  d^ehrieaidien  ArMotogie  (Padcrbora. 

the  Ren«u«an<^,  but  Christian  inscriptions  found  no  ^^I'.^l'^y-^'^l'^ii^^^^^l^i^'^^^r^. 

place  among  them.     It  was  not  until  after  the  OlS-  Topographie:    Fobbbr  and  Fischer,  Adreasbuch  der  Museen, 

COVery  of  the  Roman  catacombs  by  Antonio  Bosio  that  BiUiotheken,  SammUr  und  Antiquare  (Straaburg,  189C). 

these  inscriptions  were  visited  by  collectors  from  Rome  R*  Mabrb. 

and  other  cities.    The  first  Christian  museum,  properly        -- -  .  .      i^.  .,   ,.  .  •      ^i. 

so  called,  was  that  of  the  Vatican,  and  its  origin  dates        ^™'  r*?.r    u  ^'^  Cathohc  see,  comprising  the 

from  BeAedict  XIV,  who  lonndd  it  under  the  name  of  ^^^^  ^f  Mush  and  Seert,  m  the  ^ayet  of  Bitlis. 

•'  Museum  Christianum  ".    Thanks  to  Marchi  and  de  \  ^"i:S2?^^.P7  ,^  ^M^  ^  ^^'  *,    u  ^T*^" 

Rossi,  a  part  of  the  Vatican  coUections  was  taken  to  ^^\  ^  faithful,  7  secular  pnests,  7  churches  or 

form  the  Lateran  Museum,  founded  by  a  decree  of  ?.*^P®fe  5  schools,  and  an  estabhshnaent  of  the  Vene- 

Piufl  IX  in  1854.    For  Christian  antiquities  no  other  **"*   Mechitansts.    The   chief  stations  outeide  of 

museums  equal  the  latter  in  pomt  of  importance.  Mush  m«  some  neighboumg  vilkra 

During  the  pontificate  of  Benedict  XIV  (1740-50)  a  Van.    The  town  is  bi^t  on  a  hill,  at  the  foot  of  a 

taste  for  Christian  antiquities  was  developed  by  other  >y"\«t  citadel  Mid  in  the  midst  of  vmeyaj^;  below 

distinguished  men,  e.  gf.  Cardinal  Passionei  and  Car-  ftretojies  a  weU-cidtivated  plam,  shout  fifty  miles 

dinal    Quirini,    Bikhop   of   Brescia,   whose   diligent  long  by  eighteen  miles  wide.    The  clmiate  is  healthy 

search^  were  prolific  of  important  results.  and^  the  country  tolerably  rich,  but  exposed  to  con- 

Italy  is  particularly  rich  in  valuable  collections  of  ^^^  mcursions  of  the  Kurds  and  other  nomads,  who 

antique    C^stian    relics.    In    Rome,    besides    the  terrome  the  inhabitants,. especially  the  Chra^^ 

Christian  Museums  of  the  Vatican  and  the  Lateran,  ^^^  ViJ^i^r^^^i^yj^^^^^u'}^^ 

the  Museo  Ku-cheriano  and  the  San  Paolo,  Propa-  toTO  of  Mush  hw  about  27,000  ml^^ 

ganda.  and  Campo  Santo  collections  are  all  note-  3,000  are  Ajmemwi  Catholics,  10,000  Am 

worthy.    The  atna  of  certain  churches,  e.  g.,  St.  °^a*»<»'  ^^V^  ^J^^^^Jl^i*^!^*  ^'fi?  ^^"^^ 

Mark,  Santa  Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  St.  Agnes,  also  ™»^-  .  ^^>^^  .the   Catholic    bishop    there  is .  an 

the  Grotte  Vaticane,  have  Christian  mscriptions  or  ArmemanGregonan  bishop;  also  a  Protestant  mission- 

sculptures,  and  collections  of  inscriptions  have  been  ffX-    7^1  celebrated  Moses  of  Chorene  was  bom  u 

ma/e  m  the  vicinity  of  ^veral  Roman  catacombs  ''^^^^^''^ly^li^^  uieeian..  caiKolic 

e.  g.,  St.  DomitiUa  and  St.  Agnes;  mention  should  (Rome,  1907),  767. 

be  made  also  of  private  collections.     Moreover,  al-  S.  VailhA. 

most  all  the  large  museums  of  Italv  and  the  treasuries 

of  some  churches  have  objects  belon^ng  to  the  early  Mush  (alias  Ratcliffe),  John,  priest,  b.  in  York- 
Christian  era.  e.  g.,  the  Museum  and  Library  of  Brescia  shire,  1551  or  1552;  d.  at  Wenge,  Co.  Bucks,  1612  or 
and  those  of  the  Uflfizi  at  Florence,  the  municipal  1613,  not  as  Bishop  Challoner  thought,  in  1617. 
Museumof  Florence,  the  Trivulzi  collection,  the  treas-  Having  spent  six  months  in  the  English  College  at 
uries  of  the  cathedrals  of  Milan  and  Monza,  the  Douai  he  went  to  Rome  (1576)  where  he  studied  for 
Museo  Nazionale  at  Palermo,  the  Museum  of  the  seven  years.  Ordained  priest,  he  returned  to  Eng< 
VillA  Cassia  at  Syracuse,  etc.    Outside  of  Italy,  im-  land  (15S3)  and  laboured  at  York,  being  confessor 


I 
d 


MUSIO                               648  MU8I0 

lo  Voierable  Mai^aret  Clitherow  who  suffered  for  be  such,  to  the  words  uttered  in  praver,  to  the  devo- 
haibourinff  him,  and  Venerable  Francis  Ingleby.  Ar-  tion  of  the  heart:  they  must  be  calculatCMd  to  edify  the 
rested  28  Oct.,  1586,  and  condemned  to  die.  he  escaped  faithful,  and  in  snort  must  serve  the  purpose  for  which 
with  two  other  priests.  For  many  years  ne  laboured  Divine  service  is  held.  Whenever  music,  instead  of 
in  the  North  becoming  a  recognised  leader  among  his  assuming  a  character  of  independence  and  mere  or- 
brother  priests.  When  the  dissensions  among  the  nament,  acts  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  other  means  of 
imprisoned  priests  at  Wisbech  broke  out  in  1595,  he  promoting  the  worship  of  God  and  as  an  incentive  to 
wiUi  Dr.  Dudley  went  there  to  arbitrate.  Failing  in  good,  it  not  only  does  not  interfere  with  the  religious 
this^  together  with  John  Colleton  he  set  himself  to  ceremony,  but,  on  the  contrary,  imparts  to  it  the 
devise  some  organization  of  a  voluntary  character  greatest  splendour  and  effectiveness.  Only  those  who 
among  the  clergy  which  might  supply  the  want  of  are  not  responsive  to  its  influence,  or  stubbornly  cul- 
episcopal  government  much  felt  after  the  death  of  tivate  other  ways  of  devotion,  can  imagine  that  the^ 
Cardinal  Allen  in  1594.  Opposed  by  Persons,  it  was  are  distracted  in  their  worship  by  music.  Appropn- 
rendered  superfluous  by  the  appointment  of  an  arch-  ate  music,  on  the  contrary,  raises  man  above  common- 
priest  (1599).  In  the  ensuing  controversy  Mush  was  place  everyday  thoughts  into  an  ideal  and  joyous 
one  of  the  appellant  clergy  who  appealed  to  Rome  mood,  rivets  mind  and  heart  on  the  sacred  words  and 
against  the  archpriest.  In  connexion  with  this  he  actions,  and  introduces  him  into  the  proper  devotional 
wrote  "Declaratio  Motuum''  and  in  1602,  with  Champ-  and  festive  atmosphere.  This  appropnateneas  takes 
ney  Bluet  and  Cecil,  went  as  a  deputation  to  Rome  into  account  persons  and  circumstances,  variations 
where  for  eight  months  they  fought  for  their  petition,  being  introduced  according  to  the  nature  and  use  of 
Their  petition,  first  for  six  bishops  and  then  for  six  the  texts,  according  to  the  character  of  the  liturgical 
archpnests^  was  refused;  but  though  the  archpriest  action,  according  to  the  ecclesiastical  season,  and 
succeeded  m  maintaining  his  p>06ition,  the  appellants  even  according  to  the  various  needs  of  the  contempla- 
were  acquitted  of  the  charges  of  rebellion  ana  schism,  tive  orders  and  the  rest  of  the  faithful. 
On  his  return  to  England,  Mush  was  one  of  the  thir-  Natural  religious  instinct  urges  man  to  honour  God 
teen  priests  who  signed  the  protestation  of  allegiance  by  means  of  music  as  well  as  b^  the  other  arts,  and  to 
to  Queen  Elisabeth  (1603).  In  his  later  years  he  heighten  his  religious  exaltation  by  joyous  sinpng. 
actea  as  assistant  to  two  successive  archpriest^.  This  significance  of  singing  in  connexion  with  Divine 
Blackwell  and  Birkhead,  in  Yorkshire,  but  he  service  has  never  been  lost  sight  of.  Under  the  Old 
seems  to  have  been  acting  as  chaplain  to  Lady  Dor-  Law  the  music  of  the  Teniple  filled,  in  compliance 
mer  in  Buckin^amshire  at  the  time  of  his  death,  with  the  commands  of  God  Himself,  a  veiy  elaborate 
His  works  are  *^he  Life  and  Death  of  Mistress  Mar-  r61e.  Songs  of  victory  of  a  religious  nature  are  men- 
«aret  Clitherow"  (written  1586,  first  printed  1849);  tioned  in  Ex.,  xv,  and  in  Judges,  v.  Often  the  proph- 
^An  account  of  the  sufferings  of  Catholics  in  the  cts  are  elated  by  sacred  music.  David  beautified 
Northern  Parts  of  England"  (probably  the  same  as  religious  ceremonies  by  hymns  and  the  use  of  instru- 
the  MS.  account  printed  by  Father  Morris,  S.J.^  in  ments  (Amos,  vi,  5;  II  Esd..  xii,  35;  II  Par.,  xxix,  25 
"Troubles  of  our  Catholic  Forefathers",  series  lii);  sqci.).  With  him  appears  Asaph  in  the  r61e  of  poet 
"Declaratio  Motuum"  (Rouen,  1601).  His  diary  of  ana  singer,  and  the  ^'Sons  of  Asaph"  with  other  fami- 
the  deputation  to  Rome  in  1602  is  preserved  in  MS.  in  lies  were,  from  the  davs  of  David,  organised  into 
the  Inner  Temple,  London.  Dodd  also  says  he  wrote  classes  (I  Par.,  xxv) .  The  primitive  Christian  Church 
against  the  apostate  priest  Thomas  Bell,  and  Pitts  was,  on  account  of  external  circumstances,  very  much 
quotes  his  English  translation  of  '^Lectiones  Panago-  restrained  in  its  religious  manifestations,  and  the 
rail  Turini",  but  these  latter  works  are  not  now  known  adoption  of  the  music  of  the  Temple,  in  so  far  as  it  had 
to  exist.  survived,  would  have  been  diflScult  on  account  of  the 
Knox.  lUeord*  of  the  Engiuh  Cathoiic$  (London.  1878.  1882);  converts  from  paganism.  Furthermore,  the  practice 
Dodd,  Chweh  Hi*tary,  ed.  Tibbn«t  (London.  1839-43) ;  Morrw,  ^f  religion  on  the  part  of  the  early  Christiana  was  of 

TroubUaof  our  CatholtcForefalhera,9eneButkudin  {London,  1^75-  i     *           i          •  *1      i        «*"*' *^  ^  '»^"*««-«»*«i  wwao  w 

77);   Law,  JemiU  and  Seeulart  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Elitabeth  BUCh  a  purely  spiritual  nature  that  any  sensUOUS  as- 

Qiondon.  1889),  andini>tei.  Nat,  Biog.  s.  v.;  Gilu)w,  Bibl.  DicL  sistance,  such  as  that  of  music,  could  be  for  the  time 

Bng.  Caih.                                        Edwin  Burton.  easily  dispensed  with.    Nevertheless,  the  words  of  St. 

Paul,  even  if  only  taken  in  a  spiritual  sense,  remind 

Music,  Ecclesiastical. — By  this  term  is  meant  oneforciblyof  the  conception  of  music  in  the  Old  Tes- 

the  music  which,  by  order  or  with  the  approbation  of  tament:   'Speaking  to  yourselves  in  psahns,   and 

ecclesiastical  authority,  is  employed  in  connexion  with  hymns,  and  spiritual  canticles,  singing  and  making 

Divine  service  to  promote  the  glorification  of  God  and  melody  in  your  hearts  to  the  Lord"  (£ph.,  v,  19). 

the  edification  of  the  faithful.  Tertuflian  relates  that  during  Divine  service  Holy 

Natxtre  AND  Significance. — ^Just  as  St.  Philip  Neri  Scripture  was  read  and  psalms  sun^,  and  that  even 

spontaneously  sang  the  prayers  of  the  last  Mass  which  Pliny  had  ascertained  that  the  Christians  honoured 

he  celebrated,  so  is  all  true  religious  music  but  an  ex-  their  Lord  before  dawn  by  singing  a  hymn  (ApoL,  ii). 

alted  prayer — an  exultant  expression  of  religious  feel-  Eusebius,  in  confirmation  "of  the  regulations  hereto- 

ing.    Praver,  song,  the  playing  upon  instruments,  and  fore  followed  by  the  Church  '\  quotes  the  testimonv  of 

action,  when  arranged  by  authority,  constitute  the  Philo,  who  relates  that  the  Therapeut®,  during  their 

elements  of  pubHc  worsKip,  especially  of  an  official  festive  repasts,  sang  psalms  from  Holy  Writ  and  other 

liturs^.    This  was  the  case  with  the  pagans,  the  Jews,  hymns  of  various  kinds  in  solemn  rhythm  in  monodic 

and  aiao  in  the  Church  from  time  immemorial.   These  style  with  choral  responsories  (Hist,  eccl.,  I,  xvii). 

elements  constitute,  when  combined,  an  organic  imity.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  nature  of  the  singing  of 

in  which,  however,  music  forms  a  part  only  on  solemn  the  Therap>euta},  Eusebius  bears  testimony  totne  tra- 

occasions,  and  then  only  in  accordance  with  the  regu-  ditional  custoin  of  the  Church.    While  St.  Athanasius 

lations  of  proper  authority.    As  man  owes  to  God  restricted  the  singing  of  the  psalms  to  a  kind  of  recita- 

that  which  is  highest  and  most  beautiful,  music  may  tion,  St.  Ambrose  introduced  in  Milan    (and  the 

employ  on  these  occasions  her  noblest  and  most  efTec-  greater  part  of  the  Western  world)  with  great  success 

tive  means.    Church  music  has  in  common  with  secu-  antiphonal  singing  of  the  psalms  **  after  the  manner  of 

lar  music  the  combination  of  tones  in  melody  and  har-  the  East''.    St.  Augustine  asks  himself  whether  it 

mony,  the  division  of  time  in  rhythm,  measure,  and  would  not  be  more  perfect  to  deny  himself  the  deli|^t 
tempo, 
our 
com] 
ever. 


MUSIC  649  BinsiG 

ring  to  Eph  ,  v,  19,  exhorts  as  follows  the  young  whose  favourable  judgment.  Warner  was  an  enthudastic 
duty  it  is  to  sing  in  Church:  ** Let  the  servant  of  God  admirer  of  Falestrina;  Mendelssohn  made  every  ^ort 
sing  in  such  a  manner  that  the  words  of  the  text  to  collect  masses,  impropreriaf  psalms,  motets  of  the 
rather  than  the  voice  of  the  singer  cause  delight,  and  old  masters,  which  he  preferred  to  all  ecclesiastical 
that  Saul's  evil  spirit  may  depart  from  those  who  are  music  by  modem  writers.  There  are,  indeed^  many 
under  its  dominion,  and  may  not  enter  into  those  who  works  by  Orlandus  de  Lassus,  Allegri,  Vittoria, 
make  a  theatre  out  of  the  house  of  the  Lord''.  A  cer-  wherein  the  most  elaborate  means  of  expression  are 
tain  class  of  liturgical  singers  are  also  mentioned  in  used,  but  which,  nevertheless,  conform  to  every  litur- 
the  "Canones  apostolorum".  The  above-mentioned  gical  requirement  and  are,  as  it  were,  spontaneous 
antiphonal  and  responsorial  chant  intended  for  the  outpourings  of  adoring  hearts  (cf.  contrapuntal  or 
people  shows  that  the  singing  was  not  confined  to  the  polyphonic  music).  Besides  plain  chant  ana  the  poly- 
choir.  St.  Augustine  wrote  a  long  h3rmn  to  be  sung  phonic  style,  the  Church  also  admits  to  her  service 
by  the  people  in  the  form  of  Psalm  cxviii — not  in  nomophonic  or  figured  compositions  with  or  without 
classic  metre,  but  in  popular  accented  verses  with  six-  instrumental  accompaniment,  written,  not  in  the  old 
teen  unaccented  syllables  and  rhyming  on  the  final  ecclesiastical  modes,  but  in  one  of  the  modem  major 
vowel.  Hymnology  in  classic  form  goes  back  to  Am-  or  minor  keys.  Gregorian  chant  the  Church  most 
brose  and  Hilarius.  But  sufficient  has  been  said  to  in-  warmly  recommends,  the  polyphonic  style  she  ex- 
dicate  the  practice  and  nature  of  chant  in  the  early  pressly  praises,  and  the  modem  she  at  least  tolerates. 
Church,  under  whose  fostering  protection  it  developed  According  to  the  "  Motu  proprio  "  of  Pius  X  (22  Nov., 
so  wonderfully  later  on.  History  bears  the  most  1903),  the  following  are  the  general  guiding  principles 
convincing  testimony  to  the  importance  which  the  of  the  Church:  '^ Sacred  music  should  possess,  in  the 
Church  has  always  attached  to  music  in  connexion  highest  degree,  the  qualities  proper  to  the  Hturgy,  or 
with  her  worship.  more  precisely,  sanctity  and  purity  of  form  from  which 
Church  Regulations. — The  interest  taken  by  the  its  other  character  of  universality  spontaneously 
Church  in  music  is  also  shown  by  her  numerous  enact-  springs.  It  must  be  holy,  and  must  therefore  exclude 
ments  and  regulations  calculated  to  foster  music  all  profanity,  not  only  from  itself  but  also  from  the  man- 
worthy  of  Divine  service.  The  right  of  the  Church  to  ner  in  which  it  is  presented  by  those  who  execute  it. 
determine  the  matter  and  manner  of  what  shall  be  It  must  be  tme  art,  for  otherwise  it  cannot  exercise  on 
sung  in  connexion  with  her  liturgy  is  incontestable,  the  minds  of  the  hearers  that  influence  which  the 
Narrow-minded  musical  partisans  seem  disposed  to  Church  meditates  when  she  welcomes  into  her  liturgy 
fear  that  music  as  an  art  does  not  receive  due  consid-  the  art  of  music.  But  it  must  also  be  universal,  in  the 
eration.  if  it  be  not  permitted  to  go  its  own  way  un-  sense  that,  while  every  nation  is  permitted  to  admit 
controlled.  These  fears  generally  have  for  their  basis  into  its  ecclesiastical  compositions  those  special  forms 
the  theory  that  art  is  an  end  in  itself,  and  should  not  which  may  be  said  to  constitute  its  native  music,  still 
serve,  except  indirectly,  any  end  outeade  of  and  other  these  forms  must  be  subordinated  in  such  a  manner  to 
than  itself.  This  principle  could  only  have  a  certain  the  general  characteristics  of  sacred  music,  that  no  one 
justification,  if  the  external  dependencv  were  to  hin-  of  any  nation  mav  receive  an  impression  other  than 
der  the  full  development  of  music.    But  this  is  not  good  on  hearing  them." 

the  case.    In  point  of  fact,  the  histoi^  of  its  develop-        Regarding  modem  music,  the  ''Motu  proprio" 
ment  shows  that  ecclesiastical  n^iusic  need  fear  no  says:  ''The  Church  has  always  recognised  and  hon- 
comparison  between  its  achievements  and  those  of  oured  progress  in  the  arts,  admitting  to  the  service  of 
secular   music.    Many   competent   musicians   have  reli^on  everything  good  and  beautiful  discovered  bv 
frankly  admitted  this  in  the  case  of  the  simple  Gre-  gemus  in  the  course  of  ages — ^always,  however,  with 
gorian  chant — not  only  men  like  Witt  and  Gevaert,  but  due  regard  to  the  litur^cal  laws.    Consequently, 
also  Hal^vy,  Mozart,  and  Berlioz.    Haldvy  considers  modem  music  is  also  admitted  in  the  Church,  since  it, 
the  chant  ''the  most  beautiful  religious  melody  that  too,  furnishes  compositions  of  such  excellence,  sobri- 
exists  on   earth".     Mozart's   statement,    "that  he  ety,  and  gravity,  that  they  are  in  no  way  unworthy  of 
would  gladly  exchange  all  his  music  for  the  fame  of  the  liturgical  functions.    Still,  since  modem  music 
having  composed  the  Gregorian  Preface",  sounds  al-  has  risen  mainly  to  serve  profane  uses,  care  must  be 
most  hyperbolic.     Berlioz,  who  himself  wrote  a  gran-  taken  that  musical  compositions  in  this  style  admitted 
ciiose  Requiem,  declared  that  "nothing  in  music  could  to  the  Church  may  contain  nothing  profane,  be  free 
be  compared  with  the  effect  of  the  Gregorian  Dies  from  reminiscences  of  theatrical  motives,  and  be  not 
irse"    (cf.    Krutschek,    "Kirchenmusik").    Ambros  fashioned,  even  in  their  external  forms,  after  the  man- 
says:  "The  fundamental  power,  animating  all  music  ner  of  profane  pieces."    It  is  very  much  to  be  re- 
w^nich  is  not  made  but  which  grew  (as  is  the  case  with  gretted  that  the  greatest  masters  of  modem  times, 
the  folk-music),  belongs  pre-eminently  to  Gregorian  Mozart,  Joseph  Haydn,  and  Beethoveri,  devoted  their 
chant."    For  this  reason  Gevaert  considers  the  most  wonderful  guts   mainly  to  secular  uses,  and  that 
characteristic  quality  of  the  chant  to  be  the  fact  that  their  masses  are  entirely  unsuitable  for  Hturgical  pur- 
it  never  grows  stale,  "as  though  time  had  no  power  poses — an  unsuitability  freely  acknowledged  by  Men- 
over  it".    Not  the  most  conspicuous,  but  the  most  delssohn,  Liszt,  and  Wagner.    The  reason  for  their 
simple  artistic  means  produce  the  deepest  and  most  inadmissibility  lies  in  their  treatment  of  the  sacred 
lasting  impression,   when  skilfully  employed.    The  text,  the  instrumentation,  in  the  fact  that  they  do  not 
first  requbite  is  that  the  sentiments  contained  in  the  conform  to  the  Hturgical  action,  and  often  in  an  undue 
text  be  given  tme  expression,  and  be  not  obscured  by  elaboration  of  form  which  seriously  interferes  with  the 
obtrusive  external  forms.    It  must  be  acknowledged  devotion  of  the  faithful.    A  few  compositions  bv  these 
that  pieces  like  the  Te  Deum,  Lauda  Sion,  the  Lamen-  masters  (such  as  Mozart's  Ave  verum)  do  not  deserve 
tations.  the  Requiem  Mass,  as  well  as  many  an  introit,  this  reproach.    The  mere  fact  that  a  Gloria  or  Credo 
gradual,  and  tract,  afford  a  never-failing  pleasure,  that  by  Haydn,  for  instance,  delay?  the  progress  of  the  ser- 
tiiey  employ  onlv  the  simplest  means  to  express  the  vice  twenty  minutes,  while  the  other  parts  of  these 
desired  mood,  that  they  are  admirably  adapted  to  masses  are  of  equally  excessive  length,  is  sufficient  to 
promote  devotion.  render  them  unsuitable  for  liturgical  use.    The  fol- 
The  Church,   however,   does  not  despise  artistic  lowing  words  from  the  "Motu  proprio"  are  applicable 
loeans  of  a  more  elaborate  nature,  as  is  shown  by  the  to  numberless  compositions:  "Among  the  (ufferent 
long  jvbili  of  the  traditional  chant  (as  contained  in  kinds  of  modem  music,  that  which  appears  least  suit- 
ttie  Vatican  edition)  and  still  more  by  ecclesiastical  able  for  accompanying  the  functions  of  public  worship 
polyphonic  music  (Palestrina  style).    Upon  this  style  is  the  theatrical  style,  which  was  in  the  greatest  vogue, 
zziodem  musicians  of  the  first  rank  have  pronounced  especially  in  Italy,  during  the  last  centuiy.    This,  of 


MUSIC                               650  MUSIC 

its  very  nature,  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  Gre-  come,  it  is  more  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good,  it 
gorian  chant  and  clajssic  polyphony,  and  therefore  to  must  not  be  understood  that  by  these  are  meant  the 
the  most  important  law  of  all  good  music.  Besides  ordinary  difficulties  which  had  been  foreseen,  nor  may 
the  intrinsic  structure,  the  rhythm  and  what  is  known  the  difference  in  our  own  taste  be  considered*  an  ob* 
as  the  conventionalism  of  this  style  adapt  themselves  stacle.  The  regulations  concerning  church  music  are 
but  ill  to  the  requirements  of  true  Uturgical  music."  generally  binding  imder  pfun  of  sm,  and  subtle  dis- 
This  wish  of  the  Church,  so  frequently  reiterated,  tinctions  to  escape  this  responsibihty  are  useless.  For 
should  never  be  ignored  by  composer  or  performer.  As  the  composer  of  genius  these  prescriptions  are  not  fet- 
the  sacredness  of  the  liturgy  has  caused  the  Chiuxh  to  ters.  but  rather  serve  to  show  him  how  to  make  his 
dictate  to  the  priest,  to  the  smallest  detail,  what  vest-  work  a  source  at  once  of  artistic  delist  and  of  edifica- 
ments,  words,  vessels,  and  actions  he  should  employ  tion.  All  these  remarks  applv  equally  to  the  singer, 
in  the  fulfilment  of  his  duties — which  regulations  he  Qualities. — ^The  first  and  most  urgent  condition 
may  not  disregard  without  sinning — so  abo  the  regu-  which  the  Church  imposes  in  regard  to  her  music  is 
lations  concerning  church  music  are  binding  on  the  that  it  be  in  conformity  with  the  place,  time,  and  pur- 
singers,  whether  the  reasons  for  these  regulations  be  pose  of  Divine  worship;  that  it  be  sacred  and  not  pro- 
understood  by  the  individuals  or  not.  It  is  indeed  fane,  in  other  words  that  it  be  church,  and  not  theatri- 
true  that  unimportant  deviations  from  the  rules  are,  cal,  music.  Theatrical  music  is  just  as  much  out  of 
owing  to  special  circumstances,  sometimes  excusable,  place  in  church,  as  the  performance  of  a  secular  drama, 
The  regulations  are  contained  in  the  Missal,  the  the  exposition  of  a  battle  scene,  or  even  a  statue  rep- 
"Caeremoniale  episcoporum'^  and  the  decrees  of  rescntmg  a  pagan  deity.  The  performance  of  sudi 
councils  and  of  tne  popes.  The  universally  binding  music  directs  the  attention  not  to  the  altar  but  to  the 
decrees  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  are  collected  in  organ  loft.  Musicians  themselves  have  frequently 
"Decreta  authentica  ,  and  have  been,  since  1909,  failed  to  recognize  clearly  the  difference  between  con- 

I)ublished  in  the  "Acta  ApostolicsB  Sedis".    Purely  cert  and  church  music.     Mozart  used  parts  of  his  re- 

ocal  directions  need  no  special  publication  for  those  ligious  compositions  in  secular  cantatas  and  extracts 

immediately  concerned.     It  is  in  some  cases  legitimate  from  his  operas  for  chureh  purposes.    A  mass  has  also 

to  assume  that,  in  unessential  matters^  a  given  rule  been  compiled  from  some  of  Haydn's  profane  compo- 

has  rather  a  directive  than  a  prescriptive  character,  mons.     The  "wassail  of  notes'',  the  complete  ab- 

S'ovidcd  the  wording  does  not  declare  the  contrary,  wption  o£  our  consciousness  by  artistic  melodic  or 
ecrees  called  forth  by  plainly  local  conditions  are  n^fmonic  combinations  and  sensuous  melodies,  the 
binding  only  in  the  place  to  which  they  have  been  di-  display  of  instrumental  virtuosity,  the  joyous  rush  of 
rected.  In  some  cases  it  is  legitimate  to  inquire  about  tonal  masses  put  to  flight  all  devout  recollection  of  the 
and  remonstrate  against  a  regulation  before  it  becomes  sacrificial  act  and  all  heartfelt  prayer.  March,  dance, 
binding.  Whenever  exceptionally  serious  difficulties  and  other  jerky  rhythms,  bravura  arias,  and  tie 
stand  m  the  way,  positive  laws  are  not  binding,  un-  crash  of  iustrumentfl  ^ect  the  senses  and  nerves,  but 
less  the  lawgiver  explicitly  insis^^s  on  their  fulfilment,  do  not  touch  the  heart.  Even  a  reminiscence  of  the 
Owing  to  the  difference  in  local  conditions  bishops  concert  hall  is  a  distraction  to  those  who  wish  to  pray, 
may,  in  the  application  of  a  given  law,  sometimes  use  Not^the  least  element  in  the  effectiveness  of  chureh 
their  own  discretion.  Customs  of  long  standing  are  mu.sid  is  the  sacred  texts,  which  inspire  composer, 
to  be  treated  with  some  leniency,  unless  ecclesiastical  singer,  and  hearer,  although  in  different  ways,  in  the 
authority  explicitly  determines  the  contrary.  An-  "Motuproprio"  we  read:  "The  liturgical  text  must  be 
fiwers  to  inquiries  contained  in  the  "Decrcta  Authcn-  sung  as  it  is  in  the  books,  without  alteration  or  inver- 
tica"  or  "Acta  Apostolica)  Scdis"  arc  usually  consid-  sion  of  the  words,  without  imdue  repetition,  without 
ered  as  binding,  it  they  are  for  general  and  not  merely  breaking  syllables  and  always  in  a  manner  intelligible 
for  local  application.  The  degree  of  binding  force  to  the  faithful  who  listen."  Only  in  this  way  are  the 
depends  on  the  importance  of  the  matter  in  question,  sacredness  of  the  text  and  the  needs  of  the  hearer  safe- 
and  it  may  be  gathered  from  the  degree  of  firmness  Or  guarded.  For  all  official  chants  (Mass,  Vespers,  etc.) 
emphasis  with  which  the  lawgiver  inculcates  a  giVcn  the  texts  are  prescribed,  and  arc  in  the  Latin  language, 
law.  The  verbal  and  musical  texts  are  eoually  arub-  On  this  point  the  "  Motu  proprio"  says: "  It  is  not  law- 
ject  to  ecclesiastical  control.  The  use  of  the  Va^can  ful  to  confuse  the  order  or  to  change  the  prescribed 
•?diti(in  of  the  Gregorian  chant  has  been  generally  texts  for  others  selected  at  will  or  to  omit  them  either 
binding  since  25  Sept.,  1905.  However,  bishops  may,  entirely  or  in  part.  However,  it  is  permissible  accord- 
owing  to  local  difficulties,  defer  the  execution  of  the  ing  to  the  custom  of  the  Roman  Church,  to  sing  a 
law.  (The  command  is  given  in  mild  form:  "It  is  our  motet  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  after  the  Benedictus 
most  keen  desire  that  bishops",  etc.)  The  "Motu  in  a  solemn  mass.  It  is  also  permitted,  after  the 
proprio"  directs  that  all  other  musical  performances  Offertor3r  of  the  mass  has  been  sung,  to  execute  dur- 
r>e  watched  over  by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  ing  the  time  that  remains  a  brief  motet  to  words  ap- 
ordinary,  so  that  in  all  places  compositions  of  the  proved  by  the  Church."  On  account  of  the  diversity 
proper  character  and  within  the  capacity  of  the  sing-  and  changeableness  of  modern  languages,  the  Church 
crs  may  be  performed.  retains  for  her  Utur^cal  functions  (even  for  the  simple 
Regulations,  so  wise  as  these,  compel  our  obedience,  misaa  cantcUa)  the  Latin  language^  hallowed  by  ages 
Consequently,  the  Holy  Father  has  a  right  to  expect  of  service.  Nor  does  she  permit  that  individual 
that  "we  obey  from  the  conviction  that  by  so  doing  prayers  and  chants  be  translated  into  the  vernacular 
we  act  from  reasons  which  are  clear,  plain  and  beyond  for  liturgical  puiposes.  (The  most  important  decision 
dispute."  Consideration  of  the  purpose  for  which  on  this  point  will  be  found  in  the  "Decrcta  authen- 
music  is  employed  in  churchy  of  its  close  connexion  tica"  under  "Cantilena"  and  "Cantus".)  The  "Motu 
with  the  liturgy,  and  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  proprio"  says:  "It  is  forbidden  to  sing  anything  what- 
Ghost,  is  sufficient  basis  for  this  conviction.  No  one  ever  in  the  vernacular  in  solemn  hturgical  functions; 
is  bound  to  admire,  as  in  ever>'  particular  unsurpassed  much  more  to  sing  in  the  vernacular  the  variable  or 
and  unsurpassable,  the  prescribed  chant.  It  is  suffi-  common  parts  in  the  Mass  and  Office." 
cient  to  accept  the  Gregorian  chant  aa  the  norm  and  To  the  traditional  language  of  her  liturgy  the 
supreme  model  for  all  Catholic  church  music  and  ap-  Church  joins  her  own  traditional  musical  form,  which 
prove  its  use.  We  are  not  asked  to  abandon  every  characterizes  her  chant  and  distinguishes  it  from  the 
personal  scientific  and  ajsthetic  view,  or  to  eschew  re-  mu-sic  of  concert  and  opera.  The  "Motu  proprio"  saj-s: 
search  and  theoretic  discussion.  If ,  however,  the  law-  "The  different  parts  of  the  Mass  and  of  the  Office 
giver  does  not  urge  the  immediate  execution  of  a  law  roust  retain,  even  musically,  that  particular  concept 
wherever,  on  account  of  the  dilliculties  to  be  over-  and  form  which  ccclc«iast iral  tradition  a^^signcd  tc- 


BinSIC  651  MUSIO 

them,  and  which  is  admirably  expressed  in  the  Gre-  in  too  strong  contrast  to  the  lofty  religious  dignitv 
gorian  chant."  By  retaining  her  musical  form  for  her  and  gravity  of  Palestrina.  Maurice  Brosig,  although 
various  chants  (e.  g.  for  the  Sanctus,  the  hymns^  the  rather  unrestrained  and  subjective  in  his  own  compo- 
psalms))  or  admitting  of  its  modification  only  within  sitions,  always  excluded  their  works  from  church, 
certain  limits,  the  Church  protects  her  own  music  Concert  instruments  may,  imder  certain  circum- 
against  the  aestruction  of  that  character  which  is  stances,  produce  in  church  a  very  brilHant  effect  and 
proper  to  it.  The  relation  of  church  music  to  the  text  an  exalted  mood.  In  general,  however,  they  are 
on  the  one  hand  and  to  instrumental  music  on  the  rather  obtrusive  than  devotional.  Their  tendencv  is 
other  is  what  distinguishes  it  essentially  from  secular  to  predominate,  and  they  are  apt  to  obscure  the  dec- 
music.    The  attitude  of  reserve  maintained  by  the  lamation  of  the  text. 

Church  on  this  point  is  expressed  in  the  ''Motu  pro-  Richard  Wagner  says  a  vigorous  word  in  favour  of 
prio''  as  follows:  "Although  the  music  proper  to  the  purely  vocal  music  in  church:  "To  the  human  voice, 
Church  is  purely  vocal  music,  music  with  tne  accom-  the  immediate  vehicle  of  the  sacred  word^  belongs  the 
paniment  of  the  organ  is  also  permitted.  In  some  first  place  in  the  churches,  and  not  to  instrumental 
special  cases,  within  due  limits  and  within  the  proper  additions  or  the  trivial  scraping  found  in  most  of  the 
regards,  other  instruments  mav  be  allowed,  but  never  churches  pieces  to-day.  Catholic  Church  music  can 
without  the  special  licence  of  the  ordinary,  accord-  regain  its  former  purity  only  by  a  return  to  the  purely 
ing  to  the  Caeremoniale  episcoporum.  As  the  chant  vocal  style.  If  an  accompaniment  is  considered  abso- 
should  always  have  the  principal  place,  the  organ  or  in-  lutely  necessary,  the  gemus  of  Christianity  has  pro- 
struments  should  merely  sustain  and  never  suppress  video  the  instrument  worthy  of  such  function^  the 
it.  It  is  not  permitted  to  have  the  chant  preceded  organ"  (Gesammelte  Werke,  II,  337).  There  is  no 
by  long  preludes  or  to  interrupt  it  with  intermezzo  doubt  but  that  those  qualities  absolutely  necessanr  to 
pieces."  The  pianoforte  and  noisy  and  frivolous  in-  church  music,  namely  modesty,  dignity,  and  soulful- 
struments  (e.  g.  drums,  cymbals,  and  bells)  are  abso-  ness,  are  more  inherent  in  the  purely  vocal  style  than 
lutely  excluded.  Wind  instruments,  by  their  nature  in  any  other.  Reserve  and  humble  restraint  befits  the 
more  turbulent  and  obtrusive,  are  admissible  only  as  house  of  God.  Sentimental  and  effeminate  melodies 
an  accompaniment  to  the  singing  in  processions  out-  are  incompatible  with  the  dignified  seriousness  of  the 
side  of  the  church.  Within  the  edifice  "it  will  be  per-  iK)lyphonic  a  capella  style,  and  a  composer's  tempta- 
xmssible  only  in  special  cases  and  with  the  consent  of  tion  to  indulge  in  them  is  more  easily  counteractea  by 
the  ordinaiv  to  admit  a  number  of  wind  instruments,  this  style  than  any  other.  Like  the  external  attitude 
limited,  judicious,  and  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  of  the  worshipper  in  church,  the  vocally  interpreted 
place,  provided  the  composition  and  accompaniment  hturgical  wora  and  the  organ-plajring  must  be  respect- 
to  be  executed  be  written  in  a  grave  and  suitable  style  ful  and  decorous.  That  vocal  music  is  in  general  more 
and  similar  in  all  respects  to  that  proper  to  the  organ."  expressive  than  the  mechanically  produced  tone  of 
The  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Church  in  this  regsurd  instruments  is  undeniable.  Religious  feeling  finds  its 
were  formerly  still  greater.  Although  Josephus  tells  most  natural  expression  in  vocal  utterance,  for  the  hu- 
of  the  wonderful  effects  produced  in  the  Temple  by  man  heart  is  the  source  of  both  devotion  and  song, 
the  use  of  instruments,  the  first  Christians  were  of  too  From  these  considerations  it  follows  that  the  tone 
spiritual  a  fibre  to  substitute  lifeless  instruments  for  quality,  tempoj  and  rhythm  of  vocal  music  accom- 
or  to  use  them  to  accompany  the  human  voice.  Clem-  panied  by  the  organ  are  more  in  conformity  with  the 
ent  of  Alexandria  severely  condemns  the  use  of  instru-  reUgious  mood  than  is  the  character  of  orchestral  in- 
xnents  even  at  Christian  banquets  (P.  G.,  VIII,  440).  struments.  The  organ  can  indeed  be  sweeping  and 
St.  Chrysostom  sharply  contrasts  the  customs  of  the  powerful,  but  its  tone  volume  is  always  more  even, 
Christians  at  the  time  when  they  had  full  freedom  and  is  not  so  subject  to  the  arbitrary  will  of  the  player 
with  those  of  the  Jews  of  the  Old  Testament  (ibid.,  as  is  the  orchestra.  Orchestral  instruments  permit  of 
LV^  494-7).  Similarly  write  a  series  of  early  ecclesi-  a  wide  range  in  the  division  and  subdivision,  retard- 
astical  writers  down  to  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  II-II,  Q.  ing,  and  acceleration  of  time — subtleties  whicn  are  not 
xci,  a.  2).  conducive  to  the  calm  necessary  for  prayer.  The  same 
In  Carlovingian  times,  however,  the  organ  came  holds  good  with  regard  to  rhythm.  Just  as  the  great 
into  use,  and  was,  until  the  sixteenth  centuiy,  used  flexibiRty,  the  frivolous  or  passionate  character  of 
solely  for  the  accompaniment  of  the  chant,  its  inde-  irregular  rhythm  in  general  are  expressive  of  a  worldly, 
pendent  use  developing  only  gradually  (Scarlatti,  superficial,  and  restless  mood,  so  is  reposeful  and  sym- 
Couperin,  Bach).  Perfected  organ-playing  found  in-  metrical  rhythm  expressive  of  and  conducive  to  a 
creasing  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the  church  authorities,  prasrerful  mood.  A  slow  and  orderly  movement  is 
and  only  occasionally  was  it  found  necessary  to  cor-  more  in  keeping  with  the  nature  of  the  organ.  It  was 
rect  an  abuse.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII)  not  by  accident  that  the  measured  rhythm  of  Grego- 
says:  "All  musical  forms,  whether  for  the  organ  or  for  rian  chant  was  early  abandoned,  nor  is  'A  desirable  to 
voic^.  which  are  of  a  frivolous  or  sensuous  character,  interpret  in  too  mechanicfd  a  rhythm  even  the  poly- 
flhoula  be  excluded  from  the  Church.''  The  nature  of  phomc  works  of  the  old  masters.  The  more  the 
the  organ  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  protection  against  its  purely  mechanical  element  yields  to  the  expression  of 
misuse;  its  power  and  fullness  lend  themselves  admir-  the  religious  mood,  the  more  suitable  the  peiformance 
ably  to  the  majesty  of  the  Divine  service,  while  other  becomes  for  church.  On  the  other  hand,  a  delicately 
instruments  more  readily  serve  profane  purposes,  defined  measure  is  aesthetically  preferable  to  excessive 
After  the  sixteenth  century,  orchestral  instruments  freedom.  Another  element  of  tne  highest  importance 
found  admittance  into  some  churches  and  court  chap-  in  church  music,  which  is  indeed  generally  suggested 
els,  but  restrictive  regulations  soon  followed.  Whue  by  the  text,  is  the  interrelation  between  the  melodic 
Laaso  in  Munich,  Monteverde  in  Venice,  and  Scarlatti  phrases,  the  rhythmical  proportion  or  S3rmmetry  be- 
in  Naples  had  at  their  disposal  large  orchestras,  tween  tne  various  parts  oi  the  composition:  these  seem 
smaller  churches  with  more  modest  resources  satisfied  to  conform  externally  to  the  breathing  of  the  singers 
thern^elvpfl  with  the  use  of  the  trumpet  or  trombone  in  and  internally  to  the  emotions  of  the  pious  heart, 
addition  to  the  organ.  The  cultivation  of  both.s&-  while  the  measure  is  solely  a  means  to  regulate  time. 
cred  and  profane  music  by  the  same  musicians  proved  Finally  must  be  considered,  as  one  of  the  distinctive 
detrimental  to  church  music,  and  finally  the  Church  attributes  of  church  music,  the  character  of  the  Gre- 
had  to  wage  open  war  on  modern  theatrical  music  gorian  modes.  The  modes,  which  have  most  in  oom- 
in  church  services.  Mozart's  insinuating  sweetness,  '  mon  with  our  modem  minor  key  and  contain  the  inter- 
Haydn's  pious  hilarity,  Beethoven's  violent  passion-  val  of  the  minor  third,  the  symbol  of  moderation  and 
ate&esB,  and  Cherubini's  dramatic  intensity  stand  restraint,  greatly  predominate  in  Gregorian  chant. 


\ 


BinSIO                               652  MUSIO 

Hannonlc  mu^c  has  gradually  narrowed  down  to  the  stanees  consume  as  much  as  ten  minutes.    Of  the 

two  modes  or  keys,  major  and  minor:  the  major  key  other  invariable  parts  of  the  mass,  the  Sanctus  should 

has  freer  motion,  greater  brightness  and  decision,  be  of  reasonable  length,  so  that  the  celebrant  may 

while  the  minor  scale  in  its  lower  portion  has  a  hesitat-  have  to  wait  as  little  as  possible.    If  the  organ  be 

ing  and  mysterious  character,  and  resembles  the  ma-  plaved  during  the  £levation,  it  must  be  done  softly 

]or  onl^  in  its  upper  section.    This  hesitation  and  and  in  a  reverent  manner.    The  Benedictus  must 

mystenousness  happily  express  in  church  music  the  breathe  the  spirit  of  adoration,  while  the  following 

modesty  and  humility  of  the  worshipper.    Even  those  Hosanna  gives  moderate  expression  to  jubilation.    In 

Gregorian  modes  (F  and  G)  which  have  most  resem-  the  Agnus  Dei  the  tenderest  pleading  of  the  heart 

blance  to  our  niajor  scale  lose  that  character  in  their  must  nnd  subdued  expression. 

upper  portion.    The  major  character,  as  we  have  it  in  The  Proper,  or  variable  parts  of  the  Mass,  must 

oiu*  G  major  scale,  occurs  very  seldom  in  Gregorian  never  be  changed  by  the  choir.    The  recitation  of  the 

chant.    The  self-restraint  so  delicately  conveyed  in  Introit  has  never  been  explicitly  allowed:  in  any  event, 

the  church  modes  completely  disappears  in  the  appar-  the  Gloria  Patri  must  be  sung,  on  account  of  the  en- 

ently  boundless  freedom  and  stormy  movement  of  joined  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  celebrant  and 

concert  music.     The  latter  makes  use  of  the  chro-  people.    As  in  the  Gradual  with  the  adjoined  parts, 

matic  element,  modulation  from  one  key  into  another,  the  organ  prelude  and  alternation  between  chanters 

tone  colour,  the  various  forms  of  composition  (sonata,  and  choir  create  an  agreeable  contrast.    In  the  Tract 

etc.),  and  every  other  artistic  means  to  carry  the  and  Sequence,  on  account  of  their  great  length,  the  r&- 

hearer  from  one  mood  to  another  and  finally  to  citing  of  certain  parts  is  desirable.    To  omit  parts  of 

heighten  the  impression  to  the  degree  of  passion.    As  the  text,  even  in  the  lengthy  Lauda  Sion  or  Dies  irae, 

such  purposes  are  foreign  to  church  music,  it  makes  of  is  forbidden.    If  the  Gradual,  Tract,  and  Sequence  be 

these  means,  whenever  it  employs  them,  a  different  set  to  figured  music,  it  must  be  done  in  accordance 

use.    It  will  be  remembered  that  the  contrapuntal  with  the  spirit  of  the  text.    The  Gregorian  melodies  to 

vocal  school,  at  one  period  in  its  history,  also  dc^ener-  these  texts  offer  to  the  composer  the  best  possible 

ated  into  artificality  and  the  cultivation  of  form  for  its  models  for  imitation.    After  tne  proper  offertory  text 

owb  sake,  but  this  abuse  was  not  only  reproved  by  the  has  been  sung  or  recited,  a  motet  to  approved  words 

Ghurch,  but  also  remedied  by  repeated  reforms  since  may  be  sung,  provided  the  celebrant  be  not  too  long 

the  Council  of  Trent.  detained  thereby.    The  same  applies  to  any  antiphon 

Various  Parts  of  the  DrviNS  Service. — ^The  or  motet  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  which 

Church  has  frequently  legislated  concerning  even  the  may  be  sung  with  the  Benedictus  after  the  Elevation, 

smallest  details  of  the  liturgy.    In  connexion  with  the  Silence  on  the  part  of  the  organ  between  the  Pater 

Mass,  the  centre  of  Cathouo  worship,  the  service  of  Noster  and  the  following  Per  omnia  is  desirable.    If 

various  arts  are  utilised — architecture,  with  its  deco-  Holy  Communion  be  given,  a  short  motet  with  ap- 

rative  and  plastic  elaborations,  symbolic  action  at  the  proved  Latin  text  may  be  inserted.    The  chants  of 

altar  with  the  accompany in^^  vestments  and  sacred  the  Requiem  Mass  may  be  accompanied  on  the  oiigan 

vessels,  the  significant  liturgical  prayers,  and  filially  in  an  unobtrusive  manner.     (The  use  of  the  orsan  is 

the  chant  carried  on  the  waves  of  the  organ.    All  also  permitted  during  Advent  and  Lent,  but  omy  for 

these,  including  the  music,  are  regulated  by  ecclesias-  the  accompaniment  of  the  chant.    On  feast  days  and 

tical  precepts.    The  intonations  of  the  celebrant  and  on  Gaudete  and  Lstare  Sundays,  it  may  be  used  as 

his  ministers,  the  Orations,  Epistle,  Gospel,  Preface,  usual.) 

Pater  Noster,  Dominus  vobiscum,  Itc  missa  est,  must  Passing  over  various  other  liturgical  functions,  we 
be  unaccompanied — at  most  the  pitch  may  be  given,  shall  say  a  word  about  Solemn  Vespers  and  Compline. 
The  reponses  of  the  choir  or  the  people  may  be  accom-  Nothing  may  be  abbreviated  or  omitted  in  the  Ves- 
panied  on  the  organ.  The  choir  sings  the  Kyrie,  pers  of  the  day  (or  the  Votive  Vespers,  when  allowed), 
Uloria,  and  Credo.  In  these  as  in  all  liturgical  texts,  and  no  psalm  may  be  sung  otherwise  than  antipho- 
the  omission,  transposition,  alteration,  substitution,  nally.  Faln-horcUmif  alternating  with  a  Gregorian 
or  awkward  combination  of  the  words  (even  in  in-  melody,  are  successfully  used  in  many  places.  Ihe 
serted  pieces,  e.  g.  the  Ave  Maria  at  the  Offertory,  repetitions  of  the  antipnons  and  certain  verses  of  the 
after  the  proper  offertory  has  been  recited)  is  forbid-  hymn  and  Magnificat  may  be  recited.  The  hymn 
den.  On  the  other  hand,  the  occasional  repetition  of  may  also  be  performed  in  figured  settings,  but  musical 
words,  as  an  artistic  necessity,  is  permitted.  It  is  al-  forms,  differmg  widely  from  the  general  character  of 
lowed  in  most  cases  for  sufficient  reason  (e.  ^.  fatigue  the  Gregorian  chant,  are  to  be  avoided  in  all  parts  of 
or  inability  of  the  singers)  to  recite  in  an  audible  voice  the  liturgy.  On  these  points  the  **  Motu  proprio  "  of 
certain  texts  with  subdued  organ  accompaniment,  or  Pius  X  says:  ''The  different  parts  of  the  Mass  and 
to  alternate  recitation  with  singing.  The  Credo,  how-  Office  must  retain,  even  musicsJly ,  that  particular  con- 
ever^  must  be  sung  always  in  iU  entirety,  and  that  in  a  cept  and  form  wnich  ecclesiastical  tradition  has  a»- 
particularly  distinct  manner,  and  the  celebrant  may  signed  to  them,  and  which  is  admirably  expresyaed  in 
not  continue  the  liturgical  action  during  its  perform-  Gregorian  chant.  Different,  therefore,  must  be  the 
ance.  (Furthermore  must  be  sung  the  first  and  last  method  of  composing  an  introit,  a  gradual,  an  anti- 
verse  of  the  hymns  and  ever3rthing  wherein  genuflec-  phon,  a  psalm,  a  h3nnn,  a  Gloria  in  excelsis. 
tion  is  prescribed  or  which  contains  an  intercession,  as  ''  In  particular  the  following  rules  are  to  be  ob- 
is the  case  with  the  Dies  irae.)  The  intonations  of  the  served : 
Briest  should  never  be  repeated  by  the  choir.  The  "  (a)  TheKjrrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  etc.  of  the  Mass  must 
[yrie,  a  cry  for  mercy,  must  never  degenerate  into  a  preserve  the  unity  of  composition  proper  to  their  text, 
brilliant  operatic  performance,  nor  should  the  Credo,  It  is  not  lawful,  therefore,  to  compose  them  in  eepa- 
an  open  profession  of  faith,  become  an  occasion  for  rate  pieces  in  such  a  way  that  each  of  such  pieces  may 
artistic  display;  besides  being  utterly  inappropriate,  form  a  complete  composition  in  itself,  and  be  capable 
this  style  tends  towards  excessive  length.  In  general  of  being  detached  from  the  rest  ana  substituted  by 
the  Credo,  sung  to  one  of  the  Gregorian  melodies,  with  another. 

possibly  a  harmonized  setting  of  the  Et  incamatus  est  ''  (b)  In  the  office  of  Vespers  it  should  be  the  rule  to 

and  finale,  is  decidedly  preferable  to  an  exclusively  fig-  follow  the  'Csremoniale  Episcoporum',  which  pre- 

ured  composition.    In  the  Gloria  the  music  may  show  scribes  the  Gregorian  chant  for  the  psalmody,  and 

brilliancy,  but  it  must  be  noted  that  not  only  joy,  but  permits  figured  music  for  the  versicles  of  the  Gloria 

also  deep  devotion  and  humble  petition  (Qui  tollis  Patri  and  the  h3ann. 

.  .  .)  are  contained  in  the  text.    A  very  great  abuse  "It  will,  nevertheless,  be  lawful  on  the  greater  sol- 

oonasts  in  the  endless  repetitions,  which  in  some  in-  emnitios  to  alternate  the  Gregorian  chant  of  the 


MUSIC  653  MUSIC 

choir  with  the  so-called  JcHsirbordoni  or  with  verses  we  possess  the  melody,  the  notation  of  which,  how* 

similarly  composed  in  a  proper  manner.  ever,  is  difRcult  to  determine  exactly.    The  frequent 

"  It  may  also  be  allowed  sometimes  to  render  the  pilgrimages  and  the  religious  plays  subse(iuently  foe- 

single  psalms  in  their  entirety  in  music,  provided  the  tered  singing  among  the  people,  while  the  invention  of 

form  proper  to  psalmody  be  preserved  in  such  compo-  printing  afforded  a  means  for  the  universal  propaga- 

sition,  that  is  to  say,  provided  the  singers  seem  to  be  tion  of  popular  h3rmn8.    Even  Luther  and  Melanch- 

pealmodising  among  themselves,  either  with  new  mo-  thon  testify  to  thegeneral  use  of  German  hynms  be- 

tifs  or  with  those  taken  from  the  Gregorian  chant  fore  their  time,    llie  Protestant  custom  of  singing 

based  upon  it.  hymns  in  the  vernacular,  instead  of  the  liturgical 

''  The  psalms  known,  as  di  concerto^  are  therefore  for  chant,  reacted  upon  Catholics,  and  found  its  way  even 

ever  excluded  and  pronibited.  into  the  missa  cantata. 

''(c)  In  the  hymns  of  the  Church  the  traditional  form        The  development  of  congregational  singing  is  of 

of  the  h3rmn  is  preserved.    Thus,  it  is  not  lawful  to  early  origin.    St.  Augustine  tells  us  (Conf .  vii,  9)  that 

compose,  for  instance,  a  ' Tantum  ergo'  in  such  wise  St.  Ambrose  introduced  it  in  his  own  diocese  from  the 

that  the  firet  strophe  presents  a  romanza,  a  cavatina,  Orient,  and  that  it  soon  spread  throughout  the  West- 

an  adagio,  and  the '  Genitori '  an  allegro.  em  Church.    Ambrose  modified  the  still  classic  Latin 

"  (d)  Tne  antiphons  of  the  Vespers  must  be,  as  a  metre  to  meet  the  popular  requirements,  while  Augus- 

rule,  rendered  with  the  Gregorian  melody  proper  to  tine  abandoned  it  altogether,  to  get,  as  he  said,  nearer 

each.    Should  they^  however,  in  some  special  case,  be  to  the  people.    So  far  we  have  been  concerned  only 

sung  in  figured  music  they  must  never  have  either  the  with  the  antiphonal  singing  of  Latin  psalms  and 

form  of  a  concert  melody  or  the  fulness  of  a  motet  or  a  hynms,  although  the  people  sang  in  addition  the  short 

cantata."  responses  to  the  liturgical  intonations  of  the  celebrant 

All  this  shows  not  only  the  great  solicitude  of  the  in  solemn  services.  From  this  latter  practice  it  is 
Church  to  foster  worthy  ecclesiastical  music,  but  also  likely  that  the  congregational  song  developed,  at  first 
the  reasonableness  of  her  regulations  on  the  matter,  by  applying  to  the  long  neumsofthe''K3ne"  and  the 
Greater  latitude  is  given  at  benediction  services.  It  jubilations  of  the ''Alleluia"  first  Latin  texts,  then  texts 
is  lawful  to  sing  hymns  in  the  vernacular  before  the  in  the  vernacular,  and  finally  by  original  compositions 
Blessed  Sacrament  exposed,  but,  immediately  before  in  imitation  of  the  h3ann8  and  litanies.  The  later  hymns 
the  Benediction,  the  ''Tantum  ergo "  and  "Genitori "  in  the  vernacular  may  be  defined  (cf.  B&umker)  as 
must  be  sun^  in  Latin,  either  to  a  Gr^rian  melody  strophically  arranged  sacred  songs  in  the  vulgar 
or  to  a  devotional  figured  setting,  as  a  liturgical  close,  tongue,  which,  because  of  their  ecclesiastical  charac- 
During  and  after  the  removal  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  ter,  are  suitable  to  be  sung  by  the  whole  congregation, 
it  is  permitted  to  sing  in  the  vernacular.  An  antiphon  and  have  been  either  expressly  approved  for  this  pui^ 
or  hymn  in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  may  also  be  pose  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  or  at  least  tacitly  ad- 
sung,  but  only  after  the  reposition.  If  litanies  (sane-  mitted.  The  sacred  "song  meditates  on  truths  of 
tioned  by  the  Church  or  the  ordinary)  be  sung,  there  religion,  gives  expression  to  a  lyric  religious  mood,  or 
must  be  no  omissions,  although  the  invocations  may  rehearses,  in  the  form  of  a  litany,  praises  or  petitions 
be  taken  in  groups  of  three,  followed  by  one  Ora  -pro  (e.  g.,  pilgrimage  of  songs).  Accorciing  to  Kommiiller, 
nobis.  As  in  the  case  of  the  " Tantum  ergo",  all  pre-  the  requisites  for  a  good  sacred  song  are  a  genuinely 
scribed  liturgical  chants,  like  the  "  Te  Deum  ",  must  be  ecclesiastical  character  and  doctrine,  l3Tic  musical  ex- 
sun^  in  Latin:  any  text  chosen  on  the  choir's  own  ini-  pression,  and  popular,  but  at  the  same  time  poetic, 
tiative,  however,  may  be  sung  in  the  vernacular.  language.    Before  the  advent  of  Luther  about  one 

Singing  BT  THE  People. — Singing  by  the  people,  so  hundred  church  hymns  were  in  general  use  in  Ger- 
widely  customary  at  different  devotions  (Benediction  many.  These  early  hvmns  are  simple,  greatly  re- 
ef the  Blessed  Sacrament,  low  Mass,  etc.),  requires  semble  the  Gregorian  chant  in  melody,  and  are  grave 
special  mention.  The  participation  of  the  people  in  and  noble  in  expression.  The  later  development 
the  singing  of  the  Gregorian  chant  has  been  discussed  (seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries)  was  on  the 
under  Congregational  Singing.  Singing  in  the  whole  unpropitious,  but  in  recent  years  the  reform 
vernacular  may  not  be  substituted  for  the  latter,  initiated  by  Meister,  B&umker,  and  Dreves,  has  been 
This  abuse  crept  in  after  the  Reformation,  and  flour-  attended  with  gratiifying  success. 
ished  in  the  eighteenth  century,  particularly  in  Ger-  Women  in  Chuhch  Choirs. — In  connexion  with 
many  and  adjacent  countries.  The  wish  of  the  Church  singing  in  the  vernacular  it  is  necessary  to  advert 
is  that  this  abu^e  should  be  everjrwhere  extirpated,  briefly  to  the  question  of  women's  participation  in 
while  violence  to  local  customs  be  avoided.  But  Pius  choirs.  As  the  injunction  of  the  Apostle  that  woman 
X  has  expressed  himself  warmly  in  favour  of  singing  keep  silence  in  church  was  never  made  applicable  in 
by  the  people  within  proper  limits  (e.  g.,  in  his  endorse-  the  matter  of  her  participation  in  the  sin^n^  of  the 
ment  of  the  endeavours  of  the  Society  italiana  per  la  congregation,  and  as  in  religious  commumties  of 
musica  populare),  and  is  far  from  being  opposed  to  women  the  liturgical  chant  has  to  be  performed  b^ 
such  in  extra-hturgical  services.  Naturally,  it  would  women,  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that  in  our  ordi- 
be  undesirable  to  accustom  the  people  to  sing  rather  nary  lay  choirs,  representing  the  congr^ation,  the 
than  pray,  but  well-ordered  singing  by  the  congrega-  participation  of  women  is  not  forbidden.  The  follow- 
tion  is  always  edifying  and  devotional.  In  his  psalm  ing  words  from  the  "Motu  proprio"  have,  however, 
against  the  Donatists,  which  he  intentionally  couched  caused  a  great  deal  of  uncertainty:  "With  the  excep- 
in  popular  form,  St.  Augustine  had  -an  absolutely  tion  of  the  melodies  proper  to  the  celebrant  at  the  altar 
practical  object.  Greek  and  Latin  hymnody  is  to  a  and  to  his  ministers,  which  must  always  be  sung  only 
certain  extent  even  more  specially  intended  to  be  sung  in  Gregorian  chant  and  without  the  accompaniment 
by  the  people  than  the  Gregorian  chant.  Hymns  in  of  the  organ,  all  the  rest  of  the  Uturgical  chant  belongs 
the  vernacular  wero  widely  employed  (e.  g.,  by  the  to  the  choir  of  levites;  therefore,  singers  in  church, 
early  apostles  of  Germany)  to  wean  the  people  from  even  when  they  are  lavmen,  are  really  taking  the  place 
the  pagan  songs  to  which  they  were  accustomed,  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  choir."  "On  the  same  principle 
to  initiate  them  in  an  agreeable  manner  into  the  my&-  it  follows  that  singers  in  church  have  a  real  uturgical 
teries  of  the  Faith.  The  oldest  of  these  hymns  are  office^  and  that,  therefore,  women,  as  being  incapable  of 
iost  to  us.  but  we  possess  a  Latin  translation  of  a  ninth-  exereising  such  office,  cannot  be  admitteof  to  form  part 
century  nymn  written  in  honour  of  St.  Gall  by  the  of  the  choir  or  of  the  musical  chapel.  Whenever, 
monk  Ratpert  and  sung  in  church  by  the  people.  Of  then,  it  is  desired  to  employ  the  acute  voices  of  so- 
ihe  "  Wessobrunner  Gebet"  the  German  text  has  been  pranos  and  contraltos,  these  parts  must  be  taken  by 
preserved;  of  the  "Petruslied"  (also  ninth-century)  boys,  according  to  the  most  ancient  usage  of  the 


Binsio                           654  BinSIG 

Church."    But  the  Holy  Father  speaks  here  (as  in  the  Italy)  North  America,  and  elsewhere.   Dr.  F.X.Witt, 

beginning)  of  the  choir  of  levites,  among  whom  lay-  bunung  with  seal  for  the  cause  of  reform,  founded  this 

men  may  be  included,  and  declares  soon  after  these  sodetv  in  1868,  and,  shortly  after  ita  papal  approba- 

quoted  words  that  it  is  becoming  for  them  to  wear  the  tion,  became  ito  first  president.    The  object  of  the 

ecclesiastical  habit  and  surplice.    But  our  ordinary  society  is  to  cultivate  the  chant,  polyphony,  h^onns  in 

lay  choir  represents  not  only  the  congregation,  but  the  vernacular,  orsan-playing,  and  orchestral  music  in 

also  the  official  choir,  without  wishing  to  play  the  r51e  conformity  with  the  regulations  of  the  Church.    The 

of  'Mevites";  for  this  reason  it  is  not  stationed  in  the  reform  endeavours  were  bv  no  means  confined  to  Ger- 

sanctuary,  and  no  one  would  think  of  proposing  that  many,  but  extended  to  Holland,  Italy,  the  United 

its  members,  like  acolytes,  should  wear  the  ecclesiastical  States,  etc.   The  introduction  of  the  Vatican  edition  of 

habit.    The  lay  choir  is  simply  a  substitute  for  the  the  chant  has  been,  since  the  decree  of  Pius  X,  the 

absent  choniB  oemtorum,  in  tne  liturmcal  sense,  as  is  znain  object  of  the  society's  activity.    In  the  restora- 

the  nun  for  the  absent  acolyte  when  we  supplies  from  tion  and  worthy  performance  of  the  traditional  chant, 

a  distance  the  responses  to  the  celebrant  ouring  the  the  Benedictines  have,  even  before  the  publication 

celebration  of  Mass.  of  Dom  Pothier's  work  (Les  m61odies  gi^goriennes, 

Consequently,  the  presence  of  women  in  choirs  is  ex-  1880) ,  displayed  the  greatest  seal.    Thus,  the  fathers 

cusable  under  certain  circumstances,  although  choirs  of  Solesmes  in   France,   Beuron   in   Germany,   St. 

composed  of  men  and  boys  are  for  many  reasons  Anselm  in  Rome^  Maredsous  in  Belgium,  Prague  and 

preferable.    It  is  true  that  an  inquiry  about  this  point  Seckau  in  Austna,  co-operate  with  the  Cecuians  of 

received  an  apparently  negative  answer  on  *18  Dec.,  every  part  of  the  world  m  carrying  out  the  wishes  of 

1908,  but  this  was  in  regard  to  the  conditions  de-  the  Holy  Father  and  the  bishops  in  regard  to  the 

scribed  in  the  inquiry  {prout  exponitur)^  and  it  is  added  reform  of  church  music.    Every  one  is  under  obliga- 

that  the  Decree  is  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  that  tion  to  do  what  he  can  in  his  own  particular  field, 

the  women  must  be  kept  entirely  separate  from  the  It  is  well  to  state  briefly  in  didactic  form  what  the 

men,  and  every  precaution  taken  to  render  impossible  Church  really  means  by  progressive  refonn.    A  fibrst 

all  conduct  unbecoming  to  the  sacred  ed^oe.    From  requisite  is  the  recognition  that  the  chant,  as  the  true 

these  clauses  it  appears  that,  in  principle^  choirs  com-  music  of  the  Church,  must  be  studied  and  performed 

posed  of  men  and  women  are  not  inadmissible;  how-  with  the  greatest  care.    Whenever  difiSculties  staiyi  in 

ever,  the  desirability  of  banishing  every  possible  occa-  the  way  of  the  introduction  of  the  Vatican  edition,  the 

sion  of  indecorousness  from  the  church  renders  it  pref-  bishops  will  take  such  measures  as  are  in  conformity 

erable  to  employ  boys,  rather  than  women,  in  choirs,  with  the  will  of  the  pope.    Schools  for  church  music 

The  employment  of  women  as  soloists  is  all  the  more  are  to  be  founded  and  fostered.    The  ''Motu  proprio" 

questionable,  since  solos  in  church  are  admissible  only  (viii,  27,  28)  says:  ''Let  care  be  taken  to  restore,  at 

within  certain  limits  (Motu  proprio).    A  choir  com-  least  in  the  pnncipal  churches,  the  ancient  sckola 

5osed  of  womon  only  is  not  torbidden  (Decree  of  17  canlorumf  as  nas  been  done  with  excellent  fruit  in 
an.,  1908).  To  employ  non-Catholics  in  church  as  many  places.  It  is  not  difficult  for  a  zealous  clergy 
singers  and  organists  is  only  tolerated  in  case  of  urgent  to  institute  such  schoks^  even  in  the  minor  and  country 
necessity,  because  they  neither  believe  nor  feel  the  churchea— nay,  in  them  they  will  find  a  venr  easy 
words  which  they  sing.  means  for  gathering  aroimd  them  both  the  children 
RsFORM  IN  Practicb. — ^Thc  decadence  of  the  Ore-  and  the  adults  to  their  own  profit  and  the  edification 
gorian  chant  is  to  be  ascribed  primarily  to  the  develop-  of  the  people.  Let  efforts  be  made  to  support  and 
ment  of  and  preference  given  to  polyphony.  To  tms  promote  in  the  best  way  possible  the  higher  schools  of 
cause  is  due  the  disappearance  from  the  chant  of  its  sacred  music  where  these  already  exist,  and  to  help  in 
original  rhythm  and  the  serious  n^lect  of  its  simpler  founding  them  where  they  do  not.  It  is  of  the  utmost 
form.  Even  before  the  Council  of  Trent,  ecclesiastical  importance  for  the  Church  herself  to  provide  for  the 
authority  had  repeatedly  raised  its  voice  against  the  .  instruction  of  its  masters,  organists,  and  sincers  ao- 
abuses  which  had  crept  into  polyphonic  music.  The  cording  to  the  true  principles  of  sacred  art.  In  a 
Gregorian  melodies,  however,  even  in  the  hands  of  the  similar  sense  it  is  the  will  of  the  Holy  Father  that  in 
contrapuntists,  retained  their  character  in  a  wonderful  the  study  of  liturgy  attention  should  be  directed  to 
manner.  Nevertheless,  the  contrast  between  the  two  the  principles  governing  liturgical  music,  and  that  ses- 
kinds  of  music  led.  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  thetic  appreciation  should  be  fostered.  Singers  must 
century,  to  an  abbreviation  of  the  long  melismatic  ever  be  numbly  submissive  to  their  pastor,  and  cspe> 
passages,  to  a  different  application  of  the  text,  and  to  cially  to  the  episcopal  commission,  and  may  never 
many  less  important  modifications  (Graduale  Medi-  entertain  the  notion  that  the  chant  can  be  sung  with- 
cseum).  Many  other  editions,  edited  according  to  the  out  due  preparation,  as  though  it  were  a  question  of 
same  principle,  followed  until  the  revised  "M^csa"  merely  singing  the  notes.  Courses  in  tiie  chant  are 
(printed  in  Ratisbon)  became  in  1878  the  official  chant  given  in  various  centres,  and  excellent  books  of  in- 
book  of  the  Church  (cf.  Decreta  auth.,  n.  3830).  struction  exist  in  great  numbers  (e.  g.,  Singenbeiiger^s 
Meanwhile,  the  litursical  researches  of  the  Benedic-  ''Guide  to  Church  Music'').  To  mention  only  one 
tines  of  Solesmes  had  led  (since  1903-4)  to  the  general  point,  it  is  important  to  master,  in  accordance  with 
restoration,  in  the  Vatican  edition,  of  the  chant  from  the  instructions  of  the  Benedictines,  the  proper  rhy  th- 
the  manuscripts  of  the  twelfth  century.  Endeavours  mical  divisions  of  periods  and  phrases  aa  well  as  the 
to  restore  the  earlier  neumed  texts  ftenth-century),  legcUo  delivery  of  tne  long  jubilations, 
mainly  oii  account  of  the  primitive  rhythm,  have  so  In  general,  it  is  now-erdays  impossible  to  do  entirely 
far  met  with  little  success.  without  polyphonic  music.  It  constitutes  a  welcome 
The  ''Motu  proprio"  of  Pius  X  had  for  its  main  means  of  giving  splendour  to  feast-days,  but  is  a  source 
purpose  the  reform  of  church  music  in  general,  and  of  danger  if  over-indulged  in.  The  works  of  some  of 
covers  about  the  same  ground  as  the  ''Re^olamento  the  best  masters  of  polyphony  have  been  made  acoe»- 
per  la  musica  sacra'',  which  the  Congregation  of  Sa-  sible  for  study  and  execution  by  excellent  editions  (e.g., 
cred  Rites  issued  under  Leo  XIII,  but  which  applied  the  works  of  Palestrina  in  Haberl's  edition).  There 
more  particularly  to  Italy  (Deer,  auth.,  loc.  cit.).  On  is  certainly  no  dearth  of  compositions  in  the  modem 
the  basis  of  these  regulations,  with  which  the  earlier  homophonic  style;  we  have  but  to  consult  the  cata- 
precepts  and  the  mcndem  decrees  are  in  entire  agree-  logue  of  the  Cecilian  Society  or  the  above-named 
ment,  composers,  singers,  critics,  and  theorists  are  to  ''Guide".  It  is  better  to  produce  repeatedly  a  few 
carry  on  their  work  of  reform.  They  constitute  the  compositions  within  the  capacity  of  the  dioir  than  to 
principle  which  the  C&cilienverein  (Oecilian  Society)  introduce  new  works  frequently,  without  completely 
has  long  endeavoured  to  put  into  practice  in  Germany,  mastering  them.    Critics  who  write  on  churdi  muac^ 


MUSXG 


655 


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sompoaoBf  and  cliouMiirectorB.  should^  familiarize 
themselves  with  the  spirit  and  regulations  of  the 
Church  in  regard  to  music  by  means  of  the  numerous 
theoretical  manuaJs.  It  is  the  spirit  which  vivifies; 
the  form  serves  merely  to  give  it  expression.  Without 
studying  the  liturgy  (at  least,  that  part  of  it  directly 
connected  with  the  music)  and  the  texts  in  the  original 
or  an  easily  procured  translation,  it  is  impossible  to 
penetrate  into  this  spirit.  The  Church  may  claim  oiur 
ready  allegiance  and  respect  for  the  laws  and  regular 
tions  whicn  she,  for  grave  reasons  and  to  deal  with 
existing  conditions,  has  enacted. 

In  theoretical  and  artistic  questions,  however, 
everyone  enjoys  freedom.  Thus  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  has  declared  in  regard  to  the  official  ch^t  (and 
this  declaration  is  of  course  still  in  force):  ''While 
students  of  the  chant  always  have  enjoved  full  free- 
dom.  a  privilege  which  they  will  not  be  deprived  of  in 
the  t  uture,  to  ascertain  by  scientific  researcn  what  was 
the  primitive  form  of  the  chant,  and  what  modificap- 
tions  it  has  undergone  in  subsequent  periods  (a  very 
laudable  inquiry  analogous  to  that  being  prosecuted 
by  learned  scholars  into  the  primitive  rites  and  other 
departments  of  the  liturgy),  only  that  form  of  the 
chant  which  His  Holiness  has  proposed  to  us,  and 
which  haa  been  approved  by  the  Congregation  of 
Sacred  Rites,  may  to-day  be  considered  as  authorita- 
tive and  legitimate''  (Deer,  auth.,  n.  3830).  As  for 
composers,  they  should  never  try  to  foist  upon  the 
faithful  productions  which  do  not  conform  to  the  in- 
tentions of  the  Church,  even  if  the  music  in  itself  be 
beautiful,  nor  should  they  aim  at  a  mere  display  of 
their  own  powers  thereby  to  gain  fame  and  merely 
delight  their  hearers.  They  should,  on  the  contrary, 
endeavour  to  imitate  in  their  compositions  the  sim- 
pUcity  and  objectivity  of  the  chant,  and  learn  from  it 
to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  capacity  of  ordi- 
nary choirs.  With  these  considerations  before  him, 
the  choir-director  has  to  choose  his  mumc,  penetrate 
into  its  spirit  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  impart  the 
same  to  his  singers,  who  must  dng  not  only  correctly 
but  also  with  dfevotion.  Order  and  discipline  among 
the  performers  are  important  factors  in  obtaining  the 
desired  results.  According  to  the  "Motu  proprio", 
"only  those  are  to  be  admitted  to  form  part  of  the 
musical  chapel  of  a  church  who  are  men  of  known 
purity  and  probity  of  life,  and  these  should  by  their 
modest  and  devout  bearing  during  the  liturgicsd  func- 
tions show  that  they  are  worthy  of  the  holy  office  they 
exercise. "  Inasmuch  as  the  impression  produced  by 
a  performance  depends  greatly  on  the  interpretation, 
it  is  incumbent  upon  the  chou^master  to  insist  upon 
distinct  pronunciation  of  the  words,  a  noble  tone  qual- 
ity, and  a  simple  expression  of  the  mood.  Chiurch 
music  should  be  free  from  exaggerated  and  extrava- 
gant expression  of  joy  or  sorrow,  sentimental  yearning, 
and  theatrical  effects  of  every  kind;  it  should  be  the 
utterance  of  fervent  prayer  springing  from  faith  and 
charity.  The  good  intention  of  the  singers  will  not 
only  find  its  eternal  reward,  it  will  also  evoke  grati- 
tu<le  and  respect. 

The  twofold  aspect  of  the  principle  laid  down  by  the 
Sacred  Congregation  for  our  guidance  in  the  matter  of 
singing  in  the  vernacular  is  expressed  as  follows:  "The 
Congrogation  urgently  admonishes  that  h3rmns  in  the 
vernacular  no  matter  of  what  character,  should  gradu- 
ally and  unostentatiously  be  eliminated  from  liturgical 
functions.  On  the  other  hand,  pious  hymns  to  ap- 
proved texts,  which  are  extensively  employed,  particu- 
larly in  Germany,  during  different  devotions  and  be- 
fore the  Blessed  Sacrament  exposed,  are  by  no  means 
prohibited"  (3  April,  1883;  Krutscheck,  3rd  ed.,  pp. 
151,  177).  Songs  in  the  vernacular,  alternating  with 
prayer,  aro  suitable  during  low  Mass  (within  narrow 
limits,  however),  benediction,  but  especially  during 
processions  outside  "of  the  church.  An  excellent 
wnoArkw  for  fostcriug  this  desirable  practice  is  the  care- 


ful training  of  the  school  children,  whose  singing  need 
not,  however,  be  confined  to  hymns  in  unison,  and  who 
also  may  be  allowed  to  perform  occasionally  more  elab- 
orate compositions  in  two  or  more  parts.  The  sing- 
ing, however,  should  not  be  permitted  to  g^  preced- 
ence over  prayer.  The  h3rmn-book  should  at  the  same 
time  be  a  prayer-book,  and  praying  aloud  should  alter- 
nate with  the  singing.  It  is  important  that  the  sense 
and  sjMrit  of  the  hymns  be  carefully  explained  to  the 
children.  The  performance  should  be  free  from  drag- 
ging and  slurring,  faults  which  should  be  strongly  dis- 
couraged by  the  organist.  Arbitrary,  iminaicated 
pauses  should  be  avoided.  The  children,  especially, 
should  be  taught  to  respond  to  the  celebrant  at  the 
idtar;  this  is  the  only  way  to  educate  the  congregation 
gradually  to  do  the  same  thing.  No  one  exercises  a 
greater  influence  in  the  reform  of  church  music  than 
the  organist,  provided  he  be  animated  by  the  spirit  of 
the  Church.  His  plajring  ^ould  be,  like  the  chant  of 
the  Church,  simple  and  grave,  devotional  and  objec- 
tive. Song  preludes  and  intermezzi  during  liturgical 
functions  aro  forbidden.  The  organ  must  be  subor- 
dinate to  the  singing,  must  support  and  not  drown  it. 
The  purely  vocal  style  is  the  ideal  of  the  Church.  The 
papaJ  choir,  the  Sistine,  has  always  excluded  instru- 
mental music.  The  more  humble  and  subordinate 
the  r61e  of  the  oraanist,  the  more  faithful  and  conscien- 
tious he  should  be  in  filling  it.  He  should  never  oc- 
cupy the  front  of  the  stage,  scandalize  the  faithful  by 
trashy  improvisations,  or  keep  the  celebrant  waiting. 
In  extn^hturgical  functions,  however,  he  may  move 
somewhat  freely.  It  is  decidedly  preferable  to  play 
the  works  of  good  masters  than  to  improvize.  In  pre- 
paring for  a  great  litureical  function,  he  should  aim  at 
giving  suitable  and  full  expression  to  the  spirit  of  the 
ay,  the  feast,  and  cireumstance.  Unceasing  practice 
is  mdispensable,  especially  to  the  musician  of  medio- 
cre talent,  even  though  he  always  keep  the  text  before 
him.  He  must  be  able  to  perform  this  with  absolute 
sureness,  mastery,  and  freedom.  He  must  know  how 
to  modulate  from  one  key  into  another,  how  to  pro- 
ceed from  one  number  to  another,  what  key  to  choose 
for  the  hymns  sung  by  the  congregation,  how  to  trans- 

Eose  the  chant  from  one  kev  into  another,  how  to  com- 
ine  the  organ  stops,  and  (to  a  certain  extent  at  least) 
how  to  improvize  and  to  harmonize  at  sight.  Under 
no  cireumstances  must  he  permit  himself  to  carry  remi- 
niscences of  the  concert  and  opera  into  the  church. 

As  to  the  use  of  instrumentB,  other  than  the  organ, 
we  should  remember  that  the  special  permission  of  the 
ordinary  is  necessary,  and  that  their  nature  must  al- 
wa3rs  be  in  keeping  with  the  occasion  and  the  place. 
The  emplo3anent  of  a  full  orehestra  forms  an  excep- 
tion (cf.  Motu  proprio,  cited  above).  The  wisdom  of 
these  restrictions  nas  been  cheerfully  recognized  by 
such  unprejudiced  authorities  as  Wagner  and  Beet- 
hoven— a  fact  which  cannot  be  too  often  stated.  The 
former  maintained  that  "genuine  chureh  music  should 
be  produced  only  by  voices,  except  a  'Gloria'  or  similar 
text."  As  early  in  his  career  as  1848  this  master  as- 
cribed the  decadence  of  church  music  to  the  use  of  in- 
struments. "The  first  step  toward  the  decadence  of 
genuine  Catholic  church  music  was  the  introduction 
of  orchestra  instruments.  Their  character  and  inde- 
pendent use  have  imparted  to  reUgious  expression  a 
sensuous  charm,  whicn  has  proved  veiy  detrimental, 
and  has  affected  unfavourably  the  art  of  singini^  itself. 
The  virtuosity  of  instrumentalists  provoked  imitation 
on  the  part  of  singers,  and  soon  a  worldly  and  operatic 
taste  held  full  sway  in  church.  Certain  parts  of  the 
sacred  text,  e.  g.  the  *  Kyrie  Eleison',  became  a  vehicle 
for  operatic  arias,  and  singers  trmned  for  Italian  opera 
were  engaged  as  chureh  singers"  (Gesammelte  Werke, 
II,  335).  Every  reform  has,  in  accordance  with  the 
will  of  the  Church,  to  be  carried  out  in  such  a  manner 
that  a  greater  evil  may  not  result — that  is,  gradually 
and  without  causing  unnecessary  friction  (setisim  sine 


J 


MUSIC 


656 


BCU8XC 


8en8u)f  but  yet  with  firmness,  regardless  of  one's  per- 
sonal views.  Moral  necessity  alone  dispenses  from  a 
command  of  the  Church.    It  must  be  considered  as 

Crogress  when  features  either  forbidden  or  discoiu'aged 
y  the  Church  (e.  g.,  hymns  in  the  vernacular  during 
liturgical  functions,  the  use  of  orchestral  instruments, 
women  in  choirs)  are  no  longer  fostered,  and  when  one 
abuse  after  another  is  gradually  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum. Those  in  charge  should  not  cater  to  the  false 
ideas  of  the  people,  but  should  make  every  effort  by 
the  performance  of  better  compositions  to  ennoble 
popular  taste.  Offence  is  perhaps  most  easil^r  given, 
when  old  and  favourite  hynms,  though  of  an  inferior 
quality,  are  withdrawn:  modem  hymn-books,  how- 
ever, contain  such  an  abundance  of  excellent  melodies 
that  many  an  undesirable  hymn  is  discarded  without 
difficulty.  The  fundamental  conditions  for  success 
are  a  good  choir  of  men  and  boys,  a  capable  organist, 
and  a  judicious  choice  of  masses  and  other  composi- 
tions by  the  choir-director. 

The  Vatican  chant,  however,  presents  difficulties  of 
a  special  nature.  It  is  true  that  mere  recitation  on  a 
straight  tone  may  in  some  cases  be  resorted  to.  It 
has  also  been  customary  from  time  inunemorial  to  as- 
sign to  a  few  chosen  singers  the  more  difficult  passages. 
In  regard  to  the  rhythm,  accent,  and  other  points  we 
now  know  the  precise  intentions  of  the  Holy  See.  The 
''Acta  Apostohcse  Sedis"  (1910,  pp.  145  sq.)  contains 
a  letter  from  the  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
to  the  president  of  the  German  Cacilienverein,  which 
by  this  publication  becomes  binding  on  all.  In  this 
letter  the  direction  is  given  that  the  rhythmical  inter- 
pretation of  the  Vatican  edition  is  to  be  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  preface  to  the  Graduale. 
The  wish  is  also  expressed  that  no  contrary  methods 
should  be  advocated  in  the  press,  as  they  would  only 
cause  confusion  and  retard  the  progress  of  music  reform. 
Theoretic  discussions  seem  not  to  have  been  prohib- 
ited, except  in  so  far  as  they  might  interfere  with  the 
introduction  of  the  Vatican  edition  (cf.  the  decree 
of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  quoted  above,  which 
was  issued  under  similar  conditions — Deer,  auth.,  n. 
3830) .  A  considerable  latitude  is  allowed  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  document.  The  attempts,  disap- 
proved of  by  the  Holy  Father,  are  characterized  in  a 
rather  mild  manner^  critics  are  asked  to  abstain  from 
attempting  that  which,  in  the  present  state  of  archse- 
ological  studies,  can  nave  no  other  result  than  to 
spread  confusion  and  divert  attention  from  the  real 
work  of  restoring  the  Gregorian  chant  to  its  rightful 
place.  In  spite  of  the  many  differences  of  opinion, 
we  should  make  every  effort  to  introduce  the  Vatican 
edition  in  conformity  with  the  will  of  the  pope.  By 
studying  the  symmetrical  construction  of  the  melo- 
dies in  the  light  of  the  explanations  of  the  Benedic- 
tines, which  are  undoubtedly  of  high  aesthetic  value, 
the  execution  becomes  not  only  much  easier  but  the 
profound  beauty  of  the  chant  is  revealed  to  us. 

Religious  Music. — Finally  that  class  of  religious 
music  which  may  not  be  placed  in  the  same  category 
with  real  church  music,  must  be  mentioned.  The 
masses  by  Mozart,  Ilaydn,  and  Beethoven  have  al- 
ready been  spoken  of.  The  musical  interpretation 
of  the  text  and  their  operatic  form  render  them  little 
suited  to  the  church.  We  must  also  name  the  older 
Protestant  masters,  John  Sebastian  Bach  and  G.  F. 
Handel,  whose  works  for  Protestant  services  im- 
doubtedly  deserve  to  be  studied  by  the  church  musi- 
cian. The  great-er  latitude  accorded  to  organ  playing 
in  the  Protestant  cult  has  given  occasion  to  the  high- 
est productions  of  contrapuntal  and  harmonic  art. 
We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fa(!t,  however,  that  the 
predominance  in  their  works  of  the  instrumental  ele- 
ment, with  its  obtrusive  arias,  duets,  and  choruses,  is 
in  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  the  Catholic  liturgy, 
which  finds  a  more  suitable  medium  of  expression  in 
the  purely  vocal  style.     John  Sebastian  Bach  (b.  at 


Eisenach,  1085;  d.  at  Leipzig,  1750)  has  also  set  Catho- 
lic hturgical  texts  to  music.  His  mass  in  B  minor  ie 
considered  one  of  his  greatest  works,  among  which  his 
oratorio,  the  "Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew '\ 
must  be  also  included.  Among  his  other  composi- 
tions for  Sundays  and  festivals,  preludes  and  fugues 
hold  a  prominent  place.  He  was  idso  distingui^ed  in 
the  field  of  chamber  music.  George  Frederick  Han- 
del (b.  at  Halle,  1685;  d.  at  London,  1759)  devoted  his 
powers  first  to  the  opera  and  later  to  the  oratorio.  He 
also  wrote  "Te  Deums'',  psalms,  fugues,  and  concerti 
for  the  organ,  which,  like  Bach's  sacred  works,  suggest 
the  lofty  purpose  of  the  older  masters,  but  do  not  fulfil 
the  requirements  of  the  Church.  The  musical  fame  of 
these  masters  is  thereby  in  nowise  diminished.  The 
church  hymn  or  chorale,  which,  with  the  cantata  and 
oratorio,  is  essential  to  the  Protestant  cult,  is  a  develop- 
ment in  popular  form  of  the  singing  of  the  Gregorian 
chant  by  tne  congregation. 

The  oratorio,  which  Handel  brought  to  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  (Messiah,  Judas  Maccabeus, 
Israel  in  Egypt,  etc.),  stands  midway  between  secular 
and  hturgical  music.  Originally  intended  as  an  ethi- 
cal-reUgious  reaction  against  the  Florentine  opera,  it 
treats  Biblical  and  legendary  themes  in  a  lyric-dra- 
matic form,  but  without  dramatic  action.  It  consists 
of  recitations,  arias  (duets,  trios,  quartets), and  choruses 
with  a  brilliant  orchestral  accompaniment.  On  ac- 
count of  its  semi-operatic  form  the  oratorio  is  not 
available  for  church  purposes,  although  it  was  custom- 
ary in  former  times  to  perform  settings  of  the  Passion 
in  church  on  Good  Fnday.  The  cantata  (perfected 
by  Bach)  is  more  lyric  and  less  epic  in  style  with  a 
somewhat  more  modest  instrumentation.  The  can- 
tata and  oratorio  are  both  developments  from  the 
antiphonal  sacred  chants  and  the  myst«rv  pla>'s 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Side  by  side  with  polyphony 
existed  the  folk-song  in  'the  vernacular  and  also 
more  pretentious  compositions,  such  as  the  lays  of 
the  troubadours,  minnesingers,  and  msstersingers, 
and  the  madrigal.  The  folk-song  of  olden  times, 
springing  directly  from  and  resembling  the  music  of 
the  Church,  was  often  employed  as  motif  or  canlus 
firmus  in  masses  and  other  Hturgical  compositions,  a 
proceeding  which  would  not  be  allowed  now-a-davs. 
Christian  pilgrims  were  wont  to  sing  antiphonally 
hymns  having  for  their  burthen  the  life  and  death  of 
our  Saviour  and  similar  subjects.  The  dramatic  ele- 
ment inherent  in  these  subjects  was  contained  in  the 
liturgy  itself.  It  had  only  to  be  brou^t  into  conjunc- 
tion with  epical  recitation  or  narrative  and  song  in 
order  to  develop  into  the  mystery  plays,  which  had 
their  secular  counterparts.  As  far  back  as  the  elev- 
enth century  these  mystery  plays  on  feast-days  served 
to  present  to  the  people  in  dramatic  form  the  Passion, 
Resurrection,  and  Last  Judgment.  Their  original 
home  was  the  church  and  the  monastery,  from  which 
thev  had  later  to  be  banished.  The  secular  and  semi- 
ecclesiastical  or  simply  religious  music  of  the  Middle 
Ages  had  a  decisive  mfluence  in  the  transformation  of 
polyphonic  music  into  the  harmonic  or  homophonic, 
and  a  comparison  between  the  various  styles  is  a  great 
aid  in  determining  the  character  of  genuine  church 
music. 

It  is  as  important  to-day  as  ever  that  we  carefully 
distinguish  between  simply  religious  music — ^be  it 
never  so  beautiful,  artistic,  and  conducive  to  private 
devotion — ^and  that  kind  of  music  which  the  Church 
requires  for  her  services.  Outside  of  the  Chureh  each 
one  may  sing  such  melodies  to  religious  texts  as  b^t 
satisfy  his  own  pious  mood:  he  may  even  indulge  his 
esthetic  predilections  in  choosing  his  hymns.  The 
house  of  God,  however,  demands  an  entirely  different 
attitude;  we  must  realize  that  we  are  there  to  pray, 
that  we  may  not  force  our  personal  mood  on  our  fellow 
Christians,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  we  must  follow 
with  devout  attention  and  pious  song,  according  to  thtt 


i 


MUSICAL                             657  MUSICAL 

will  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  the  liturgical  ac-  It  was  with  the  advent  of  monody  (see  Habmont)  that 

tion  at  the  altar.    And,  in  according  to  the  Church  our  the  use  of  instruments  in  connexion  with  the  voices 

filial  obedience,  we  need  entertain  no  fear  that  she,  the  received  a  great  impetus.     The  close!  v-knit,  com- 

venerable  mother  and  protector  of  the  arts,  will  assign  pact  pol^honic  structure  which  had  preclominated  up 

to  muisic  a  function  unworthy  of  its  powers.  to  this  tmie,  needed  no  extraneous  aid  for  its  effective- 

Kbutkmk.  I)t«  Kir^mim*  nocfc  <^  ness  and  sonority.    This  was  not  the  case  with  the 

ecL,  RatiBDon,  1901);   Sinoknbebqbr,  Guide  to  Caiholte  Church  _^„  „*„i^  ^c  ««««■««>«:♦:««  w.^:^i.,  «..*.»^.n^:«.»  4.u«  ^i^ 

Mine  (2nd  ii.,  Milwaukee,  1906).  published  by  order  of  the  »ew  style  of  composition  rapidly  superseding  the  old 

Provincial  Council  of  Milwaukee;  KobmuOller,  Lex.  der  kircfd.  SChool.     It  depended  tO  a  great  extent  for  itS  tonal 

r(>n*ttn^.(2  parte,  2nd  ed..  Ratisbon.  1891-5);  Baumkebj  Do«  body  and  artistic  existence  on  the  aid  of  instruments. 

kathol.  Kvrehenlted  %n  aeinen  Stngweuen  (3  volfl.,  Freiburg,  1883-  Tk^  »«««♦  ««a«^<w.4-;^««  •Ao»U«vr4   :«  ♦l»«.  A».*.<r4>»ti«4-:r>«.  ^t 

91);  JuNOMANN.  A^sthetik  (Freiburg.  1886);  Giotmann,  Aftm*-  The  great  perfection  reached  m  the  construction  of 

Aeathetik  (Freiburg,  1900).    Special  mention  muat  be  made  of  the  Stnnged  instruments  m  the  Sixteenth  Century  was  both 

periodicals  on  Church  muaio  m  German  and  French  and  to  the  a  manifestation  of,  and  an  aid  tO  the  growing  ten- 

American  penodicala  Church  Mune  and  CoBctlui  (the  organ  of  the  Afmnv    virfiirMifv    nnf  onlv  r\n  B+riniroH    hut  «Tian  nn 

American  Cecilian  Society),  from  which  a  great  deal  of  theoretic  "ency,    VirtUOSliy,  not  only  on  Strmgea,  DUt  alSO  on 

and  practical  value  may  be  gathered.  wmd  instruments  was  a  common  accomplishment. 

G.  GiETMANN.  The  character  and  individuality  of  the  instruments, 

so  to  speak,  were  being  made  available  as  means  of 
Muaioal  Instruinents  in  Church  Services. — For  expression  for  the  subjective  moods,  dramatic  feelings, 
almost  a  thousand  years  Gregorian  chant,  without  and  conceptions  of  the  composer, 
any  instrumental  or  harmonic  addition,  was  the  only  While  all  this  development  had,  up  to  the  first  half 
miudc  used  in  connexion  with  the  liturgy.  The  organ,  of  the  sixteenth  century,  served  mamly  secular  pur- 
in  its  primitive  and  rude  form,  was  the  first,  and  for  a  poses,  it  was  through  Ludovico  Groesi  da  Viaciana 
long  time  the  sole,  instrument  used  to  accompany  the  (1564r-1627)  that  the  use  of  instruments  became  more 
chant.  It  gave  the  pitch  to  the  singers  and  added  bnl-  common  in  churches.  While  choirmaster  in  Mantua 
liancy  and  sonority.  In  secular  music,  however,  in-  and  in  Venice,  this  master  published  his  "Cento  con- 
struments  played  an  important  rdle  at  an  early  date,  certi  ecclesiafitici'',  compositions  to  sacred  texts,  for 
It  may  be  said  that  instrumental  music  developed  one  or  more  voices  and  basso  amtinuOf  or  figured  bass 
simultaneously  with  secular  music  itself .  Thetroubar  played  on  the  organ  and  supplemented  by  violins, 
dours,  trouvdres,  and  jongleurs  (who  flourished  in  bass  viols,  and  wind  instruments,  a  species  of  compo- 
Franoe,  Italy,  and  Spain  from  the  eleventh  to  the  four-  sition  in  voj^e  before  his  time.  A  contemporary  of 
teenth  centuries  inclusive),  and  their  English  contem-  Viadana,  Giovanni  Gabriel!  (1557-1612),  choirmaster 
poraries,  the  minstrels  or  wayfarers,  as  well  as  the  ofSt.  Mark's,  Venice,  went  a  considerable  step  farUier 
minnesingers  in  Germany  during  the  twelfth  and  thir-  than  any  one  before  him.  He  wrote  not  only  nu- 
teenth  centuries,  accompanied  their  chants  and  lyric  merous  works  for  voices  and  instruments,  but  created 
improvisations  on  instruments.  Among  these  were  a  works  for  instruments  alone,  and  discovered  the  prin- 
diminutive  harp,  which  was  laid  on  the  table  while  ciple  of  modem  orchestration  by  doubling  the  voices 
being  played,  the  fiddle,  also  called  vielle  or  viola  (pro-  in  octaves  and  applying  the  same  process  to  the  organ 
totypes  of  our  violin),  the  very  ancient  crwth.  crowd  ar  and  other  instruments.  Another  event  which  was 
chroUa  (an  instrument  having  originally  three,  but  destined  to  exercise  a  momentous  influence,  not  only 
later  five  strings,  now  obsolete),  ana  the  hurdy-gurdy,  on  the  growth  of  the  use  of  instruments  but  also  on  the 
The  last  two  were  more  especially  in  use  in  Great  future  development  of  liturgical  music  itself,  was  the 
Britiun.  Wind  instruments,  such  as  the  flute  in  sev-  birth  of  opera  with  the  first  performance  (1594)  of 
eral  forms,  the  trumpet,  horn,  sackbut  (forerunner  of  Jacopo  Peri's  "Dafne"  in  Florence.  This  new  art 
our  trombone),  and  others  now  obsolete  were  common  form,  originating  as  it  did  with  the  humanistic  spirit 
with  the  wayfaring  musicians.  Instrumental  music  as  of  the  time  and  beiiig  a  return  to  the  musical  and 
an  art,  however,  failed  for  a  long  time  to  gain  the  rec-  literary  ideals  of  antiquity  which  enthralled  the  culti- 
ognition  of  the  educated  and  upper  classes,  chiefly  vated  classes  of  the  day,  soon  gained  an  enormous 
because  it  served  the  purposes  of  the  dance  and  mere  popularity  and  completely  overshadowed  all  previously 
entertainment  almost  exclusively,  and  also  on  account  accepted  ideals  in  popular  favour.  It  was  but  a  short 
of  the  more  or  less  vagabond  character  of  most  of  its  time  before  the  spirit  and  forms  of  the  theatre,  instru- 
votaries.  There  was,  nevertheless,  constant  progress  ments  and  all,  found  their  way  into  the  Church, 
both  in  the  construction  of  the  instruments  and  in  a  While  formerly  the  spirit  and  form  of  church  music 
more  and  more  widely-extended  and  skilful  use  of  dominated  secular  music  (most  early  secular  melodies 
them.  Princes  maintained  bands  of  musicians  at  their  which  have  come  down  to  us  belonging  to  one  or  the 
courts  for  their  entertainments,  and  for  giving  zest  and  other  of  the  Gregorian  modes)  it  was  now  the  spirit, 
splendour  to  public  festivities.  Some  of  these  early  taste,  and  passions  of  the  world  as  expr^sed  in  opera 
orchestras  numbered  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  musi-  which  were  in  the  ascendency  and  began  to  dominate 
cians.  While  it  is  certain  that  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  the  compositions  to  liturgical  texts.  It  was  natural 
century  instruments  besides  the  organ  were  used  in  that  the  people  should  like  to  hear  in  church  the  forms 
connexion  with  polyphonic  liturgical  compositions,  it  of  composition  which  delighted  them  so  much  in  the 
has  not  been  definitely  ascertained  to  what  extent  theatre.  The  severe  simplicity  of  liturgical  chant  was 
such  was  the  case,  what  passages  were  played  by  the  set  aside;  polyphony  was  considered  too  formal  and 
instruments  alone,  and  where  they  simply  reinforced  artificial.  The  spirit  of  universality  animating  them 
the  voices.  The  oiflliculty  in  determining  the  precise  had  to  yield  to  the  new  style  expressions  of  individual 
nature  of  instrumental  co-operation  with  the  voices  is  feeling  enhanced  by  the  sensuous  charm  of  the  in- 
increased  by  the  fact  that  in  those  days  the  text  was  stniments.  That  which  was  in  accordance  with  the 
applied  by  the  composer  to  only  one  voice — generally  prevailing  and  growing  taste  of  the  generality  was,  if 
tne  carUuSf  or  upper  voice.  In  accordance  with  this  not  desired,  at  least  tolerated  by  those  in  authority, 
model,  the  singers  themselves  applied  the  text,  to  the  and  there  was  no  hindrance  to  the  triumphal  conquest 
other  voices  as  they  proceeded.  At  all  events  the  in-  by  instrumental  music  which  we  have  witnessed  since, 
stniments  served  at  best  only  as  a  reinforcement  or  as  New  purely  instrumental  forms  were  developed  and 
substitute  for  the  human  voices  and  had  no  indepen-  cultivated  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
dent  function  in  our  modem  sense.  Furthermore,  teenth  centuries  in  Italy,  France,  and  especially  in 
thev  were  employed  with  sole  reference  to  their  pitch  Germany,  the  most  fruitful  soil  of  all,  untu  the  sym- 
and  not  to  their  timbre,  or  tone-quality.  Thus,  instru-  phony  was  evolved,  through  which  the  composer  gives 
ments  of  the  violin  family  and  flutes  would  play  with  utterance  to  all  the  conflicting  emotions  which  sway 
the  high  voices,  sopranos  and  altos,  whereas  homs  and  him.  Peri,  for  the  accompaniment  of  his  first  opera, 
trombones  were  assigned  to  the  tenor  and  bass  parts.  ^'Dafne",  used  but  a  few  instmments,  name^,  a 
X.— 12 


MUST!                               658  BCUSn 

liaipsichord  (one  of  the  predecessors  of  our  modem  Judgment.  With  this  work,  the  last  word  of  a  mind  and 

pianoforte),  a  lute,  a  viola  da  gamba  (forerunner  of  our  age  which  still  believe  but  no  longer  adore,  subiectiv- 

violoncello),  an  archlute,  or  lute  of  a  larger  size,  and  a  ism  finds  its  supreme  manifestation,  and  the  orchestra 

triple  flute,  while  Claudio  Monteverdi  (1567-1643)  its  most  potent  means  of  expression.    The  Church 

employed  in  his  opera  "Orfeo"  the  formidable  num-  has  never  encouraged,  and  at  most  only  tolerated,  the 

ber  of  thirtynsix  instruments,  as  follows:  two  daincenv-  use  of  instruments.    She  enjoins  in  the  "  Cferemoniale 

bolt  (another  primitive  form  of  the  pianoforte),  two  Episcoi>orum'' that  permission  for  their  use  should  first 

conirabasgif  ten  viola  da  brazza  (violas),  one  double  be  obtained  from  the  ordinary.    She  holds  up  as  her 

harp,  two  violini  piccolini  alia  Francese  (vioUns),  two  ideal  the  unaccompanied  chant  and  polyphonic,  a 

organi  di  Uono  (a  sort  of  violin  played  or  struck  with  capella,  style.    The  Sistine  Chapel  has  not  even  an 

the  wood  of  the  bow),  three  Ixxsst  da  gamlfa  (celli)  four  organ. 

trombones,  one  regcde  (a  portable  organ  with  only  one  From  time  to  time  regulations  have  been  issued 

or  two  stops  or  registers),  two  comeUi.  one  flatUino  governing  the  use  of  instruments  and  condemning  ex- 

(small  flute),  one  ctarino  (truxnpet)  ana  three  Irombe  istin^;  abuses.     In  1728  Benedict  XIII  rebuked  a  com- 

tordine  (muted  trumpets).    While  this  was  a  formi-  munity  of  Benedictine  nuns  in  Milan  for  using  oUier 

dable  sonorous  body,  orchestration  in  our  present  day  instruments  than  the  organ  during  high  Mass  and 

sense,  that  is,  the  utilization  of  the  vanous  instru-  Vespers.    He  also  forbade  the  Franciscans  to  use  any 

ments  in  accordance  with  their  nature,  tone  quality,  other  instrument  than  the  organ  in  their  conventucu 

and  compass,  and  their  combination,  with  a  view  to  churches.    Benedict  XIV  in  his  encyclical  ''Annus 

the  greatest  variety  of  tone  colour  and  sonority,  was  qui  nunc  vertentem"  (19  February    1749)  tolerates 

?et  to  be  evolved.  While  Giovanni  Carissimi  (1604-  only  the  organ,  stringed  instruments,  and  bassoons. 
4)  in  his  oratorios,  employs  the  instruments  with  Kettle-drums,  horns,  trombones,  oboes,  nutes,  pianos, 
more  appreciation  of  their  individuality  than  was  and  mandolins  are  prohibited.  In  the  "Kegola- 
manifested  before  him,  it  remained  for  his  gifted  pupil  mento"  of  1884,  flutes,  trombones,  and  kettle-dnims 
Alcssandro  Scarlatti  (1657-1725),  founder  of  tne  are  permitted  on  account  of  the  improved  manner  in 
Neapolitan  school,  to  establish  the  norm  for  the  use  which  they  are  now  used  as  compared  with  former 
of  instruments,  which  remained  unchanged  for  more  times.  In  the  name  of  Gregory  XVI,  the  Cardinal- 
than  a  hundred  years.  Scarlatti's  orchestra  for  his  Vicar  of  Rome,  Patrizi,  prohibited  (1842)  the  use  of 
oratorios  and  operas  consisted  of  first  and  second  vio-  instruments  in  the  Roman  churches,  with  the  excep- 
lins,  violajs,  violoncellos,  basses,  two  oboes  (from  hautn  tion  of  a  few  to  be  used  in  a  becoming  manner  in  ao- 
haiSy  "high  wood''  developed  from  the  ancient  cola-  compan3ring  the  singins,  and  then  only  after  pennis- 
mu8,  "reed'';  French,  chalumeau,  German, «c/ia/m«^),  sion  had  l^n  secured  from  the  proper  authority, 
two  bassoons  (corresponding  to  the  oboes  in  the  lower  This  order  was  renewed  in  1856  by  the  same  cardinal 
octaves),  and  two  horns.  This  combination  of  in-  in  the  name  of  Pius  IX.  Pius  X,  in  his  "  Motu  pro- 
stniments  was  still  in  vogue  in  the  time  of  Haydn  and  prio''  on  church  music  (22  November,  1903)  in  para- 
Mozart,  and  was  used  in  most  of  their  works  for  the  graph  IV,  says.  "Although  the  music  proper  to  the 
Church  except  that  they  sometimes  added  two  flutes.  Church  is  purely  vocal  music,  music  with  the  accom- 
two  clarinets  (woodwind  instrument  of  ancient  ori-  paniment  of  the  organ  is  also  permitted.  In  some 
gin,  so  called  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  its  special  cases,  within  due  limits  and  with  the  proper 
tones  to  the  high  tones  of  the  clarinOf  or  trumpet),  and  regards  other  instruments  may  be  allowed,  but  never 
two  trumpets.  In  their  operas  and  oratorios  these  without  the  special  license  of  the  ordinary,  accord- 
and  contemporary  masters  added  lympani  (kettle-  ing  to  the  prescription  of  the  '  Cseremoniale  Episoo- 
drums)  and  three  trombones.  porum'.  As  the  chant  should  always  have  the  first 
The  instrumental  idea  gained  such  a  firm  hold  that  place,  the  organ  or  instruments  should  merely  sustain 
a  very  large  proportion  of  all  the  music  written  for  and  never  suppress  it.  It  is  not  permitted  to  have  the 
the  Church  was  with  orchestral  accompaniment.  At  chant  preceded  by  long  preludes,  or  to  have  it  inter- 
cathedral  and  other  churches  large  orchestras  were  rupted  with  intermezzo  pieces",  etc.  Among  those 
permanently  endowed,  *many  of  which  survive  to-  who  have  recently  written,  within  the  prescribedlimits, 
day,  notably  in  Dresden,  Breslau,  Freiburg-in-Baden,  works  for  voices  and  instruments  for  hturgical  use,  are, 
Munich,  and  Vienna.  In  innumerable  other  places,  I.  Mitterer,  G.  J.  E.  Stchle,  M.  Brosig,  Max  Filke, 
the  world  over,  the  orchestra,  without  being  always  George  Zeller,L.Bonvin,S.J.,C.Greith^F.X.  Witt,  P. 
present,  would  be  called  into  service  on  festival  occa-  Griesbacher,  J.  G.  Meuerer,  and  J.  Rhemberger.  The 
sions.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  present  trend  is,  however,  decidedly  away  from  the 
was  consiaered  by  composers  practically  impossible  to  instrumental  idea  and  back  to  the  purely  vocal  style, 
interpret  musically  the  text  of  the  Mass  or  requiem  And  it  is  recognized,  and  in  many  places  acted  upon, 
without  calling  to  their  aid  all  the  resources  and  means  that  the  new  version  of  the  liturgical  chant,  proposed 
of  expression  afforded  by  a  complete  orchestra,  to  the  Catholic  world  by  Pius  X,  gains  its  full  beauty 
While  Beethoven,  in  his  ''  Mass  in  C  and  ''  Missa  so-  and  effectiveness  only  when  sung  without  instrumen- 
Icmnis",  as  well  as  Cherubini  in  his  numerous  works  tal  accompaniment  of  any  kind. 

to  liturgical  texts,  does  not  go  beyond  the  so-called  Krutscheck.  Die  Kirehenmunk  naeh  dsm  WilUn  der  Kircfu 

classical  orchestra,  that  is,  first  and  second  violins,  ^^^^^^""^  •^^V<i^y,^^!tnl'^^^^^ 

_.,            II        i_              uxi-             I'xi-  pt.  I  (L«ip»ig,  1907):  JUNQMANN,  Ae«/««t*(l«reiDurg,  loooy   Neff, 

Violas,  cellos,  basses,  flutes,  oboes,  clarinets,  bassoons,  GetchichU  der  drutschen  l  nstrumentalmuHk  (Leipwg.  1902) ;  WooL- 

homs,  trumpets,  trombones,  and  kettle-drums,  Liszt  dridob,  The  Oxford  History  of  Music,  II  (1905);  QitruAxn, 

and  Gounod  in  addition  to  these  also  employ  the  pic-  Musih-Aesthetik  (Freibuig.  1900). 

colo  (small  flute),  contrafagoUo,  or  bassoon  bass,  the  Joseph  uttbn. 
harp,  C3rmbals,  and  tuba  (a  brass  instrument  serving  as 

a  bass  to  the  trombone  family).    The  extreme  limit  Musti,  a  titular  see  of  Proconsular  Africa,  suffra- 

in  instrumental  tone  display  in  modem  times  was  gan  of  Carthage.    This  town,  which  was  a  Roman 

reached,    however,   in    Hector  Berlioz's  "Requiem  municipium  at  an  early  date,  is  mentioned  by  Ptol- 

Mass",  performed  (1837)  for  the  first  time  in  Notre  eray,  IV,  .3,  3.3,  the  **  Itinerarium  Antonini",  the  Peu- 

Dara%5,  Paris.    In  this  work  all  previous  efforts  in  the  tinger  Table,  and  the  Ravenna  geographer,  Vibiufl 

way  of  tonal  manifestation  are  far  surpassed.     Be-  Sequester,  who  narrates  the  killing  at  this  place  of  an 

sides  an  orchestra  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  instru-  enormous  serpent  by  Regulus.    Its  ruins,  called  Meat 

ments,  including  sixteen  kcttle-drums,  the  author  em-  Henshir,  are  seen  in  the  \'icinity  of  the  kovbba  of  the 

Eloys  in  the  "Tuba  mirum"  four  separate  groups  of  marabout  Sidi  Abd-or-Rohou,  between  Tebouraouk 

rass  instruments,  typifying  the  trumpets  caUing  from  and  Kcff  (Tunis).     Worthy  of  mention  are  two  fine 

the  four  corners  of  the  earth  on  the  day  of  the  Last  gates,  and  a  triumphal  arch.    The  inscriptions  caD 


MUSUB08 


659 


Bsims 


the  inhabitants  Musticenses  or  Mustitani;  the  latter 
name  is  also  used  by  St.  Augustine.  In  411,  at  the 
time  of  the  Carthage  conference,  Musti  had  besides 
two  Donatist  bishops  (Felicianus  and  Cresconius)  two 
Catholic  bishops  (Victorianus  and  Leontius).  Anto- 
nianus  was  one  of  the  bishops  exiled  by  Huneric  in 
482.  Musti  was  then  included  in  Proconsular  Nu- 
midia.  In  646  Bishop  Januarius  signed  the  letter  of  the 
bishops  of  Proconsular  Africa  to  Paul,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  against  the  Monothelites. 

ToutoxTB,  Giogr,  d»  TAfrique  ehriiienne,  ProeonttUaire  (Heimes, 
1892),  214-217;  Bmxth,  Did.  of  Ortek  and  Roman  Oeoffr-,  s.  v. 

S.   P^TRID^. 

Miunros,  Markos,  learned  Greek  humanist,  b. 
1470  at  Retimo,  Crete;  d.  1517  at  Rome.  The  son  of 
A  rich  merchant,  he  went,  when  quite  yoimg,  to  Italy, 
where  he  studied  Greek  at  Florence,  under  the  cele- 
brated John  Lascaris.  whom  he  afterwards  almost 
equalled  in  classical  scnolarship.  In  1503  he  became 
professor  of  Greek  at  Padua,  where  he  taught  with 
great  success.  Later  at  Venice,  he  lectured  on  Greek, 
at  the  expense  of  the  republic,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Aldine  Academy  of  Hellenists.  Musuros  ren- 
dered valuable  assistance  to  Aldus  Manutius  in  the 
preparation  of  the  earliest  printed  editions  of  the  Greek 
autnors,  and  his  handwnting  formed  the  model  of 
Aldus's  Greek  type.  He  contributed  greatly  in  giving 
to  the  Aldine  editions  the  accuracy  that  made  them 
famous,  while  his  reputation  as  a  teacher  was  such 
that  pupils  came  from  all  countries  to  hear  him 
lecture.  Erasmus,  who  had  attended  his  lectures  at 
Padua,  testifies  to  his  wonderful  knowledge  of  Latin. 
To  his  profound  scholarship  the  editions  of  Aristo- 
phanes, Plato,  Pindar,  Hesychinus,  Athemeus,  and 
Pausanias  owed  their  critical  correctness.  In  1499  he 
edited  the  first  Latin  and  Greek  lexicon,  "  Et3rmolo- 
racum  Magnum",  printed  b^  Zacharias  Calliergcs  of 
Crete.  In  1516  he  was  invited  by  Leo  X  to  Rome, 
where  he  lectured  in  the  pope's  gjonnasium  and  es- 
tablidied  a  Greek  printing-press.  In  recognition  of 
the  beautiful  Greek  poem  prefixed  to  the  editio  prin- 
cep8  of  Plato,  Pope  Leo  appointed  him  Bishop  of  Mal- 
vasia  (Monemvasia)  in  tne  Morea,  but  Musuros  died 
before  starting  for  his  distant  diocese.  Besides  nu- 
merous editions  of  different  authors  he  wrote  several 
Greek  epigrams  which  with  the  elegy  on  Plato  pub- 
lished in  the  Aldine  edition  (Venice,  1513)  are  about  his 
only  extant  writings. 

Sandts.  Hutory  of  Classical  Scholarship,  II  (Cambrid«e.  1908) ; 
LsoBAKD,  BiblioQra-phie  hdUniqutt  I  (Paris,  1885) ;  Dzdot,  Aide 
Mamies  (Paris.  1876). 

Edmund  Burke. 

Mutifl,  JoB^  Celestino,  eminent  naturalist  and 
scientist  in  South  America,  b.  at  Cadiz,  Spain,  6 
April,  1732J  d.  at  BogotA,  Colombia,  2  Sept.,  1808. 
Mutis  studied  medicine  at  Seville  and  Madrid  and, 
from  1757.  practised  as  a  physician  at  Madrid,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  botany.  Soon  afterwards  he 
went  to  South  America  as  physician-in-ordinarv  to 
the  newly-appointed  Viceroy  of  New  Granada,  Mesfa 
de  la  Cerda  (Marqu^  de  la  Vega).  In  November, 
1760,  he  landed  in  Cartagena,  and  remained  in  New 
Grwada  for  five  decades.  By  his  great  zeal  for 
science  and  his  untiring  and  versatile  activity,  he 
became  more  and  more  the  soul  of  all  scientific  under- 
takings in  Spanish  South  America.  Although  he  at 
first  Uiught  mathematics  and,  about  the  end  of  his 
life,  founded  an  observatory  in  Bogotd  and  directed 
the  same  as  astronomer,  he  devoted  his  energies 
almost  wholly  to  researcnes  in  the  natural  history 
of  New  Granada,  even  continuing  this  work,  when, 
in  1772,  he  became  a  cleric  (priest?)  and  canon  at  the 
cathedral  of  Bogota.  During  the  first  years  of  his 
life  at  Bogota  he  had  planned  the  botanical  explora- 
lion  of  the  whole  country,  intending  to  write  a  book  on 
the  flora  of  New  Granada.    For  his  researches  he 


muntained  substations  at  C&cota  and  La  Montuosa, 
which  linn^  supposed  to  be  situated  in  Mexico.  He 
settled  in  Mariquita  after  he  had  been  appointed  in 
1783  by  Charles  ill,  under  the  viceroy  and  Archbishop 
Gongora,  leader  of  the  ''Expedici<Sn  bot^ca  dd 
Nueva  Reino  de  Granada",  which  was  founded  by  the 
State.  Here,  as  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  an  eye- 
witness, relates,  Mutis  laid  out  a  plantation  of  cin- 
chona. Mutis  was  obliged  to  train  his  whole  staff 
of  assistants  (collectors,  painters,  engravers,  etc.); 
he  also  taught  several  native  botanists,  e.  g.,  Zca. 
Caldas,  and  Restrepo,  furthermore  his  nephew  ana 
successor,  Sinforoso  Mutis.  At  that  time,  Mutis  was 
widely  known;  Linn6,  who  received  from  him  South 
Amencan  plants  and  corresponded  frequently  with 
him,  calls  nim  "phytologorum  americanorum  prin- 
ceps".  Linn6's  son  defined  the  geniLS  MiUisia  in 
1781.  The  Spanish  botanist  Cavanillcs  lauded  him 
in  1791  as  ''botanicorum  facile  princeps".  At  Bogo- 
ta, where  he  spent  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  the 
famous  explorers  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  stayed 
with  him  for  two  months  in  1801,  filled  with  admira- 
tion for  his  rich  collections.  Their  famous  work, 
"Plantes  equinoctiales"  (1818).  is  adorned  with 
a  beautiful  portrait  of  Mutia,  ana  Humboldt  erected 
a  glorious  monument  to  the  American  investigator  by 
writing  his  biography  ("Biographie  universelle  , 
XXX,  Paris,  1821). 

Subsequent  generations  were  perhaps  justified  in 
judging  Mutis  less' favourably,  but  it  is  unjust  on  the 
part  of  some  critics  to  seek  to  degrade  Mutis  to  the 
position  of  an  unimportant  amateur  or  to  abuse  him. 
Mutis  committed  the  fault  that  he  never  ended  his 
researches,  and  thus  pubfished  almost  nothing  during 
his  life-time.  He,  furthermore,  had  the  misfortune 
to  have  his  scientific  legacy  at  first  remain  totally 
unnoticed  in  consequence  of  the  political  disorders 
of  that  time.  His  museum  consisted  of  24,000  dried 
plants,  5000  drawings  of  plants  by  his  pupils,  and  a 
collection  of  woods,  shells,  resins,  minerals,  and  skins. 
These  treasures  arrived  safely  at  Madrid  in  105  boxes, 
and  the  plants,  manuscripts,  and  drawings  were  sent 
to  the  botanical  gardens,  where  they  were  buried 
in  a  tool -house.  Mutis's  cinchona  investigations 
render  his  work  of  lasting  importance.  While  ne  was 
not  the  first  to  discover  the  genuine  cinchona  for 
New  Granada — ^as  became  known  with  certainty  only 
after  his  death — he  rendered  important  services  by 
his  study  of  the  cinchonas,  their  geographical  dis- 
tribution in  Colombia,  their  species  ana  varieties, 
and  their  utilization  for  medicine.  This  is  shown  by 
the  trade,  which  developed  in  such  a  manner  that 
(e.  g.)  the  seaport  of  Cartagena  alone  exported  from 
New  Granada  1,200,000  pounds  of  cinchona  bark 
in  1806,  while  previous  to  1776  this  country  pro- 
duced no  quinquina  at  all.  This  is  furthermore 
shown  by  Nlutis's  writings,  which,  however,  were  not 
printed  m  full  until  1870.  Mutis  himself  published 
m  1793  and  1794  a  short  monograph  on  cinchonas  in 
"Diario  de  Santa  Fe  de  BogotA".  A  year  later  ap- 
peared ''Observaciones  y  conocimientos  de  la  quina" 
(in  4  numbers,  608-11,  of  "Mercurio  Peruano  de 
Lima",  1795).  The  above-mentioned  Zea  published 
sometime  later  ''Memoria  sobre  la  quina  segun  los 
principios  del  Sefior  Mutis''  C'Anales  de  Historia 
Natural",  Madrid,  1800).  Mutis  sent  his  chief  work 
"El  arcane  de  la  quina"  in  manuscript  to  Madrid, 
but  the  war  with  France  prevented  its  publication; 
in  1828  the  Spanish  physician  Hemdnaez  de  Gre- 

Sorio  edited  the  first  three  parts  of  this  work  with 
lutis's  portrait  ("El  arcano  de  la  quina.  Discurso 
que  contiene  la  parte  m^ca  de  las  cuatro  especies  de 
quinas  oficinalis",  Madrid,  1828,  263  pages).  The 
manuscript  of  the  botanical-scientific  pturt  was  dis- 
covered by  Clements  R.  Markham  in  a  shed  in  the 
botanical  sardens  of  Madrid :  he  published  it  under  the 
title:  "Tabula  synoptica  aa  specienim  generis  Chin- 


MUZZABELU  660  imVDUS 

ohons  detenninationem.  QuinilogUB  pars  quarta"  Myla8a»  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 
(edited  in  Markham,  "The  Cinchona  species  of  New  Aphrodisias,  or  Stauropolis,  in  Caria.  This  dty,  the 
Granada",  London,  1867).  The  tables,  which  Mutis  ancient  capital  of  Caria,  was  the  home  of  the  kings  of 
selected  for  this  work,  were  published  in  1870  in  fao-  the  province  before  that  honour  passed  to  Halicamas- 
simile  by  Triana  ("  NouveUes  Etudes  sur  les  Quin-  sus.  It  was  situated  on  a  fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of  a 
quina",  Paris).  Through  these  writings  it  became  mountain  on  which  there  are  great  quairies  of  the 
evident,  as  some  special  investigators  confessed,  that  beautiful  white  marble  which  was  used  for  the  con- 
Mutis  hadpenetrated  deeply  into  the  study  of  the  cin-  struction  or  decoration  of  the  city's  temples  and  other 
chonas  of  Cfentral  Colombia.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  building.  Mylasa  was  taken  by  Labienus  in  the  civil 
Mutis  distinguished  four  species  of  cinchonas  with  an  wajs.  In  the  Grseco-Roman  period  it  enjoyed  a  sea- 
officinal  bark,  and  he  added  to  them  twenty-four  varie-  son  of  brilliant  proroerity,  and  the  three  neighbouring 
ties.  For  otner  manuscripts  of  Mutis  see  Colmeiro;  towns  of  Olymos.  Labranda,  and  Euremos  were  in- 
a  part  of  Mutis's  correspondence  is  to  be  found  in  the  eluded  within  its  limits.  Its  finest  temples  were  that 
work:  "A  selection  of  tne  correspondence  of  Linnseus  dedicated  to  Zeus  Osogoa,  which  recallea  to  Pausanias 
and  other  naturalists''  (London,  1881).  (VIII,  x,  3)  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  and  those  of  Zeus 
CoLMKiBo,  ixiBotdni^  V  2m  Botdnieoade  la  PmtruvJUi  Httpano-  Karios  and  of  Zeus  Labrandenos,  or  Stratios  (Strabo, 

i^^rSc^fSLi^,ii^i^  lSS^"(^?i£/[Sg?°-  Xiy,  ii,  23)      Mylasa  is  frequenUy  mentioned  by  the 

M.  RoMPEL.  ancient  wnters.    At  the  tune  of  Strabo  the  city 

boasted  two  remarkable  orators.  Euthydemos  and 

MtusareDl,  Alfonbo,  a  learned  Italian  Jesuit,  b.  Hybreas.    Various  inscriptions  tell  us  the^  the  Phry- 

22  August,  1749,  at  Ferrara;  d.  25  May,  1813,  at  Paris,  gian  cults  were  represented  here  by  the  worship  of 

He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  on  20  October,  1768,  Sabazios;  the  Egyptian,  by  that  of  Isis  and  Osiris, 

and  taught  grammar  at  Bologna  and  Imola.    After  There  was  also  a  temple  of  Nemesis, 
the  suppression  of  the  order  in  1773  he  received  a        Among  the  ancient  bishops  of  Mylasa,  was  St. 

benefice  at  Ferrara  and,  somewhat  later,  was  made  Ephrem  (fifth  century),  whose  feast  was  kept  on  23 

director  of  the  Collegio  dei  Nobili  at  Parma.    Pius  January,  and  whose  relics    were  venerated  in  the 

VII  summoned  him  to  Rome,  and  appointed  him  the-  neighbouring  city  of  Leuke.    Cyril  and  his  successor, 

ologian  of  the  PoBuitentiaria.    When  Pius  VII  was  ex-  Paul,  are  mentioned  by  Nicephorus  CaJlistus  (Hist, 

iledm  1809,  Muzzarelli  was  also  obliged  to  leave  Rome  ©cc^i  XIV,  52)  and  in  the  Life  of  St.  Xene.    Le  Quien 

and  was  transported  to  Paris,  where  he  spent  his  re-  mentions  the  names  of  three  other  bishops  (Oriens 

maining  life  at  the  convent  of  the  Dames  de  Saint-  christianus,  I,  921),  and  since  his  time  the  inscriptions 

Michel.    He  wrote  numerous  theological,  philosophi-  discovered  refer  to  two  others,  one  anonjrmous  (C.  I.  G., 

caJ.  and  ascetical  works.    His  chief  production  is  a  9271),  the  other  named  Basil,  who  built  a  church  in 

collection  of  philosophico-theological  treatises  pub-  honour  of  St.  Stephen  (Bulletin  de  correspondance 

lished  repeatedly  under  the  title  "II  buon  uso  della  hell6nique,XIV^616).  The  St.  Xene  referred  to  above 

Logica  in  materia  di  Religione"  (6  vols.,  Foligno,  was  a  noble  virgin  of  Rome  who,  to  escape  the  marriage 

1787-^),  with  additions  by  the  author  (10  vols.,  which  her  parents  wished  to  force  upon  her,  donned 

Rome,  1807;  11  vols.,  Florence,  1821-3).    The  coUec-  naale  attire,  left  her  country,  changed  her  name  of 

tion  contains  sketches  on  the  theological  questions  of  Eusebia  to  that  of  Xene  (straneer),  and  lived  first  on 

the  day  such  as— abuses  in  the  Church,  the  temporal  the  island  of  Cos,  then  at  Mylasa.    The  site  of  the 

power  of  the  pope,  religious  toleration,  ecclesiastical  city  is  now  occupied  by  a  little  village  called  Milos, 

immunity,  riches  of  the  Church  and  its  clergy,  pri-  ^  Mylassa,  inhabited  by  a  few  hundred  schismatic 

macy  and  infallibility  of  the  pope,  auricular  conies-  Greeks,  and  contaming  some  fine  ruins.    The  Cyclo- 

sion,  religious  orders,  indulgences,  Gregory  VII,  moral  P®*^  walls  surrounding  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the 

liberty,  etc.    This  collection  of  treatises,  with  the  ex-  temple  of  Zeus  Osogoa  are  still  visible,  as  well  as  a  row 

oeption  of  the  last  five,  was  translated  into  Latin  by  o^  fourteen  columns.    Pococke  (Travels.  II,  2),  in  the 

Zddmayer  de  Buzitha  ("Bonus  usus  logicae  in  ma-  eighteenth  century,  saw  the  temple  of  Augustus  and 

teria  rehgionis",  Kaschau,  1815-7).    A  French  trans-  o^  Rome,  the  materials  of  which  have  since  been  taken 

lation,  contaming  42  treatises,  was  published  at  Brus-  by  the  Turks  to  build  a  mosque.    There  is  also  a  two- 

sels  in  1837.    Two  other  important  productions  of  storied  tomb,  called  DisUga,  believed  to  be  a  simpU- 

Muzzarelli  are:  "L'Emilio  cfisingannato"   (4  vols.,  fied  copy  of  the  famous  tomb  of  Mausolus,  who  was  a 

Siena,  1782-3)  and"  Confutazione  del  contrattosoci-  native  of  Mylasa. 

ale  di  Gian  Jacopo  Rousseau"  (2  vols.,  FoHgna  1794)  ^SS^X^^SS^^'^n'iSS^^  1^^  ^S^S.^^SoST^^JSTr/ 

— the  former  is  a  refutation  of  Rousseau  S  "Emile",  Ana  Minor  (London,  1890);  loui,  The  CitiM  md  BUhopne*  <ij 

the  latter  of  his  "  Contrat  social ".     The  most  popular  Phrygia  (Oxford.  1895) ;  Tkibb.  A9U  Minewt  (Pan..  1861).  648; 

of  MuzzareUi's  many  ascetical  works  is  "II  mese.  cU  Al^S.l''c^^S^i:S'S^ 

Mana  O  Sia  dl  Maggio"    (Ferrara,   1785)   of  which  119;  X.  433;  XI.  459;  XII,  8-37;  XTV,  615-«23;  XV.  640^544; 

about  100  editions  have  been  issued  (new  ed..  Bo-  XIX  615^523;  XXll.  421-439;  Calmkm  iaJBdio*  £(hieni,  II. 

loma,  1901).    It  has  been  translated  into  English  3«^«6;  D»whamp».  5«r  to.  nmte.  ifii«*  ^«m  1^824  «i. 
"The  Month  of  Mary  or  the  Month  of  May",  Lon-  "•  &alavillb. 

fe.i^^V«7®^SifWiV^?.n^^  Myndus.  a  titular  see  of  Caria,  suffragan  of  Stau- 

pwTVpI^J'  ^^\J^^^^J?^^\Sn  ^VoL    This  city,  known  through  its  oSins  and  the 

rrencn  (Fans,  lool,  ana  often  previously):  Arabian  ^,5*^  *««,.,«>«*  ^^4.;^«  ^^a^  ^9  u^^  «>«^:^«4-  x^i^^jl 

(4  ed.,  Beyrouth,  1872);  and  adapted  to  the  German  ^^.^/S^S^T^  wa^lwtiil  ^^?rS2?t^^ 

(Maiiir,  1883).    Another  httle  work  that  has  been  f2fnfte2?^'^T?l'«!?*S^rt.^^^nf  r^Y 

translated  into  English  fa: "  E  buon  uso  delle  vacanse"  f'?"^  ^J^^'liZZ'^^^,^^^^  H^f^ 

(Parma,  1798).    Its  Englfah  title  fa:  "A  Method  of  lyj^a  little  northwert  of  Hahcamaasus  on  ^e  moot 

Uidin^  the  Vacation  profitably.    Addressed  to  the  ^J^M  foH&?,^*rX^«J^^?.SS^ 

?^utT^ho  fnnjuent  tge  SchJfa  of  the  Society  of  ^:^:-XJc^S^e^Z\^l^r7^^& 

^'s^u^.rBiH^ari^c!^i Sv  (Bru«oi,  and  p^i..  by  Halicamassus,  it  reputed  an  attack  by  Alexander 

1894)»  1488-1514;  IX  (1900),  708-710;  Hubter,  ATomenciaior.  the  Great.    The  "Notiti»  episcopatuum "  allude  to 

Michael  Ott.  it  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  as  one  of 

%KmJL-0^m^     a^«  T^r^«  -n^^^H^c-,  r>«  the  suffragan  sees  of  Stauropolis.    However,  only  four 

Mykonoi.    See  Tings,  Diocese  of.  ^^  j^  y^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^.  ^^elaus,  who  attended  the 

Mylapur.     See    Saint   Tbomas    of   Mtlapub,  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431;  Alphius.  who  assisted  at 

DiocxsB  OF.  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  461;  John  who  waa  pre»* 


UTKk 


661 


HYSOBIS 


ent  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  680;  and  an- 
other John  who  went  to  the  Second  Council  of  Nicsea 
in  787.  Myndua  is  now  the  little  port  of  GtlmOshltt  Li- 
man  (Liman-port)  in  the  vilayet  of  Smyrna  where  the 
remains  of  a  pier  and  some  other  ruins  are  to  be  seen. 

Lb  Quxkn,  On«M  ehrist.,  I.  915;  Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Geography,  a.  v.;  Lbaxs,  Asia  Minor ^  228. 

S.   P^TRID&S. 

Msrra,  a  titular  see  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
city  was  from  time  immemorial  one  of  the  chief  places 
in  the  province.  It  was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
River  Andriacos,  twenty  stadia  from  the  sea  (Ap- 
pian,  "Bell,  civil.",  IV.  82;  Strabo,  XIV,  iii,  7;  Pliny, 
iCXXlL  8;  Ptolemy,  V,  vi,  3;  Stephen  of  Byzantium, 
s.  V.) .  The  hamlet  of  Andriaca  served  as  its  port.  On 
his  wav  from  Csesarea  to  Rome  St.  Paul  stayed  at 
Myra  (Acts,  xxvii.  5);  at  least  the  "textus  receptus" 
reads  thus,  but  tne  Vulgate  has  substituted  Lystra. 
The  Codex  Bezse,  the  Gigas  Bible,  and  the  ancient 
Egyptian  version  also  mention  Myra  after  Patara  of 
Ly  cia  (Acts,  xxi,  1 ) .  The  *  *  Acta  Pauli ' '  probably  tes- 
tify as  to  the  existence  of  a  Christian  community  at 
Myra  in  the  second  century  (Hamack,  "  Mission  und 
Ausbreitung  des  Christentums  ",  465, 487) .  Le  Quien 
(I,  965-70)  opens  his  list  of  the  bishops  of  this  city 
with  St.  Nicander,  mart3rred  under  Domitian  about 
A.  D.  95,  and  whose  feast  is  celebrated  4  November 
(Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  225).  As  to  St.  Nicholas  Thau- 
maturgus,  venerated  on  6  December,  the  "Index"  of 
Theodorus  Lector  (sixth  century)  is  the  first  docu- 
ment which  inscribes  his  name  among  the  fathers  of 
Nicssa  in  325  (Gelzer,  "Patrum  Nicaenorum  nomina", 
67,  n.  151).  Theodosius  II  made  the  flourishing  city 
of  M3rra  the  capital  of  Lycia  and,  it  is  said,  erected 
there  a  church  to  St.  Nicholas.  Peter,  Bishop  of 
Myra  composed  in  defence  of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  writings  quoted  by  St.  Sophronius  and  by  Pho- 
tius  (Bibliotheca,  Codex  23).  At  the  Sixth  Giksumeni- 
cal  Council  (787)  two  bishops  of  Myra,  Theodore  and 
Nicholas,  assisted,  one  representmg  the  orthodox 
party,  the  other  the  Iconoclasts. 

Eupel  ("Hierarchia  catholica  medii  sBvi",  II,  1370) 
mentions  five  Latin  titulars  of  the  fifteenth  centurjr. 
At  present  Myra  is  only  a  village  called  Dembr6  m 
the  sanjak  of  Adalia  and  the  vilayet  of  Koniah.  Its 
ruins  are  numbered  among  the  most  beautiful  of  Asia 
Minor.  Among  them  are  the  remains  of  a  temple  of 
Ap>ollo,  mentioned  by  Pliny,  those  of  a  magnificent 
theatre^  several  burial-places  hewn  in  the  rock,  with 
tombs  inscribed  in  Lycian  and  Greek,  some  of  them 
ornamented  with  bas-reliefs.  Numerous  Christian 
ruins  are  also  found,  among  them  those  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Nicholas,  around  wmch  Russians  have  recently 
erected  a  monastery. 

Fbllows,  Discoveries  in  Lyeia,  I  (London,  1857),  160;  Spratt 
AND  FoKBSS,  TraveU  in  Lycia^  I  (London.  1847),  131;  Tkxibb, 
AHe  Mineure,  601-94;  Rambat.  St,  Paul,  the  Traveller  and  the 
Roman  dtiMen,  297,  300.  319;  Cuin£T.  La  Turq^ie  d'Asie  (PariB, 
1892).  875-77. 

S.  Salaville. 

Myiina,  a  titular  see  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of 
Ephesus.  Herodotus  (1, 149)  mentions  it  as  one  of  the 
eleven  cities  of  iEolia;  Strabo,  who  says  it  was  built  b^ 
the  Amazon  Myrina,  also  assigned  to  it  an  iEolian  on- 
gin  (Geographia,  XII,  iii,  21 ;  viii,  6;  XIII,  iii,  6) ;  Xeno- 
phon  (Hellenica,  III,  i,  6)  relates  that  Artaxerxes  gave 
it  to  a  chieftun  named  Gorgion.  According  to  Pliny 
(Hist,  nat.,  V,  30;  XXXII,  6)  it  was  famous  for  its  oys- 
ters, and  must  have  borne  the  name  of  Sebastopolis, 
of  which  no  trace  is  found  elsewhere.  An  inscription 
(Bulletin  de  oorrespondance  hell^nique,  V,  283)  tells 
us  that  Myrina  formed  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Pergsr 
muB  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  Destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake under  Tiberius  (Tacitus,  "Annales^'^  II,  47) 
and  again  under  the  Emperor  Trajan  (Orosius,  VII, 
12),  it  was  each  time  rebuilt.  It  was  the  birth-place 
id  Agathias,  a  Byzantine  poet  and  historian  of  the 


sixth  century.  The  names  are  known  of  some  of  the 
bishops  of  this  diocese,  which  still  existed  in  the  f  our- 
teentn  century:  Dorotheus,  431;  Proterius,  451;  John, 
553;  Gosmas,  787  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  Christ.",  I, 
705).  The  site  of  Myrina  was  discovered  at  a  place 
called  Kalabassary  in  the  caza  of  Menemen  and  the 
vilayet  of  Smjrma,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hodja-Tchai, 
the  ancient  Pythicos.  The  remains  of  the  harbour 
and  the  arsenal  have  disappeared  under  the  alluvia  of 
the  river.  Excavations  (1880-1882)  brought  to  light 
about  four  thousand  tombs,  dating  from  the  two  cen- 
turies immediately  preceding  the  Christian  Era,  in 
which  were  found  numerous  objects  representing  the 
divinities  of  the  Greek  pantheon;  children's  toys,  re- 
productions of  famous  works,  etc. :  most  of  these  may 
be  seen  to-day  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre. 

PoTTXXB  AKD  Reinach,  La  nicTopole  de  Myrina  (Paris,  1887); 
Bulletin  de  correspondanee  helUnique,  VI.  197-209.  388-i33.  657- 
680;  VII,  81-95.  20*-50.  440-47.  493-501;  VIII,  509-14;  IX, 
165-207.  359-74.  485-93. 

S.  VailhA. 

Msniophytum,  titular  see  of  Thracia  Prima  and 
suffragan  of  Heraclea.  The  early  history  of  this  city 
is  not  known.  We  find  it  mentioned  for  the  first  time 
in  connexion  with  an  earthquake  which  destroyed  it  in 
the  vear  1063  of  our  era  (Muralt,  ''Essai  de  chronolo- 
gie  byzantine",  II,  8).  It  was  visited  by  John  Can- 
tacuzene  about  1350  (Hist.,  Ill,  76).  As  a  suffragan 
of  Heraclea  we  find  it,  under  the  title  of  Peristasis  and 
Myriophytum,  mentioned  first  in  a  "  Notitia  episco* 
patuum"  of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  ((felzer, 
"Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitia  epbcopa- 
tuum'\  633).  The  title  of  Peristasis  existed  already 
in  1170  (Parthey,  "Hieroclis  Synecdemus",  103).  In 
the  sixteenth  century  Myriophytum  displaced  Pe- 
ristasis, and  the  diocese  took  tne  name  of  Myriophy- 
tum and  Peristasis  (Le  Quien,  ''Oriens  christianus  , 
I,  1151).  No  change  has  since  taken  place,  except 
that  among  the  Greeks  in  1908  it  was  elevated  to  an 
autocephalous  metropolitan  see.  To-day  Myriophv- 
tuin  is  a  rather  busy  port  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora;  the 
city  numbers  5000  Greeks  and  400  Turks.  The  schis- 
matic archdiocese  includes  only  ten  parishes  with 
about  22,000  souls,  of  whom  Peristasis  alone  includes 
about  6000. 

D8AX08.  Thrakika  (in  Greek.  Athens.  1892).  72-93. 

S.  VAIIiHf. 

Mysore  (Maisour),  Diocese  of  (Mtstjriensis),  in 
India,  suffragan  to  Pondicherry,  comprises  the  terri- 
torv  of  the  Mysore  native  state,  the  British  Provinces 
of  Coorg  and  CoUegal,  part  of  Wynaad  and  the  taluk  of 
Ossoor,  Salem  district;  surrounded  by  the  Dioceses 
of  Madras,  Poona,  Goa,  Mangalore,  Cbimbatore,  and 
Pondicherry.  The  Catholic  population  is  about 
48,202.  The  diocese,  like  the  rest  of  the  Pondichezry 
province,  is  imder  the  Paris  Society  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions. The  clergy  are  65  in  number  (53  European  and 
12  native  priests),  having  the  care  of  123  churches  and 
chapels.  They  are  assisted  by  the  Brothers  of  the 
Immaculate  donception,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel, 
the  Nuns  of  the  Good  Shepherd  Order,  the  Little  Sis- 
ters of  the  Poor,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Tarbes, 
and  Native  Sisters  of  St.  Anne  and  also  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception.  The  cathedral  and  the  bishop's 
residence  are  at  Bangalore. 

HisTOHY. — Originally  Mysore  belonged  to  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Goa,  but  what  early  mission  work  was  done 
there  is  a  matter  of  obscurity.  In  the  Canarese  or 
western  portions  a  mission  seems  to  have  been  estab- 
lished about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century;  in 
the  eastern  or  Telugu  portion  another  mission  was 
brought  into  existence  about  the  year  1703  by  two 
French  Jesuits  who  came  from  Vellore  and  founded 
churches  at  Bangalore,  Devanhalli,Chikka,  Ballapoora. 
and  elsewhere.  But  theur  work  was  stopped  and 
partly  destroyed  by  the  fanaticism  of  the  sultan, 
Tipu  (1782-99).    The  district  came  under  the  Foreign 


HYSTERDES 


662 


XCT8TERY 


Musion  Society  of  Paris  in  1776,  which  at  that  date 
be^zi  work  at  Pondicherry.  llie  celebrated  Abb6 
Dubois  (b.  1765,  d.  1848),  himself  a  member  of  the 
Foreign  Missions,  spent  most  of  his  life  among  the 
Canarese  Christians  of  Ganjam,  Palhally,  and  Satt- 
huUy  (see  Dubois).  Mysore  was  included  in  the 
Vicariate  of  the  Coromandel  Coast  (Pondicherry), 
erected  in  1833,  but  was  separated  in  1845,  and 
erected  into  a  distinct  vicariate- Apostolic  in  1850,  at 
the  same  time  as  the  district  of  C^oimbatore.  On  the 
establishment  of  the  hierarchy  in  1886  it  was  made 
into  a  diocese  suffragan  to  Pondicherry  with  the  same 
boundaries  as  now. 

Succession  of  Prelates. — Vicara-Aposlolic:  Ste- 
phen Louis  Charbonaux,  1850-73;  Joseph  Augustine 
Chevalier,  1874-1880;  Jean-Yves-Marie  Ck>adou, 
1880-00  (became  first  bishop  in  1886);  second  bishop, 
Eugdne-Louis  Kleiner,  1800  (absent  in  Europe  since 
1903) ;  Augustine  Francis  Basle,  coadjutor  with  right 
of  succession,  1906,  now  ruling  the  diocese. 

lN8nTunoN8.--St.  Joseph's  College,  Bangalore, 
teaching  up  to  F.  A.  Standard,  with  &S)  pupils;  Ban- 
nUore  Convent  School  under  the  Nuns  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  with  494  pupils;  St.  Patrick's  School,  Shoo- 
lay  ,with  156  pupils ;  St.  Francis  Xa  vier's  School  for  fprls, 
Cleveland  Town,  with  138  day-scholars;  St.  Aloysius's 
School,  with  210  boys;  native  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
with  26  students;  St.  Louis'  Boar  ling  School,  with  58 
boarders;  the  Brothers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
training  school  for  teachers,  with  10  European  students ; 
convent  school  at  Mysore,  imder  the  Good  Shepherd 
Nuns,  with  185  pupils ;  St.  Joseph's  School,  Mysore,  with 
142  pupils;  native  Sisters  of  St.  Anne,  in  charge  of  five 
native  girls'  schools;  native  Nuns  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  girls'  school  at  Settihally,  also  a  dispen- 
sary; Majanma  Thumbu  Chetty  School  for  caste  girls, 
under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Tarbes,  Bangsuore, 
with  136  pupils.  Charitable  Insiilutions. — St.  Pat- 
rick's Orphanage,  Bangalore,  with  100  inmates;  St. 
Martha's  public  Hospital  and  Dispensary,  Bangalore, 
^  chaige  of  the  Good  Shepherd  Nuns,  70  beds;  eye 
infirmary  under  the  same;  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
Bangalore,  with  101  inmates;  two  orphanages  at 
Bangalore  and  Mysore  under  the  Good  Shepherd  Nuns 
with  total  of  263  inmates;  also  2  Magdalene  Asylimis 
with  129  inmates.  Four  agricultural  farms  for  or- 
phans, round  which  Christian  villages  have  been 
formed  at  four  places  in  the  diocese;  several  small 
orphanages  in  country  parishes. 

Madnu  Catholic  Dirtctory  (1909);  Launat,  Histoirt  OfrUrale 
de  la  SociHi  de9  Miaaions  Etrangires;  AtUia  det  Mianana. 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 
Mysteries,  Pagan.    See  Paganism. 


(Greek  fAv^rijpwWf  from  m*^*",  "to  shut'S 
"to  close*')- — ^This  term  signifies  in  general  that 
which  is  unknowable,  or  vaJuable  knowledge  that 
is  kept  secret.  In  pagan  antiquity  the  word  mys- 
tery was  used  to  designate  certain  esoteric  doctrines, 
such  as  Pythagoreanism,  or  certain  ceremonies  that 
were  performcKl  in  private  or  whose  meaning  was 
known  onl^  to  the  initiated,  e.  g.,  the  Eleusinian 
rites,  Phalhc  worship.  In  the  langutige  of  the  early 
Christians  the  mysteries  were  those  religious  teachings 
that  were  carefully  guarded  from  the  knowledge  of 
the  profane  (see  Discifune  of  the  Secret). 

Notion  of  Mystery  in  Scripture  and  in  Tob- 
OLOOY. — The  Old-Testament  versions  use  the  word 
iwffT-fifMP  as  an  equivalent  for  the  Hebrew  word  «Arf, 
"secret"  (Prov.,  xx,  19;  Judith,  ii,  2;  Ecclus.,  xxii, 
27;  II  Mach.,  xiii,  21).  In  the  New  Testament  the 
word  mystery  is  applied  ordinarily  to  the  sublime 
revelation  of  the  Gospel  (Matt.,  xiii,  11;  Col.,  ii,  2; 
I  Tim.,  iii,  9;  I  Cor.,  xv,  51),  and  to  the  Incarnation 
and  life  of  the  Saviour  and  His  manifestation  by  the 
preaching  of  the  Apostles  (Rom.,  xvi,  25;  Eph.,  iii, 
4;  vi,  19;  Col.,  i,  26;  iv,  3).  In  conformity  with  the 
usage  of  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New  Testament, 


theologians  give  the  name  m3r8tei7  to  revealed 
truths  that  surpass  the  powers  of  natural  reason. 
Mystery,  therefore,  in  its  strict  theological  sense  is 
not  synonymous  with  the  incomprehensible,  since 
all  that  we  know  is  incomprehensible,  i.  e.,  not 
adequately  comprehensible  as  to  its  inner  be- 
ing; nor  with  tne  unknowable,  since  many  things 
merely  natural  are  accidentally  unknowable,  on 
account  of  their  inaccessibility,  e.  g.,  things  that  are 
future,  remote,  or  hidden.  In  its  strict  sense  a 
mystery  is  a  supernatural  truth,  one  that  of  its 
very  nature  lies  above  the  finite  intelligence. 
Theolo|;ian8  distinguish  two  classes  of  supernatural 
mysteries,  the  absolute  or  theological  ana  the  rela- 
tive. An  absolute  m3rstery  is  a  truth  whose  ex- 
istence or  possibility  could  not  be  discovered  by  a 
creature,  and  whose  essence  (inner  substantial  being) 
can  be  expressed  by  the  finite  mind  only  in  terms  of 
analogy,  e.  ^.,  the  Trinity.  A  relative  mystery  is  a 
truth  whose  innermost  nature  alone  (e.  g.,  many  of  the 
Divine  attributes),  or  whose  existence  alone  (e.  g.,  the 
positive  ceremonial  precepts  of  the  Old  Law),  exceeds 
the  natural  knowing  power  of  the  creature. 

Catholic  Doctrine. — The  existence  of  theologi- 
cal mysteries  is  a  doctrine  of  Catholic  faith  defined 
by  the  Vatican  Council,  which  declares:  "If  any  one 
say  that  in  Divine  Revelation  there  are  contained  no 
mysteries  properly  so  called  {vera  el  proprie  dicta 
mysteria),  but  that  through  reason  rightly  aeveloi)ed 
(per  rationem  rite  excultam)  all  the  dogmas  of  faith 
can  be  understood  and  demonstrated  from'  natural 

grinciples:  let  him  be  anathema"  (Sess.  Ill,  De 
de  et  ratione,  can.  i).  This  teaching  is  clearly 
explained  in  Scripture.  The  principal  proof  text, 
which  was  cited  in  part  by  the  Vatican  Council,  is 
I  Cor.,  ii.  Shorter  passages  are  especially  Eph., 
iii.  4-9;  Col.,  i,  26-27;  Matt.,  xi,  25-27;  John.!,  17-18. 
Tnese  texts  speak  of  a  mysteiy  of  God,  which  only 
infinite  wisdom  can  understand,  namely,  the  designs 
of  Divine  Providence  and  the  inner  life  of  the  Godhead 
(see  also  Wisdom,  ix,  16-17;  Rom.,  xi,  33-36). 
Tradition  abounds  with  testimonies  that  support  this 
teaching.  In  the  Brief  "Gravissimas  Inter"  (Den- 
cinger,  "Enchiridion",  ed.  Bannwart,  nn.  1666-74), 
Pius  IX  defends  the  doctrine  of  supernatural  mystery 
bv  many  citations  from  the  works  of  the  Fathers. 
Numerous  other  patristic  texts  that  bear  on  the 
same  question  are  quoted  and  explained  in  Kleutgen'a 
"Die  Theologie  der  Vonseit",  II,  75  sq.;  V,  220  sq.; 
and  in  Sch&zler's  "Neue  Untersuchungen  Qber  das 
Dogma  von  der  Gnade"  (Mains,  1867),  466  sq.  The 
manifold  excellence  of  Chnstian  revelation  offers  many 
theological  arguments  for  the  existence  of  supernat- 
ural mysteries  (cf.  Scheeben,  "Dogmatik",  1, 24). 

Reason  and  Supernatural  Mystery. — (1)  Er- 
rors.— ^The  existence  of  supernatural  mystmes  it 
denied  by  Rationalists  and  semi-Rationalists.  Ration* 
alists  object  that  mysteries  are  degrading  to  reason. 
Their  favourite  argument  is  based  on  the  princi- 
ple that  no  medium  exists  between  the  reasonable 
and  the  unreasonable,  from  which  they  conclude 
that  the  mysterious  is  opposed  to  reason  (Bayle, 
Pfleiderer).  This  argumentation  is  fallacious^  since 
it  confounds  incomprehensibility  with  inconceivable- 
ness,  superiority  to  reason  with  contradiction.'  The 
mind  of  a  creature  cannot,  indeed,  grasp  the  inner 
nature  of  the  mysterious  truth,  but  it  can  express 
that  truth  by  analogies;  it  cannot  fully  understand 
the  coherence  and  agreement  of  all  that  is  contained 
in  a  mystery  of  faith,  but  it  can  refute  successfully 
the  objections  which  would  make  a  m3nstery  consist 
of  mutually  repugnant  elements.  Rationalists  fur- 
ther object  that  the  revelation  of  mysteries  would 
be  useless,  since  it  is  the  nature  of  reason  to  ac- 
cept only  the  evident  (Toland),  and  since  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  incomprehensible  can  have  no  influ- 
ence  on   the   moral  life  of  mankind  (Kant).    To 


MYSTERY 


663 


MYSTICISM 


answer  the  first  objection  we  have  only  to  recall  that 
there  is  a  twofold  evidence :  the  internal  evidence  of  a 
thing  in  itself,  and  the  external  evidence  of  trust- 
worthy authority.  The  mysteries  of  revelation,  like 
the  facts  of  history,  are  supported  by  external  evi- 
dence and  therefore  they  are  evidently  credible. 
The  second  difficulty  rests  on  a  false  assumption. 
The  religious  life  of  the  Christian  is  rooted  m  his 
faith  in  the  supernatural,  which  is  an  anticipation 
of  the  beatific  vimon  (St.  Thomas,  "Comp.  Theol.  ad 
fratrem  Reg.,"  cap.  ii),  a  profound  act  of  reUgious 
homage  (Contra.  Gent.,  I.  vi),  and  the  measure  bv 
which  he  judges  the  world  and  the  ways  of  God. 
The  history  of  civilization  bears  witness  to  the  benefi- 
cial influence  that  Christian  faith  has  exerted  on 
the  general  life  of  mankind  (cf.  Gutberlet,  ''Apolo- 
getik,"  II,  2  ed.,  Mtinster,  1895,  23).  Some  Ration- 
alists, trusting  to  far-fetched  similarities,  pretend 
that  the  Christian  m3r8teries  were  borrowed  from  the 
religious  and  philosophical  systems  of  Paganism. 
A  study  of  the  origin  of  Christianity  suffices  to  show 
the  absurdity  of  such  an  explanation.  Semi-Ration- 
alism explains  mysteries  either  as  purelv  natural 
truths  expressed  in  symbolic  language  (Schelling, 
Baader,  Sabatier),  or  as  solubleproblems  of  philosophy 
(Giinther,  Frohschammer).  The  errors  of  Gtinther 
were  condemned  in  a  pontifical  letter  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  in  1857,  and  in  another  to  the  Bishop 
of  Breslau  in  1860  (Denzingcr,  "Enchiridion",  ea. 
Bannwart,  nn.  1655-1658) ;  those  of  Frohschammer, 
in  the  Brief  "Gravissimas  Inter",  11  Dec.,  1862. 

(2)  Relations  of  Noiural  and  Supernatural  Truth. — 
(a)  Superiority  of  the  Supernatural. — ^The  mysteries 
contained  in  supernatural  revelation  are  not  simply 
disconnected  truths  lying  beyond  the  realm  of  natural 
things,  but  a  higher,  heavenly  world,  a  mystical 
cosmos  whose  parts  are  united  in  a  living  bond. 
(Scheeben,  "Dogmatik",  1, 25.)  Even  in  those  parts 
of  this  va^st  system  that  have  been  revealed  to  us 
there  is  a  wonderful  harmony.  In  his  great  work  *  *  Die 
Mysterien  des  Christenthums",  Scheeben  has  sought 
to  show  the  logical  connexion  in  the  supernatural 
order  by  considering  its  supreme  mystery,  the  in- 
ternal communication  of  Divine  life  in  the  Trinity, 
as  the  model  and  ideal  of  the  external  communication 
to  the  creature  of  the  Divine  life  of  |;race  and  glory. 
The  knowledge  of  the  supernatural  is  more  excellent 
than,  any  human  wisdom,  because,  although  incom- 
plete, it  has  a  nobler  object,  and  through  its  de- 
pendence on  the  unfailing  word  of  God  possesses  a 
greater  degree  of  certitude.  The  obscurity  which 
surrounds  the  mysteries  of  faith  results  from  the 
weakness  of  the  human  intellect,  which,  like  the  eye 
that  gazes  on  the  sun,  is  blinded  by  the  fulness  of 
light,  (b)  Harmony  of  Natural  and  Supernatural 
Truth. —Since  all  truth  is  from  God,  there  can  be  no 
real  warfare  between  reason  and  revelation.  Super- 
natural mysteries  as  such  cannot  be  demdnstratea  by 
reason,  but  the  Christian  apologist  can  always  show 
that  the  arguments  against  their  possibility  are  not 
conclusive  (St.  Thos.,  "Suppl.  Boeth.  de  trinitate". 
Q.  ii,  a.  3).  The  nature  of  God.  which  is  infinite  ana 
eternal,  must  be  incomprehensible  to  an  intelligence 
that  is  not  capable  of  perfect  knowledge  (cf .  Zigliara, 
'  *  Propaedeutica  " ,  I  ^  ix) .  The  powerlcssness  of  science 
to  solve  the  mysteries  of  nature,  a  fact  that  Rational- 
ists admit,  shows  how  limited  are  the  resources  of  the 
human  intellect  (cf.  Daumer,  "Das  Reich  des  Wun- 
dersamen  und  Geheimnissvollen,"  Ratisbon,  1872), 
On  the  other  hand  reason  is  able  not  only  to  recognize 
wherein  consists  the  special  mysteriousness  of  a  super- 
natural truth,  but  also  to  dispel  to  some  extent  the 
obscurity  by  means  of  natural  analogies  and  to  show 
the  fittingness  of  the  mystery  by  reasons  of  congruity 
(Council  of  Cologne,  I860).  This  was  done  with 
«reat  success  by  the  Fatliers  and  the  Scholastic 
'!i(>ologian8.    A    famous    e.xample    is    St.    Thomas' 


argument  ex  convenienlia  for  the  Divine  proceasionfi 
in  the  Trinity  (Summa  Theol.,  I,  (^Q.  xxvii-xxxi).  (See 
Faith,  Reason,  Revelation.) 

ZxouABA,  Proptuieutiea  in  8.  Theoloffiam  (Rome,  1890),  45  aq., 
113  aq.;  Schksbbn,  ZHe  Mytterien  det  ChristetUhuwu  (Freiburs, 
1808)  I  BoasuBT.  BUvatiofu  d  Dieu  9ur  tout  let  myUh-et  de  la  rd^ 
gion  tMrHienne  (Paris,  1711);  OmNOBX,  Theologia  fundamenUditt 
I  (Freiburg,  1807),  66  eq.;  Nbwiian,  Critic.  Betaytt  I  (London, 
1888).  41. 

J.  A.  McHuGH. 

Myitery  PlajB.    See  Miracle  Plats. 

Mystical  Body  of  the  Ohnrch.— The  analoapr' 
borne  by  any  society  of  men  to  an  orsaniBm  is  sum- 
ciently  manifest.  In  every  society  the  constituent 
individuals  are  united,  as  are  also  the  members  of  a 
body,  to  effect  a  common  end:  while  the  parts  thev 
severally  play  correspond  to  the  functions  of  the  bod- 
ily organs.  They  form  a  moral  unity.  This,  of 
course,  is  true  of  the  Churchy  but  the  Church  has  also 
a  unity  of  a  high^  order:  it  is  not  merely  a  moral  but 
a  mystical  body.  This  truth,  that  the  Church  is  the 
mystical  body  of  Christ,  all  its  members  being  euided 
and  directed  by  Christ  the  head,  is  set  forth  dv  St. 
Paul  in  various  passages,  more  especialljr  in  Ephe- 
sians,  iv,  4-13  (cf .  John,  xv,  6-8).  The  doctrine  may  be 
summarized  as  follows:  (1)  The  members  of  the 
Church  are  bound  together  by  a  supernatural  life  com- 
municated to  them  by  Christ  through  the  sacraments 
{ibid.,  5).  Christ  is  the  centre  and  source  of  life  to 
Whom  all  are  united,  and  Who  endows  each  one  with 
gifts  fitting  him  for  his  position  in  the  body  (t&uf.,  7- 
12).  ^  These  graces,  through  which  each  is  equipped 
for  his  work,  form  it  into  an  organized  whole,  wnose 
parts  are  knit  together  as  though  b^r  a  system  of  liga- 
ments and  joints  (ibid..  16;  Col.,  ii,  19).  Through 
them,  too,  (2)  the  Churcn  has  its  growth  and  increase, 
growing  in  extension  as  it  spreads  through  the  world, 
and  intenfflvely  as  the  individual  Christian  develops 
in  himself  the  likeness  of  Christ  (ibid.f  13-15).  (3)  In 
virtue  of  this  union  the  Church  is  the  fulness  or  com- 
plement (T\i/ifwfia)  of  Christ  (Eph.,  i,  23).  It  forma 
one  whole  with  Him;  and  the  Apostle  even  speaks  of 
the  Church  as  "Christ''  (I  Cor.,  xii,  12).  (4)  This 
union  between  head  and  members  is  conserved  and 
nourished  by  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Through  this 
sacrament  our  incorporation  into  the  Body  of  Christ 
is  alike  outwardly  symbolized  and  inwardly  actual- 
ized; "We  being  many  are  one  bread,  one  body;  for 
we  ail  partake  of  the  one  bread"  (I  Cor.,  x,  17). 

Franebun,  De  Bedeeia,  Thesis  XVIII;  PAasAOLiA,  De  Bed^ 
na,  II,  n.  742;  Pboch.  Pralect.  Doqm.,  I,  n.  396. 

G.   H.  Jo7CE. 

Mystical  Phenomena.  See  Theology,  Mys- 
tical. 

Mystical  Sense  of  Holy  Scripture.  See  Ex- 
egesis. 

Mystical  Theology.    See  Theology,  Mystical. 

Mysticism  (from  ^u^iy,  to  initiate),  according  to  its 
etymolo^,  implies  a  relation  to  mystery.  In  phi- 
losophy, mysticism  is  either  a  religious  tendency  and 
desire  oJf  the  human  soul  towards  an  intimate  union 
with  the  Divinitv,  or  a  system  growing  out  of  such  a 
tendency  and  desire.  As  a  philosophical  system, 
Mysticism  considers  as  the  end  of  philosophy  the  di- 
rect union  of  the  human  soul  with  the  Divimtv  through 
contemplation  and  love,  and  attempts  to  determine 
the  processes  and  the  means  of  realizing  this  end.  This 
contemplation,  according  to  Mysticism,  is  not  based 
on  a  merely  analogical  knowledge  of  the  Infinite,  but 
on  a  direct  and  immediate  intuition  of  the  Infinite. 
According  to  its  tendency,  it  may  be  either  speculative 
or  practical,  as  it  limits  itself  to  mere  knowledge  or 
traces  duties  for  action  and  life;  contemplative  or 
f^ective,  according  as  it  emphasizes  the  part  of  intel- 
ligence or  the  part  of  the  will;  orthodox  or  heterodox, 
according  as  it  agrees  with  or  opposes  the  Catholic 
teaching.    We  shall  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  ol 


MYSTICISM 


664 


ICTSTICISM 


Mysticism  and  its  influence  on  philosophyi  and  pre* 
sent  a  Griticism  of  it.^ 

Historical  Sketch. — In  his  "History  of  Philoso- 
phy'', Cousin  mentions  four  ssrstems,  between  which, 
he  says,  philosophical  thought  has  continually  wav- 
ered, vu.,  Sensism,  Idealism,  Scepticism,  and  M^rsti- 
cism.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this  classification, 
it  is  true  that  Mvsticism  has  excrcifwd  a  larse  influ- 
ence on  philosophy,  becoming  at  times  the  oasis  of 
whole  S3rstems,  but  more  often  entering  as  an  element 
into  their  constitution.  Mysticism  dominated  in  the 
symbolic  philosoi>hy  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  Taoism 
of  the  Chmese  philoeopher  Lao-tze  is  a  system  of  met- 
aphysics and  ethics  in  which  Mysticism  is  a  fundamen- 
tal element  (cf.  De  Harlec,  "Laotze,  le  premier  phi- 
losophe  chinois '',  in  "  M^moires  couronnds  et  autres  de 
rAcad^mie'',  Brussels,  Januazy,  1886).  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Indian  philosophy;  the  end  of  human 
reflection  and  effort  in  Brahmanism  and  Vedantism  is 
to  deliver  the  soul  from  its  transmigrations  and  absorb 
it  into  Brahma  forever.  There  is  little  of  Mysticism 
in  the  first  schools  of  Greek  philosophy,  but  it  already 
takes  a  large  place  in  the  system  of  Plato,  e.  g.,  in  his 
theory  of  the  world  of  ideas,  of  the  origin  of  the  world 
soul  and  the  human  soul,  in  his  doctrine  of  recollection 
and  intuition.  The  Alexandrian  Jew  Philo  (30  b.  c. — 
A.  D.  50)  combined  these  Platonic  elements  with  the 
data  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  taught  that  every 
inan,  by  freeing  himself  from  matter  and  receiving 
illumination  from  God,  may  reach  the  mystical,  ec- 
static, or  prophetical  state,  where  he  is  absorbed  into 
the  Divimty .  The  most  systematic  attempt  at  a  philo- 
sophical system  of  a  mystical  character  was  that  of  the 
Neoplatonic  School  of  Alexandria,  especially  of  Plo- 
tinus  (a.  d.  205-70)  in  his  '^  Enneaos  ".  His  system  is 
a  svncretism  of  the  previous  philosophies  on  the  basis 
of  Mysticism — an  emanative  and  pantheistic  Monism. 
Above  all  being,  there  is  the  One  absolutely  indeter- 
mined,  the  absolutely  Good.  From  it  come  forth 
through  successive  emanations  intelligence  (»oOr)  with 
its  ideas,  the  world-soul  with  its  plastic  forces  (X^oi 
ffwepfULTiKol),  matter  inactive,  and  the  principle  of  im- 
penection.  The  human  soul  had  its  existence  in  the 
woild-soul  until  it  was  united  with  matter.  The  end 
of  human  life  and  of  philosophy  is  to  realize  the  mysti- 
cal return  of  the  soul  to  God.  Freeing  itself  from  the 
sensuous  world  by  purification  (xd^a^cf),  the  human 
soul  ascends  by  successive  steps  through  the  various 
degrees  of  the  metaphysical  oraer,  until  it  unites  itself 
ii«  a  confused  and  unconscious  contemplation  to  the 
One,  and  sinks  into  it:  it  is  the  state  of  ecstasis. 

With  Christainity,  the  history  of  Mysticism  enters 
into  a  new  period.  The  Fathers  recognized  indeed 
the  partial  truth  of  the  pagan  system,  but  they 
pointed  out  also  its  fundamental  errors.  They  made 
a  distinction  between  reason  and  faith,  philosophy 
and  theology;  thev  acknowledged  the  aspirations  of 
the  soul,  but,  at  tne  same  time,  they  emphasized  its 
essential  inability  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  Divine 
life.  They  tau^t  that  the  vision  of  God  is  the  work 
of  grace  and  the  reward  of  eternal  life;  m  the  present 
life  only  a  few  souls,  by  a  special  grace,  can  reach  it. 
On  these  principles,  the  Christian  school  of  Alexandria 
opposed  the  true  gnosis  based  on  grace  and  faith  to  the 
Gnostic  heresies.  St.  Augustine  teaches  indeed  that 
we  know  the  essences  of  things  in  rationibus  (BtemiSf 
but  this  knowledge  has  its  starting  point  in  the  data  of 
sense  (cf.  Quaestiones,  LXXXIII,  c.  xlvi).  Pseudo- 
Dionysius,  in  his  various  works,  gave  a  systematic 
treatment  of  Christian  Mysticism,  carefully  distin- 
guishing between  rational  and  inystical  knowledge. 
By  the  former,  he  says,  we  know  6od,  not  in  His  na- 
ture, but  throu^  the  wonderful  order  of  the  universe, 
which  is  a  participation  of  the  Divine  ideas  ("  De  Di- 
vinis  Nomin.",  c,  vii,  §§  2-3,  in  P.  G.,  Ill,  867  sq.). 
There  is,  however,  he  adds,  a  more  perfect  knowledge 
of  God  possible  in  this  life,  beyond  the  attainments  of 


reason  even  enlightened  by  faith,  through  which  the 
soul  contemplates  directiy  the  mysteries  of  Divine 
light.  The  contemplation  in  the  present  life  is  pooi- 
ble  only  to  a  few  pnvileged  souls,  through  a  very  epe^ 
cial  grace  of  God:  it  is  the  ^^owcr,  fwcTucii  tvfoca. 

The  works  of  P8eudo-Dion3rsius  exercised  a  great  in- 
fluence on  the  following  ages.  John  Scotus  Eriugena 
(ninth  century),  in  his  ^'De  Divisione  Natune",  took 
them  as  his  guide,  but  he  neglected  the  distinction  of 
his  master,  identiljring  philosophy  and  theology,  God 
and  creatures,  and,  instead  of  developing  the  doctrine 
of  Dionysius,  reproduced  the  pantheistic  theories  of 
Plotinus  (see  Erittgena,  Joajf  Scotus).  In  the 
twelfth  century,  orthodox  Mysticism  was  prefiented 
under  a  systematic  form  by  the  Victorines,  Hu^i, 
Walter,  and  Richard  (cf.  Mignon,  ''Les  Oiigpes  de  la 
Scolastique  et  Hugues  de  St.  Victor",  Paris,  1895), 
and  there  was  also  a  restatement  of  Eriugena's  princi- 
ples with  Amaury  de  Bdne,  Joachim  de  Floris,  and 
David  of  Dinant.  A  legitimate  element  of  Mysticism, 
more  or  less  emphasized,  is  found  in  the  woiks  of  the 
Schoolmen  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  the  f ourteenUi 
and  fifteenth  centuries  there  was,  as  a  protest  against  a 
sterile  dialecticism,  a  revival  of  mystical  svstems,  some 
orthodox — ^J.  Ruysbroek,  Gerson.  Peter  dAilly,  Denys 
the  Carthusian — and  others  lieterodox— John  of 
Ghent,  John  of  Mirecourt,  the  Beguines  and  Beghazds, 
and  various  brotherhoods  influenced  by  Averroism, 
and  especiall}^  Meister  Eckhart  (1260-1327),  who  in 
his  "Opus  Tripartitum"  teaches  a  deification  <^  man 
and  an  assimilation  of  the  creature  into  the  Creator 
through  contemplation  (cf.  Denifle  in  "Archiv  ftir 
Literatur  und  Kirchengeschichte  des  Mittelalters", 
1886),  the  "Theolosia  Germanica^',  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  Nicholas  of  Cusa  (1401-64)  with  his  theory  of 
the  coincidenlia  oppoaitorum.  Protestantism,  by  its 
negation  of  all  ecclesiastical  authority  and  by  aidvo- 
cating  a  direct  union  of  the  soul  with  God,  had  its 
lomcal  outcome  in  a  Mysticism  mostly  pantheistic. 

Protestant  Mysticism  is  represented  oy  Sebastian 
Frank  (1499-1542),  by  Valentine  Weiler  (1533-88), 
and  especially  by  J.  B5hme  (1575-1624),  who,  in  his 
I' Aurora",  conceived  the  nature  of  God  as  containing 
in  itself  the  energies  of  good  and  evil,  and  identified  the 
Divine  nature  with  the  hiunan  soul  whose  operation 
is  to  kindle,  according  to  its  free  will,  the  fire  of  good 
or  the  fire  of  evil  (cf.  Deussen,  ''J.  Bohme  u^>er  setn 
Leben  und  seine  Philosophic",  Kiel,  1897).  Reuchlin 
( 1 455-1 522)  developed  a  system  of  cabalistic  Mystid^on 
in  his  ^'De  arte  caoalistica"  and  his  ''De  verbo  miri* 
fico ' ' .  We  may  also  assign  to  the  influence  of  Mysticism 
the  ontological  systems  of  Malebranche  and  of  the 
Ontologists  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 
The  romantic  Mysticism  of  Fichte  (1762-1814),  No- 
valis  (1772-1801),  and  Schelling  (1775-1854)  was  a  re- 
action  against  the  Rationalism  of  the :  eighteenth 
century.  A  pseudo-Mysticism  is  also  the  jogical  out- 
come of  the  Fideism  and  evolutionistic  Subjectivism 
of  modem  Protestants,  inaugurated  by  Lessing  (1728- 
81),  developed  by  Schleiermacher  (1768-1834),  A. 
Ritschl  (1822-89;  cf.  Goyau,  "L'Allemagne  ReUgi- 
euse,  Le  Protestantisme".  6th  ed.,  Paris,  1906),  Saba- 
tier,  etc.,  and  accepted  by  the  Modernists  in  Uieir 
theories  of  vital  immanence  and  religious  experience 
(cf.  Encyclical  "Pascendi").     (See  Modernisu.) 

Criticism. — ^A  tendency  so  universal  and  so  per- 
sistent as  that  of  Mysticism,  which  appears  among  ail 
peoples  and  influences  philosophical  tnought  more  or 
less  throughout  all  centuries,  must  have  some  real 
foundation  in  human  nature.  There  is  indeed  in  the 
human  soul  a  natural  desire  for,  an  aspiration  towards 
the  highest  truth,  the  absolute  truth,  and  the  highest, 
the  infinite  good.  We  know  by  experience  and  reason 
that  the  knowledge  and  enjoyment  of  created  things 
cannot  give  the  fulness  of  truth  and  the  pcarfection  of 
beatitude  which  will  completely  satisfy  our  desires 
and  aspirations.    There  is  in  our  soul  a  capacity  for 


1SY8TICISM 


665 


MTTHOLOQ7 


more  truth  and  perfection  than  we  can  ever  acquire 
through  the  knowledge  of  created  things.  We  realize 
that  God  alone  is  the  end  of  man,  that  in  the  posses- 
sion of  God  alone  we  can  reach  the  satisfaction  of  our 
aspirations.  OT.  S. Thom.,  Theol.,  L  Q.  ii,  a.  1,  ad  lum; 
Q.  xii,  a.  1;  Q. xliv,  a. 4,  ad 3um;  MI  Q.  iii,  a.  8;  "Con- 
tra Gentes",  III,  cc.  i,  xxv,  1;  "De  Veritate",  Q.  xxii, 
a.  2;  "Compend.  Theologiae",  104,  etc.  Cf.  SestiU, 
''De  naturali  intelligentis  animce  appetitu  intuendi 
divinam  essentiam'^  Rome,  1896.  But  the  rational 
effort  of  our  intelligence  and  positive  aspirations  of 
our  will  find  here  their  limits.  Is  there  truly  possible 
a  union  of  oiu:  reason  and  will  with  God  more  inti- 
mate than  that  which  we  possess  through  created 
things?  Can  we  expect  more  than  a  knowledge  of 
God  by  analogical  concepts  and  more  than  the  ocati- 
tude  proportionate  to  that  knowledge?  Here  human 
reason  cannot  answer.  But  where  reason  was  power- 
less, philosophers  gave  wa^r  to  feeling  and  imagination. 
They  dreamt  of  an  intuition  of  the  Divinity,  of  a  di- 
rect contemplation  and  immediate  possession  of  God. 
They  imagined  a  notion  of  the  universe  and  of  human 
nature  that  would  make  possible  such  a  union.  They 
built  systems  in  which  the  world  and  the  human  soul 
were  considered  as  an  emanation  or  part  of  the  Divin- 
ity, or  at  least  as  containing  something  of  the  Divine 
essence  and  Divine  ideas.  The  logical  outcome  was 
Pantheism. 

This  result  was  a  clear  evidence  of  error  at  the 
starting-point.  The  Catholic  Churchy  as  guardian  of 
Christian  doctrine,  through  her  teaching  and  theolo- 
gians, gave  the  solution  of  the  problem.  She  asserted 
the  limitf)  of  human  reason:  the  human  soul  has  a 
D atural  capacity  (po/en/ia  obedientUdis) ,  but  no  exigency 
and  no  positive  ability  to  reach  God  otherwise  than  by 
analogical  knowledge.  She  condemned  the  immedi- 
ate vision  of  the  Beghards  and  Beguines  (cf.  Dcnzinger- 


Bannwart,  "Enchiridion",  nn.  474-5),  the  pseudo- 
Mysticism  of  Eckhart  (ibid.,  nn.  501-29),  and  MoUnos 
(ibid.,  nn.  2121-88),  the  theories  of  the  Ontologists 
(ibid.,  nn.  1659-65,  1891-1930),  and  Pantheism  under 
all  its  forms  (ibid.,  nn.  1801-5),  as  well  as  the  vital 
Immanence  and  religious  experience  of  the  Modern- 
ists (ibid.,  nn.  2071-109).  But  she  teaches  that, 
what  man  cannot  know  by  natural  reason,  he  can 
know  through  revelation  and  faith :  that  what  he  can- 
not attain  to  by  his  natural  power  nc  can  reach  by  the 
grace  of  God.  God  has  gratuitouslv  elevated  human 
nature  to  a  supernatural  state.  He  has  assigned  as  its 
ultimate  end  the  direct  vision  of  Himself,  the  Beatific 
Vision.  But  this  end  can  be  reached  only  in  the  next 
life;  in  the  present  life  we  can  but  prepare  ourselves  for 
it  with  the  aid  of  revelation  and  grace.  To  some 
souls,  however,  even  in  the  present  life,  God  gives  a 
very  special  grace  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  feel 
His  sensible  presence:  this  is  true  mystical  contemi>la- 
tion.  In  this  act,  there  is  no  annihilation  or  absorption 
of  the  creature  into  God,  but  God  becomes  intimately 
present  to  the  created  mind  and  this,  enlightened  by 
special  illuminations,  contemplates  with  ineffable  joy 
tnc  Divine  essence. 

PaKQER,  Oeaeh.  der  deutsehen  MyHik  im  MittdaUer  (Leipsisp 
1881);  ScHini),  Der  MyUidtmua  in  ttiner  Bntstehungsperiode 
aena,  1824);  GObrcs.  Die  ckriaU.  Siystik  (Ratiabon.  1836-42); 
CouBiN,  HiUoire  g&nSraU  de  la  philoacphie  (Paiii,  1863);  Idem, 
Du  Vrai,  du  Beau  O,  du  Bien  (23rd  ed..  Paria,  1881),  v;  Gbnnabi,  • 
Del  /also  Mieticigmo  (Rome,  1907);  DEUtCROix,  Eesai  tur  le 
mystieisTne  evkulatif  en  AUemagne  au  xiv  aUcle  (Paris,  1900); 
Ubberwbo,  Hiat.  of  Philoa.,  tr.  NIorris  with  additions  by  Pobteb 
(New  York.  1894);  Db  Wulf,  Hiei.  de  la  Philoa.  mSdiivale  (Lou- 
vain,  1900);  TuBNBB.  Hiel,  of  Philoa.  (Boston.  1903). 

George  M.  Sauvage. 

MystieiBiu,  Theological.    See  Theoloot,  Mys- 
tical. 

Mythology.    See  PAOAmsiL 


N 


NaaseiiB.    See  Ophttbb. 

Nabo  or  Nebo  (UJ;  Sept..  VaftaOY  a  town  men- 
tioned in  several  passages  of  tne  Old  Testament,  v.  g., 
Num.,  xxxii,  3;  Jer..  sdviii,  1,  22;  I  Par.,  v,  8:  Is., 


tion  here.  He  was  the  oldest  son  of  Nabopolassar, 
the  Chaldean  restorer  of  Babylonian  independence. 
His  long  reign  of  forty-three  years  (c.  605-562  b.  c.) 
marks  the  zenith  of  the  grandeur  reached  by  the  short- 


i^um.,  «xii  o,^er..  «vm,  i,  ^^,  x  irar.,  v,  o,  ^  jj  ^          ^^    Babylonian    Empire    (625-538).     Al- 

XV,  2,  etc     In  Numbers  xxxu,  3,  it  is  mentioned  be-  ^^  ^^                   {      inscriptions  of  Nabuchodono- 

tween  Saban  and  Beon,  the  latter  bemg  an  abbre>nar  »         ^       ^^^l  chiefly  with  the  account  of  his 

tion  of  Baahneon.     In  the  same  chapter,  verse  38,  architectural  undertakings,  our  knowledge  of  his  his- 

it  18  again  mentioned  between  Canathaim  and  Baal-  ^^  incomplete,  and  we  have  to  rely  for  informa- 

"^^k'  ""iSfL"*  Q/°''''n'^fl''^i!l*^  i^n'^L^If^f  tion  mostly  ok  the  Bible,  Berosus,  an/  Greek  histo- 

on  the  Mesa  Stone  (Ime  14).    Th^e  and  other  indi-  ^         qj  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^  ^j^j^^;  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^ 

cations  go  to  show  that  the  town  was  situated  in  the  ro 

vicinity  of  Mt.  Nebo,  but  the  precise  location  cannot 

be  determined.    It  belonged  to  the  rich  pasture  lands 


which  the  tribes  of  Ruben  and  Gad  askea  ef  Moses  in 
the  distribution  of  the  territory  (Num.,  xxxii).  The 
town  had  reverted  to  the  Moabites  at  the  time  when 
Isaias  prophesied  against  it  (Is.,  xv,  2:  cf.  Jer.,  xlviii, 
1,  22).  Mesa  (lines  14-18)  boasts  of  having  taken  it 
'from  the  Israelites.  According  to  St.  Jerome  (Com- 
ment, in  Is.,  XV,  2,  in  P.  L.^  XXIV,  168),  the  sanctuary 
of  the  idol  Chemosh  was  m  Nabo. 

LsQBNDRB  in  VioouROtTX.  DicHonnaire  de  la  Bihle,  b.  v.;  Bbn- 
Nrrr  in  HAflnnros,  Didionary  of  the  Bible,  r.  v.  Ndw:  Eusbbzus, 
Onomaatieont  b.  v.;  8t.  Jeromb,  De  eitu  et  nominibux,  b.  v 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Nabor  and  Felix,  Saints,  martyrs  during  the 

Eersecution  of  Diocletian  (303).  The  relics  of  these 
oly  witnesses  to  the  faith  rest  in  Milan,  where  a 
church  has  been  erected  over  their  tomb.  St.  Ambrose 
extolled  the  virtues  of  these  two  martyrs.  In  later  times, 
legendary  Acts  of  these  saints  have  appeared,  which 
are  imitated  from  Acts  of  other  martyrs  (Victor, 
Firmus,  and  Rusticus).  According  to  these  legends, 
which  are  without  historical  value,  Nabor  and  Felix 
were  soldiers  in  the  army  of  Maximian  Herculeus,  and 
were  condemned  to  death  in  Milan  and  beheaded 
in  Lodi.    Their  feast  is  celebrated  on  12  July. 

MoMBRiTius,  Sanetuartum,  II,  fol.  158-159;  Acta  SS.,  July. 
III.  291-294;  AnaUcta  BoUandiana,  XXV  (1906),  361  aq.;  Bibli- 
otheea  hagiographioa  latina,  II,  879;  Allard,  HiHoire  dee  verelcur 
ttone,  IV  (Paris.  1890),  416;  Savio,  Di  aleune  ehieae  di  Milano  ari^ 
teriori  a  S.  AfnUrogio  in  Nuovo  BuU.  di  arch,  criet.  (1896),  163  aqq. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Nabuehodonosor. — ^The  Babylonian  form  of  the 
name  is  Nabu-kudurri-usur,  the  second  part  of  which 
is  variously  interpreted  ("O  Nebo,  defend  my  crown  ", 
or  "tiara'\  "empire",  "landmark",  "work").  The 
original  has  been  more  or  less  defaced  in  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  and  Latin  transliterations,  from  which  are 
derived  the  modem  English  forms,  Nabuehodono- 
sor, Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Nebuchadrezzar.  On  the 
whole,  Nabuehodonosor  appears  to  be  nearer  to  the 
original  Babylonian  pronunciation  than  Nebuchadrez- 
zar and  especially  Nebuchadnezzar  (A.  V.,  Ezra,  ii,  1) 
taken  from  the  Massoretic  transliteration,  and  would 
be  still  nearer  if  the  "r"  were  restored  to  the  second 
element  where  "n"  has  crept  in.  Two  kings  of  this 
name  are  known  to  have  ruled  over  Babylon. 

NABT7CHODONOSOR  I  (c.  1152-1124),  is  the  most 
famous  monarch  of  the  d3masty  of  Pashi  or  Isin.    A 


coming  to  his  father's  throne,  nothing  need  be  said 
here:  their  recital  can  be  read  in  this  Encyclopedia,  II, 
183-84;  only  let  it  be  remarked  that  after  the  Cimme- 
rians and  Scythians  were  definitively  crushed,  all  his 
expeditions  were  directed  westwards,  although  a  pow- 
erful neighbour  lay  to  the  North:  the  cause  of  this  was 
that  a  wise  political  marriage  with  Amuhia,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Median  king,  had  insured  a  lasting  peace  be- 
tween the  two  empires. 

Nabuehodonosor  seems  to  have  prided  himself  on 
his  constructions  more  than  on  his  victories.  Durins 
the  last  century  of  Ninive's  existence  Babylon  had 
been  greatly  devastated,  not  only  at  the  hands  of  Sen- 
nacherib and  Assurbanipal,  but  also  as  a  result  of  her 
ever  renewed  rebellions.  Nabuchodonosoi,  continu- 
ing his  father^s  work  of  reconstruction,  aimed  at 
making  his  capital  one  of  the  world's  wonders.  Old 
temples  were  restored;  new  edifices  of  incredible  mag- 
nificence (Diodor.  of  Sicily,  II,  95;  Herodot.,  I,  183) 
were  erected  to  the  many  gods  of  the  Babylonian  pan- 
theon; to  complete  the  royal  palace  begun  by  Nabo- 
polassar,  nothmg  was  spared,  neither  "cedar-wood, 
nor  bronze,  gold,  silver,  rare  and  precious  stones";  an 
underground  passage  and  a  stone  bridge  connected 
the  two  parts  of  the  citv  separated  by  the  Euphrates; 
the  city  itself  was  rendered  impregnable  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  triple  line  of  walls.  Nor  was  Nabucho- 
donosor's  activity  confined  to  the  capital:  he  is  cred- 
ited with  the  restoration  of  the  Lake  of  Sippar.the 
opening  of  a  port  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Duilaing 
of  the  famous  Median  wall  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates  to  protect  the  countr3r  against  incursions 
from  the  North:  in  fact,  there  is  scarcely  a  place 
around  Babylon  where  his  name  does  not  appear  and 
where  traces  of  his  activity  are  not  found.  These 
gigantic  undertakings  reqmred  an  innumerable  host 
of  workmen:  from  the  inscription  of  the  great  temple 
of  Marduk  (Meissner,  "Assyr.  Studien",  II,  in  "Nlit- 
teil.  der  Vorderas.  Ges.".  1904,  III),  we  may  infer  that 
most  probably  captives  brought  from  various  parts  of 
Western  Asia  made  up  a  large  part  of  the  labouring 
force  used  in  all  his  public  works. 

From  Nabuchodonosor's  inscriptions  and  from  the 
number  oif  temples  erected  or  restored  by  this  prince 
we  gather  that  he  was  a  very  devout  man.  What  we 
know  of  his  history  shows  him  to  have  been  of  a  hu- 
mane disposition,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  wantoE 
cruelty  of  most  of  the  iron-souled  Assyrian  rulers.  It 
was  owing  to  this  moderation  that  Jerusalem  was 


prince  of  untiring  energy,  he  led  to  victory  the  Chal-    spared  repeatedly,  and  finally  destroyed  only  when  its 


dean  armies  east  and  west,  against  the  Lulubi,  Elam, 
and  Syria,  and  although  twice  defeated  by  the  As- 
syrian king,  Ashshur-resh-ishi,  succeeded  in  arresting 
for  a  time  the  decay  of  the  first  Babylonian  Empire 
(see  Babylonia,  II,  183). 

Nabuchodonosor  II  is  often  mentioned  in  various 
parts  of  Holy  Writ,  and  will  claim  our  especial  atten- 


destruction  became  a  political  necessity;  rebel  princes 
easily  obtained  pardon,  and  Sedecias  himself,  whose 
ungratefulness  to  the  Babylonian  king  was  particu- 
larly odious,  would,  had  he  manifested  less  stubborn" 
ness,  have  been  treated  with  greater  indulgence  (Jer., 
xxxviii,  17,  18) ;  Nabuchodonosor  showed  much  con* 
sideration  to  Jeremias,  leaving  him  free  to  accompany 


660 


NACCHIANTE 


667 


NAQASAKZ 


the  exiles  to  Babylon  or  to  remain  in  Jerusalemi  and 
appointing  one  of  the  Prophet's  friends,  Godolias,  to 
the  governorship  of  Jerusalem;  he  granted  likewise 
such  a  share  of  freedom  to  the  exiled  Jews  that  some 
rose  to  a  position  of  prominence  at  Court  and  Baruch 
thought  it  a  duty  to  exhort  his  fellow-countr3rmen  to 
have  the  welfare  of  Babylon  at  heart  and  to  pray  for 
her  king.  Babylonian  tradition  has  it  that  towards 
the  end  of  his  life,  Nabuohodonosor,  inspired  from  on 
high,  prophesied  the  impending  ruin  to  the  Chaldean 
Empire  (Berosus  and  Aoydenus  in  Eusebius.  "  Prsep. 
Evang.",  IX,  xli).  The  Book  of  Daniel  (iv)  records 
how  God  punished  the  pride  of  the  ^;reat  monarch. 
On  this  mysterious  chastisement,  which  some  think 
consisted  in  an  attack  of  the  madness  called  lycan- 
thropy,  as  well  as  on  the  interregnum  which  it  must 
have  caused,  Babylonian  annals  are  silent:  clever 
hypotheses  have  been  devised  either  to  explain  this 
silence,  or  in  scanning  documents  in  order  to  find  in 
them  traces  of  the  wanted  interregnum  (see  Oppert, 
"Exp6dit.  en  Mdsopot."  I,  186-187:  Vigouroux,  "La 
Bible  et  les  d^couvertes  modemes",  IV,  337).  Na- 
buchodonosor  died  in  Babylon  between  the  second  and 
sixth  months  of  the  forty<third  year  of  his  reign. 

On  Nabuohodonoaor  II  see  Record*  of  the  P<ut,  1st  ser.,  V,  87, 
111;  VII,  69,  73;  XI,  92;  2nd  ser..  Ill,  102;  V,  141;  Proeetdingt 
of  the  Soeietv  o/Bibl.  ArehteoL,  X.  87,  215,  290  aqq.;  XII,  116.  159 
■qq.;  Schbadbr^Writehouse,  The  Cuneiform  Inter,  and  the  Old 
TeeiamerU,  II,  47-52.  115.  315  etc.;  PoaNON,  Lea  inscripiiGna 
babj/loniennee  de  Wadi-Brieaa  (Paru^  1888);  Menant,  Bahylone 
ei  la  ChcUdie,  197-248;  Maspero.  HxUoire  aneienne  dee  peupiee  de 
r Orient:  Lee  empirea  (Paris,  1904).  517-66,  623-43;  Vioourodx, 
La  Bible  et  lee  dicouvertea  modemea  (Paris.  1898),  IV,  141-54.  244- 
33S;  Pannier  in  VioouRoux.  Diet,  de  2a  Bt7>/«,  s.  v.;  Schrader, 
KeUinechnfUiche  Bibliothek,  III.  part  ii,  10-71.  140^1;  IV,  180- 
201. 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Naeehiante  (Naclantus),  Giacomo,  Dominican 
theologian,  b.  at  Florence;  d.  at  Chioggia,  6  Majr, 
1569;  he  studied  at  Boloena,  where  Michael  Ghislieii, 
afterwards  Pius  V,  was  his  fellow-student.  He  sub- 
sequently taught  philosophy  and  theology  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  in  the  college  of  St.  Thomas  of  Minerva, 
Rome.  Paul  III,  struck  with  his  talents,  made  him 
Bishop  of  Chioggia  (3  June,  1544).  At  the  Council  of 
Trent  his  vigorous  protest  against  the  words  of  the  de- 
cree of  the  IV  Session  (8  April,  1546),  which  asserts 
that  the  traditions  of  the  Church  are  to  he  received 
with  the  same  reverence  and  piety  as  the  Scriptures, 
cast  some  suspicions  on  his  orthodoxy;  but  he  gave  a 
reverent  assent  to  the  decree,  when  he  saw  it  connrmed 
by  the  authority  of  so  great  an  assembly.  Other 
serious  suspicions  of  his  orthodoxy  seem  afterwards  to 
have  arisen,  but  as  Pallavicini  remarks,  his  memory 
is  vindicated  from  such  charges  by  the  ^ve  affairs  of 
trust  which  were  assigned  him  under  Pius  IV.  His 
works  were  published  by  Pietro  Fratino  at  Venice  in 
1567.  Among  the  more  important  are  ^'Enarra- 
tiones  ...  in  ep.  D.  Pauli  ad  Ephesios";  "In  ep. 
ad  Romanos";  "S.  Scripturse  medulla";  "Tracta^ 
tiones  XVIII  theologales";  "Theoremata  meta- 
physica";  "Theoremata  theologica". 

HuBTKR,  NomeneUUor  Literariua,  I,  28, 29;  QdAtif  andEcbard, 
Script.  Ord.  Pr.t  II,  202;  Streber  in  Kirchenlexicont  b.  v. 

Edward  F.  Gahesch^. 
Nachtgall  (Nachtioall).    See  Luscinius,  Onv 

MAR. 

Nacolia  (Nacoleia). — A  titular  metropolitan  see 
in  Phrygia  Salutaris.  This  town,  which  took  its  name 
from  the  nymph  Nacola,  had  no  history  in  antiquity. 
It  was  there  that  Valens  defied  the  usurper  Procopius; 
under  Arcadius  it  was  occupied  by  a  garrison  of  Cfoths 
who  revolted  against  the  emperor.  At  first  depend- 
ent on  Synnada,  the  see  became  autocephalous  be- 
tween 787  and  862,  and  metropolitan  between  1035 
and  1066.  Seven  of  its  bishops  are  known,  among 
them  being  Constantine,  one  of  the  chief  supporters  ox 
Iconoclasm  under  Leo  the  Isaurian,  who  feigned  to 


abjure  his  error  before  the  patriarch,  St.  Germanus. 
and  was  oondenmed  as  an  neresiarch  at  the  Second 
Council  of  Nicsea  (787).  Nacolia  is  the  modem  vil« 
lage  of  Sejryid  ei-Gh&zi,  chief  town  of  Nahid,  in  the 
Vulayet  of  Brusa,  about  twenty-two  miles  southeast 
of  Eski  Sheir.  The  name  of  the  village  is  derived 
from  Seyyid  (Sidi)  el-Battal,  an  Arab  sheikh  who 
was  slain  in  739  by  the  troops  of  Leo  the  Isaurian,  and 
buried  in  a  tekke  of  Bektashi  dervishes  founded  by  the 
mother  of  the  Seljukian  sultan,  Aladdin  the  Great. 
Seyyid  el  Gh&zi  contains  some  unimportant  ruins. 

Rambat  in  Journal  of  HeUenic  Studiea,  III  (1882),  119  M.X 
Lb  Quien.  Oriena  Chrial.,  I,  839;  Cuinbt.  La  Tur^ie  d^Ane^  IV. 
213;  Radbt.  En  Phrygie  (Paris,  1895),  22. 

S.  P^TRIDiiS. 

Nagasaki,  Diocese  of  (Nagasakienbis). — ^Naga- 
saki, capital  of  the  prefecture  (ken)  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  a  small  peninsula  on  the  south-eastern 
coast  of  the  Island  of  Kiushiu,  Japan.  Its  haii>our, 
enclosed  on  three  sides  by  mountains  sloping  down  to 
the  sea-shore  and  sheltered  on  the  fourth  (the  en- 
trance) by  numerous  islands,  is  one  of  the  safest  and 
most  important  in  Japan.  Being  the  first  port  of  en- 
try for  vessels  coming;  from  the  south  and  west,  it  is 
also  one  of  the  leadmg  coaling-stations  of  the  Fai 
East.  The  principal  industries  of  the  town  are  the 
manufacture  of  engines  and  ship-building.  It  imports 
mainly  cotton,  coal,  sugar,  and  petroleum;  among  its 
chief  exports  are  coal,  rice,  flour,  camphor,  and  to- 
bacco. In  the  first  ten  centuries  of  our  era  we  find 
references  to  the  town  under  no  less  than  seven  distinct 
names,  of  which  Fukaye  no  Ura  (Fukaye  Bay)  is  the 
best  known.  Its  present  name  is  prohably  derived 
from  a  certain  Nagasaki  Kotaro,  who,  about  1185- 
90,  received  Fukaye  no  Ura  as  his  fief.  Prior  to  the 
arrival  of  the  Christian  missionaries,  however,  Naga- 
saki was  an  insigiificant  village. 

Although  St.  Francb  Xavi^s  missonary  labours  in 
Japan  were  confined  to  the  territory  now  included  in 
the  Diocese  of  Nagasaki^  and  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  this  territory  is  practically  identical  with  the  early 
Christian  history  of  Japan^  the  town  of  Nagasaki  ap- 
pears not  to  have  been  visited  by  the  missionaries 
until  1569.  In  this  year  Father  Vilela,  S.J.,  erected  a 
church  on  the  site  of  a  pagoda  which  had  been  given 
him  by  the  Christian  lord  of  the  district,  and  in  1571 
had  already  made  1500  converts.  In  1570  the  Portu- 
guese began  trading  with  Nagasaki.  Yinzeyemon, 
the  imperial  governor  of  the  province,  received  them 
kindly,  and,  perhaps  to  induce  them  to  trade  with  him 
alone,  and  thus  to  prevent  others  from  obtaining  fire- 
arms, affected  to  favour  the  Christian  religion.  When, 
however,  the  traders  and  missionaries,  as  a  safeguard 
against  luture  oppression,  insisted  on  his  recognizing 
the  ecclesiastical  authority  over  the  territory  of  Naga- 
saki, he  showed  great  hesitation  and  yielded  to  their 
wishes  only  when  they  threatened  to  withdraw  and 
choose  some  other  heaaquarters  if  their  request  were 
refused.  From  the  arrival  of  the  foreigners  dates  the 
rapid  growth  of  Nagasaki,  numbers  of  the  native  mer- 
chants settling  in  the  town  in  the  hope  of  enriching 
themselves  by  forei^  commerce.  By  1587  the  last 
traces  of  the  Buddhist  and  Shinto  rehgions  had  van- 
ished from  the  district,  which  already  contained  three 
principal  churches  (called  by  the  Japanese  Ki-kuwan 
^'strange  sight'')  and  numerous  chapels.  To  1587 
must  also  be  referred  Hideyoshi's  suaden  change  of 
attitude  towards  Christianity  (see  Japan).  Influ- 
enced by  the  bonzes'  insinuations  concerning  the  ulti- 
mate aim  of  the  missionaries,  he  issued,  during  a  ni^t 
of  orgy  (24  July)^  a  decree  proscribing  the  Christian 
religion  and  ordenng  the  Jesuits  to  leave  Japan  within 
twenty  days.  Subsequently,  however,  the  taiko  grew 
calmer  and  consented  to  ten  fathers  remaining  at 
Nagasaki,  nor  did  he  adopt  any  active  measures  to 
suppress  Christianity  as  long  as  outward  respect  wsi 
shown  for  his  decrees. 


NAQASAKZ                             668  NAQASAKI 

The  San  Felipe  incident,  however  (see  Japan),  led  Mgr  Petitjean,  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Nagasaki, 
to  a  newpersecution  in  1596,  and  twentynsix  mission-  when  Southern  Japan  was  divided  into  two  vicariates, 
aries  (6  Franciscans.  3  Jesuits,  and  17  Japanese  Chris-  in  1887.  In  1890  the  First  Synod  of  Japan  was  hdd 
tians)  were  crucified  at  Nagasaki  in  1597.  Persistent  at  Nagasaki,  of  which  Mgr  Cousin  became  first 
rumors  that  the  taiko  was  about  to  revisit  Kiushiu  bishop,  on  tne  establishment  of  the  Japanese  bier- 
in  person  led  the  Governor  of  Nagasaki,  who  had  pre-  archy,  in  1891.  In  1897  the  third  centennial  of  the 
viously  shown  himself  not  unfavourable  towards  the  twenty-six  Japanese  martyrs,  canonized  by  Pius  IX  in 
Christians,  to  send  a  force  to  destroy  the  churches  and  1867,  was  celebrated  by  the  construction  and  solemn 
residences  of  the  missionaries  in  1598.  In  the  terri-  benediction  of  the  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Maitvn  at 
tory  of  the  present  Diocese  of  Nagasaki  137  churches  Nagasaki.  The  episcopal  jubilee  of  Bishop  Cousin 
of  the  Jesuits  were  demolished,  as  well  as  their  college  was  celebrated  in  1910.  I)uring  his  episcopate  of 
in  Amakusa  and  their  seminary  in  Arima.  The  death  twenty-five  years.  Bishop  Cousin  has  laboured  to  in- 
of  Hideyoshi  on  16  Sept.,  1598,  put  an  end  to  this  per-  crease  the  native  clergy  and  to  extend  the  work  of 
secution.  I^eyasu,  anxious  to  promote  commerce  with  the  mission.  He  has  ordained  40  Japanese  priests, 
the  Philippmes,  allowed  free  ingress  to  the  mission-  founded  35  new  stations  (with  residences),  estaolished 
aries.  and,  beyond  enforcing  the  law  that  no  daimio  38  new  Christian  settlements,  and  built  50  churches 
should  receive  baptism,  showed  at  first  no  hostility  and  chapels.  During  his  administration  the  Catholic 
to  Christianity.  In  1603  Nagasaki,  the  population  population  has  more  than  doubled, 
of  which  had  grown  from  about  2500  to  24,500  in  The  Diocese  of  Nagasaki  includes  Kiushiu  and 
fifty  years,  possessed  eleven  churches.  About  1612  the  neighbouring  islands — ^Amakusa,  Goto.  Dcit-suki, 
or  1613  the  bonzes — ^assisted,  it  is  to  be  feared,  by  Tsushima,  Oshima,  and  the  R>rukyu  (Lu  Cnu)  Archi- 
some  English  and  Dutch  captains — succeeded  in  pelago.  The  total  population  is  about  7,884,900;  the 
thoroughly  alarming  lyeyasu  as  to  some  imaginary  Catholicpopulation  was  47,104  on  15  Aug.,  1910  (23,- 
intrigue  between  certain  of  his  officers  and  the  repre-  000  in  1885).  The  personnel  of  the  mismon  is:  1 
sentatives  of  Philip  III  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  On  27  bishop,  36  missionaries  (French),  26  diocesan  priests 
January^  1614,  oraers  were  issued  for  the  expulsion  of  (Japanese),  6  tonsured  clerics,  35  native  (male  or  fe- 
the  missionaries  and  the  destruction  of  the  churches,  male)  catechists  labouring  for  the  conversion  of  pa- 
in 1622.  Ni^asaki  was  the  scene  of  the  ''Great  Mar-  gans,  350  catechists  entrusted  with  the  instruction  of 
tjrrdom  .  (See  Martyrs,  Japanese.)  In  1629  the  the  Christian  communities^  15  itinerant  baptizers  (fe- 
custom  of  Fumt-2/e,  or  trampling  on  the  crucifix,  was  male).  The  mission  auxiharies,  engaged  in  works  of 
introduced;  paper  pictures  were  at  first  used,  but  later  education  and  charity,  are:  17  Brothers  of  Maiy  (14 
more  durable  images  were  utilized — at  first  wood,  and  foreigners,  includir^  3  priests),  21  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
still  later  (1669)  20  bronze  images  cast  by  an  engraver  Child  Jesus  (Chauffailles — 5  Japanese),  16  Franciscan 
of  Nagasskki  from  metal  obtained  from  the  altars  of  Sisters  (Missionaries  of  Mary),  8  Sisters  of  St.  Paul 
the  demolished  churches.  Between  the  4th  and  9th  of  Chartres  (3  Japanese),  10  communities  of  native 
day  of  the  first  month  of  each  year  all  suspect  Chris*  women,  with  177  members.  The  establishments  in- 
tians  were  called  upon  to  trample  on  these  images:  elude:  40  mission  stations  with  residences;  35  sub^tfr- 
those  who  refused  were  banished  fom  their  homes,  and  tions;  153  Christian  communities;  67  blessed  churches 
when  again  caught,  if  still  recalcitrant,  were  taken  to  and  chapels;  52  unblessed  oratories  and  chapels;  1 
the  bomng  spring  of  Shimabara  and  thrown  in,  or  seminary  with  31  students  (8  theological;  4  philosophi- 
subjected  to  crucifixion  and  various  kinds  of  refined  cal;  19  studying  Latin);  1  Apostolic  school  with  18 
torture.    Goaded  into  action  by  such  persecution  pupils  (10  postulants  of  the  Brothers  of  Mary);  1  col- 


and  by  the  miseries  consequent  on  the  suppression 


ege,  primary  and  commercial,  with  325  pupils  (30 


of  the  religious  houses,  which  had  been  the  only  boarders):  1  school  for  women  catechists,  with  15 
source  of  alleviation  for  the  needs  of  the  impover-  pupils;  3  boarding-houses  for  girls  with  224  pupils;  1 
ished  peasantry,  the  people  rose  in  revolt,  in  1637,  professional  school,  with  18  pupils;  1  primary  school 
but,  wter  some  fierce  fighting,  were  crushed  by  lor  girls,  with  149  pupils;  2  kindergartens,  with  79 
the  shogun's  forces,  assisted  by  Dutch  artillery.  In  pupUs;  8  orphanages,  with  244  children  (65  boarders); 
1640  four  Portuguese  envoys  from  Macao  were  seized  2  workrooms,  with  39  workers;  1  leper  asyliun,  with  28 
at  Nagasaki,  and,  on  refusing  to  apostatize,  were  put  lepers;  3  hospitals,  with  92  patients;  6  dispensaries 
to  death.  (4005  patients  cared  for);  15  conference  nails  for 
For  more  than  two  centuries  after  1640,  Japan  was  religious  instruction  (total  number  of  hearers  about 
practically  closed  to  the  outside  world.  The  persist-  2730).  The  Brothers  of  Mary  have  the  direction  of 
ent  attempts  of  missionaries  to  penetrate  into  the  the  Apostolic  school  and  the  college.  The  Sisters  of 
country  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centu-  the  Holy  Child  Jesus  manage  2  boaraing-houses  (hi^- 
ries  had  no  other  success  than  that  of  winning  them  the  schools) ,  the  professional  school,  primary  school,  kin- 
martyr's  crown.  The  discovery  of  a  large  body  of  dergartens,  2  orphan  asylums,  1  hospital  dispensary. 
Christians  by  Father  Petitjean  on  17  March,  1865,  1  conference  hall,  and  1  work-room.  The  Franciscan 
when  he  was  estabU&hing  the  first  Catholic  church  in  Sisters  have  charge  of  the  leper  asylum.  1  hospital, 
Nagasaki,  after  the  reopening  of  Japan  to  the  mission-  3  dispensaries,  2  conference  halls,  1  orphan  asylum, 
aries,  has  been  referred  to  in  the  article  Japan.  In  and  1  work-room;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres; 
1866  this  zealous  missionary  was  created  Bishop  of  1  boarding-house  (high -school),  1  hospital  dispen- 
Myriophyte  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Japan,  and  in  sary,  1  conference  hall,  and  1  orphan  asylum.  As 
1876,  on  the  division  of  the  territory  into  two  vicari-  the  State  insists  on  the  attendance  of  aU  children  be- 
ates,  he  retained  the  administration  of  Southern  tween  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve  at  the  secular  public 
Japan  (1879-85).  On  the  cessation  of  persecution  primary  schools,  parochial  schools  are  practically  im- 
(see  Japan),  Mgr  Petitjean  devoted  his  whole  energy  possible  in  Japan  at  present.  The  administrative 
to  winning  back  into  the  Fold  the  descendants  of  the  statistics  for  the  year  ending  15  Aug.,  1910,  are:  bap- 
old  Christians,  organizing  the  first  Christian  districts,  tisms  of  adults,  592  (208  in  extremis  and  8  abjura- 
and  founding  a  seminary  for  the  formation  of  a  native  tions) ;  baptisms  of  pagan  children  (in  extremis),  811 ; 
clergy.  He  was  succeeded  as  vicar  Apostolic  by  Mgr  baptisms  of  Christian  children,  1645;  annual  confess 
Julius  Alphonsus  Cousin  (b.  April,  1842),  now  Bishop  sions,  29,414;  paschal  communions,  25,015;  Holy 
of  Nagasaki.  Father  Cousin  landed  in  Japan  in  1866,  Viaticums,  340;  extreme  unctions,  476;  marriages, 
and  was  the  first  missionary  to  penetrate  into  the  323;  known  deaths,  1067;  increase,  1179. 

Goto  Islands.     In  1869  he  founded  the  first  Catholic  !»  addition  to  the  worka  named  under  Japaw.  oonwilt  Thjtm- 

station  at  Osaka,  where  he  laboured  for  eighteen  years.  ^Si^rSiS^^^^^^'Zl^^^^                        J^SSj 

Created  Bishop  of  Acmoma  m  1885,  on  succeeding  Tmnaaetiotu,   IX   (Yokohama,    ISSl).  125-61;  Cart,  HiM,  ^ 


NAQPUB 


669 


MIHANSS 


Chriat,  in  Japan,  I  (Now  York.  — );  Chambsbs  and  Mason, 
Handbook  of  Japan  (8th  ed.,  London.  1907) ;  Oxuma,  Pifiy  Yean 
€^  New  Japan  (2  toIo.,  2nd  ed.,  London,  1010). 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Hagpur,  Diocese  of  (Nagpurensis),  in  India, 
suffragan  to  Madras.  Formerly  the  north-western 
portion  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Vizagapatam,  it 
was  erected  into  a  diocese  on  29  July,  1887,  and  its 
boundaries  finally  readjusted  on  10  July.  1895.  It 
comprises  the  greater  portion  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
Berar,  a  portion  of  tne  Indore  State,  a  strip  of  the 
Nizam's  dominions  as  farsouth  as  the  Godavery  River, 
etc.,  the  boundaries  being  in  many  parts  independent 
of  civil  divisions.  The  area  is  about  124,000  square 
miles  with  a  Catholic  population  of  15,000  out  of  a 
«  total  oi  about  15,000,(XK)  inhabitants.  It  is  served  by 
28  priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Missionaries  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Annecy,  and  7  secular  clergv, 
assisted  by  7  brothers  of  the  above  congregation;  13 
Franciscan  Brothers  from  Paderbom  in  Germany;  4 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  from  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  Sa- 
voy; 23  Daughters  of  the  Cross;  and  28  Catcchist 
Sisters  of  Mary  Immaculate.  The  diocese  has  12 
churches  and  33  chapels.  The  cathedral,  bishop's 
residence,  and  diocesan  seminary  arc  at  Nagpur. 

History. — ^Although  the  territories  comprised 
under  Nagpur  were  included  within  the  Vicariate  of 
the  Great  Mogul,  there  is  no  trace  of  any  missionary 
ever  having  set  foot  there  till  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Nagpur,  Kamptee,  Auranga- 
bad,  and  Jaulnah  were  first  visited  by  priests  of  the 
Goan  j urisdic tion,  from  Poona,  about  1814.  A  chapel 
in  honour  of  St.  Anthony  existed  at  Takli,  suburb  of 
Nagpur,  where  the  troops  of  the  Raiah  of  Nagpur  were 
quartered.  Another  was  built  in  Kamptee,  and  held 
in  great  veneration  by  native  Christians.  A  Goan 
priest  died  at  Nagpur  in  1834.  Simultaneously, 
Goan  priests  establisned  themselves  at  Aurangabau, 
and  built  a  chapel  in  honour  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  in 
1816;  another  chapel  was  built  by  them  at  Kannar, 
two  miles  from  Aurangabad .  Military  cantonments  for 
British  troops  were  created  at  Kamptee  in  1821,  and 
at  Jaulnah  m  1827.  The  Goan  priests  retained  their 
jurisdiction  in  these  parts  until  1839,  when,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Apostolic  Brief  "  Multa  pneclare  "  of  24 
April,  1838,  the  district  fell  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Madras.  In  January,  1839,  prior  ts 
from  Madras  took  possession  of  Kamptee  and  Jaulnah. 
They  were  Fathers  Breen  (died  1844)  and  Egcn  at 
Kamptee,  and  D.  Murphy  at  Jaulnah.    Father  Mur- 

§hy,  whose  registers  are  preserved  in  the  bishop's  resi- 
ence  at  Nagpur,  subsequently  became  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Hyderabad  and  then  Archbishop  of  Hooart 
Town,  Tasmania,  where  he  died  in  1908.  In  1845 
some  missionaries  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  from  Annecy 
(Savoy,  France),  were  appointed  to  the  charge  of  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Vicariate  of  Madras,  which 
was  thus  separated  and  made  into  the  Vicariate  of 
Vizagapatam.  They  took  possession  of  Aurungabad, 
Jaulnah,  and  Kamptee  in  1846,  and  visited  Nagpur, 
EUichpur  (1848),  Jubbulpur  (1850),  and  Khandwa. 
Jubbulpur  became  a  military  cantonment  in  1857. 
From  1846  to  1870  Nagpur  was  a  sub-station  of 
Kamptee,  and  then  became  a  residential  station.  It 
developed  into  the  headquarters  of  the  mission  when 
the  district  was  finally  separated  from  Vizagapatam 
and  made  into  an  episcopal  see,  suffragan  to  Madras, 
in  1887. 

Succession  op  Bishops. — Alexis  Riccaz,  1887-92; 
Charles  Felix  Pelvat,  1893-1900;  J.  M.  Crochet,  1901- 
03;  E.  M.  Bonaventure,  1905-07;  F.  E.  Coppel,  pres- 
ent bishop  from  1907. 

Institutions. — Schools  for  Boya:  St.  Francis  of 
Sales'  College,  Nagpur,  Calcutta,  with  350  pupils,  also 
industrial  school,  printing  press  and  Catholic  youne 
men's  institute;  St.  Francis  of  Sales'  Native  School, 
Nagpur,  with  220  pupils;  St.  Joseph's  Day  School, 


Kamptee,  with  130  pupils;  St.  Aloysius'  School,  Jub- 
bulpur, with  120  pupils ;  small  schools  at  Amraoti  and 
Aurangabad;  native  training  school  at  Ghogargaon 
with  15  boarders,  and  26  other  schools  in  the  villages 
with  215  pupils;  thirty  schools  in  Khandwa  under  26 
catechist  teachers  with  396  pupils;  17  schools  round 
EUichpur  under  17  catechists  with  155  pupils. 

Schools  for  Girls, — Under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph: 
six  schools  at  Nagpur,  Kamptee,  Jubbulpur,  Khandwa, 
Harda,  Pachmari  with  565  pupils,  besiaes  two  smaller 
schools.  Under  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross:  three 
schoob  at  Amraoti,  Aurangabad,  and  Badnera  with 
191  pupils.  Under  the  Catechist  Sisters:  two  schools 
in  Nagpur  with  105  pupils. 

Charitable  Institutions. — Posrhouse,  Nagpur,  with 
156  inmates;  also  foimdling  home  with  30  inmates; 
14  dispensaries  in  various  places  *  boys'  orphanages  at 
Nagpur,  Kamptee,  Thana,  Jubbulpur,  and  Amraoti, 
witn  249  inmates,  and  girls'  orphanages  at  the  same 
places  with  229  inmates.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  So- 
ciety at  Nagpur;  catechumenates  at  Ghogaigaon, 
Khandwa,  ana  EUichpur;  training  schools  ^r  cate- 
chists at  Ghogargaon  and  EUichpur  with  38  students. 
The  mi3sion  centres  are  (1)  Ghogargaon  near  Auranga- 
bad, created  in  1893,  with  55  villages,  23,288  Catholics, 
and  26  schoob;  (2)  Passan  near  Bilaspur,  opened 
in  1900  with  80  Catholics;  (3)  Aulia  in  Khandwa, 
opened  in  1902, 36  villages  with  2100  Catholics  and  30 
schoob;  (4)  EUichpur  in  Berar,  opened  in  1903,  16 
villages  with  870  Catholics. 

Mofiraa  Catholic  Direciory  (1009  and  previous  years);  Dwnv 
emn  Directory  (1007  and  1008);  La  Mieaion  de  VizaaapaJiam 
(Annecy,  1890). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

NahaaoB,  or  "People  of  the  Setting  Sun",  a  tribe 
of  the  great  D6n6  family  of  American  Indians,  whose 
habitat  is  east  and  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
just  north  of  latitude  58°  N.  Broadly  speaking  they 
are  divided  into  two  branches,  the  eastern  and  the 
western  Nahanes.  The  latter  are  themselves  sub- 
divided into  the  Thalhthans,  so  called  after  their 
general  rendezvous  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivej"  of 
the  same  name  with  the  Stickine,  and  the  TfUcus, 
whose  territory  is  the  basin  of  the  Taku  River,  to- 

§  ether  with  the  upper  portions  of  the  streams  which 
ow  northward  to  the  Lewes,  as  far  east  as  the  upper 
Liard  River.  The  Kaskas  live  just  west,  and  through 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  bv  speech,  ph^^sique,  and 
sociology  they  are  eastern  Nananes,  while  just  east  of 
the  same  range  another  subdivision  of  the  tribe  roams 
over  the  mountains  of  the  Mackenzie.  The  entire 
tribe  cannot  now  number  much  more  than  1000  souls, 
viz.,  175  Thalhthans,  200  Kaskas,  150  Takus,  and 
500  eastern  Nahanes  proper.  The  latter,  as  well  as 
the  Kaskas,  are  pure  nomads,  without  any  social 
organization  to  speak  of,  following  patriarchal  lines 
in  their  descent  and  laws  of  inheritance,  while  the 
westernmost  Nahanes  have  adopted  the  matriarchal 
institutions  of  their  nei^^hbours  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
the  clans,  with  petty  chiefs  (some  of  whom  are  quite 
influential  and  arc  occasionally  women),  potlatches  or 
public  distributions  of  goods  or  eatables,  cremation 
of  the  dead,  ceremonial  dances,  etc.  Physically  they 
also  resemble  the  coast  Indians,  with  whom  they  have 
intermarried  to  a  great  extent,  and  from  the  language 
of  whom  they  have  borrowed  not  a  few  words. 

From  a  religious  standpoint  the  Nahanes  have 
fared  badly.  The  secluded  position  of  the  western 
branch  and  the  nomadic  habits  of  the  eastern  sub* 
division  have  conspired  to  keep  them  away  from  re- 
ligious influences.  Moreover  contact  with  the  miners 
of  the  Cassiar  goldflelds  has  considerably  demoralized 
the  Nahanes  of  the  Far  West  and  sadly  thinned  their 
ranks.  The  Anglican  Church  has  for  a  dozen  of 
vears  or  so  maintained  a  mission  at  Thalhthan,  which 
has  met  with  a  limited  measure  of  success.  The 
only  visit  of  a  Catholic  priest  to  the  same  was  paid 


NABABBO 


670 


NAHI7M 


by  the  writer  in  the  summer  of  1903,  and  it  is  under- 
stood that  it  is  now  to  be  followed  up  by  either  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  post  there  or  by  periodi- 
cal visits  of  Oblate  missionaries.  As  to  the  eastern 
branch  of  the  tribe,  they  have  been  more  or  less  within 
reach  of  the  priests  of  the  Mackenzie  valley.  To  this 
dav,  however,  both  east  and  west  of  the  Rockies  the 
tribe  can  be  pointed  out  as  one  of  the  least  civilized  of 

the  North  American  Indians. 

See  bibliointphy  to  Dimis,  Habbs,  and  Loucrbux;  Morics, 
The  iVoA'aiM  and  their  Language  in  Tranaaciiofu  of  the  Canadian 
InetUuU  (Toronto,  1903). 

A.  G.  MORICE. 

Naharro,  Bartoloic£  de  Torres.  See  Torres 
Naharro,  Bartolom£  de. 

Nahum,  one  of  the  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  seventh  in  the  traditional  list  of  the  twelve  Minor 
Prophets. 

Name. — The  Hebrew  name,  probably  in  the  in- 
tensive form,  Nahhum  (Gesenius-Kautzsch,  "Heb. 
Gramm.",  i84b,  g),  signifies  primarily  "  full  of  conso- 
lation or  comfort",  hence  "consoler"  (St.  Jerome, 
consolator). '  *  comforter  " .  The  name  Nahum  was  ap- 
parently of  not  rare  occurrence.  Indeed,  not  to  speak 
of  a  certain  Nahum  listed  in  the  Vulgate  and  Douay 
Version  (II  Esd.,  vii,  7)  among  the  companions  of  Zoro- 
babcl,  and  whose  name  seems  to  have  been  rather  Re- 
hum  (I  Esd.f  ii,  2;  Heb.  has  Rehum  in  both  places),  St. 
Luke  mentions  in  his  genealogy  of  Our  Lord  a  Nahum, 
son  of  Hcsli  and  father  of  Amos  (iii,  25) ;  the  Mishna 
also  occasionally  refers  to  Nahum  the  Medc,  a  famous 
rabbi  of  the  second  century  (Shabb.f  ii,  1,  etc.)}  and 
another  Nahum  who  was  a  scribe  or  copyist  (Peak,  ii, 
6);  inscriptions  show  Ukewise  the  name  was  not  un- 
common among  Phoenicians  (Gesenius,  "Monum. 
Phocn.",  133;  Boeckh,  "Corp.  Inscript.  Graec",  II, 
26,  26;  "Corp.  Inscript.  Semitic",  I,  123  a«b*). 

The  Prophet. — The  Uttle  we  know  touching  the 
Prophet  Nahum  must  be  gathered  from  his  book,  for 
nowhere  else  in  the  canonical  Scriptures  does  his  name 
occur,,  and  extracanonical  Jewish  writers  are  hardly 
less  reticent.  The  scant  positive  information  vouch- 
safed by  these  sources  is  in  no  wise  supplemented  by 
the  worthless  stories  concerning  the  Prophet  put  into 
circulation  by  legend-mongers,  and  which  may  be 
found  in  Carpzov^  "Introd.  ad  lib.  canon.  Bibliorum 
Vet.  Test."  (Ill,  386  sqq.).  We  will  deal  only  with 
what  may  be  gathered  irom  the  canonical  Book  of 
Nahum.  the  only  available  first-hand  document  at  our 
disposal.  From  its  title  (i,  1),  we  learn  that  Nahum 
was  an  Elccsite  (so  D.  V.;  A.  V.,  Elkoshite;  Heb., 

^C^P^K)  .  On  the  true  import  of  this  statement  commen- 
tators have  not  always  been  of  one  mind.  In  the  pro- 
logue to  his  commentary  of  the  book.  St.  Jerome 
informs  us  that  some  understood  'Elqosnite  as  a  pat- 
ronymic indication:  "  the  son  of  Elqosh  " ;  he,  however, 
holds  the  commonly  accepted  view  that  the  word  'El- 
qoshite  shows  that  the  Prophet  was  a  native  of  Elqosh. 
But  even  understood  in  this  way,  the  intimation 
given  by  the  title  is  disputed  by  biblical  scholars. 
Where,  mdeed,  should  this  Eloosh,  nowhere  else  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bible,  be  sought:  (1)  Some  have  tried 
to  identify  it  with '  Alqflsh,  27  miles  north  of  Mossul, 
where  the  tomb  of  Nahum  is  still  shown.  According  to 
this  opinion,  Nahum  was  bom  in  Assyria,  which  would 
explam  his  perfect  acquaintance  with  the  topography 
and  customs  of  Ninive  exhibited  in  the  book.  But 
such  an  acquaintance  may  have  been  acquired  other- 
wise; and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  tradition  connecting  the 
Prophet  Nahum  with  that  place  cannot  be  traced  back 
beyond  the  sixteenth  century,  as  has  been  conclusively 
proven  by  Assemani.  This  opinion  is  now  generally 
abandoned  by  scholars.  (2)  Still  more  recent  and 
hardly  more  credible  is  the  view  advocated  by  Hitzig 
and  Knobel,  who  hold  that  Elqosh  was  the  old  name 
of  the  town  called  Caphamaum  (i.  e..  "the  village  of 
Nahum")  in  the  first  century:  a  Galilean  origin,  they 


claim,  would  well  account  for  certain  slight  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Prophet's  diction  that  smack  of  provincial- 
ism. Apart  from  the  somewhat  precarious  etymol- 
ogy, it  may  be  objected  against  this  identification  that 
Caphamaum,  however  well  known  a  place  it  was  at 
the  New  Testament  i>eriod,  is  never  mentioned  in  ear- 
lier times,  and,  for  all  we  know,  may  have  been  founded 
at  a  relatively  recent  date;  moreover,  the  priests  and 
the  Pharisees  would  most  likely  have  asserted  less 
emphatically  "that  out  of  Galilee  a  prophet  riseth 
not"  (John,  vii,  52)  had  Caphamaum  been  associated 
with  our  Prophet  in  the  popular  mind.  (3)  Still,  it  is 
in  Galilee  that  St.  Jerome  located  the  birthplace  of 
Nahum  ("Comment,  in  Nah."  in  P.  L.,XXV,  1232), 
supposed  to  be  Elkozeh,  in  N.  Galilee;  but  "out  of 
Galilee  doth  a  prophet  rise? '  *  might  we  aak  again.  (4) 
The  author  of  the  "  Lives  of  the  Prophets"  long  attrib- 
uted to  St.  Epiphanius  tells  us  "Elqosh  was  beyond 
Beth-Gabre,  m  the  tribe  of  Simeon .  (Greek  text  in 
P.  G.,  XLIIL  409;  Syriac  text  in  Nestle,  "Syrische 
Grammatik,  Chrestomathia",  99).  He  unquestion- 
ably means  that  Elqosh  was  in  the  nei^bourhood  of 
Beth-Gabre  {Beit  Jibrin),  the  ancient  Eleutheropolis, 
on  the  borders  of  Juda  and  Simeon.  This  view  has 
been  adopted  in  the  Roman  Mart3ToloKy  (1  Decem- 
ber; "  Begabar  "  is  no  doubt  a  corrupt  spelling  of  Beth- 
Gabre),  and  finds  more  and  more  acceptance  with 
modem  scholars. 

The  Book. — ContenU. — ^The  Book  of  Nahiun  con- 
tains only  three  chapters  and  may  be  divided  into  two 
distinct  parts:  the  one,  including  i  and  ii,  2  (Heb.,  i-ii, 
1-3),  and  the  other  consisting  ofii,  1, 3-iii  (Heb.,  ii,  2, 
4r-iii).  The  first  part  is  more  undetemuned  in  tone 
and  character.  After  the  twofold  title  indicating  the 
subject-matter  and  the  author  of  the  book  (i,  1),  the 
writer  enters  upon  his  subiect  by  a  solemn  affirmation 
of  what  he  calls  the  Lord's  jealousy  and  revengeful- 
ness  (i,  2^  3),  and  a  most  forceful  description  of  the 
fright  which  seizes  all  nature  at  the  aspect  of  Yahweh 
coming  into  judgment  (i,  3-6).  Contrasting  admire 
bly  with  this  appalling  picture  is  the  comforting  as- 
surance of  God's  loving-kindness  towiuds  His  true  and 
tnistful  servants  (7-8);  then  follows  the  announce- 
ment of  the  destruction  of  His  enemies,  among  whom 
a  treacherous,  cmcl,  and  ^od-ridden  city,  no  doubt 
Ninive  (although  the  name  is  not  found  in  the  text),  is 
singled  out  and  int^trievably  doomed  to  everlasting 
ruin  (8-14);  the  glad  tidings  of  the  oppressor's  fall  is 
the  signal  of  a  new  era  of  glory  for  the  people  of  God 
(i,  15;ii,2;Heb.,ii,  1.3). 

The  second  part  or  the  book  is  more  directly  than 
the  other  a  "burden  of  Ninive";  some  of  the  features 
of  the  great  Assyrian  city  are  described  so  accurat^y 
as  to  make  all  doubt  impossible,  even  if  the  name 
Ninive  were  not  explicitly  mentioned  in  ii,  8.  In  a 
first  section  (ii),  the  Prophet  dashes  off  in  a  few  bold 
strokes  three  successive  sketches:  we  behold  the  ap- 
proach of  the  besiegers,  the  assault  on  the  city,  and, 
within,  the  rush  of  its  defenders  to  the  walls  (ii.  1. 3-5; 
Heb.,  ii,  2,  4-6);  then  the  protecting  dams  ana  sluices 
of  the  Tigris  being  buret  open,  Ninive,  panic-stricken, 
has  become  an  easy  prey  to  the  victor:  her  most  sar 
cred  places  are  profaned,  her  vast  treasures  plundered 
(6-9 ;  Heb. :  7-10) ;  and  now  Ninive,  once  the  den  where 
the  lion  hoarded  rich  spoils  for  his  whelps  and  his  lion- 
esses, has  been  swept  away  forever  by  the  mi^ty 
hand  of  the  God  of  hosts  (10-13;  Heb.,  11-13).  The 
second  section  (iii)  develops  with  new  details  the  same 
theme.  The  bloodthirstiness,  greed,  and  crafty  and 
insidious  policy  of  Ninive  arc  the  cause  of  her  over- 
throw, most  graphically  depicted  (1-4) ;  complete  and 
shameful  will  be  her  downfall  and  no  one  wul  utter  a 
word  of  pity  (5-7).  As  No-Ammon  was  mercilessly 
crushed,  so  Ninive  likewise  will  empty  to  the  dregs  the 
bitter  cup  of  the  Divine  venceance  (8^11).  In  vain 
does  she  trust  in  her  strongholds,  her  warriors,  her 
preparations  for  a  siege,  and  her  officials  and  scribes 


NAHUM 


671 


NAHUM 


(12-17).  Her  empire  is  about  to  crumble,  and  its  fall 
will  be  hailed  by  the  triumphant  applause  of  the 
whole  universe  (18-19). 

Critical  Questions, — Until  a  recent  date,  both  the 
unity  and  authenticity  of  the  Book  of  Nahum  were 
undisputed,  even  by  such  critics  as  Kuenen  (Onder- 
soek,  li,  §  75),  Wellhausen  (Skizzen  und  Vorarbeiten, 
1893,  p.  155),  and  Comill  (Einleitung,  1892,  p.  188), 
and  the  objections  alleged  bv  a  few  against  the  |;en- 
uineness  of  the  words  ''The  burden  of  Ninive"  (i,  1) 
and  the  description  of  the  overthrow  of  No-Ammon  (iii, 
8-10)  were  regarded  as  trifling  cavils  not  worth  the 
trouble  of  an  answer.  In  the  last  few  years,  however, 
things  have  taken  a  new  turn:  facts  hitherto  unno- 
ticedf  have  added  to  the  old  problems  concerning  au- 
thorship, date,  etc.  It  may  be  well  here  for  us  to  bear 
in  mind  the  twofold  division  of  the  book,  and  to  begin 
with  the  second  part  (ii,  1,  3-iii)  which,  as  has  b^n 
noticed,  unquestionably  deals  with  the  overthrow  of 
Ninive.  That  these  two  chapters  of  the  prophecy 
constitute  a  unit  and  should  be  attributed  to  the  same 
author,  Happel  is  the  only  one  to  deny;  but  his  odd 
opinion,  grounded  on  unwarranted  alterations  of  the 
text,  cannot  seriously  be  entertained. 

The  date  of  this  second  part  cannot  be  determined 
to  the  year;  however,  from  the  data  furnished  b)^  the 
text,  it  seems  that  a  sufficiently  accurate  approxima- 
tion is  obtainable.  First,  there  is  a  higher  limit  which 
we  have  no  right  to  overstep,  namely,  the  capture  of 
No-Ammon  referred  to  in  iii,  8-10.  In  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate (and  the  Douay  Bible)  No-Ammon  is  translated  by 
Alexandria,  whereby  St.  Jerome  meant  not  the  great 
Egyptian  capital  founded  in  the  fourth  century  b.  c, 
but  an  older  city  occupying  the  site  where  later  on 
etood  Alexandria  (''Comment,  in  Nah.",  iii,  8:  P.  L., 
XXV,  1260;  cf.  "Ep.  CVIII  ad  Eustoch.",  14:  P.  L., 
XXII,  890;  "In  Is.**,  XVIII:  P.  L.,  XXIV,  178;  "In 
Os.",  IX,  5-6:  P.  L.,  XXV,  892).  He  was  mistaken, 
however,  and  so  were  Champollion  and  Brunch,  ac- 
cording to  whom  No-Ammon  should  be  sought  in  Lower 
Egypt  (L'Egjrpte  sous  les  Pharaons,  II,  131-33);  As- 
syrian and  Egyptian  discoveries  leave  no  doubt  what- 
ever that  No-Ammon  is  the  same  as  Thebes  in  Upper 
Egypt.  Now  Thebes  was  captured  and  destroyed  by 
Assurbanipal  in  664-663  b.  c,  whence  it  follows  that 
the  opinion  of  Nicephorus  (in  the  edition  of  Geo.  Syn- 
odl.  *'Chronographia",  Bonn,  1829,  I,  759),  makmg 
Nanum  a  contemporary  of  Phacee,  King  of  Israel,  the 
early  tradition  according  to  which  this  prophecy  was 
uttered  115  years  before  the  fall  of  Ninive  (about  721 
B.  c;  Josephus,  "Ant.  Jud.'',  IX,  xi,  3),  and  the  con- 
clusions of  those  modem  scholars  who,  as  Pusey, 
Nagelsbach,  etc.,  date  the  oracle  in  the  reign  of  Eze- 
chias  or  the  earlier  vears  of  Manasses,  ought  to  be  dis- 
carded as  impossible.  The  lower  limit  which  it  is  al- 
lowable to  assign  to  this  part  of  the  Book  of  Nabum  is, 
of  course,  the  fall  of  Ninive,  which  a  well-known  in- 
scription of  Nabonidus  permits  us  to  fix  at  607  or  606 
B.  c,  a  date  fatal  to  the  view  adopted  by  Eutychius. 
that  Nahum  prophesied  five  years  after  the  downfall 
of  Jerusalem  (therefore  about  583-581;  "Annal."  in 
P.  G.,  CXI,  964). 

Within  these  limits  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  date  more 
precisely.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  freshness  of 
the  allusion  to  the  fate  of  Thebes  indicates  an  early 
date,  about  660  b.  c,  according  to  Schrader  and 
Orelli:  but  the  memory  of  such  a  momentous  event 
would  lon^  dwell  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  we  find 
Isaias,  for  instance,  in  one  of  his  utterances  delivered 
about  702  or  701  b.  c.  recalling  with  the  same  vivid- 
ness of  expression  Assyrian  conquests  achieved  thirty 
to  forty  years  earlier  (Is.,  x,  5-34).  Nothing  there- 
fore compels  us  to  assign,  within  the  limits  set  above, 
664--606,  an  early  date  to  the  two  chapters,  if  there 
are  cogent  reasons  to  conclude  to  a  later  date.  One  of 
the  arguments  advanced  is  that  Ninive  is  spoken  of  as 
having  lost  a  great  deal  of  her  former  prestige  and 


sunk  into  a  dismal  state  of  disintegration;  she  is,  more* 
over,  represented  as  beset  by  mighty  enemies  and  pow< 
erless  to  avert  the  fate  threatening  her.  Such  condi< 
tions  existed  when,  after  the  death  of  Assurbanipal, 
Babylonia  succeeded  in  regaining  her  independence 
(625),  and  the  Medes  aim^  a  first  blow  at  Ninive 
(623;  Kuenen,  Van  Hoonacker).  Modern  critics 
(Davidson,  Kennedy,  etc.)  appear  more  and  more  in- 
cline to  believe  that  the  data  furnished  by  the 
Prophet  lead  to  the  admission  of  a  still  lower  date, 
namely  "the  moment  between  the  actual  invasion  of 
Assyria  by  a  hostile  force  and  the  commencement  of 
the  attack  on  its  capital "  (Kennedy) .  The  "  mauler  ", 
indeed,  is  already  on  his  way  (ii,  1;  Heb.,  2);  frontier 
fortresses  have  opened  their  gates  (iii,  12-13) ;  Ninive 
is  at  bay,  and  altnough  the  enemv  has  not  yet  invested 
the  city,  to  all  appearances  her  doom  is  sealed. 

We  may  now  return  to  the  first  part  of  the  book. 
This  first  chapter,  on  account  of  the  transcendent 
ideas  it  deals  with,  and  of  the  lyric  enthusiasm  which 
pervades  it  throughout  has  not  inappropriately  been 
called  a  psalm.  Its  special  interest  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  an  alphabetical  poem.  The  first  to  call  at- 
tention to  this  feature  was  Frohnmeyer,  whose  obser- 
vations, however,  did  not  extend  beyond  w.  .3-7. 
Availing  himself  of  this  key,  Bickell  endeavoured  to 
find  out  if  the  process  of  composition  did  not  extend  to 
the  whole  passage  and  include  the  twenty-two  letters 
of  the  alpnabet,  and  he  attempted  repeatedly  but 
without  great  success  ("Zeitschr.  der  deutsch.  more. 
Gesell.",  1880,  p.  559;  "Carmina  Vet.  Test,  metrice^ 
1882;  "Zeitschr.fur  kath.Theol.'\1886),  to  restore  the 
psalm  to  itspristine integrity.  This  failure  did  not 
discourage  Gunkel  who  declared  himself  convinced 
that  the  poem  is  alphabetical  throughout,  although 
it  is  difficult,  owing  to  the  present  condition  of  the 
text,  to  trace  the  initial  letters  D  to  n  (Zeitschr.  fUr 
alttest.  Wissensch.,  1893,  223  sqq.).  This  was  for 
Bickell  an  incentive  to  a  fresh  study  (Das  alphab.  Lied 
in  Nah.  i-ii,  3,  in  "Sitzungsberichte  der  pnilos.-hist. 
Classe  der  kaiser.  Akademie  der  Wissensch.",  Vienna, 
1894.  5  Abhandl.),  the  conclusions  of  which  show  a 
notable  improvement  on  the  former  attempts,  and 
suggested  to  Gunkel  a  few  corrections  (Schdpf ung  und 
Chaos,  120) .  Since  then  Nowack  (Die  kleinen  Proph- 
eten,  1897),  Grav  ("The  Alphab.  Poem  in  Nah.'^  in 
"The  Expositor'*  for  Sept.  1898,  207  sqq.),  Arnold 
(On  Nah.,  i,  1-ii,  3,  in  ^'Zeitschr.  fOr  alttest.  Wis- 
sensch.". 1901,  225  sqq.),  Happel  (Das  Buch  des 
Proph.  Nah.,  1903),  Marti  (Doaekaproph.  erkl&rt, 
1904),  Lohr  (Zeitschr.  ftir  alttest.  Wissensch.,  1905, 1, 
174),  and  Van  Hoonacker  (Les  douze  petits  proph., 
1908),  have  more  or  less  successfully  undertaken  the 
difficult  task  of  extricating  the  original  psalm  from 
the  textual  medley  in  which  it  is  entangled.  There  is 
among  them,  a  sufficient  agreement  as  to  the  first  part 

of  the  poem  (M-^);  but  the  second  part  still  remains  8 
classical  ground  for  scholarly  tilts. 

Wellhausen  (Die  kleinen  Proph.,  1898)  holds  that 
the  noteworthy  difference  between  the  two  parts  from 
the  point  of  view  of  poetical  construction  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  writer  abandoned  halfway  his  imdert^- 
ing  to  write  acrostically.  Happel  believes  both  parts 
were  worked  out  separately  from  an  unacrostic  origin 
nal.  The  first  corrector  went  as  far  as  the  line  begin- 
ning with  the  letter  D,  and  as  the  last  sentence  closed 
on  the  word  e^p,  he  noted  in  the  title  that  his  revision 

extended  from  ^K  tofi^p;  and  so  the  mysterious  C'p-^N 

(later  on  ^misconstrued  and  misspelled  ^S^p7M)  has 

neither  a  patronymic  nor  a  gentile  connotation.  Critibs 
are  inclined  to  hold  that  the  disorder  apd  corruption 
which  disfigure  the  poem  are  mostly  due  to  the  way  ii 
was  tacked  on  to  the  prophecy  of  Nahum:  the  uppel 
margin  was  first  used,  and  then  the  side  margin ;  and  as, 
in  the  latter  instance,  the  text  must  have  Deen  over* 
crowded  and  blurred,  this  later  on  caused  in  the  sec 


NAILS                                    672  NAZH 

ond  part  of  the  psalm  an  inextricable  confUNOD  from  tion  of  four  dmIs,  and  the  langusfe  of  certain  hist  ri- 
which  the  fiist  was  preserved.  This  explanation  of  cal  writera  (none,  however,  eatiier  than  Gregory  of 
the  textual  condition  of  the  poem  implies  tbeasaump-  Tours,  "Deglor.  mart.",  vi;  for  the  suppoeed  sermon 
bon  that  this  chapter  is  not  to  be  attributed  to  Na-  of  St.  Cyprian,  "De  passione",  Ib  a  medieval  fabrica- 
hum,  but  is  a  later  addition.  So  much  indeed  waa  tion),  favours  the  same  view.  On  the  other  hand,  ia 
granted  by  Bickel!,  and  Van  Hoonacker  (not  to  speak  the  thirteenth  centuiy.  Western  art  b^an  to  repre- 
of  non-Catholic  scholars)  is  inclined  to  a  like  conces-  sent  the  feet  of  the  (Jrucified  aa  placed  one  over  the 
sion.  On  the  one  hand,  the  marked  contrast  between  other  and  pierced  with  a  single  nail.  This  occorji) 
the  abstract  tone  of  the  composition  and  the  concrete  with  the  language  of  Nonnus  and  Socrates  and  with 
character  of  the  other  two  chapters,  we  ore  told,  be-  the  poem  "Cbristus  patiens"  attributed  to  St.  Greg- 
speaks  a  difference  of  authorship;  and,  on  the  other  ory  Nazianius.  which  speaks  of  three  nails.  More 
bond,  the  artificiaUty  of  the  acrostic  form  is  charac-  recent  archfeologica!  criticism  has  pointed  out  not 
teristic  of  a  late  dat«.  These  arguments,  however,  are  only  that  the  two  earliest  representations  of  the  cnici' 
not  unanswerable.  In  any  case  it  cannot  oedenied  that  Sxion  |thc  Palatine  frrfUTito  does  not  here  come  into  ao- 
the  psalm  is  a  most  fitting  preface  to  the  prophecy.  count),  vii.,  the  curved  door  of  Santa  Sabina  in  Rome, 

Little  will  be  found  in  the  teaching  of  the  book  of  an<l  the  ivory  panel  of  the  British  Museum,  show  no 
Nahum  that  is  really  signs  of  nails  in  the 
new  and  original  feet, but thatSt.Am- 
The  originality  of  broee  ("De  obitu 
Nahum  IS  that  his  Theodosii"  in  P.  L., 
mind  is  so  engrossed  XVI,  1402)  and  other 
by  the  iniquities  and  early  writers  distinct- 
impending  fate  of  ly  imply  that  there 
Ninive,  that  he  ap-  were  only  two  naiU 
pears  to  lose  sight  of  (see  Forrer  and  Mul- 
the  shortcomings  of  ler,  "Kreui  u.  Ki^u- 
his own  people.  The  ligung  Christi"). 
doom  of  Ninive  was  Purther,St. Ambrose 
nevertheless  in  itself  informs  us  that  St. 
for  Juda  an  object-  i  Helen  bad  one  nail 
lesson  which  the  im-  converted  into  a 
passioned  language  bridle  for  Constao- 
of  the  Prophet  was  tine's  horse  (early 
well  calculated  to  commentators  quote 
impress  deeply  upon  Zach.,  xiv,  20,  in  this 
the  minds  of  thou^t-  connexion),  and  that 
ful  Israelites.  De-  an  imperial  diadem 
spite  the  uncertainty  was  made  out  of  the 
of  the  text  in  several  other  nail.  Gregory 
places,  there  is  no  of  Toura  speaks  of  a 
doubt  that  the  book  nail  being  thrown 
ofNahumistnily  "a  Naih^  (deptmi),  or  possibly 
masterpiece"  (Kaulen}of  literature.  The  vividness  and  dippedinto  the  Adriaticl^calmastorm.  Itisimpos- 
pictures^iuenesB  of  the  Prophet's  stvle  have  already  sible  to  discuss  these  problems  adequately  in  brief 
been  pointed  out;  in  his  few  short,  flashing  sentences,  space,  but  the  information  derivable  from  the  general 
moat  graphic  word-pictures,  apt  and  forceful  figures,  archaeology  of  the  punishment  of  cruciBxion  as  known 
grand,  energetic,  and  pathetic  expressions  rush  in,  to  the  Romans  does  not  in  any  way  contradict  the 
thrust  vehemently  upon  one  another,  yet  leaving  the  Christian  tradition  of  four  nails. 

impression  of  perfect  naturalness.     Withal  the  Ian-  Very  tittle  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  the  authen- 

guage  remains  ever  pure  and  classical,  with  a  tinge  of  ticity  of  the  thirty  or  more  holy  nails  which  are  still 

partiality  for  alliteration  (i,  10;  ii,  3,  11)  and  the  u-^e  of  venerated,  or  which  have  been  venerated  until  recent 

prim  and  rare  idioms;  the  sentences  are  perfectly  bal-  times,  in  such  treasuries  as  that  of  Santa  Croce  in 

anced;  in  a  word  Nahum  ia  a  consummate  master  of  Rome,  or  those  of  Venice,  Aachen,  the  Escurial,  N^ 

his  art,  and  ranks  among  the  most  accomplished  writ-  rember^,  Prague,  etc.    Probably  themajority  began  by 

ers  of  the  Old  Testament.  professing  to  oe  facsimiles  which  had  touched  or  con- 

" ,  TAt  Minor  Proptirit,  II  (Londop.  1860);  Davidsoh.  tained  fihngs  from  some  other  nail  whose  claim  n 

Hnhnituk    anil    ZiiknninA     (f^nm  liHd  in.      IHOni.     0-Jl!  .    ^         .....          .                                 r       .     i         .     .i 


Nohum,    Habakkuk    and    Zephaniah    (Cambridae,    1890),    9-M;      „.„--  ..nnLp^        Wifhniit  jvmaciniiB  franH  on  tVin  ¥Mrt 
Siirrn,  r*.  Minor  Prophrl,.  II  (London,  1898);  Driveh.  Intr^     ™*"*  ancient,      t^iinout  conscious  iraua  on  tne  part 

-■■"■■*-      Ii  (Eduibur^,  1898),    of  anyone,  it  is  very  easy  for  mutations  m  this  wajr  to 
"  come  in  a  very  brief  space  of  time  to  be  reputed  origi- 
nals.   The  bridle  of  Constantine  is  beheved  to  be 
identical  with  a  relic  of  this  form  which  for  several 
centuries  has  been  preserved  at  Carpentras,  but  there 
~ni  ~iZ',^'J-:Va^A-  '"i^"  i>"T'"  H'l"'  L"~iJ",i"i    is  another  claimant  of  the  same  kind  at  Milan.    Sim- 
.^-  in;.i^[,lj_  |),B3);  MOLLtm.  Dit  PrupAritn  in  ihrer     ilarly  the  diadem  of  Constantme  ts  asserted  to  be  at 


334-37;  GIOOT.  Sptdai  Introdtuiion  to  Iht  Sladi)  of  Ihi  Old  Trtla- 
iMTiI,  II  (Mew  York,  1900),  422-420;  KeKNEOT  in  H.snr-- 

DieL  i^Ou  BMt.  ■,  v.;  Filuoh  in  Vioomtoux.  Dirt,  dc  la  B. 

g.  v.;  V«H  Kdonackeb,  Ltt  dotue  ptfift  prapUI«  (Piria.  1908), 
412-SZ;  Wellhadieh.  SHcun  und  VoroTbcilin.  V:  Dit  r  ' 
pTDpAWn  abrrieia  mil  KMtit  {Berlio.  1883).  31-33;   15 


,  and  it  has  long  been  known  aa  "the  iron 
n  of  Lombardy", 


wid  Z€jtharM  (DieLtfct 

tirtprlinffiiihm    Form    , _,    _,,    ..,..___.    _ ._     ........ 

pTophamnbrr Hilt  and  trkUH  (Gfittingen,  1807).  220-16;  Billxb- 

■Bcx  AHn  Jeheuia«.  Dn-  VnlrTifana  Niirztki  und  dii  Writaeunc'-  RoHAnLT  nE  Fledht  Mtmoirt  mr  lu  iitttrvwunU  di  la  muun 

■ehri/f  d«  Nahumtton  Elkotch  in  BrUraor  tur  StmitiKhrn  Spraeh-  -»>_-_    ia7n\    iixi^ic*  ■''v^^^^„  .«,.  xf «»■,*»    b^.*  m.    F-lT-/ 

uiM.nuithafl.  Ill  (IHflR).  87-188;  Hapfeu  Da.  flwl.  d"  Proph.  1^™/-^!?';-  u^i  KuiijS^uL  (It^ 

NahwHu   trklart   (1903):  Marti.  Oodekajtr^phrton    erktart  (TQ-  ^™  -m,  MAunN   Arehiol  dt^voirion  (Phu   1397 / ' Kiuck 

buigffa,I9O^,303-325;8THAi7sa,  JVitAifmtdeJvii0V'a'ifiniuni<BflT-  BnlrAog  tur  trigritchen  Ardiiol  (Tner^flS) '  Fd'lda  Dtu  Krwui 

irVparJa  |RRA\   I  ^A  **■  ^"  Kreuti^Ti^  (BrcBliu.  1H78);  Feuue.  Le  taint  mora  dj  Car^ 

II  {P«ift  1886).  1-SO.                                        .„„    I      H    ^     ^  pnUra,(C>.rTl^^trMj,.\»7t):    vrCou»U.TS.  Finding  of  I1uCt,m, 

CbaiOES  L.  bOOVAT.  tr.  (l-OBdon.  1907);RujrrAin.M*LT.  JniMSanwCnuhnKuw. 

{Puifc  1877—).  Hbrbbht  Tbcbston. 

1  (Nain),  the  city  where  Christ  laiaed  to  life 

nails.    The  treatment  of  the  Crucifixion  in  art  during  the  widow's  son  (Luke,  vii,  11-17).    The  Midr>sh 

uie  earUer  Middle  Ages  strongly  supports  the  tradi-  (Bereshit  rabba,  88)  gives  the  ngmficanoe  "agree- 


HHUQUALAND 


673 


able"  to  a  place  called  D^y^  (Nairn)  in  the  territory  of 
Issachar,  in  GiJilee.  Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome  (Ono- 
masticon)  place  Nairn  south  of  Mount  Thabor,  and 
not  far  from  Endor.  Now,  opposite  to  Thabor.  and  a 
mile  and  a  half  north  of  Endur  (doubtless  the  Biblical 
Endor),  lies  a  village  called  Natn  ("pleasantness"). 
It  is  situated  on  the  north-western  ridge  of  Jebel  Dahy , 
the  Little  Hermon,  and  commands  a  magnificent  view. 
There  are  traces  of  ruins  beyond  its  boundary  to  the 
north,  but  no  sign  of  fortifications.  "The  gate  of  the 
city"  (Luke,  vii,  12)  might  have  belonged  to  a  wall  of 
enclosure,  built  to  protect  the  place  agamst  marauding 
tribes,  as  was  often  the  case  in  the  East.  A  steep  path 
leads  up  to  the  village,  passing  by  the  site  of  an  ancient 
church  which  had  been  converted  into  a  mosque, 
"  Mouk&m  Lidna  Aisa"  (Oratory  of  the  Lord  Jesus). 
The  mosque,  having  fallen  into  ruins,  was  replaced  by 
another  m  the  vicinity.  In  1880  the  Franciscans 
bought  the  ruins  of  the  first  building,  and  erected 
thereon  a  chapel.  Not  far  awav  may  be  seen  Jewish 
rock-tombs.  Thus  the  details  of  Naim's  graphic  story 
find  an  easy  localization. 

RoBiNiON.  Biblieal  Runrehet  in  PalMline,  III  (Boflton,  1841), 
226;  3ur90u  of  W,  PaUtHm,  Mtmurira,  II  (London.  1882),  86; 
GuiHiif.  La  OaUlie,  I  (Pftris,  1880),  lia-116. 

Babnabas  Meibtebmann. 

Kamaqoaland,  Pbefbcture  Apostouc  of  Gbxat. 
See  Orange  Riveb,  Vicabiatb  Apostouc  of  the. 

NamAi  Baptismal.  See  Baptism,  sub-title  XV: 
NanuB,  Ckristicm, 

Kftine  of  JesiiB,  Reuqioub  CoionrNTnEs  of  the. 
— (1)  Knights  of  the  Name  of  Jesus,  also  known  as 
Seraphim,  founded  in  1334  by  the  Queens  of  Norway 
and  Sweden  to  defend  their  respective  countries  from 
the  onslaught  of  heathen  hordes.  They  did  not  sur- 
vive the  Reformation.  (2)  Sisters  of  the  Name  of 
Jesus  comprise  six  congregations  founded  in  France 
during  the  nineteenth  century  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Besan^on,  with  mother-house  at  Grande-Fontaine, 
Paris:  of  Valence  (1815  or  1825),  mother-house  at 
Lorial;  of  Rodez,  mother-house  at  Ste-Radegonde;  of 
Toulouse  (1827);  and  of  Marseilles  (1852).  These 
sisters  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing and  caring  for  the  sick.  (3)  Confraternity  of  the 
Name  of  Jesus,  formed  by  the  amalgamation  of  the 
Portuguese  Confraternity  of  the  Most  Holy  Name  of 
Jesus,  founded  bv  Andreas  Dfaz,  O.P.,  in  1432,  with 
the  Spanish  Confraternity  of  the  Most  Holy  Name  of 
God,  established  by  Diego  Victoria,  O.P.,  m  the  six- 
teenth century.  Approbation  was  granted  by  Popes 
Paul  V  (1606)  and  Innocent  XI  (1678),  and  the  con- 
fraternity was  enriched  with  indulgences  and  placed 
under  the  Dominican  general. 

Bkimbl  in  KirchenUx.,  a.  v.  Namtn  Jeau  ;  Kbllbb,  £m  eongf4' 
gations  relioieu999  en  France  (Paris,  1880);  Kontermiiondix. 

Florence  Rudge  McGahan. 

Kftine  of  Mary,  Feast  of  the  Holt. — ^We  vene- 
rate the  name  of  Mary  because  it  belongs  to  her  who 
is  the  Mother  of  Goa,  the  holiest  of  creatures,  the 
Queen  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  Mother  of  mercy. 
T*he  object  of  the  feast  is  the  Holy  Virgin  bearing  the 
name  of  Mirjam  (Mary) ;  the  feast  commemorates  all 
the  privileges  given  to  Mary  by  God  and  idl  the  graces 
we  have  received  through  her  intercession  and  media- 
tion. It  was  instituted  in  1513  at  Cuenca  in  Spain, 
and  assi^ed  with  proper  Office  to  15  Sept.,  the  octave 
day  of  Mary's  Nativity.  After  the  reform  of  the 
Breviary  by  St.  Pius  V,  by  a  Decree  of  Sixtus  V  (16 
Jan.,  1587),  it  was  transferred  to  17  Sept.  In  1622  it 
was  extended  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Toledo  by  Gregory 
XV.  After  1625  the  Con^gation  of  Rites  hesitated 
for  a  while  before  authonzins  its  further  spread  (of. 
the  seven  decrees,  "Analecta  Juris  Pontifioii",  LVIII, 
deer.  716  sqq.).  But  it  was  celebrated  by  the  Spanish 
Trinitarians  in  1640  (Ordo  Hispan.,  1640).  On  15 
Nov.,  1658,  the  feast  was  grantee}  to  the  Oratory  of 


Cardinal  Berulle  under  the  title:  Solemnitas  gkniosa 
Virginia f  dupl.  cum  oct.j  1 7  Sept,  Bearing  the  original 
title,  SS.  Naminia  B.M,V,,  it  was  granted  to  all  Spain 
and  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  on  26  Jan.,  1671.  After 
the  siege  of  Vienna  anci  the  glorious  victory  of  So- 
bieskj  over  the  Turks  (12  Sept..  1683),  the  feast  was 
extended  to  the  universal  Churcn  by  Innocent  XI,  and 
assigned  to  the  Sunday  after  the  Nativity  of  Mary 
by  a  Decree  of  25  Nov..  1683  (duplex  majiia);  it  was 
granted  to  Austria  as  a.  f .  claaais  on  1  Aug.,  1684. 
According  to  a  Decree  of  8  Jul^r,  1908,  whenever  this 
feast  cannot  be  celebrated  on  its  proper  Sunday  on 
account  of  the  occurrence  of  some  feast  of  a  higher 
rank,  it  must  be  kept  on  12  Sept.,  the  day  on  which 
the  victory  of  Sobieeki  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
Martyrology.  The  Calendar  of  the  Nuns  of  Perpetual 
Adoration,  O.S.B.,  in  France,  of  the  year  1827,  has 
the  feast  with  a  special  Office  on  25  Sept.  Tlie  feast 
of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary  is  the  patronal  feast  of  the 
Clerics  Regular  of  the  Pious  Schools  (Piarists)  and  of 
the  Society  of  Mary  (Marianists),  in  both  cases  with  a 
proper  office.  In  1666  the  Discalced  Carmelites  re- 
ceived the  faculty  to  recite  the  Office  of  the  Name  of 
Mary  four  times  a  year  (dupUx) .  At  Rome  one  of  the 
twin  churches  at  the  Forum  Traiani  is  dedicated  to 
the  Name  of  Maxy.  In  the  Ambrosian  Calendar  of 
Milan  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary  is  assigned 
to  11  September. 

Albbbb,  BllUhmkrante  (Ptulexborn,  1804),  IV,  iqq.;  HoLWwac, 
FomU  Mariani  (Fr«ibux«.  1802). 

FsiiDaBicK  G.  HoLwacx. 

Nftines,  Christian. — "Christian  names'',  says  the 
Elizabethan  antiquary,  Camden,  "were  imposed  for 
the  distinction  of  persons,  surnames  for  the  difference 
of  families. "  It  would  seem  from  this  that,  even  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  etymolop;ical  and  historical 
significance  of  the  phrase  "Christian  name"  was 
growing  dim,  and  it  is  commonly  quite  forgotten  in 
oiu*  own  time.  But,  strictly  speaking,  the  "Christian 
name''  is  not  merely  the  forename  distinctive  of  the 
individual  member  of  a  family,  but  the  name  given  to 
him  at  his  "  christening ",  i.  e.,  nis  baptism.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  in  pre-Reformation  England  the 
laity  were  taught  to  administer  baptism  in  case  of 
necessity  with  the  words:  " I  christen  thee  in  the  name 
of  the  Father"  etc.  To  "christen"  is  th^^ore  to 
"baptize",  and  "Christian  name"  means  baptional 
name. 

Origins. — Some  vague  idea  that  nomina  sunt  omina 
(names  are  omens)  seems  to  be  a  sort  ofprimitive 
human  instinct.  Thus  throughout  Old-Testament 
times  the  siimificance  of  names  passed  as  an  accepted 
principle.  They  were  usually  given  in  rcdferenoe 
either  to  some  trait  in  the  child,  actual  or  prophetic, 
or  to  some  feeling  or  hope  in  the  parent  at  the  time  of 
its  birth.  It  was  only  a  veiy  slight  development  of 
this  idea  to  suppose  that  a  change  of  condition  appro- 
priately demanded  a  change  of  name.  Thus  the  con- 
version of  Abram  into  Abraham  (the  "father  of  many 
nations",  Gen.,  xvii,  5)  was  imposed  upon  the  occa- 
sion of  the  covenant  of  circumcision  and  ratified  a 
claim  to  God's  special  benediction.  In  view,  then,  of 
this  recognized  congruity  and  of  the  Hebrew  practice 
of  givinp  a  name  to  the  male  child  at  the  time  of  its 
circumcision  on  the  ei|;hth  day  after  birth  (Luke^  i, 
59),  it  has  been  maintamed  that  the  custom  of  confer- 
ring a  name  upon  the  newly  baptised  was  of  Apostolic 
origin.  An  instance  in  pomt  is  declared  to  be  found 
in  the  case  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  who  before 
his  conversion  was  called  Saul  and  idPterwards  Paul. 
But  modem  scholarship,  and  with  reason,  has  idto- 
irether  rejected  this  contention.  The  baptism  of  St. 
Paul  is  recorded  in  Acts,  ix,  18,  but  the  name  Paul 
does  not  occur  before  Acts,  xiii  J^  while  Saul  is  fount) 
several  times  in  the  interval.  We  have  no  more  rea* 
son  to  connect  the  naine  Paul  with  the  Apostle's  bi^ 


J 


674 


ciam  than  we  have  to  account  in  the  same  way  for  the 

E'ving  of  the  name  Cephas  or  Peter,  which  we  know  to 
)  due  to  another  cause.  Moreover,  it  is  certain,  both 
from  the  inscriptions  of  the  catacombs  and  from  early 
Christian  literature,  that  the  names  of  Christians  in 
the  first  three  centuries  did  not  distinctively  differ 
from  the  names  of  the  pagans  around  them.  A  refer- 
ence to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  makes  it  plain  that 
even  the  names  of  heathen  gods  and  goddesses  were 
borne  by  his  converts  after  their  conversion  as  before. 
Hermes  occurs  in  Rom.,  zvi,  14,  with  a  number  of 
other  purely  pasan  names,  Epaphroditus  in  Phil.,  iv, 
18,  Phebe,  the  deaconess,  in  Rom.,  zvi,  1.  Not  less 
conclusive  are  the  names  which  we  find  in  the  Chris- 
tian inscriptions  of  the  earlier  period  or  in  the  lists  of 
the  signatories  appended  to  such  councils  as  Niciea  or 
An^rra  (see  Turner,  "Eccl.  Occident.  Mon.  Juris",  1, 
36-90;  II,  50-53),  or  again  in  the  lists  of  martyrs. 
Even  at  a  later  date  the  names  are  of  a  most  miscel- 
laneous character.  The  following  classification  is  one 
that  has  been  worked  out  by  J.  Bass  Mullinger 
founded  on  Martigny. 

A. — Names  without  Christian  significance  and  prob- 
ably derived  from  oagan  ancestors: — (1)  names  de- 
rived unchanged  or  out  slightly  modified  from  pagan 
m^^ology,  e.  g.,  Mercurius,  Bacchus.  Apolloe  (f  Cor., 
xvi,  12),  Hermogenes  (Rom.,  xvi,  4),  etc.;  (2)  from 
religious  rites  or  omens,  e.  g.,  Augustus,  Auspicius, 
Augurinus,  Optatus:  (3)  from  numbers,  e.  g.,  Irimus, 
Primigenius,  Secimoinus,  Quartus,  Octavia,  etc.;  (4) 
from  colours^  e.  g.,  Albanus,  Candidus,  Rufus,  etc.; 
(5)  from  animals  and  birds,  e.  g.,  Agnes,  Asellus, 
Uolumba,  Leo,  Taurus,  Ursula,  etc.;  (6)  from  agricul- 
ture, e.  g.,  A^da,  Armentarius,  Palmatinus.  Sterco- 
rius,  etc.;  (7)  from  flowers,  e.  g.,  Balsamia,  Flosculus, 
Narcissus,  Rosula;  (8)  from  jewels,  e.  g.,  Chrjrsanthus, 
Maigarites,  Smara^dus;  (9)  from  mifituy  life  or  the 
■ea,  e.  g.,  £merentiana,  Navi^,  Pelagia,  Scutarius, 
Thalassus;  (10)  from  coimtnes,  cities,  rivers  etc.; 
Afra,  Cydnus,  Galla,  Jordanis,  Macedonius,  Maurus, 
Sabina,  Sebastianus,  etc.;  (11)  from  the  months,  e.  g., 
Aprilis,  Januaria,  Junia,  etc.;  (12)  from  personal  Qual- 
ities, etc.,  e.  g.,  Aristo,  Hilarius,  Modestus,  Puaens, 
etc.;  (13)  from  servile  condition,  e.  g.,  Servus,  Servili- 
anus,  Vemacla;  (14)  names  of  hStorical  celebrity, 
e.  p.,  CsBsarius,  Cornelia,  Pompeius,  Ptolenueua,  Ver- 
gihus. 

B. — ^Names  of  Christian  origin  and  sii^iificanoe. — 
(1)  Names  apparently  su^ested  by  Christian  dogmas, 
e.  g.,  Anastaaia,  Athanasia,  Christophorus,  Redemp- 
tOBj  Restitutus,  etc.;  (2)  from  festivals  or  rites,  e.  g.. 
Epiphanius,  Eulogia,  Natalia,  Pascaaia,  Sabbatius.  and 
the  frequently  recurring  Martjrrius;  (3)  from  Cnri»- 
tian  virtues,  e.  g..  Agape,  Elpis,  Fides,  Irene,  with 
such  derivatives  as  Adelphius,  Agapetus,  Caritosa, 
etc.;  (4)  pious  sentiment,  e.  g.,  Adeooata,  Ambrosius, 
Benedictus,  Deogratias,  etc.,  and  possibly  such  names 
as  Gaudentianus,  Hilarius,  Sozomen,  Victorianus, 
A^centius,  but  it  is  veiy  hard  to  be  sure  that  any  dia- 
tinctively  Christian  feeung  is  here  latent. 

On  the  other  hand  though  the  recurrence  of  such 
names  as  Agnes,  Balbina,  (Domelius,  Felicitas,  Iremeus, 
Justinus,'  etc.  may  veiv  probably  be  due  to  venera- 
tion for  the  martyrs  who  first  bore  these  names,  it  is 
rather  curious  that  the  names  of  the  saints  of  the  New 
Testament  are  but  rarely  foimd  while  those  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  hardly  less  uncommon.  Susanna, 
Daniel,  Moyses,  Tobias,  occur  pretty  frequently,  but 
it  is  only  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  that 
we  find  the  name  of  our  Blessed  Lady  or  become  at  sJl 
familiar  with  those  of  the  Apostles.  Even  then  we 
cannot  be  sure  that  in  the  case  of  Paulus  in  particular 
there  is  any  intentional  reference  to  the  Apostle  of  the 
Gentiles,  but  Johannes  at  least,  and  Andieas,  with 
Petrus  and  its  derivatives  like  retroniajPetrius,  Pe- 
tronilla,  etc.  are  less  open  to  doi^t.  The  name  of 
Maxy  oocurs  pcoamonal^  in  the  catacomb  insoriptiopB 


towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  oentuiy^or  eaamplB, 
in  the  form  uvia  mabia  in  pacb  (De  Hosai,  "Rom. 
Sot.",  1, 143)  and  there  ia  a  mar^  Maria  aoEBmed  to 
the  date  a.  d.  256  (De  Rossi,  "R<»n.  Sot.",  fli,  200 
sqq.  and  compare  other  instiMiceB  of  the  name,  De 
Rossi,  "Insc.  Christ.",  1, 331;  II,  160  and  173). 

Cbangb  of  Namb  at  Baptism. — ^If  we  oould  tnisi 
the  authentic  and  oontemporazy  character  of  the 
Acts  of  St.  Balsamus,  who  died  a.  d.  311,  we  should 
have  an  early  example  of  the  connexion  between  b^>- 
tism  and  the  giving  of  a  name.  "By  my  patenial 
name'\  this  martyr  is  said  to  have  declared,  "I  am 
called  fialsamus,  but  by  the  spiritual  name  which  I  re- 
ceived In  baptism,  I  am  known  as  Peter.''  It  would 
seem  in  any  case  that  the  assumption  d  a  new  name 
for  some  devotional  reason  was  fairly  common  among 
Christians.  Eusebius  the  historian  took  the  name 
Pamphili  from  Pamphilus  the  martyr  whom  be  espe- 
cially venerated.  Elarher  still  St.  Cyprian  ohoee  to  be 
called  Cyprianus  Cedlius  out  of  gratitude  to  tlw  Qe- 
cilius  to  whom  he  owed  his  oonvendon.  Moreover  St 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (c.  260)  declared  "I  am  of 
opinion  that  there  were  many  of  the  same  name  as  the 
Apostle  John,  who  on  account  of  their  love  for  him,  aod 
because  they  admired  and  emulated  him,  and  deared  to 
be  loved  by  the  Lord  as  he  was,  took  to  themaelveB  the 
same  name,  just  as  many  of  the  children  of  the  faith- 
ful are  called  Paul  or  Peter"  (Euadinus,  "Hiat.Ecd.", 
VII,  xxv).  It  would  be  only  natural  thkt  the  assump- 
tion of  any  such  new  name  should  take  plaoe  formal^ 
at  bantism,  in  which  the  catechumen^  then  probably  as 
now,  had  to  be  addressed  by  some  diatincttve  aradla- 
tion.  On  the  other  hand  it  seeins  likelv  that  the  im- 
position  of  a  new  name  at  baptism  onhr  became  the 
mvariable  rule  after  infant  baptism  had  become  gen- 
eral. Every  child  had  neoewarily  to  reoave  some 
name  or  other,  and  when  baptism  followed  aoon  after 
birth,  this  must  have  ofiFerea  a  very  suitable  oroortu- 
nity  for  the  public  recognition  of  the  choice  miuK. 

No  doubt  the  thirtieth  of  the  suf^xiaed  Arabian 
Canons  of  Nicsa:  ''Of  giving  only  namea  of  Christians 
in  baptism  "  is  not  authentic,  even  though  it  ia  of  eariy 
date;  but  the  sermons  of  St.  John  Chiysoatom  seem  to 
assume  in  many  different  places  that  the  oonf erring  of 
a  name,  presumably  at  baptism,  ought  to  be  regulated 
by  some  idea  of  Christian  edification,  and  he  implies, 
though  this  does  not  seem  to  be  borne  out  by  the  evi- 
dence now  available,  that  such  had  been  the  practice 
of  earlier  generations.  For  example  he  aays:  "When 
it  comes  to  giving  the  infant  a  name,  caring  not  to  call 
it  after  the  saints,  as  the  ancients  at  first  did,  people 
light  lamps  and  give  them  names  and  so  name  the 
child  after  the  one  which  continues  burning  the  long- 
est, from  thence  conjecturing  that  he  wiH  uve  a  loi^ 
time"  (Hom.  in  Cor.,  xii,  13).  Smilaiiv  he  com- 
mends the  practice  of  the  parents  of  Antioch  in  calhng  « 
their  children  after  the  martyr  Meletius  (P.  G.,  L,  515). 
and  again  he  urges  his  hearers  not  to  give  their  chil- 
dren the  first  name  that  occurs,  nor  to  seek  to  gratify 
fathers  or  grandfathers  or  other  family  connexions  by 

giving  their  names,  but  rather  to  choose  the  names  of 
oly  men  conspicuous  for  virtue  and  for  their  cour- 
age before  God  (P.iG.,  LIII,  179).  History  preserves 
sundry  examples  of  such  a  change  of  name  in  adult 
converts.  Socrates  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Y II,  xxi)  tells  us  of 
Athenais  who  married  the  Emperor  Theodoeiua  the 
Younger,  and  who  previously  to  marriage  was  bap- 
tized (a.  d.  421)  receiving  the  name  Eudoxia.  Agam 
Bede  tells  us  of  the  case  of  King  Cffidwalla  who  went 
to  Rome  and  was  baptised  by  uie  Pope  Sergius  nho 

gave  him  the  name  ot  Peter.  Dying  aoon  afterwards 
e  was  buried  in  Rome  and  his  epitaph  beginning 
"Hie  depositus  est  Csedwalla  qui  est  Petrufr"  was  long 
pointed  out  (Bede,  "mst.  Eccl.''  V,  vii).  Later  we 
nave  the  well-known  instance  of  Quthrum  the  Danish 
leader  in  England  who  after  his  long  contest  with  Esng 
Alfred  was  eventually  defeated  andi  conaentin^  to  a^ 


NAMES  675  NAMB8 

cept  Chruftiiuiity,  was  baptised  in  878  by  the  name  of  medieyal  examjiIeB  show  that  any  notable  change  of 

1    iBthelstan.  condition,  especially  in  the  spiritual  order,  was  often 

I        Pbacticb  beoabding  Nambb. — But  while  yarious  accompanied  by  the  reception  of  a  new  name.    In  the 

Fathers  and  spiritual  writers,  and  here  and  there  a  eighth  century  the  two  Englishmen  Winf rith  and  Wil- 

synodal  decree,  have  exhorted  the  faithful  to  give  no  libald  goinp  on  different  occasions  to  Rome  received 

names  to  their  children  in  baptism  but  those  of  canon-  from  the  reigning  pontiff,  along  with  a  new  commission 

ized  saints  or  of  the  angels  of  God,  it  must  be  con-  to  preach,  the  names  respectively  of  Boniface  and 

fessed  that  there  has  never  been  a  time  in  the  history  Clement.    So  again  Emma  of  Normandy  when  she 

of  the  Church  when  these  injunctions  have  been  at  all  married  King  Ethelred  in  1002  took  the  name  JEH' 

strictly  attended  to.    They  were  certainly  not  heeded  gifu;  while,  of  course,  the  reception  of  a  new  name 

during  the  early  or  the  later  Middle  Ages.    Any  one  upon  entering  a  religious  order  is  almost  univ^iBal  even 

who  glances  even  casually  at  an  extensive  list  of  medi-  in  our  own  day.    It  is  not  strange,  then,  that  at  confir- 

eval  names,  such  as  are  perhaps  best  found  in  the  in-  mation,  in  which  the  interix)sition  of  a  godfather  em- 

dexes  to  the  volumes  of  legal  firoceedinge  which  have  phasizes  the  resemblance  with  baptism,  it  should  have 

been  edited  in  modem  times,  will  at  once  perceive  that  become  customary  to  take  a  new  name,  though  usu- 

while  ordinar]^  names  without  any  very  pronounced  ally  no  m&t  use  is  made  of  it.    In  one  case,  however, 

religious  associations,  such  as  William,  Robert,  Roger,  that  of  fieniy  III,  Kine  of  France,  who  being  the  ^xl- 

Geoffrey,  Hu^,  etc.  enormously  preponderate  (Wil-  son  of  our  English  Edward  VI  had  been  diristened 

liam  about  the  year  1200  was  by  far  the  most  common  Edouard  Alexandre  in  1551,  the  same  French  prince  at 

Christian  name  in  England),  there  are  also  always  a  confirmation  received  the  name  of  Henri,  ana  by  this 

very  considerable  numD^  ot  exceptional  and  out-of-  he  afterwards  reigned.    Even  in  England  the  prao- 

the-way  names  which  have  apparently  no  religious  as-  tice  of  adopting  a  new  name  at  confirmation  was  re- 

sociations  at  all.    Such  names,  to  take  but  a  few  speci-  membered  after  the  Reformation,  for  Sir  Edward  Coke 

mens,  as  Ademar,  Ailma,  Ailwsjd,  Albreza,  Alditha,  declares  that  a  man  might  validly  buy  land  by  his 

Amaury,  Ascelina,  Avice,  Aystorius  (these  come  from  confirmation  name,  and  he  recalls  the  case  of  a  Sir 

the  lists  of  those  cured  at  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  of  Frauds  Gawdye,  late  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common 

Canterbury)  are  of  quite  frequent  occurrence.    The  Pleas,  whose  name  of  baptism  was  Thomas  and  his 

point  however  cannot  be  dwelt  on  here.    We  may  name  of  confirmation  Francis  (Co.  Litt.  3a). 

note  on  the  other  hand  that  a  rubric  in  the  official  ^^Schbod  in  XircA«niex.,^  ▼.  Namm;  Babb  MvhusamRinDiu. 

"Rituale  Rjmanum"  enjoins  that  the  priest  ouj^ht  to  f^:  JSiilS^.'^e  SSi^i  tSSJ^a^.f^cS  ». 

see  that  Unbeoommg  or  ndlCUloUS  names  of  deities  or  17-28;  Yongs,  a  History  afChri$Uan  Namea  (London*  1894). 

of  godless  pagans  are  not  ^ven  in  baptism  (curet  ne  Hbrbsbt  Thurbton. 

obsccena,  fabulosa  aut  ridicula  vel  inanium  deorum 

vel  impionim  ethnicorum  hominum  nomina  imponan*        NameSi  Hebrew. — ^To  the  philosopher  a  name  is  an 
tur).     Some  of  the  seventeenth  century  Frencn  ritu-  artificial  sign  consisting  in  a  certain  combination  of 
als  have  gone  further  than  this.    For  example  that  of  articulate  sounds,  whereby  a  particular  class  of  people 
Bourges  (1666)  addressing  parents  and  godparents  are  wont  to  designate  one  thing  and  distinguish  it  from 
urges:  "Let  them  give  to  boys  the  names  of  male  aU  others.    If  the  name  conveys  an  idea,  it  is  merely 
saints  and  to  girls  those  of  women  saints  as  right  order  because  of  a  wholly  artificial  relation  once  arbitrarily 
requires,  and  let  them  avoid  the  names  of  festivals  established  between  the  name  and  the  thmg  it  stands 
like  Easter  (Piques),  Christmas  (Noel),  All  Saints  for.   Primitive  people,  using  a  language  aa  it  is  h^uided 
(Toussaint)  and  others  that  are  sometimes  chosen."  down  to  them  without  inquiring  into  its  origin,  are 
Despite  such  injunctions  ''Toussaint"  haa  become  a  inclined  to  make  much  of  names.    This  is  true  of  the 
not  imcommon  French  Christian  name  and  ''Noel"  old  Semitic  peoples,  especiallv  of  the  Hebrews.    All 
has  spread  even  to  England.    The  addition  of  Marie.  Hebrew  names  were  supposed  to  bear  a  sisnificance, 
especially  in  the  form  Jean-Marie,  for  boys,  and  or  as  originally  individual  subjects  were  called I>y  a  name 
Joaeph  for  girls  is  of  everyday  occurrence.  expressive  of  some  characteristic,  e.  g.,  Edom,  red; 
In  Spun  and  Italy  again,  ardent  devotion  to  our  Esau,  hairy;  Jacob,  supplanter.    They  were  carefully 
Bleasea  Ladv  has  not  remained  content  with  the  sim-  and  solenmly  selectea,  especially  personal  names, 
pie  name  Maria,  but  many  of  her  festivals  etc.  have  Leaving  aside  cases  where  the  name  was  Divinely  given 
also  created  names  for  girls:  Concepti6n,  of  which  the  (Abraham,  Gen.,  xvii,  5;  Isaac,  Gen.,  xvii,  19;  Imiael, 
diminutive  is  Concha,  is  one  of  the  best  known,  but  we  Gen.,  xvi,  11;  John,  Luke,  i,  13;  Jesus.  Matt.,  i,  21; 
have  also  Asuncidn.  Encarnacidn,  Mercedes,  Dolores,  etc.),  the  naming  of  a  child  usually  devolved  upon  the 
etc.  in  Spanish  and  in  Italian  Assunta,  Annunziata,  parents,  and,  it  appears,  preferably  upon  the  mother. 
Conoetta,  etc.    It  is  strange  on  the  other  hand  that  The  women  of  the  family  (Ruth,  iv,  17),  or  the  neigh- 
the  name  Mary  has  by  no  means  always  been  a  favoui^  hours  (Luke,  i,  59),  talked  over  the  name  to  be  given, 
ite  for  oris,  possibly  from  a  feeling  that  it  was  too  au-  The  name  seems  to  have  been  given  ordinarily  at  the 
gust  to  DC  so  familiarly  empl^ed.     In  England  in  the  time  of  the  birth;  but  at  a  late  period  the  day  of  cir- 
twelfth  century  Mary  as  a  Qiristian  name  is  of  very  cumcision  was  more  usual  (Luke,  i,  59:  ii,  21).    Of  the 
rare  occurrence.   George  again  is  a  name  which  despite  customs  connected  with  the  naming  of  cities  we  know 
the  recognition  of  the  warrior  saint  as  patron  of  £ng-  nothing,  except  what  may  be  gather^  from  the 
land,  was  by  no  means  common  in  the  thirteenth  and  names  themselves,  and  what  is  said  of  a  few  cities 
fourteenth  centuries,  though  strangely  enough  it  grew  named  after  their  founders  and  conquerors  (Gen.,  iv, 
in  popularity  after  the  Reformation.     A  writer  who  17:  Num.,  xxxii,  42;  Deut.,  iii,  14;  Jos.^  xix,  47:  etc.). 
haa  made  a  minute  examination  of  the  registers  of  Ox-        So  intimate  was  the  relation  conceived  to  be  be- 
fore! University  from  1560  to  1621,  has  made  out  the  tween  the  individual  and  his  name,  that  the  latter 
following  list  of  the  more  common  names  borne  by  the  came  frequently  to  be  used  as  an  equivalent  of  the  for- 
otudents  in  order  of  popularity:  John,  3826;  Thomas,  mer:  "to  be  called"  meant  "to  be",  the  name  being 
2777;  William,  2546;  Richard,  1691;  Robert,  1222;  taken  to  be  equal  to  the  object,  nay,  identical  with  it. 
Edward,  957:    Henry.  908;  George,  647:    Francis,  Nothing  is  more  eloquent  of  this  fact  than  the  relkious 
447;  James,  424;  Nicholas,  326;  Edmund,  298  (see  awe  in  which  the  Hebrews  held  the  name  of  God  (see 
Oxford   Hist.   Soc.   Transactions,    XIV).    In  Italy  Jehovah).    Similar  notions  prevailed  with  regaid  to 
and  Spai^  it  has  alw^s  been  a  tolerably  common  all  proper  names.    Nor  were  the  Hebrews  an  excep- 
practice  to  call  a  child  after  the  saint  upon  whose  tion:   all  Semitic  peoples,  and,  to  some  extent,  ful 
feast  he  is  bom.  primitive  peoples  snared  the  same  belief.   This  is  why 
CoHFiKifATiON  Namss. — ^The  practice  of  adopting  the  study  of  these  names  is  looked  upon  by  students 
a   new  name  was  not  limited  to  baptism.     Many  of  history  aa  a  sort  of  key  to  Uie  knowledge  of  the  reli- 


MAltSft  676  ttllttS 

nous  and  BodaloonditionB  of  these  peoples.  WeshaO  Sharat,  "the  great  prinoeBB";  Lot  from  lAtu^  or 
here  diaciUB  onlv  Hebrew  names:  I.  ISivinx  Namss;  Ld'U&f  "the  consumer";  from  the  Egyptian  might  be 
II.  Pbbsgnal  Namss;  III.  Placb  Names.  explained  likewise  a  few  names,  e.  g.,  Moaes,  "the 
I.  Divine  Names. — Yahweh. — Jehovah  (q.  v.),  the  child",  etc.).  Of  the  pure  Hebrew  names  some  are 
traditional  form  of  this  name  in  Western  lan^ages,  is  simple  and  others  compound.  Simple  names  appear 
based  on  a  misunderstanding  of  the  Massoretic  vocali-  to  have  been  more  frequent  in  early  times,  but  some 
lation.  The  name  Yahweh,  of  which  an  abbreviated  are  in  reality  hypoooristic,  i.  e.,  abbreviated  forms  d 
form,  Yahf  and  a  spelling.  YahWf  seem  to  have  been  compound  names,  as  Saul  (asked),  David  (beloved), 
popular,  is  derived  doubtlessly  from  the  verb  hayah^  Nathan  (he  t»ve),  etc.,  which  were  probably  com- 
''to  be' ,  and  is  best  translated  by  "he  is"  (Lagrange  bined  with  a  Divine  name,  Yah  or  *EL 
in  "Revue Biblique",  1903,  pp.  370-86: 1908,  pp.  383-  SimfilU  Names.— Oi  the  simple  names  a  few  seem  to 
86).  *Elt  which  is  found  among  aU  Semitic  peoples  have  been  suggested  by  particular  circumstances,  es- 
(Phcen.,  Arab.: 'JS't;  AsByrr.  11^  liu;  Aram.: 'AloA),  is,  pecially  circumstances  attending  the  child's  birth: 
in  the  Bible,  appellative  in  most  cases,  but  was  cer-  e.g.,  Jacob  (the supplanter),  Joseph  (possibly an hypo- 
tainly  in  the  bc^nning  a  proper  name  (so,  e.  g.,  in  coristicname:  "  Whom  Goa  added" — ^Eliasaph  was  at 
Gen.,  xxxi,  13;  xxxiii,  20;  xlvi,  3).  Its  etymology  is  to  one  time  a  favourite  name  for  the  youngest  son  in  a 
the  present  day  a  much  mooted  question :  some  derive  family).  A  laige  class  of  proper  names  for  men  and 
the  word  from  a  root  'trZ,  "to  be  strong";  others  from  women  is  made  up  of  adjectives  denoting  personal 
y'l,  which  might  connote  the  idea  of  "being  the  first":  characteristics.  Here  are  a  few  instances:  Aean 
others  finally  from  7A,  by  which,  at  an  earlv  stage  or  (afflicting),  Achas  (possessor),  Agar  (wanderer),  'Amos 
the  development  of  the  Semitic  languages  the  idea  of  (strong),  Amri  (eloquent),  Aod  (praising),  Asaph 
mere  relation  (esse  ad)  was  convened.  According  to  (gatherer),  Aser(happy),Aear(captive),Ather  (bound), 
the  first  two  opinions,  the  name  is  intended  primarily  Axbai  (dwarf),  Balac  (vain),  Baruch  (blessed), 
to  express  the  superiority  of  the  Divine  nature,  Cetura  (sweet-smellins^,  DalUa  (yearning),  Doeg 
whereas,  according  to  the  third,  God  is  'El  because  ^anxious),  Edom  (red),  Esthon  (woman-like),  Gaddel, 
He  is  the  term  of  the  aspirations  (finis)  of  mankind  Geddel  (tall),  Gedeon  (destroyer).  Heled  (fat),  Job 
(Lagrange,  "Etudes  sur  les  religions  s^mitiques",  70  (ruthlessly  treated).  Laban  (wnite),  Manahem  (con- 
sqq.,  especially  78-80;  "Revue  biblique",  1903. /pp.  soler),  Nfu>al  (fool),  Nachor  (panting  or  snoring), 
362--370).  Closely  related  to  *El  are  the  names  *Eloh  Nahum  (comforter),  Noemi  (pretty),  Omii  (tiro,  awk- 
and  *Elokimy  sometimes  used  as  appellatives.,  but  ward),  Oman  (nimble),  Ozni  Oong-eared),  Phesse 
more  frequently  as  proper  names.  The  plural  form  of  (lame),  Ruth  (friend),  Sepho  (bald-4ieaded),  etc. 
the  latter  to  some  extent  still  puzzles  grammarians  Names  of  animals  and  of  plants  were  at  the  same 
and  students  of  the  religious  belief  of  the  Hebrews  (see  period  not  infrequently  given  to  persons  both  by  the 
Gesenius-Kautzsch,  "Hebr.  Gramm.",  §  124,  g-i;  Hebrews  and  by  their  neighbours,  the  Chanaanit«B 
Prat,  "Le  nom  divin  est-il  intensif  en  Hebreu?"  in  and  others.  Among  the  names  of  a^wimAlM  assumed  as 
"Revue  bibl.",  1901.  p.  497  sqq.;  Smith  "The  Reli-  proper  names,  we  may  mention:  Achbor  (mouse),  Aia 
ffion  of  the  Semites"^ Xondon,  1907.  445:  Laminge.  (vulture),  Aran (wildgoat),  Caleb  (dog)^Ddx>ra  (bee), 
"Etudes  sur  les  religions  s^mitiques",  77).  We  n^  Eglon  (calf),  Gaal  (beetle).  Hagaba,  m  N.  T.  A^ 
not  dwell  upon  the  many  cases  where  *El  and  *Elohim  bus  Oocust),  Hulda  (weasel),  JsuEiel  (chamois),  Jonas 
are  used  as  appellatives,  either  by  themselves,  or  as  (dove),  Nahas  (snake),  Osi  (goose-like),  Rachd  (ewe), 
parts  of  compound  names  such  as  'El  Roy  (the  God  of  Saphan  (coney),  Sebia  (gazelle),  Sephora  (little  bird), 
the  apparition),  *El  'Olam  (the  Eternal  God),  *El  Sual  (jackal),  Tabitha  (Aram.,  gaadle),  Tola  (worm), 
'Elyan  (the  Most  High  God),  'Elo?ie  Sebaoth  (the  God  Zeb  (wolf).--Of  the  names  of  plants,  apparently  less 
of  Hosts),  etc.  (see  Lagrange  in  "Revue  biblique",  frequently  used  than  those  of  animals,  here  are  a  few 
1903,  pp.  364-67).  Shadday. — As  to  the  name  Shad"  instances:  Asemi  (bush).  Cassia  (a  kind  of  balsam- 
day,  which  is  found  sometimes  alone,  and  at  other  tree),  Cos  (thorn),  Elas  (oak),  Elon  (terebinth).  Ha- 
times  in  connexion  with  'El  ('El  Shadday) ^  it  was  orig-  dassa  (myrtle),  Oren  (pine),  Susan  (lily),  etc.  Some 
inally  an  adjective  conveying  possibly  the  idea  of  modem  scholars  explain  the  relatively  fr^ment  recur- 
fecundity  (Gen.,  xvii,  1;  xhx,  25)  or  of  highness  (Ps.,  rence  of  these  two  kinds  of  names  among  Palestinian 
xd,  1);  at  a  later  period  the  Prophets,  m  order  to  populations  as  remnants  of  totemism  which,  these 
emphasise  their  threats  of  divine  punishment,  spoke  scholars  maintain,  prevailed  in  early  times.  This  is 
as  if  the  word  were  related  to  shadady  to  "devastate";  hardly  the  place  to  discuss  such  a  question.  It  is 
but  the  people  at  large,  unmindful  of  these  etymolog-  illogical  to  extend  to  all  primitive  peoples  religious 
ical  niceties,  used  Shadday  merely  as  a  substitute  for  conceptions  observed  in  some  few;  were  we  to  yield 


Surely  Hebrew  or  hebraicized.   To  the  latter  category  the  like.    Granting  even  that  the  names  mentioned 

elong  not  only  (passing  over  foreign  names  as  Teglath-  above  are  unmistakable  signs  of  totemism  among  the 

phalasar,  Assuerus,  etc.)  Babylonian  (Daniel-Bait-  early  populations  of  Palestine,  it  would  by  no  means 

nassar)  and  Persian  (Hadassa-Esther)  names  assumed  necessjEinly  follow  that  these  names  manifest  the  prev> 

by  some  persons  of  Hebrew  origin  living  in  far-away  alence  of  the  same  religious  ideas  among  the  Hebrews, 

countries^  and  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  in  use  Hebrew  was  not  the  primitive  language  of  the  descen- 

among  Jews  of  later  times  conjointly  with  their  dants  of  Abraham,  they  having  adopted  it  from  the 

Hebrew  or  Aramaic  names  (John-Mark;  Saul-Paul,  natives  of  the  land  of  (jnanaan ;  naturally  along  with 

etc.).  but  also  certain  very  old  names  which  were  the  language  they  adopted  certain  of  their  modes  of 

handed  down  by  tradition,  such  as  Cain,  Abel,  Noe,  speech. 

Abraham,  etc.,  and  treated  by  the  sacred  writers  as  Sometimes  names  of  things,  also  of  natural  phenom- 
Hebrew  words.  There  is  scarcely  any  doubt  but  that  ena,  even  (though  rarely)  abstractions,  ana  words 
in  passing  from  one  language  to  the  other  these  names  referring  to  trades  or  avocations  were  taken  as  propo* 
were  altered  to  some  extent;  and  as  the  etymologicfd  names.  Of  the  latter  class  we  have  for  instance: 
explanation  pretends  to  interpret  the  Hebrew  form,  Abdon,  Obed  (servant),  Amon  (architect),  Bersdisi 
the  meaning  arrived  at  can  hardly  be  more  than  fanci-  (blacksmith),  Chaimi  (vine-dresser),  Somer  (watch- 
ful. It  is  from  the  original  language  of  these  names  man),  Zamri  (singer):  of  the  former:  Asag  (fire),  Ahod 
that  their  meaning  should  be  sought  (so  Abram  and  (union),  'Amos  (buraen),  Anna  (grace),  Barac  (H^^t- 
Abraham  mav  be  explained  from  the  Assyr.  AhinrAmily  nine),  Bezec  (thunderbolt),  Cis  (straw).  Core  (frost), 
or  Abir4^lmey  "my  father  loveth" ;  Sarai  and  Sara  from  Ephron  (dust),  Hon  (strength),  Maiy  (stubbornness, 


MAMB8  677  NAMB8 

disobedience,  see  Num.,  xii),  Naboth  (fruit), Ur  (light),  fonn  a  compound,  as  in  Joel,  Elimdech,  etc.  In  these 
Samson  (sun),  etc.  casea  it  ia  clear  that  we  should  see  a  sentence  express- 
Compound  Namea. — Compound  personal  names  are  ing  an  act  of  faith  in  the  divinity  of  the  nxl  the  subject 
80  numerous  that  only  a  few  main  points  concerning  of  the  sentence.  Accordin^y  Joel  will  oe  inteipreted 
them  can  be  touched  on  here.  First  comes  the  ques-  "Yahweh  is  God",  and  Ehmelech  ''Melech  is  God", 
tion  of  the  exact  meaning  of  these  names.  Although  On  the  other  hand,  Adonias  and  Malachias  cannot 
the  sense  of  each  part  separately  is  usually  clear  mean  "Adonis  Yahweh"  or ''Melek is  Yahweh".  be- 
enough,  yet  that  of  the  compound  is  not.  Tne  diffi-  cause,  unlike  *EL  Yah  is  never  appellative;  in  tnese 
culty  is  to  decide  whether  these  parts  are  in  genitive  words,  Adon  ana  Melek  are  common  nouns,  and  the 
relation,  or  in  relation  of  subject  to  predicate  (the  verb  compounds  are  equivalent  respectively  to  "  Yahweh 
in  the  latter  case  being  understood).  In  certain  is  master"  and  "Yahweh  is  king", 
names,  no  matter  which  view  is  taken,  the  meaning  (3)  The  rules  laid  down  for  interpreting  the  above 
remains  practically  the  same:  it  is  immaterial  whether  daaaes  of  compound  names  are  equally  applicable  to 
"Eliezer"  be  interpreted  "God  of  help"  or  "God  is  those  made  up  of  a  word  denoting  relationship  and  a 
help":  but  with  names  like  Abinadab,  the  difference  word  denoting  divinity.  If  the  first  part  of  ^ese 
in  both  constructions  becomes  marked,  for  "Father  of  names  be  Ben,  Bath,  Bar  (Aram.,  son),  Ebed,  I  ah 
generosity"  is  by  no  means  equivalent  to  "my  father  (man),  a  (genitive  relation  may  be  understood  to  exist 
IS  generous".  Since  no  rule  for  aU  cases  is  available,  between  it  and  the  second  part;  thus  Benadad  or 
for  the  sake  of  clearness  it  will  be  well  to  divide  com-  Barhadad  stands  for  "son  of  Hadad":  Abdeel  for  ; 
pound  names  into  three  classes:  (1)  Names  having  as  "servant  of  God":  Esbaal  for  "man  ot  Baal".  On  ' 
one  of  their  component  parts  a  term  connoting  either  the  other  hand,  if  tne  first  element  be  A 6,  Ah,  Amm  or 
kindred  (father,  son,  eto.)  or  accidental  relations  (e.  g.,  the  like  it  seems  that  the  relation  to  the  Divine  name 
servant);  (2)  Names  (known  as  theophorous  names)  should  be  regarded  rather  as  one  of  predicate  to  sub- 
containing  a  Divine  element;  (3)  Names  including  ject.  It  is  clear  that  the  interpretation  indicated  here 
terms  both  of  kindred  and  Divinity.  is  the  right  one,  for  otherwise  some  names  would  con- 

(1)  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  only  a  genitive  rela-  vey  absurd  meanings:  surely  Abia,  Abiel,  Abbaal, 
tion  will  explain  names  having  as  their  first  element  Ammiel,  cannot  mean  "father",  "uncle",  "of  Yah- 
Ben  (son);  Bath  (daughter),  Ebed  or  Ohed  (servant),  weh",  "of  God",  "of  Baal".  There  might  be  no 
Thus  Benjamin  is  to  be  interpreted  "son  of  the  right  objection,  absolutely  speaking,  in  words  like  Achid, 
hand";  Bethsabee,  "daughter  of  the  oath";  Obed-  Achia,  bein^  understood  "brother  of  Grod",  "of  Yah- 
edom,  "servant  of  jSdom  .  Names  in  which  the  first  weh":  but  it  is  hard  to  believe  the  sense  could  be,  as 
element  is  Ab  (father),  Ah  (brother),  Amm  (uncle  by  it  is,  different  when  the  elements  appear  in  the  reverse 
the  father's  side)  are  to  be  considered  sentences,  for  order,  as  in  Joahe. 

such  names  are  applied  equally  to  men  and  women, —        From  this  rapid  survey,  it  appears  that  studento  of 

names  such  as  Abigail,  Abisag,  ete.,  if  they  meant  the  history  of  religions  mav  find  in  Hebrew  proper 

"father  of  joy",  "father  of  error",  would  be  most  names  ample  material  for  deductions  concerning  the 

unsuitable  for  women.   The  name  Achab  some  regard  religious  belief  and  the  theolo^  of  God's  people.   Not 

as  a  possible  exception  to  this  rule  (it  might  then  be  to  mention  what  has  been  hmted  at  concerning  the 

interpreted  "brother  of  the  father" — uncle) ;  whether  influence  of  Chanaanite  idolatry,  and  passing  over  the 

this  exception  is  warranted  remains  problematical,  preference  given  to  the  Divine  name  'El  m  earlier 

As  to  the  letters  t  (^)  and  u  (1)  frequently  introduced  times,  a  fairly  complete  knowledc[e  of  the  attributes  of 

after  the  first  element  of  this  class  of  names  (Abi,  Achi,  God  may  be  gathered  from  Divme  and  theophorous 

Ammi) ,  it  seems  rather  a  connecting  vowel  than  a  per-  names.  Yahweh. ' '  He  whose  essence  is  to  be  ",  is  God, 

Bonal  suffix.  that  is  to  say,  tne  term  of  every  bdng's  aspirations 

(2)  Theophorous  names  were  at  all  times  widely  ('El) ;    He  is  Most  High  ('El  'Elyon),  eternal  ('£1 

used  among  Semitic  peoples.    To  limit  ourselves  to  '01am),  perfect  (Joatham),  and  worthy  of  all  praise 

names  found  in  the  Bible,  although  names  including  (£l-usai)  and  glory  (Jochabed).     His  eyes  behold 

the  Divine  element  Yah,  or  Yaho,  are  by  far  the  more  everything  ('El  Roy);   His  knowledge  comprehends 

numerous,  vet  they  were  not  in  use  as  early  as  those  all  things  (Eliada,  Joiada),  and  all  things  are  ever 

formed  with  *EL    These  names  have  for  their  other  present  to  His  memory  (Zacharias).    He  is  all-power- 

oomponent  element  either  a  verb  or  a  noun.    In  the  ful  ('El  Sliadday)i  and  in  Him  all  things  acknowledc;e 

former  case,  the  Divine  name  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  their  founder  (Eliacim,  Joiakim,  Joi^in)  and  Uieir 

(Eliaama,  "God  heard " ;  Jonathan,  "Yahweh  gave ") ;  upholder  (Joram) ;  to  Him  they  are  indebted  for  their 

in  the  latter  the  Divine  name  may  be  r^arded  again  increase  (Eliasaph),  their  beauty  (Elnaim,  Joada)  and 

as  the  subject,  and  the  noun  as  the  predicate  (Elisua,  their  strength  (Eliphaz,  Eliel).    His  generosity  (Jona- 

"God  is  salvation";  Josue,  "Yahweh  is  salvation"),  dab)  prompts  Him  to  communicate  His  gifts  (Joas, 

Not  only  the  name  of  the  true  God,  but  also  names  of  Jonathan,  jozabad,  Johanan.  John)  to  creatures.    To 

foreign  deities,  especially  Adon,  BaaL  Melek,  entered  men  in  particular  He  is  a  father  (Abias,  Abiel,  Joab), 

into  the  composition  of  names  taken  oy  Hebrews  at  a  and  a  brother  (Achias,  Achiel) :  He  loves  them  (Eli- 

period  when  the  relations  of  God's  people  with  their  dad).    Being  merciful  (Jerahmeel),  He  lends  a  willing 

neighbours   were   most  intimate.     Naturally   such  ear  to  their  prayers  (Elisama) :   He  is  thdr  master 

names  are  to  be  interpreted  in  the  same  maimer  as  (Adonias).   their  king   (Malacnias),   their  defender 

those  including  Yah  or  \El.    Hence  Adonixedec  shall  (Jorib),  tneir  help  (Eleazar,  Eliezer),  Uieir  saviour 

beunderstood    Adon  is  justice",  ete.;  but  Esbaal  can  (Josue,   Jesus,    iKiias),   their  protector  in  distress 

hardly  mean  anjrthing  else  than  "man  of  Baal".    In  (Elisaphan.  Elisur,  Eliaba);   from  Him  proceeds  all 

this  connexion  it  is  noticeable  that  at  a  later  period  justice  and  justification  (Josedec);   in  tne  end.  He 

abhorrence  of  these  foreign  deities  prompted  first  the  shall  be  their  judge  (Josaphat) ;  from  Him  also  shall 

reading,  and  soon  afterwards  the  writing  of  Bosheth  they  receive  tneir  reward  (Elphaal,  Eliasub,  Eliho- 

(shame)  in  places  where  originally  the  text  had  Baal  reph). 

(laboseth,  for  Isbaal).    Moreover,  it  matters  not,  in        III.  Placb  Names. — ^When  we  speak  of  Hebrew 

theophorous  names,   whether   the   Divine   element  names  of  places  in  Palestine,  it  should  be  borne  in 

stands  in  the  first  or  in  the  last  place  (theophorous  mind  that  many  of  these  names,  like  the  towns  and 

names  have  among  western  Semitic  peoples  only  two  villages  they  designated,  were  in  existence  long  before 

component  parts,  contrary  to  the  As^rian  and  Baby-  the  Hebrews  settled  there,  and  even  before  anv  records 

Ionian  use) :  for  Nathan-El  is  equivalent  to  El-Nathan,  mentioning  pUices  in  Palestine  were  written  (Inscr.  of 

Joeue  to  Isaias,  etc.  Thotmes  ill,  about  1600  b.  c;   El-Amama  letters, 

Not  unfrequently  two  Divine  names  are  united  to  about  1450  b.  c).    Nevertheless  we  are  justified  in 


MAltSS 


678 


KAMB8 


Plundering  these  names  as  Hebrew,  sinoe  Hebrew  is 
the  Chanaanite  language  of  the  early  inhabitants  c^ 
Palestine,  adopted  by  the  Israelite  conquerors. 

In  all  countries,  many  names  of  phices  have  been 
suggested  b>r  the  topoeraphy.  The  Palestinians 
named  certain  towns  Kama,  Ramath.  Ramatha, 
Ramathaim  for  the  same  reason  we  would  name  them 
"Heisht";  they  said  Gabaa,  Geba,  Gabaon,  as  we 
would  say  ''HiU";  their  Sela  (Petra)  would  be  our 
"Cliff'*:  what  we  might  style  our  "Hollow"  they 
called  Horen  or  Horonaim.  They  had  their  Lebanon 
as  we  have  our  "White  Mountams":  and  where  we 
would  say  "Blackrock",  they  said  Hauran;  the 
names  of  some  of  their  rivers:  Jordan,  Cedron,  oichor, 
resemble  our  "Rapids",  "Dusky",  "Blackwater". 
Argob  means  a  lay  of  rich  soil;  Hordb  or  Jabes,  dry 
lands;Accaron, ''Bad Lands".  "Spring" and'' Well '^' 
were  then  as  now  a  prominent  element  in  compound 
names  of  places  (hence,  Endor.  Engaddi,  etc.;  Bieroth, 
Bersabee,  etc.);  to  a  native  or  the  Holy  Land,  Ham- 
math,  Hamman  soimded  like  "Hot  Springs"  to  us. 
A  large  proportion  of  compound  names  are  made  up 
of  Hasor  (enclosed  settlement),  Cariath,  Ir,  Qir  (city), 
Beth  (house),  and  another  element  the  oricon  of  whidi 
is  not  always  obvious  (Cariath-Ari>e,  Bethlehem). 
Sometimes  also  the  locality  derived  its  name  from 
some  vegetable  product:  Abel  (meadow).  Atad  (some 
kind  of  Khamnus),  Baca  (mulber^-tree),  Abel-kera- 
mim.  Bethacarem.  Escol.  Sorec  (vine);  Dilan  (cu- 
cumber); Ela,  Elath,  Elim,  Elotii,  Elon  (oak  and 
terebinth);  Gamso  (sycamore);  Lus  (almond-tree); 
Mount  Olivet;  Remmon  (pomegranate);  Rithma 
(broom):  Samir.  Bethsetta  (acacia) ;  Bettaffua  (apple 
tree);  Tnamar  (palm-tree). 

Places  named  after  animals  are  not  rare  in  Pales- 
tine: Acrabim  (scorpion):  Aialon  (stag);  Arad  (wild 
ass);  Eslon.  E^^aim  (calf):  Ephron,  G^hra  fgaielle); 
En-gadoi  (kid);  Etam  (hawk);  BethhagU  (par- 
tridge); Humta  (lizard);  Lais,  Lebaoth  (lion);  Ima- 
has  (snake);  Beth-nemra  (leopard);  Para  (cow); 
Seboim  (hyena);  Hasar-sual  (jackal);  Hasar-susa, 
-susim  (horse);  Telalm,  Bethcar  (lamb);  Zora  (hor^ 
net);  etc. 

An  important  and  interesting  class  of  topographical 
names  have  reference  to  the  religious  practices  of  the 
early  inhabitants  of  Chanaan.  Such  cities  as  Beth- 
sames,  Ensemes.  the  various  Hares  clearly  owed  their 
names  to  their  being  given  up  to  sun-worship;  like- 
wise such  names  as  Sin,  Sinai  (Babyl.  SiUf  i.  e..  Moon- 
god),  and  Jericho,  tell  us  of  places  consecrated  to  the 
cult  of  the  moon.  Many  were  the  cities  and  moun- 
tains dedicated  by  the  Chanaanites  to  the  various 
Baals.  Even  Babylonian  sods  possessed  shrines  in 
Palestine:  the  names  of  Mt.  Nebo,  Nebo  of  Moab, 
Nebo  of  Juda  (Esd.,  ii,  29),  are  of  themselves  veiy 
suggestive;  Anath,  the  female  companion  of  Anu, 
flAve  her  name  to  Beth-Anath,  Beth-Anoth,  Anathoth; 
Bel  was  honoured  in  Ribla  (Ar-bela);  Ishtar  in 
Astaroth,  Astaroth-camaim,  Beestera;  the  name 
Beth-Dagon  needs  no  comment. 

Finally  a  certain  number  of  distinctly  Hebrew 
names,  which  either  superseded  older  ones,  or  were 
pven  to  localities  before  unnamed^  have  a  special 
mterest  because  they  took  their  origin  from  events 
enshrined  in  the  memory  of  the  Hebrews.  Bersabee 
recalls  the  league  of  Abraham  and  Abimelech  (Gen., 
sdx,  20) ;  Eseg,  the  ouarrel  of  the  herdsmen  of  Gerara 
with  those  of  Isaac  (Gen.,  xxvi.  20) ;  Bethel,  the  vision 
of  Jacob  (Gen.,  xxviii.  17);  likewise  the  names  Abel- 
Misraim  (Gen.,  i,  11),  Mara  (Ex.,  xv,  23),  Massa, 
Meriba  (Ex.,  xvii,  7),  Thabeera  (Num.,  xi,  3),  Horma 
(Niun.,  xxi,  3),  Galgala  (Jos.,  v,  9),  Bokim  (Judges,  ii, 
5),  Abeneser  (I  Kings,  vii,  12),  Pherex  Osa  (II  Kings, 
vi,  8),  eta,,  were  for  the  Hebrew  people  so  many  rec- 
ords of  the  memorable  past.  And  this  custom  of  re- 
naming places  in  commemoration  of  momentous  facts 
persisted  until  the  times  of  the  New  Testament,  as 


we  gather  from  the  (Aramaic)  name  Haoeldama 
(Matt.,  xxviii,  18:  Acts,  i,  19)  given  to  the  potter's 
field  bouc^t  with  blood-money. 

CBBTirB  m  Bneyd,  Bibl.,  •.  vr.  Abi,  Awumi:  Cult,  fntlrnw 
Itrad.  and  Aaai/r.  Proper  Nawtn  in  Luthtran  Ckureh  JKcwmv,  XIV. 
196-aOl;  Qhat,  Httrew  Proper  NameM  (Londonu  1S96):  Iosm. 
Ntbo  iu  an  Blemont  «n  Hokrow  Proper  Name*  in  ExpoeHarg  TSmiea 
(Feb..  1899).  233-34;  lom  in  HABrxNOB.  Diet,  of  the  BibU,  a.  tt. 
Nawte  Bnd  Proper  Name*;  ^KmwyWt  On  Comvounds  wiik  Boek^k- 
Baal  in  Joum.  of  BibL  IM.  (1894).  19  Kiq.;  louf.  On  Campamtdw 
wiih  -yah  in  Jbicm.  of  BihL  lAi.  (1894).  101-27;  Surm.  The  ReH- 
oion  of  the  Semitea  (London,  1907);  Idsm.  Animal  and  PlaM 
Namea  in  Joum.  cf  Phil.,  IX,  75-100;  Hn.iwa,  Onomuutievm 
Saentm    (Tobincen,    1706);     Lsubdwc,    Onomaetiemm    Saermm 

iLeyden,  1664) ;  Michamus.  Obtervat,  phil.  de  nemunbrne  proer. 
TbrMr.  (Halle,  1729);  Idbm.  Nomina  qwedam  propria  V«t.  «t  Nmi 
Tul.  (Hall«,  1764):  Simonib.  Onomaetitum  VeL  Tet^  (Halle, 
1741) ;  Laokanqb,  Btudet  eur  let  reliaum§  •hniUmtee  (Pmiia,  1903) ; 
LBBftTBB  in  VioouBOUx,  Diet,  dt  la  Bible^  a.  ▼.  Nom:  Rjbkak.  Smt 
l$t  noma  thiophoret  dane  lea  languea  afmitiquea  in  Rome  dee  Btudea 
Juiaaa  (1882),  161-77;  Qhundwau).  Dm  Bigennamen  dee  AlL 
Taai.  in  ihrer  Badeuiung  fUr  die  Kenniniaa  dee  hebrdiadien  Foifc»> 
^nbena  (Brealatt,  1895);  Kmb— .  Die  reKgumveekiehtlidu 
Bedeutung  der  habr.  Bioennamen  (1897);    Laoakob,  Bildumo  dv 


Nomina  (Ldptic.  1889);  Nsbtlb.  Dia  itraelUiaehen  Ei^enna 
naeh  ihrer  rmgionegeeehiehtliehen  Bedeutung  (Harlem,  1876). 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 

Hames  of  Jesna  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Holt, 
a  religious  congregation  founded  at  LongueuiL  Que- 
bec, 8  December,  1844,  under  the  patronage  of  Bidiop 
Bourget,  of  Montreal,  for  the  Christian  education  of 
young  girls.  The  mother-house  is  at  Hochelaga, 
Montreal.  The  institute  was  incorporated  by  Act  of 
the  Canadian  Parliament,  17  March,  1845.  A  Decree 
cum  laude  was  issued  by  Fius  IX,  27  F^ruaiy,  1863. 
and  a  further  Decree  of  4  September,  1877,  approved 
the  institute;  the  constitutions  received  definite  ap- 
proval 26  June,  1001,  and  the  institute  was  divided 
mto  seven  provmces,  11  May,  1894.  later  increased  to 
nine,  25  August,  1910.  Under  the  oirection  c^  Rev.  J. 
Allard  three  Canadian  aspirants — Miss  Eulalie  Duio- 
cher,  Miss  Henriette  C^r6,  and  Miss  M^odie  Duf  resne 
— ^were  trained  according  to  the  institute  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary  established  by  Mgr  Eugene 
de  M aienod  of  Marseilles.  They  took  simple  religious 
vows  at  Longueuil.  8  December,  1844,  as  Sisters  Marie- 
Rose,  Marie-Maaeline,  and  Marie-Agnes.  Bishop 
Bourget  gave  the  institute  diocesan  approval  and  ap- 
pointed Mother  Marie-Rose,  general  superior  for  life. 
The  community  at  Marseilles  supplied  the  title  of  the 
congregation  and,  with  modifications,  the  habit  and 
the  rule.  Under  Mother  Marie-Rose,  the  oongre^ 
tion  developed  rapidly,  and  a  course  of  study  provid- 
ing equally  for  English  pupils  and  French  was  sketched 
on  lines  sufficiently  broad  to  cover  subsequent  require- 
ments. The  teaching  of  boys  was  not  at  first  contem- 
plated, but  missionary  conditions  rendering  it  impera- 
tive in  certain  provinces,  permission  from  the  Holy 
See  has  been  temporarily  obtained.  The  postulate 
lasts  six  months.  At  the  end  of  the  canonical  year 
novices  are  sent  for  six  additional  months  to  the*  dif- 
ferent houses,  where  they  become  practically  ac- 
quainted with  the  life  of  the  oommumty.  After  five 
years,  the  young  religious  reconsiders  her  vocation 
during  a  retreat  of  thirty  days.  Final  vows  are  pei^ 
petual.  Young  girls  desirous  of  leading  a  hidden  life 
m  the  apostolate  of  education,  or  possessing  little 
aptitude  for  instruction,  may  enter  as  auxiliary  sisters. 
Their  spiritual  preparation  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
choir  sisters,  and  save  for  minor  details  in  dress,  no 
outward  distinctions  exist  between  the  two  daases. 
A  general  superior  elected  for  five  years,  who  may 
not  be  chosen  for  more  than  two  consecutive  terms, 
governs  the  entire  congregation,  assisted  by  four  coun- 
cillors. A  general  chapter  assembles  periodically  to 
deliberate  upon  the  maior  concerns  of  the  institute. 

In  1859  Archbishop  Blanchet  of  Oregon  City,  Ore- 
gon, secured  twelve  sisters  for  his  diocese.  Several 
years  later,  they  were  invited  to  Seattle,  Waahin^n. 
To-day  these  two  States  form  one  province,  with  a 
novitiate  (1871)  and  provincial  headauartera  at  St. 
Mary's  Academy  and  College^  PorUand.    This  school 


NjIMUB 


679 


NjIMUB 


was  empowered  to  confer  decrees  (July.  1803),  also  to 
grant  a  Teachers'  State  Certificate  good  for  five  years, 
and  a  Teachers'  State  Diploma  qualifying  the  holder 
for  life.  In  1907|  an  Act  of  the  Washington  State 
L^pslature,  afterwards  ratified  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education,  accredited  the  Holy  Names'  Academies  at 
Seattle  and  Spokane,  as  State  Normal  Schools.  Two 
other  provinces  are  located  in  the  United  States.  That 
of  California,  established  at  Oakland  (1868)  by  Bishop 
Alemany,  possesses  a  novitiate  since  1871;  the  New 
York  province  includes  Florida.  Quebec  has  four 
provinces ;  Ontario,  one ;  Manitoba,  one.  Attached  to 
Ontario  are  parochial  schools  in  Detroit  and  Chicago. 
St.  Mary's,  Portland,  opened  (1860)  a  refuge  for  desti- 
tute and  orphaned  children  and  still  conducts  a  Home 
for  Orphan  Girls.  The  congregation  nimibers  (1910) 
professed  sisters,  1267;  novices,  110;  postulants,  81. 
It  conducts  99  schools,  residential,  select,  and  paro- 
chial, attended  by  24.208  pupils.  Of  these  establish- 
ments, 48  are  in  the  United  States. 

Marie  R.  Madden. 

Naxnnr,  Diocese  of  (Namurcenbis),  constituted 
by  the  Bull  of  12  May,  1559,  from  territory  previously 
belon^ng  to  the  Diocese  of  Lidge,  and  made  suffragan 
of  the  new.  metropolitan  See  of  Cambrai.  The  Con- 
cordat of  1801  re-established  a  Diocese  of  Namur,  its 
limits  to  coincide  with  those  of  the  Department  of 
Sambre-et-Meuse,  and  to  be  suffragan  of  Mechlin. 
On  14  Sept.j  1823,  the  Diocese  of  Namur  was  increased 
by  the  temtory  of  Luxemburg,  which  had  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Metz.  and  which,  forming, 
under  the  First  Empire,  part  ot  the  Departments  of 
the  Forets  and  the  .^jrdennes,  had  been  given,  in  1815, 
to  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  After  the  Revo- 
lution of  1830,  which  brought  about  the  separation  be- 
tween the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  the  Bel- 
gian Province  of  Luxemburg,  the  City  of  Luxemburg 
received  a  vicar  Apostolic.  In  1840  the  jurisdiction 
of  this  vicar  was  extended  to  the  whole  grand  duchy. 
On  7  October,  1842,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Diocese  of 
Namur  was  definitively  restricted  to  the  two  Belgian 
Provinces  of  Namur  and  Luxemburg. 

In  1047,  Albert  II,  Count  of  Namur,  caused  the 
erection^  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  chapel,  which  an  un- 
authenticated  legend  says  was  dedicated  by  Pope 
Cornelius  in  the  third  century,  of  a  collegiate  churcn, 
served  by  twelve  canons,  who  had  the  right  of  admin- 
istering justice  within  their  lands.  The  first  dean, 
Fredenck  of  Lorraine,  brother-in-law  of  Albert  II, 
about  1050  secured  from  the  chapter  of  Mainz  a  por- 
tion of  the  head  of  St.  Aubain,  martyr.  The  collegi- 
ate church  took  the  name  of  St.  Aubain  the  Martyr. 
In  1057  Frederick  became  pope  under  the  name  of 
Stephen  IX.  The  various  successors  of  Albert  II  en- 
riched this  foundation  with  numerous  privileges.  In 
1^)9  Innocent  III,  by  a  Brief,  took  it  under  his  pro- 
tection. In  1263  Baldwin,  Emperor  of  Constanti- 
nople, heir  of  the  counts  of  Namur^sold  the  count- 
ship  to  Guy  de  Dampierre,  Count  of  Flanders,  and  the 
House  of  Dampierre  also  protected  the  collegiate 
church.  In  1429  Count  John  III  sold  the  coimtship 
to  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgimdy .  Thenceforth, 
until  the  French  Kevolution,  Namur  belonged  to  the 
House  of  Burgundy-Austria,  except  during  the  years 
1692-95,  when  it  was  occupied  by  Louis  XIV.  Charles 
the  Bold.  Philip  the  Fair,  Charles  V,  Albert  and 
Isabella  all  knelt  and  took  the  oath  in  the  sanctuary  of 
St.  Aubain.     This  church  thus  held  a  most  important 

Elace  in  the  political  life  of  the  country.  It  was  re- 
uilt  in  the  eighteenth  centurv  after  the  model  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome,  as  the  cathedral.  Don  John  of  Aus- 
tria is  buried  there. 

The  Church  of  Namur  resisted  Josephinism.  In 
1789,  despite  the  formal  prohibition  of  Joseph  II,  the 
image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  carried  in  processions 
throu^  the  streets  in  honour  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 


ception. Under  the  Directory,  the  vicar  capitular, 
Stevens,  formerly  a  professor  in  the  University  of 
Louvain,  and  famous  for  his  opposition  to  Josephin- 
ism, directed  the  clergy  by  mysteriouslv  circulated 
communications  issuedfrom  his  hiding-place  at  Fleu- 
rus.  After  the  Concordat,  when  the  Frenchman 
Leopold-Claude  de  Bexon  had  been  made  Bishop  of 
Namur,  Stevens  feared  that  the  new  bishop  would  be 
too  compliant  towards  Napoleon.  The  pamphlets 
which  he  circulated  under  the  title  "Sopnisme  d6- 
YoiW*  advised  the  clergy  to  refuse  adhesion  to  the 
Concordat,  as  it  woulci  be  taken  by  the  State  for 
adhesion  to  the  Organic  Articles.  A  petite  Sgliae 
formed  of  persons  calling  themselves  ''otevenists" 
was  formed  in  the  diocese.  It  was  strengthened  by 
the  subservience  of  Bishop  Bexon,  whom  a^^e  had 
weakened,  for  the  prefect  Wr^  and  by  the  circular 
(13  November,  1802)  in  which  he  denied  having  dis- 
approved of  the  Organic  Articles.  At  last  Bexon  re- 
signed, 15  Sept.,  1803,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pisani  de 
laGaude.  But  Stevenism  continued  to  exist.  Stevens 
admitted  that  the  Concordat  was  legitimate,  and  that 
the  new  bishops  might  be  received;  he  only  protested 
against  the  formula  of  adhesion  to  the  Concordat. 
But  the  Stevenists  went  farther:  they  held  that  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  was  radically  defective,  and 
they  would  recognize  no  other  spiritual  head  than 
Stevens.  The  schism  lasted  until  1814,  when  Pisani 
de  la  Gaude  accepted  the  declaration  recognizing  the 
legitimate  bishop  which  the  Stevenists  were  willing  to 
make.  Stevens  died  on  5  September,  1828.  He  had 
submitted  all  his  writings  to  the  Holy  See,  which  never 
passed  judgment.  Since  1866  the  nght  of  appointing 
the  dean  and  chapter  of  Namur  has  been  reserved  to 
the  pope.  Dechamps,  later  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Mecnlm,  was  Bishop  of  Namur  from  1865  to  1867. 

Two  abbeys  in  the  Diocese  of  Namur  had  great  re- 
nown during  the  Middle  Ages:  the  Benedictine  Abbey 
of  Brogne,  founded  by  St.  Gerard  (see  G£rard^  Saint, 
Abbot  of  Brogne),  and  the  Premonstratensian  Ab- 
bey of  Floreffe  (q.  v.).  In  1819  a  preparatory  semi- 
nary was  installed  at  Floreffe,  which  was  suppressed 
by  the  Government  in  1825  and  re-established  in  1830. 
llie  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Gemblours,  founded  in  922 
by  Guibert  de  Damau,  acquired  great  renown  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Sigebert  and  Gottschalk  wrote  there 
an  important  chronicle.  Ravaged  by  the  Calvinists  in 
1578,  and  b>r  fire  in  1712,  the  Aobey  of  Gemblours  was 
suppressed  in  1793.  The  Abbey  of  Waulsort  was 
founded  in  946  for  Scotch  (Irish)  monks  under  Bene- 
dictine rule.  Its  first  two  abbots  were  St.  Maccelan 
and  St.  Cadroes;  the  bishop  St.  Forannan  (d.  980) 
was  also  Abbot  of  Waulsort.  In  1131  Innocent  II 
consecrated  the  main  altar  of  the  church  of  the  Abbey 
of  G^ronsart,  administered  by  the  Canons  R^;ular  of 
St.  Augustine.  The  buildings  of  the  Abbey  of  Paix 
Notre-Dame,  founded  in  1613  by  the  Reformed  Bene- 
dictines of  Douai,  have  since  1831  sheltered  a  coD^se 
of  the  Jesuits.  The  Assumptionist  fathers  have  a 
novitiate  at  Bure.  A  very  important  centre  of  studies 
was  founded  at  Maredsous  in  1872  by  the  Benedic- 
tines; it  was  erected  into  an  abbey  in  1878,  and  in 
1888  provided  with  a  beautiful  Gothic  church.  The 
''Revue  Benedictine"  and  the  "Analecta  Maredso- 
lana"  have  already  assured  the  fame  of  this  abbey. 
The  first  abbot  was  Placide  Wolter,  who  in  1890  l>e- 
came  Abbot  of  Beuron;  the  second  was  Hildebrand  de 
Hemptinne,  who^  in  1893.  became  Abbot  of  St.  Anselm 
at  Rome  and  pnmate  ot  the  Benedictine  Order.  In 
1907  there  were  in  the  community  of  Maredsous  140 
monks,  64  of  whom  were  priests.  A  college  for  higher 
education  and  a  technicaJ  school  are  connected  witii 
the  abbey.  At  Maredret,  near  Maredsous,  was  estab* 
lished  in  1893  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St.  Scholastica, 
which  in  1907  numbered  41  nuns. 

The  Diocese  of  Namur  honours  with  special  venera- 
tiou  Sts.  Matemus,  Servatvs  (Servais),  and  Remac-u- 


NANCT  680  HANCT 

lus,  the  first  apostles  of  the  Diocese  of  Tongres,  which  provided  he  peKormed  no  episcopal  office.  In  1271 
later  became  that  of  Li^e  (q.  v.),  and  some  gaints  of  pt^ye  differences  broke  out  again  in  the  chimter  of 
the  Diocese  of  Liige,  Sts.  Lambert,  Hubert,  and  Toul;  after  seven  years'  vacancy  the  Holy  See  re- 
Juliana.  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  St.  Foillan,  of  scinded  the  four  elections  made  by  the  chapter,  and  in 
Irish  origin,  founder,  in  6.W,  of  the  monastery  of  1278  Nicholas  III  personally  appointed  as  bishop  Con- 
Fosses;  St  Beg^e,  sister  of  St.  Gertrude  of  Nivelles,  rad  of  Tttbingen.  Thenceforth  it  was  generally  the 
and  foundress,  m  692,  of  the  monastery  of  Andemut  Holy  See  which  appointed  the  bishops,  alle^ng  v"' 


where hcrrelicsare preserved;  St.  Hadelinjfounderol     ous  reasons  as  the  vacancies  arose,  hence  the  many 
Uie  monastery  of  Celles,  d,  about  690;  St.  WalhSre,  or     Italianprelatee  who  held  this  important  see  until  1552, 
Vohy,  parish  priest  of  Onhav  (thirteenth  centurv);  St.     when  Toul  was  occupied  by  France.     In  1597  Charles 
Mary  of  Oigmes,  b.  at  Nivelles  about  1177,  celebrated     III,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  impatient  of  his  dependence  on 
for  her  visions,  d,  at  the  b^guinage  of  Oipiies,  where     a  diocese  henceforth  French,  asked  Clement  VIII  for 
her  director,  Jacques  deVitry,  who  became  Bishop  of    thedismembermentof  the  See  of  Toul  and  the  creation 
St.  Jean  d'Acre  and  cardinal,  wished  also  Ui  be  buned.     of  &  see  at  Nancy;  this  fiuled  through  the  oppomtion 
I^tly,  the  Diocese  of  Namur  honours  in  a  spvecial 
manner  the  Martyrs  of  Gorkum,  whose  relics  it  pos- 
sesses.    At  Arlon,  which  now  belongs  to  the  diocese, 
was  bom   Henri   Buach,   famous  as   "Bon   Henri", 
founder  of  the  shoemakers'  and  the  tailors'  fraternities 
in  Paris  (seventeenth  century). 

The  religious  congregations  administer  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Namur,  according  to  "La  Belgique  Charita- 
ble", 2  orphanages  for  boys,  7  for  girls,  1  mixed,  18 
hospitals  or  inlirmaries,  4  chnics,  194  infant  schools, 
1  house  of  rescue,  6  houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in 
their  homes,  1  asylum  for  deaf  mutes,  2  houses  of 
retreat,  1  insane  asylimi.  In  1907  the  Diocese  of 
Namur  numbered  5S3,T22  inhabitants,  36  deaneries, 
37  parishes,  677  succursals,  96  auxiliary  chapels.  III 
curacies  paid  by  the  State, 

OaluOT.  IliMoiTi  otTUmll  .  .  .  dlla  ttOa  it  protinn  di  Nhmur 
(LMef,   1788-D1);   REiprEHBEHO,   Boionvr,  aud  Rah.   JVanit- 

dt  LuxcmboaTe  110  vo]i..  BmsHli.  lS44-eO>;  BonaNrr  and  Bob- 


La  Belffi^u4  ckrttiennt _, . — ,..— ,  -,-,-,. 

Georges  Gotad. 

H&ncy,  Diocese  or  (Nanckienbib  bt  Tctllcnsib), 
comprises  the  Departments  of  Meurthe  and  Moselle, 
France,  suffragan  of  Busan^on,  The  See  of  Nancy  is 
the  heir,  so  to  speak,  of  the  celebrated  See  of  Toul. 

St.  Mansuetus,  Apostle  of  the  Leuci  and  first  Bishop  Tu  CAiButuu  Namct 

of  Toul.  and  accordmg  to  some  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter, 

cannot  nave  been  anterior  to  the  fourth  century.    The  of  Amaud  d'Ossat,  Henry's   ambassador  at  -Rome. 

dates  of  his  saiotly  successors,  Amondus,  Alchas,  and  Clement  VIII,  however,  decided  that  Nancy  was  to 

Celsinus,  caimot  be  detemitncd.     Among  the  bishops  have  a  primatial  church  and  that  its  prelate  would 

of  Toul  should  be  mentioned:  St.  Auspiciua  (about  have  the  title  of  primate  of  Lorraine  and  wear  episco- 

470);  St.  Ursus  (Ours),  from  whom  Clovis  in  496  re-  pal  insignia,  but  should  not  exercise  episeop&l  juria- 

quested  an  ecclesiastic  to  instruct  him  in  the  teachings  diction. 

of  Christianity;  St.  Epvre  (Aper)  (500-505),  brother        In  1777  and  1778  Toul  lost  territories  out  of  wluch 

of  St.  Evronie  (Aproma);  St.  Alband  (about  508),  es-  were  formed  two  new  dioceees:  Sunt-Di^  and  Nancy. 

tablished  a  community  of  ecclesiastics  from  which  both  of  them  suffrHgans  of  Trier.    The  Concordat  of 

originated  the  Abbey  of  St,  Epvre;  St,  Leudinus-Bodo  1802,  which  suppreeeed  Toul,  made  Nancy  the  seat  of 

(second  half  of  the  seventh  century),  founder  of  the  a  vast  diocese  which  included  the  three  Depaitmenta 

monastery  of  Bon  Moustiers  and  brother  of  St.  Sala-  of  Meurthe,  Meuse,  and  Vosges;  the  latter  two  were 

berge,  foundress  and  first  abbess  of  the  monastery  of  detached  from  Nancy  in  1822  on  the  r&«stabliahment 

Laon;St.  Jacob  (756-65);  St.  Gauzelin  (922-62).  who  of  the   Dioceses  of  Verdun  and   Saint-DiiS.     When 

leformedthemonastery  of  St.  Epvre  and  founded  that  France  lost  Alsace-Lorraine  in  1871.  Nancy  lost  the 

of  Notre-Dame  de  Bouxi^ree;   St.  Gerard  (963-94);  arrondissements   of   Sarrebourg  ana   ChAteau-Salins 

Bruno  of  Dagsbourg  (1026-61),  eventually  St.  Leo  which,  having  become  German,  were  united  with  the 

IX;  Guillaume  FillAtre  (1449-60);  Cardinal  John  of  Diocese  of  Metz.     Nancy  however  annexed  the  ar- 

Lorraine  (1517-43),  who  held  twelve  sees  and  six  rondissement  of  Briey  wnich  remained  French,  and 

large  abbeys;  Charles  of  Lorraine,  cardinal  of  Vaude-  was  detached  from  the  Diocese  of  Meti  (consiaUirial 

moot  (1580-87);  Cardinal  Nicholas  Frangois  of  Lor-  decrees  of  10  and   14  July,   1874),     Since  1824  the 

raine  (1625-34);  Andr^  du  Saussay  (1649-75),  author  bishops  of  Nancy  have  borne  the  title  of  Bishops  of 

of  "  Marty rologium  Gallicanum",  Nancy  and  Toul,  as  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Toul  isal- 

Thc  title  of  count  and  the  rights  of  sovereignty  of  most  entirely  united  with  Nancy.     It  has  had  some 

the  mtxiicva!  KishopB  of  Toul  originated  in  certain  illustrious  bishops:  Forbin-Janson  (1824-44);  Dslrbov 

grants  which  Henry  the  Fowler  gave  St.  Gauxelin  in  (1859-63);  the  future  Cardinal  Lavigerie  (1863-67); 

927.     The  See  of  Toul  was  disturbed  by  the  Conflict  of  and  the  future  Cardinal  Foulon   (1867-82),     Since 

Investitures  in  1108.    The  chapter  was  divided;  the  1165,  whenever  the  Bishop  of  Tout  officiated  pontifi- 

majority  elected  RiquiD  of  Commercy  bishop;  the  cally,  he  wore  an  ornament  called  wurkumerot,  or  ro- 

minority  chose  Conrad  of  Schwaraenburg,     Henry  V  lionalt,  a  sort  of  palUum  covered  with  precknu  stones, 

declared  for  the  latter;  Pascal  II  for  the  former,  out  which  decoration  he  alone  of  all  the  bishops  of  the 

nevertheless  he  granted  Conrad  the  title  of  bishop,  Latin  Church  wore.    A  brief  of  18  March,  1865,  ro- 


"■Kf 


HANNI  681  KANTKS 

Btored  this  privilege  to  the  biahopa  of  N&nOT  and  Huit«  (Nani4STEb),  Diocesb  op  (Namceibhsis). 
Toul.  Concerning  the  inmnuations  of  the  Old  Catho-  — This  dioceee,  which  comprises  the  entire  depart- 
lics  in  1870  tipropoe  of  this  Brief,  see  GraAder&th.  meat  of  Loire  Inf^rieure,  wu  re-established  by  the 
"Geschichtedee  Vatikanischen  Konsils'',  II,  589,  ana  Concordat  of  1802,  and  is  suffragan  of  Tours.  Ac- 
III,  748.  St.  Siraabert,  III  (630-54),  Kin^  of  Aiu-  cording  to  late  traditioDs,  St.  Clams,  first  Bishop  of 
trasia,  and  founder  of  twelve  monaeteriea,  la  patron  Nantea,  was  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter.  De  la  Borderie, 
of  the  City  of  Nancy.  however,  has  shown  that  the  ritual  of  the  Church  of 

On  5  Dec.,  1572,  Gregory  XIII  signed  the  Bull  for    Nantes,  drawn  upby  precentor  Helius  in  1263,  ignores 
the  erection  of  a  university  at  Pont-&-Mousson;  the    the  apostolic  mission  of  St.  Clarus;  that  St.  Peter's 
faculties  of  theology  and  arts  were  entrusted  to  the    nailin  the  cathedral  of  Nantes  was  not  brought  thither 
Jesuits;  the  leamea  Father  Sirmond  made  his  profee-    b^  St.  Clams,  but  at  a  time  subsequent  to  the  inva- 
sion there,  and  in  1581  Queen  Mary  Stuart  established    eions  of  the  Northmen  in  the  tenth  century;  that  St. 
a  seminaiT  for  twenty-j'our  Scotsmen  and  Irishmen.     Felix  of  Nantes,  writing  with  six  other  bishops  in  567 
St.  Peter  Fourier  was  a  pupil  of  this  eeminary.    Car-    to  St.  Rad^jond,  attribut«B  to  St.  Martin  the  chief 
dinal  Mathieu  (d.  1908)  was  for  many  years  parish 
priest  of  Pont-A-MouBson.    The  congregation  of  Our 
Lady  of  Refuge  nas  founded  at   Nancjr  for  pen- 
itent women  in  1627,  by  Eliiabeth  of  Ranfaiog,  known 
aa  Sister  Mary  Elizabeth  of  the  Cross  of  Jeaus.     This 
congregation     had     numerous     houses     throughout 
n^nce.    Mattaincourt,  the  parish  of  St.  Peter  Fou* 

',  belonged  to  Toul  when  the  saint  established  his 

>ortant  foundations  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  chief  pilgrimage  centres  are:  Notre-Dome  de 
Bon  Secours,  at  Nancy,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  for  which  King  Stamalaus  built  (1738-41)  a 
lai^e  sanctuary  on  the  site  of  the  humble  chapel 
erected  by  King  RenS;  Notre-Dame  de  Sion,  at  Saxe- 
Sion,  datmg  from  the  epLBcopate  of  St.  Gerard,  and 
whose  madonna,  broken  during  the  Revolution,  was 
replaced  in  1802  by  another  (miraculous)  statue  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin;  and  St-Nicolas  du  Port,  in  honour 
of  St.  Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Myra,  patron  saint  of  Lor- 

Prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the  AssocialJonsLawof 
1901,  there  were  in  the  diocese,  Carthusians,  Jesuits, 
Dominicans,  Oblatea  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Redemp- 
torists,  and  several  orders  of  teaching  brothers,  one 
of  which,  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine 
(founded  in  1822  by  Dom  Frfehard,  former  Benedio- 
tine  of  Senonee  Abbey),  had  its  mother-house  at 
Nancy. 

Orders  of  women :  the  Canoneases  Rq^ular  of  St. 
Augustine  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  a 
teaching  order  founded  at  Veiclise  in  1629,  and  trans- 
ferred to  LimSville  in  1850;  Sisters  of  St.  Charles,  a 

nuTsing  and  teaching  order,  the  foundation  of  which  „  „  -  .. 

in  1651  was  due  to  the  zeal  of  two  laymen,  Joseph  and  C*tb«i«al  o,  &r-P.««.i.  Ni,Nra. 

Emmanuel  Chauvenal;  Sisters  of  the  Christian  Doc-  rAle  in  the  conversion  of  the  Nantais  to  Christianity; 
trine,  called  Vatelottes,  a  nursing  and  teaching  order  that  the  traditions  concerning  the  mission  of  St. 
founded  about  1718  by  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  and  Clarus  are  later  than  1400.  The  earliest  list  of  the 
Father  Jean-Baptiste  Vatelot;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  bishops  of  Nantes  (made,  according  to  Duchesne,  at 
Childhood  of  Mary,  a  nursing  and  teaching  order  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century)  does  not  favour 
which  Canon  Claude  Daunot  took  thirty-five  years  to  the  thesis  of  a  bishop  of  Nant«s  prior  to  Constantine. 
establi8h(I820-55);SistersoftheHoly  Heart  of  Mary.  The  author  of  the  Passion  of  the  Nantes  martyrs,  Sts. 
a  teaching  order  founded  in  1842  by  Bishop  Manjaud  Donatian  and  Rogatian,  places  their  death  in  the 
and  Countess  Clara  de  Gondrccourt;  Dau^teta  of  reign  of  Conatantius  Chlorus,  and  seems  to  believe 
Compassion,  a  nursing  order  of  Servite  tertiaries,  e»-  that  Rogatian  could  not  be  baptized,  because  the 
tablished  in  1854  by  M}b6  Thiriet  at  St-Firmin.  bishop  was  absent.     Duchesne  believes  that  the  two 

The  religious  congregations  of  the  diocese  conduct  saints  suffered  at  an  earlier  date,  and  disputes  the  in- 
0  criches,  57  day-nurseries,  2  institutions  for  sick  chil-  ference  of  the  ancient  writer  concerning  the  absence  of 
dreu,  1  school  for  the  blind,  1  school  for  deaf-mutes,  the  bishop.  He  believesthatthefirstbishopof  Nantes, 
3  boys'  orphanages,  23  girls'  orphanages,  12  sewing  whose  date  is  certain,  is  Desiderius  (453),  correspond- 
rooms  (industrial),  3  schools  for  apprentices,  32  bos-     ent  of  Sulpicitis  Severus  and  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola. 

Eitals  or  asylums,  17  houses  for  visiting  nurses,  16  Several  bi^ops,  it  is  true,  occupied  the  see  before  him, 
Duses  of  retreat,  1  insane  asylum.  In  1909,  the  Dio-  among  others  St.  Clarus  and  St.  Similianus,  but  their 
ceee  of  Nancy  had  517,508  inhabitants,  29  deaneries,  dates  are  uncertain.  Mgr  Duchesne  considers  as 
482  succuTsal  parishes,  and  91  vicariates.  '         •        -.     ".     ^    —  ,  .    ,         i     .. 

4«-550;  Ma.™..  H«t«V(  dr.  ii«:i,™  d.  Tout.  d.  WancvVd;     f""/"'  the  Saracens  m  Bumindy. 

Saint-Dii  (3  vols.,  fitacy,  iQOl-03);  Trunai,  Hitteirt  dt  NarKV         Among  the  noteworthy  bishops  are:  St.  Felix  (550- 

(3  Tol«.,  iBOi-os);  Ahon..  Hiiioiri  ill  la  Conariaaiiim  du  Sauri     83),  whose  municipal  improvements  at  Nantes  were 

s.S!fS'£S"?p2rr^;:''fs.'.'.;s.«''s.nj  p'-r?'" >»• !».».  =i*«««»i"., »d "!.=/•«- 

Mert—  dB  Naiuii  it  it  Toui  [Maiicy,  1902).  mediated  between  the  people  of  Bnttany  and  the 

Georoes  Gotao/  Frankish  kings;  St.  Pachanus  (end  of  seventh  cen- 

t  tury);  St.   Gohard    (Gohardua),   martyred  by  the 

Muinli  GiovAVNi.    See  Annits  or  VrrBBBo.j-  _^  Northmen  in  843,  with  tbe  monks  of  the  monastery  of 


NANTIS 


682 


NANTEUIL 


Aindre;  Actardus  (843-71),  during  whose  time  the 
Breton  pnnce,  Nomenod,  in  his  conflict  with  the 
metropoLtan  See  of  Tours  (q.  v.)i  created  a  see  at 
Gu6rande,  in  favour  of  an  ecclesiastic  of  Vannes,  in  the 
heart  of  the  Diocese  of  Nantes;  the  preacher  Cospeau 
(1621-36).  The  diocese  venerates:  the  monk  St. 
Herv6  (sixth  century);  the  hermits  Sts.  Friard  and 
Secondel  of  Besn4  (sixth  century) ;  St.  Victor,  hermit 
at  Cambon  (sixth  or  seventh  century);  the  English 
hermit  Vital,  or  St.  Viaud  (seventh  or  eighth  century) ; 
the  Greek  St.  Benott,  Abbot  of  Masserac  in  Charle- 
magne's time;  St.  Martin  of  Vertou  (d.  601),  apostle 
of  the  Herbauges  district  and  founder  of  the  Benedic- 
tine monastenr  of  Vertou;  St.  Hermeland,  sent  b^  St. 
Lambert,  Abbot  of  Fontenelle,  at  the  end  of  the 
seventh  century  to  found  on  an  island  in  the  Loire  the 
sreat  monastery  of  Aindre  (now  Ihdret) ;  the  cele- 
brated missionary  St.  Amand,  Bishop  of  Maastricht 
(seventh  century),  a  native  of  the  district  of  He> 
bauges.  Blessed  Franooise  d'Ambroise  (1427-B5),  who 
became  Duchess  of  Brittany  in  1450,  had  a  great 
share  in  the  canonization  of  St.  Vincent  Ferrier,  re- 
built the  choir  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Notre-Dame, 
and  foimded  at  Nantes  the  monastery  of  the  Poor 
Clares.  Widowed  in  1457,  she  resisted  the  intrigues 
of  Louis  XI,  who  urged  her  to  contract  a  second  mar- 
riage, and  in  1468  became  a  Carmelite  nun  at  Vannes. 
In  1477,  at  the  request  of  Sixtus  IV,  she  restored  the 
Benedictine  monastenr  of  Counts,  near  Nantes.  The 
philosopher  Abelard  (q.  v.)  was  a  native  of  the  dio- 
cese. The  Abbey  of  La  Meilleraye,  founded  in  1132, 
was  the  beginning  of  an  establishment  of  Trappist 
Fathers,  who  played  a  most  important  part  in  the 
agricultural  development  of  the  country.  The  cru- 
sades were  preached  at  Nantes  by  Blessed  Robert  of 
Arbrissel,  foimder  of  Fontevrault.  Venerable  Charles 
of  Blois  won  Nantes  from  his  rival  Jean  de  Montfort 
in  1341.  On  8  August,  1499,  Louis  XII  married  Anne 
of  Brittany  at  Nantes — ^a  marriage  which  later  led  to 
the  annexation  of  the  Duchy  of  Brittany  to  the  Crown 
of  France  (1532).  Chateaubriant,  a  town  of  the  dio- 
cese, was  a  Calvinistic  centre  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
For  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1595),  which  granted  Prot- 
estants relisiouB  freedom  and  certain  political  prerog- 
atives, see  Huguenots. 

In  1665,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV,  Cardinal  Retz  was 
imprisoned  m  the  castle  of  Nantes,  from  which  he 
contrived  to  escape.  A  college  was  created  at  Nantes 
in  1680  for  the  education  of  Irish  ecclesiastics.  Cer- 
tain regions  of  the  diocese  were,  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  scene  of  the  War  of  La  Vend^,  waged  in  de- 
fence of  religious  freedom  and  to  restore  royalty.  At 
Savenay  in  December,  1798,  succumbed  the  remains 
of  the  Vendean  army,  already  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Cholet.  The  atrocities  committed  at  Nantes  by  the 
terrorist  Carrier  are  well-known.  Four  councils  were 
held  at  Nantes,  in  660,  1127,  1264,  and  1431.  The 
mausoleum  of  Francis  II,  last  Duke  of  Brittany,  exe- 
cuted in  1507  by  Michel  (Ik)lomb,  is  one  of  the  finest 
monuments  of  the  Renaissance.  The  chief  places  of 
pilgrimage  of  the  diocese  are:  Notre-Dame  de  Bon 
uarant  at  Orvault,  a  very  old  pilgrimage,  repeatedly 
made  by  Francis  II,  Duke  of  Brittany;  Notre-Dame 
de  Bon  Secours  at  Nantes,  a  pilgrimage  centre  which 
dates  back  to  the  fourteenth  century;  Notre-Dame  de 
Toutes  Aides.  Notre-Dame  de  Mis^ricorde  became  a 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  1026  in  memory  of  the  miracle 
by  which  the  country  is  said  to  have  oeen  freed  from 
a  dragon;  the  present  seat  of  the  pilgrimage  is  the 
Church  of  St.  Similien  at  Nantes.  Before  the  law 
of  1901  against  congregations,  the  diocese  counted 
Capuchins,  Trappists,  Jesuits,  Missionary  Priests  of 
Mary,  Augustmians,  Franciscans,  Missionaires  of 
Africa,  Premonstratensians,  Sulpicians,  and  several 
orders  of  teaching  brothers.  The  Ursulines  of 
Nantes  were  estabushed  by  St.  Angela  of  Merici  in 
IMO. 


Among  the  congregations  for  women  originating  in 
the  diocese  are:  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Instruction,  a 
teaching  order  founded  in  1820  at  Beignon  (Diocese 
of  Vannes)  by  Abb6  Deshayes,  of  which  the  mother- 
house  was  transferred  to  St-Gildas  des  Bois  in  IS2S; 
Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  a  teaching 
and  nursing  order,  founded  in  1853  (mother-houBe 
at  La  Have  Mah^as) ;  Franciscan  Sisters,  founded  in 
1871  (mother-house  at  St-Philbert  de  Grandlieu); 
Oblate  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus, 
founded  in  1875  by  Mile  Gazeau  de  la  Brandanni^re 
(mother-house  at  Nantes).  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century,  the  religious  congregations  of  the 
diocese  conducted  three  crecheSf  44  day  nurseries,  3 
homes  for  sick  children,  1  institution  for  the  blind,  1 
deaf  and  dumb  institution,  6  boys'  orphana^,  17 
girls'  orphanages,  3  homes  for  poor  girls,  1  institution 
for  the  extinction  of  mendicity,  2  houses  of  mercy,  1 
house  to  supply  work  to  the  unemployed^  1  vestiary, 
10  houses  01  visiting  nurses,  7  homes  for  mvalids  and 
for  retirement,  23  nospitals  or  asylums.  The  Dio- 
cese of  Nantes  has  664,971  CathoUcs,  52  parishes,  209 
succursal  parishes. 

OaUia  chnU,  (nom,  1856),  XIV,  794-^2;  hutrumenta,  171- 
188;  Travbrs,  Hut,  abriffija  de*  Mguea  de  Naniet  (3  Tola.,  Nantes, 
1836);  KxBSAUSON.  L'ipucopat  Nantait  A  trover*  let  wiMee  is 
Retue  hist,  de  VOueet  (188&-90):  Dccbsskk.  FtuUe  BpUeopaux^ 
II.  356,  368;  Cahoub,  VapoatoUU  de  Saint  Clair,  premier  ietiue  de 
Nantea,  tradition  NarUaiee  (Nantes.  1883);  Db  la  Bobdbub, 
Btudee  hiU.  bretonnee.  «St.  Clair  et  lee  originee  de  rSgliae  de  Ntmtee 
(Rennes,  1884) ;  Richard,  Btvdee  eur  la  Ugtnde  Utwrnqum  de  SaitU 
Clair,  premier  Mque  de  Nantee  (Nantes,  1886);  Richabo,  Lee 
eainU  de  Viffliee  de  Nantee  (Nantes,  1873) ;  Botlb,  The  Iridk  Col- 
lege in  Nantee  (London,  1901);  LALui.  Le  Dioc^  de  Nantee 
pendant  la  Rivolulion  (Nantes,  1893).  For  further  bibliocn^ihy 
see  Chbyaubs,  Topobibl.,  s.  v. 

Georges  Goyau. 

NftntM,  Edict  of.    See  Huguenotb. 

Nftnteuil,  Robert,  French  engraver  and  crayon- 
ist,  b.  at  Reims,  1623  (1626,  or  1630) ;  d.  at  Paris,  1678. 
Little  is  known  of  his  early  life  save  that  his  father,  a 
merchant  of  Reims,  sent  him  to  the  Jesuit  school, 
where  he  received  a  splendid  classical  training  but  no 
encouragement  to 
draw.  In  every 
spare  moment  he 
was  busy  with  his 
pencil  or  burin, 
and  he  even  en- 
graved on  the 
trees  in  the  forest. 
He  cut  in  wood 
ft  "Christ"  and  a 
**  Virgin",  copy- 
ing from  old  cop- 
{>er  plates.  He 
ater  went  to  the 
Benedictines,  who 
fostered  his  artis- 
tic bent;  one  of 
the  order,  who 

Eatiently  sat  for 
im,  is  seen  in 
the  "Buste  d'un 
Religieux"  (pub- 
lished in  1644).  He  also  engraved  ornaments  for 
his  thesis  in  philosophy  in  1645  (Pietv,  Justice, 
and  Prudence  Saluting  the  University),  both  these 
early  attempts  with  the  graver  being  notable  suc- 
cesses. His  family  being  in  dire  financial  straits, 
Nanteuil  went  to  Paris  (1648),  and  worked  with  Reg^ 
nesson  whose  sister  he  had  married.  His  style  now 
changed  and  developed  quickly:  his  first  method  had 
been  to  use  straight  lines  only,  shallow  or  deep;  then 
he  practised  cross-hatching  and  added  stippling  for 
the  middle-tints  (in  this  following  Boulanj^er).  The 
acipe  of  his  style  shows  special  strokes  and  mdividual 
treatment  for  each  part  of  the  face  and  for  each  tex- 
ture of  the  draperies.    His  crayon  and  pastel  por- 


\ 


NIPHTAU 


683 


NAPLES 


traltB  brought  him  a  pension  of  1000  Uvres  and  the 
i^pointment  of  Royal  Engraver  (1658),  together 
wiUi  an  atetier  in  uie  Gobelins.  Two  years  later 
Louis  XIV  issued  an  edict,  mainly  inspired  by  Nan- 
teuil,  lifting  engraving  out  of  the  realm  of  mechanical 
u-ts  and  giving  to  engraven  all  the  privileges  of  other 
artists. 

Nanteuil's  bold,  broad,  and  vigorous  pastel  or 
crayon  life-size  sketches  have  nearly  all  disappeared, 
for  he  used  them  only  as  studies  for  his  en^avings; 
and  his  rich,  yet  delicate  and  silvery  tones,  his  splen- 
did modelling  of  the  face,  his  suggestion  of  colour 
throughout  the  plate  and  unaffect^  justness  of  the 
likeness  are  largely  due  to  his  following  the  fresh  and 
crisp  sketch  in  chalks.  He  engraved  portraits  of 
many  of  the  princes  of  Europe  and  of  all  the  celebrated 
men  of  France  in  Louis  XIV's  time.  Of  the  Grand 
Moncar^  alone  he  made  nineteen  portraits  at  vari- 
ous penods  of  his  life.  He  was  rich,  affable,  and  very 
generous,  and  would  often  send  back  payments  for 
great  plates  when  he  found  the  sitters  were  poor.  He 
was  received  by  the  nobihty  and  men  of  letters,  and 
himself  wrote  poetry  and  recited  pleasingly.  His 
verses  are  often  to  be  found  beneath  his  portraits. 
He  was  the  pioneer  of  modem  engraving,  and  much  of 
his  work  equals  and  strongly  resembles  the  best  of  re- 
cent times.  He  was  a  rapid  and  prolific  worker, 
many  of  his  243  plates  being  life-size.  Fairthome,  a 
aeat  English  engraver,  learned  much  from  him,  and 
lldelinck  was  his  friend  and  follower.  His  master- 
pieces are:  J.  B.  van  Steenberghen  (after  Duchatel), 
called  "L'Advocat  de  HoUande"  (1668);  M.  de  Pom- 
ix>nne  (after  Le  Brun) :  Jean  Loret;  Duchesse  de  Ne- 
mours; and  Marshal  Turenne.  A  few  of  his  chalk 
originals  are  in  the  Louvre  and  all  of  his  243  plates  are 
in  the  Biblioth^ue  Richelieu. 

Richard,  Mao<mn  PiUorMom  (Paris,  1850);    DuMxaNXL,  Lb 

PmnlTB  Oravwr  FranoaUt  IV    (Parifl  );    Dklabobds,  La 

Oranm  (Paria,  t.  d.). 

Leigh  Hui«t. 
Naphtali.    See  NnPHTAu. 

NapleSi  the  capital  of  a  province  in  Campania, 
Bouthem  Italy,  and  formerly  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies;  it  is  situated  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  bav  of  Naples,  on  the  Capodimonte,  the  Vo- 
mero,  and  the  Posilipo  hills,  in  one  of  the  most  en- 
chanting spots  upon  the  earth.  The  most  populous 
town  in  Italy,  its  suburbs  stretch  along  the  bay,  as  far 
aa  Torre  Annunziata.  Naples  is  a  very  industrial 
town,  and  its  fisheries,  navigation,  and  commerce  are 
very  active;  commercially,  it  is  the  most  important 
centre  of  Italy,  after  Genoa,  and  contains  an  arsenal 
of  the  Royal  Navy.  In  its  neighbourhood,  the  vine 
and  all  species  of  esculent  plants  are  cultivated;  and 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  exported  in  great  quantities. 
The  silk  industry  is  verv  important.  Naples  has  fre- 
quently been  damaged  by  the  eruptions  of  the  neigh- 
bouring Mt.  Vesuvius;  the  most  memorable  of  these 
occurred  in  the  year  72  of  the  Christian  era,  the  first 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  after  several  centuries  of  inactiv- 
ity; in  205,  407,  512,  982,  and  1139.  the  eruptions 
were  less  violent;  until  1631,  the  volcano  gave  no 
signs  of  activity,  and  was  covered  with  vegetation; 
there  were  more  or  less  violent  eruptions,  however, 
in  1680,  .1694,  1707,  1723,  1794,  1804,  1805,  1822, 
1828,  1839,  1850,  and  1872;  the  eruption  of  1904  was 
one  of  the  most  violent  of  all,  and  caused  the  ruin  of 
Ottaiano  and  of  San  Giuseppe. 

Buildings. — Sacred, — ^The  cathedral  or  church  of 
Saint  Januarius,  begun  by  order  of  Charles  of  Anion 
in  1272^  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Stefania  cathedral 
of  the  eighth  century,  and  completed  in  1341,  the  work 
of  Nicold  Hsano.  Maglione,  and  Masuccio,  is  in 
Gothic  style  with  tnree  naves;  the  fagade,  modified  by 
the  restoration  of  1788,  has  been  brou^t  again  to  its 
original  style;  its  principal  door  is  a  work  of  Babuccio 
Pifemo  (1407),  while  its  chapel  of  St.  Restituta  \s  said 


to  date  from'  the  time  of  Constantine.  The  fourteen 
pilasters  are  adorned  with  busts  of  famous  archbishops 
of  Naples.  In  the  crypt,  which  was  built  bv  Malvito 
b  V  order  of  Archbishop  Caraf a,  is  venerated  the  body 
of  St.  Januarius,  taken  there  from  Montevergine  in 
1479.  Of  the  lateral  chapels,  that  of  the  Treiuure  is 
the  most  notable;  it  is  there  that  the  head  of  St. 
Januarius  and  the  ampullse  that  contain  the  mart3rr's 
blood  are  preserved  (see  Januarius,  St.).  The  ca- 
thedral contains  the  superb  sepulchres  of  Innocent 
IV  and  of  Cardinal  Minutoli,  the  second,  a  work  of 
Girolamo  d'Auria;  also,  valuable  thirteenth-century 
frescos  of  Santafede,  Vincenzo  Forti,  Luca  Giordano, 
and  others,  and  painting  by  John  of  Nola,  Franco, 
Perugino,  and  Domenichino.  Among  other  churches 
are  the  church  of  St.  Augustine  of  the  Mint,  which  has 
a  pulpit  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sculptures  bv  Vincent 
d'Angelo  and  Jian  da  Nola,  and  a  painting  by  Diana 
(the  Communion  of  St.  Augustine) ;  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Apostles,  restored  in  1608  by  the  labour  of 
famous  artists,  among  whom  were  Giordano,  Marco 
da  Siena,  Bonomini,  and  Dolci,  the  tabernacle  of  the 
high  altar  being  the  work  of  Caugiano;  the  church  of 
S.  Domenico  Maggiore,  dating  from  1255,  is  rich  in 
paintings,  mosaics,  and  sepulchres,  and  in  the  ancient 
monasterv  connected  with  this  church  is  the  cell  of  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas;  the  church  of  Donna  Regina,  built 
by  Mary  of  Hungary,  in  1300,  and  renewed  by  the 
Theatine  Guarino  in  1670,  contains  valuable  paintings 
and  frescos,  and  also,  the  tomb  of  the  foundress. 

The  churdi  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  baroque  style, 
by  Dionisio  di  Bartolomeo  (1592),  contains  statues 
by  Sammartino,  and  both  the  churcn  and  the  sacristy 
have  very  valuable  paintings  bv  Luke  Giordano, 
Guerra,  Guide  Keni,  Caravaggio,  Spagnoletto,  Dome- 
nichino, and  others;  the  church  of  St.  Francis  of  Paul 
(1817),  an  imitation  of  the  Pantheon,  with  two  wines 
that  have  porticos,  is  adorned  with  paintings  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  church  of  San  Giacomo  of 
the  Spaniards  (1540)  is  decorated  with  works  of  art: 
St.  John  Carbonara  (1343)  contidns  the  mausoleums  oi 
TCing  Ladislaus  and  of  the  constable  Sergianni  Carac- 
ciolo,  and  paintings  by  famous  artists.  The  church  of 
St.  Barbara,  a  work  of  Giuliano  di  Maiano,  has  a  beau- 
tiful bas-relief  of  the  Madonna  with  angels  over  the 
principal  entrance,  and  another  fine  bas-relief  within 
the  edifice;  adjacent  to  the  church  is  the  cell  inhabited 
by  St.  Francis  of  Paula.  The  church  of  St.  Clare 
(1310),  restored  in  1752,  contains  the  mausoleums  of 
Robert  the  Wise  and  of  other  personages,  and  also, 
paintings  by  Luifranoo,  Giotto,  and  other  artists;  the 

Sulpit  is  a  mcef  ul  work  of  art.  The  church  of  Santa 
laria  del  Carmine,  built  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  restored  in  1769,  contains  the  tomb  of  Conradm 
executed  by  Schoepf  in  1874  by  order  of  King  Louis  of 
Bavaria.  The  church  of  St.  Mary  of  Piedigrotta, 
where  each  year,  about  September,  popular  feasts  are 
celebrated;  the  church  of  St.  Anna  of  the  Lombards 
of  Mt.  Olivet  (1411)  contains  many  works  of  art,  and 
also  tiie  tomb  of  the  architect  Charles  Fontana;  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  ad  aravif  so  called  because  it  con- 
tains an  altar  upon  which  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have 
celebrated  Mass.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Parte,  built  by  the  poet  Sannazaro,  contains  the  mau- 
soleum of  its  founder,  a  work  of  Fra  Giovanni  Montor- 
soli;  the  church  of  S.  Paolo  Maggiore,  built  on  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  after 
the  plans  of  the  Theatin  Grimaldi;  the  church  of  SS. 
Severinus  and  Sosius,  which  is  very  ancient,  was  re- 
stored in  1490  and  in  1609.  While  painting  the  vault 
of  this  temple,  the  artist  Corrensio,  faUing  from  the 
scaffolding,  was  killed  and  he  lies  buried  at  the  place  of 
his  f^;  other  artists  have  also  adorned  this  church 
with  fine  works.  The  church  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity, 
or  the  New  Gesii,  an  ancient  palace  convOTted  into 
a  church  by  the  Jesuit  Provedo  (1584).  Mention 
should  be  madei  however,  of  the  catacombs,  near  the 


aecond  craitury,  and  of  the  oew  cemetery,  rich  in  mediate  schools.    The  National  Ljbrs^  has  ne 

artistic  monumeots,  among  which  are  the  net&  by  390,000  volumea,  and  the  Brancacciana  I^raiy  n 

Call  in  the  chapel,  and  t£e  statue  of  Religion  by  than  116,000  volumes.    The  State  Archivea  are  ^ 

Anjelini.  iminrtaiit.     Nearly  all  of  the  great  families  of 

Seadar. — The  Royal  Palace,  which  ranks  among  andent  Kingdom  of  Naples  built  sumptuous  ps 

the  grandest  of  palacea  on  account  of  the  majestic  the  private  monumental  architecture  of  Naples 

seventy  of  its  style,  was  b^un  in  the  early  part  of  the  dating  that  of  Florence.    Naples  has  more  than  60 

seventeenth  century  by  the  viceroy  Count  of  Lemoe  charitable  institutions,  mme  of  which  dat«  from  the 

according  to  the  deugns  of  Domenico  Fontana;  it  has  thirteenth  century,  as,  for  example,  the  boarding- 

a  sumptuous  interior,  and  contained  valuable  artistic  school  of  St-  Eligius  (1273).  accommodating  300  young 

collections,  one  of  which,  cansisting  of  40^000  engrav-  girls;  the  Casa  Santa  dell'  Annuoiiata  (1304);  the 

X,  is  now  at  the  Muaeo  Naxionale.    There  is  an-  boarding-school  del  Carmelo  (1611),  for  300  lirls;  and 

r  royal  palace  at  C^odimonte,  built  bv  Charles  St.  Januarius  of  the  Poor  (1660).    Few  ancient  monu- 

III,  where  there  is  a  collection  ot  amis  ana  of  mod-  ments  are  to  be  found  at  Naples;  there  is  the  pierdng 

cm  paintings;  the  Palace  of  the  Prefecture  is  mod-  of  the  Posilipo  ridge  ierypla  neapolitana),  815  yards  in 

cm ;  S.  Giacomo  Palace,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  length,  done  by  one  Cocceius,  probably  undtf  Tibe- 

'f'niBter  of  State,  now  contains  the  municipal  and  rius,  and  there  are  the  ruins  of  villas  of  the  uidiHit 


oUier  offices.     The  Capuan  Castle,  built  by  William  city,  of  a  theatre  and  some  temples;  tliere  is  also  the 

I    in    1131,     and    thereafter    the    residence  of   the  tomb  of  Vergil  on  the  Poiiuoli  road. 
DuraHOB,  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  house  of  Aragon,        Hibtort. — Naples  was  founded  by  Greeks  from 

and   of  the  viceroys,  is   now   the    court-house;    the  Cums,   and   Cumffi,  according  to  Mommsen,  is  the 

Castle  of  the  Egg,  also  built  by  William  I  (1164),  is  Palteopolis  to  which  Livy  refers  as  existing  not  far 

at  present  a  barrack  and  a  fort,  as  are  also  Castel  from  Naples  and  as  being  allied  with  the  latt«r  dty 

del  Carmine  and  Castelnuovo,  built  by  Charles  I,  against  the  Samnit«s.    Naples,  also,  waa  obliKed  to 

and  having  a  triumphal  arch  of  Alfonso  of  Ara^n.  receive  the  Samnites  within  its  walls  and  to  give  to 

Castel  San  Erosmo  is  a  fort,  situated  upon  a  height  them  participation  in  the  government  of  the  dty, 

commanding  the  city  and  the  harbour.    The  museum  which  explains  her  ambiguous  conduct  towards  Rome 

of  ancient  art  at  Naples  is  one  of  the  best  of  its  durinic  the  Samnite  War  (325  b.  c).     In  its  alliance 

kind  in  the  world;  its  chief  sculptures,  the   Hercu-  with  Rome,  Naples  furnished  only  ^ips.    During  the 

les,  the  Farnese  Bull,  and  others,  are  from  the  coUec-  Punic  War,  the  town  was  so  strongly  fortified  that 

tiona  of  the  Famese  family,  and  it  possesses  many  Hannibal  did  not  venture  to  attack  it.    When  Roman 

interesting  objects  found  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  and  citisenship  was  offered  to  Naples,  the  latter  seeded, 

Herculaneum,  frescos  and  mosaics,  among  others;  it  on  condition  that  it  should  retain  its  language  and  its 

contains  also  rich  collections  of  cameos,  coins,  and  municipal  institutions;  and  consequently,  eveo  in  the 

inscriptions   (Neaoolitan  laws),  besides  a  gallery  of  time  of  Tacitus,  Naples  was  a  Greek  city,  to  whic^ 

e'ctures.     At   S,   Martino,  a  former  convent  of  the  those  Romans  who  wished  to  devote  thetnoelves  to 

istercians,  there  is  a  collection  of  paintings  by  Nea-  the  study  of  philosophy  betook  themselves  by  prefer- 

politon  artists,  which  belonged,  for  the  most  part,  to  ence.     In  the  games,  called  Sebafita,  celebrated  at 

that  monasten"-     The  Filanzieri  Museum  and  the  Naples  every  five  years,  Nero  onoe  appeared.    In  476, 

Galleryof  the  Fondi  palace  should  also  be  noted.    The  the  last  Emperor  of  the  West  was  relegated  to  this 

aquarium  for  the  study  of  submarine  animal  hfe  waa  city.    The  capture  of  Naples  by  Belisarius,  in  the 

established  by  the  co-operation  of  several  countries,  Gothic  War,  when  he  entered  the  city  through  the 

among  them,  the  United  States.    There  is  at  Naples  a  tube  of  the  aqueduct  (536),  is  famous.    Totila  le-cap- 

univeraity  founded  in  1224,  furnished  with  various  tured  the  town  in  543,  but  the  battle  of  Mt.  Vesuvius 

edentific  collections  and  with  a  Ubrory  of  more  tban  decided  the  fate  of  the  Goths,  and  Naples  came  unda" 

260,000  volumee ;  the  town  has  a  seminary,  a  theolog-  the  Byiantine  power,  recdving  a  dux  who  depended 


NAPLES  685  N1PLI8 

on  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna;  and  that  condition  re-  duke  of  all  those  states,  with  Palenno  for  his  capital, 

mained,  even  after  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards.    In  In  1 130  the  antipope,  Anaoletus  II,  conferred  upon  him 

616,  the  dux  Cousinus  attempted  to  establish  his  the  title  of  king,  confirmed  by  Innocent  II  (1139),  to 

independence,  but  the  exarch  Eleutherius  defeated  and  whom  Roger  renewed  the  oath  of  allegianoe.    On  the 

killed  him  in  the  following  year.    A  himdred  years  other  hand,  Naples  under  its  duke,  Sergius  VII,  had 

later,  at  the  instance  of  the  iconoclast,  Leo  the  Isau-  thrown  open  its  gates  to  Roger,  who  extended  his 

rian,  EbLhileratus  moved  upon  Rome  to  assassinate  power  in  JBpirus  and  Greece  (1142  sq.),  and  also  in 


consul  in  command  of  the  city,  which  flourished  in  population.   His  successor  William  the  Wicked  (1154) 

wealth,  and  displayed  military  virtues  in  the  defence  became  a  prisoner  of  Matteo  Bonellocapo,  one  of  the 

of  its  indepen(&nce  against  the  Lombard  dukes  of  conspiring  barons,  but  was  freed  by  the  people.   Wil- 

Benevento,  Spoleto,  Capua,  and  Salerno,  and  also  liam  the  Grood  (1166-89)  conquered  Durazzo  and 

agunst  the  Saracens;  in  850,  however,  the  town  was  Saloniki.    £Qs  heiress  was  his  aunt,  Constance,  who 

nearly  taken  by  Duke  Sico  of  Benevento.    The  consul  married  Henry  VI,  the  future  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Sergius  drove  the  Saracens  from  the  island  of  Ponza,  As  this  was  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  and  of 

whue  his  son  Csesarius,  in  846,  went  to  the  assistance  the  Holy  See,  who  desired  the  kingdom  to  be  indepen- 

of  Leo  IV  against  the  same  foe,  and  in  852,  freed  dent  of  the  empire^  Tancred  was  acclaimed  king. 
Gaeta;  but  to  save  their  commerce,  the  Neapolitans        Tancred,  an  illegitimate  offspring  of  the  royal  house, 

thereafter  allied  themselves' with  the  Mohammedans,  was  soon  succeeds  by  his  son  WUham  III.  Henry  VI 

Bishop  Athanasius  II  imprisoned  Sergius  and  pro-  triumphed  in  1194,  and  was  crowned  in  the  cathedral 

claimed  himself  duke,  but  following  the  same  friendly  of  P^ermo,  in  which  city  he  died  (1197),  leaving  as  his 

goUcy  towuds  the  Saracens,  he  was  excommunicated  heir  the  infant  Frederick  I  (the  II  of  Germany),  whose 
y  John  VIII.  tutelage  was  entrusted  by  Constance  to  Innocent  III. 
In  the  eleventh  century,  Pandolfo  of  Capua  sue-  In  the  long  contest  for  the  succession  of  the  empire, 
ceeded  in  taking  possession  of  Naples,  but,  assisted  by  Innocent  mially  permitted  Frederick  to  occupy  both 
the  Norman  lUunulf,  Duke  Sergius  was  able  to  re-  thrones,  on  condition  that  the  two  Governments 
turn  to  that  city  (1029),  and  through  gratitude,  gave  should  remain  separate  and  independent  of  each  other, 
Aversa  to  his  ally.  In  1038  the  Normans  assisted  the  and  that,  at  the  death  of  Frederick,  the  two  crowns 
Byzantine  seneral,  Maniakis.  in  his  Sicilian  undertak-  should  not  be  inherited  by  the  same  prince.  These 
ing,  and,  indignant  at  being  defrauded  of  their  reward,  conditions  were  not  fulfilled,  and  the  long  struggle  be- 
tumed  their  arms  against  the  Byzantines.  Their  sub-  tween  the  emperor  and  the  Holy  See  arose,  made  all 
sequent  conquests  lud  the  foundation  of  what  came  to  the  more  bitter  by  the  ecclesiastical  usurpations  of 
be  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  or  the  Kingdom  of  Frederick.  Conrad  and  Conradin  continued  the  strug- 
Naples.  After  their  victory  near  Canme  in  1041,  the  gle,  as  did  King  Manfred,  a  natural  son  of  Frederick. 
Normans  were  masters  of  Calabria  and  Apulia,  with  whom  ihe  latter  made  administrator,  but  who  reigned 
the  exception  of  the  seaboard  towns;  their  capital  was  in  reality  as  sovereign.  The  Holy  See  (Innocent  IV, 
established  at  Melfi,  and  the  twelve  counts  divided  the  Clement  IV,  and  Uroan  IV)  as  suzerain  of  the  king* 
territory  amonp  themselves — its  reconquest  by  the  dom^  offered  it  to  whoever  would  free  the  pope  of  the 
Byzantmes  havmg  been  frustrated  by  the  defection  of  domination  of  the  Swabians;  and  Charles  of  Anjou,  a 
Maniakis.  In  1052,  Argyros  was  again  defeated,  near  brother  of  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  offered  himself. 
Sipontum,  and  the  troops  of  Leo  IX  were  defeated  Manfred  perished  in  the  battle  of  Benevento  (1266), 
near  Civitella:  whereupon  the  pope  confirmed  the  and  Conradin,  after  his  defeat  at  Tagliacozzo,  was 
Normans  in  the  possession  of  their  conquests.  The  taken  to  Naples  and  executed  in  the  Piazza  del  Mer- 
first  count  of  Apulia  whose  title  was  recomized  waa  cato  (1268).  Naples  then  became  the  capital  of  the 
William  of  the  iron  Arm,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  kingdom,  to  which,  however,  Peter  III  of  Aragon  laid 
brothers,  Drogo  (1046),  assassinated  at  the  instigation  claim  on  account  of  his  marriage  to  a  dau^ter  of 
of  the  Byzantines;  Humphrey;  and,  in  1057,  Robert,  Manfred.  The  people,  who  could  not  endure  French 
called  Guiscard,  who  by  the  capture  of  Reggio  (1060),  rule,  opened  the  way  tor  him  by  the  Sicilian  Vespers 
Otranto  (1068),  and  Ban  and  Brindisi  (1071),  put  an  (1282),  and  Sicily  remained  in  the  power  of  the  Ara- 
end  to  Byzantme  rule  in  Italy,  while  (1059)  he  ob-  gonese;  but,  under  James,  second  son  of  Peter,  it 
tained  from  Nicholas  II  the  title  of  Duke  of  Calabria,  became  an  independent  kingdom.  When  the  former 
Apulia,  and  Sicily,  which  island  he  had  yet  to  conquer,  was  called  to  the  throne  of  Aragon  (1295)  he  wi^ed  to 
On  the  other  hand,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  restore  Sicily  to  Charles  II,  but  a  brother  of  James, 
the  pope,  so  that  all  his  possessions  and  future  con-  fVederidc  II,  was  acclaimed  king  by  the  Sicilians,  and 
quests  should  be  fiefs  of  the  Holy  See.  The  pope  Charles,  althou^  several  times  victorious,  was  obliged 
acquired  a  new  defender,  especially  against  the  em-  at  the  peace  of  Caltabellotta  (1302)  to  recognize  Fred- 
pire.  and  also  a  new  encumbrance.  The  conquest  of  erick  as  King  of  Trinacria.  Frederick  was  succeeded 
Sicily  was  accomplished  by  Roger,  a  brother  of  by  Peter  II  (1336),  Louis  (1342),  and  Frederick  III 
Robert,  after  a  struggle  of  thirty  years  (1061-1091);  (1355-77),  who  were  continually  at  war  with  Naples, 
the  first  city  of  the  island  that  was  taken  from  the  and  always  under  the  domination  of  the  two  parties 
Saracens  was  Messina;  Girgenti  and  Sjrracuse  were  into  which  the  nobility  was  divided,  the  National  and 
among  the  last  (1086-1087) ;  the  Mussulmans,  how-  the  Catalonian.  Mary,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Fred- 
ever,  were  given  the  freedom  of  the  country.  Mean-  erick,  was  married  to  Martin,  son  of  the  King  of 
while.  Robert  conquered  the  Republic  of  Amalfi(  1073)  Aragon,  who  re-united  Sicily  to  that  realm  in  1410, 
and  the  Duchy  of  Salerno  (1077),  the  last  remnant  of  and  was  succeeded  by  Alfonso  V  (1416-58).  The 
the  Lombard  power.  He  attempted  the  conquest  of  throne  of  Naples  had  been  inherited  by  Robert  the 
Epirus  in  1082,  but  died  in  1085,  contemplating  a  Wise  (1309-1343),  whom  the  Guelphs  of  Italy  re- 
movement  against  Venice.  Robert  was  succeeded  by  garded  as  their  leader,  and  who  a^)ired  to  the  con- 
Roger  I  (1085-1111),  William  II  (1111-1127),  and  quest  of  the  Italian  peninsula.  He  was  succeeded  by 
then,  Roger  II,  son  of  the  conqueror  of  Sicily.  The  his  daughter  Joanna  I,  who  was  married  four  times, 
latt^,  in  1098,  had  reduced  Prince  Richard  of  Capua  and  the  first  of  whose  husbands,  Andrew  of  Hungary, 
to  vassalage,  and,  it  is  said,  obtained  from  Urban  II  waa  brutally  muidered  in  1345.  Louis  of  Hungary 
the  dignity  of  hereditary  l^ate  of  the  Holy  See  (see  came  to  avenge  his  brother's  death,  and  drove  Joanna 
MoNABCHiA  Sicula)  ;  and  his  son  Roger  II  became  from  Naples;  but  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  his  coun- 


686 


tiy,  and  after  a  long  war  Joanna  was  reBtored  (1862). 
Having  no  children,  she  adopted  aa  her  heir  Louis  of 
Anjou,  a  brother  of  Charles  V,  King  of  France.  This 
action  led  Charles  of  Durauo  to  declare  war  upon 
Joanna,  in  which  he  received  the  support  of  Urban  Vl ; 
the  queen  was  killed  (1382),  and  Louis,  also,  having 
died  (1384),  the  throne  was  left  to  Charles  without  a 
contestant,  but  Charles  died  in  Hungary  in  1386. 

Many  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  regency  for 
Ladislaus  I,  the  minor  son  and  heir  of  Qiarles,  billed 
to  the  throne  Louis  (II)  of  Anjou,  also  a  minor,  and 
thereby  gave  rise  to  anew  war  between  the  Durasxo 
and  the-  Angevin  parties.  Ladislaus  was  victorious 
(1400)  and  souj^t  to  restore  to  Naples  its  prepondei^ 
ance  in  Italy;  in  this  attempt,  he  invaded  tne  Pontifi- 
cal States,  and  entered  Rome  itself  (1408  and  1410). 
His  successor  was  Joanna  II  (1414-1434),  who  was 
noted  for  the  perversity  of  her  life.  Louis  III  (of 
Anjou)  declared  war  against  her  in  1420,  on  which 
accoimt  she  adopted  Atfonso  V,  son  of  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon  and  Sicily;  but  as  that  prince  wished  the  im- 
memate  possession  of  the  kingdom,  Joanna  adopted 
Louis  IlL  and  after  his  death  in  1434  his  brother 
Ren^.  The  latter,  assisted  by  Filippo  Visconti,  de- 
feated the  Sicilian  fleet  of  Alfonso  near  Ponxa,  in  1435; 
Alfonso  himself  was  taken  prisoner  to  Milan,  but  was 
soon  set  at  liberty,  and  received  even  the  assistance 
of  Filippo  to  conquer  Naples,  which  he  accomplished  in 
1442,  establishing  Spanish  rule  in  that  kingdom,  which 
he  left  in  1458  to  nis  illegitimate  son,  FercBnana,  while 
Sicily  remained  united  to  Aragon.  Ferdinand  refused 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  pope,  his  suzerain,  usurped  eccle- 
siastical rights,  violatedboundaries,  and  in  other  ways 
provoked  the  displeasure  of  the  barons  of  the  kingdom 
and  of  Innocent  V III;  the  latter,  therefore,  gave  his 
support  to  the  barons,  who  revolted  (1484-87),  but 
Lorenso  de*  Medici  restored  harmony  to  the  state. 
Scarcely  had  Alfonso  II  ascended  the  throne  (1494), 
whoi  Charles  VIII,  wishing  to  maintain  the  rights 
which  he  claimed  to  inherit  from  the  House  of  Anjou 
to  the  throne  of  Naples,  undertook  his  famous  expedi- 
tion into  Italy.  Alfonso  II,  knowing  the  hatred  in 
which  he  was  held,  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son 
Ferdinand  II;  vainly,  however,  for  almost  without 
striking  a  blow,  Charles  became  master  of  the  king- 
dom. His  success  was  but  transitory,  and  Ferdinand 
was  able  to  return  to  Naples  in  1496,  leaving  the  prin- 
cipal ports  of  the  Adriatic  coast  in  the  hands  of  the 
Voietians.  By  the  Treaty  of  Gnmada,  Ferdinand  the 
Catholic  and  Louis  Xll  divided  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples  between  themselves  at  the  expense  of  Fred- 
erick II,  who  had  succeeded  Ferdinand,  and  whose 
territory  they  invaded.  There  soon  arose  contentions 
between  the  two  invaders  with  the  result  that  Gonxalvo 
de  Cordova  drove  the  French  from  It^y  (battle  of 
Ceru^ola,  1503),  and  Naples  thereafter  was  governed 
by  Spanish  viceroys.  In  1528,  the  French  general 
Lautrec  had  reached  the  walls  of  Naples,  when  ^drew 
Doria  suddenly  passed  over  with  his  fleet  to  the  side  of 
the  Spaniards,  who  remained  masters  of  the  country. 
There  were  a  great  many  insurrections  against  Span- 
ish rule;  in  1547,  on  account  of  the  attempt  to  intro- 
duce the  Ixiquisition:  in  1599,  at  the  instigation  of 
Tommaso  Ounpanella,  O.P.;  in  1647  (Giuseppe 
d'Allessio  at  Messina,  and  Masaniello  at  Naples)  it 
was  proposed  to  offer  the  crown  to  Duke  Henry  of 
Guise;  m  1674,  there  was  a  revolt  at  Messina;  all  of 
these  insurrections  were  suppressed. 

In  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  Naples  was 
conquered  by  the  Austrians  for  Charles  III,  son  of 
Emperor  Leopold,  and  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
Spam;  later,  he  became  emperor  as  Charles  VI.  At 
the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  Sicily  was  given  to  King 
Amadeus  of  Savo3r,  but  in  1720,  it  was  reunited  to 
Naples.  In  1734  Charles  of  Bourbon,  son  of  Duke 
Philip  of  Parma,  assisted  by  the  Spanish  general 
Montemar,  conquered  Naples  without  much  difficulty 


and  took  the  name  of  Charles  IH;  the  Austrians 
attempted  in  the  following  year  to  retrieve  their  Iosel 
but  were  defeated  at  Vdletri.  Qiarles  introduced 
many  reforms,  several,  however,  to  the  diasMiTantaee 
of  the  Church  (Tannucci  ministry),  and  consequent^ 
he  had  difficulties  with  the  Holy  See  which  were  not 
entirely  cleared  away  bv  the  oonoordat  of  1755. 
When  Charles  ascended  the  throne  of  Spain,  he  left 
Naples  to  his  third  son  Ferdinand  IV  (1759-1825). 
Having  failed  to  drive  the  French  from  the  Papal 
States  m  1798,  Ferdinand  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
to  Sicily;  the  French  invaded  Naples,  and  in  January, 
1799,  proclaimed  the  Parthenopian  Republic.  The 
kingdom  was  soon  restored,  however,  through  the 
efforts  of  Cardinal  Fabridus  Ruffo  Scilla.  In  1806, 
Naples  was  again  conquered  by  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
who  became  its  king;  upon  ascending  the  throne  of 
Spain,  he  was  succeeded  at  Naples  by  Murat,  who  was 
dethroned  and  killed  in  1815.  In  1820-21  sectarian 
agitations  brought  about  an  insurrection;  the  king 
gave  a  constitution,  but  was  compelled  by  Austria  to 
withdraw  it,  and  with  Austrian  assistance,  returned  to 
the  throne  (1821).  Under  Francis  I  (1825)  and  Ferdi- 
nand II  (1830-59),  conspirators  maintained  their 
activity,  especially  in  1848  and  1849,  when  ^dly 
asain  attempted  to  sever  its  union  with  Naples. 
C^vour  gave  nis  support  to  the  expedition  of  Garibaldi 
against  Francis  11.  Garibaldi  landed  at  Mar^a  on 
11  May,  1860,  and  soon  conquered  Sicily;  be  then 
passed  over  to  Calabria,  and  on  7  September,  took 
Naples.  After  the  battle  of  Voltumo  (1  October),  the 
regular  troops  of  Piedmont  entered  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  King  Francis  withdrew  to  Gaeta,  where, 
after  a  brave  resistance,  he  capitulated  on  12  February, 
1861,  and  signed  the  annexation  of  his  dominionB  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Acooraing  to  a  legend  connected  with  the  ^urch  of 
St.  Peter  ad  aranij  the  Apostle  on  his  way  to  Rome 
consecrated  as  Bishop  of  Naples  St.  Aaprenus,  a 
brother  of  St.  Candida,  who  had  given  hospitality  to 
St.  Peter.   This  St.  Candida,  however,  is  probably  the 
one  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century  and  whose  metrical 
epitaph  is  preserved.    At  aU  events,  it  was  natural 
tnat  Christianit^r  should  be  taken  to  Naples  at  an 
early  date,  especially  amons  the  Hd^rews,  since  that 
city  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pociuoli  (Acts,  xxviii, 
13).  and  the  catacombs  of  St.  Januarius,  St.  Severus, 
ana  St.  Gaudiosus  show  that  there  was  a  cone^enible 
number  of  Christians  at  Naples  in  the  bc^^ning  of  the 
second  century.   Hence  the  establishment  of  the  epis- 
copal see  may  date  from  that  time,  as  there  is  record 
of  only  nine  bishops  prior  to  300,  the  first  of  than 
being  Asprenus;   the  sixth,  St.  A^ppinua,  suffered 
martjrrdom,  possibly  under  Valerian;    the  deacons 
Marianus  ana  Rufus,  also,  were  martyred.     Bidi^ 
St.  Maximiu  was  exiled  by  (Donstantius  on  account  of 
the  prelate's  firm  catholicity  (357?).    At  the  dose  of 
the  fourth  century,  the  pagans  were  still  numerous, 
and  the  pagan  Symmachus  calls  Naples  urbs  rdiaiou 
(Epiat.  I,  VIII,  27).    The  first  removal  of  the  body  of 
St.  Januarius  from  Poszuoli  to  Naples  took  place 
under  Bishop  Severus  (367);  Bishop  St.  Noatnanus 
(about  450)  tought  against  Pda^panism  and  dujribg  his 
incumbency,  St.  Gaudiosus^  fleSng  from  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  landed  at  Names,  and 
died  there.    Bishop  Demetrius  was  depoeed  by  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  (593),  who  appointed  to  the  See  of 
Naples  the  Roman  Fortunatus;  tne  courage  of  Bishop 
St.  Angelus  (671-91)  saved  the  city  from  the  invasion 
of  theSaracens;  S«gius,  before  he  became  bishop  in 
716,  was  famous  for  having  retaken  the  castle  of  Cuma 
from  the  Lombards.   St.  Paul  I  (762),  a  friend  of  Pope 
Paul  I,  was  prevented  from  talanjK  poooonoion  of  his 
diocese  by  the  iconoclast  dux;  St.  Tiberius  (818)  died 
in  prison,  in  which  he  was  confined  because  of  his  con- 
denmation  of  the  wickedness  of  the  consul  Bonus;  St. 
Athanasius  I  (850)  was  persecuted  by  his  nephew,  the 


NAPOI,K<)X-PAlI,  DELAUDCHE 


NAPOLEON  687  NAPOLEON 

iux  Sei^uB,  and  died  on  a  journey  to  Rome  (872).  researdies  into  the  history  of  Coimoa  and  read  many 

AnaatasiuB  II,  a  oouidn  of  »miuB,  having  become  of  the  philosophers  of  his  time,  particularly  Rousseau, 

bish^,  captured  the  dux,  blinded  him,  and  made  him-  These  studies  left  him  attached  to  a  sort  of  Ddsm,  an 

self  Duke  of  Naples^  and  bv  favouring  the  Saracens,  admirer  of  the  personality  of  Christ,  a  stranger  to  all 

incurred  excommunication  by  John  VIII.    The  first  religious  practices,  and  breathing  defiance  against 

Nec^litan  prelate  to  bear  the  title  of  archbishop  was  ''sacerdotalism"    and    "theocracy".    His    attitude 

8<ngius  (990-1005),  and  his  successors  continued!^ to  be  under  the  Revolution  was  that  of  a  citizen  devoted  to 

consecrated  at  Rome,  even  after  Leo  the  Isaurian  had  the  new  ideas,  in  testimony  of  which  attitude  we  have 


1215),  there  was  incorporated  into  the  Diocese  of  bv  Bonaparte  in  1793.  "he  souper  de  Beaucaire",  in 

Naples  that  of  Cuma,  where,  in  the  time  of  Diocletian,  which  he  takes  the  side  of  the  Moimtain  in  the  Con- 

Maxentius  was  bishop,  and  the  deacon  Maximus  was  vention  against  the  Federalist  tendencies  of  the 

mar^rced.   Another  bishop  of  Cuma  was  the  Misenus  Girondins. 

who  went  in  483,  with  Vitalis  and  Felix,  on  a  pontifical  His  military  genius  revealed  itself  in  December, 
missioa  to  Constantinople,  where  he  betrayed  the  1793,  when  he  was  twentv-four  years  of  age,  in  his  re- 
pope's  interests.  This  city  was  destroyed  by  the  capture  of  Toulon  from  the  Engliah.  He  was  made  a 
{Neapolitans  in  1207,  but  many  of  its  ruins  are  still  in  general  of  brisade  in  the  artillery,  20  December  and 
existence.  m  1794  contributed  to  Mass^na/s  victories  in  Italy. 
Other  arohbishops  of  Naples  are  Cardinal  Henr^  The  political  suspicions  aroused  by  his  friendship  wim 
Minutolo  (1389),  a  liberal  restorer  of  churehes;  Ni-  the  younger  Robespierre  after  9  Thermidor  of  the 
ool6  de  Diano  (1418),  sealous  for  the  maintenance  of  Year  III  (27  July,  1794),  the  intrigues  which  led  to 
discipline  and  of  good  morals;  between  1458  and  1575.  his  being  removed  from  Uie  Italian  frontier  and  sent 
seven  archbishops  of  the  f ainily  of  Caraffa  succeeded  to  command  a  brigade  against  the  Vendeans  in  the 
each  other,  with  only  one  interruption;  among  them  west,  and  ill-health,  which  he  used  as  a  pretext  to  re- 
was  Giovanni  Pietro  (1549-1555).  who  became  Pope  fuse  this  post  and  remain  in  Paris,  almost  brought  his 
Paul  IV.  This  series  was  followea  in  1576  by  Blessed  career  to  an  end.  He  contemplated  leaving  France  to 
Paul  Burali,  a  cardinal,  and  one  of  the  associates  of  take  command  of  the  sultan's  artillery.  But  in  1795 
St.  Cajetan  of  Tiene  who  died  at  Naples  in  1547 ;  Cardi-  when  the  Convention  was  threatened,  Bonaparte  was 
nal  Annibale  da  Capua  (1578),  who,  like  his  prede-  selected  for  the  duty  of  pouring  grapeshot  upon  its 
cesBor,  was  a  reformer^  Cardinal  Alfonso  Gesualdo  enemies  from  the  platform  of  Uie  cnureh  of  Saint- 
(1596) ;  Cardinals  Ottavio  Acquaviva  (1604)  and  Fran-  Roch  (13  Vend^miaire,  Year  IV) .  He  displayed  great 
cesco  Boncompagni  (1626)  were  distinguished,  the  moderation  in  his  hour  of  victorv,  and  manag^  to 
one  for  his  benevolence,  and  the  other  for  his  charity  earn  at  once  the  gratitude  of  the  Convention  and 
on  the  occasion  of  the  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  in  the  esteem  of  its  enemies. 


in^  the  ancient  calendar  of  the  Neapolitan  Church,  illus-  Pagerie,  who  was  bom  in  Martinique,  in  1763,  of  a 

trated  by  Mazzocchi;  Cardinal  Giuseppe  M.  Capece-  family  originally  belonging  to  the  neighbourhood  of 

Zurlo  (1782)  was  confined  by  the  republicans  in  the  Blois.    In  the  same  month  Napoleon  set  out  for 

monastery  of  Montevergine,  where  he  died  in  1801.  Italy^  where  the  Directory,  prompted  by  Camot,  had 

Cardinal  Ludovico  Ruffo  Scilla  (1802-32)  fled  in  1806  appomted  him  commander-in-chief  against  the  First 

to  Rome,  was  taken  to  France  with  Pius  VII  in  1809,  Coalition.     The  victory  of  Montenotte,   over  the 

and  returned  with  the  pope  to  Rome:  he  did  much  for  Austrians  commanded  by  Beaulieu,  and  those  of  Mil- 

the  Church,  but  was  unfortunate  under  the  restoration  lesimo,  Dego,  Ceva,  and  Mondovi,  over  CoUe's  Pied- 

of  the  Bourbons  at  Naples.    In  1818,  a  new  concordat  montese  troops,  forced  Victor  Amadeus,  King  of  Sar- 

gave  to  the  hierarchy  of  the  kingdom  a  new  organiza-  dinia,  to  conclude  the  armistice  of  Cherasoo  (28  April, 

tion.    Cardinal  Filippo  Giudice  Caracciolo  (1833-54)  1796).    Wishing  to  effect  a  junction  on  the  Danube 

restored  the  cathedral  to  its  ancient  arohitectural  with  the  Army  of  the  Rhine.  Bonaparte  spent  the  fol- 

style;  Cardinal  Sisto  Riario  Sforza  (1854-77)  pro-  lowing  May  in  driving  Beaulieu  acrossNorthemltaly, 

tested  against  the  annexation  of  Naples  to  the  lung-  and  succeeded  in  pushine  him  back  into  the  Tyrol, 

dom  of  Italy,  and  therefore,  remamed  in  exile  at  On  7  May  he  was  ordered  by  the  Directory  to  leave 

Civitavecchia,  until  1866.  half  of  his  troops  in  Lombardy,  under  KeUermann's 

The  suffragan  sees  of  Naples  are  those  of  AcerrGL  command,  and  mareh  with  the  other  half  against  Leg- 

Ischia,  Nola.  and  Pozzuoli;  the  archdiocese  has  95  horn,  Rome,  and  Naples.    Unwilling  to  share  the 

parishes,  with  600,600  inhabitants;  32  reli^^ous  houses  dorv  with  Kellermann.  Bonaparte  replied  by  tender- 

of  men,  27  congregations  of  nuns;  7  educational  estab-  ing  his  resignation,  ana  the  oraer  was  not  insisted  on. 

lishments  for  boys,  and  15  for  girls;  one  Catholic  daily  In  a  proclamation  to  his  soldiers  (20  May,  1796)  he 

paper,  and  14  weekly  and  monthly  pubhcations.  declared  his  intention  of  leading  them  to  the  banks  of 

CArnLuem,UChip€flt^%a,  vol  ^X;  St  d'Au).,  Storia  the  Tiber  to  chastise  those  who  had  "whetted  the 

dcUa  CAtfeM d»  ^apok  (6  vols..  Naples,  1861);  Archtvto  ttonoo  per  j„„„«^  ^f    •    •!  „^„  •_.  r««»«««»>  ««j  "U«-«l«  ^^a«^ 

u  pronneu  napoi«£ne  (Naples.  1878) ;  FiMcm.  storia  deUa  cJSd  daggers  of  civil  war  m  France    and    basely  assasffl- 

mapoiuana  (4  rols..  Naples,  1875-79) ;  Nobwat,  Napiet,  Past  and  nated  '  BasseviUe,  the  French  minister,  to  "re-estso- 

^f.ViLS^°^^  ^®?*^  \2Sf^°'i^  2S?  •  Hf'^^'^'^r^i^''^  ^^  the  Capitol,  place  there  in  honour  the  statues  of 

ii//^32i^SiSri\m!^''  '     "^  '^  heroes who^^haJ  made  themselves  famous",  and  to 

U.  f  BNiGNi.  "arouse  the  Roman  people  benumbed  by  many  cen* 

turies  of  bondage  " .  In  June  he  entered  the  Romagna, 

Hapolaoil  I  fBoNAPABTB),  Emperor  of  the  French,  appeared  at  Bologna  and  Ferrara.  and  made  prisoners 

seeond  son  of  Charies-Marie  Bonaparte  and  Maria-  of  several  prelates.    The  Court  of  Rome  demanded  an 

Letitia  Ramolino,  b.  at  Alaccio^n  Corsica,  15  August,  armistice,  and  Bonaparte,  who  was  far  from  eager  for 

1769;  d.  on  the  Island  of  St.  Helena,  5  May.  1821.  this  war  against  the  Holy  See,  granted  it.    Thereace 

His  childhood  was  spent  in  Corsica:  at  the  end  of  the  of  Bologna  (23  June,  1796)  obliged  the  Holy  See  to 

year  1778  he  entered  the  college  of  Autim,  in  1779  the  give  up  Bologna  and  Ferrara  to  French  occupation,  to 

militaxy  school  of  Brienne,  and  in  1783  the  military  pay  twenty-one  million  francs,  to  surrender  100  pio- 

school  of  Paris.    In  1785,  when  he  was  in  garrison  at  tures,  500  manuscripts,  and  the  busts  of  Junius  and 

Valence,  as  a  lieutenant,  he  occupied  his  leisure  with  Mareus  Brutus.    The  Directory  thought  these  terms 


HAPOUON  688  HAPOLBON 


too  easy,  and  whm  a  prdale  was  sent  to  Paiis  to  Febraazy,  1797.    The  Peace  of  Tolentizio  was  negot^ 

nmtiate  the  treaty,  he  was  told  that  as  an  indispen-  ated  on  19  February:  the  Holy  See  suneodered  the 

sable  condition  of  peaoe^  Pius  VI  must  revoke  the  Legations  of  Bologna,  Ferrara^  and  RavemiA,  and 

Briefs  relating  to  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  clergy  reoogpsed  the  annexation  of  Avignon  and  the  Comtat 

and  to  Uie  Inquisition.    Tlie  pope  refused,  and  nego-  Venaismn  by  France.    But  Bonaparte  had  taken  care 

tiations  were  broken  off;  they  tailed  again  at  Florence,  not  to  infringe  upon  the  spiritual  power,  and  had  not 

where  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  renew  them.  denuinded  of  Pius  VI  the  withdrawal  of  thoae  Briefs 

During  these  pourpariers  between  Paris  and  Rome,  which  were  offensive  to  the  Directory.    As  aoon  as  the 

Bonapute  repulsed  the  repeated  efforts  of  the  Aus-  treaty  was  signed  he  wrote  to  Pius  VI  to  ezpreas  to 

trian  Wurmaer  to  reconquer  Lombardy.    Between  1  him  "his  pdfect  esteem  and  veneration";  on  the 

and  5  August,  Wurmser  was  twice  beaten  at  Lonato  other  hand,  feeling  that  the  Directory  would  be  dia- 

and  again  at  Castiglione;  between  8  and  15  Septem-  pleased,  he  wrote  to  it:  "My  opinion  is  that  Rome, 

ber,  i&  battles  of  l^veredo,  Primolano,  Bassano.  and  once  deprived  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  the  Romagna, 

San  Giongjo  forced  Wurmser  to  take  refuge  in  Man-  and  the  thirty  millions  we  are  taking  from  her,_  can  no 

tua,  and  on  16  October  Bonaparte  createa  the  Cispa-  longer  exist.    The  old  machine  wm  ^q  to  pieces  of 

dan  Republic  at  Uie  expense  of  the  Duchy  of  Modena  itseu . "    And  he  proposed  that  the  Directory  should 

and  of  the  Legations,  which  were  pontifical  territory,  take  the  necessary  steps  with  the  pope  in  regard  to  the 

Then,  24  October,  he  invited  Cacault,  the  Frenoi  reUjrious  situation  in  France. 

minister  at  Rome,  to  re-open  negotiations  with  Pius  Then,  with  breathless  n4>idity,  turning  back  to- 

VI  "so  as  to  catch  the  old  fox'';  but  on  28  October  he  wards  Uie  Alps,  and  assisted  by  Joubert.  Maas^na, 

wrote  to  the  same  Cacault:  "You  may  assure  the  pope  and  Bemadotte,  he  inflicted  on  Archduke  Charles 

that  I  have  always  been  opposed  to  the  treatv  v^ch  a  series  of  defeats  which  forced  Austria  to  sig;n  the  pre- 

the  Directory  has  offered  mm,  and  above  all  to  the  liminaries  of  Leoben  (18  April^  1797).    In  May  he 

manner  of  negotiating  it.    I  am  more  ambitious  to  be  transformed  Genoa  into  the  Ligurian  Ri^id>lic;  in 

called  the  preserver  than  the  destroyer  of  the  Hohr  October  he  imposed  on  the  archduke  the  Treaty  of 

See.    If  they  will  be  sensible  at  Rome,  we  will  profit  Campo  Formio,  by  which  France  obtained  Bdgiuxn, 

by  it  to  give  peace  to  that  beautiful  part  of  the  world  the  Rhine  country  with  Mains,  and  the  Ionian  I»- 

and  to  calm  the  conscientious  fears  of  many  people."  lands,  while  Venice  was  made  subject  to  Austria.   The 

Meanwhile  Uie  arrival  in  Venetia  of  the  Austrian  Directory  found  fault  with  this  last  stipulation;  but 

troops  under  Alvinsi  caused  Cardinal  Busca,  the  Boni^Mute  had  already  reached  the  pomt  where  he 

pope's  secretary  of  State,  to  hasten  the  conclusion  of  could  act  with  independence  and  care  little  for  what 

an  alliance  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Court  of  the  politicians  at  Paris  might  think.    It  was  the  same 

Vienna;  of  this  Bonaparte  learned  through  intercepted  with  his  religious  policy:  he  now  began  to  think  of 

letters.    His  victories  at  Arcoli  (17  November,  1796)  invoking  the  pope's  assistance  to  restore  peace  in 

and  Rivoli  (14  January,  1797)  and  the  capitulation  of  France.    A  note  which  he  addressed  to  the  Court  of 

Mantua  (2  February,  1797),  placed  the  whole  of  Rome,  3  August,  1797,  was  conceived  in  these  terms: 

Northern  Italy  in  his  hands,  ana  in  the  spring  of  1797  "  The  pope  will  perhaps  think  it  worthy  of  his  wisdom, 

the  Pontifical  States  were  at  his  mercy.  of  the  most  holy  of  rdi^ons,  to  execute  a  Bull  or  ordi- 

The  Directory  sent  him  ferocious  instructions,  nance  commanding  priests  to  preach  obedience  to  the 
**  The  Roman  reli^on  ",  they  wrote,  "will  always  be  Government,  and  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  strengthen 
the  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  Republic;  first  by  its  the  established  constitution.  After  the  first  st^,  it 
essence,  and  next,  because  its  servants  and  ministers  would  be  useful  to  know  what  others  could  be  taken  to 
will  never  forsive  the  blows  which  the  Republic  has  reconcile  the  constitutional  priests  with  the  non-con- 
aimed  at  the  fortune  and  standing  of  some,  and  the  stitutional." 

prejudices  and  habits  of  others.    The  Directory  re-  While  Bonaparte  was  expressing  himself  thus,  the 

quests  ^ou  to  do  all  that  you  deem  possible,  without  Councils  of  the  Five  Hundred  and  the  Ancients  were 

rekindling  the  torch  of  fanaticism,  to  destroy  the  passing  a  law  to  recall,  amnesty,  and  restore  to  ther 

papal  Government,  either  by  putting  Rome  under  some  civil  and  political  rights  the  priests  who  had  refused  to 

other  power  or — ^which  would  be  stiU  better — ^by  estab-  take  the  oath  of  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy. 

hshing  some  form  of  self-government  which  would  But  Directors  Barr^   Rewbell,  and   LareTeiD^re- 

render  the  yoke  of  the  priests  odious. "    But  at  the  L^peaux,  considering  that  this  act  jeopardised  the 

very  moment  when  Bonaparte  received  these  instruo-  Republic,  employed  General  Aiurereau.  Bonaparte's 

tions  he  knew,  by  his  pnvate  correspondence,  that  a  lieutenant,  to  carry  out  the  coup  cPitat  of  18  Fiuctidor 

Catholic  awakening  was  beginning  in  France.   Clarke  against  the  Councils  (4  Sept.,  1797),  and  Ftanoe  was 

wrote  to  him:  "We  have  become  once  more  Roman  once  more  a  prey  to  a  Jacobin  and  anti-Catholic 

Catholic  in  France",  and  explained  to  him  that  the  policy.    These  events  were  immediately  echoed  at 

help  of  the  pope  might  perhaps  be  needed  before  Ions  Rome,  where  Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  general's  brother, 

to  bring  the  priests  in  France  to  accept  the  state  m  and  ambassador  from  the  Directory,  was  asked  by  the 

things  resulting  from  the  Revolution.    Considera-  latter,  to  favour  the  Revolutionary  pjuty*    Disturb- 

tions  such  as  these  must  have  made  an  impression  on  a  ances  arose:  General  Duphot  was  Killed  in  Joseph 

statesman  like  BonapartCj  who,  moreover,  at  about  Bonaparte's  house  (28  December.  1797).  and  the  I^ 

this  period,  saddto  the  parish  pnests  of  Milan:  "A  so-  rectory  demanded  satisfaction  from  tne  Holy  See. 

dety  without  religion  is  like  a  ship  without  a  compass;  General  Bonaparte  had  just  returned  to  Paris,  where 

there  is  no  good  morality  without  reUgion."    And  in  he  apparently  confined  himself  to  his  functions  as  a 

February,  1797,  when  he  entered  the  Pontifical  States  meinber  of  the  Institute  (Scientific  Section^.    He  was 

wiUi  his  troops,  he  forbade  any  insult  to  religion,  and  by  no  means  anxious  to  lead  the  expedition  aaainst 

showed  kindness  to  the  priests  and  the  monks,  even  to  Home,  which  the  Directory  was  projecting,  andcon- 

the  French  ecclesiastics  who  had  taken  refuge  in  papal  tented  himself  with  giving  Berthier,  who  commanded 

territory,  and  whom  he  mifht  have  caused  to  be  snot  it,  certain  instructions  from  a  distuioe.    For  this  ex- 

as  Tigris.    He  contented  hims^  with  levying  a  pedition  for  Berthier's  entry  into  Rome  and  the  proo- 

great  many  contributions,  and  laying  hands  on  the  lamation  of  the  Roman  Republic  Q.0~15  February, 

treasury  of  the  Santa  Casa  at  Loretto.    The  first  ad-  1798),  and  for  the  captivity  of  Pius  Vl,  who  was  car- 

yances  of  Pius  VI  to  his  "dear  son  General  Bona-  ried  off  a  prisoner  to  Valence,  see  Pius  Vl. 

parte"  were  met  by  Bonaparte's  deciarmg  tnat  he  The  Campaign  in  Egypt.— YHale  in  Paris,  Bona- 

was  ready  to  treat.    '^  I  am  treating  with  this  rabble  parte  induced  the  IMrectory  to  take  up  the  plan  of  an 

(rf priests  [cetU  prUraiUe],  and  for  this  once  Saint  Peter  expedition  to  Egypt.    His  object  was  to  make  the 

will  again  save  the  Capitol",  he  wrote  to  Joubert,  17  Mediterranean  a  French  lakfii  by  the  conquest  of 


NAPOZJBON                            689  NAPOZJBON 

Malta  and  the  Nile  Valley,  and  to  menace  England  in  the  existence  of  the  Church  in  France,  while  the  other 
the  direction  of  India.  He  embarked  on  19  May,  involved  the  poasibility  of  Berious  interference  bv  the 
1798.  The  takins  of  Malta  (10  Jmie).  of  Alexandria  State  in  the  life  of  the  Church,  see  Concordat;  Arti- 
(2  July),  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  (21  July),  gave  cles,  The  Organic.  Napoleon  never  said,  "The  Con- 
Bonapute  the  uncontested  mastery  of  Caut>.  At  oordat  was  the  great  fault  of  nay  reign.''  On  the  con- 
Cairo  he  affected  a  great  respect  for  Islam;  reproached  trary,  years  afterwards,  at  St.  Helena,  he  considered  it 
with  this  later  on,  ne  replied:  '*It  was  necessary  for  his  greatest  achievement,  and  congratulated  himself 
General  Bonaparte  to  know  the  principles  of  Islam-  upon  having,  by  the  signature  of  the  Concordat, 
ism,  the  government,  the  opinions  of  the  four  sects,  "raised  the  fallen  altars,  put  a  stop  to  disorders, 
and  their  relations  with  Constantinople  and  Mecca,  obliged  the  faithful  to  pray  for  the  Itepublic,  dissi- 
It  was  necessary,  indeed,  for  him  to  be  thoroughly  ao-  pat^  the  scruples  of  those  who  had  acquired  the 
ouainted  with  both  religions,  for  it  helped  him  to  win  national  domams,  and  broken  the  last  thread  by 
the  a£fection  of  the  clergy  in  Italy  ana  of  the  ulemas  which  the  old  dynasty  maintained  conununication 
in  Egypt."  The  French  troops  in  Etprpt  were  in  ^reat  with  the  oountiy."  Fox,  in  a  conversation  with 
danger  when  the  naval  disaster  of  Aboukir,  inflicted  Napoleon  at  this  period,  expressed  astonishment  at 
by  Nelson,  had  cut  them  off  from  Europe.  Turkey  his  not  having  insisted  upon  the  marriage  of  priests: 
took  sides  with  England:  in  the  spring  of  1709,  Bona-  "I  had,  and  still  have,  to  accomplish  peace",  Napo- 
parte  made  a  campaifp  in  S3rria  to  strike  both  Turkey  leon  replied,  "theological  controversies  are  allayed 
and  England.  Failing  to  effect  the  surrender  of  with  water,  not  with  oil."  The  Concordat  had 
Acre,  and  as  his  army  was  suffering  from  the  plague  wrecked  the  hopes  of  those  who,  like  Mme  de  Stafil, 
(May,  1799),  he  had  to  make  his  way  back  to  Egypt,  had  wished  to  make  Protestantism  the  state  religion 
There  he  re-established  French  prestige  by  the  victory  of  France;  and  yet  the  Calvinist  Jaucourt,  defenoing 
of  Aboukir  (25  July,  1799),  then,  leammg  that  the  the  Oivanic  Articles  before  the  Tribunat,  gloried  in 
Second  Coalition  was  guning  immense  successes  the  definitive  recognition  of  the  Calvinist  religion  by 
against  the  armies  of  the  Directory,  he  left  KMber  in  the  state.  The  Jewish  religion  was  not  recognized 
Egypt  and  returned  secretly  to  France.  He  landed  until  later  (17  March,  1808).  after  the  assembly  of  a 
at  Fr^jus,  9  October,  1799,  and  was  in  Paris  seven  certain  number  of  Jewish  delegates  appointed  by  the 
days  later.  Besides  certain  political  results,  the  ex-  prefects  (29  July,  1806)  and  the  meeting  of  the  Great 
pedition  to  Eg3rpt  had  borne  fruit  for  science:  Eeypt-  Sanhedrim  (10  February — 9  April,  1807);  the  State, 

''         •        "  "       "«    Insti- 


ology  dates  its  existence  from  the  creation  of  the  Insti-    however,  did  not  make  itself  responsible  for  the  sal- 
Lte  of  Egypt  (Institut  d'Egypte)  by  Bonaparte.  aries  of  the  rabbis.    Thus  did  the  new  master  of 

Bonaparte,  First  Consul. — ^While  Bonaparte  was  in    France  regulate  the  religious  situation  in  that  country. 


Egypt,  the  religious  policy  of  the  Directory  had  pro-  On  9  April,  1802,  Caprara  was  received  for  the  first 

voked  serious  troubles  in  France.    Deportations  of  time  by  Bonaparte  m  the  official  capacity  of  Pius  VII's 

priests  were  multiplying;  Belgium,  where  6000  priests  legate  a  laieri,  and  before  the  first  consul  took  an 

were  proscribed,  was  disturbed;  the  Vendue,  Nor-  oath  which,  according  to  the  text  subsequently  pub- 

mandy,  and  the  departments  of  the  South  were  rising,  lished  by  the  "Moniteur",  bound  him  to  observe  the 

France  was  angry  and  uneasy.    Spurred  on  by  his  constitution,  the  laws,  statutes,  and  customs  of  the 

brother  Lucien,  president  of  the  Five  Hundred,  allied  repubUc,  axxd  nowise  to  derogate  from  the  n^ts, 

with  Directors  Siey^  and  Roger-Ducos,  Bonaparte  liberties,  and  privileges  of  the  Gallican  Church.    This 

caused  Directors  Gohier  and  Moulins  to  be  impris-  was  a  painful  surprise  for  the  Vatican,  and  Caprara 

oned,  and  broke  up  the  Five  Hundred  (18  Brumaire;  declared  that  the  words  about  Gallican  liberties  had 

9-10  November,  1799).    The  Directorial  Constitu-  been  interpolated  in  the  "Moniteur".  Another  painful 

tion  was  suppressed,  and  France  thenceforward  was  impression  was  produced  at  the  Vatican  by  the  atti- 

niled  by  threie  consuls.    First  Consul  Bonaparte  put  tuae  of  eight  constitutional  priests  whom  Bonaparte 

into  operation  the  Constitution  known  as  that  of  the  had  nominated  to  bishoprics,  and  to  whom  Caprara 

Year  vIII,  substituted  for  the  departmental  adminis-  had  granted  canonical  institution,  and  who  after- 

trators  elected  by  the  citizens,  others  appointed  by  wards  boasted  that  they  had  never  formally  abjured 

the  Executive  Power,  and  reorganized  the  judicial  their  adhesion  to  the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  clergy. 

and  financial  administrations.    He  commissioned  the  In  retaliation,  the  Roman  CXiria  demanded  of  the 

Abb^  Bemier  to  quiet  the  religious  disturbance  of  the  constitutional  parish  priests  a  formal  retractation  of 

Vendeans,  and  authorized  the  return  of  the  non-juring  the  Civil  Constitution,  but  Bonaparte  opposed  this 

priests  to  France  on  condition  of  their  simply  promis-  and  when  Caprara  insisted,  declared  that  if  Rome 

ing  fidelity  to  the  laws  of  the  repubUc.    Then,  to  make  pushed  matters  too  far  the  consuls  would  yield  to  the 

an  end  of  the  Second  Coalition,  he  entrusted  the  Army  desire  of  France  to  become  Protestant.    Talleyrand 

of  Germany  to  Moreau,  and,  himself  taking  command  spoke  to  Caprara  in  the  same  sense,  and  the  legate 

of  the  Army  of  Italy,  crossed  the  Great  St.  Bernard  desisted  from  his  demands.    On  the  other  hand, 

(13-16  May,  1800)  and,  with  the  co-operation  of  though  Bonaparte  had  at  first  been  extremely  irri- 

Desaix,  who  was  mortally  wounded,   crushed  the  tated  by  the  allocution  of  24  May,  1802,  in  which 

Austrians  (14  June,  1800)  between  Marengo  and  San  Pius  Vll  demanded  the  revision  of  the  Orffanic  Arti- 

Giuliano  at  the  very  spot  he  had  marked  on  the  map  cles,  he  ended  by  allowing  it  to  be  published  in  the 

in  his  study  in  the  Tuiferies.    The  Peace  of  Lun^ville.  ''Moniteur"  as  a  diplomatic  document.    A  spirit  of 

concluded  with  Austria,  9  February,  1801,  extendea  conciliation  on  both  sides  tended  to  promote  more 

the  territory  of  France  to  102  departments.  cordial  relations  between  the  two  powers.    The  proc- 

Bonaparte  spent  the  yeans  1801  and  1802  effecting  lamation  of  Bonaparte  as  consul  for  life  (August, 

internal  reforms  in  France.    A  commission,  estate  1802)  increased  in  nim  the  sense  of  his  responsibility 

liidied  in  1800,  elaborated  a  new  code  which,  as  the  towards  the  religion  of  the  country,  and  in  Pius  VII 

''Code  Napol^n",  was  to  be  promulgated  in  1804,  to  the  desire  to  be  on  good  terms  with  a  personage  who 

formally  introduce  some  of  the  ''principles  of  1789"  was  advancing  with  such  long  strides  towards  omnipo- 

into  French  law,  and  thus  to  complete  the  civil  results  tence. 

of  the  Revolution.    But  it  was  Napoleon's  desire  that,  Bonaparte  took  care  to  gain  the  attachment  of  the 

in  the  new  society  which  was  the  issue  of  the  Revoln-  revived  Church  by  his  favours.    While  he  dissolved 

tion,  the  Church  should  hav%  a  place,  and  consciences  the  associations  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Faith,  the 

should  be  set  at  rest.    The  Concoraat  with  the  Holy  Adorers  of  Jesus,  and  the  Panarists,  which  looked 

See  was  signed  on  17  July,  1801 ;  it  was  published,  to-  to  him  like  attempts  to  restore  the  Society  of  Jesus, 

gethttr  with  the  Organic  Articles,  as  a  law,  16  April,  he  permitted  the  reconstitution  of  the  Sisters  or 

1802.    For  these  two  acts,  one  of  which  established  Charity,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Thomas,  the  Sisters  of  St. 
X.- 


NAPOLEON 


690 


NAPOLSON 


Charles,  and  the  Vatelotte  Sisters,  devoted  to  teaching 
and  hospital  work,  and  made  his  mother,  Madame 
Lstitia  Bonaparte,  protectress  of  all  the  congrega- 
tions of  hospital  sisters.  He  favoured  the  revival  of 
the  Institute  of  the  Christian  Schools  for  the  religious 
instruction  of  bovs;  side  by  side  with  the  lydes^  he 
permitted  secondaiy  schools  under  the  supervision 
of  the  prefects,  but  directed  by  ecclesiastics.  He  did 
not  rest  content  with  a  mere  strict  fulfilment  of  the 
pecuniary  obligations  to  the  Church  to  which  the 
Concordat  had  bound  the  State;  in  1803  and  1804  it 
became  the  custom  to  pay  stipends  to  canons  and 
deaservanta  of  succursal  parishes.  Orders  were  issued 
to  leave  the  Church  in  possession  of  the  ecclesiastical 
buildings  not  included  in  the  new  circumscription 
of  parishes.  Though  the  State  had  not  bound  itself 
to  endow  diocesan  seminaries,  Bonaparte  granted  the 
bishops  national  estates  for  the  use  of  such  seminaries 
and  the  right  to  receive  donations  and  legacies  for 
their  benefit;  he  even  founded,  in  1804,  at  the  expense 
of  the  State,  ten  metropolitan  seminaries,  re-estab- 
lished, with  a  government  endowment,  the  Lazarist 
house  for  the  education  of  missionaries,  and  placed  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  Oriental  Christians  under  the 
protection  of  France.  As  to  the  temporal  power  of 
the  popes  Bonaparte  at  this  period  anected  a  some- 
what complaisant  attitude  towards  the  Holy  See. 
He  restored  Pesaro  and  Ancona  to  the  pope,  and 
brought  about  the  restitution  of  Benevento  and  Pon- 
tecorvo  by  the  Court  of  Naples.  After  April,  1803, 
Cacault  was  r^laced,  as  his  representative  at  Rome, 
bv  one  of  the  nve  French  ecclesiastics  to  whom  Pius 
Vll  had  consented  to  grant  the  purple  late  in  1802. 
This  ambassador  was  no  other  than  Bonaparte's  own 
uncle.  Cardinal  Joseph  Fesch  (q.  v.),  whose  secretary 
for  a  short  time  was  Chateaubriand,  recently  made 
famous  by  his  ''Le  g^nie  du  Christianisme".  One  of 
Bonaparte's  grievances  against  Cacault  was  a  saying 
attributed  to  the  latter:  ''How  many  sources  of  his 
dory  would  cease  if  Bonaparte  ever  chose  to  play 
Henry  VIII I ''  Even  in  those  days  of  harmony 
Cacault  had  a  presentiment  that  the  Napoleonic 
policy  would  yet  threaten  the  dignity  of  the  Holy  See. 

The  idea  of  a  struggle  with  England  became  more 
and  more  an  imperious  obsession  of  Bonaparte's 
mind.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  (25  March,  1802)  was 
only  a  truce:  it  was  broken  on  22  May.  1803.  by  Mor- 
tier's  invasion  of  Hanover  and  the  landing  ot  the  Eng- 
lish in  French  Guiana.  Napoleon  forthwith  prepared 
for  his  gigantic  effort  to  lay  the  ban  of  Europe  on 
England.  The  Due  d*Enghien,  who  was  suspecte<i  of 
complicity  with  England  and  the  French  Rovalists, 
was  carried  off  from  Ettenheim,  a  village  within  the 
territory  of  Baden,  and  shot  at  Vincennes,  21  March, 
1804,  and  one  of  (Jardinal  Fesch's  first  acts  as  ambas- 
sador at  Rome  was  to  demand  the  extradition  of 
the  French  imigrS  Vem^gues,  who  was  in  the  ser- 
vice of  Russia,  and  whom  Bonaparte  regarded  as  a 
conspirator. 

Napoleon  Emperor.  The  Coronation. — While  the 
Third  Coalition  was  forming  between  England  and 
Russia,  Bonaparte  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
hereditary  emperor  (30  April-18  May,  1804),  and  at 
once  surrounded  himself  with  a  brilliant  Court.  He 
create  two  princes  imperial  (his  brothers  Joseph  and 
Louis),  seven  permanent  hi^h  dignitaries,  twenty 
great  officers,  four  of  them  ordinary  marshals,  and  ten 
marshals  in  active  service,  a  number  of  posts  at  Court 
open  to  members  of  the  old  nobility.  Even  before  bis 
formal  proclamation  as  emperor,  he  had  given  Caprara 
a  hint  of  his  desire  to  be  crowned  by  the  pope,  not  at 
Reims,  like  the  ancient  kings,  but  at  Notre-Dame  de 
Paris.  On  10  May,  1804,  Caprara  warned  Pius  VII 
of  this  wish,  and  represented  that  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  answer  yes,  in  order  to  retain  Napoleon's 
friendship.  But  the  execution  of  the  Due  d'Enghien 
had  produced  a  deplorable  impression  in  Europe; 


Royalist  influences  were  at  worit  against  BonAparte  at 
the  Vatican,  and  the  pope  was  warned  against  crown- 
ing an  emperor  whOj  by  the  Constitution  of  1804| 
woul4  promise  to  maintain  "the  laws  of  the  Concor- 
dat'', in  other  words,  the  Organic  Articles.  Pius  VII 
and  ConsalW  tried  to  gain  time  by  dilatory  replies,  but 
these  vety  repUes  were  interpreted  by  Feach  at  Rome, 
and  by  Caprara  at  Paris,  in  a  sense  favourable  to  the 
emperor's  wishes.  At  the  end  of  June,  Napoleon  I 
joyfully  announced,  at  the  TuilerieSy  that  tJte  pope 
had  promised  to  come  to  Paris.  Then  Pius  VII  tried 
to  obtain  certain  religious  and  political  advantages  in 
exchange  for  the  ioumey  he  was  asked  to  make.  Na- 
poleon declared  that  he  would  have  no  conditions  dic- 
tated to  him:  at  the  same  time  he  promised  to  give 
new  proofs  of  his  respect  and  love  for  religion,  and  to 
listen  to  what  the  pope  might  have  to  submit.  At 
last  the  clevemeas  of  Talleyrand,  Napoleon's  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  conquered  the  scruples  of  Pius  VH: 
he  declared,  at  the  end  of  Sei)tember,  that  he  would 
accept  Napoleon's  invitation  if  it  were  officially  ad- 
dressed to  nim;  he  asked  onty  that  the  ceremony  of 
consecration  should  not  be  distinct  from  the  corona- 
tion proper^  and  that  Napoleon  would  undertake  not 
to  detain  him  in  France.  Napoleon  had  the  invita- 
tion conveyed  to  Pius  VH,  not  dv  two  bishops,  as  the 
pope  expected,  but  by  a  general;  and  before  setting 
out  for  France^  Pius  Vn  signed  a  conditional  act  (x 
abdication,  which  the  cardinals  were  to  pubUdi  in  case 
Napoleon  should  prevent  his  returning  to  Rome; 
then  he  began  his  journey  to  France,  2  November, 
1804. 

Napoleon  would  not  accord  any  solemn  reception  to 
Pius  VII:  surrounded  by  a  hunting  party,  he  met  the 
pope  in  the  open  countrv,  made  him  get  mto  the  im- 
perial carriage,  seating  himself  on  the  right,  and  in 
this  fashion  took  him  to  Fontainebleau.  Pius  VU 
was  brought  to  Paris  by  night.  The  whole  affair 
nearly  felTthrough  at  the  last  moment.  Pius  VII  in- 
formed Josephine  herself,  on  the  eve  of  the  day  set  for 
the  coronation  of  the  empress,  that  she  had  not  been 
married  to  Napoleon  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of 
religion.  To  the  great  annoyance  of  the  emperor, 
who  was  already  contemplating  a  divorce,  in  case  no 
heir  were  bom  to  him,  and  was  displaying  a  lively  irri- 
tation against  Josepmne.  Pius  VII  insisted  upon  the 
religious  oenediction  of  the  marriage;  otherwise,  thers 
was  to  be  no  coronation.  The  religious  marriage  cere 
mony  was  secretly  performed  at  the  Tuileries,  on  the 
first  of  December,  without  witnesses,  not  during  the 
night,  but  at  about  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  by 
Fesch.  grand  almoner  of  the  imperial  household.  As 
Welscninger  has  proved,  Fesch  bad  previously  ask«i 
the  pope  for  the  necessary  dispensations  and  faculties, 
and  the  marriage  was  canomcally  beyond  reproach. 
On  2  December  the  coronation  took  place.  Napoleoo 
arrived  at  Notre-Dame  later  than  the  hour  appointed. 
Instead  of  allowing  the  pope  to  crown  him,  he  himself 
placed  the  crown  on  his  own  head  and  crowned  the  em- 
press, but.  out  of  respect  for  the  pope,  this  detail  was 
not  recorded  in  the  ''Moniteur".  Pius  VII,  to  whom 
Napoleon  granted  but  few  opportunities  for  conversa- 
tion, had  a  long  memoranda  drawn  up  by  Antonelli 
and  Caprara,  setting  forth  his  wishes;  he  demanded 
that  Catholicism  should  be  reoognized  in  France  as  the 
dominant  reliipon;  that  the  divorce  law  should  be  re- 
pealed; that  the  religious  communities  should  be  re- 
established; that  the  Legations  should  be  restored  to 
the  Holy  See.  Most  of  these  demands  were  to  no 
purpose:  the  most  important  of  the  very  moderate 
concessions  made  by  the  emperor  was  his  promise  to 
substitute  the  Gregorian  Calendar  for  that  of  the 
Revolution  after  1  January,  1806.  When  Pius  VII 
left  Paris,  4  April,  1805,  he  was  displeased  with  the 
eniperor. 

But  the  Church  of  France  acclaimed  the  empoor. 
He  was  lauded  to  the  skies  by  the  bishops.    Tbit  par> 


NAPOLEON  691  NAPOLEON 


Lib  priests,  not  only  in  obedience  to  instruotions,  but 
also  out  ot  patriotism,  preached  against  England,  and 


emperor  (13  November,  1805),  of  this  "cruel affront '\ 
declared  that  since  his  return  from  Paris  he  had  "ex- 
exhorted  their  hearers  to  submit  to  the  conscription,  perienced  nothing  but  bitterness  and  sorrow^',  and 
The  splendour  of  the  Napoleonic  victories  seemed,  threatened  to  dismiss  the  French  ambassador.  But 
by  the  enthusiasm  with  which  it  inspired  all  French-  the  treaty  of  I^resburg  and  the  dethronement  of  the 
men,  to  bUnd  the  Catholics  of  France  to  Napoleon's  Bourbons  of  Naples  by  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Mas- 
false  view  of  the  manner  in  which  their  Church  should  s^na  (January,  1806),  changed  the  European  and  the 
be  governed.  He  had  reorganized  it;  he  had  accorded  Italian  situation.  From  Munich  Napoleon  wrote  two 
it  more  liberal  peouniaiy  advantages  than  the  Concor-  letters  (7  January,  1806),  one  to  Pius  VII,  and  the 
dat  had  bound  mm  to;  but  he  intended  to  dominate  it.  other  to  Fesch,  touching  his  intentions  in  regard  to 
For  example,  in  1806  he  insisted  that  all  periodical  the  Hoty  See.    He  complained  of  the  pope's  ill-will. 

Sublioations  of  a  religious  character  should  be  consoli-  tried  to  justify  the  occupation  of  Anoona,  and  declared 

ated  into  one,  the  "Journal  des  cur6s",  published  himself  the  true  protector  of  the  Holy  See.     "I  will 

under  police  surveillance.    On  15  August,  1806,  he  in-  be  the  friend  ot    Your   Holiness",  he   concluded, 

stituted  the  Feast  of  St.  Napoleon,  to  commemorate  the  "  whenever  you  consult  only  your  own  heart  and  the 

martyr  Neopolis,  or  Neopolas,  who  suffered  in  Egypt  true  friends  of  religion.''    His  letter  to  Fesch  was 

under  Diocletian.  In  1806  he  decided  that  ecclesiasti-  much  more  violent:  he  complained  of  the  refusal  to 

cal  positions  of  importance,  such  as  cures  of  souls  of  the  annul  Jerome's  marriage,  demanded  that  there  should 

first  class,  could  be  given  only  to  candidates  who  held  no  longer  be  any  minister  either  of  Sardinia  or  of 

degrees  conferred  by  the  university,  adding  that  these  Russia  in  Rome,  threatened  to  send  a  Protestant  as 

d^rees  might  be  rdfused  to  those  who  were  notorious  his  ambassador  to  the  pope,  to  appoint  a  senator  to 

for  their  "ultramontane  ideas  or  ideas  dangerous  to  command  in  Rome  and  to  reduce  the  pope  to  the 

authority".    He  demanded  the  publication  of  a  sin-  status  of  mere  Bishop  of  Rome,  claimed  that  the  pope 

gle  catechioai  for  the  whole  empire,  in  which  catechism  should  treat  him  like  Charlemagne,  and  assailed  "  tne 

e  was  called  ''the  image  of  Grod  upon  earth",  "the  pontifical  camarilla  which  prostituted  relif^on".    A 

Lord's  anointed  ",  and  the  use  of  which  was  made  com-  reply  from  Pius  VII  (29  January,  1806),  asking  for  the 

pulsory  by  a  decree  dated  4  April,  1806.    The  prisons  return  of  Ancona  and  the  Legations  let  loose  Napo- 

of  Vinoennes,  Fenestrelles,  and  the  Island  of  Sainte  Icon's  fury.    In  a  letter  to  Pius  VII  (13  February), 

Marguerite    received    priests    whom    the    emperor  he  declared:  "Your  Holiness  is  the  sovereign  of  Rome 

judged jniilty  of  disobedience  to  his  orders.  but  I  am  its  emperor;  all  my  enemies  ought  to  be 

The  Qreal  Victories;  Occupation  of  Rome;  Imprie-  yours";  he  insisted  that  the  pope  should  cErive  Elng- 

onmerU  of  Pius  VII  (1805-09), — After  1805  relations  lish,  Russian,  Sardinian,  and  Swedish  subjects  out  of 

between  Pius  VII  and  Napoleon  became  strained.  At  his  dominions,  and  close  his  ports  to  the  ships.of  those 

Milan,  26  May.  1805,  when  Napoleon,  as  King  of  powers  with  which  France  was  at  war;  and  he  com- 

Italv,  took  the  Iron  Crown  of  Lombardy,  he  was  of-  plained  of  the  slowness  of  the  Curia  in  granting  ca- 

f ended  because  the  pope  did  not  take  part  in  the  cere-  nonical  institution  to  bishops  in  France  and  Italy.    In 

mony.    When  he  asked  Pius  VII  to  annul  the  mar-  a  letter  to  Fesch  he  declared  that,  unless  the  pope 

riage  which  his  brother  Jerome  Bonaparte  had  con-  acquiesced  he  would  reduce  the  condition  of  the  Hoiy 

tracted,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  with  Elizabeth  Pater-  See  to  what  it  had  been  before  Charlemajgne. 

0on  of  Baltimore,  the  pope  replied  that  the  decrees  of  An  official  note  from  Fesch  to  Consalvi  (2  March, 

the  Council  of  Trent  against  clandestine  marriages  ap-  1806)  defined  Napoleon's  demands;  the  cardinals  were 

plied  only  where  they  had  been  recognized,  and  the  in  favour  of  rejecting  them,  and  Pius  VII,  in  a  very 

reply  constituted  one  more  cause  of  displeasure  for  the  beautiful  letter,  dat^  21  March,  1806.  remonstrated 

emperor,  who  afterwards,  in  1806,  obtained  an  annul-  with  Napoleon,  declared  that  the  pope  had  no  right  to 

ment  from  the  complaisant  ecclesiastical  authorities  embroil  nimself  with  the  other  states,  and  must  hold 

of  Paris.    And  when  Consalvi,  in  1805,  complained  aloof  from  the  war;  also,  that  there  was  no  emperor  of 

that  the  French  Civil  Code,  and  with  it  the  divorce  Rome.    "If  our  words'',  he  concluded,  "fail  to  touch 

law.  had  been  introduced  into  Italy,  Napoleon  for-  Your  Majesty's  heart  we  will  suffer  with  a  resignation 

maUy  refused  to  make  any  concession.         ^  conformable  to  the  Gospel,  we  will  accept  every  kind 

The  great  war  which  the  emperor  was  just  then  of  calamit^r  as  coming  from  God."  Napoleon,  more 
oommencing  was  destined  to  be  an  occasion  of  conflict  and  more  irritated,  reproached  Pius  VII  for  having 
with  the  Holy  See.  Abandoning  the  preparations  which  consulted  the  carainals  before  answering  him,  de- 
he  had  made  for  an  invasion  of  England  (the  Camp  dared  that  all  his  relations  with  the  Holy  See  should 
of  Boulogne),  he  turned  agunst  Austria,  brought  thenceforward  be  conducted  through  Talleyrand,  or- 
about  the  capitulation  of  Ulm  (20  October,  1805),  dered  the  latter  to  reiterate  the  den!iands  which  the 
made  himself  master  of  Vienna  (13  November),  de-  pope  had  just  rejected,  and  replaced  Fesch  as  am- 
feated  at  Austerlits  (2  December,  1805)  Emperor  basBador  at  Rome  with  Alquier,  a  former  member  of 
Francis  I  and  Tsar  Alexander.  The  Treaty  of  Pres-  the  Convention.  Then  the  emperor  proceeded  from 
buiig  (26  December,  1805)  united  Dalmatia  to  the  words  to  deeds.  On  6  May,  1806,  he  caused  CivitJk 
French  Elmpire  and  the  territory  of  Venice  to  the  Vecchia  to  be  occupied.  Learning  that  the  pope. 
Kingdom  ot  Italy,  made  Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg  before  recognizins  Joseph  ^naparte  as  King  ox 
vassal  kingdoms  of  Napoleon,  enlarged  the  mar-  Naples,  wished  Joseph  to  submit  to  the  ancient 
Kravate  of  ^aden,  and  transformed  it  into  a  grand-  suzerainty  of  the  Holy  See  over  the  Neapolitan 
duchy,  and  reduced  Austria  to  the  valley  of  the  Dan-  Kingdom,  he  talked  of  ''the  spirit  of  light-headedness" 
ube.  The  victory  of  Trafalgar  (21  October,  1805)  had  (esprit  de  vertige)  which  prevailed  at  Rome,  remarked 
^ven  England  the  mastery  of  the  seas,  but  from  that  that,  when  the  pope  thus  treated  a  Bonaparte  as  a 
time  forward  Napoleon  was  held  to  be  the  absolute  vassal,  he  must  be  tired  of  wielding  the  temporal 
master  of  the  Continent.  He  then  turned  to  the  power,  and  directed  Talleyrand  to  tell  Pius  VII  that 
pope,  and  demanded  a  reckoning  of  him.  the  time  was  past  when  the  pope  disposed  of  crowns. 

To  prevent  a  landing  of  Russian  and  English  troops  Talleyrand  was  informed  (16  May,  1806)  that,  if  Pius 

in  Italy,  Napoleon,  in  October,  1805,  had  ordered  VII  would  not  recognize  Joseph,  Napoleon  would  no 

Gouvion  Saint  Cvr  to  occupv  the  papal  city  of  Ancona.  longer  recognize  Pius  VII  as  a  temporal  prince.     *'  If 

The  pope,  lest  the  powers  hostile  to  Napoleon  might  this  continues".  Napoleon  went  on  to.  say,  ''I  will 

0ome  day  reproach  nim  with  having  consented  to  the  have  Consalvi  taken  away  from  Rome.''    He  sus- 

employment  of  a  city  of  the  Pontifical  States  as  a  base  pected  Consalvi  of  having  sold  himself  to  the  English 

of  operations,  had  protested  against  this  arbitrary*  ex-  Early  in  June,  1806,  he  seized  Benevento  and  Ponte- 

ercifle  of  power:  he  had  complained,  in  a  letter  to  the  corvo,  two  principalities  which  belonged  to  the  Holj 


NAPOZJBON                            692  KAPOLSON 

Bee,  but  which  were  shut  in  by  the  Kingdoxn  of  of  not  making  provision  for  the  dioceeeB  of  Venetu. 
Naples.  His  grievances  were  multiplying.  On  22  July,  1807, 
X  ielding  before  the  emperor's  wrath,  Consalvi  re-  he  wrote  to  Prince  Eugtoe,  who  governed  Milan  sb  his 
signed  his  office:  Pius  VII  unwillinjdy  accepted  his  viceroy,  a  letter  intended  to  be  shown  to  the  pope: 
resignation,  and  replaced  him  with  Cardinal  Casoni.  ''There  were  kings  before  there  were  popes",  it  ran. 
But  the  first  dispatch  written  by  Casoni  under  Pius  "Any  pope  who  dfenounced  me  to  Christoidom  would 
VII's  dictation  confirmed  the  pope's  resistance  to  the  cease  to  be  pope  in  my  eyes;  I  would  look  upon  him  as 
emperor's  behests.  Napoleon  then  violently  apostro-  Antichrist.  I  would  cut  mv  peoples  off  from  all  oom- 
pmzed  Caprara,  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  court,  munication  with  Rome.  Does  tne  pope  take  me  for 
threatening  to  dismember  the  Pontifical  States,  if  Louia  the  Pious?  What  the  Court  of  Rome  seeks  is 
Pius  VII  did  not  at  once,  ''without  ambiguity  or  the  disorder  of  the  Church,  not  the  good  of  religion.  I 
reservation",  declare  himself  his  ally  (1  July.  1806).  ^1  not  fear  to  gather  the  Gallican,  Italian,  German 
A  like  ultimatum  was  delivered,  on  8  July,  to  Cardinal  and  Polish  Churches  in  a  council  to  transact  my  busi- 
Casoni  by  Alquier.  But  Continental  affairs  were  ness  {pour  /aire  mes  c^oires]  without  any  pope,  and 
claiming  Napoleon's  attention,  and  the  only  immedi-  protect  my  peoples  against  the  priests  of  Rome.  This 
ate  r^mt  of  nis  ultimatum  was  the  emperors  order  to  is  the  last  tmie  that  I  will  enter  into  any  discussion 
his  genends  occupvins  Ancona  and  ^vit&  Vecchia,  with  the  Roman  priest-rabble  [la  pritraiue  romaineY*, 
to  seize  the  pontmcaT  revenues  in  those  two  cities.  On  9  August  Napoleon  wrote  again  to  Prince  Eugene, 
On  the  other  hand,  the  constitution  of  the  Imperial  that,  if  the  pope  did  ansrthing  imprudent,  it  would  af- 
University  (May,  1806),  preparing  for  a  state  monop-  ford  excellent  grounds  for  taking  the  Roman  States 
oly  of  teaching,  loomed  up  as  a  i^ril  to  the  Church's  away  from  him.  Pius  VII,  driven  to  bay,  sent  Car- 
right  of  teaching,  and  gave  the  Holy  See  another  dinal  Litta  to  Paris  to  treat  with  NuMleon:  the  pope 
cause  for  uneasiness.  was  willing  to  join  the  Continental  blockade,  and  sus- 
The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  formed  by  Napo-  pend  all  intercourse  with  the  English,  but  not  to  de- 
leon  out  of  fourteen  German  States  (12  July,  1806),  clare  war  agsunst  them.  The  pope  even  wrote  to  Nar 
and  his  assertion  of  a  protectorate  over  the  same,  re-  poleon  (11  September,  1807)  inviting  him  to  come  to 
suited  in  Francis  II's  abdication  of  the  title  of  em-  Kome.  The  emperor,  however,  was  only  seeking  oc- 
peror  of  Germany;  in  its  place  Francis  took  the  title  casion  for  a  rupture,  while  the  pope  was  seeking  the 
of  emperor  of  Austria.  Tnus  ended,  under  the  blows  last  possible  means  of  pacification, 
dealt  it  by  Napoleon,  that  Holy  Roman  Germanic  Napoleon  refused  to  treat  with  Cardinal  Litta,  and 
Empire  which  had  exerted  so  great  an  influence  over  demanded  that  Pius  VII  should  be  represented  by  a 
Christianity  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  pope  and  the  Frenchman,  Cardinal  de  Bayanne.  Then  he  pre- 
German  emperor  had  long  been  considered  as  sharing  tended  that  Bayanne's  powers  from  the  pope  were  not 
between  them  the  government  of  the  world  in  the  sufficient.  And  while  the  pope  was  negotiating  with 
name  of  God.  Napoleon  had  definitively  annihilated  him  in  good  faith.  Napoleon,  without  warning,  caused 
one  of  these  "two  halves  of  God",  as  Victor  Hugo-has  the  four  pontifical  Provinces  of  Macerata,  Spoleto, 
termed  them.  FroderickWilliam  II  of  Prussia  became  Urbino,  and  Foligno  to  be  occupied  by  General  Le- 
alarmed,  and  in  October,  1806,  formed,  with  England  marrois  (October,  1807).  Pius  VII  then  revoked  Car^ 
and  Russia,  the  Fourth  Coalition.  The  stunning  vie-  dinal  Bayanne's  powers.  It  was  evident  that,  not 
tories  of  AuerstAdt,  won  by  Davoust,  and  Jena,  won  only  did  Napoleon  require  of  him  an  offensive  alHaAce 
by  Napoleon  (14  October,  1806),  were  followed  by  the  against  England,  but  that  the  emperor's  pretensions, 
entry  of  the  French  into  Berlin,  the  Kins  of  Prussia's  and  those  of  his  new  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Cham- 
ffight  to  Kdnigsber^,  and  the  erection  of  the  Electorate  pagny,  Talleyrand's  successor,  were  now  bennning  to 
of  Saxony  into  a  kingdom  in  alliance  with  Napoleon,  encroach  upon  the  domain  of  religion.  Napoleon 
From  Berlin  itself  Napoleon  launched  a  decree  (21  claimed  that  one  third  of  the  cardinals  should  belong 
November,  1806)  by  which  he  organized  the  Conti-  to  the  French  Empire;  and  Champagny  let  it  be  un- 
nental  blockade  against  England,  aiming  to  close  the  derstood  that  the  emperor  would  soon  demand  that 
whole  Continent  against  English  commeree.  Then,  theHoly  See  should  respect  the  "Gallican  Liberties", 
in  1807,  penetrating  into  Russia,  he  induced  the  tsar  and  should  abstain  from  "any  act  containing  positive 
by  means  of  the  battles  of  Eylau  (8  Februaiy,  1807)  clauses  or  reservations  calculated  to  alaim  con- 
and  Friedland  (14  June,  1807),  to  sign  the  Peace  of  sciences  and  spread  divisions  in  His  Majestjr's  domin- 
Tilsit  (8  July,  1807).  The  empire  was  at  its  apogee;  ions".  Henceforth  it  was  the  spiritual  authority 
Prussia  had  been  bereft  of  its  Polish  provinces,  given  that  Napoleon  aspired  to  control.  Pius  VII  ordered 
to  the  King  of  Saxony  under  the  name  of  the  Grand-  Bayanne  to  reject  the  imperial  demands.  Ni^)oleon 
Duchy  of  Warsaw;  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  then  (January.  1808)  decided  that  Prince  Eug^e  and 
being  formed  for  Jerome  Bonaparte,  completing  the  King  Joseph  should  place  troops  at  the  disposition  of 
series  of  kingdoms  given  since  1806  to  the  emperor's  General  MioUis,  who  was  ordered  to  march  on  Rome, 
brothers — Naples  having  been  assigned  to  Joseph,  and  MiolUs  at  first  pretended  to  be  covering  the  rear  of  the 
Holland  to  Louis.  A  series  of  principalities  and  auch-  Neapolitan  army,  then  he  suddenly  threw  10,000 
ies,  "great  fiefs",  created  all  over  Europe  for  his  troops  into  Rome  (2  February).  Napoleon  wrote  to 
marshals,  aucnented  the  might  and  prestige  of  the  Chimipagny  that  it  was  necessary  "to  accustom  the 
empire.  At  nome,  the  emperor's  personal  power  was  people  of  Rome  and  the  French  troops  to  live  side  by 
becoming  more  and  more  firmly  established;  the  side,  so  that,  should  the  Court  of  Rome  continue  to 
supervision  of  the  press  more  rigorous;  summaiy  in-  act  in  an  insensate  way,  it  might  insensibly  cease  to 
carcerations  more  frequent.  He  created  an  heredi-  exist  as  a  temporal  power,  without  anyone  noticing 
tary  nobility  as  an  ornament  to  the  throne.  the  change " .  Thus  it  may  be  said  that,  in  the  begin- 
To  him  it  was  something  of  a  humiliation,  that  the  ning  of  1808^  Napoleon's  plan  was  to  keep  Rome. 
Court  of  Rome  persisted  in  holding  aloof^politically.  In  a  mamfesto  to  the  Christian  powers,  Pius  VII 
from  the  great  conflicts  of  the  nations.  He  be^an  to  protested  against  tlus  invasion;  at  tne  same  tone,  he 
summon  the  pope  anew.  He  had  already,  soon  after  consented  to  receive  General  Miollis  and  treated  nim 
Jena,  called  Mgr  Arezzo  to  him  from  Saxony,  and  in  with  peat  courtesy.  Champagny,  on  3  Februanr, 
menacing  fashion  had  bidden  him  go  and  demand  of  again  insisted  on  the  pope's  becoming  the  political  ally 
Pius  VII  that  he  should  become  the  ally  of  the  em-  of  Napoleon,  and  Pius  Vll  refused.  The  instructions 
pire;  once  more  Pius  VII  had  replied  to  Areszo  that  given  to  Miollis  became  more  severe  every  day:  he 
the  pope  could  not  consider  the  enemies  of  France  his  seized  printing  presses,  joumids,  post  offices;  he  ded- 
enemies.  Napoleon  also  accused  the  pope  of  hinder-  mated  the  Sacred  College  by  having  seven  cardinals 
ing  the  ecclesiastical  reorganization  of  (]rermany,  and  conducted  to  the  frontier,  because  Nfl4)oleon  accused 


NAPOLEON  693  NAPOLEON 

them  of  dealing  with  the  BourbooB  of  the  two  SiciHes,  On  10  June  Miollis  had  the  Pontifical  flag,  which  gtill 

then,  one  month  later,  he  expelled  fourteen  other  car-  floated  over  the  castle  of  8.  Angdo,  lowered.    Piua 

ddnals  from  Rome  because  they  were  not  native  sub-  VII  replied  by  having  Rome  placaraed  with  a  Bull  ez- 

t'ects  of  the  pope.    Cardinal  Doria  Pamphili,  who  had  communicating  Napoleon.    When  the  emperor  re- 

>een  appointed  secretaxy  of  state,  in  February,  1808,  ceived  news  of  this  (20  June)  he  wrote  to  Murat:  ''So 

was  also  expelled  by  Miollis;  Pius  VII  now  had  with  the  pope  has  aimed  an  excommunication  against  me. 

him  only  twenty-one  cardinals,  and  the  papal  Gov-  No  more  half  measiu-es;  he  is  a  raving  lunatic  who 

emment  was  disorganized.     He  broke  on  all  diplo-  must  be  confined.    Have  Cardinal  Pacca  and  other 

matic  relations  with  Napoleon,  recalled  Bayanne  and  adherents  of  the  pope  arrested."    In  the  night  of  5-6 

Caprara  from  Paris,  and  uttered  his  protest  in  a  con-  July,  1809,  Radct,  a  general  of  ^ndarmerie,  by  the 

sistorial  allocution  delivered  in  March.    Napoleon,  orders  of  Miollis,  entered  the  Quirinal,  arrested  Pius 

on  his  side,  recalled  Alqtuer  from  Rome.    The  stru^-  VII  and  Pacca,  eave  them  two  hours  to  make  their 

gle  between  pope  and  emperor  was  taking  on  a  tragic  preparations,  ana  took  them  away  from  Rome  at  four 

character.  m  the  morning.    Pius  VII  was  taken  to  Savona, 

On  2  April  Napoleon  simed  two  decrees:  one  an-  Pacca  to  Fen^rella.  Meanwhile  Napoleon,  oom- 
nexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italv  "in  perpetuity"  the  pleting  the  work  of  crushing  Austria,  had  been  the 
Provinces  of  Urbino,  Ancona,  Macerata,  and  Came-  victor  at  Essling  (21  May,  1809)  and  at  Wasram  (6 
rino;  the  other  ordered  all  functionaries  of  the  Court  of  July,  1809),  and  the  Peace  of  Vienna  (15  October, 
Rome  who  were  natives  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  to  re-  1809)  put  the  finishing  touch  to  the  mutilation  of  Aus- 
tum  to  that  kingdom,  under  pain  of  confiscation  of  tria  by  handing  over  Camiola,  Croatia,  and  Friuli  to 
their  propertv.  Pius  VII  protested  before  all  E\ux)pe  France,  at  the  same  time  obliging  the  Emperor  Francis 
against  this  decree,  on  19  May,  and^  in  an  instruction  to  recognize  Joseph  as  King  of  Spain.  The  young 
addressed  to  the  bishops  of  the  provmces  which  Napo-  German,  Staps,  who  attempted  to  assassinate  Napo- 
leon was  lopping  off  from  his  possessions,  he  denounced  leon  at  Schdnbrunn  (13  October),  died  crying:  "Long 
the  religious  " indifferentism^'  of  the  imperial  Govern-  live  Germany! " 

xnent,  and  forbade  the  faithful  of  those  provinces  to  Discussions  with  the  Captive  Pius  VII;  Second  Mar^ 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Napoleon  or  accept  any  riage;  Ecclesiastical  Councils  of  1809  and  1811, — 
oSices  from  him.  Miollis  retaliated,  12  June,  by  The  conflict  with  his  prisoner,  the  pope,  was  another 
dnving  Gavrielli,  the  new  secretary  of  state,  out  of  embarrassment,  a  new  source  of  anxiety  to  the  em- 
Rome.  Pius  VII  then  replaced  Gavrielli  with  Cardi-  peror.  At  first  he  took  all  possible  steps  to  prevent 
nal  Pacca,  reputed  an  opponent  of  France  I  on  11  July  the  public  from  hearing  of  what  had  happened  at 
he  delivered  a  very  spirited  allocution,  which,  in  spite  Rome:  the  "Moniteur"  made  not  the  sligntest  allu- 
of  the  imperial  police,  was  circulated  throughout  £u-  sion  to  it;  the  newspapers  received  orders  to  be  silent, 
rope  J  and  Pacca,  on  24  August,  directed  a  note  against  He  aJso  wi^ed  his  excommunication  to  be  ignored; 
the  institution  of  the  "Civic  Guard'' — an  idea  re-  the  newspapers  must  be  silent  on  this  point  also;  but 
cently  conceived  by  Miollis — in  which  Miollis  was  the  Bull  of  Excommunication,  secretly  brought  to 
compelling  even  the  pope's  soldiers  to  enroll.  On  6  Lyons,  was  circulated  in  France  by  members  of  the 
September,  1808,  Miollis  sent  two  officers  to  the  Quir-  CJongregation,  a  pious  association,  founded  2  Febru- 
inal  to  arrest  Pacca;  Pius  VII  interposed,  declaring  ary,  1801,  by  Pdre  Delpuits,  a  former  Jesuit.  Alexia 
that  they  should  not  arrest  Pacca  without  arresting  de  Noailles  and  five  otner  members  of  the  Congrega- 
the  pope,  and  that  in  future  the  secretary  of  state  tion  were  arrested  by  the  emperor's  command,  and 
should  sleep  at  the  Quirinal,  which  was  closed  to  all  his  anger  extended  to  all  the  religious  orders.  He 
the  French.  wrote  (12  September,  1809)  to  Bigot  de  Prdameneu, 

The  definitive  execution   of  Napoleon's  projects  minister  of  public  worship:  ''If  on  1  October  there  are 

against  the  Holy  See  was  retarded  by  the  wars  which  anv  missions  or  congregations  still  in  France,  I  will 

occupied  him  during  the  year  1808.    When  he  trans-  hold  you  responsible."    The  celebrated  Abb6  Frays- 

f erred  his  brother  Joseph  from  the  Throne  of  Naples  sinous  had  to  discontinue  his  sermons;  the  Lazarista 

to  that  of  Spain,  Spain  rose,  and  the  English  invaded  dispersed;  the  Sulpicians  were  threatened.    Napo- 

Fortugal.    Lhipont's   capitulation,    at    Baylen    (20  leon  consulted  Bigot  de  Pr^ameneu  as  to  the  expe- 

July,  1808),  and  Junot's  at  Cintra  (30  August,  1808),  diency  of  laying  the  Bull  before  the  Council  of  State, 

were  painful  reverses  for  French  arms.     Napoleon,  but  abstained  mm.  doing  so. 

having  made  an  alliance  with  the  tsar  in  the  cele-        It  was  not  long,  however,  before  he  had  to  face  an 

bratedinterviewof  Erfurt  (27  September-l  4  October,  enormous  difficmty:  there  were  more  than  twenty 

1808),  hastened  to  Spain.    There  he  found  a  people  bishoprics  vacant,  and  Pius  VII  declared  to  Fesch,  to 

whose  spirit  of  resistance  was  exasperated  all  the  more  Caprara.  and  to  Maunr  that,  so  long  as  he  was  a  pris- 

becausc  they  believed  themselves  to  be  fighting  for  oner,  so  long  as  he  could  not  communicate  freely  with 

their  liberty  and  the  integrity  of  their  faith  as  much  as  his  natural  counsellors, ^  the  cardinals,  he  would  not 

for  their  country.    In  November  he  gained  the  victo-  provide  for  the  institution  of  the  bishops.    Thus  the 

ries  of  Burgos,  Espinosa,  Tudela,  and  Somo  Sierra,  and  life  of  the  Church  of  Finance  was  partially  suspended, 

reopened  the  gat-es  of  Madrid  for  Joseph;  on  21  Febru-  In  November,  1809,  Napoleon  appointed  an  "ecclesi- 

ary  Saragossa  was  taken  by  the  Frencn  armies  after  an  astical  council"  to  seek  a  solution  of  the  difficulty, 

heroic  resistance.    A   Fifth   Coalition  was  formed  With  Fesch  as  president,  this  coimcil  included  as 

against  Napoleon:  he  returned  from  Spain  and,  rush-  members  Cardinal   Maury,   Barral,   Archbishop  of 

ing  across  Bavaria,  bombarded  and  took  Vienna  (11-  Tours.  Duvoisin,  Bishop  of  Nantes,  Emery,  Superior 

13  May,  1809).    On  the  day  after  the  victory  he  de-  of  S.  Sulpice,  Biciiops  Canaveri  of  Vercelli,  Bourlier  of 

voted  some  of  his  leisure  hours  to  thinking  about  the  Evreux,  Mannay  of  Treves,  and  the  Bamabite  Fon- 

pope.  tana.    Bigot  de  Pt6ameneu.  in  the  name  of  the  em- 

For  some  time  Murat,  who  in  1808  had  replaced  peror,  laid  before  the  council  several  sets  of  ouestions 

Joseph  as  King  of  Naples,  had  been  ready  to  support  relating  to  the  affairs  of  Christendom  in  general,  then  to 

Miollis  whenever  Napoleon  should  judge  that  the  those  of  France,  and  lastly  to  those  of  Germany  and 

hour  had  come  to  incorporate  Rome  with  the  empire.  Italy,  and  to  the  Bull  of  Excommunication. 
On  17  May,  1809,  Napoleon  issued  from  Schdnbrunn        In  the  preamble  to  its  replies,  the  council  gave  voice 

two  decrees  in  which,  reproaching  the  popes  for  the  ill  to  a  petition  for  the  absolute  liberty  of  the  frnpe  and 

use  they  had  made  of  the  donation  qf  Charlemagne,  the  recall  of  the  canlinals.    It  declared  that  if  a  gen- 

his  ''august  predecessor",  he  declared  the  Pontifical  eral  council  were  assembled  for  the  settlement  of  the 

States  annexed  to  the  empire,  and  organized,  imder  religious  questions  then  pending,  the  pope's  presence 

Miollis,  a  council  extraordinary  to  administer  them,  at  we  council  would  be  necessary,  and  that  a  national 


HAPOLSON 


694 


NAPOUON 


J 


eoundl  would  not  have  suffident  authority  in  ques- 
tions affecting  the  whole  Catholic  Church.  It  also 
declared  thai  the  pope  could  not  complain  of  any  e»- 
aential  violation  of  the  Concordat,  that,  when  he  ad- 
vanced his  temporal  spoliation,  as  one  reason  for  his 
refusal  to  institute  the  bishops  canonically,  he  was 
confounding  the  temporal  order  with  the  spiritual, 
that  the  temporal  sovereigntv  was  only  an  accessory 
of  the  papal  authority,  that  the  invasion  of  Rome  was 
not  a  violation  of  the  Concordat,  and  that  the  national 
council  would  interpose  an  appeal  from  the  Bull  of  Ex- 
communication either  to  the  general  council  or  to  the 
pope  better  informed.  The  manner  in  which  canoni- 
cal institution  might  be  secured  for  the  bishops,  if  the 
pope  ^ould  continue  his  resistance,  was  twice  dis- 
curaed.  Urged  by  the  Government,  the  council  ad- 
mitted that,  taJdng  the  circumstances  into  considera- 
tion, the  conciliary  institution  given  by  a  metropoli- 
tan to  his  suffragans,  or  by  the  senior  suffragan  to  a 
new  metropolitan,  might  possiblv  be  recognised  by  a 
national  coimdl  as.  provisionally,  a  substitute  for 
pontifical  Bulls.  Emery,  thinking  the  council  too 
lenient,  refused  to  endorse  the  answers,  which  were 
sent  to  Napoleon  on  11  January,  1810. 

On  17  February,  1810,  the  Act  regulating  the  Ro- 
man territory  and  future  condition  of  the  pope,  in- 
troduced by  R^gnault  de  Saint-Jean  d'Ang61y.  was 
gassed  unanimously  by  the  senate.  The  Papal 
tates,  in  accordance  with  this  decree,  were  to  form 
two  departments;  from  Rome,  which  was  declared  the 
first  city  of  the  empire,  the  prince  imperial  was  to  take 
his  title  of  king.  The  emperor,  already  crowned  once 
at  Notre-Dame.  was  to  jko  within  ten  years  to  be 
crowned  at  St.  Peter's.  Tne  pope  was  to  have  a  rev- 
enue of  two  millions.  The  empire  was  to  charge  itself 
with  the  maintenance  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Propaganda.  The  pope,  on  his  accession,  must  prom- 
ise to  do  nothing  contrary  to  the  four  articles  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  Another  Act  of  the  Senate,  of  25 
February,  1810,  made  the  Declaration  of  1682  a  gen- 
eral law  of  the  empire.  Thus  did  Napoelon  flatter 
himself  that  he  would  reduce  the  papacy  to  servitude 
and  bring  Pius  VII  to  live  in  Paris.  He  even  prepared 
a  letter  to  Pius  VII  in  which  he  told  him:  "I  hold  in 
execration  the  principles  of  the  Bonifaces  and  the 
Gregorys.  It  is  my  mission  to  govern  the  West:  do 
not  meddle  with  it."  This  letter  he  would  have  had 
taken  to  the  pope  by  bishops  who  were  to  give  notice 
to  Pius  VII  tnat  in  future  the  popes  must  swear  alle- 
giance to  Napoleon,  as  of  yore  to  Charlema^e,  and 
to  inform  him  that  he  himself  would  be  dispensed 
from  this  obligation,  but  that  he  must  undertake  not 
to  reside  at  Rome.  Napoleon  expected  in  this  way  to 
bend  the  pope  to  his  will.  Wiser  counseUors,  how- 
ever, prevailed  upon  him  not  to  send  this  insulting  let- 
ter. Nevertheless,  to  carry  out  his  plan  of  removing 
the  papal  throne  from  Rome,  he  ordered  Miollis  to 
compel  all  the  cardinals  who  were  still  at  Rome  to  set 
out  tor  Paris,  and  to  have  the  Vatican  archives  tran»- 
ported  thither.  In  1810  there  were  twenty-seven  Ro- 
man cardinals  in  Paris:  he  lavished  gifts  upon  them, 
invited  them  to  the  court  festivals,  and  wished  them 
to  write  and  urge  Pius  VII  to  yield;  but,  following  the 
advice  of  Consalvi.  the  cardinals  refused. 

It  was  in  the  miost  of  these  bitter  conflicts  with  the 
church  that,  Napoleon  desiring  an  heir,  resolved  to 
divorce  Josephine.  Ever  since  the  end  of  1807  Met- 
temich  had  been  aware  of  the  reports  that  were  cur- 
rent about  the  emperor's  approaching  divorce.  On 
12  December.  1807,  Lucien  Bonaparte  had  vainly  en- 
deavored to  obtain  from  Josephine  her  consent  to  this 
divorce;  some  time  after,  Fouch^  had  made  a  similar 
attempt  with  no  better  success.  In  December,  1809, 
at  Fontainebleau,  in  the  presence  of  Prince  Eugtoe, 
Josephine's  son,  the  emperor  induced  her  to  consent; 
on  15  December,  this  was  solemnlv  proclaimed  in  the 
throne  room,  in  the  presence  of  the  Courti  in  an  ad'- 


dress  delivered  bj  Napoleon,  and  another  read  by  the 
unhapp]^  JosephmcjiWho  was  prevented  bv  her  tears 
from  ffnishing  it.  The  Act  of  the  Senate  (16  Decem- 
ber), based  on  a  report  of  Lac^pdde,  the  naturalist, 
himself  a  member  of  the  Senate,  ratified  the  divorce. 
Napoleon  then  thought  of  manyine  the  tsar's  sister. 
But  Mettemich,  getting  wind  of  this  project,  made 
Laborde  and  Schwarsenberg  sound  the  "Tuileries  to 


see  if  Napoleon  would  many  an  Austrian  archduchess. 
The  idea  nleased  Napoleon.  The  Court  of  Vienna, 
however,  nrst  required  that  the  spiritual  bond  between 
Napoleon  and  Josephine  should  be  severed. 

This  bond  the  pope  alone  was  competent  to  dis- 
solve; Louis  XII  had  had  recourse  to  Alezauoder  VI; 
Henry  IV  to  Clement  VIII  j  but  Napoleon,  ezoom- 
municated  by  his  prisoner  Pius  VII,  could  xicyt  apply 
to  him.  Cunbacdrte,  the  arch-chancellor,  sent  for 
the  diocesan  oflicials  of  Paris  and  explained  to  them 
that  the  marriage  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine  had  been 
invalid  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  pazish 
priest  of  the  two  parties  and  of  witnesses.  In  vain 
did  they  object  that  only  the  pope  could  decide  such  a 
case:  they  were  told  to  commence  prooeedings,  and  be 
quick  about  it.  On  26  December,  the  promote-  of  the 
case,  Rudemare,  b^g^ed  Cambaodrte  to  su^nit  the 
matter  to  the  ecclesiastical  council  over  which  Fesch 
presided.  On  2  January,  1810,  Cambaodrte  sent  a  re- 
quest to  the  official,  Boislesve,  for  a  declaration  of 
nullity  of  the  marriage,  alleging,  this  tim^  that  there 
had  been  absence  of  consent  on  Napoleon's  part.  On 
the  next  day  the  ecclesiastical  council  rephed  that  if 
the  defect  of  Napoleon's  consent  could  be  proved  to 
the  officiality,  the  marriage  would  be  null  and  void. 
Cambacdrds  wished  to  produce  Fesch,  Talleyrand. 
Duroc,  and  Berthier  as  witnesses.  The  testimony  oi 
Fesch  was  very  confused;  he  explained  that  the  pope 
had  i^ven  him  the  necessary  dispensations  to  bless  the 
mama^;  that  two  days  later  he  had  g^ven  JoBepbine 
a  mamage  certificate;  that  the  emperor  had  then  up> 
braided  him,  declaring  to  him  that  he  (the  emperor) 
had  only  agreed  to  this  marriage  in  ordo-  to  quiet  the 
empress,  and  that  it  was,  moreover,  impossible  for 
him  to  renounce  his  hopes  of  direct  descendants.  The 
other  two  witnesses  told  how  Napoleon  had  repeAedly 
expressed  the  conviction  that  he  was  not  bound  by 
this  marriage  and  that  he  r^;arded  the  ceremony  only 
as  "a  mere  concession  to  circumstanijes  lade  de  pun 
eirconstanee]  which  ought  not  to  have  any  effect  in  the 
future". 

On  9  January  the  diocesan  authorities  declared  the 
marriaee  null  and  void,  on  the  ground  of  the  absence 
of  the  lawful  parish  priest  ana  of  witnesseaj  it  pro- 
nounced this  decision  only  in  view  of  the  "difficulty  in 
the  way  of  having  recourse  to  the  visible  head  of  the 
Church,  to  whom  it  has  always  belonged  in  fact  to 
pronounce  upon  these  extraordinary  cases.'*  The 
promoter  Rudemare  had  concluded  with  the  recom- 
mendation that  the  tribunal  should  at  least  lay  a  pre- 
cept upon  the  two  parties  to  repair  the  defect  of  form 
which  nad  vitiated  their  marria^j  Boilesve^  the  offi- 
cial, refrained  from  proflfering  this  mvitation.  Rude- 
mare then  appealed  to  the  metropolitan  authorities  on 
this  point.  On  12  January^  1810,  the  official,  Lejeas, 
with  much  greater  complaisance,  admitted  both  the 
grounds  of  nullity  advanced  by  Cambac^rte— -that  is, 
not  only  the  defect  of  form,  but  also  the  defect  of  the 
emperor's  consent.  He  alleged  that  the  dvil  mamage 
of  Napoleon  and  Josephine  had  been  annulled  l^  the 
decree  of  the  Senate,  that  by^  the  concordatary  laws 
(lois  concordataires)  the  religious  marriage  ought  to 
follow  the  civil,  and  that  the  Church  could  not  now 
ask  two  parties  who  were  no  lon^  civilly  married  to 
ra>air  the  defects  of  form  in  their  religious  marriage. 
Thus,  he  declared,  the  marriage  was  rrftgjously  an- 
nulled. It  may  oe  noted  here  that  the  Catholic 
Church  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  the  exoeasve 
complaisance  shown  in  this  matter  by  the  ecdesiasti- 


NAPOLEON                            695  NAPOLEON 

cal  ooundl  and  the  diocesan  authorities  of  Paris.   On  induce  them  to  apolosise  to  Napoleon,  who  received 

21  Januaiy,  1810,  Napoleon  resolved  to  ask  for  the  them,  told  them  that  the  pope  must  not  treat  him  as  a 

hand  of  Marie-Louise.    The  French  ambassador  at  roifainSantf  and  declared  that,  since  the  pope  was  not 

Vienna^  at  the  reauest  of  the  Archbishop  of  Vienna,  actmg  up  to  the  Concordat  in  the  matter  of  mstitution 

gave  lum  his  word  of  honour  that  the  sentence  pro-  of  bishops,  the  emperor,  on  his  side,  renounced  the 

nounced  by  the  diocesan  authorities  of  Paris  was  legal.  Concordat.    The  conditions  of  the  pope's  captivity 

At  last  all  the  religious  obstacles  to  the  celebration  of  were  made  more  severe;  all  his  correspondence  had  to 

the  new  marriage  were  disposed  of.  pass  through  Paris,  to  be  inspected  W  the  Govem- 

It  took  place  on  1  April,  1810,  but  thirteen  of  the  ment;  the  lock  of  his  desk  was  picked;  he  could  no 
cardinals  then  in  Paris  refuised  to  be  present.  These  longer  receive  visits  without  the  presence  of  witnesses; 
thirteen  cardinals  were  turned  away  when  they  pre-  a  gendarme  demanded  of  him  tne  ring  of  St.  Peter, 
sented  themselves  at  the  Tuileries  two  days  later;  the  which  Pius  VII  surrendered  after  breaking  it  in  two. 
minister  of  pubUc  worship  informed  them  that  they  Chabrol,  the  pope's  custodian,  showed  lum  the  ad- 
were  no  longer  cardinab,  that  they  no  longer  had  any  dresses  in  which  some  of  the  chapters  were  esroressing 
right  to  wear  the  purple;  the  minister  of  police  for-  their  submission  to  the  emperor,  but  Pius  VII  was  in- 
warded  them,  two  by  two,  to  small  country  towns;  flexible.  A  commission  of  jurisconsults  in  Paris,  after 
their  pensions  were  suppressed,  their  property  se-  discussing  the  possibility  of  a  law  regulating  the  ca- 
questrated.  'People  called  them  "the  olack  cardi-  nonical  institution  of  bishops  without  the  pope's  co- 
nals".  The  bishops  and  priests  of  the  Roman  States  operation,  ended  by  deciding  that  to  pass  su(m  a  law 
were  treated  with  similar  violence;  nineteen  out  of  was  almost  eqtdvalent  to  schism, 
thirty-two  bishops  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Napoleon  was  not  willing  to  go  so  far.  He  sum- 
emperor,  and  were  imprisoned,  while  a  certain  num-  moned  the  ecclesiastical  council  which  he  had  alreadv 
ber  of  non-juring  parochial  clergy  were  interned  in  established  and,  8  February,  1811,  proposed  to  it 
Corsica,  and  the  emperor  announced  his  intention  of  these  two  questions:  (1)  AJl  commumcation  be- 
reducing  the  number  of  dioceses  and  parishes  in  the  tween  the  pope  and  tne  emperor's  subjects  being  in- 
Roman  States  by  three-fourths.  This  policy  of  bitter  temipted,  to  whom  must  recourse  be  hiad  for  the  dis- 
persecution  coincided  with  fresh  overtures  to  his  pris-  pensations  ordinarily  granted  by  the  Holy  See?  (2) 
oner,  the  pope,  through  the  Austrian  diplomat  Lebzel-  What  canonical  means  is  there  of  providing  institu- 
tem  (May,  1810) .  Pius  VII's  reply  was  that,  to  ne^o-  tion  for  bishops  when  the  pope  refuses  it?  Fesch  and 
tiate,  he  must  be  free  and  able  to  communicate  with  Emez^  tried  to  sway  the  council  towards  some  courses 
the  cardinals.  In  July  Napoleon  sent  Cardinals  which  would  save  the  papal  prerogative.  But  the 
Spina  and  Caselli  to  Savona,  but  they  obtained  noth-  majority  of  the  council  answered:  (1)  That  recourse 
ing  from  the  pope.  There  had  been  no  solution  of  the  might  be  had,  provisionally,  to  the  bishops  for  the 
internal  crisis  or  the  Church  of  France;  while  Pius  VII  dispensations  m  question;  (2^  That  a  clause  mi^t  be 
was  a  prisoner  the  bishops  were  not  to  receive  canon-  added  to  the  Concordat  stipulating  that  the  pope 
ical  institution.  Bigot  de  Pr^ameneu  and  Mauiy  sug-  must  Knmt  canonical  institution  within  a  stated 
gested  to  the  emperor  a  possible  arrangement:  to  in-  time;  tailing  which,  the  right  of  institution  would 
vite  the  chapter  in  each  diocese  to  designate  the  bishop  devolve  upon  the  coimcil  of  the  province;  and  that, 
who  had  been  nominated,  but  not  yet  canonicadly  in-  if  the  pope  rejected  this  amendment  of  the  Concordat, 
stituted,  provisional  adnunistrator.  Fesch  refused  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  would  have  to  be  revived  so 
lend  himself  to  this  expedient  and  occupv  the  Arch-  far  as  concerned  bishops.  The  coimcil  added  that, 
bishopric  of  Paris;  but  a  certain  number  of  nominated  if  the  pope  persisted  in  nis  refusal,  the  possibility  of  a 
bishops  did  go  to  their  episcopal  cities  in  the  capacity  public  abolition  of  the  Concordat  by  the  emperor 
of  provisional  administrators.  Going  one  step  fur-  would  have  to  be  considered;  but  that  these  questions 
ther.  Napoleon  removed  Mauiy  from  uie  See  of  Mon-  could  be  broached  only  by  a  national  council,  after 
tefiasoone,  and  d'Osmond  from  that  of  Nancy,  and  had  one  last  attempt  at  negotiation  with  the  pope, 
them  designated  by  the  respective  chapters  provi-  On  16  March,  1811,  Napoleon  summoned  to  the 
flional  administrators  of  the  two  vacant  Archdioceses  Tuileries  the  members  of  the  council  and  several  of 
of  Paris  and  Florence.  Mauiy  and  d'Osmond,  at  the  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  empire;  inveighing  bitterly 
emperor^s  bidding,  left  the  dioceses  given  them  by  the  against  the  pope,  he  proclaimed  that  the  Concordat  no 
pope  to  install  themselves  in  these  archdioceses.  longer  existed  and  that  he  was  going  to  convoke  a 

Despite  the  rigour  of  his  captivity,  Pius  VII  was  coimcil  of  the  West.  At  this  meeting  Emery^  who 
able  to  make  known  the  pontifical  commands  to  Car-  died  on  28  April,  boldly  faced  Napoleon,  quoting  to 
dinal  di  Pietro  at  Semur:  a  secret  agency  at  Lyons,  him  passages  from  Bossuet  on  the  necessity  of  the 
established  b^  certain  members  of  the  Congregation,  pope  s  liberty.  Pius  VII  not  yielding  to  a  last  sum- 
devised  ingemous  ways  of  facilitating  these  communica-  mons  on  the  part  of  Chabrol,  the  council  was  convoked 
tions  as  well  as  the  circulation  of  Bulls.  In  Novem-  on  25  April  to  meet  on  9  June.  By  this  step  Napoleon 
ber,  1810,  the  Court  was  stupefied  with  the  news  that  expected  to  subdue  the  pope  to  his  will.  In  pursuance 
two  Bulls  of  Pius  VII,  addressed  to  the  Chapters  of  of  a  plan  outlined  by  the  philosopher  Gerando,  Arch- 
Florence  and  Paris,  forbade  their  recognizing  d'Os-  bishop  Barral^  and  Bishops  Duvoisin  and  Mannay 
mond  and  Maury.  The  imperial  fury  was  let  loose,  were  sent  to  Pius  VII  to  gam  him  over  on  the  Question 
On  1  January,  1811,  Napoleon,  djiring  an  audience  to  of  the  Bulls  of  institution.  They  were  joinea  bv  the 
Maury  and  the  canons,  demanded  an  explanation  Bishop  of  Faenza,  and  arrived  at  Savona  on  9  May. 
from  d' Astros,  the  vicar  capitular,  who  had  received  At  first  the  pope  refused  to  discuss  the  matter,  not 
the  Bull,  telling  him  that  there  is  ''as  much  difference  being  free  to  communicate  with  his  cardinds.  But 
between  the  religion  of  Bossuet  and  that  of  Gregory  the  bishops  and  Chabrol  insisted,  and  the  pope's  phy- 
VII  as  between  heaven  and  hell'';  d' Astros,  taken  by  sician  added  his  efforts  to  theirs.  They  represented 
Maury  himself  to  police  headquarters,  was  imprisonea  that  the  Church  was  becoming  disorganized.   At  the 

1811. 

CUf 

out  of  the  council  chamber  (with  a  brutality  that  the  tion"  a  note  draym  up  by  the 

emperor  afterwards  regretted)  and  was  then  ordered  that^  in  case  pf  persistent  refusal  on  £is  part,  canoni- 

to  quit  Paris.    Cardinals  di  Pietro,  Oppizzone,  and  cal  institution  might  be  given  to  bishops  after  six 

Gabrielli,  and  the  priests  Fontana  and  Gr^ri,  former  months.    On  20' mW,  at  four  o'clock  in  tne  morning, 

oounselloiB  of  the  pope,  were  thrown  into  prison,  the  bishops  started  for  Paris  with  this  note;  at  «even 

Maury  used  his  influence  with  the  canons  of  Paris  to  o'cdook  tne  pope  summoned  Chabrol  and  told  him 


KAPOLSOir 


696 


NAPOUOir 


that  lie  did  not  aooept  the  note  in  any  definitive  sense, 
that  he  oonsidered  it  only  a  dcetch,  and  that  he  had 
made  no  formal  promise.  He  also  asked  that  a  cou- 
rier riiould  be  sent  after  the  bishops  to  warn  them  of 
this.  The  courier  bearing  this  message  overtook  the 
bishops  at  Turin  on  24  May.  Pius  VII  warned  Cha- 
brol  that  if  the  first  note  were  exploited  as  represent- 
ing an  arrangement  definitely  accepted  by  the  pope, 
he  "would  make  a  noise  that  should  resound  through 
the  whole  Christian  world".  Napoleon,  in  his  blind- 
ness, resolved  to  do  without  the  pope  and  put  all  his 
hopes  in  the  council. 

Council  of  181 L — ^The  council  convoked  for  O'Jime, 
1811,  was  not  opened  at  Notre-Dame  until  17  June, 
the  opening  being  postponed  on  account  of  the  bap- 
tism of  the  King  of  Rome,  just  bom  of  Marie-Louise. 
Paternal  pride  and  the  seemingly  assured  destinies 
of  his  throne,  rendered  Napoleon  still  more  inflexible 
in  regard  to  the  pope.  Only  since  1905  has  the  truth 
about  this  council  been  known,  thanks  to  Webchin- 

Sir's  researches.  Under  the  Second  Empire,  when 
'Haussonville  wrote  his  work  on  the  Roman  Church 
and  the  First  Empire  (see  below)  Marshal  Valiant 
had  refused  him  all  access  to  the  archives  of  the  coun- 
cil. These  archives  Welschinger  was  able  to  consult. 
Boulogne,  Bishop  of  Troyes,  in  his  opening  sermon 
affirmed  the  solidaritv  of  the  pope  and  the  bishops, 
while  Fesch,  as  president  of  the  council,  made  all  its 
members  swear  obedience  and  fidelity  to  Pius  VII. 
Upon  this  Napoleon  gave  Fesch  a  sound  rating,  on 
the  evening  of  10  June,  at  Saint-Cloud.  The  emperor 
had  packed  his  council  in  very  arbitrary  fashion, 
choosing  only  42  out  of  150  Italian  bishops  to  mix 
with  the  French  bishops,  with  a  view  to  oecumenical 
effect.  A  private  bufletin  sent  to  the  emperor,  24 
June,  noted  that  the  fathers  of  the  ooimcil  themselves 
were  generally  impressed  with  a  sense  of  restraint. 
The  opposition  to  the  emperor  was  verv  firmly  led 
by  Broslie,  Bishop  of  Ghent,  secondea  by  Avian, 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  Dessole,  Bishop  of  Cham- 
b6ry,  and  Him,  Bishop  of  Toumai.  The  first  general 
assembly  of  the  council  was  held  on  20  June.  Bigot 
de  Pr^ameneu  and  Marescalchi,  ministers  of  public 
worship  for  France  and  Italy,  were  present  and  read 
the  imperial  message,  one  draft  of  which  had  been  re- 
jected by  Napoleon  as  too  moderate.  The  final 
version  displeased  all  the  bishops  who  had  any  regard 
for  the  papal  dij^nity.  Napoleon  in  this  document 
demanded  that  bishops  should  be  instituted  in  accord- 
ance with  the  forms  which  had  obtained  before  the 
Concordat,  no  see  to  be  vacant  for  longer  than  three 
months,  "more  than  sufiicient  time  for  appointing 
a  new  incumbent " .  He  wished  the  council  to  present 
an  address  to  him,  and  the  committee  that  should 
prepare  this  address  to  be  composed  of  the  four  pre- 
lates he  had  sent  to  Savona.  The  address,  which  was 
prepared  in  advance  by  Duvoisin,  one  oi  these  four 
prelates,  was  an  expression  of  assent  to  Napoleon's 
wishes.  But  the  council  decided  to  have  on  the  com- 
mittee besides  these  four  prelates,  some  other  bishops 
chosen  by  secret  ballot,  and  among  the  latter  fiffured 
Broglie.  Broglie  discussed  Duvoisin's  draft  ana  had 
a  number  of  changes  made  in  it,  and  Fesch  had  some 
trouble  in  keeping  the  committee  from  at  once  de- 
manding the  liberation  of  the  pope.  The  address,  as 
voted,  was  nonsensical.  It  was  not  what  Napoleon 
expected,  and  the  audience  which  he  was  to  have 
given  to  the  members  of  the  council  on  30  June,  did 
not  take  place. 

Another  committee  was  appointed  by  the  council 
to  inquire  into  the  pope's  views  on  the  institution  of 
bishops.  After  a  connict  of  ten  days,  Broglie  secured 
against  Duvoisin,  by  a  vote  of  8  to  4,  a  resolution  to 
the  effect  that,  in  this  matter,  nothing  must  be  done 
without  the  pope,  and  that  the  councu  ou^ht  to  send 
him  a  deputation  to  learn  what  was  his  will.  Napo- 
leon was  furious  and  said  to  Fesch  and  Barral:  "I 


will  dissolve  the  council.  You  are  a  pack  of  fook". 
Then,  on  second  thougJiL  he  informed  the  councO 
that  Pius  VII  by  wa^  or  concession,  had  formally 
promised  canonical  institution  to  the  vacant  biahoprics 
and  had  approved  a  clause  ftnAhling  tJie  metropohtaos 
themselves  in  future,  after  rix  months  vacancy  of  any 
see,  to  give  canonical  institution.  Napoleon  required 
the  council  to  issue  a  note  to  this  eaect  and  sent  a 
deputation  to  thank  the  pope.  First  the  committee 
voted  as  the  emperor  wished,  then  on  more  mature 
oonaderation,  suspecting  some  stratagem  on  the  em- 
peror's part,  it  recalled  its  vote,  and,  on  10  July,  Hire, 
Bishop  of  Toumai,  speaking  for  the  committee,  pro- 
posed to  the  council  that  no  decision  be  made  untH  a 
deputation  had  been  sent  to  the  pope.  Then,  on  the 
morning  of  11  Julv,  Napoleon  pronounced  the  council 
dissolved.  The  following  nignt  Broglie,  Him,  and 
Boulogne  were  imprisoned  at  Vincennes.  The  em- 
peror next  thought  of  turning  over  the  administration 
of  the  dioceses  to  the  prefects,  but  presentlv  took  the 
advice  of  Maury,  vis.,  to  have  all  the  membcn  of  the 
council  called  up,  one  by  one,  by  the  minister  of  pub- 
lic worship,  ana  their  personal  assent  to  the  imperial 
project  obtained  in  this  way.  After  fifteen  days  de- 
voted to  conversations  between  the  minister  and  cer- 
tain of  the  bishops,  the  emperor  reconvoked  the  coun- 
cil for  5  August,  and  the  council,  by  a  vote  of  80  to  13, 
passed  the  decree  by  which  canomcal  institution  was 
to  be  given  within  six  months,  either  bv  the  pope  or.  if 
he  refused,  by  the  metropohtan.  The  bishops  who 
passed  this  decree  tried  to  palliate  thdr  weakness  by 
saving  that  they  had  no  idea  of  committing  an  act  A 
reoelhon.  but  formallv  asked  for,  and  hoped  to  obtain, 
the  pope's  assent.  Napoleon  beUeved  himself  victori- 
ous; he  held  in  his  hands  the  means  of  circumventing 
the  pope  and  organising  without  his  co-operation  the 
administration  of  French  and  Italian  dioceses.  He 
had  brought  the  Sacred  College,  the  Dataria,  the  Peni- 
tentiary, and  the  Vatican  Archives  to  Paris^  and  had 
spent  several  millions  in  improving  the  archieinscopal 
palace  which  he  meant  to  make  the  pontifical  palace. 
He  wished  to  remove  the  HAtel-Dieu,  install  Uie  de- 
partments of  the  Roman  Curia  in  its  place,  and  make 
the  quarter  of  Notre-Dame  and  the  Isle  de  Saint- 
Louis  the  capital  of  Catholicism.  But  his  victory  was 
only  apparent:  to  make  the  decree  of  the  national 
council  valid,  the  pope's  ratification  was  needed,  and 
once  more  the  resistance  of  Pius  YU  was  to  hold  the 
emperor  in  check. 

On  17  August  Napoleon  commiamoned  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Tours  and  Mechlin,  the  Patriarch  of  Ven- 
ice, the  Bishops  of  Evreux,  Trier,  Fdtro,  and  Piaeenxa 
to  ^  to  Savona  and  demand  of  the  pope  his  full  ad- 
hesion to  the  decree  of  5  August;  and  the  bidiope  were 
even  to  be  precise  in  stating  that  the  decree  applied  to 
episcopal  sees  in  the  former  Papal  States,  so  Uiat,  in 
giving  his  assent^  Pius  VII  should  by  implication  as- 
sent to  the  abohtion  of  the  temporal  power.  That 
Pius  VII  might  not  allege  the  absence  of  the  caidinab 
as  a  reason  for  postponing  his  decisions,  Nimolecm  sent 
to  Savona  five  caroinals  on  whom  he  could  rdy  (Ro- 
verella,  Du|piani,  Fabrixio  Ruffo,  Bayanne,  and 
Doria),  with  instructions  to  support  the  bishops.  The 
emperor's  fulifice  was  successful.  On  6  September. 
1811,  Pius  VII  declared  himself  readv  to  yidd,  ana 
charged  RovereUa  to  draw  up  a  Brief  approving  the 
Decree  of  5  August,  and  on  20  September  the  pope 
signed  the  Brief.  But  even  then,  the  Brief  as  it  was. 
was  not  what  Napoleon  wanted:  Pius  VU  abstained 
from  recognizing  the  council  as  a  national  council,  he 
treated  the  Chureh  of  Rome  as  the  mistress  of  all  the 
Churches,  and  did  not  specify  that  the  decree  applied 
to  the  bisnoprics  of  the  Roman  States;  he  also  required 
that,  when  a  metropolitan  gave  canonical  institution, 
it  should  be  ^ven  in  the  name  of  the  pope.  Napoleon 
did  not  pubhsh  the  Brief.  On  17  Octooer  he  ordered 
the  deputation  of  prelates  to  notify  the  pope  Uiat  the 


NAPOUBON  697  NAPOLEON 

decree  appHed  equally  to  bishoprics  in  the  Roman  and  gave  not  the  least  indication  of  being  ready  to 
States.  This  interpretation  Pius  VII  then  formally  yield  to  Napoleon's  demands, 
repudiated,  and  announced  once  more  that  any  fur-  Napoleon  definitely  declared  war  against  the  tsar 
tiier  decimon  on  his  part  would  be  postponed  until  he  on  22  June.  1812.  The  issue  was  soon  seen  to  be 
should  have  with  him  a  suitable  number  of  cardinals,  dubious.  The  Russians  devastated  the  whole  coun- 
Napoleon  first  wreaked  his  irritation  on  the  Bi^ops  of  try  in  advance  of  the  French  armies,  and  avoided 
Ghent,  Toumai,  and  Troyes.  whom  he  forced  to  resign  pitched  battles  as  much  as  possible.  The  victory  of 
thdr  sees  and  caused  to  be  deported  to  various  towns,  Borodino  (7  September,  1812),  an  extremely  bloody 
then,  on  3  December,  he  declared  the  Brief  unaccept-  one,  opened  to  Napoleon  the  gates  of  Moscow  (14 
able,  and.  charged  tne  prelates  to  ask  for  another.  September,  1812).  He  had  expected  to  pass  the  win- 
Pius  VII  refused.  ter  there,  out  the  conflagration  brought  about  by  the 

On  9  January,  1812,  the  prelates  informed  the  pope,  Russians  forced  him  to  retrace  his  steps  westward,  and 
from  Uie  emperor,  that,  if  the  pope  resisted  any  longer,  the  retreat  of  the  ''Grande  Arm6e"  so  heroically  cov- 
the  emperor  would  act  on  his  own  discretion  in  the  ered  by  Marshal  Ney,  cost  France  the  lives  of  number- 
matter  of  the  institution  of  bishops.  Pius  VII  sent  a  less  soldiers.  The  passage  of  the  Beresina  was  glori- 
personal  reply  to  the  emperor,  to  the  effect  that  he  ous.  As  far  as  Lithuania,  Napoleon  shared  the  suffer- 
(the  pope)  ne^ed  a  more  numerous  council  and  facil-  ings  of  his  army,  then  he  hastened  to  Paris,  where  he 
ity  oi  communication  with  the  faithful,  and  that  he  suppressed  General  Malet's  conspiracy  and  prepared  a 
would  then  do,  "  to  meet  the  emperor's  wishes,  all  that  new  war  for  the  year  1813.  When  he  set  out  for  Prus- 
was  consistent  with  the  duties  of  his  Apostolic  minis-  sia  it  was  his  idea  to  extend  his  march  beyond  that 
try.''  By  way  of  rejoinder,  Napoleon  dictated  to  his  country^  through  Asia  to  India,  to  knock  over  "the 
minister  of  public  worship,  on  9  February,  an  extraor-  scaffolding  of  mercantile  greatness  raised  by  the  Eng- 
dinarily  vehement  letter,  addressed  to  the  deputation  lish.  and  strike  England  to  the  heart ".  ''  After  this  ",  he 
of  prelates.  In  it  he  refused  to  give  Pius  VII  his  lib-  declared,  ''it  will  be  possible  to  settle  everything  and 
erty  or  to  let  the  "black  cardinals"  go  back  to  him;  he  have  done  with  this  business  of  Rome  and  the  pope, 
made  known  that  if  the  pope  persisted  in  the  refusal  to  The  cathedral  of  Paris  will  become  that  of  the  Catho- 
govem  the  Church,  they  would  do  without  the  pope;  lie  world.  ...  If  Bossuet  were  living  now,  he  would 
and  he  advised  the  pope,  in  insulting  terms,  to  abdi-  have  been  Archbishop  of  Paris  lonp  ago,  and  the  pope 
cate.  Chabrol,  the  prefect  of  Montenotte,  read  this  would  still  be  at  the  Vatican,  which  would  be  much 
letter  to  Pius  VII,  and  advised  him  to  surrender  the  better  for  everybody,  for  then  there  would  be  no  pon- 
tiara.  "Never",  was  the  pope's  answer.  Then  on  23  tifical  throne  higher  than  that  of  Notre-Dame,  and 
February,  Chabrol  notified  the  pope,  in  the  emperor's  Paris  could  not  fear  Rome.  With  such  a  president,  I 
name,  that  Napoleon  considerea  the  Concordats  abro-  would  hold  a  Council  of  Nicsea  in  Gaul." 
pated,  and  that  he  would  no  longer  permit  the  pope  to  But  the  failure  of  the  Russian  campaign  upset  all 
mterf  ere  in  any  way  in  the  canonical  institution  of  the  these  dreams.  The  emperor's  haughty  attitude 
bishops.  I^us  VII  answered  that  he  would  not  change  towards  the  Church  was  now  modified^  On  29  De- 
his  attitude.  Mme  de  Stagl  wrote  to  Henri  Meister:  cember,  1812,  he  wrote  with  his  own  hand  an  affection- 
"  What  a  power  is  religion  which  gives  strength  to  the  ate  letter  to  the  pope  expressing  a  desire  to  end  the 
weak  when  all  that  was  strong  has  lost  its  strength!"  (][uarrel.  Duvoisin  was  sent  to  Fontainebleau  to  nego- 
The  difference  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  nat-  tiate  a  Concordat.  Napoleon's  demands  were  these: 
urally  reacted  upon  the  feelings  of  the  clergy  towards  the  pope  must  swear  to  do  nothing  against  the  four 
Napoleon,  and  upon  the  emperor's  policy  towards  re-  articles:  he  must  condemn  the  behaviour  of  the  black 
tigion.  From  this  time  Napoleon  refused  the  semi-  cardinals  towards  the  emperor;  he  must  allow  the 
v^arists  any  exemption  from  military  service.  He  made  Catholic  sovereigns  to  choose  two-thirds  of  the  cardi- 
stricter  the  university  monopoly  of  teaching,  and  nals,  take  up  his  residence  in  Paris,  accept  the  decree 
Broglie,  Bishop  of  Ghent,  who,  after  leaving  the  prison  of  the  council  on  the  canonical  institution  of  bishops, 
of  Vincennes,  had  continued  to  correspond  with  his  and  agree  to  its  application  to  the  bishoprics  of  the 
clergy,  was  sent  to  the  Island  of  Sainte-Margue-  Roman  States.  Pius  VII  spent  ten  days  discussing 
rite.  the  matter.    On  18  January,  1813,  the  emperor  him- 

Lasl  Great  Wars :  Concordat  of  Fontainebleau. —  self  came  to  Fontainebleau  and  spent  many  days  in 

At  this  time  Napoleon  was  absolutely  drunk  with  stormy  interviews  with  the  pope  though,  according  to 

power.    The  French  Empire  had  130  departments:  Pius  Vll's  own  statement  to  Count  Paul  Van  der 

the  Kingdom  of  Italy  240.    The  seven  provinces  of  Vrecken,  on  27  September,  1814,  Napoleon  committed 

Illyria  were  subject  to  France.    The  rigoiur  of  the  no  act  of  violence  against  the  pope.    On  25  January, 

Continental  blockade  was  ruining  English  commerce  1813,  a  new  Concordat  was  signed.   In  it  there  was  no 

and  embarrassing  the  European  states.      The  tsar  mention  either  of  the  Four  Articles,  or  of  the  nomina- 

would  have  liked  Napoleon,  master  of  the  West,  to  tion  of  cardinals  by  the  Catholic  soverei|p[is,  or  of  the 

leave  him  freedom  of  action  in  Poland  and  Turkey;  pope's  place  of  residence:  the  six  suburbican  dioceses 

enraged  at  receiving  no  such  concessions,  he  ap-  wereleftatthe  pope's  disposition,  and  he  could  more- 

proached  England.    The  French  armies  in  Spain  were  over  provide  directly  for   ten  bishoprics,  either  in 

exhausting  their  strength  in  a  savaee  and  ineffectual  France  or  in  Italy — on  all  these  points  Napoleon  made 

war  against  a  ceaseless  uprising  of  the  native  popula-  concessions.    But  on  the  other  hand,  the  pope  oon- 

tion;  nevertheless  Napoleon  resolved  to  attack  Russia  firmed  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  1811  on  the  canoni- 

also.    At  Dresden,  from  March  to  June,  1812,  he  held  cal  institution  of  bishops. 

a  congress  of  kings,  and  prepared  for  war.    It  was  at        According  to  the  very  words  of  its  preamble,  this 

Dresden,  in  May,  1812,  tnat,  under  pretext  of  satisfy-  Concordat  was  intended  only  "to  serve  as  basis  for  a 

ing  the  demands  of  Francis  Joseph  for  gentler  treat-  definitive  arrangement".    But,  on  13  February,  Na- 

ment  of  the  pope,  Napoleon  decided  to  have  Pius  VII  poleon  had  it  published,  just  as  it  stood,  as  a  law  of  the 

remov^  from  Savona  to  Fontwnebleau;  the  fact  is  State.    This  was  very  unfair  towards  Pius  VII:  the 

that  he  was  afraid  the  English  would  attempt  a  coup  emperor  had  no  right  to  convert  "preliminary  arti- 

de  main  on  Savona  and  carry  off  the  pope.    After  a  cles"  thus  into  a  definitive  act.    On  9  February  the 

journey  the  painful  incidents  of  which  have  been  re-  imprisoned  cardinals  had  been  liberated  by  Napoleon; 

iated  by  d'Haussonville,  following  a  manuscript  in  the  gomg  to -Fontainebleau,  they  had  found  Pius  Vll  very 

British  Museum,  Pius  VII  reached  Fontainebleau  on  anxious  on  the  subject  of  the  signature  he  had  given, 

19  June.    Equipages  were  placed  at  his  disposal,  he  and  which  he  regretted.    With  tne  advice  of  Consalvi, 

was  desired  to  appear  in  public  and  officiate;  but  he  re-  he  prepared  to  retract  the  " preliminary  articles  ".  In 

fused,  led  a  sohtary  life  in  the  interior  of  the  palace,  his  letter  of  24  March  to  Napoleon  he  reproached  him- 


NAPOZJBON 


698 


NAPOLBON 


lelf  for  having  nsned  theae  articles  and  disavowed  the 
signature  he  nad  given.    Napoleon  had  failed  egre- 

SLOusly. .  He  did  not  listen  to  the  advice  of  the  Comte 
e  Narbonne,  who,  in  a  letter  drafted  by  young  ViUe- 
main,  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  pope  ought  to 
be  set  at  liberty  and  sent  back  to  Rome.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  Napoleon  had  said  to  his  ministers  of 
State:  "If  I  don't  knock  the  head  off  the  shoulders  of 
some  of  those  priests  at  Fontainebleau,  matters  will 
never  be  arranged."  This  is  a  legend;  on  the  con- 
trary, he  ordered  the  minister  of  pubhc  worship  to 
keep  secret  the  letter  of  24  March.  Immediately,  act- 
ing on  his  own  authority,  he  declared  the  Concordat 
of  Fontainebleau  binding  on  the  Church,  and  filled 
twelve  vacant  sees.  On  5  April  he  had  Cardinal  di 
Pietro  removed  from  Fontaineoleau  and  threatened  to 
do  the  same  for  Cardinal  Pacca. 

In  the  Dioceses  of  Ghent,  Troyes,  and  Toumai,  the 
chapters  regarded  the  bishops  appointed  by  Napoleon 
as  intruders.  The  irregular  measures  of  the  emperor 
onlv  exasperated  the  resistance  of  the  clergy.  The 
Belgian  clergy,  warned  by  Count  Van  der  Vrecken  of 
the  pope's  retractation,  b^an  to  agitate  against  the  im- 

C'sl  policy.  Meanwhile,  on  25  April,  1813,  Napo- 
i  assumed  conunand  of  the  Army  of  (Germany. 
The  victories  of  Lutzen  (2  May)  and  Bautzen  (19-22 
May)  weakened  the  Prussian  and  Russian  troops. 
But  the  emperor  made  the  mistakes  of  accepting  tne 
mediation  of  Austria — only  a  device  to  gain  time — 
and  of  consenting  to  hold  the  Congress  of  Prague 
(July) .  A  letter  mm  Pius  VII,  secretly  carried  in  the 
face  of  manv  dangers  by  Van  der  Vrecken,  warned  the 
Congress  of  Prague  that  the  pope  formally  rejected 
the  articles  of  25  January.  Napoleon  continued 
nevertheless  to  send  from  his  heaoquarters  with  the 
army  severe  orders  calculated  to  overcome  the  resist- 
ance of  the  Belgian  clergy:  on  6  August  he  caused  the 
director  of  the  seminary  of  Ghent  to  be  imprisoned, 
and  all  the  students  to  be  taken  to  Magdeburg;  on  14 
August  he  had  the  canons  of  Toumai  arrested.  But 
his  perils  were  increasing.  Joseph  had  been  driven  out 
of  Spain.  Bemadotte,  King  of  Sweden,  one  of  Napo- 
leon^s  own  veterans,  was  driving  the  French  troops  out 
of  Stralsund.  Under  Schwarzenber^,  Bldcher  and 
Bemadotte,  three  armies  were  formmg  sgainst  the 
emperor.  Ue  had  but  280,000  men  against  500,000. 
He  was  victor  at  Dresden  (27  August),  but  his  gen- 
erals were  falling  away  on  all  sides.  He  was  deserted 
by  the  Bavarian  contingents  in  the  celebrated  "Battle 
of  the  Nations"  at  Leipzig  (18-19  October),  the  defec- 
tion of  the  Wurtembergers  and  the  Saxons  was  the 
chief  cause  of  his  defeat.  The  victories  of  Hanau  (30 
October)  and  Hocheim  (2  November)  enabled  his 
troops  to  get  back  to  France,  but  the  Allies  were  soon 
to  enter  that  land. 

IjiheratUm  of  the  Pope:  End  of  the  Empire. — The 
liberation  of  the  pope  figured  on  the  progranune  of  the 
Allies.  In  vain  did  the  emperor  send  the  Marchesa  di 
Brignoli  to  Consalvi,  and  Fallot  de  Beaumont,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bourges,  to  Fius  VII,  to  open  negotiations. 
In  vain,  on  18  January,  1814,  when  he  learned  that 
Murat  nad  ^one  over  to  the  Allies  and  occupied  the 
Roman  provmces  on  his  own  acooimt,  did  he  offer  to 
restore  the  Papal  States  to  Pius  VII.  Pius  VII  de- 
clared that  sucn  a  restitution  was  an  act  of  justice,  and 
could  not  be  made  the  subject  of  a  treaty.  Mean- 
time, BlQcher  and  Schwarzenberg  were  advancing 
through  Burgundy.  On  24  January,  Lagorse,  the 
commandant  of  gendarmes  who  had  guarded  Hus  VII 
for  four  years,  announced  to  him  that  he  was  about  to 
take  him  back  to  Rome.  The  pope  was  conveyed  by 
short  stages  through  southern  and  central  France. 
Napoleon  defeated  the  Allies  at  Saint-Dizier  and  at 
Brienne  (27-29  January,  1814),  the  princes  offered 
peace  on  condition  that  Napoleon  should  restore  the 
boundaries  of  France  to  what  they  were  in  1792.  He 
refused.    As  th^  Allies  demanded  the  liberation  of  the 


pope.  Napoleon  sent  orders  to  Lagorse,  who  was  tak- 
mg  mm  through  the  south  of  France,  to  let  him  make 
his  way  to  Itaily.  On  10  March  the  prefect  of  Monte- 
notte  received  orders  to  have  the  pope  conducted  as 
far  as  the  Austrian  outposts  in  the  territoiy  of  Pia- 
cenza.    The  captivity  of  Pius  VII  was  at  an  end. 

The  war  was  resumed  immediately  after  the  Con- 
gress of  Chatillon.  In  five  days  Napoleon  gave  battle 
to  BlUcher  four  times  at  Champaubert.  Montmirail, 
Chateau-Thierry,  and  Vauchamp,  ana  hurled  him 
back  on  Chalons;  against  Schwarzenberg  he  fought  the 
battles  of  Guigues,  Mormant,  Nangis,  and  Mdry,  thus 
opening  the  way  to  Troyes.  But  Lyons  was  taken  by 
the  Austrians,  Bordeaux  by  the  English  Exhausted 
as  he  was.  Napoleon  beat  BlQcher  again  at  Craonne 
(7  March),  retook  Reims  and  Epemay,  and  contem- 
plated cutting  off  the  retreat  of  BlQcher  and  Schwar- 
zenberg on  the  Rhine.  He  caused  a  general  levy  to  be 
decreed;  but  the  Allies  had  their  agents  in  Paris. 
Marmont  and  Mortier  canitulated.  On  31  March 
the  Allies  entered  Paris.  On  3  April  the  Senate  de- 
clared Napoleon  dethroned.  Returning  to  Fontaine- 
bleau, the  emperor,  determined  to  try  one  last  effort, 
was  stopped  by  the  defection  of  Marmont's  corps  at 
Essonnes.  On  20  April  he  left  Fontainebleau;  on  4 
May  he  was  in  Elba. 

At  the  end  of  ten  months,  learning  of  the  unpopu- 
lariUr  of  the  regime  founded  in  France  by  Louis 
XVIII,  Napoleon  secretly  left  Elba,  landed  at 
Cannes  (1  March,  1815),  and  went  in  triumph  from 
Grenoble  to  Paris  (20  March,  1815).  Louis  XVIII 
fled  to  Ghent.  Then  began  the  Hundred  Days. 
Napoleon  desired  to  give  France  liberty  and  religious 
peace  forthwith.  On  the  one  hand,  by  the  Aeie 
Addiiionnelt  he  guaranteed  the  country  a  constitu- 
tional Government;  on  the  other  hand  (4  AprU.  1815). 
he  caused  the  Duke  of  Vicenza  to  write  to  Cfardinai 
Pacca,  and  he  himself  wrote  to  Pius  VII,  letters  in  a 
pacific  spirit,  while  Isoard,  auditor  of  the  Rota,  was 
conunissionea  to  treat  with  the  pope  in  his  name. 
But  the  Coalition  was  re-formed.  Napoleon  had 
118.000  recmits  against  more  than  800,000  soldiers; 
he  beat  BlClcher  at  Ligny  (16  June),  whilst  Ney  beat 
Wellington  at  C^uatre  Bras;  next  day,  at  Waterloo, 
Napoleon  was  victorious  over  Bttlow  and  Wellington 
imtil  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  but  the  arrival  of 
30,000  Prussians,  under  BlQcher,  resulted  in  the  em- 
peror's defeat.  He  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son, 
set  out  for  Rochefort.  and  claimed  the  hospitality  of 
England.  England  aeclared  him  the  prisoner  of  the 
Coalition  and,  in  spite  of  his  protests,  nad  him  taken 
to  the  Island  of  St.  Helena.  There  he  remained  imtil 
his  death,  strictly  watched  by  Hudson  Lowe,  and 
dictated  to  Genend  Montholon,  Gourgaud,  and  Ber- 
trand  those  "M^moires"  which  entitle  him  to  a  place 
among  the  great  writers.  Las  Casas,  at  the  same 
time,  wrote  day  bv  day.  the  ''Memorial  de  Sainte- 
H^I^ne",  a  journal  of  tne  emperor's  conversations. 
In  the  first  of  his  captivity.  Napoleon  complained  to 
Montholon  of  having  no  chaplain.  ''It  would  rest 
my  soul  to  hear  Mass^',  he  saia.  Pius  VII  petitioned 
England  to  accede  to  Napoleon's  wish,  and  the  Abb^ 
Vignali  became  his  chaplain.  On  20  April,  1821, 
Napoleon  said  to  him:  'I  was  bom  in  the  Catholic 
reli^on.  I  wish  to  fulfil  the  duties  it  imposes,  and 
receive  the  succour  it  administers."  To  Montholon 
he  affirmed  his  belief  in  God,  read  aloud  the  Old 
Testament,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
He  spoke  of  Pius  VII  as  "  an  old  man  full  of  tolerance 
and  light".  "Fatal  circumstances",  he  added,  "em- 
broiled our  cabinets.  I  regret  it  exceedingly."  Lord 
Rosebery  has  attached  much  importance  to  the 
paradoxes  with  which  the  emperor  used  to  teaze 
Gourmand,  and  amused  himself  in  maintaining  the 
superiority  of  Mohammedanism,  Protestantism,  or 
Materialism.  One  dav,  when  he  had  be^  talxing 
in  this  strain,  Montholon  seii  tQ  him:  "I  kuow  thM 


MAFOttOM 


609 


NAPOLEON 


your  Majesty  does  not  believe  one  word  of  what  you 
have  just  been  saying".  ''You  are  right",  said  the 
emperor.    "At  any  rate  it  helps  to  pass  an  hour." 

Napoleon  was  not  an  unbeUever;  out  he  would  not 
admit  that  anyone  was  above  himself,  not  even  the 
pope.  "Alexander  the  Great",  he  once  said  to 
FontaneSi  "  declared  himself  the  son  of  Jupiter;  And 
in  my  time  I  find  a  priest  who  is  more  powerful  than 
I  am  .  This  transcendent  pride  dictated  his  religious 
policy  and  utterlv  vitiated  it.  By  the  Concordat^  as 
Tfldlevrand  said,  he  had  "done  not  only  an  act  of  jus- 
tice, but  also  a  very  clever  act,  for  by  this  one  deed 
he  had  rallied  to  himself  the  sympathies  of  the  whole 
Catholic  world."  But  the  same  Tallejrrand  declares, 
in  his  "M^moires",  that  his  struggle  with  Rome  was 
produced  by  "the  most  insensate  ambition",  and  that 
when  he  wished  to  deprive  the  pope  of  the  institution 
of  bishops,  "he  was  ful  the  more  culpable  because  he 
had  had  before  him  the  errors  of  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly". This  double  judgment  of  the  former  Con- 
stitutional bishop,  later  the  emperor's  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  wiU  be  accepted  by  posterity.  By  a 
strange  destinv,  this  emperor  who  travelled  all  over 
Europe,  and  whose  attitude  towards  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion was  in  a  measure  inherited  from  the  old  Roman 
emperors,  never  set  foot  in  Rome;  through  him  Rome 
was  for  many  years  deprived  of  the  presence  of  the 
remotest  successor  of  St.  Sylvester  and  of  Leo  III; 
but  the  successor  of  Constantine  and  of  Charlemagne 
did  not  see  Rome,  and  Rome  did  not  see  him. 


a: 


Caar  SonrncmB.-^orreapandanee  ds  NapoUon  premier  (1898- 

q.);  Lbccvtrb,  Lmr9»  %nidit$a  dt  NapoUon  I  (Paria.  1897); 
_Jwfrm  d4  NapoUon  BonapasU  (Paru,  1822);  Mhnoim  dieUa  a 
SainU-HiUnM,  ed.  La^cboix  (Paria,  1904);  Lab  Cabas,  Mimorial 
de  Sainl^HMene  (London,  1853);  Momoif  of  CHATBAUBRtAUD 
and  Talubtraitd. 

GnmuL  WoBxa. — ^THiaaa,  Tha  ConaviaU  and  iha  Smpira  under 
Napeimm  (tr.  London,  1893) ;  Aluson.  Hiaitory  of  Buropa  from 
ika  eemmianeement  of  tka  Franeh  Ravoluiion  to  tha  raatoration  of  tha 
Bourbona  (Edinborgfa,  1849-1858);  Robb,  Tha  RevoluHonary  and 
NapoUonic  Era  (Cambridge,  1907) ;  Haiur,  Life  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparta  (London,  1894);  Watson,  NapoUm,  a  Skaleh  of  hia 
Life  (New  York,  1902) ;  Su>Aira.  Life  of  Napoleon  BonaparU  (New 
Tork^  1996);  Tains,  Modem  Rigima,  tr.  Duband  (London, 
1904);  Lbtt,  NapoUon  inHma  (Paris,  1893;  reprinted,  Edin- 
burm.  1910);  Masson,  NapoUon  dana  aa  jaunaue  (Paris,  1907); 
InxM.  NapoUon  at  aafamiUa  (Paris,  1897-1907);  Iobm,  NapoUon 
€taonftta  (Paris,  1904);  Iobm,  NapoUon  inconnu  (Paris,  1895); 
loBM,  Joaephine  ampreaa  and  quaen,  tr.  Hobt  (London,  1899). 
la  FimDoe  Fr6d6rio  Masson  is  now  the  foremost  atudent  of  Napo- 
leonie  histoiv.  His  numerous  works  are  indispensable  for  a 
lokowled^s  Of  tbe  Empire. 

SFBCiALBruniis: — Hia  Rdiffioua  Santimenta. — ^Boubginb,  Pre- 
miira  eommimion  at  f^n  ehrHienna  da  NapoUon  (Toms,  1897); 
FxacHBB,  NanoUon  /,  daaaen  Leibena  und  Charakterabild  mit  6Mon> 
derar  RUekaiaU  auf  aeine  Steliino  aw  ehriatlichen  Religion  (Leipsig, 
1904).  Hia  Youth. — Chuqubt,  La  feunaaae  de  NapoUon  (Paris, 
1807-98) ;  Bbownxno,  Boyhood  and  Youth  of  NapoUim,  1 760-1 79S 
(London,  1906).  The  Coming  qf  NapoUon. — ^Vandal,  AvknamMit 
ds  Bonaparte  (Paris,  1902-1907).  RelaHona  vfith  Bngtand.^Co- 
QUBLLB,  Napolaon  and  Bni^and  (1 808-1 818)^  tr.  Knox  (London, 
1904);  Lbvt.  NapoUon  at  lapaiz  (Paris.  1902) ;  Whbblbb  and 
Bboadx«bt,  Napoleon  and  the  Inaaaion  of  Bnqkmd,  tha  atory  of  tha 
Great  Terror  (London.  1908);  Auieb,  Napouon*a  Britiah  viaitora 
and  eaptiaaa  (Westminster,  1904);  Qband  Cabtbbbt,  NapoUon 
Sfi  imagaa,  aetampea  anglaiaea  (Paris,  1895);  Ashton,  Sngliah 
Caricature  and  Satire  on  Napoleon  I  (London,  1884).  Relationa 
vith  Spain. — ^db  Gbanomaibon,  L'Sapagna  aoua  NapoUon  (Paris, 
1908).  The  Dieoree. — ^WBLBcnzNOBR,  La  divorce  de  NapoUon 
(Pans,  1889):  Rxnbbx,  Napoleone  e  Pio  VII  (1804-1818)  (Turin, 
1906).  RaUaiona  wiUi  Ruaeia, — Vandal.  NapoUon  et  Alexandre  I 
(Paris,  1891-1894);  Db  SiouB,  Hiatoire  da  NapoUon  et  de  la 
Ormtde-Armie  pendant  VannAe  181  tin  the  Ndaon  eoUaetion  (Edin« 
burgh.  1910).  The  JPnd.—WoLSBLBT,  Dedine  and  Fall  of  Napo- 
Uon (London,  1895);  Rosbbbrt,  Napoleon,  the  Laat  Phaae 
gionaon,  1900);  Browninq.  Pall  of  Napoleon  (london,  1907); 
oussATB,  18U  (Paris,  1888);  Idem.  1816  (Paris.  1893-99); 
Idbm,  Waterloo,  tr.  Mann  (London,  1900);  Sbaton,  Napoleon'a 
eaptinty  in  rdation  to  Sir  Hudaon  Lowe  (London,  1903). 

ItaUan  arul  Religioua  Policy. — Db  Barral,  Fragmenta  rtialifa  d 
Vhittoira  eedMaatvma  du  19*  aiide  (Paris.  1814) ;  Db  Pbadt,  Lee 
Quatre  eoneordata  (Paris,  1818);  Ricard,  Correapandance  diplo- 
maOque  et  papiara  inSdita  du  cardinal  Maury  (Paris,  1891).  Worka 
ofgrudition. — Boovibb,  Bonaparte  en  Italie:  1796  (Pans.  1899); 
DKAtniT.  NapoUon  en  Italie  (Paris.  1906);  D'HAuasoNYXLLB, 
VSglUa  romaine  et  le  premier  empire  (Paris.  1868) ;  Wbuschxnobr, 
La  papa  at  Famperaur  I8O4-I8I6  (Paris.  1905);  Rinibbi,  Napo- 
leone a  Pio  VII,  1804-1818  (Turin,  1906) ;  Madbun,  La  Rome  de 
NapoUtn:  la  domination  franeaiee  d  Rome  de  1809  d  1814  (Paris, 
1906);  Cbotard,  Le  papa  Pie  VII  d  Savone  (Paris,  1887); 
Dbsttbam,  La  diparlation  dee  prUrea  aoua  NapoUon  I  in  Rev. 
Biat.,  XI  (1879);  Db  Laniac  db  Labobib,  Paria  aoua  NapoUon: 


Is  raUgion  (Psris,  1907);  Ltonxbt,  Hiatoira  de  Mgr  d*Aptau 
(Paris,  1847);  Mixxc,  Hiatoire  da  M.  Bmaru  (Paris,  1895):  db 
Gbandmaison,  Nap<44onetUa  Cardinatu  noire  llS95);  Caussbtte, 
Vie  du  Card.  d'Aatroe  (Paris,  1853) ;  Ouillaume,  Vie  ipiaeopale 
da  Mgr  d^Oamond  (Paris,  1862) ;  Marmottan,  VinatUtUion  cano- 
ni^ue  et  NapoUon  I:  Vardietique  d'Oamond  d  Florence  in  Revue 
Htatorique,  LXXXVl  (1904) ;  see  also  bibliographies  to  Concordat 
or  1801;  Artxclbs,  Trb  Cjbganic;  Pxits  VI;  Phts  VIL  For  a 
fuller  bibliogn4>hy  of  the  subject,  consult  Kxrcrhbisbn,  Biblio' 
graj^ia  de  ripoque  de  NapoUon  I  (Paris,  1908) ;  Dayozs,  BibUo- 
graphia  NapoUonienne  francaiee  jua2u*en  2908,  I  (Paris,  1909); 
Biviata  Napolaonica  (1901  sqq.). 

Geobges  Gotau. 

Napoleon  Ul  (Charudb-Louib-Nafol^gn),  orig- 
inally known  as  Louis-Napol£on-Bonapartb,  Em- 
peror of  the  French;  b.  at  Paris,  ^  April,  1808;  d.  at 
Chiselhurst,  England,  6  January,  18/3:  third  son  of 
Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland  and  Hortense  de 
Beauhamais,  daughter  of  the  Empress  Josephine. 
After  the  fall  of  the  First  Empire.  Hortense,  who  had 
been  separated  from  her  husbana,  took  her  two  sons 
to  Geneva,  Aix  in  Savoy.  Augsburg,  and  then  (1824) 
to  the  castle  of  Arenenberg  in  Switzerland.  Louis 
Napoleon  had  for  tutor  the  scholar  Le  Bas,  son  of  a 
member  of  the  Convention.  The  "  principle  of  nation- 
alities "  attracted  him  in  youth,  and  with  his  brother,  he 
took  part  in  an  attempted  insurrection  in  the  States  of 
the  Church,  in  1831.  He  was  on  the  point  of  settins 
out  for  Poland  when  he  heard  that  the  Russians  had 
entered  Warsaw.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Reich- 
stadt  (1832)  he  regarded  himself  as  the  heir  of  the 
Napoleonic  Empire.  The  Republican  press,  engaged 
in  a  struggle  with  Louis  Philippe's  government,  mani- 
fested a  certain  s^pathy  for  Louis  Napoleon. 
Though  Casimir  Pdner  nad  expelled  him  from  France 
in  1831,  he  and  a  few  officers  from  Strasburg  at- 
tempted, but  failed  in,  a  coup  de  main  (1836).  In  his 
book,  "Id^es  Napol^niennes'',  published  in  1838,  he 
appears  as  the  testamentary  executor  of  Napoleon  I 
and  a  bold  social  reformer.  His  attempted  descent  on 
Boulogne^  in  August,  1840,  resulted  in  a  sentence  of 
\He  imprisonment,  notwithstanding  his  defence  by 
Berryer.  While  in  prison  at  Ham^  he  wrote,  among 
other  brochures,  one  on  the  ''Extmction  of  Pauper- 
ism''. He  escaped  from  Ham  in  1846.  After  the 
Revolution  of  1848  he  returned  to  Paris,  became  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  finally  was 
elected  President  of  the  Republic  by  5,562,834  votes, 
on  10  December,  1848. 

Presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon. — Before  his  election 
Louis  Napoleon  had  entered  into  certain  engagements 
with  Montalembert  in  regard  to  freedom  of  teaching 
and  the  restoration  of  Pius  IX,  who  had  been  driven 
to  Gaeta  by  the  Roman  Revolution.  When  General 
Oudinot's  expedition  made  its  direct  attack  on  the 
Roman  Republic,  April,  1849.  and  the  Constituent 
Assembly  passed  a  resolution  01  protest  (7  May,  1849). 
a  letter  from  Louis  Napoleon  to  Oudinot  reouested 
him  to  persist  in  his  enterprise  and  assured  nim  of 
reinforcements  (8  May,  1849) ;  at  the  same  time,  how- 
ever, Louis  Napoleon  sent  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  to 
Rome  to  negotiate  with  Mazzini.  an  agreement  soon 
after  disavowed.  In  this  way  tne  difficulties  of  the 
future  emperor  reveal  themselves  from  the  bennning; 
he  wishea  to  spare  the  relinous  susceptibilities  of 
French  Catholics  and  to  avoid  offending  the  national 
susceptibilities  of  the  Italian  revolutionists — a  double 
aim  which  explains  many  an  inconsistency  and  many 
a  failure  in  the  religious  policy  of  the  empire.  "The 
more  we  study  his  character,  the  more  nonplussed  we 
are",  writes  ms  historian,  de  la  Gorce.  Ouoinot's  vic- 
tory (29  Jime,  1849)  having  crushed  the  Roman 
Republic,  Napoleon,  ignoring  the  decided  Catholic 
majority  in  the  Lenslative  Assembly  elected  on  18 
May,  addressed  to  Colonel  Ney,  on  18  August,  1849, 
a  sort  of  manifesto  in  which  he  asked  of  Pius  IX  a 
goicral  amnesty,  the  secularization  of  his  administra^ 
tion,  the  establisnment  of  the  Code  Napolton,  and  a 
Liberal  Government.    The  Legislative  Aasembly,  on 


NA^OUON 


700 


NAPOUOH 


Monialembcrt*B  motion,  voted  approval  of  the  ''Motu 
Proprio"  of  12  September,  by  which  Piua  IX  promised 
reforms  without  yielding  to  all  the  president's  impera^ 
tive  demands.  The  president  was  dissatisfied,  and 
forced  the  Falloux  Cabinet  to  resign;  but  he  was  soon 
working  with  all  the  influence  of  his  position  for  the 
passage  of  the  Falloux  Law  on  freedom  of  teaching — 
a  law  which  involved  a  great  triumph  for  the  Catho- 
lics— ^while,  in  the  course  of  his  journeys  through 
France,  his  deferential  treatment  of  the  bishops  was 
extremelv  marked.  And  when,  by  the  Coup  d^Etai  of 
2  December,  1851,  Louis  Napoleon  had  dissolved  the 
Assembly,  and  by  the  pUhiscUe  appealed  to  the  French 
people  as  to  the  justice  of  that  act,  many  Catholics, 
following  Montalembert  and  Louis  Veuillot,  decided 
in  his  favour;  the  prince-president  obtained  7,481,231 
votes  (21  November,  1852).  The  Dominican  I^acor- 
daire,  the  Jesuit  Ravignan,  and  Bishop  Dupanloup 
were  more  reserved  in  their  attitude.  I^anonhure  went 
so  far  as  to  say : ' '  If  France  becomes  accustomed  to  this 
order  of  things,  we  are  moving  rapidly  towards  the 
Lower  Empire''. 

Dictatorial  Period  of  the  Empire,  ISSBSO.—'The  first 
acts  of  the  new  government  were  decidedly  favourable 
to  the  Church.  By  the  "  Decree  Law  "  of  31  Januarv, 
1852.  the  congregations  of  women,  which  previou^y 
could  be  authorized  only  by  a  legislative  act,  were 
made  authorizable  by  simple  decrees.  A  great  many 
bishops  and  parish  priests  hailed  with  ioy  the  day  on 
which  Louis  Napoleon  was  proclaimed  emperor  and 
the  dav  (30  January,  1853)  of  his  marriage  with  the 
Spanish  Eug6nie  de  Montijo,  which  seemed  to  assure 
the  future  of  the  dynasty.  At  this  very  time  Dupan- 
loup, less  optimistic,  published  a  pastoral  letter  on  the 
liberty  of  the  Church,  while  Montalembert  began  to 
perceive  symptoms  which  made  him  fear  that  the 
Uhurch  woula  not  always  have  reason  to  congratulate 
itself  on  the  new  order.  For  some  years  the  Church 
enjoyed  effective  liberty:  the  bishops  held  synods  at 
their  pleasure;  the  budget  of  puolic  worship  was 
forthcoming:  cardinals  sat  in  the  Senate  as  of  right; 
the  civil  authorities  appeared  in  religious  processions; 
missions  were  given;  from  1852-60  the  State  recog- 
nized 082  new  communities  of  women;  primary  and 
secondai^y  educational  institutions  under  ecclesiastical 
control  increased  in  number,  while,  in  1852,  P^res 
Petetot  and  Gratry  founded  the  Oratory  as  a  Catho- 
lic centre  of  science  and  philosophy.  Catholics  like 
Sdgur,  Comudet,  Baudon.  Cochm,  and  the  Vicomte 
de  Melun  founded  many  cnaritable  institutions  under 
state  protection.  Napoleon  III  was  anxious  that  Pius 
IX  should  consent  to  come  to  crown  him  at  Notre 
Dame.  This  request  he  caused  to  be  preferred  by 
Mgr  de  S^gur,  auditor  of  the  Rota,  and  Pius  IX  ex- 
plained that,  if  he  crowned  Napoleon  III,  he  would 
also  be  obliged  to  go  and  crown  Francis  Joseph  of 
Austria,  hinting,  at  the  same  time,  that  Napoleon 
could  come  to  Rome;  and  he  gave  it  to  be  understood 
that,  if  the  emperor  were  willing  to  suppress  the  Or- 
ganic Articles,  he,  the  pope,  might  be  aole  to  accede 
to  his  request  at  the  end  ot  three  months.  Pius  IX 
also  wished  Napoleon  III  to  make  the  Sunday  rest 
obligatory  and  abrogate  the  legal  necessity  of  civil 
marriage  previous  to  the  religious  ceremony.  After 
two  years  of  negotiations  the  emperor  gave  up  this 
idea  (1854),  but  thereafter  his  relations  with  the 
Church  seemed  to  bo  somewhat  less  cordial.  The  Bull 
in  which  Pius  IX  defined  the  Immaculate  Conception 
was  admitted  into  France  grudgingly,  and  after  some 
very  hvely  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Council  of 
State  (1854).  Dreux  Brdz6,  Bishop  of  Moulins,  was 
denounced  to  the  Council  of  State  for  infringement  of 
the  Onnnic  Articles,  while  the  "Corresponaant"  and 
the  "Univers",  having  defended  the  bi.shop,  were 
rigorously  dealt  with  by  the  authorities.  Lastly,  the 
return  to  the  Cottr  de  Cassation  (Court  of  Appeals)  of 
the  former  procureur  girUral  Dupin,  who  had  resigned 


in  1852,  was  looked  upon  as  a  victory  for  GaDieaa 

The  Crimean  War  (1853-56)  was  undertaken  by 
Napoleon,  in  alliance  with  England,  to  check  Russian 
agression  in  the  direction  of  Turkey.  The  Fall  of 
Sebastopol  (8  September,  1855)  compelled  Alexander 
II  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1856).  In  this  war 
Piedmont,  thanks  to  its  minister,  Cavour,  had  had  a 

fart,  both  miUtary  and  diplomatic;  for  the  fizfit  time 
iedmont  was  treated  as  one  of  the  Great  Powers. 
After  all,  the  Italian  Question  interested  the  emperor 
more  than  any  other,  and  upon  this  eround  difficulties 
were  about  to  arise  between  him  and  the  Church.  As 
early  as  1856  Napoleon  knew,  through  Cavour,  that 
the  Piedmontese  programme  involved  the  dismember- 
ment of  the  Pontifi<Sd  States;  at  the  promptings  of 
the  French  Government  the  Congress  of  Paris  ex- 
pressed a  wish  that  the  pope  should  carry  out  liberal 
reforms,  and  that  the  French  and  Austrian  troops 
should  soon  leave  his  territories.  The  attempt  on 
the  emperor's  life  by  the  Italian  Orsini  (14  January, 
1858),  set  in  motion  a  policy  of  severe  repression 
(^'Law  of  General  Security"  and  proceeding  against 
Proudhon,  the  socialist).  But  the  letter  which  Orsini 
wrote  from  his  prison  to  Napoleon,  beseeching  him  to 
give  liberty  to  twenty-five  million  Italians,  made  a 
Rvely  impression  upon  the  emperor's  imagination. 
Pietri,  the  prefect  of  police  obtained  from  Orsini  an- 
other letter,  pledging  nis  political  friends  to  renounce 
all  violent  methods,  with  the  understanding  that  the 
enfranchisement  of  Italy  was  the  price  to  be  paid  for 
this  assurance.  From  that  time,  it  was  Napoleon's 
active  wish  to  realize  Italian  unity.  On  21  July,  185S, 
he  had  an  interview  with  Cavour  at  Plombidres.  It 
was  agreed  between  them  that  France  and  Piedmont 
should  drive  the  Austrians  from  Italy,  and  that  Italy 
should  become  a  confederation,  under  the  rule  of  the 
King  of  Sardinia,  though  the  pope  was  to  be  its  hon- 
orary president.  The  result  of  this  interview  was  the 
Italian  War.  For  this  war  public  opinion  had  been 
schooled  by  a  series  of  articles  in  Liberal  and  govern- 
ment organs— the  "Si^le",  "Presse",  and  "Patrie" 
— by  Edmond  About's  articles  on  the  pontifical  ad- 
ministration, published  in  the  "Moniteur",  and  by 
the  anonymous  brochure  "L'Empereur  Napolten  III 
et  I'ltalie"  (really  the  work  of  Arthur  de  la  Gu^ron- 
ni^re),  which  denounced  the  spirit  of  opposition  to 
reform  shown  by  the  Italian  governments.  Catholics 
tried  to  obtain  Napoleon's  assurance  that  he  woukl 
not  aid  the  enemies  of  Pius  IX.  In  the  House  of 
Representatives  (Corps  L^islatif)  the  Republican 
Jules  Favre  asked:  "If  the  government  of  tne  cardi- 
nals is  overthrown  shall  we  shed  the  blood  of  the 
Romans  to  restore  it? "  And  the  minister,  Baroche, 
made  no  answer  (26  April,  1859).  But  Napoleon,  in 
the  proclamation  announcing  his  departure  for  Italy 
(10  May.  1859).  declared  that  he  was  going  to  dehver 
Italy  as  tar  as  tne  Adriatic,  and  that  the  pope's  power 
would  remain  intact.  The  victories  of  the  French 
troops  at  Magenta  (4  June.  1859)  and  Solferino  (24 
June,  1859)  coincided  with  insurrectionarv  move- 
ments against  the  papal  authority.  Cathoucs  were 
alarmed,  and  so  was  the  emperor;  he  would  not  ap- 
pear as  an  accomplice  of  these  movements,  and  on  U 
July  he  signed  the  treaty  of  Villafranca.  Austria 
ceded  Lombardy  to  France,  and  France  retrooeded  it 
to  Sardinia.  Venetia  was  still  to  belong  to  Austria, 
but  would  form  part  of  the  Italian  O>nfederation 
which  would  be  under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the 
pope.  The  pope  would  be  asked  to  mtroduoe  the  in- 
dispensable reforms  in  his  state.  In  November.  1859. 
at  Zurich,  these  preliminaries  were  fonnally  embodied 
in  a  treaty. 

Neither  the  pope  nor  the  Italians  were  pleased  with 
the  emperor.  On  the  one  hand  the  pope  did  not  thiuik 
Napoleon  for  his  hints  on  the  way  to  govern  the 
Komagna,  and  an  eloquent  brochure  from  the  pen  of 


MPOUOH  701  HAPOLION 

Dop&nloup  denounced  the  scbemes  which  menaced  ot  ChriBtiana  on  Annam  and  ended  in  the  conquest  of 

the  pope.    On  the  other  hand  it  was  plain  to  the  Ital-  Cochin  China  by  France,  merited  for  the  armies  of 

iana  that  the  emperor  had  halted  befoie  enfraucluBinR  FVance  the  gratitude  of  the  Church.    Still  the  attitude 

Italy  aa  far  aa  the  Adriatic.    Napoleon  then  dreamed  of  Napoleon  III  in  regard  to  Italian  affairs  caused 

of  settling  the  affairB  of  Italy  by  means  o!  a.  congreaa,  great  pain  to  Catholics.    Falloux  in  an  article  entitled 

and  Arthur  de  la  Gu^ronni^re's  pamphlet,  "Le  pape  "AntecMents  et  consequences  de  la  situation  actu- 

et  le  congr£fl"^  demanded 'of  I^ua  IX,  in  advance,  tne  elle",  published  in  the  "Correspondant",  implied  that 

Burrenderof  his  temporal  power.    On  1  January,  ISSO,  Napoleon  was  an  accomplice  in  the  Italian  revolution. 

Piue  IX  denounced  this  pamphlet  as  a  "monument  ol  The  Catholic  associatioas  formed  to  collect  Hubscrip- 

hypocrisy",  and  on  9  January  he  answered  with  a  tiona  for  the  pope's  benefit  were  suppreesed,  and  Pius 

foitnal  r^usal  a  letter  from   Napoleon   advising  him  IX,  in  the  consistorial  allocution  of  17  December,  1S60, 

to  give  up  the  Legations.     A  few  months  later,  the  accused  the  emperor  of  having  "fdgned"  to  protect 

Legations  themselves  joined  Piedmont,  while  Napo-  him. 

Icon,  by  making  Thouvenel  his  minister  of  foreign         Liber(U  Period  o/  (he  Empire,  1860-70. — It  was  just 

(UFfairs  and  by  n^otiating  with  Cavour  the  annexa-  at  this  time  that  the  emperor,  by  the  decree  of  24 

tion  of  Nice  and  Sivoy  to  France,  proved  that  he  was  November,   1860,  made  his  firat  concession  to  the 

decidedly  more  devoted  to  the  aapirations  of  Pied-  Opposition,  and  to  Liberal  ideas,  by  granting  more 

mont  than  to  the  temporal  power  or  the  pope.    Mean-  independence  and  power  of  initiative  to  the  Le^la- 

while  the  Catholics  in   France  commenced   violent  tore.     But  the  Liberal  opposition  was  not  disarmed, 

preaseamraigns  under  theleadership  of  the"  Univers"  ~    .    - 

and  the"C<nieapondaDt".    On  24  January,  I86U,  the 

"Univen"  was  aupprefised.     The  minister  of  state,  aggravated  by  his 

Billault,   proeecuted   the  CathoUc   publications   and  Italian  policy.  The 

pulpit   utterances   deemed    seditious.      To   be    sure  emperor      replied 

BaJmehe,  on  2  April,  announced  in  the  Corps  Lfgis'  to  P  i  u  s  IX   by  ' 

latif,  that  the  French  troops  would  not  leave  Rome  so  publishing  la  Gu6- 

loDg  aa  the  pope  was  unable  to  defend  himself.    But  ronni^re's     book, 

Napoleon,  only  too  amdous  to  withdraw  his  troops,  at  "Ia  France,  Rome 

one  moment  thought  of  having  them  replaced  by  et  I'ltalie",  a  vio- 

Neapolitan  troops,  and  then  proposed  to  Pius  IX,  lent    arraignment 

though  in  vain,  that  the  Powera  of  the  second  order  of  Rome.     Then 

sbouTd  be  induced  to  organise  a  body  of  papal  troops.  Bishop    Pie   of 

to  be  paid  by  all  the  Cathohc  states  jointly.    Pius  IX,  Poitiers  pi^lished 

on  the  other  hand,  allowed  Mgr  de  M£rode  to  make  his        pastoral 

an  appeal  to  the  aristocracv  of  France  and  Belgium  charge    in   which 

for  the  formation  of  a  special  corps  of  pontifical  troops,  the  words, "  l4tve- 

which  should  enable  tne  pope  to  do  without  the  em-  tes  mains,  O  Pi- 

peror's  soldiers.    Among  these  soldiers  of  the  pope  late"  (Wash  thy 

were  a  la^e  number  of  French  Legitimists;  Lamori-  hands,  0  Pilate), 

ei^re,  their  oonunander,  had  always  been  a  foe  of  the  were  addressed  to 

imperial  r^ime.    Napoleon  III   was   annoyed,   and  Napoleon  III.    In 

orderedhisambassadorat  Rome  to  enter  into  negotta-  the  Senate,  an  NtmuoH  m 
tlons  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops:  on  11  amendment  in  fa- 
May,  1860,  it  was  decided  that  within  three  months  vourof  thetemporalpowerof  thepope  waslostby  only 
the  soldiers  pven  to  the  pope  by  Napoleon  III  should  a  verysmall  majority;  in  the  Corps  Lfcislatif,  one-third 
return  to  France.  of  the  deputies  declared  themselves  for  the  pontifical 
In  the  meantime,  however,  Garibaldi's  campaign  in  cause.  The  emperor  asserted  big  Italian  sympathies 
Sicily  and  Calabria  opened.  Farini  and  Cialdmi,  sent  moreandmoreclearly:  in  June,  1S62,  he  reoogniied  the 
by  Cavour  to  Napoleon,  represented  to  him  (28  Au-  new  kingdom;  he  sent  an  amboaaadorlo  Turin,  and  to 
gust)  the  urgent  necessity  of  checking  the  Italian  Rome  two  [jartiBona  of  Italian  unity;  and  he  used  his 
revolution,  that  Garibaldi  was  about  to  march  on  influence  with  Russia  and  Prussia  to  procure  their 
Rome,  and  that  France  ouftht  to  leave  to  Piedmont  recognition  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  One  striking 
the  task  of  preserving  order  m  Italy,  for  which  purpose  symptom  of  the  emperor's  changed  feelings  towards 
tie  Piedmonteee  must  be  allowed  to  cross  the  pontifi-  the  Church  was  the  circular  of  January,  1862,  by 
cal  territories  so  as  to  reach  the  Neapolitan  frontier,  which  PersJRny  declared  all  the  St.  Vincent  dc  Paul 


"Fail«s  vite  (act  quickly)",  said  the  emperor,  and  societies  dissolved.    Following  upon  Garibaldi's  blow 

himself  left  France,  travelling  in  Corsica  and  Algeria,  at  the  Pontifical  States,  which  had  been  stopped  by 

while  the  Piedmontese  troops  invaded  (Jmbriaand  the  his  defeat  at  Aapramonte  (29  August,  1862),  General 

Marches,  defeated  the  troops  of  Lamorici^re  at  Caatel-  Durando,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  Ratazii'a  cabi- 

fidardo,  captured  Ancona,  and  occupied  oU  the  States  net.  declared  in  a  cireular  that  "the  whole  Italian 

of  the  Chureh  eicept  Rome  and  the  province  of  nation  demanded  its  capital".   "Thus  were  the  Italians 

Viterbo.     Napoleon  publicly  warned  Victor  Emman-  proclaiming  their  eagerness  to  be  installed  at  Rome, 

uel  that,  if  he  attacked  the  pope  without  legitimate  Fearing  that  at  the  forthcoming  l^slative  elections 

E revocation,  France  would  be  obliged  to  oppose  him:  the  Cktholios  would  revolt  from  the  impeiial  party, 

e  withdrew  his  minister  from  Turin,  leaving  instead  Napoleon  suddenly  manifested  a  much  colder  feeling 

only  a  chargf  d'affaires,  and  was  a  mere  spectator  ot  for  Italy.     The  Catholic  influence  of  the  empress 

that  series  of  events  which,  in  February,  1861,  ended  gained   the  upper  hand  of  Prince  Napoleon's  anti- 

in  Victor  Emmanuel's  being  proclaimed  King  ot  Italy,  religious  influence.     Thouvenel  was  supplanted  by 

The  expedition  to  Syria  (1859),  in  which  80,000  French  Drouin  de  Lhuys  (15  October,  1862),  who  was  mads 

troops  went  to  the  relief  of  the  Maronite  Christians,  to  give  out  a  curt  statement  that  the  French  CJovem- 

who  were  being  massacred  by  the  Druses  with  the  ment  had  no  present  intention  of  taking  any  action  in 

connivance  of  the  Turks,  the  two  expeditions  to  China  consequence  of  the  Durando  cireular,  thus  brinrang 

(1857  and  1860),  in  cooperation  with  England,  which  ^out  the  fall  of  the  Rataasi  cabinet  in  Italy.    A  great 

resulted,  among  other  things,  in  the  restoration  to  the  many  CathoUca  recovered  their  confidence  in  Napo- 

Christiana  of  their  religious  establishments,  and  the  leon;   but  a  political  alliance  between  a  certain  niim-. 

joint  expedition  of  France  and  Spain  (185«-62)  against  ber  of  liberal  Catholics,  devoted  to  the  Royalist  cause 

the  Annomese  Empire,  which  avenged  the  persecution  agj  nmixn  ot  the  Republican  party  iwulted,  in 


NAPOUtOlt  702  VAPOLKat 

4 

June,  1863,  in  the  return  of  thirty-five  Opposition  Antibea  Leoon  and  the  confidence  ttpoaod  by  the 
membcars  to  the  Chamber,  mosthr  men  of  great  abiUtv.  emperor  in  Rouher,  a  devoted  champion  of  Cwiohc 
Repubiicana  and  Monarchists,  Freethinkers  and  Cath-  interests,  complained  bitterly:  Napoleon  anaiwerod  by 
olics.  they  grouped  themselves  around  Thiers,  who  complaining  of  the  Garibaldian  musters  that  threat- 
had  been  Louis  Philippe's  minister,  and  who  won  the  ened  the  pope's  territories.  When  the  Garibaldians 
confidence  of  Catholics  by  pronouncing  uneauivocally  made  an  actual  incursion,  on  25  October,  1867,  the 
in  favour  of  the  temporal  power.  But  the  alliance  be-  French  troops  which  had  for  some  weeks  been  ooncen- 
tween  Republicans  who  wanted  Napoleon  to  desist  trated  at  Toulon,  embarked  for  Ciyit4  Veochia  and 
from  protecting  the  temporal  power  and  Catholics  who  helped  the  papal  troops  defeat  the  invaders  at  Men- 
thou^t  he  did  not  protect  it  enough,  could  not  be  very  tana.  Caroinal  Antonelli  asked  that  the  French  forces 
stable.  From  1862  to  1864  the  emperor  did  nothing  in  should  be  directed  against  those  of  Victor  Emmanuel 
regard  to  Italy  that  could  cause  Pius  IX  any  uneasi-  but  the  emperor  refused.  Menabrea,  Victor  Emman- 
ness.  He  was  at  that  period  busy  with  the  early  uel's  minister^  though  he  gave  orders  for  the  arrest  oi 
stages  of  the  Mexican  War,  in  which  he  had  very  im-  the  Garibaldians,  published  in  spite  of  Napoleon,  a 
prudently  allowed  himself  to  become  involved.  Four  circular  affirming  Italy's  right  to  possess  Rome.  N^ 
^ears  of  fighting  sgainst  President  Juares  were  des-  poleon  found  it  increasingly  difficult  to  extricate  him- 
tined  to  end  in  the  evacuation  of  Mexico  by  the  self  from  the  coils  of  the  Ronum  Question;  hewasstiD 
Fr^ich  troops,  early  in  1867,  and  the  execution  of  thinking  of  a  European  congress,  but  Europe  declined. 
Maximilian,  orother  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  whom  At  the  dose  of  1867,  Thiers  speech  in  support  of  Uie 
France  haa  caused  to  be  proclaimed  Emperor  of  temporal  power  gave  Rouher  occasion  to  say,  amid  the 
Mexico.  The  impression  created  by  this  disaster  applause  of  the  majority,  "We  declare  it  in  tibe  name 
notably  increased  the  strength  of  the  Opposition  in  of  the  French  government,  Italy  shall  not  take  posses- 
France,  sion  of  Rome.  Never,  never  will  France  tolerate  such 
Negotiations  between  Napoleon  III  and  Italy  an  assault  upon  her  honour  and  her  Catholicity", 
recommenced  in  1864,  the  Italian  Government  be-  That  neoer  was  extremely  unpleasant  to  the  ItaJian 
seeching  the  emperor  to  put  an  end  to  the  French  patriots.  The  emperor  had  offended  both  the  pope 
occupation  of  the  Pontifical  States.  The  Convention  and  Italy  at  the  same  time.  When  the  Vatican  Coun- 
of  15  September,  1864,  obliged  Italv  to  refrain  from  cil  was  convoked  the  imperial  government  manifested 
attacking  the  actual  possessions  of  the  Holy  See  and,  no  antagonism.  M.  Eznile  OUivier,  president  of  the 
on  the  contrary,  to  defend  them,  while  France  prom-  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  opined,  on  2  January, 
ised  to  withdraw  her  troops  within  a  period  of  not  1870,  that  the  States  ou^^t  not  to  interfere  in  the 
more  than  two  years,  pari  passu  with  the  organisation  deliberations  of  the  counol.  His  colleague  Daru  in- 
of  the  pope's  army.  This  arrangement  caused  pro-  structed  Banneville,  the  French  ambassador  to  Rome, 
found  sorrow  at  the  Vatican;  Pius  IX  drew  the  con-  on  20  February,  to  protest  in  the  name  of  French  Con- 
clusion that  Napoleon  was  preparing  to  leave  the  stitutional  law  against  the  programme  of  enactments 
States  of  the  Church  at  the  mercy  of  the  Italians.  ''De  ecclesia",  and  tried  to  bring  about  concerted 
The  diplomatic  remonstrances  with  which  the  em-  action  of  the  Powers;  but,  after  Antonelli's  demurrer 
peror's  government  replied  to  the  Syllabus,  its  prohi-  of  10  March,  Daru  confined  himself  to  rdterating  his 
Dition  against  the  circulation  of  that  document,  and  objections  in  a  memorandum  (5  April)  which  Pius  IX 
Duruy's  project  to  organize  primary  education  with-  declined  to  submit  to  the  council.  Al.  OUivier,  against 
out  the  concurrence  of  the  Church,  were  causes  of  the  reouests  of  certain  anti-infallibilist  prelates,  di- 
dissatisfaction  to  Rome  and  to  the  Catholics.  The  rected  Banneville  not  to  try  to  meddle  in  the  prooeed- 
speech  of  Thiers  against  Italian  unity,  denouncing  the  inra  of  the  council. 

imprudence  of  the  Imperial  policy,  was  loudly  ap-  In  1870  Prince  Leopold  of  Hoheniollem's  daim  to 
plauded  by  the  faithful  supporters  of  the  Holy  See.  the  crown  of  Spain  brought  on  a  conflict  betwe^i 
Napoleon  III.  always  a  prey  to  indecision,  no  doubt  France  and  King  WiUiam  of  Prussia.  A  dispatch  re- 
adied himself  from  time  to  time  whether  his  policy  lating  to  a  conversation  which  took  place  at  Ems, 
was  a  wise  one,  but  the  circumstances  which  he  himseu  between  William  and  Napoleon's  ambassador,  Boie- 
had  created  carried  him  along.  Late  in  1864  bethought  detti,  was,  as  Bismarck  himself  afterwards  confessed, 
of  n^otiating  an  alliance  between  the  Courts  of  Benin  tampered  with  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  war  inevi- 
and  Turin  against  Austria,  so  as  to  allow  Italy  to  get  table.  Bismarck's  own  "Recollections"  thus  supply 
possession  of  Venetia.  Having;  paved  the  way  for  the  refutation  of  the  charge  made  by  him  in  the 
Italian  unity,  he  was  inaugurating  a  policy  by  means  Reichstag  (5  December,  1874),  that  the  empress  and 
of  which  Prussia  was  to  achieve  German  umty.  He  the  Jesuits  had  desired  the  war  and  driven  hun  into  it. 
did  nothing  to  prevent  the  conouest  of  Austria  by  The  German  historian  Sybel  has  formally  cleared  the 
Prussia  at  Sadowa  (1866),  and  wnen  he  made  a  vain  empress  and  the  «Fesuits  of  this  accusation.  (On  this 
attempt  to  have  Luxemburg  ceded  to  him,  Bismarck  point,  which  has  provoked  numerous  polemics,  see 
exploited  the  proceedings  to  convince  public  opinion  DUhr,  '' Jesuitenfabeln",  4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1904,  pp. 
in  Germany  of  the  danger  of  French  ambition  and  the  877-79).  Pius  IX  wrote  to  Emperor  William  offering 
serious  necessity  of  arming  against  France.  By  the  end  his  good  offices  as  mediator  (22  July,  1870),  but  to  no 
of  1866  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  which  had  purpose.  As  for  the  Italian  government,  on  16  July, 
guarded  the  pope  was  complete.  But  Napoleon  at  the  1870,  it  refused  an  alliance  with  France  because  Napo> 
very  time  when  he  was  thus  carrying  out  the  Conven-  leon  had  refused  it  Rome.  On  20  Juhr  Napoleon  prom- 
tion  of  15  September  was  organizmg  at  Antibes  a  ised  that  the  imperial  troops  should  be  recalled  from 
legion  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope ;  he  once  Rome,  but  no  more,  and  so,  aa  usual,  he  offended  both 
more  exacted  of  Italy  a  pledge  not  to  invaoe  the  Papal  the  pope,  whom  he  was  about  to  leave  defenceless,  and 
States;  he  conceived  a  plan  to  obtain  from  the  Powers  Italy,  whose  highest  ambitions  he  was  balking.  The 
a  collective  guarantee  of  the  pope's  temporal  sover-  negotiations  between  France  and  Italy  were  continued 
eignty.  On  3  November,  1866,  he  wrote  to  his  friend  in  August,  by  Prince  Napoleon,  who  made  a  viat  to 
Francesco  Arese :  'People  must  know  that  I  will  jrield  Florence.  Italy  absolutely  insisted  upon  beins  allowed 
nothing  on  the  Roman  question,  and  that  m^  mind  is  to  take  Rome,  and,  on  29  August,  Yisconti  Venosta, 
made  up,  while  canying  out  the  Convention  of  15  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  affirmed  the  right  of  the 
September,  to  support  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope  Italians  to  have  Rome  for  their  capital.  The  anti- 
by  all  possible  means".  But  the  season  of  ill-luck  and  Catholic  controversialists  of  France  nave  oft^i  made 
of  blundering  was  setting  in  for  the  Imperial  d^plo-  use  of  these  facts  to  support  their  allegation  that  the 
macy.  None  of  the  Powers  responded  to  Napoleon's  emperor  would  have  had  the  Italian  alliance  in  the 
appeal.    Italy,  displeased  at  the  organisation  of  the  War  of  1870  if  he  had  not  persisted  in  his  demand  that 


NAPnB  703  NABDO 

the  pope  should  remiun  master  of  Rome,  and  that  under  27  Eliz.,  c.  2  for  being  a  priest.  The  posses- 
Italy's  abstention  entailed  that  of  Austria^  which  sion  of  the  oils  was  held  to  be  conclusive  and  ne  was 
would  have  helped  France  if  Italy  had.  M.  Welschin-  condemned,  but  reprieved.  In  gaol  he  reconciled  a 
ger  has  proved  that  in  1870  these  two  powers  were  in  condemned  felon  named  Falkner,  and  this  was  held 
no  oonoition  to  be  of  material  assistance  to  France. '  to  aggravate  his  crime,  but  as  late  as  2  Novemb^  it 
After  the  surrender  of  Sedan  (2  September,  1870),  was  believed  that  he  would  have  his  sentence  oom- 
Napoleon  was  sent,  a  prisoner,  to  Wilhelmshdhe,  muted  to  one  of  banishment.  As  he  refused  the  oatJi 
where  he  learned  that  the  Republic  had  been  pro-  of  allegiance,  which  described  the  pap^  deposing 
claimed  at  Paris,  4  September,  and  that  the  Pied-  power  as  a  ''false,  damnable,  and  hereticial"  doctrine, 
montese  had  occupied  Home  (20  September).  The  it  was  decided  to  execute  him.  He  suffered  between 
National  Assembly  of  Bordeaux,  on  28  February,  one  and  two  in  the  afternoon,  having  said  Mass  that 
1871,  confirmed  the  emperor's  dethronement.  After  morning.  His  head  according  to  Wood  was  set  up 
the  Peace  of  Frankfort  he  went  to  reside  at  Chisel-  on  Tom  Gateway;  according  to  Challoner's  less  prob- 
hurst,  where  he  died.  His  only  son,  Eugtoe-Louis-  able  statement  on  Christ  Church  steeple.  His  ouar- 
Jean-Joseph-Napol6on,  bom  16  March,  1856,  was  ters  were  placed  on  the  four  city  gates,  but  at  least 
killed  by  the  Zulus,  23  June.  1879.  Napoleon  III  left  some  were  secretly  removed,  and  buried  in  the  chapel 
imfinished  a  "Vie  de  Cdsar",  begun  in  1865,  with  the  (now  a  bam)  of  Saoford  manor,  formerly  a  preceptory 
assistance  of  the  historian  Duruy,  and  of  which  onlv  of  Knights  Templar, 
three  volumes  were  published.  His  history  still  „CaA.ux>Mra.iremoir«o/^M»onoi^^ 
affords  occamon  for  numerou-  polemics  animawd  by  Mo^^fySSfrfii  'igr1?^wiS?ffi'^  C^^^K!S 

SiOty  feehng.     The  portrait  of  him  drawn  by  Victor  €00^0  (Oxford.  1893),  389;  Staplwon,  Poat-R^ormatwn Catholic 

[ugo  in  " Les  ChAtiments"  is  extremely  unfair.    Nar  MU^iafuin Oxford»kirt  o-ondon.  1906J, 4. 190. 199. 211-8. 323-4; 

poleon  was  a  tender-heart^  dreamer,  kindn«»  was  ^^^i£^'!ft^.^^^^ 

one  of  his  most  evident  quahties.    As  regards  his  per-  190&— ).  1. 133-4.  II.  284:  Lbmom.  CaUndar  Stau  Papen  Dtmntio 

sonal  practice  of  religion,  he  was  faithful  to  his  Easter  1681-90  (London.  I866),  606.  «  «r 

duties.    Much  of  the  censure  which  his  foreipi  policy  John  B.  Wainhwright. 

has  merited  is  equally  applicable  to  the  anticlericals       Narbonne.    See  Toxtlouse,  Archdiocbss  of. 

and  the  Republicans  of  his  time,  whose  press  organs        ^^^   j^  I^^li^  historian;  b.  at  Florence, 

were  cUmouni^  for  Frerich  aid  towards  the  speedy  147^    j/  ^^  Vem'ce,  11  March,  1563.    His  father 

"^^^Jf^"*  9^  \^^,  umty,  whUe  their  systematic  s^lvitro  Nardi,  befonged  to  an  old  Florentine  faml 

opp<»tion,m  1868,  to  the  Government  progra^  Uy,  originally  fit)m  the  suburbs  of  the  city.    Jacopo 

for  strengthening  the  army  was  partly  responsible  for  ^-^^  an  eam^  follower  of  Savonarola,  whose  deatS 

'^llTJi^ofl.lSKSri?^^^  ^^  ^^-^^^^    S«  '^^  **^^^  ^  '^^  R^PubHcan 


ffVi^'di'si^;Sym}i;e(jyo\B\r^^^^  ^««»i«  ai^r  ^neir  r^iorau^  m  loiz,  ana  even  com- 

Jbbbold.  Life  of  NapoUon  III  (4  vol»..  London.  1882) ;  Forbks,  The  posed  pageants  for  them,    iiavmg  been  concerned  m 

Life  of  Safoiton  the  Third  (London,  1898):  Woebtk.  Le  rigne  de  the  Republican  revolution  of  1527,  he  was  banished 

^±!^tJ^i^'^^,!^^iSry^''n?'S:^^1f^  f'SZ^T?^  *"  J^'  *°*i  ^^  *  ie^  part  in  the 

1895):  WciiBCHiNoaB,  La  Qwrre  de  1870,  oaueee  et  rteponeahilUia  efforts  Of  the  eXlles  tO  retum,  pleading  their  caUSO 

(Svois.,  Paris,  1910).    On  Napoleon  III  and  the  Italian  queataon,  against  the  tyraimy  of   Duke  Alessandro  before 

frJ1S!''KSlS;;*iJ*diS5!^T:^S^^  ^'"k ^iS.  ^^-    He  Snallv  wUled  at  Venice, 

1803);  iDBif.  Uuniu  iialienne  (2  vols..  Paris.  1896-98):  Thou-  Where  he  died  m  poverty.    All  his  contemporaries 

▼BifmuX'«««eriidsr0mp«rsur(2vola..Pari8, 1889);  Cbiala.  Poii-  bear  witness  to  lus  upnght  and  noble  character. 

fe^^SS^^i?^*''*''*^^^^  •^*^"'*~''*o^'*^'iV"%^'^T  Before  his  exile,   Nardi    composed   two    comedies 

(Turin,  1895);  BonBoaou  and  Clbriiont.  Rome  et  NapoUon  III  «  t  >  a  «.:-^..  TTZ^a  Vi  t  T^.,.^r^K!^D'      laii  ^*"~ 

?Pwiri907);  BoHFADun.  Vitadi  Fmncewo iiiw  (Turin.  1894) ;  "L'Amicisia"  and  "I  Due  Fehci  RivaU",  together 

CAunasB.  Un  PortraU  inSdit  de  NapoUon  III  in  Rewue  de  VInatv-  With  a  few  OOnH  camoscialeschij   Or  camival-SOngS. 

tiiita  Cath<jimtede  FMe  (1910)  .attributed  to  Falloux.  eharaotei^  To  a  later  date  belong  his  political  discourses,  his  trans- 

i«ii«  the  attftude  of  Napoleon  III  in  Ita^^id™.  j^^j^^  ^^^  Li^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  j^  Life  of  Antonio 

Giacomini,  an  austere  soldier  of  the  republic  who  died 

--            /      ^T          X  rM             TT                   -r,  in  1517.    His ''IstoriedellacittAdiFirense"  (History 

HWPW  (or  Napibb),  Gbobob,  ^nbbabmj,  Eng-  of  the  City  of  Florence)  was  written  m  the  last  yeare 

hsh  BMT^  b.  at  HolyweU  manor,  Oxford,  1550;  ex-  of  his  life.    It  deals  with  the  tragic  epoch  in  Floren- 

^^  at  Orford  9  Novemb^,  1610.    He  was  a  son  tine  history  from  1494  until  within  a  few  years  of  the 

?^,i^^?^?,*PP®r  ^^;  ^  ^^^'  Bometime  FeUow  of  author's  death,  and  is  especially  noteworthy  for  its 

All  Souls  College Jby  Anne,  his  second  wife,  daughter  high  moral  tone  and  its  faithful  record  of  the  events 

^i  ^^/^^'  ^  ^e8*er*S°»  Waiwickshu^,  and  mece  in  which  Nardi  himself  had  shared. 

of    Wllham,    Cardinal    PetO.     He    entered    Corpus  Qmeaa,  9d„  lelorie  deOa  dUd  di  Pirenee  d%  Jaeopo  Nardi  (Fiot- 

Christi  College  5  January,  1565-6,  but  was  ejected  in  •»<»..  1858);   Qabgiolu.  ed..  rOa  di  Antonio  Giaeomini  e  aUri 

1568  as  a  recusant     On  24  August,  1579  he  paid  a  rrc;;^??/:^^??^^^^^               '^"^' ""  ^ 

vMit  to  the  Enghsh  CoUege  at  Reims,  and  by  Decern-  Edmund  G.  Gabdnbb. 
ber.  1580,  he  had  been  imprisoned.    He  was  still 

in  the  Wood  Street  Coimter,  London,  on  30  September,  Nardd,  Diocesx  of  (Nbritomxnsib),  in  southern 

1588;butwasliberatedin June,  1589. onacknowledging  Italy.    Nardd  was  already  an  episcopal  see,  when, 

the  ro^ral  supremacy.    He  entered  the  English  College,  about  761,  Greek  monks  arrived  there,  fleeing  from 

Douai,  in  1596,  and  was  seiit  on  the  mission  in  1603.  the  persecutions  of  the  Iconoclasts.    Paul  I  assigned 

He  appears  to  have  lived  with  his  brother  William  at  to  these  monks  the  episcopal  palace  and  the  revenues 

Holywell.    He  was  arrested  at  Kirtlington,  four  miles  of  the  see,  then  vacant^  and  the  city  was  made  part 

from  Woodstock,  very  early  in  the  morning  of  19  July,  of  the  Diocese  of  Brindmi.    The  monasterv  bscame  a 

1610,  when  he  had  on  him  a  pyx  containing  two  con-  centre  of  Greek  culture;  but.  in  1090,  Uii)an  U  put 

secrated  Hosts  as  well  as  a  small  reliauary.    Brought  Latin  Benedictines  there,  ana  Paschal  II  ga^w  episco- 

before  Sir  Francis  Eure  at  Upper  Hevford  (Wood  pal  jurisdiction  to  the  i^botj  for  a  long  time  ^heGrc^ 

•a^rs  before  a  justice  named  Chamberlain),  he  was  and  Latin  rites  were  maintained  together  at  Uie  mon- 

strictly  searched;  but  the  constable  found  nothing  but  astonr.    In  1388,  a  bishop  was  establidied  at  Nard6 

his  breviary,  his  holy  oils,  and  a  needle  case  with  by  the  antipope,  Clement  VII,  but  was  deposed  by 

thread  and  thimble.    The  next  day  he  was  sent  to  Boniface  IX,  who  entrusted  the  care  of  the  oiocese  to 

Oxford  Castle,  and  indicted  at  the  sessions  soon  after  the  Archbishop  of  Otnuito,    TbQ  Ifttter  propoaed  to 


NABMI                               704  NAflHVnU 

gapproBB  the  Greek  Rite^  in  the  diooesei  but,  at  the  Term  was  without  a  bishop  until  1217|  in  whiflh  year 

instance  of  the  Benediotines  and  of  King  Ladislaus,  the  diocese  was  re-estabbshed.    Among  its  bisoops 

the  pope  maintained  its  use.    From  the  report  made  since  that  time,  were  Ludovico  Masxanoo  in  (1406), 

on  tms  subject,  it  is  known  that  the  Greek  Rite  ob-  who  governed  the  diocese  for  fifty-two  years:  Cbemas 

tained  in  sixteen  towns  of  the  diocese,  and  that  there  Manucd  (1625),  who  gave  the  high  altar  to  the  eathe> 

was  a  protopope  at  Balatone.    The  see  was  re-estab-  dral,  and  Francesco  luipacdoli  (1646),  a  cardinal  who 

lished  m  1413,  in  favour  of  Giovanni  degli  Epifani.  restored  the  cathedral.    The  united  sees  are  immedi- 

Other  bishops  were  Ambrogio  Salvi,  O.P.  (1569),  ately  dependent  upon  Rome;  they  have  57  parishes, 

who  introduced  the  reforms  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  with  66,600  inhabitants,  3  religious  houses  of  men,  ana 

Fa^io  Fomari  (1583),  who  also  tried  to  abolish  the  11  of  women. 

use  of  the  Greek  Rite:  Lelio  Landi  (1607),  a  learned  .  Capmllkti.  L^Chut*  <rAol«a,  VI;  MAOALom,  r«nii  owm 

Orientalist,  employed  ty  the  Congregation  de  aimZtw  Tonm* /ia#««ma  (FoUgno.  17W).                      n™,«,, 

and  also  m  the  correction  of  Qie  Vulgate;  Fabio  ^'  ^»w»«nI' 

Chigi  (1635),  who  became  Alexander  Vll;  Antonio  KarthflZ,  in  early  Christian  architecture  a  portion 

Sanfelice  (1707)^  founder  of  a  public  library  and  of  a  of  the  church  at  the  west  end,  separated  from  the 

workhouse  for  girls.    TOie  diocese  is  du^ectly  dCTjen(^  nave  by  a  low  waU  or  screen  and  reserved  for  the 

ent  on  the  Holy  See.    It  has  16  parishes,  with  70^500  catechumens,  ienergumens,  and  penitents  who  were 

mhabitants,  2  houses  of  Franciscans,  and  4  religious  not  admitted  amonsost  the  congregation.    The  nai^ 

houses  of  women,  2  schools  for  boys,  and  4  for  girls,  thex  was  of  two  kinds,  exterior  andinterior:  the  for- 

CAPnLLRn.  u  Chu»B  <rnaUa.  XX  <Venioe.  IM^ •  mer  consisted  of  an  open  atrium  arcade  continued 

u.  oBNiQNi.  ^^^^  ^^^  fj^j^^  ^j£  ^g  chureh;  in  the  latter,  the  aisle 

«.      1      ^ .      1  «T           ^                   ^^*  wid  gallery  were  returned  across  the  nave.    A  sur- 

Vami  and  Temi,  UNrPBD  Diocbsbb  op  (Nabnibn.  yival  of  the  exterior  narthex  may  be  found  in  the 
BIS  BT  Intbbamnbnbis),  m  Central  Italy.  Narm  church  of  San  Ambrogio  at  Milan;  of  the  interior 
is  the  ancient  Nequinum  of  the  Sabines;  m  300  and  narthex,  in  Santa  Agnese,  at  Rome.  The  outer 
299  B.  c.  it  was  besieged  by  the  Romans,  who  de-  narthex  was  sometimes  used  as  a  hall  of  judgment 
stroyed  the  city  and  sent  there  a  Latin  colony,  chang-  ^nd  for  other  secular  purposes,  and,  after  the  sixth 
ing  the  name  to  Namia.  Luitprand  captured  the  century,  as  a  place  of  burial,  while  the  inner  narthex, 
town  in  726,  but  Pope  Zacharias  persuaded  him  to  re-  sometimes  called  the  matroneutn,  was  used,  probably, 
store  it  to  the  Duchy  of  Rome  in  742,  after  which  it  for  certain  persons  of  rank  or  distinction,  rather  than 
remained  under  pontifical  rule.  From  1198  to  1214,  as  a  women^s  gallery.  After  the  abandonment  of  the 
Nami  was  m  rebellion  against  Innocent  III,  who  tem-  atrium  in  the  West,  about  1000,  the  narthex  developed 
poranly  suppressed  its  episcopal  see.  The  churehes  by  degrees  into  the  great  west  poreh  which  is  so 
of  this  city  contab  many  paintinra  of  the  ancient  characteristic  of  the  churches  of  southern  France. 
Umpnan  school.  This  town  is  the  mrthplace  of  the  Among  the  monastic  orders  it  continued  in  use  down 
Blessed  Luda  of  Nami,  a  tertiary  of  St.  Dominic,  who  to  thebeginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  as,  for  ex- 
died  in  1644^  and  of  the  condoUiere  Erasmo  Gattame-  ample,  in  the  Sbbeys  of  Cluny  and  V^a^ay.  With 
lata.  Nami  venerates  as  ito  first  bishop  the  martyr  the  full  development  of  Gothic  it  disappeared,  its 
JuvenaliS)  who  died  in  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  place  being  taken  by  the  three  great  westom  porehes. 
century;  St.  Maximus,  who  was  bishop  in  425,  was  or  doorways.  Properly  speakmg,  the  name  should 
succeeded  by  his  two  sons  Hercules  and  Pancratius;  have  ceased  with  the  function,  and  the  so-called  nar- 
St.  Gitegory  the  Great  refers  to  the  bishop  St.  Caasius,  thex  of  medieval  churches  and  abbeys  should  justly 
whodiedin558;  the  same  pontiff  wrote  a  letter  to  the  i^  called  a  poreh.  For  the  same  reason  there  is 
bishop  Projeciinus  which  shows  that,  at  Nami,  at  that  no  excuse  for  the  recent  revival  of  the  word  as  a 
time,  there  were  still  pagans  to  be  converted;  Bishop  desigiiation  either  of  an  exterior  pon^,  or  an  interior 
John  (940)  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  who  became  yesuoule. 

John  XIH;  among  other  bishops  were:  William«  a  Ralph  Adams  Cbam. 
Franciscan,  whom  Urban  V  employed  against  the  Frsr 

ticeUi  (1367);  and  Raimondo  Castelli  (1656),  founder  Nashfllle,  Diocesb  of,  comprises  the  entire  teni- 

of  the  seminary.  tory  of  the  State  of  Tennessee.    From  its  inland  loca- 

In  1906,  the  sees  of  Nami  and  of  Temi  were  united,  tion  and  peculiar  civil  history,  it  has  not  profited  much 

Temi  is  on  the  river  Nera,  at  its  confluence  with  the  from  the  tide  of  immigration,  and  hence  its  Catholic 

Velino;  the  magnificent  cascade  of  the  latter  is  well-  development  has  been  chieflpr  due  to  its  own  internal 

known  through  the  noble  description  by  Lord  Byron  woik.   There  is  little  need  of  consulting  any  historical 

in  "  Childe  Harold  " .    Temi  is  the  ancient  Interamna  references  as  to  the  growth  of  the  Churdi  in  Tennessee 

Nahars  of  the  Umbrians,  and  its  former  splendour  is  since  no  such  work  of  any  importance  exists.   This  is 

witnessed  to  by  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  in  the  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  heretofore  the  diocese  was 

garden  of  the  episcopal  palace,  a  tneatre,  and  baths  in  an  embryo  state  and  those  who  could  write  its  his- 

near  the  chureh  of  St.  Nicholas.    The  cathedral,  and  tory  had  neither  time  nor  opportunity  to  do  what  was 

other  churches,  are  built  on  the  sites  of  pagan  tem-  so  much  needed.    Up  to  twenty  years  a^,  or  in  the 

pies.    After  the  Lombard  invasion,  Temi  Delonged  to  decade  of  1880-90.  much  of  the  diocesan  history  could 

the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  and  with  the  latter,  came  into  have  been  leamea  from  the  early  pioneers  of  Catho- 

the  Pontifical  States;  it  was  at  this  town  that  Pope  licity,  or  their  children,  who  were  then  living.    The 

Zacharias  entered  into  the  agreement  with  King  Luit-  Diocese  of  Nashville  was  established  28  July,  1837, 

prand  for  the  restitution  of  the  cities  of  Bieda,  Orte,  havingbeen  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  Barostown 

Bomarzo,  and  AiAelia  to  the  Duchy  of  Rome.    It  is  (now  Diocese  of  Louisville)  and  the  first  Bishop  of 

believed  that  the  gospel  was  preached  at  Temi  by  St.  Nashville  was  Rt.  Rev.  Richard  Pius  Miles,  oonse- 

PeregrinuS)  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  crated  at  Bardstown,  16  Sept.,  1838.   Before  tnis  date 

The  townsmen  have  great  veneration  for  St.  Valen-  there  is  no  authentic  recora  of  any  eoolesiastica]  mis- 

tinus,  whose  basilica  is  outside  the  city,  and  was.  sionary  work  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Tennessee, 

probably,  the  meeting-place  of  the  first  Cnristians  ot  except  in  sporadic  ^orts.    The  earliest  records  at- 

Temi.    There  were  other  martyrs  from  this  city,  tainable  are  two  letters  in  the  archives  of  Baltimore, 

among  them,  Sts.  Proculus,  EphebuSi  Apollonius,  ana  dated  1799,  to  Bishop  Carroll  from  Father  Badin,  con- 

the  holy  virgin  Agape.    In  the  time  of  Totila,  the  ceming  an  off er  from  John  Sevier,  the  first  governor  of 

Bishop  of  Temi,  St.  Proculus,  was  killed  at  Bologna,  Tennessee,  that  Father  Badin  might  arran^  for  the 

and  St.  Domnina  and  ten  nuns,  her  companions,  were  immigration  of  at  least  one  hundred  Catholic  families 

pat  to  death  at  Temi  itself.    After  the  eighth  centuiy  for  whose  maintenance  the  govemor  guaranteed  sep- 


THE  NEW  YORK 

PUBIJC  LIBRARY 


i 


APTrr*,  u  .vox  amd 

TILDF.N  K..U.NUVl.(,.NT 


KABOSJUJXS 


705 


NABOBJLAm 


arate  tracts  of  land.  The  ofifer  of  the  warrior-states- 
man was  not  accepted,  however,  althougdi  many 
difitinctly  Catholic  names  are  to  be  foimd  to-day 
among  the  inhi^itants  of  east  Tennessee,  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  insurgents  of  Ireland  were 
Bold  into  a  species  of  slavery  by  the  English  govern- 
ment to  the  American  colonists.  That  the^r  or  their 
children  have  fallen  from  the  old  faith  of  their  fathers 
can  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  exiles  had 
then  neither  church  nor  priests,  nor  Catholic  schools. 
For  a  good  many  years  the  present  writer  has  been 
seeking  information  as  to  eany  Catholic  settlers  and 
CathoUc  work,  but  must  confess  the  evidence  very 
doubtful  as  to  whether  the  first  priestly  ministrations 
were  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nashville  or  Knoxville. 
Civic  history  and  geographical  position  seem  to  give 
thepreference  to  Knoxville. 

Tne  first  authentic  records  of  a  priest  in  Tennessee 
are  contained  in  the  archives  of  St.  Mary's  cathedral, 
Nashville,  when  Father  Abell  came  (1820)  from  Bards- 
town  to  attend  the  few  Catholics  then  living  in  Na^- 
ville.  Shortly  after  his  arrival.  Father  Al^ll  under- 
took the  building  of  the  first  church  in  Tennessee,  at 
Nashville,  a  small  building  on  what  is  now  Capitol 
hiU.  The  State  Capitol  now  occupies  the  site.  Father 
Abell  visited  Nashville  as  a  mission  for  four  or  five 
years,  and  then  (1849)  Father  Durbin  took  charge, 
and  about  the  following  year  he  was  assisted  by  Father 
Brown  who  made  Ross  Landing  (now  Chattanooga) 
his  headquarters,  just  previous  to  the  advent  of 
Bishop  Miles.  After  a  difficult  journey  on  horseback 
and  in  a  canoe  from  Bardstown,  Kv.,  Bishop  Miles 
took  possession  of  his  diocese  and  early  in  1839,  beg^ 
his  first  episcopal  visitation  of  Tennessee.  At  the  end 
of  his  journey  he  declared  that  he  did  not  find  more 
than  three  hundred  Catholics  in  Tennessee.  In  1840, 
he  again  journeyed  to  Memphis  to  establish  there  the 
first  church,  imder  the  management  of  Father  Mc- 
Eleer;  it  has  since  been  rebuilt  as  St.  Peter's  by  the 
Dominicans.  In  1844  he  laid  the  comer  stone  of  St. 
Mary's  cathedral,  Nashville.  In  addition  mission 
churches  were  established  in  outlying  stations  so  that 
in  1847  Bishop  Miles  was  able  to  report  to  Rome  that 
he  had  6  priests,  6  churches,  8  chapels,  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  about  1500. 

In  1849  a  church  was  erected  at  Jackson;  in  1852 
one  at  Chattanooga;  In  1854  one  at  Knoxville;  in 
1856  one  at  McEwen;  in  1857  one  at  Edgefield  (now 
East  Nashville):  in  1858  one  at  Shelbyyille  (later  dis- 
continued) ;  and  in  1858  one  at  Nashville  (church  of 
the  Assumption).    Bishop  Miles  died  on  19  February, 
1860,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  Bishop  Whelan.   His  diocese  became  the 
great  theatre  of  war:  his  cathedral  was  converted  into 
a  hospital:  his  flock  scattered.    The  burden  proved 
too  great  tor  his  strength,  and  in  1863  he  was  forced 
to  resign.   Two  yearn  later  Bishop  Feehan  succeeded 
him.    Under  his  jurisdiction,  new  priests  were  added 
to  the  diocese,  new  churches  were  built,  especially  St. 
Patrick's  (1866),  St.  Bridget's  (1870),  and  St.  Joseph's 
(1875),  all  at  Memphis,   in  1881  St.  Columba's  church 
in  East  Nashville  was  built,  to  replace  the  old  St. 
John's  church,  which  was  burned  down  a  few  years 
previously.    In  the  decade  1870-80,  mission  chapels 
were  erected  at  Humboldt,  Belview,  and  Lawrence- 
burg;   Bishop  Feehan  reported  to  Rome  (1880)  that 
his  diocese  had  30  churches  of  which  18  had  resident 
priests,  besides  numerous  stations.    This  was  a  rapid 
gjowth,  when  we  consider  the  ravages  of  pestilence 
which  visited  the  people  during  1873, 1878.  and  1879, 
and  which  buried  from  the  ranks  of  the  Catholics  in 
Memphis  alone,  twenty-two  priests  and  thousands  of 
lay   people.     In  1880  Bishop  Feehan  became  the 
first  Archbishop  of  Chicago,  Illinois.    Bishop  Rade- 
macher  succeeaed  him  as  Bishop  of  Nashville  m  1883, 
but  owing  to  ill-health  his  work  was  somewhat  re- 
tarded, although  some  progress  was  made.    During 
X.— 45 


his  administration  St.  Joseph's  and  St.  Patrick's 
churches  were  built  at  Nasnville.  In  July,  1893, 
Bishop  Rademacher  was  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  where  he  died  in  1000. 

In  1804,  the  present  head  of  the  diocese,  Bishop 
B3rme,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Nashville,  and  his 
work  has  not  only  been  that  of  restoration,  but  also  of 
great  progress ;  while  the  ranks  of  the  derg^  have  been 
strengthened  by  the  addition  of  many  new  men.  Faith- 
ful and  tireless  in  his  energy,  scholarly  in  his  attain- 
ments, he  has  aroused  the  latent  zeal  in  his  clergy  and 
people.  Among  his  many  imdertakings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  building  of  the  new  pro-cathedral,  the  en- 
larging of  the  Assumption  church  and  St.  Joseph's 
church  at  Nashville,  tne  building  of  the  Holy  Family 
church  for  coloured  people  at  Nashville,  the  rebuilding 
of  St.  Patrick's  church,  and  the  building  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  church  at  Memphis,  the  building  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  church  at  Knoxville,  besides  numerous  mis- 
sion chapels  throu^^out  the  diocese.  In  addition 
to  this  he  has  directed  the  building  or  enlarging  of 
various  institutions  of  charity  and  learning.  He 
also  convoked,  10  Feb.,  1005,  the  first  synod  of 
the  diocese,  at  which  34  priests  were  present,  with 
7  unavoidably  absent.  Scarcely  had  the  cuocese 
been  formed,  when  its  bishops  and  priests  recognized 
the  need  of  these  institutions,  and  with  their  imtir- 
in^;  energy,  asylums,  hospitals,  and  schools  sprang  into 
existence.  Chief  among  them  may  be  mentioned  first 
of  all  that  every  parish  having  a  residential  pastor 
has  also  a  Catholic  school,  and  in  addition  there  are 
four  academies  for  young  ladies,  St.  Agnes  (Memphis), 
(inducted  by  the  Dominican  (Ky.)  Sisters,  estab- 
lished in  1850;  the  Sacred  Heart  (Memphis),  con- 
ducted by  Dominican  (Nashville)  Sisters,  established 
in^  1800;  St.  Cecilia's  (Nashville),  conducted  by  Do- 
minican Sisters  at  their  mother-house,  established  in 
1860;  St.  Bernard's  (Nashville),  conducted  b^r  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  established  in  1868.  For  the  higher 
education  and  technical  instruction  of  coloured  girls, 
the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  (Pa.)  conduct  an 
academy  at  Nashville,  established  in  1005.  The  Chris- 
tian Brothers  at  Memphis,  since  1871,  conduct  a  col- 
lege for  young  men.  For  cnaritable  institutions,  there 
are  two  well  equipped  orphanages,  one  at  Nashville 
and  one  at  Mempnis;  St.  Joseph's  Hospital  at  Mem- 
phis, erected  in  1885,  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  while  St.  Thomas'  Hospital  at  Nashville  is 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Emmits- 
burg.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  have  a  home 
at  Memphis  for  the  reformation  of  wa3rward  girls,  and 
the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  have  an  institution  at 
Nashville  for  the  aged  and  infirm.  There  are  also  in 
the  diocese  the  Franciscans  and  the  Dominicans,  each 
with  a  parish  church  at  Memphis;  the  Josephite 
Fathers,  having  churches  at  Nasnville  and  Memphis; 
the  Paulist  Fathers,  with  a  Mission  house  at  Winches- 
ter; the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (Maria  Stein), 
having  a  school  at  Lawrenceburg.  Bishop  B3rme  has 
at  present  (1010)  under  his  direction,  46  priests;  25 
parishes  with  a  resident  priest  and  parochial  schools, 
and  under  Catholic  care  in  schools  and  institutions  for 
children,  about  5000  pupils;  the  total  Catholic  popu- 
lation is  between  20,000  and  25,000. 

Jab.  T.  Lorioan. 

NasonMBf,  sometimes  called  Mandjsans,  Sa- 
BIAN8,  or  Christians  of  St.  John,  are  pagan  Gnostics 
who  shortly  before  the  rise  of  Christianity,  formed  asect 
which  flourished  in  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  and 
which  was  one  of  the  foremost  religions  m  Western 
Asia  in  the  early  years  of  Mohammedanism.  Though 
some  2000  families  strong  in  the  seventeenth  centu^ 
they  have  dwindled  at  the  present  day  to  some  1500 
adherents  living  on  the  Shat-el-Arab  near  the  Persian 
Gulf.  It  is  the  only  Gnostic  sect  that  has  survived 
and  the  sacred  writings  of  which  are  still  extant;  a  few 


VABOBJUJm                          706  NA80RSANS 

renmante  excepted,  the  writmss  of  the  ao-called  left  being  used  at  funerals  and  bdng  written  for  the 

Christian   Gno6ti<»  have  perished.    I   Names,   II  benefit  of  the  dead.    The  Genza  is  a  collection  of 

Doctrines,  III  Discipline  and  Ritual,  IV  Histoiy.  writings  from  all  ages  and  sources,  some  dating  even 

I  Names.    Mandiean  (K^^^^)  is  a  Babvloman-  after  the  Mohammedan  conouest.    Another  sacred 

Aramaic  word  in  diidectic  form,  meaning:  Gnostics,  book  is  the  Kolasta,    or   '^Summa''   or  practical 

ypotoTucolj  "those  who  are  good  at  knowmg".    The  vademecum   containing   hymns,    liturgies,    rites   for 

Hebrew  word  for  knowledge  ^TtO  Madda  is  of  the  marriages,  etc.  (published  as  ''Oolasta"  by  Euting, 

same  root  and  is  the  noim  from  which  the  adjective  Stutteajt,  1867).    The  Sidra  de  Yahya  i.  e.  Book  of 

Mandaya  is  derived.    It  is  the  name  adopts  by  the  St.  John  or  DrAshd  de  malk^,  "Lectures  of  the  Kings" 

sect  itself,  being  emplo^^ed  in  their  sacred  books,  and  was  published  in  1905  by  Lidzbarski  and  translated 

is  characteristic  of  their  worship  of  the  lOm  ^30  with  commentary  by  Ochser  in  1905.    The  Diwan,  a 

7ntf0'ir  r^  itarjt  or  "knowledge  of  life".    Another  priestly  ritual,  was  published  by  Euting  (1904),  but 

name  also  found  in  their  sacr^  books  is  that  of  Sa-  the  Aaar  Malwdshe,  an  astrological  work  on  the  signs 

bians  (K^3V)  which  means  Baptists  (y^V  to  bap-  of  the  Zodiac,  is  not  yet  published.    In  recent  years 

tize  in  Syriac  and  Aramaic).    This  name  is  known  to  finds  of  Nasonean  inscriptions  on  potteiy  have  added 

the  Mohammedans  (sing.  Sabiafpl.  fr.  Sybd*u)  from  to  our  knowledge  of  their  popular  superstitions  (Pog- 

the  Koran  (Sure  V,  73:  II,  59;  AXII,  17)  in  which  non,  "Une  incantation  en  MandaUe",  Paris,  1892; 

Christians.  Sabians,  and  Jews  are  eniunerated  as reli-  "Inscriptions   Mand."    Paris,    1898-9;   Lidzbarski, 

gions  which  can  be  tolerated  by  Islam.    It  is  based  on  "Ephem  f.  Sem.  Epigr.",  Giessen,  1900). 

the  prominence  of  frequent  baptism  in  their  religious  These  sources  show  Nasoraeanism  to  be  a  form  of 

discipline  and  hence  they  are  no  doubt  referred  to  by  Gn^ipticism  which  stands  towards  late  Babylonian 

the  Fathers  as  Hemerobaptists  ij/upofiafrrlcrM  i.  e.  ^  Polytheism    somewhat    as    Neo-Platonism    stands 

practising  daily  baptism.     The  name  2ov/3a(oi  was"  towards  the  Greek  and  Roman  Pantheon.     It  is  an 

even  known  in  Greek  writers.    The  name,  however,  attempt  to  allegorise  the  ancient  myths  as  being 

most  frequently  used  in  their  sacred  literature  is  that  phases  of  man's  creation  and  salvation,  thou^  Naso- 

of  Nasorseans,  K^finiVK^   which   is   also   the   usual  neanism  never  rids  itself  of  fantastic  Eastern  miagenr. 

Arabic  (sing.  NcLsrani^  pi.  Nas&ra)  for  Christians.  Probably  through  Nabatcean  commerce  these  south- 

The  coincidence  is  striking,  the  more  so  as  the  Naso-  em  Babylonians  came  into  contact  with  the  Jews  of 

raeanshave  no  leaning  towards  Christianity,  but  rather  the  east  of  the  Jordan  and  developed  a  worship  of  St. 

contempt  and  hatred  for  it;  nor  do  their  doctrines  be-  John  the  Baptist.    Their  daily  baptism  is  however 

tray  any  approximation  to  Christian  beliefs,  except  earlier  than  St.  John's  practice  and  is  probably  the 

perhaps  in  that  of  the  existence  of  a  saviour,  although  cause  of  their  belief  regarding  St.  John  rather  than  the 

some  of  their  ceremonies  bear  a  superficial  resemblance  effect  of  it.    They  likewise  absorbed  a  great  deal  of 

to  Christian  mysteries.    If,  however,  we  remember Ladian  and  Parsee philosophy  till  they  developed  their 

that  the  Manichseans  in  Europe  paraded  as  the  true^Hoctrine  of  the  Light-King,  which  is  similar  to  the 


Christians,  though  their  system  has  but  the  use  of  Manichsan  concept  of  the  universe,  though  without 
half  a  dozen  terms  in  common  with  Christianity,  and  an  absolutely  rigid  dualism.  No  reli^on  therefore 
that  some  Gnostic  sects  had  barely  any  similarity  with  bears  a  nearer  resemblance  to  Nasorsean  ism  than  that 
the  Church  of  Christ,  though  self-styled  Christians,  it  of  Mani^  who  himself  was  an  eastern  Baptist  in  his 
becomes  less  strange  that  even  Mandseans  should  have  youth.  Finally,  through  contact  with  the  monothe- 
styled  themselves  Nasoneans.  The  term  KristilUiA,  ism  of  Jews,  Christians,  Mohammedans,  and  later 
as  transliteration  of  the  Greek  word,  they  reserve  for  Parsees,  they  gradually  drifted  towards  the  acceptance 
the  followers  of  Jesus  Christ.  Christianity  was  no  of  one  God.  Their  worship  of  the  Light-King  is  one 
doubt  a  name  to  conjure  with,  but  the  absence  of  any  of  singular  beauty  and  elevation.  Their  aK>nology  is 
reason  for  the  adoption  of  the  title  remains  a  mjrstery.  extremely  intricate;  the  seons  are  called  by  the  mys- 
It  is  suggested  by  some  that  the  name  is  only  givan  tical  name  Utra  (K^^*\ni9  which  means:  Riches  or 
to  the  most  perfect  amongst  them,  but  this  seems  Potencies;  Hebrew  1(^).  It  will  suffice  to  mention 
contrary  to  fact.  Thename"Christiansof  St.  John'*  a  few  prominent  ideas.  Pira  Rabba  is  the  source, 
is  of  European  origin  and  based  on  a  mistake.  The  origin,  and  container  of  all  things.  The  meaning  of 
Nasoneans  have  an  extraordinary  veneration  for  Pira  (lO^fi)  is  imcertain;  of  various  suggested  mean- 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  who  figures  largely  in  their  ings,  perhaps  that  of  "Fruit"  (Hebr.  nD)  is  the  most 
mythology.  This  veneration,  together  with  the  sim-  likely.  This  "Fruit"  is  Hke  the  Indian  "Golden 
ilarity  oftheir  rites  to  Christian  sacraments,  led  the  l^gg  >  the  transcendental  and  unconscious  "Fullness 
first  missionaries  from  Europe  to  regard  them  as  of  Being"  out  of  which  all  things  develop;  it  is  the 
decendants  of  the  Christians  oaptized  only  with  the  seed  of  the  fig  tree  of  the  Gnostic  Docets  (q.  v.);  it  is 
baptism  of  St.  John.  Such,  e.  g.  was  the  impression  the  /9<^f  of  the  Valentinians.  This  Pira  Rabba  is 
of  the  Carmelite  Ignatius  a  Jesu,  who  lived  some  years  posGKessed  and  filled  by  the  MAn&  Rabb&:  the  Great 
in  Bassa  and  wrote  a  description  of  the  sect  (1652).  Spirit,  the  Great  Illustrious  One^he  Great  ^lendour 
II  Doctrines.  These  are  to  be  gathered  from  a  or  Majesty.  From  the  M&nA  Kabb&  emanates  the 
voluminous  compilation  called  Genza  or  "The  Treas-  First  l2fe,  who  prays  for  companionshio  and  progeny, 
ure",  and  sometimes  Sidra  Rabba  or  "The  Great  whereupon  the  Second  Life,  the  Utra  Mkayyema  or 
Book",  of  which  copies  dating  from  the  sixteenth  and  World-constituting  JEoUf  the  Architect  of  the  Uni- 
seventeenth  centunes  are  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Natio-  verse,  comes  into  being.  This  divine  architect  gives 
nale  at  Paris  and  have  been  published  by  retermann  forth  a  number  of  SBons,  who  with  his  permission  in- 
(Thesaurus  s.  Liber  Magnus,  vulgo  Liber  Adami,  etc.,  tend  to  erect  the  universe.  This  however  displeases 
Berlin,  1867)  in  Nasorsean  script  and  language.  The  the  First  Life  at  whose  request  the  M&n&  RabM  pro- 
former  is  not  unlike  Estrangela  with  vowels  added  in  duces  as  surveyor  or  foreman  of  the  architect's  seons 
the  modifications  of  the  consonants,  and  the  latter  the  Mand&d'Ilayye  or  yi^wris  r^t  ^t  the  Personified 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Aramaic  in  the  Talmud.  Knowledge  of  Life  i.  e.  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  the 
The  same  text  in  83rriac  characters  with  a  somewhat  First  Life. 

free  Latin  translation  was  published  by  Norbeig        This  Manda  de  Hayye  is  the  Christ  of  the  Naso- 

(London  and  Gotha,  1817).  Selections  from  the  Gen-  rseans  after  whom  they  are  called  and  around  whom 

za  (about  one  fourth)  have  been  translated  into  Ger-  all  their  religious  ideas  group  themselves.    As  god 

man  by  Brandt.    This  book  is  arbitrarily  divided  into  of  order  he  has  to  battle  with  the  seons  of  chaos  and 

two  sections,  called  the  Right  and  the  Left  Genza  from  thus  realize  the  divine  idea  in  the  worid.    The  whole 

the  curious  Nasonean  custom  of  writing  these  two  is  a  bold  and  obvious  allegory:  Marduk  is  sent  by 

portions  in  one  volume  but  in  inverted  positions,  the  bis  father  Ea  to  do  battle  with  the  powers  of  Tiamat. 


NATAL 


707 


NATAL 


This  female  monster  of  chaos  Nasoneans  called  the 
Holy  Ghost,  the  Deceiver  (spirit  is  feminine  in  Ara- 
maic) or  Ruha,  no  doubt  to  spite  the  Christians. 
This  Ruha  has  a  son  called  Ur,  the  prince  of  devils. 
Manda  de  Ha3rye  conquers  him  and  throws  him  into 
chains.  Unfortunately  while  Gabriel  the  Apostle  and 
Petahiel  are  beginning  to  create  a  good  world,  Ur 
escapes  and  b^ets  with  Ruha  the  seven  planets,  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and  the  five  elements.  A 
truce  is  called  and  Petahiel  amicably  shares  the  crea- 
tion of  the  world  with  the  sons  of  Ur  and  Ruha.  The 
lifeless  body  of  Adam  is  created,  but  the  ''Image  of 
God"  is  without  motion.  With  the  help  of  Abel, 
Seth,  Enos,  and  Adakas  there  is  breathed  into  him  the 
spirit  of  life.  The  seven  planets,  however,  and  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac  constitute  an  evil  influence 
in  the  world,  which  is  continually  being  overcome 
by  the  Manda  de  Ha3rye.  With  Uie  doctrine  of  the 
„jygb^King  a  considerable  modification  of  aeonology 
was  introduced,  but  the  main  outline  remained  the 
same.  The  Light-King,  the  Father  of  the  seons,  be- 
gets Manda  de  Hayye  or  Protanthropos,  Adam  as 
the  first  man.  This  Manda  de  Hayye  becomes  in- 
carnate in  Hibil  the  Glorious  or  Hibil  Ziva  (Kin  ^*aM). 
Kessler  jiomtedly  remarks  that  if  Manda  is  the  Christ 
then  Hibil  is  the  Jesus  Christ  of  Nasorssanism.  Hibil's 
descents  into  Hades  play  a  great  r61e  in  their  theology. 
Hibil  is  the  Saviour  and  the  Prophet  of  man.  He  is 
Marduk  attempting  to  displace  Jesus  of  Nazareth. 
A  last  emanation  of  the  Light-King  was  John  the 
Baptist,  who  with  Hibil,  Seth,  and  Enos  are  brethren 
of  the  Manda  de  Hayye.  Frequent  mention  is  made 
of  heavenly  Jordans,  being  streams  of  livine  waters 
from  the  transcendental  realm  of  Ught.  Hibil  Ziva 
was  baptized  in  360,000  of  them  before  his  descent  to 
the  nether  world. 

III.  Discipline  and  Rftual. — ^The  Nasoneans 
strongly  repudiate  all  ideas  of  celibacy  and  asceti- 
cism; thev  have  a  true  Semitic  contempt  for  the 
unmarried  and  repeatedly  inculcate  the  precept  "in- 
crease and  multiply ''.  They  reject  all  fastmg  and  self- 
denial  as  useless  and  unnatural,  and  if  they  observed 
the  Mohammedan  fasts  at  leai^t  in  outward  appearance 
it  was  only  to  avoid  trouble  and  persecutions.  Thev 
are  the  reverse  of  Manichseans;  there  may  be  much 
evil  in  this  world  but  man  is  bound  to  make  the  best  of 
it.  No  wonder  Mani  left  them.  They  observe  no 
distinctions  of  food,  except  that  blood  and  things 
strangled  are  forbidden  them,  also  all  food  prepared 
by  strangers,  and  even  food  bought  in  the  market, 
must  be  washed.  They  have  no  special  hours  for 
prayer  except  that  they  must  only  pray  when  it  is 
lieht,  no  prayer  is  heard  as  long  as  it  is  dark.  Not  the 
Mohammedan  Friday^  or  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  but 
the  Christian  Sunday  is  their  weekly  holyda^.  This, 
however,  is  not  a  conscious  imitation  of  the  Christians, 
whose ''  Carpenter-god  "  they  hate  as  a  son  of  the  devil. 
The  religious  observance  of  other  holidays  seems  of 
more  recent  origin,  though  no  doubt  their  civil  observ- 
ance, as  in  the  case  of  New  Year's  day  (first  day  of 
Wintermonth;  their  months  have  thirty  days  with  five 
intercalary  dasrs  to  make  a  solar  year),  is  ancient 
enough,  being  a  festival  of  ancient  Babylonia.  They 
observe  Ascendon  day  (of  Hibil  Ziva  returning  from 
Hades)  on  the  eighteenth  of  first  Springmonth,  the 
Great  Baptismal  Festival  on  the  intercalary  days,  the 
Feast  of  the  Egyptians  apparently  drowned  m  the 
Red  Sea  under  Pmuuoh  (they  were  not  really  drowned, 
but  escaped  and  were  the  forefathers  of  the  Naso- 
rseans),  and  a  few  other  feasts.  They  possessed  a 
hierarchical  priesthood  to  whom  they  paid  a  profound 
veneration.  Their  patriarch  is  the  Rash  Amma, 
chief  of  the  people,  but  thev  seem  but  rarely  to  have 
had  such  a  digmtary;  legend  says  only  one  before  and 
one  after  John  the  Baptist.  A  land  of  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons  form  the  hierarchy;  they  are 
cidled  GanzivrA,  TarmidhA,  and  Shecancut,  or  Treas- 


urer, Disciple,  and  Messenger.  The  ordination  to 
th»  priesthood  is  preceded  by  a  so-called  retreat  of 
sixty  days  during  which  the  candidate  submits  to 
many  quaint  rules  and  baptisms.  Hie  Shecanda 
is  only  an  assistant,  but  the  priest's  privilege  is  the 
power  to  baptize;  the  bishop  is  the  administrator 
of  the  community.  They  possess  three  wceat  sacra- 
mental rites,  Masbutha  or  baptism;  Pehta  and 
Mabuha  or  communion,  really  morsel  (bread)  and 
draught  (water);  and  Kusta  or  troth,  a  hanoshake 
and  plighting  of  troth.  Baptism,  always  in  flowing  or 
hvin^  water  of  rivers  and  brooks,  is  the  greatest  of  all 
the  ntes.  Children  are  baptizea  as  soon  as  they  can 
bear  total  immersion.  Self-baptism  is  frequent;  the 
priest  when  baptizing  used  originally  the  formula: 
Thou  art  sisned  with  the  sign  of  life:  The  Name  of 
the  Life  and  the  Manda  de  Hayye  is  named  over 
thee.  Baptism  takes  place  on  Sunday  and  on  manv 
other  occasions  when  forsdveness  of  sin  is  required. 
It  is  followed  by  a  kind  of  anointing  with  moist 
sesame.  Communion  is  given  in  thin  unleavened 
cakes  kept  in  the  priest's  house  and  a  handful  of 
water.  Kushta  is  a  solemn  sign  of  fellowship  with 
brother  Nasorseans.  "Brethren  of  the  flesh  pass 
away,  Kushta  brethren  remain  forever'',  says  the 
proverb.  The  history  of  Nasorseanism  is  practically 
unknown.  The  Genza  contains  a  Book  of  Kings  of  a 
pseudo-historical  character,  but  the  utter  confusion 
of  their  historical  reminiscences  m^es  it  difficult  to 
find  a  kernel  of  truth.  The  Nasorseans  were  lost  to 
history  tiU  Ignatius  a  Jesu  brought  the  news  of  their 
existence.  They  have  been  a  prominent  religion,  as 
they  were  classed  with  Christians  and  Jews  by  the 
Mohammedans.  It  is  often  held  that  they  once  ac- 
tually dwelt  in  Palestine  near  tiie  Jordan  and  immi- 
grated into  Chaldea.  Their  bitter  hatred  of  all  that  is 
Jewish  or  Christian  (for  Moses  is  a  false  prophet, 
Jesus,  the  Great  Deceiver,  whom  Enos  justly  brings 
to  the  cross),  together  with  their  extensive  use  of 
Bibhcal  names,  would  lead  one  to  believe  that  though 
their  "theology"  is  Indian-Babylonian  thev  were  once 
historically  connected  with  Jewish  Christians. 

Brandt,  Die  mandaUeke  Rdigion  (Leipsut.  1889);  Idkm,  Dm 
8chick$al  der  Sede  naeh  dan  Tode  etc.  in  JahrbOch.  der  prot.  Theol. 
(1802);  lDVH,MandaiaekeSehr%ften(G6ttine&n,lS9Z);  Kbsslbr, 
an  extensive  artiole  in  ReaLeneukL  fUr  prot.  Thwloa.  (1903),  b.  ▼. 
Memdder;  losM,  Mandaana  in  Sncydopad,  Britan,;  Ochbkr,  Sidra 
d'Numata  (Book  of  SouU),  tr.;  ZeiUchrift  d.  detU.  morgenL  Oetell. 

il907) :  DC  MoBQAN,  TexU9  MandalUt  in  M%Mion»  Scienti/lgues  en 
Vm,  V  (Paris,  1904) ;  Sionm,  Btudet  $ur  la  religion  dee  Soubbae 
CParifl,  1880);  Babblon,  Lee  MendaXtee  in  Anndlee  de  Philoe, 
ChrM,  (1881);  PBTEBJiiAior.  Reieen  im  Orient  (Leipng.  1861); 
NdLOBKB,  Mandaieche  Orammatik  (Leipiig.  1876). 

J.  P.  Abbndzen. 

Natal,  VicABiATB  Apostolic  of. — ^The  histoiy  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  South  Africa  goes  back  to 
1660,  when  a  French  bishop  and  a  few  priests  were 
saved  from  the  wreck  of  the  Marichal  near  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  But  they  were  only  allowed  to  land, 
and  no  permission  was  given  them  to  minister  to  the 
few  Catholics  who  were  already  in  Cape  Town.  It 
was  not  imtil  1803  that  a  Catholic  priest  was  per- 
mitted to  say  Mass  in  Cape  Colony.  Fatners 
Joannes  Lansink,  Jacobus  Mehssen,  and  Lambertus 
Prinsen  landed  at  Cape  Town  in  1803;  the  following 
year  they  were  expelled.  Pius  VII  by  letters  Apos- 
tolic dated  8  June,  1818,  appointed  the  Rt.  Rev.  Ed- 
ward Bede  Slater,  O.S.JB.,  the  first  vicar  Apostolic 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  neighbouring  is- 
lands, Mauritius  included.  Bishop  Slater  on  his  way 
to  Mauritius  in  1820,  left  Rev.  FT.  Scully  at  Cape 
Town  in  charge  of  the  Catholics.  In  1826  Rev. 
Theodore  Wagner  became  resident  priest.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Rev.  £.  Rishton  in  1827.  On  6  Jime, 
1837,  Gregory  XVI  established  the  Vicariate  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  separate  from  Mauritius,  and  from 
that  time  Cape  Colony  has  had  its  own  bishops. 

South  Africa,  comprising  the  country  between  Cape 
Agulhas  and  tne  tenth  degree  of  souui  latitude   and 


KATAL 


708 


NATAL 


between  the  tenth  and  fortieth  degrees  of  east  lonn- 
tude,  was  too  much  for  one  bishop.  On  30  July,  1847, 
Pius  IX  establisaed  a  new  vicariate  in  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  Cape  Colony.  This  new  vicariate  included 
&st  the  eastern  district  of  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and 
tJie  Orange  Free  State  (Orange  River  Colony  since 
the  late  South  African  war) .  The  same  pontiff  on  15 
November,  1830  separated  Natal  and  the  Oranee  Free 
State  from  the  Eastern  Vicariate.  The  first  oishop 
appointed  by  Rome  to  take  charge  of  the  Eastern 
\^cariate  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Aidan  Devereaux.  D.D. 
He  was  consecrated  bishop  at  Cape  Town,  27  Decem- 
ber, 1847  by  the  Rip^t  Rev.  Dr.  Griffith.  When 
Pius  IX  erected  the  Vicariate  of  Natal,  on  15  Novem- 
ber, 1830,  the  area  of  the  new  vicariate  comprised  all 
the  portion  of  South  Africa  extending  outside  the  then 
existing  boundaries  of  Cape  Colony.  The  first  vicar 
Apostolio  was  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  AUard,  O.M.I. 
He  landed  at  Port  Natal  with  five  missionaries  of  the 
same  French  order.  The  name  of  this  colony  dates 
from  Vasco  da  Gama,  the  Portuguese  voyager,  who 
sighted  its  headlands  on  Christmas  Day,  140/,  which 
suggested  the  name  of  Terra  Natalis,  In  1760  the 
Dutch  had  a  trading  settlement  at  the  site  of  the 
present  huix)ur  of  Durban,  speedily  abandoned:  and 
more  than  a  hundred  years  passed  before  Natal  was 
again  visited  by  Europeans. 

After  several  wars  between  Dutch,  British,  and 
natives,  Natal  was  declared  a  British  colony  in  1843. 
Nine  years  later,  Dr.  Allard  and  his  five  companions 
landed  on  the  African  shores.  Till  that  time,  no 
priest  had  been  residing  in  Natal.  The  country  had 
been  occasionally  visited  by  a  priest  from  Cape 
Colony.  The  first  missionary  who  ministered  to  the 
Catholics  of  Natal  was  Rev.  Father  Murphy,  sent  by 
Bishop  Devereaux.  Its  area  is  about  35,371  square 
miles,  and  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Transvaal 
Colony  and  Portuguese  East  Africa;  on  the  east  by 
the  Indian  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  Cape  Colony 
(Pondoland) ;  and  on  the  west  by  Cape  Colony  (Gn- 
gualand  East)^  Basutoland,  and  Orange  River  Colony 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Drakensberg  Moun- 
tains. At  the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  first  mis- 
sionaries, the  white  element  of  the  population  was 
almost  insignificant.  Agriculture  was  practically 
unknown.  Industry,  at  present  a  source  of  wealth, 
was  altogether  ignored. 

The  Catholic  population  was  then  composed  of 
about  two  hundred  in  Durban  and  three  .hundred  in 
Pietcrmaritzburg;  it  comprised  only  the  white  element, 
immigrants  from  England  and  especiallv  from  Ireland. 
The  native  population,  scattered  aU  over  Natal. 
Zululand,  ana  the  Transkei^  which  districts  formea 
also  a  portion  of  the  Vicanate  of  Natal,  was  alto- 
gether uncivilized.  The  agents  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  had  organized  some  missionary  work 
for  the  civilization  of  natives.  But  they  came  out 
rather  as  officials  of  the  Government,  and  there- 
fore were  not  altogether  ready  to  go  through  the  hard- 
ships of  missionary  life.  Besides  the  Europeans  and 
natives,  there  was  the  scattered  Dutch  population. 
Natives  and  Dutch  were  not  prepared  to  receive  the 
Catholic  faith.  Among  the  former,  superstitions,  a 
sickening  immorality,  and  polygamy,  and  among  the 
latter,  prejudices,  and  hatred  against  the  Church  of 
Rome,  rendered  for  many  years  all  the  efforts  of  the 
missionaries  apparently  fruitless.  However  disheart- 
ening was  the  result  of  their  work,  the  pioneers  re- 
mained at  their  post.  For  seven  years  they  had  not 
the  consolation  of  registering  one  soul  for  the  Catholic 
Church,  yet  the  intrepid  and  courageous  Dr.  Allard 
wanted  to  push  further  his  expeditions  a^^ainst  pagan- 
ism. He  founded  a  new  mission  exclusively  tor  the 
natives,  to  whom  the  missionaries  wished  to  devote 
themselves  altogether,  and  he  called  the  new  mission 
St.  Michael.  Here  they  were  destined  to  battle  against 
many  obstacles,  privation  of  the  necessaries  of  life, 


difficulty  of  oommunication,   and  poverty,   whieh 
drove  the  missionaries  to  the  verge  of  starvation. 

The  advent  of  new  missionaries  enabled  Dr. 
Allard  to  found  missions  as  far  as  Basutoland.  Re- 
ligious increase  was  slow,  owing  to  the  small  number 
of  miasionarieB  and  the  degradation  of  the  popu- 
lation. Communication  was  extremely  slow  and  diffi- 
cult, and  was  generally  either  by 'wagons  drawn  by 
oxen,  or  on  honeback;  during  the  rainy  season  trava 
was  very  dangerous,  owing  to  the  swollen  rivers.  Amid 
such  hsjtlshipe  and  privations  Dr.  Allard  felt  that  his 
life  was  drawing  to  a  close.  He  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  soon  after.  Under  his  successor,  Rt. 
Rev.  Dr.  Charles  Jolivet,  O.M.I,  appointed  30  Nov., 
1874,  the  Vicariate  of  Natal  has  inade  rapid  prog- 
ress in  the  way  of  Christianity  and  civilisation.  New 
missions  were  founded  all  over  this  immense  vicariate, 
and  new  chapels  and  schools  for  Europeans  and  na- 
tives were  opened.  Many  obstacles  which  in  the  be- 
ginning had  rendered  the  missionary  work  very  diffi- 
cult were  removed.  Communication  became  easier, 
owing  to  the  new  railways  and  roads  laid  out  across 
the  country  by  the  Government  of  Natal.  Mission- 
ary work  has  lieen  of  late  years  carried  on  amongst  the 
natives  on  a  very  large  scale,  owing  to  the  advent  of 
some  Trappists  mto  the  Colony  of  Natal,  who  afto^ 
wards  were  organised  into  the  "Congregation  of  the 
Missionaries  of  Mariannhill".  They  have  devoted 
themselves  entirely  to  the  evanjselisation  of  the  nar 
tives,  and  as  statistics  show,  their  efforts  and  labours 
have  been  fully  rewarded.  The  late  Anglo-Boer  war 
hampered  much  the  misaionary  work  in  this  vicariate, 
but  the  consequences  of  this  war  have  practically 
disappeared.  Through  the  treaty  agreed  to  by  the 
Britisn  and  the  Boers,  the  Districts  of  Utrecht,  Vry- 
heid,  and  Wnkkerstroom  were  ceded  to  Natal  and 
have  been  added  to  this  vicariate,  which  now  com- 
prises the  three  i^ve-mentioned  districts,  Natal 
proper,  Transkei,  Swaziland,  and  Zululand. 

The  present  bishop  (1910)  is  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  DelaQe, 
O.M.I.,  appointed  m  1904.  The  white  population 
of  the  vicariate  is  estimated  to  be  about  100,000; 
natives,  Indians,  and  Malays,  1,000,000^  the  Catho- 
lic population  is  25J37  (whites,  7458:  natives^  15,227; 
coloured,  3052).  Priests:  Oblates  of  Maiy  Inunaca- 
late,  38;  Missionaries  of  Mariannhill,  46;  secular 
priests :  Europeans,  4,  natives,  3.  There  is  a  seminary, 
with  eleven  theological  students.  Lay  brothers: 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  Europeans,  4,  native, 
1;  Missionaries  of  Mariannhill,  305;  Marist  Brothers, 
7.  Number  of  churches,  59;  missions,  49.  Number 
of  schools:  for  whites,  24,  pupils,  653;  tor  natives,  62, 
pupils,  1864;  for  coloured,  10,  pupils,  472;  most  of  the 
schools  are  conducted  by  nuns.  Ordera  of  women: 
Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  324;  Sistera  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  55;  SLsters  of  Nazareth,  12;  Sisten  of  the 
Holy  Family,  92;  Dominicans,  138;  Augustinians,  67; 
Franciscans,  12 ;  Sisters  of  Kermaria,  18.  Two  schools 
for  whites,  4  sanatoria  for  whites  and  natives,  and  1 
orphanage  for  coloured  children  are  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Augustinian  Sisters;  and  a  house  for  or- 
phans and  aged  is  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
Nazareth  House,  with  about  260  inmates.  At  the 
Bluff  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  have  an  orphan- 
age for  European  children:  they  have  a  novitiate  at 
£^llur,  with  10  novices.  The  Dominican  Sisters  have 
their  mother-house  at  Oakford,  and  have  also  schools 
at  Noodsberg,  Genezzano,  Dundee,  and  Newcastle. 
At  Ladysmith  and  Pietcrmaritzburg,  there  are  2  hos- 
pitals, and  2  sanatoria  of  the  Augustmian  Asters. 

Besides  the  numerous  boarding-schools  established 
in  different  parts  of  the  vicariate,  there  are  many 
parochial  schools,  some  of  which  are  imder  the  control 
of  the  Government,  and  receive  a  subsidy  propo^       i 
tioned  to  the  number  of  pupils. 

AnnalM  dsM  OblaU  d»  Mari»  ImmttcnU$, 

A.  Lanoouct. 


MATAL 


709 


NATCHBZ 


Natal  Day. — Both  the  form  natalUa  (so.  dies)  and 
nataliciwn  were  used  by  the  Romans  to  denote  what 
we  cfdl  a  birthday,  i.  e.  the  annivereary  of  the  day 
when  a  man  was  bom.  Also  the  Greek  words  ytwivta 
and  ytwitlkm  were  similarly  employed.  But  in  both 
Greek  and  Latin  a  certam  extension  of  this  prim- 
itive use  seems  to  have  taken  place  even  in  pre- 
Christian  times.  In  Latin  natoLU  apparently  came, 
at  least  sometimes,  to  mean  little  more  than  ''anni- 
versary" and  it  was  used  of  the  accession  day  of  the 
emperor  as  well  as  of  his  birthday.  Moreover  we 
Imow  that  the  games  celebrated  on  an  emperor's 
birthday  during  his  life,  were  often  continued  after 
his  apotheosis  upon  the  anniversarv  of  his  birthday 
as  if  he  were  still  living.  In  Greek  ytpdcia  came  to 
be  frequently  used  in  connexion  with  the  annual  com- 
memoration of  a  dead  person  by  sacrifices  and  other 
rites  (cf.  Herodotus  IV,  26).  This  commemoration 
is  said  to  have  taken  place  not  upon  the  anniversary 
of  the  dav  of  death  out  upon  the  actual  birthday 
of  the  defunct  person  (C.  I.  G.  3417.  and  Rhode, 
"Psyche'',  4th  ed.,  I,  235).  When,  therefore,  the 
Christians  of  Smyrna  about  150  A.  D.  write  to 
describe  how  they  took  up  the  bones  of  St.  Poly- 
carp  "which  are  more  valuable  than  precious  stones 
ana  finer  than  refined  gold,  and  laid  them  in  a  suit- 
able place,  where  the  Lord  will  permit  us  to  gather 
ourselves  together,  as  we  are  able,  in  gladness  and 
joy  and  to  celebrate  the  birthdav  of  his  martyrdom  " 
(iwiTtKiTif  r^y  roO  fAOprvplov  aircv  ^l/idpap  7eFi^Xior),  it 

is  not  easy  to  say  how  far  they  were  influenced  by 
pre-existing  pagan  usages.  This  phrase  "the  birth- 
day of  his  martyrdom  certainly  seems  to  indicate 
the  commemoration  of  the  day  on  which  he  died,  and 
^  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Church  confirms  the 
practice  of  keeping  this  as  the  usual  feast  of  any 
saint  or  martyr.  None  the  less,  knowing  as  we  do 
that  the  Greeks  also  commonly  celebrated  what  they 
called  Mic«^ta,  (commemorative  sacrifices),  on  the  an- 
niversary of  the  death  of  parents,  it  would  seem 
that  the  faithful  of  the  early  Churcn  did  little  more 
than  christianize  a  pagan  custom.  This  they  accom- 
plished, first  by  offering  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass 
m  honour  of  their  deceased  brethren  instead  of  the 
blood  or  flesh  of  animal  victims,  and  secondly  by 
giving  to  this  commemoration  of  a  true  believer's  pas- 
sage to  another  life  the  name  7ei>^X<ot,  or  in  La^ 
neUaliSj  rather  than  to  the  day  upon  which  he  had 
been  bom  into  this  world. 

One  cannot  however  entirely  eliminate  the  doubt 
whether  at  the  introduction  of  Christianity  yt940\iot 
and  natalia  had  not  already  come  to  mean  uttle  more 
than  "anniversary"  or  "commemoration rite".  Ter- 
tullian  says  "oblationes  pro  defunctis  pro  nataliciis 
annua  die  facimus"  (De  Corona,  cap.  3),  which  seems 
to  mean  "we  offer  Masses  for  the  dead  on  their  an- 
niversary as  a  commemoration  rite".  Similarly  the 
Chronographer  of  354  notes  in  his  calendar  against 
22  February,  "VIII  Kal.  Martias  Natale  Petri  de 
cathedra";  where  ruUale  clearly  signifies  anniversary 
rather  than  birthday.  Indeea  where  we  find  the 
Fathers  emphasizing  the  etymology  of  the  word,  their 
limguage  rather  suggests  that  they  expected  the  pri- 
mary meaning  of  "birthday"  to  pass  unnoticed.  In 
any  case  the  sense  of  anmversary  alone  fits  a  wide 
range  of  phrases  which  meet  us  in  the  calendars  and 
other  documents  of  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  cen- 
turies. Avitus  of  Vienne  (d.  518)  and  Eligius  of 
Noyon  (d.  c.  650)  both  refer  to  Maimdy  Thursday 
under  the  name  "natalis  calicis"  (the  commemoration 
of  the  chalice),  a  reference,  of  course,  to  the  institution 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  the 
feast  appears  under  the  same  name  in  the  calendar  of 
Polemius  Silvius  of  448.  Again  in  the  Leonian  Sacra- 
mentary  we  have  the  phrase  "in  natali  episcoporum". 
which  the  context  shows  to  mean  the  anniversary  ot 
a  bishop's  consecration  (cf.  Probost,  "Die  ftltesten 


r6m.  Sacramentarien",  124  and  247,  and  Paulinui 
of  Nola,  "£p.  20"),  while  the  Gelasian  Sacramen- 
tary  uses  such  expressions  as  "natale  consecrationia 
diaconi",  etc.  So  also  in  the  Hieron3rmian  Martyr- 
ologium  (c.  590).  besides  the  constantly  recurring 
naiale  applied  to  tne  festivals  of  martyrs  we  have,  e.  g. 
on  2  Aug.,  "  In  Antiochia natalis  reliquiarum  Stephani 
protomart3rris  et  diac."  None  the  less  a  certain 
stress  was  often  laid  in  Christian  sermons  and  in  mor- 
tuary inscriptions  upon  the  idea  that  the  day  of  a 
man's  death  was  his  birthday  to  a  new  life.  Thus  St. 
Ambrose  (Serm.  57,  de  Depos.  St.  Eusebii)  declares 
that  "the  day  of  our  burial  is  called  our  birthday 
(naUdi8)t  because,  being  set  free  from  the  prison  of  our 
crimes,  we  are  bom  to  the  hberty  of  the  Saviour", 
and  he  goes  on  "  wherefore  this  day  is  observed  as  a 
reat  celebration,  for  it  is  in  truth  a  festival  of  the 
lest  order  to  be  dead  to  our  vices  and  to  live  to 
iteousness  alone."  And  we  find  such  inscriptions 
as  the  following 

PABBNTB  FILIO  lOBRCnRIO  FECB 

BUNT  QUI  VIXIT  ANN  V  BT  MBNSBS  Vm 

NATU8  IN  PACE  ID  FEBR 

Where  "natus  in  pace"  clearly  refers  to  eternal  rest. 
So  again  Origen  had  evidently  some  similar  thought 
before  him  when  he  insists  that  "of  all  the  holy 
people  in  the  Scriptures,  no  one  is  recorded  to  have 
kept  a  feast  or  held  a  freat  banquet  on  his  birthday. 
It  is  only  sinners  (like  Pharaoh  and  Herod)  who  make 
preat  rejoicings  over  the  day  on  which  they  were  bom 
mto  this  world  below"  (Origen,  "in  Levit.",  "Hom^ 
VIII",  in  Migne  P.  G.,  XII,  495).  Naturally  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  confusion  resulted  from  this  use  of  the 
same  word  nataliB  sometimes  to  signify  natural  birth, 
sometimes  the  passage  to  a  better  life.  The  former 
was  consequently  often  distinguished  as  "natale  genu- 
inum",  "natale  de  nativitate",  the  latter  as  "natale 
passionis"  or  "de  passione",  sometimes  abbreviated 
asN.  P. 

Kaima  in  Krat»,  RnkncyUovUdU;  Kbllnxb.  Heertotogu  (Ens. 
tr.  London,  1007);  Pbob0T,  Kireh.  DtMcipUn  %n  dtn  dni  §rtUn 
ChriaL  JahrhutuUrten  (Tabinflen,  1873). 

Hbbbsbt  Thurston. 
Natalia  Alezandor.    See  Alezandbb,  Natalis. 

Natches,  Diocbsb  of  (Natchesibnbis)  estab- 
lished 28  Julyj  1837,  comprises  the  State  of  Missis- 
sippi. Cathohc  missionary  work  in  this  territory 
b^an  with  the  expeditions  of  Marquette,  La  Salle, 
and  Iberville.  Iberville  planted  a  colony  in  the 
home  of  the  Natches  tribe,  and  erected  there  Fort 
Rosalie,  on  a  site  within  the  )>re8ent  citv  of  Natches. 
Capuclun,  Jesuit,  and  secular  priests  laboured  in  this 
field,  havinff  missions  at  Biloxi,  Natches,  and  Yasoo. 
Early  in  the  history  of  the  missions.  Fathers  St. 
Cosme  and  Foucault,  seculars,  were  martyred  by  the 
Indians,  as  were  the  Jesuits  Du  Poisson.  Souart, 
and  Senat.  In  1787  three  priests  from  Salamanca, 
Fathers  McKenna,  White,  and  Savage,  settled  at 
Natches  and  erected  promising  missions  there  and  in 
the  vicinity.  When  the  territory  passed  from  Spain 
to  the  United  States,  these  missions  were  practically 
abandoned.  Much  viduable  property  was  lost  to  the 
Church,  and  the  efforts  made  to  recover  it  were  in 
vain.  For  many  years  the  Catholics  of  Natchez  de- 
pended upon  chance  visits  of  priests. 

The  firat  Bishop  of  Natches,  John  Mary  Joseph 
Chanche,  was  b.  4  Oct.,  1795,  at  Baltimore,  whither 
his  parents  had  fled  from  San  Domingo.  He  joined 
the  Sulpicians,  and  was  president  of  Mount  St.  Mary's 
when  appointed  bishop.  He  was  consecrated  14 
March,  1841.  Arriving  at  Natchez,  he  met  there  the 
only  priest  in  the  state.  Father  Brogard,  who  was 
there  but  temporarily .  Taking  up  the  r61e  of  a  simple 
missionary,  he  began  to  collect  the  Catholics  and  oi^ 

Snize  a  diocese.    In  1842  he  laid  the  comer  stone  of 
e  present  beautiful  cathedral,  and  opened  an  acad- 


NATCHIT0CB18                       710  NATCHIT0CHB8 

emy  for  gjrls.    In  1848  he  invited  the  Sistera  of  who  attended  also  the  missions  of  Nacogdoches  and 

Charity  to  Natches.  At  the  First  Plenary  Council,  St.  Augustin,  Texas.    In  1725  there  were  50  Catholic 

in  1852,  Bishop  Cbanche  was  chief  promoter.    He  families  at  Natchitoches.    In  1728  Father  Maximin,  a 

died  shortly  after  the  sessions  of  the  Council,  at  Capuchin,  was  in  charge. 

Frederick.  Nid.,  leaving  his  diocese  with  11  priests,  There  is  no  record  to  show  how  the  eastern  portion  of 
11  churcnes  erected,  and  13  attendant  missions,  the  diocese  was  evangelized:  the  Catholic  names,  how- 
James  OUver  Van  de  Velde  was  transferred  from  ever,  given  to  villages  ana  lakes  contiguous  to  the 
Chicago  to  Nachez,  29  July,  1853.  He  served  the  Mississippi,  show  that  priests  must  have  visited  thai 
diocese  but  two  years.  On  23  Oct.,  1853,  he  broke  country,  probably  the  Jesuits,  who  in  the  ei^teenth 
his  leg,  and  a  fever  set  in  which  quickly  developed  century  had  charge  of  the  Indians  along  the  Mississippi 
into  yellow  fever;  he  died  13  Nov.,  1855.  (See  Cm-  under  the  Bishop  of  Quebec.  The  records  show  that  in 
CAGO,  AncHDiocESB  OF.)  Bishop  Van  de  Velde  was  1829  Father  Martin  of  Avovelles  attended  the  Catho- 
succeeded  by  William  Henry  Elder  (q.  v.).  The  next  lies  on  the  Red,  Black,  and  Ouachita  rivers:  that,  in 
bishop,  Francis  Janasens,  was  b.  at  Tillbuig,  North  1840  and  after,  rather  J.  Timon,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Bn^ant,  Holland,  studied  at  Louvain,  and  was  or-  Buffalo,  made  regular  trips  from  Texas  to  attend  the 
dained  21  Dec,  1867.  In  1870,  he  was  rector  of  the  north  Louisiana  missions,  and  that  Father  O'Brien,  a 
cathedral  at  Richmond,  Va.,  and  later  vicar«eneral  Dominican  from  Louisville,  attended  vearly  theCath- 
of  that  diocese  under  Bishops  Gibbons  and  Keane.  olics  along  the  Mississippi.  The  Catholics  located  on 
He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Natches,  1  Mav,  1881,  the  rivers  of  the  state  often  drifted  to  New  Orieans  on 
and  promoted  to  be  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans,  7  barges  to  have  their  marriases  blessed  and  their  chil- 
August,  1888.  Thomas  Heslin  was  b.  in  County  dren  baptized,  and  came  back  cordelling  their  boats. 
Longford,  Ireland,  1847,  and  on  the  completion  of  .  In  1852  the  Fathers  of  the  First  Council  of  Balti- 
his  classical  studies,  came  to  America  at  tne  invita-  more  recommended  to  the  Holy  See  the  division  of  the 
tion  of  Archbishop  Odin.  He  entered  the  seminary  Archdiocese  of  New  Orleans,  the  formation  of  the  Dio- 
of  Bouligny,  New  Orleans,  was  ordained  in  1869,  and  cese  of  Natchitoches  and  the  appointment  of  Father 
was  pastor  of  St.  Michael's,  New  Orleans,  when  he  Martin,  parish  priest  at  Natchitoches,  as  first  bishop, 
received  his  appointment  as  Bishop  of  Natchez.  He  Consecrated  in  1853,  he  had  four  priests  in  the  new 
was  consecrated  in  1889.  diocese,  three  of  whom  returned  to  New  Orleans,  to 

The  reUgious  institutes  represented  (1910)  in  the  which  diocese  they  belonged,  and  one  remained, 

diocese   are:   Lazarist   Fathers:   Josephite   Fathers  Bishop  Augustus  M.  Mahtin  (1802-1875),  bom  in 

(three  charges) ;  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Brittany,  inherited  the  deep  faith  of  the  Bretons.     A 

Word  (three  charges) ;  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  prot^g6  of  Abb^  Jean-Marie  de  Lamennais,  as  a  sem- 

(six  chaives) ;  Sisters  of  Charity  (Emmitsburg) ;  Sis-  marian,  he  was  employed  at  the  ^reat  Almonry  of 

ters  of  C3iarity  (Nazareth);  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  France  in  Paris  under  Cardinal  Prmce  de  Troy  and 

Adoration  J   Sisters  of  St.   Francis;   Sisters  of  St.  Vicar-General  J.-M.  de  Lameimus.    There  he  came 

Joseph;  Sisters  of  Mercy;  School  Sisters  of  Notre  in  contact  with  Montalembert  and  other  disciples  of 

Dame;  Sisters  Marianites  of  the  Holy  Cross ;  Sisters  of  F^licit^  de  Lamennais^  and  acquired  the  polishea  man- 

the  Holy  Ghost.    There  are  39  secular  and  7  re^ar  ners  that  never  left  him.     In  1839,  while  chaplain  of 

Sriestsj  33  churches  with  resident  priests,  42  missions,  the  royal  college  in  Rennes,  he  met  Bishop  de  la  Hay- 

1  stations,  18  chapels,  1  college  for  boys,  2  academies  landidre  of  Vincennes^  came  to  Indiana  with  him,  and 

for  girls,  32  parochial  schools,  5  ecclesiastical  stu-  for  six  years  was  his  vicar-^eneral.    His  health  failing, 

dents,  2  orphan  asylums  (158  inmates) .  Total  of  young  he  came  to  Louisiana,  and  m  1852  wsf  vicar-general  of 

Eiople  under  Catholic  care,  4,988;  total  Catholic  popu-  Mn*  Blanc  of  New  Orleans.     Bishop  Martin  left  a 

tion,  25,701.  collection  of  unpublished  letters  that  tell  interestingly 

CathoKe  Direetory  (1910);  Sma,  Defenderg  ofOuTPaiih:l>^  the  history  of  his  diocese,  his  Struggles  with  poverty, 

CoimcT  MKu  Bbm^  d*.tory<^the  C^<^^^^  c^^j'^  his  many  trips  to  France  to  recruitTis  clergy.    A  dhl 

UROTHEB  ^^HARLES.  ^^^  ymtBTy  lus  Icttew  to  the  Propagation  oFthe  Faith 

Vatchitocliaa, Diocese  of,  former  title  of  the  pres-  were  inserted  in  the  ''Annals " ;  tne  oishops  of  the  Sec- 

ent  DiocESB  of  Alexandria  (Alexandrinensib),  ond  Council  of  Baltimore  and  those  of  tne  provincial 

which  comprises  all  the  northern  part  of  Louisiana  Council  of  New  Orleans  delegated  him  to  write  letters 

above  3P  N.  lat.,  with  an  area  of  22.212  square  miles,  of  thanks  to  the  directors  of  the  Propagation  of  the 

TheVenerableAntonioMargil(q.  v.),  whosecanoniza-  Faith  for  their  generous  contributions.     Both  let- 

tion  is  in  process,  was  the  first  pnest  to  minister  vrithin  ters  were  reproduced  in  ''  Les  Missions  Catholiques  ". 

the  territory  now  forming  the  diocese.    From  the  Ays  Bishop  Martin  left  an  organised  diocese  with  20 

Indians,  west  of  the  Sabine  river,  Father  Margil  heard  priests,  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  with  one  con- 

of  the  Adayes  Indians,  and  in  March,  1717,  he  located  vent  at  Natchitoches,  and  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross 

them  near  Spanish  Lake,  in  what  is  now  Sabine  with  their  mother-house  and  several  convents  in  the 

county,  La.    He  founded  the  mission  of  San  Miguel  diocese. 

de  Linares  and  built  there  probably  the  first  church  in  He  was  succeeded  by  Bishop  F.  X.  Lsrat,  also  a 
Louisiana,  for,  according  to  the  historian  Martin,  Breton,  the  hero  of  several  yellow  fever  epidemics,  and 
when  P^re  Charlevoix  reached  New  Orleans  in  1721,  the  founder  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  in  tne  Diocese  of 
hefoimd  there ''about  100  cabins,  two  or  three  dwell-  Natchez.  He  remained  in  Natchitoches  only  two 
ing  houses,  and  a  miserable  storehouse  which  had  been  years,  being  selected  as  coadjutor  to  the  ArchbieSbop  of 
at  first  occupied  as  a  chapeL  a  shed  being  now  used  for  New  Orleans.  He  died  in  1887. 
that  purpose''.  Leaving  Father  Gusman  in  charge,  Bishop  AnthontDuribr  succeeded  him.  Bom  near 
Father  Margil  journeyed  on  foot  to  Natchitoches  to  Lyons,  France,  he  came  to  this  country  in  1855, 
minister  to  the  French  Catholics  there,  and  then  went  was  pastor  in  New  Orleans  for  26  years,  and  one  of  the 
back  to  Texas.  In  1718,  during  the  brief  war  with  theologians  of  the  Second  Council  of  Baltimore.  Con- 
Spain,  St.  Denis,  the  French  Commandant  at  Natch-  secrated  in  1885,  he  died  in  1904,  having  fini^ed  the 
itoches,  invaded  the  Adayes  mission,  plundered  it,  and  cathedral  and  built  an  episcopal  residence  at  Natdii- 
carried  away  the  church  vestments.    Father  Margil  toches. 

heard  of  it,  and  in  1721  came  back,  hunted  up  the  The  present  bishop  is  Right  Rev.  Cormeliub  Van 

Adayes  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  forests  for  fear  of  de  Yen,  bom  at  Oirschot,  Holland,  16  June,  1865.  He 

the  Fren^,  rebuilt  their  church,  which  he  dedicated  studied  in  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Bois-le-Duc,  was 

to  our  Lady  of  the  Pillar,  the  patroness  of  the  expedi-  ordained  31  May,  1890,  and  came  to  America  the  same 

tion.    For  many  years  aiterwards  the  Adayes  mission  year.    After  filling  important  posts  in  the  Archdio- 

was  attended  from  San  Antonio  by  the  Franciscans,  cese  of  New  Orleans,  ne  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 


NATHAN 


711 


NATBINITES 


Natchitoches  30  Nov.,  1904.  The  most  important 
act  of  his  administration  has  been  the  transferring  of 
the  see  from  the  inaccessible  town  of  Natchitoches  to 
the  progressive  city  of  Alexandria,  a  railroad  centre 
with  a  large  Catholic  population.  He  went  to  Rome 
in  1910  and  requestecf  Pius  X  for  the  removal  of  the 
see.  In  August,  1910,  he  received  from  the  Consis- 
torial  Congr^ation  the  decree  suppressing  the  See  of 
Natchitoches  and  creating  the  See  of  Alexandria.  The 
new  See  of  Alexandria  numbers  26  diocesan  priests,  10 
regulars  (Jesuits  and  Marists),  the  Brothers  of  the  Sa- 
cred Heart,  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross  with  mother- 
house  at  Shreveport,  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence, 
and  the  Sisters  of  the  Incarnate  Word,  with  a  Catho- 
lic population  of  about  32,431. 

Martin,  Hi&tory  ofLouiHana  (New  Orleans,  1882) ;  Shka,  Hit- 
Jory  of  the  CtUkolie  Chtweh  in  the  UniUd  StaiM,  I:  Clabks,  Lives  ef 
the  Decetued  Biehope  (New  York,  1888);  and  the  unpublished 
letters  of  Bishop  Martin. 

C.  Mah£. 

Nathan  ()n^  God-given),  name  of  several  Israelites 
mentioned  in  tne  Ola  Testament. 

(1)  Nathan,  successor  of  Samuel  and  prophet  in 
the  times  of  David  and  Solomon.  No  indication  is 
given  as  t<f  his  origin,  and  he  appears  in  the  narrative 
for  the  first  time  when  David  is  contemplating  the 
erection  of  a  house  to  the  Lord  (II  Kings,  vii).  He 
assures  the  monarch  of  the  Lord's  support  and  of  the 
divinely  ordained  establishment  of  his  kingdom  for  all 
time,  but  dissuades  him  from  the  idea  of  building 
the  proposed  temple,  stating  that  this  honour  was  re- 
served for  his  son  and  successor  (II  Kings,  vii,  13; 
I  Chron.,  xvii,  1-15).  Nathan  appears  later  to  re- 
proach David  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  for  his  crime 
of  adultery  and  murder  narrated  in  II  Kings,  xi,  and, 
after  skilfully  proposing  the  allegory  of  the  p>oor  man's 
little  ewe  lamb,  surprises  the  king  with  the  words: 
"Thou  art  the  man".  He  then  declares  the  anger  of 
the  Lord  and  the  punishments  that  are  to  fall  upon 
David,  although  in  view  of  the  latter's  repentance 
his  sin  is  pronounced  forgiven,  for  his  crimes  had 
given  occasion  to  the  enemies  of  the  Lord  to  blas- 
pheme (II  Kings,  xii.  1-15).  The  prophet  next  ap- 
pears on  the  scene  when  it  is  question  of  securing  to 
Solomon  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  his  father. 
Adonias,  abetted  by  Joab  and  the  high  priest  Abia- 
thar,  made  an  attempt  to  have  himself  proclaimed 
king.  The  plan  was  frustrated  by  Nathan  who,  first 
through  Bethsabee  and  later  in  a  personal  interview, 
informed  David  as  to  the  doings  of  Adonias,  and  per- 
suaded the  aged  monarch  to  confirm  his  promise  in 
favour  of  Solomon  and  have  him  proclaimed  king  at 
the  fountain  of  Gihon  (III  Kings,  i,  8-45).  In  this 
instance  Nathan  served  the  interests  of  the  country 
as  well  as  those  of  David  and  Solomon  by  averting 
a  civil  war.  He  is  credited  by  the  Chronicler  with 
having  written  a  part  of  the  history  of  David,  to- 
R;ether  with  Samuel  the  seer  and  Gad  the  seer  (I 
Chron.,  xxix,  29;  II  Chron..  xxix,  25).  The  time  of 
Nathan's  death  is  not  given,  out  his  name  is  mentioned 
in  Ecclus.,  xlvii,  1. 

(2)  Nathan,  son  of  David  and  Bethsabee  (II  Kings, 
V,  14;  I  Chron.,  iii,  5,  xiv,  4).  The  name  Nathan  aug- 
mented by  the  theophorous  prefix  or  suffix  is  borne  by 
other  members  of  the  family  of  David.  Thus  one  of 
his  brothers  was  Nathanael  (I  Chron.,  ii,  14),  and  one 
of  his  nephews,  Jonathan  (II  Kings,  xxi,  21). 

(3)  Nathan,  father  of  Azarias  ana  ZabucL  important 
functionaries  of  the  court  of  Solomon  (III  Kings,  iv, 
6).  By  some  scholars  he  is  identified  with  Nathan  the 
prophet  (1),  and  by  others  with  Nathan  the  son  of 
David  (2).  Both  opinions  are  merely  conjectural. 
His  son  Zabud  is  designated  as  priest  (}n3),  tms  being 
an  indication,  among  many  others,  that  the  functions 
of  the  priesthood  were  not  at  that  period  exercised  ex- 
clasively  by  the  descendants  of  Aaron. 

(4)  Nathan,  son  of  Ethei  and  fatb^  of  Zabad  (I 


Chron.,  ii,  36),  of  the  tribe  of  Juda  and  of  the  branch 
of  Caleb.  EQs  grandfather  Jeraa  was  an  E^prptian 
slave  to  whom  Sesan  gave  one  of  his  daughters  m  mar- 
riage (I  Chron.,  ii,  34-^5). 

(5)  Nathan,  one  of  the  prominent  Jews  of  the  time 
of  the  Captivity,  chosen  by  Elsdras  together  with  sev- 
eral others  to  mid  levites  for  the  temple  service  when 
the  Jews  were  camped  on  the  banks  of  the  Ahava  pre- 
paring to  return  to  Palestine  (I  Esdr.,  viii,  16). 

(6)  Nathan,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bani  mentioned  in 
I  Esdr.,  X,  39.  He  was  among  those  who,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Esdras,  put  away  the  foreign  wives  they  had 
married. 

LBsfimta  in  Vio.,  Dietionnaire  de  la  BibUt  s.  ▼.;  a  LAProa,  Com- 
mentaria  in  Scrip.  Sac.,  Ill  (Psris,  1862),  461  sag.,  481  sqq.,  547;  X 
(Paris.  1868).  ^;  XVI  (Paris.  1874).  96,  08;  Hummxlaukb,  Com- 
mentariue  in  Libroa  Samuelie  (Paris,  1886).  316  sqq.;  losif,  Contr 
tnentariuB  in  Librum  Primum  Paralipomenon  (Paris.  1005),  200  sqq. 

James  F.  Dribcoll. 

Nathanael,  one  of  the  first  disciples  of  Jesus,  to 
Whom  he  was  brought  by  his  friend  Philip  (John,  i, 
43-51).  It  is  generally  held  that  Nathanael  is  to  be 
identified  with  the  Apostle  Bartholomew  of  the  Synop- 
tic writers.  The  latter  make  no  mention  of  Nathanael, 
but  in  their  lists  of  the  Twelve^  one,  Bartholomew^ 
is  always  designated  b^r  his  family  name  Bar-Tolmai 
(son  of  Tolmai),  and  it  is  assumed  that  it  is  he 
whom  the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  designates  by 
his  personal  name  Nathanael.  The  main  reasons  on 
which  this  assumption  rests  are:  (1)  that  the  circum- 
stances under  which  Nathanael  was  called  do  not  dif- 
fer in  solemnity  from  those  connected  with  the  call  of 
Peter,  whence  it  b  natural  to  expect  that  he  as  well  as 
the  latter  was  numbered  among  the  Twelve;  (2)  Na- 
thanael is  mentioned  as  present  with  other  Apostles 
after  the  Resurrection  in  the  scene  described  in  John, 
xxi;  (3)  Nathanael  was  brought  to  Jesus  by  Philip 
(  John,  i,  45),  and  thus  it  seems  significant  that  Bar- 
tholomew is  always  mentioned  next  to  Philip  in  the 
lists  of  the  Twelve  given  by  the  Synoptists  (Matt., 
X,  3;  Mark,  iii,  18;  Luke^vi,  14). 

Lb  Camtts.  Latiede  N,S.  Jieu»-Chriet  (Paris.  1883).  1, 232  sgq., 
378  sq.;  II,  631— tr.  Hickbt  (3  vols.jNew  York,  1006-08);  a  La- 
PIDB.  Commeniaria  in  Scrip.  Sae.^  XVI  (Paris.  1874),  3K22  sqq.; 
Tbbncb,  Studiee  in  the  Qoepels  (New  York.  1867),  66  sqq. 

James  F.  Dbiscoi4L. 

Nathinltes,  or  Nathinbanb  (D^J^HJn,  the  given 
ones;  LXX  generally  ol  Na^ecW^i,  once  [I  Chron., 
ix,  2]  ol  dedofjJifot)j  an  inferior  class  of  Temple  serv- 
ants. The  name  occurs  in  seventeen  passages  of  the 
O.  T.,  and  the  Vulgate  renders  it  always  oy  the  adapted 
transcription  Natninoei.  Josephus  (Ant.  of  the  Jews, 
xi,  i,  6)  renders  the  Hebrew  Sethinim  by  the  equiva- 
lent UpSSovXoi,  i.  e.  "sacred  servants".  The  Na- 
thinites  appear  under  this  title  only  in  the  post- 
ExiUc  writings,  but  if  we  are  to  credit  the  Jewish 
tradition  reflected  in  the  Talmud,  their  origin  goes 
back  to  the  time  of  Josue,  viz. :  that  in  the  first  organi- 
zation of  the  Mosaic  ritual  no  provision  had  been 
made  for  the  menial  services  regularly  deputed  to 
slaves— all  being  performed  by  the  levites.  But  after 
the  defeat  of  tne  Madiamtes,  Moses  gave  ({HJ 
fuUhan)  one  out  of  every  50  of  the  16,(X)0  prisoners 
(320  in  all)  to  the  levites  for  the  service  of  the  Taber- 
nacle at  ni^t  (Num.,  xxxi,  47).  Josue,  however,  it 
is  claimed,  was  the  first  to  officially  depute  a  number 
of  slaves  for  the  exclusive  service  of  the  sanctuary. 
Out  of  respect  for  his  oath  he  spared  the  lives  of  the 
Gabaonites  (Jos.,  ix,  23,  26-27),  but  decreed  that 
henceforth' they  must  become  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  in  connexion  with  the  Jewish  wor- 
ship. After  the  construction  of  the  Temple  and  the 
consequent  development  of  the  ritual,  the  number  of 
these  slaves  was  increased.  They  were  in  all  proba- 
biUty  prisoners  of  war,  who  in  the  growing  oivaniza- 
tion  or  the  Temple  worship  were  condenmed  to  be 
the  servants  of  tne  levites,  even  as  the  latter  in  the 
course  of  time  tad  been  differentiated  from  the  priests. 


NATIONAL  712  NATIVXT7 

Tliou^  not  of  the  Jewish  race,  it  is  probable  that  much  had  been  done  along  these  lines.  In  1883  the 
the  Mathineans  learned  and  practised  the  Jewish  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  in  the  Pastoral 
religion.  Nehemias  (II  Esd.,  x,  28)  classes  them  with  Letter  of  the  Bishops  and  Archbishope.  says  of  the 
those  who  were  separated  from  the  people  to  serve  work  of  the  National  Union:  ''We  consiaer  aa  worthy 
the  law  of  God,  but  according  to  the  Talmud  they  of  particular  encouragement  associations  for  the  pro- 
were  a  despised  class  and  were  debarred  from  con-  motion  of  healthful  social  union  among  Catholics,  and 
tracting  marriage  with  Jewish  women.  They  were  especially  those  whose  aim  is  to  guard  our  Catholic 
carried  into  captivity  with  the  others  by  Nabucho-  young  men  against  dangerous  influences,  and  to  supply 
donosor,  and  according  to  Esdras,  612  of  them  (in-  them  with  the  means  of  innocent  amusement  and 
eluding  those  called  ''the  children  of  the  servants  of  mental  culture.  And  in  order  to  acknowledge  the 
Solomon")  returned  to  Palestine:  392  with  Zorobabel  great  amount  of  good  that  the  Catholic  Young  Men's 
(I  Esd.,  ii,  43-58;  II  Esd.,  vii,  47-60),  and  220  with  National  Union  has  already  accomplished,  to  promote 
Esdras  eighty  years  later  (I  £sd.,  viii.  20).  After  the  growth  of  the  Union,  and  to  stimulate  its  mem- 
the  return  the  Nathineans  Hved  most  likely  as  they  bers  to  greater  efforts  in  the  future,  we  cordially  bless 
had  previously  under  the  monarchy,  some  in  the  their  aims  and  endeavours,  and  we  reconunend  the 
levitical  cities  (I  Esd.,  ii,  70;  II  Esd.,  vii,  73),  during  Union  to  all  our  Catholic  yoimg  men." 
the  periods  when  they  were  not  detiedled  for  service  The  Catholic  Sunmier  School  at  Plattsbuiv,  New 
in  the  Temple,  the  others  in  Jerusalem,  where,  as  York,  is  a  direct  outgrowth  of  the  National  Union. 
Nehemias  informs  us  (II  Esd.,  iii,  26,  xi,  21),  tney  plans  for  its  establishment  having  been  discussed  ana 
inhabited  the  Ophel  quarter,  i.  e.  in  the  southeast  psit  approved  at  the  conventions,  and  carried  into  effect 
of  the  city,  and  near  the  pate  leading  to  the  fountain  bv  Warren  E.  Mosher,  the  secretary  of  the  National 
now  known  as  the  foimtam  of  the  Viigin.  From  this  Union  at  the  time,  and  the  founder  of  the  Summer 
they  drew  the  water  of  which  copious  use  was  made  in  School.  The  National  Union  has  idso  furthered  the 
the  sacrificial  and  other  sacred  functions.  They  had  cause  of  education  by  contributing  to  the  endowment 
officers  chiefly  chosen  from  among  their  own  ranks  fimds  of  the  Catholic  University  of  America. 
(II  Esdr.,  xi,  21;  cf.  I  Esd.,  ii,  43;  II  Esd.,  vii,  47).  At  the  convention  of  1906,  held  in  New  York  City, 
Like  the  priests  and  levites  they  were  exempted  from  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  plan  of  re- 
taxation  by  the  Persian  rulers  (I  £^.,  vii,  24).  No  organisation,  which  plan  was  reported  and  adopted 
mention  or  trace  of  the  Nathineans  appears  in  the  at  the  convention  of  1907  held  at  Elizabeth,  New 
New  Testament.  Jersey.  Under  the  original  organisation  it  bad  al- 
.  yS?'?°^  ^  Diet,  d^loBibU,  B.  v..  Naihiniau;  Hinno-  ways  been  required  that  the  president  and  first  vice- 
WO^^awlSr^"  **            '^'"''"*  iVmrftpom-non  (Pan.,  president  should  be  clergymen;  this  was  now  changed. 

Jambs  F.  Dbiscoll.  ^^^  various  departments  of  the  Union  were  organuea 

on  a  business  basis,  the  athletic  work  was  systems^ 

National  Union,  Cathouc  Yottno  Men's. — ^This  tized  by  establishing  the  Catholic  Amateur  Athletic 

association  was  organized  on  22  February,  1875,  at  League,abranchof  the  National  Union  with  complete 

a  meeting  held  in  Newark,  New  Jersey,  at  the  call  control  over  all  athletic  affairs  of  the  Union,  and  a 

of  Very  Rev.  George  H.  Doane,  who  became  its  first  complete  and  efficient  literary  and  lecture  system  was 

president.    It  includes  about  one  hundred  organiza-  instituted. 

tions,  representing  an  estimated  aggregate  of  about  It  was  only  in  this  year  that  a  proper  plan  was 
SOjOOO  persons  and  extends  as  far  west  as  Mankato.  devised  for  the  continuation  of  the  activity  of  the 
Mmnesota.  Its  objects  are  the  furtherance  of  practical  Union  between  conventions.  The  reorganization  also 
unity,  the  spiritual,  intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  created  the  office  of  the  spiritual  director,  who  is 
advancement  of  Catholic  youth,  and  the  development  practically  the  senior  officer  of  the  National  Union, 
of  better  citizens  and  Catholics.  The  means  princi-  and  is  supreme  in  all  matters  affecting  fiuth  ana 
paUv  rdied  upon  are:  the  conscientious  practice  and  morals.  The  National  Union  has  always  been  con- 
profession,  individually  and  collectively,  of  the  Cath-  ducted  by  voluntary  effort,  but  its  activities  have  now 
olic  rdigion;  the  establishment  and  promotion  of  grown  to  such  an  extent  that  they  require  an  efficient 
Catholic  young  men's  associations,  libraries,  reading-  salaried  force,  for  which  purpose  an  adequate  endow- 
rooms,  and  gymnasiums :  fraternal  unity  between  all  or-  ment  fund  is  now  being  raised, 
ganizations  aiming  in  whatever  way  at  the  promotion  W.  C.  SuLLEyAN. 
of  the  Union's  objects;  mutual  assistance  and  enlidit- 

enment;  maintenance  and  conduct  of  an  athtetic       Natltlty  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  BCery,  Feast  of 

league  ^ving  special  attention  to  boys  of  the  parochial  this. — The  earliest  document  commemorating  this 

schools;  dissemination  of  selected  courses  in  reading  feast  comes  from  the  sixth  century.    St.  Romanus, 

among  Catholic  literary  circles;  courses  of  lectures  the  great  ecclesiastical  lyrist  of  the  Greek  Church, 

to  Catholic  young  men's  associations,  and  securing  composed  for  it  a  h3rmn  (Card.  Fitra,  ''Hymnogr. 

to  organizations  of  the  National  Union  the  privilege  Grseca",  Paris.  1876, 199)  which  is  a  poetical  sketch  of 

of  having  their  own  members  received  as  guests  by  the  apocryphal  Gospel  of  St.  James.  St.  Romanus  was 

the  other  organizations  of  the  Union.    Ori^nally,  a  native  of  Emesa  in  Syri&  deacon  of  Beiytus  and 

delegates  met  annually,  and  did  little  in  the  mterim  later  on  at  the  Blachems  cnurch  in  Constantinople, 

but  enlist  the  co-operation  of  other  organizations  in  and  composed  his  hymns  between  536-556  (P.  Maas 

its  work.    At  the  present  time,  it  is  engaged  in  various  in  "  Byzant.  Zeitschirift",  1906).   The  feast  may  have 

works,  which  are  conducted  largely  tnroug^  diocesan  originated  somewhere  in  Syria  or  Palestine  in  tne  be- 

unions  performing  the  Natiozud  Union's  fimctions  sinning  of  the  sixth  century,  when  after  the  Council  of 

within  their  respective  districts.  Ephesus,  under  the  influence  of  the '' Apocrsrpha".  the 

In  1878  the  National  Union  inaugurated  the  move-  cult  of  the  Mother  of  God  was  greatly  intensifiea,  es- 

ment  for  obtaining  appointments  of  a  greater  num-  peciallv  in  Syria.    St.  Andrew  of  Crete  in  the  begin- 

ber  of  Catholic  chaplains  to  the  army  and  navv — a  ning  of  the  eighth  century  preached  several  sermons  on 

movement  which  was  entirely  successful.    At  about  this  feast  (Lucius -Annch,  "Anf&nge  des  Heiligen- 

the  same  time,  it  began  the  agitation  to  secure  recog-  kultus",  TQbingen.  1906, 468) .  Evidence  is  wanting  to 

nition  of  the  religious  rights  of  the  Indians.    At  the  show  why  the  eiuith  of  September  was  chosen  for 

oonvention  of  1879,  the  establishment  of  coloured  its  date.    The  Church  of  Rome  adopted  it  in  the 

literary  societies,  free  night-schools,  the  fostering  of  a  seventh  century  from  the  Esst;  it  is  found  in  the  Ge- 

more  general  activity  among  voung  men  in  teaching  lasian  (seventh  cent.)  and  the  Gregorian  (eighth  to 

Simday-school,  and  the  establishment  of  a  lecture  ninth  cent.)   Sacramentaries.    Sergius  I   (687-701) 

bureau  were  among  the  questions  discussed;  by  1883  prescribed  a  litany  and  procession  for  this  feast  (P 


NATURALISM  713  NATURALISM 

L.,  cxxyiii,  897  sqq.).    Since  the  storv  of  Meary's  N&-  world,  Naturalism  claims  that  the  laws  governing  the 

tivity  is  known  only  from  apocryphal  sources,  the  activity  and  development  of  irrational  and  of  rational 

Latin  Church  was  slow  in  accepting  this  oriental  festi-  beings  are  never  interfered  with.    It  denies  the  possi« 

val.    It  does  not  appear  in  many  calendars  which  con-  bility,  or  at  least  the  fact,  of  any  transitory  interven- 

tain  the  Assumption,  e.  g.  the  Gotho-Gallican,  that  of  tion  of  God  in  nature,  and  of  any  revelation  and  per- 

Luxeuil,  the  Toledan  Calendar  of  the  tenth  oentuiy,  manent  supernatural  order  for  man. 
and  the  Mozarabic  Calendar.    The  church  of  Angers        These  three  forms  are  not  mutually  exclusive;  what 

in  France  cl^ms  that  St.  Maurilius  instituted  this  the  third  denies  the  first  and  the  second,  a  fortiori,  also 

feast  at  Angers  in  consequence  of  a  revelation  about  deny;  aU  agree  in  rejecting  every  explanation  which 

430.    On  the  night  of  8  Sept.^  a  man  heard  the  angds  would  have  recourse  to  causes  outside  of  nature.   The 

singing  in  heaven,  and  on  askmg  the  reason,  they  told  reasons  of  this  denial — i.  e.,  the  philosophical  views  of 

him  that  they  were  rejoicing  because  the  Virgin  was  nature  on  which  it  is  based — and,  in  consequence,  the 

bom  on  that  night  (La  f6te  an^evine  N.  D.  de  France,  extent  to  which  explanations  within  nature  itself  are 

IV,  Paris,  1864,  188);  but  this  tradition  is  not  sub-  held  to  suffice,  vary  greatly  and  constitute  essential 

stantiated  by  historical  proofs.    The  feast  is  foxmd  in  differences  between  these  three  tendencies, 
the  calendar  of  Sonnatius,  Bishop  of  Reims,  614-31        I.  Materialistic  Naturalism  asserts  that  matter  is 

(Kellner,  ''Heortology",  21).    Still  it  cannot  be  said  the  only  reality,  and  that  all  the  laws  of  the  universe 

to  have  been  generally  celebrated  in  the  eighth  and  are  reducible  to  mechanical  laws.    What  theory  may 

ninth  centuries.    St.  Fulbert,  Bishop  of  Chartres  (d.  be  held  concemingthe  essence  of  matter  makes  little 

1028),  speaks  of  it  as  of  recent  institution  (P.  L.,  cxh,  difference  here.    Whether  matter  be  considered  as . 

320,  sqq.) ;  the  three  sermons  he  wrote  are  the  oldest  continuous  or  as  composed  of  atoms  distant  from  one 

genuine  Latin  sermons  for  this  festival  (Kellner,  "Heor-  another,  as  being  exclusively  extension  or  as  also  en- 

tology",  London,  1908,  230).    The  octave  was  insti-  dowed  with  an  internal  principle  of  activity,  or  even 

tutc^by  Innocent  IV  (a.  1243)  in  accordance  with  a  vow  as  being  only  an  aggregate  of  centres  of  energy  without 

made  by  the  cardinals  in  the  conclave  of  the  autumn  any  refu  extension  (see  Atomism;  Dynamism;  Mbgh- 

of  1241,  when  they  were  kept  prisoners  by  Frederick  II  anism),  the  attitude  of  Naturalism  is  the  same.    It 

for  three  months.    In  the  Greek  Church  the  apodoais  claims  that  all  realities  in  the  world,  including  the  pro- 

(solution)  of  the  feast  takes  place  12  Sept.,  on  account  ceases  of  consciousness  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest, 

of  the  feast  and  the  eolenmity  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  are  but  manifestations  of  what  we  call  matter,  ana 
^'       '  the  same  necessary  laws.    While  some  may  limit 

materialistic  account  to  nature  itself,  and  admit 
existence  of  a  Creator  of  the  world,  or  at  least 
33  days  (Anal.  Juris  Pont.,  xxi,  403);  they  also  com-  leave  this  question  open,  the  general  tendency  of 
memorate  it  on  the  first  of  every  month  (priv.  letter  Materialism  is  towards  Atheism  and  exclusive  Natu- 
from  P.  Baeteman,  C.  M^Alikiena).  The  Catholic  raUsm.  Early  Greek  philosophers  endeavoured  to  re- 
Copts  have  adopted  the  Greek  feast,  but  keep  it  10  duce  nature  to  unity  by  pointing  to  a  primordial  el&- 
Sept.  (Nilles,  "Kal.  man.",  11^  696,  706).  ment  out  of  which  all  things  were  composed.    Their 

tvcjx!»'AKvi(m,An/dn(fedeaHHl^  1904);  views  were,  implicitly  at  least.  Animistic  or  Hylozois- 

HoLWECK.  Fa^.  Martam  (FreAurg  18W)^118  «&•  tic  rather  tlianlkatdrialistic,  i^d  the  vague  fohnative 

J?MDBRicK  u.  MOLWiBCK.  function  attributed  to  the  Norn,  or  rational  principle, 

Naturalism  is  not  so  much  a  special  system  as  a  by  Anaxagoras  was  but  an  exception  to  the  prevailing 
point  of  view  or  tendency  common  to  a  number  of  naturalism.  Pure  mechanism  was  developed  by  the 
philosophical  and  religious  systems;  not  so  much  a  Atomists  (Democritus,  Epicurus,  Lucretius)^  and  the 
well-denned  set  of  positive  and  negative  doctrines  as  soul  itself  was  held  to  be  composed  of  special,  more 
an  attitude  or  spirit  pervading  and  influencing  many  subtile,  atoms.  In  the  Christian  era  materiausm  in 
doctrines.  As  the  name  impues,  this  tendency  con-  its  exclusive  form  is  represented  especially  by  the 
sists  essentially  in  looking  upon  nature  as  the  one  orig-  French  school  of  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
inal  and  fundamental  source  of  all  that  exists,  and  tury  and  the  German  school  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
hence  in  attempting  to  explain  everything  in  terms  of  nineteenth  century.  Since  matter  is  the  only  reahty, 
nature.  Either  the  limits  of  nature  are  also  the  lim-  whatever  takes  place  in  the  world  is  the  result  of  ma- 
lts of  existing  reality,  or  at  least  the  first  cause,  if  its  terial  causes  and  must  be  explained  by  physical  ante- 
existence  is  found  necessary,  has  nothing  to  do  with  cedents  without  any  teleology.  Life  is  but  a  complex 
the  working  of  natural  agencies.  All  events,  there-  problem  of  physics  and  chemistry;  consciousness  is  a 
fore,  find  their  adequate  explanation  within  nature  property  of  matter;  rational  thought  is  reduced  to 
itself.  But,  as  the  terms  nature  (q.  v.)  and  natural  are  sensation,  and  will  to  instinct.  The  mind  is  a  pow- 
themselves  used  in  more  than  one  sense,  the  term  nat"  erless  accompaniment  or  epiphenomenon  of  certain 
uraliam  is  also  far  from  having  one  fixed  meaning.  (I)  forms  or  groupings  of  matter,  and.  were  it  suppressed 
If  nature  is  understood  in  the  restricted  sense  of  physi-  idtogether,  the  whole  world  woula  still  proceea  in  ex- 
cal,  or  material,  nature,  naturalism  will  be  the  tend-  actly  the  same  wa^.  Man  is  a  conscious  automaton 
ency  to  look  upon  the  material  universe  as  the  only  whose  whole  activity,  mental  as  well  as  physiological, 
reauty,  to  reduce  all  laws  to  mechanical  uniformities,  is  determined  by  material  antecedents.  Wliat  we  call 
and  to  deny  the  dualism  of  spirit  and  matter.  Mental  the  human  person  is  but  a  transitory  phase  in  the 
and  moral  processes  will  be  but  special  manifestations  special  arrangement  of  material  elements  giving  rise 
of  matter  rigorously  governed  by  its  laws.  (II)  The  to  special  mental  results;  and  it  goes  without  sajring 
dualism  of  mind  and  matter  may  be  admitted,  but  that  in  such  a  system  there  is  no  room  for  freedom,  re- 
only  as  a  dualism  of  modes  or  appearances  of  the  same  sponsibility,  or  personal  immortality, 
identical  substance.  Nature  includes  manifold  ph&-  II.  Pantheism  in  its  various  forms  asserts  that  God, 
nomena  and  a  common  substratum  of  the  phenomena,  the  First  Reality,  World-Ground,  or  Absolute,  is  not 
but  for  its  actuxd  course  and  for  its  ultimate  explana-  transcendent  and  personal,  but  immanent  in  the 
tion,  it  requires  no  principle  distinct  from  itself.  In  worlcL  and  that  the  phenomena  of  nature  are  only 
this  supposition,  naturalism  denies  the  existence  of  a  manifestations  of  this  one  common  substance.  For 
transcendent  cause  of  the  world  and  endeavours  to  the  Stoics,  He  is  the  immanent  reason,  tiie  soul  of  the 
give  a  full  account  of  all  processes  by  the  unfolding  of  world,  communicating  eversrwhere  activity  and  life, 
potencies  essential  to  the  universe  under  laws  that  are  According  to  Scotus  Eriueena,  "God  is  the  essence  of 
necessary  and  eternal.  (Ill)  Finally,  if  the  existence  all  things,  for  He  alone  truly  is"  (De  divisione  natures, 
of  a  transcendent  First  Cause,  or  personal  God,  is  ad-  lU);  nature  includes  the  totality  of  beings  and  is  di- 
mitted  as  the  only  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  vided  into  (I)  uncreated  and  creating  nature,  i.  e.,  God 


NATURALISM  714  NATURALISM 

as  the  origiii  of  all  things^  unknowable  even  to  Him-  immortal,  and  if,  among  hmnan  activities, 
self;  (2)  created  and  creatmg  nature,  i.  e..  God  as  con-  exemptea  from  the  determinism  of  physical  agents  and 
taining  the  types  and  exemplars  of  all  things:  (3)  recognized  to  be  free,  all  this  is  withm  nature,  which 
created  and  not-creating  nature,  i.  e.,  the  world  of  includes  the  laws  governing  spirits  as  well  as  those 
phenomena  in  space  and  time,  all  of  which  are  partici-  governing  matter.  But  these  laws  are  sufficient  to 
pations  of  the  Divine  being  and  also  Uieophaniot,  or  account  for  everything  that  happens  in  the  world  of 
manifestations  of  God;  (4)  neither  created  nor  creat-  matter  or  of  mind.  This  form  of  naturalism  stands  in 
inc  nature,  i.  e.,  God  as  the  end  of  all  things  to  whom  close  relation  with  Rationalism  and  Deism.  Once  es- 
all  things  ultimately  return.  Giordano  Bruno  also  tablished  by  God,  the  order  of  nature  is  unchange- 
professes  that  God  and  nature  are  identical,  and  that  able,  and  man  is  endowed  by  nature  with  all  that  is 
the  world  of  phenomena  is  but  the  manifestation  of  required  even  for  his  religious  and  moral  development, 
the  Divine  substance  which  works  in  nature  and  ani-  The  consequences  are  clear:  miracles,  that  is,  effects 
mates  it.  According  to  Spinoza,  God  is  the  one  sub-  produced  by  God  himself  and  transcending  the  forces 
stance  which  unfolds  itself  through  attributes,  two  of  of  nature,  must  be  rejected.  Prophecies  and  so-caUed 
which,  extension  and  thought,  are  known  to  us.  These  miraculous  events  either  are  explainable  by  the 
attributes  manifest  themselves  through  a  number  of  known,  or  hitherto  unknown,  laws  of  nature  or,  if  they 
modes  which  are  the  finite  determinations  of  the  infi-  are  not  thus  explainable,  their  happening  itsdf  must 
nite  substance.  As  absolute  substance,  God  is  natttra  be  denied,  and  the  belief  in  their  reality  attributed  to 
nalurana:  as  manifesting  himself  through  the  various  faulty  observation.  Since,  for  religious  and  moral,  as 
modes  of  phenomena,  he  is  naiura  naiurata,  Tchday  well  as  for  scientific  truths,  human  reason  is  the  only 
Monism  reproduces  essentially  the  same  theories,  source  of  knowledge,  the  fact  of  a  Divine  Revelation  is 
Mind  is  not  reduced  to  a  property,  or  epiphenomenon,  rejected,  and  the  contents  of  such  supposed  revelation 
of  matter,  but  both  matter  and  mind  are  like  paraUds:  can  be  accepted  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  rational;  to 
they  proceed  together  as  phenomena  or  aspects  of  believe  in  mysteries  is  absurd.  Having  no  supemat- 
the  same  ultimate  reality.  What  is  this  re^ty?  By  uraJ  destiny,  man  needs  no  supernatural  means — 
some,  explicitly  or  implicitly,  it  is  rather  conceived  as  neither  sanctifying  grace  as  a  permanent  principle  to 
material,  and  we  fall  back  into  MateriaUsm;  by  others  give  his  actions  a  supernatural  value  nor  actual  grace 
it  is  claimed  to  be  nearer  to  mind  than  to  matter,  and  to  enlighten  his  mind  and  strengthen  his  wiU.  The 
hence  result  various  idealistic  systems  and  tendencies;  Fall  of  Man,  the  mysteries  of  Uie  Incarnation  and 
by  others,  finally,  it  is  declared  to  be  strictly  unknown  the  Redemption,  wiui  their  implications  and  oonse- 
and  unknowable,  and  thus  Monistic  Naturalism  comes  guences,  can  find  no  place  in  a  Naturalistic  creed, 
into  close  coiitact  with  Agnosticism  (q.  v.).  Prayers  and  sacraments  have  only  natural  results  ex- 
Whatever  it  inay  be  ultimately,  nature  is  substan-  plainable  on  psychological  groimds  by  the  confidence 
tiall^^  one ;  it  requires  nothing  outsicie  of  itself,  but  finds  with  which  they  inspire  those  who  use  them.  If  man 
within  itself  its  adequate  explanation.  Either  the  hu-  must  have  a  religion  at  all,  it  is  only  that  which  bis 
man  mind  is  incapable  of  any  knowledge  b«Euing  on  reason  dictates.  Naturalism  is  directly  opposed  to 
the  question  of  origins,  or  this  question  itself  is  mean-  the  Christian  Religion.  But  even  withm  the  fold  of 
ingless,  since  both  nature  and  its  processes  of  develop-  Christianity,  among  those  who  admit  a  Divine  Reve- 
ment  are  eternal.  The  simultaneous  or  successive  lation  and  a  supernatural  order,  several  naturalistic 
changes  which  occur  in  the  world  result  necessarily  tendencies  are  found.  Such  are  those  of  the  Pelagians 
from  the  essential  laws  of  nature,  for  nature  is  inn-  and  Semipelagians,  who  minimize  the  necessity  and 
nitely  rich  in  potencies  whose  progressive  actualization  functions  of  Divine  grace;  of  Baius,  who  asserts  that 
constitutes  the  endless  process  of  inorganic,  organic,  the  elevation  of  man  was  an  exigency  of  his  nature; 
and  mental  evolution.  The  evolution  and  differen-  of  many  sects,  especially  among  Liberal  Protestants, 
tiation  of  the  one  substance  according  to  its  own  laws  who  fall  into  more  or  less  radical  Rationalism;  and  of 
and  without  the  guiding  agency  of  a  transcendent  in-  others  who  endeavour  to  restrict  within  too  narrow 
telligence  is  one  of  the  basic  assumptions  of  Monistic  limits  the  divine  agency  in  the  universe, 
and  Agnostic  Naturalism.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  see  IV.  General  Con8Ider.\tions. — From  the  funda- 
how  this  form  of  Naturalism  can  consistently  escape  mental  principles  of  Naturalism  are  derived  some  im- 
the  consequences  of  Materialistic  Naturalism.  Tne  portant  consequences  in  lesthetical,  political,  and 
supernatural  is  impossible;  at  no  stape  can  there  be  ethical  sciences.  In  esthetics  Naturalism  rests  on  the 
any  freedom  or  responsibility;  man  is  but  a  special  assumption  that  art  must  imitate  nature  without  any 
manifestation  or  mode  of  the  common  substance,  in-  idealization,  and  without  any  r^ord  for  the  laws  of 
eluding  in  himself  the  twofold  aspect  of  matter  and  morality.  Social  and  political  NaturaJism  teaches 
consciousness.  Moreover,  since  God,  or  rather  ''the  that  "the  best  interests  of  public  society  and  civil 
divine '^  as  some  say,  is  to  be  found  in  nature,  with  progress  require  that  in  the  constitution  and  govem- 
which  it  is  identified,  religion  can  only  be  reduced  to  ment  of  human  society  no  more  attention  should  be 
certain  feelings  of  admiration,  awe,  reverence,  fear,  given  to  religion  than  if  there  were  no  religion^t  all,  or 
etc.,  caused  in  man  by  the  consideration  of  nature,  its  at  least  that  no  distinction  should  be  made  between 
laws,  beauties,  energies,  and  mysteries.  Thus,  among  true  and  false  religion''  (Pius  IX,  Encycl.,  "Quanu 
the  reelings  belonging  to  ''natural  religion'',  Haeckd  cura",  8  Dec.,  1864).  Leo  XIII  lays  it  down  that 
mentions  ' the  astonishment  with  which  we  gaze  upon  "the  integral  profession  of  the  CathoUc  Faith  is  in  no 
the  starry  heavens  and  the  microscopic  life  in  a  drop  of  way  consistent  with  naturalistic  and  rationalistic  opin- 
water,  the  awe  with  which  we  trace  the  marvellous  ions,  the  sum  and  the  substance  of  which  is  to  do 
working  of  energy  in  the  motion  of  matter,  the  revei^  away  altogether  with  Christian  institutions,  and,  di»- 
ence  with  which  we  grasp  the  universal  dominance  of  regajtling  the  rights  of  God,  to  attribute  to  man  the 
the  law  of  substance  throughout  the  universe"  ("Die  supreme  authonty  in  society"  (Encycl.,  "Immortale 
Weltrathsel",  Bonn,  1899,  V,  xviii,  396-97;  tr.  Mo-  Dei",  1  Nov.,  1885).  Moreover,  hke  individual  or- 
Cabe,  New  York,  19(X),  344).  ganisms,  social  organisms  obey  fatal  laws  of  devd* 
III.  For  those  who  admit  the  existence  of  a  tran-  opment ;  all  events  are  the  necessary  results  of  complex 
scendent  First  Cause  of  the  universe,  naturalism  con-  antecedents,  and  the  task  of  the  historian  is  to  record 
sists  essentially  in  an  undue  limitation  of  God's  activity  them  and  to  trace  the  laws  of  their  sequences,  which 
in  the  world.  God  is  only  Creator,  not  Providence:  are  as  strict  as  those  of  sequences  in  the  physics] 
He  cannot,  or  may  not,  interfere  with  the  natural  world. 

course  of  events,  or  He  never  did  so,  or,  at  least,        In  ethics,  the  vague  assumption  that  nature  is  the 

the  fact  of  His  ever  doing  so  cannot  be  established,  supreme  guide  of  human  actions  may  be  u>pKed  in 

Even  if  the  soul  of  man  is  regarded  as  spiritual  and  many  different  ways.    Already  the  principle  of  the 


NATUBAL                             715  NATUBS 

Stoics,  formulated  first  by  Zeno,  that  we  must  live  fundamental  teaching  of  the  Church,  whioh,  while 
consistently  or  harmoniously  (rd  dfulKoyovfjJpws  j^),  recognizing  all  the  nghts  and  exigencies  of  nature, 
and  stated  more  explicitly  by  Cleanthes  as  the  obliga-  rises  higher,  to  the  Author  and  Supreme  Ruler  of  na- 
tion to  Uve  in  conformity  with  nature  (rd  biM\oyoviU¥ia}^  ture. 
ri  0^e(  i^r)  gave  rise  to  severaJ  interpretations,  some  Balfoub,  Th»  PoundaUont  ofBdUf  (New  York,  1895) ;  Llotd 

unden,tandmg  nature  delusively  «  human  nature.  |^?SJ"„' JI^SSSJU  (^S^^-oS.  '^^^^^L^'^raSSt. 

others  chiefly  as  the  whole  umverse.    Moreover  as  wui  Natur  (1908);  Schazler,  Natw  und  Uebenuuw  (M«in». 

man  has  many  natural  tendencies,  desires,  and  appe-  1865);  Bchbebbn.  Natur  und  Gnade  (Maixw,  1861);  Schraobb, 

tifj^fl   it.  mav  hp  aaIcpH  wfiPthAr  if  ia  mnnil  in  follnw  nil  ^*  iriplici  ordine,  naturali,  tupernaiurali  H  pnUermUurali  (Vienna, 

11W»,  It  may  DC  aSKea  wnetner  it  is  moral  to  lOllOW  all  ^^^^ .  Baldwin.  Diction,  of  Philoa.  and  P»vehoL  (New  York  and 

indlSCrmunately ;  and  when  they  are  COnfllctmg  or  mu-  London,  lOOl) ;   Emlbb,  WorUrbueh  der  phUoMophiwhen  B^griffu 

tually  exclusive,  so  that  a  choice  is  to  be  made,  on  See  abo  Gbaob.  Mzbacub.  etc. 

what  ground  must  certain  activities  be  given  the  pref-  C.  A.  Dttbrat. 
erence  over  the  others?  Before  the  Stoics,  the  Comics.  Natural  Law.  See  Law,  Natural. 
both  in  theory  and  in  practice,  had  based  their  rules  ot  m.*.,-^!  qi«i,4.  g^  r>,««« 
conduct  on  the  principle  that  nothing  natural  can  be  « wural  Wgnt.  See  Right. 
morally  wrong.  Opposing  customs,  conventions,  re-  Nature  etymologically  (Latin  natura  from  na«ct, 
finement,  and  culture,  they  endeavoured  to  return  to  to  be  bom^  like  the  corresponding  Greek  0^it  from 
the  pure  state  of  nature.  Rousseau,  likewise,  looks  0<^(y,  to  bnng  forth)  has  reference  to  the  production 
upon  the  social  organization  as  a  necessarv  evil  which  of  things^  and  hence  generally  includes  in  its  connota- 
contributes  towai^  developing  conventional  stand-  tion  the  ideas  of  energy  and  activity.  It  will  be  con- 
ards  of  morality.  Man,  accordms  to  him,  is  naturally  venient  to  reduce  to  two  classes  the  various  meanings 
good,  but  becomes  depraved  by  education  and  by  con-  of  the  term  nature  according  as  it  applies  to  the  na- 
tact  with  other  men.  This  same  theme  of  the  opposi-  tures  of  individual  beings  or  to  nature  m  general, 
tion  of  nature  and  culture,  and  the  superiority  of  the  I.  In  an  individual  being,  especially  if  its  consti- 
former,  is  a  favourite  one  with  Tolstoi.  Accoiding  to  tutive  elements  and  its  activities  are  manifold  and 
Nietzsche,  the  current  standards  of  virtue  are  against  complex,  the  term  nature  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
nature,  and,  because  they  favour  the  poor,  the  weak,  collection  of  distinctive  features,  original  or  acquired, 
the  suffering,  the  miserable,  by  commending  such  feel-  by  which  such  an  individual  is  characterized  and  dis- 
ings  as  charitjr,  compassion,  pity,  humility,  etc.,  they  tinguished  from  others.  Thus  it  may  be  said  it  is 
are  obstacles  in  the  way  of  true  progress.  For  the  the  nature  of  one  man  to  be  taller,  stronger,  more 
progress  of  mankind  and  the  development  of  the  intelligent,  or  more  sociable  than  another.  Thismean- 
'' Superman '^  it  is  essential  to  return  to  the  primitive  ing,  however,  is  superficial;  in  philosophical  terminol- 
and  natural  standard  of  morality,  which  is  energy,  ogy  and  even  in  ordinary  language,  nature  refers  to 
activity,  strength,  and  superiority;  the  most  powenul  something  deeper  and  more  fimdamental.  These  fea- 
are  also  the  b^.  tures  are  manifestations  of  a  man's  nature:  theV  are 
If  ethical  naturalism  is  considered  in  its  relation  not  his  nature.  Nature  properly  signifies  that  which 
with  the  three  philosophical  views  explained  above,  is  primitive  and  original^  or,  accordmg  to  etymolof^, 
it  sometimes  means  only  the  rejection  of  any  duties  that  which  a  thing  is  at  birth,  as  opposed  to  that  which 
based  on  a  Divine  Revelation,  and  the  assumption  is  acquired  or  added  from  external  sources.  But  the 
that  the  only  source  of  right  and  wrong  is  human  rea-  line  that  divides  the  natural  from  the  artificial  can- 
son.  Generally,  however,  it  means  the  more  radical  not  be  drawn  with  precision.  Inorganic  beings  never 
tendency  to  treat  moral  science  in  the  same  manner  as  change  except  under  the  influence  of  external  agencies, 
natural  science.  There  is  freedom  nowhere,  but  abso-  and  in  the  same  circumstances,  their  mode  of  activity 
lute  necessity  everywhere.  All  human  actions,  as  well  is  uniform  and  constant.  Organisms  present  a  greater 
as  physical  events,  are  necessary  results  of  antecedents  complexity  of  structure,  power  of  adaptation,  and 
that  are  themselves  necessanr.  The  moral  law,  with  variety  of  function.  For  their  development  out  of  a 
its  essential  distinction  of  right  and  wrong  conduct,  is,  primitive  germ  they  require  the  co-operation  of  many 
not  an  objective  norm,  but  a  mere  subjective  result  of  external  factors,  ^et  they  have  withm  themselves  the 
associations  and  instincts  evolved  from  the  experience  principle  of  activity  by  which  external  substances  are 
of  the  useful  and  agreeable^  or  of  the  h^mf ul  and  pain-  elaborated  and  assimilated.  In  any  being  the  changes 
f  ul,  consequences  of  certam  actions.  It  is,  neverthe-  due  to  necessary  causes  are  called  natural,  whereas 
less,  a  motive  that  prompts  to  act  in  certain  (Erections,  those  produced  bv  intentional  human  activity  are 
but  the  effectiveness  of  which  is  strictly  determined  by  called  artificaJ.  But  it  is  clear  that  art  supposes 
the  d^ree  of  its  intensity  in  a  given  individual  com-  nature  and  is  but  a  special  adaptation  of  natural 
pared  with  the  resistance  it  encounters  on  the  part  of  aptitudes,  capacities,  or  activities  lor  certain  SBsthetic 
antagonistic  ideas.  Thus,  the  science  of  ethics  is  not  or  useful  purposes.  Stars,  rivers,  forests,  are  works  of 
normative:  it  does  not  deal  with  laws  existing  ante-  nature;  parks,  canals,  gardens,  and  machines  are  works 
oedently  to  human  actions,  and  which  these  ought  to  of  art.  If  necessary  conditions  are  reahzed,  where 
obey.  It  is  genetic,  and  endeavours  to  do  for  human  the  seed  falls  a  plant  will  grow  naturally.  But  tJie 
actions  what  natural  science  does  for  physical  phe-  seed  may  be  placed  purposely  amid  certain  surround- 
nomena,  that  is,  to  discover,  through  an  inference  ings,  the  growth  of  the  plant  may  be  hastened,  its 
from  the  facts  of  human  conduct,  the  laws  to  which  it  shape  altered,  and,  in  general,  the  result  to  be  expected 
happens  to  conform.  from  natural  activities  may  be  modified.  By  training 
It  is  impossible  to  state  in  detail  the  attitude  of  the  the  aptitudes  of  an  animal  are  utilized  and  its  instincts 

adapted  for  specific  ends.  In  such  cases  the  final  re- 
sult is  more  or  less  natural  or  artificial  according  to 
the  mode  and  amount  of  human  intervention. 
In  scholastic  philosophy,  nature,  essence,  and  sub- 
tend in  so  many  directions,  that  the  reader  must  be  stance  are  closely  related  terms.  Both  essence  and 
referred  to  the  cognate  topics  treated  in  other  articles,  substance  imply  a  static  point  of  view  and  refer  to 
In  general  it  can  only  be  said  that  Naturalism  contra-  constituents  or  mode  of  existence,  while  nature  im- 
dicts  the  most  vital  doctrines  of  the  Church,  which  plies  a  dynamic  point  of  view  and  refers  to  innate 
rest  essentially  on  Supematuralism.  The  existence  tendencies.  Moreover,  substance  is  opposed  to  ac- 
of  a  personal  God  and  of  Divine  Providence,  the  spirit-  cidents,  whereas  we  may  speak  of  the  nature  and 
uality  and  immortality  of  the  soul,  human  freedom  essence  not  only  of  substances  but  also  of  accidents 
and  responsibility,  the  fact  of  a  Divine  Revelation,  the  like  colour,  sound,  intelligence,  and  of  abstract  ideals 
ezisteDce  of  a  supernatural  order  for  man,  are  so  many  like  virtue  or  duty.    But  when  applied  to  the  same 


Catholic  Church  towards  the  assumptions^  implica- 
tions, and  consequences  of  Naturalism.  Naturalism 
is  such  a  wide  and  far-reaching  tendency^  it  touches 
upon  BO  many  points,  its  roots  and  ramifications  ex- 


NATUBS                               716  NATDBB 

Bubstantial  h&ng,  the  tenns  substance,  essence,  and  principle  which  must  be  added  to  natural  faculties 
nature  in  reality  stand  only  for  different  aspects  of  the  so  as  to  uplift  them  and  make  them  capable  of  know- 
same  thbog,  and  the  distmction  between  them  is  a  ins  and  reaching  this  higher  destiny.  More  specific 
mental  one.  Substance  denotes  the  thing  as  requiring  caU^  it  includes  an  enlightenment  of  the  intellect  by  a 
no  BUi>port,  but  as  being  itself  the  necessary  support  positive  revelation  of  God  manifesting  man's  super- 
of  accidents;  essence  properly  denotes  the  intrmsic  natural  end  and  the  conditions  for  obtaining  it;  it  also 
constitutive  elements  by  which  a  thing  is  what  it  is  implies  for  every  individual  the  indispensaBle  help  of 
and  is  distinguished  from  every  other;  nature  denotes  Divine  grace  both  actual,  by  which  God  illumines 
the  substance  or  essence  considered  as  the  source  of  and  strengthens  human  faculties,  and  sanctifjdng,  by 
activities.  ''Nature  properly  speaking  is  the  essence  which  human  nature  is  elevatea  to  a  higher  mode 
(or  substance)  of  things  which  have  in  themselves  as  of  activity.  Hence  theologians  oppose  the  state  of 
such  a  principle  of  activity  (Aristotle,  "  Metaphysics",  pure  nature  in  which  God  could  have  placed  man,  to 
1015a,  13).  By  a  process  of  abstraction  the  mind  the  suDematural  state  to  which  in  fact  man  was  raised, 
arises  from  individual  and  concrete  natures  to  those  JI.  Nature  is  frequently  taken  for  the  totality  of 
of  species  and  genera.  concrete  natures  and  theu:  laws.  But  here  again  a 
A  few  special  remarks  must  be  added  concerning  narrower  and  a  broader  meaning  must  be  distin- 
human  nature.  This  expression  may  mean  some-  guisfaed.  Nature  refers  especially  to  the  world  of 
thing  concrete,  more  or  less  different  in  various  matter,  in  time  and  space,  governed  by  blind  and 
individuals,  or  more  generally  something  common  necessary  laws,  and  thus  excludes  the  mental  world, 
to  all  men,  i.  e.,  the  abstract  human  nature  by  Works  of  nature,  opposed  to  works  of  art.  result  from 
which  mankind  as  a  whole  is  distinguished  from  physical  causes,  not  from  the  actual  aaaptation  by 
otiier  classes  of  living  beings.  In  both  cases  it  is  human  intelligence.  This  si^ification  is  found  in 
conceived  as  including  primitive  and  fundamental  such  expressions  as  natural  history,  natural  philoso- 
characteristics,  and  as  referring  to  the  source  of  all  phy,  and  in  general^  natural  science,  which  deal  only 
activities.  Hence  nature,  as  the  internal  principle  of  with  the  constitution,  production,  properties,  and 
action,  is  opposed  in  the  first  place  to  violence  and  laws  of  material  substances.  Sometimes  also  nature 
coercion  which  are  external  prmciples  of  action  and  is  all-inclusive,  embracing  mind  as  well  as  matter;  it  is 
prevent  the  normal  play  of  human  faculties.  It  is  our  whole  world  of  expenence,  internal  as  well  as  ex- 
opposed  aJso,  but  less  strictly,  to  education  and  cul-  temal.  And  frequently  nature  is  looked  upon  as  a 
ture  which  at  times  may  be  the  checking  of  natural  personified  abstraction,  as  the  one  cause  of  whatever 
tendencies,  at  times  also  their  development  and  per-  takes  place  in  the  universe,  endowed  with  qualities, 
fection.    Education,  physical  and  mental,  is  not  a  tendencies,  efforts,  and  wiU^  and  with  aims  and  pur- 

grimitive  endowment;  it  must  be  acquired  and  is  poses  which  it  strives  to  reahze. 

uilt  upon  nature  as  on  its  foundation.    In  this  sense  The  problems  to  which  the  philosophical  study  of 

habit  has  been  termed  a  second  nature.    But  al-  nature  has  given  rise  are  numerous.    All  however  cen- 

though  education  is  due  largely  to  external  causes  and  tre  around  the  question  of  the  unity  of  nature:  Can  all 

influences  acting  on  the  mind  and  the  onanism^  from  the  beings  of  the  world  be  reduced  to  one  common  prin- 

another  point  of  view  it  is  also  the  unfoloing  of  innate  ciple,  and  if  so  what  is  this  principle?   The  first  Greek 

aptitudes,  and  hence  partly  natural.  pnilosophers,  who  were  almost  exclusively  philoso- 

As  between  nature  m  general  and  art,  so  between  phers  of  nature,  endeavoured  to  find  some  primitive 

human  nature  and  education  there  is  no  clear  dividing  element  out  of  which  all  things  were  made;  air,  water, 

line.    Natural  is  also  freouently  contrasted  with  con-  fire,  and  earth  were  in  turn  or  all  together  supposed  to 

ventional;  language,  style,  gestures,  expressions  of  be  this  common  principle.    The  problem  haa  per- 

feeUn^^  etc.,  are  called  more  or  less  natural.    This  sisted  throu^  all  ages  and  received  many  answers, 

opposition  becomes  more  acute  in  the  theories  of  Aristotle's  primary  matter,  for  instance,  is  of  the  same 

Hobbes  and  Rousseau  who  lay  stress  on  the  antithesis  nature  in  all  things;  and  to-day  ether,  or  some  other 

between  the  primitive  or  natural  state  of  man  and  the  substance  or  energy  is  advocated  by  many  as  the  oom- 

present  social  condition  due  to  the  contract  by  which  mon  substratum  of  all  material  substances.    After 

men  agreed  to  surrender  their  rights  into  the  hands  static  unity,  dynamic  unity  is  looked  for,  that  is,  all 

of  the  common  authority.  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  universe  are  re- 

From  the  theological  point  of  view  the  distinctions  ferred  to  the  same  principle.  Dynamism  (q.  v.)  ad- 
between  nature  and  person  and  between  the  natural  mits  forces  of  various  kinds  which,  however^  it  tries 
and  the  supernatural  orders  are  of  primary  impor-  to  reduce  to  as  small  a  number  as  possible,  if  not  to 
tance.  The  former  arose  from  the  dogma  of  the  "Ain-  only  one  form  of  energy  manifesting  itself  in  differ- 
ity,  i.  e.,  of  one  Divine  Nature  in  three  persons,  and  ent  ways.  Mechanism  (q.  v.)  holds  that  everything  is 
chiefly  from  that  of  the  Incarnation  i.  e.,  of  the  two  explainable  by  the  sole  assumption  of  movement  corn- 
Natures,  Divine  and  human,  in  the  one  Divine  Per-  municated  from  one  substance  to  another.  Teleologi- 
son  in  Christ.  The  Human  Nature  in  Christ  is  com-  cal  views  give  to  final  causes  a  greater  importance, 
plete  and  perfect  as  nature,  yet  it  lacks  that  which  and  look  upon  the  ends  of  various  beings  as  subor- 
would  make  it  a  person,  whether  this  be  something  dinated  to  the  one  end  which  the  universe  tends  to 
negative,  as  Scotists  hold,  namely  the  mere  fact  that  realize. 

a  nature  is  not  assumed  by  a  higher  person,  or,  as  If  nature  includes  both  mental  and  physical  phe- 

Thomists  assert,  some  positive  reality  distinct  from  nomena  what  are  the  relations  between  these  two 

nature  and  making  it  incommunicable.  classes?    On  this  point  also  the  history  of  philosophy 

The  faculties  of  man  are  capable  of  development  offers  many  attempts  to  substitute  some  form  of  Mon- 
and  perfection,  and,  no  matter  what  external  influ-  ism  for  the  Dualism  of  mind  and  matter,  by  reducing 
ences  may  be  at  work,  this  is  but  the  unfolding  of  mind  to  a  special  function  of  matter,  or  matter  to  a 
natural  capacities.  Even  artificial  productions  are  special  appearance  of  mind,  or  both  to  a  common  sub- 
governed  by  the  laws  of  nature,  and.  in  man,  natural  stratum. 

activities,  after  they  are  perfected  differ  not  in  kind  Finally,  is  nature  as  a  whole  self-sufficient,  or  does  it 

but  only  m  degree,  from  those  that  are  less  developed,  require  a  transcendent  ground  as  its  cause  and  prind- 

The  supernatural  order  is  above  the  exigencies  and  pie?    Is  the  natura  naturans  one  and  the  same  with 

capacities  of  ail  human  nature.    It  consists  of  an  end  the  natura  naiurataf    By  some  these  expressiona  are 

to  be  reached,  namely,  the  intuitive  vision  of  God  in  used  in  a  pantheistic  sense,  the  same  substance  under- 

heaven — ^not    the    mere    discursive    and    imperfect  lies  all  phenomena;  by  others  the  natura  notiiraiu,  as 

knowledge  which  is  acquired  by  the  light  of  reason —  first  cause,  is  held  to  be  really  distinct  from  the  naiura 

and  of  the  means  to  attain  such  an  end,  namely,  a  na<uni(a,  as  effect.  This  is  the  question  of  the  oxiatence 


NATUBI8M  717 

and  nature  of  God  and  of  his  distinction  from  the  world,  object  of  nature  bb  the  sun  and  i  ts  personification  as  a 
Here  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  miracles  is  sug-  being  possessing  life  in  some  form,  and  teaches  that  it 
gested.  If  nature  alone  exists,  and  if  all  its  changes  is  an  axiom  of  primitive  man's  science  to  ascribe  life 
are  absolutely  necessary,  everything  takes  place  ao-  to  all  things  (The  Study  of  Religion.  London,  1902). 
cording  to  a  strict  determinism.  If,  on  the  contrary,  Schrader  says  the  common  basis  of  tne  ancient  Indo- 
God  exists  as  a  transcendent,  intelligent,  and  free  cause  European  reli^^on  was  a  worship  of  nature,  and  ap« 
of  nature  and  its  laws,  not  only  nature  in  all  its  details  peals  to  linguistics  which  shows  that  the  ancient 
depends  ultimately  on  God's  will,  but  its  ordinary  Aryans  designated  objects  perceived  as  doing  some- 
course  may  be  suspended  by  a  miraculous  interven-  thmg,  e.  ^.,  tne  rain  rams,  the  fire  bums  (''Prehistoric 
tion  of  the  First  Cause.  (See  Abtb;  Naturalism;  Antiquities  of  the  Aryan  Peoples'',  tr.  by  Jevons, 
Supbrnatubal;  Grace.)  Ix)ndon,  1890).    Hence  the  discovery  of  the  soul  or 


MsBciBR.  Ontoiooie  (Louyain.  1002);  Ntb,  Coamoiooie  (Louvain,  of  natural  forces,  but  only  m  the  sense  that  nature  IS 

1006),  and  literature  under  NATUHAuaM.  ^    .    _^  conceived  as  living,  as  vital  with  creative  and  preserv- 

C.  A.  DuBRAT.  ative  powers.    Personification,  in  the  strict  sense  of 

investing  material  things  with  the  attributes  of  a  per- 

Naturisnii  the  term  proposed  by  R^viUe  to  desig-  son  is  far  above  the  power  of  earlv  man  and  appears 

Date  the  worship  of  nature.    It  diners  from  Natunu-  only  in  later  forms  of  developed  belief.    Hence,  ac- 

ism.  which  is  not  a  religion,  but  a  system  of  atheistic  oording  to  R^ville,  there  is  first  the  naive  cult  of  nat- 

philosophy,  and  from  natural  religion,  which  sets  forth  ural  objects  as  possessing  life  and  in  some  way  sup- 

those  truths  about  God  and  man  attainable  by  the  na-  posed  to  influence  man:  this  is  followed  by  Animism 

tive  power  of  human  reason  and  forming  the  prolego-  and  Fetishism;  and  finally  a  third  stage  known  as  the 

mena  to  Revelation,  e.  g.,  the  existence  of  Uod,  the  natural  mythologies  founded  on  the  dramatization  of 

spiritual  and  immortal  nature  of  the  human  soul,  the  nature,  e.  g.,  the  historic  polytheisms  of  China,  Egyot, 

moral  order.    As  a  theorv  of  reli^on  Naturism  ex-  Babylonia,  of  the  Teutonic,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Yedic 

hibits  three  phases:  I.  Ethnographic  Naturism.    II.  races. 

Philosophic  Naturism.    III.  Science-Naturism.  Primitive  man  faces  the  world  about  him  in  child- 

I.  Ethnographic  Naturism. — ^Accordin^  to  R6-  like  wonder.    The  succession  of  the  seasons,  of  ni^ht 

ville,  Naturism  is  the  primitive  form  of  reh^on,  the  and  day,  of  storm  and  cloud,  the  growth  of  livmg 

basis  and  source  of  all  existing  forms.    This  is  the  thin^,  exhibit  nature  in  constant  and  varied  changes, 

thesis  of  comparative  m3rthology,  which  is  said  to  re-  He  views  natural  phenomena  as  the  effects  of  causes 

veal  a  primitive  nature  worship.    Its  foundation  is  a  beyond  his  comprehension  and  control.    Conscious 

twofold  assumption:  (1)  the  philosophic  assumption  of  his  own  agency,  though  imable  yet  to  distinguish 

of  evolution,  which  maintains  that  man  is  a  develop-  soul  from  the  parts  of  the  body,  he  attributes  agency 

ment  bv  slow  and  successive  stages  from  the  animi^;  like  his  own  to  the  objects  whicn  surroimd  him.    Awe 

hence  the  corolliuy  advanced  by  Spencer  and  Thomas  and  delij^ht  possess  nim.    Having  no  idea  at  all  of 

as  the  first  principle  in  the  evolutionary  history  of  re-  God,  wntes  ICeary,  he  makes  the  thin^  themselves 

ligion,  viz.,  that  primitive  man  was  a  creature  of  emo-  pods  by  worshippmg  them  ("Early  Rehg.  Develop. " 

tion,  not  of  intelligence  which  is  the  product  of  more  in  Nineteenth  Cent.,  Aug.,  1878).    Hence  Brinton 

advanced  culture;  (2)  the  ethnographic  assumption  writes  that  nature  is  known  to  man  onty  as  a  force 

that  primitive  man  existed  in  the  savage  state,  a  con-  which  manifests  itself  in  change  (The  Rehgious  Senti- 

dition  and  mode  of  life  a^  to  that  prevailing  among  ment.  New  York,  1876).    Ratzel  explains  this  crav- 

the  non-civilized  races  of  to-day,  e.  g.,  Tylor,  LubH  ing  for  causality  in  an  animistic  sense  as  tending  to 

bock,  Tiele,  R^ville,  and  Spencer.  vivify  all  the  higher  phenomena  of  nature  by  attribut- 

The  core  and  essence  of  nature-worship  is  that  na-  ing  to  them  a  soul,  and  applies  the  word  Polytheism 
ture  is  animated  throughout.  In  the  conception  of  to  all  religions  of  the  lower  grades  (''Hist,  of  Man- 
animated  nature,  R^ville  is  in  touch  with  de  Brasses  kind",  tr.  Butler,  London^  1896).  With  Crawley  the 
ajid  (Domte,  who  claim  that  Fetishism  is  the  primitive  phenomena  of  change  exhibits  a  vital  principle  analo- 
religion  and  by  Fetishism  understand  the  primitive  gous  to  man's  own  and  this  principle  of  life  va^ely 
tendency  to  conceive  external  objects  as  animated  by  conceived  by  primitive  man  out  strongly  felt  is  the 
a  life  analogous  to  that  of  man.  He  differs  from  Ty-  origin  of  religion;  in  a  later  stage  of  aevelopment 
lor,  who  specifies  the  cause  of  the  animation,  e.  g.,  Vitalism  passes  into  Animism  (The  Tree  oi  Life, 
spirits  or  souls,  and  from  Comte  in  holding  tnat  the  London,  1005).  Shaw  says  the  difference  between 
primitive  animation  in  its  initial  stage  is  not  Fetish-  Naturism  and  Spiritism  is  largely  a  difference  of  em- 
um,  but  becomes  so  when  in  process  of  development  phasis,  because  neither  can  be  excluded  from  the  in- 
the  spirit  or  soul  is  distin^ished  from  the  object,  terpretation  of  a  primitive  which  as  yet  has  made  no 
Thus  with  R^vUle,  the  Animism  of  Tylor  and  Spencer  sharp  separation  between  subject  ana  obiect.  Hence 
is  the  intermediate  link  between  Naturism  and  Fetish-  the  worshipper  of  nature  seems  to  ally  himself  with 
ism.  Tylor,  however,  considers  nature-worship  as  the  external  objects  which,  as  he  surveys  them  anthro- 
connecting  bond  between  Fetishism  and  Polytheism,  popatically,  serve  as  a  support  and  mirror  of  his  own 
yet  admits  that  the  stages  of  this  process  defy  any  fleeting  fancies.  These  natural  objects  are  further 
more  accurate  definition.  Giddings  follows  Tylor  in  conceived  by  primitive  man  as  either  friendly  or  inim- 
holding  that  religious  ideas  are  of  two  ^ups:  animis-  ical  to  him.  in  the  particular  view  of  Fetishism  the 
tic  intm>retation  of  the  finite,  and  animistic  mterpreta-  physical  and  psychical  further  appears.  Thus  Shaw 
Hon  of  tne  iodfinite  ("  Induct.  SocioL",  New  York,  1901).  m  the  primitive  Naturism  resultmg  from  the  contact 
In  like  manner  Blackmar  teaches  that  nature-worship  of  man  with  the  phenomena  of  the  external  world, 
was  nothing  more  than  spirit-worship  localized  in  the  attempts  to  reconcile  the  psycholodcal  theories  of  fear 


animals,  is  a  department  (The  Non-Religion  of  the  Pfleidner  holds  that  nature  is  animated  throughout, 

Future,    New    York,    1907).     Hadden    holds    that  that  this  view  was  just  as  natural  for  the  childlike 

primitive  folk  do  not  draw  a  sharp  distinction  between  fancy  of  the  primitive  man  as  it  is  still  to-day  for 

&ingB  animate  and  inaminate  (The  Study  of  Man.  children  and  poets.    According  to  him  this  animation 

New  York,  1898).    Jastrow  says  that  the  savage  and  of  nature  is  not  to  be  explained  by  sayine  that  the 

primithre  man  does  not  differentiate  between  such  an  primitive  man  only  compared  natural  jmenomena 


NATUSI8X 


718 


with  living  beings  or  even  that  he  thought  of  them 
as  a  domicile  or  operation  of  spirits  of  himium  origin. 
Such  a  view  would  suppose  a  definite  distinguishing  of 
the  sense  element  ana  of  the  supersensibK  element; 
but  this  distinction  only  appeared  later,  whereas,  for 
the  original  mythological  notion,  the  sense  element 
and  the  subject  that  was  active  in  it  was  still  conceived 
as  one.  He  says  the  real  sources  of  religion  are  exter- 
nal nature  and  the  soul  of  man;  for  the  prehistoric  be- 
lief in  spirits,  out  of  which  developed  the  belief  in 
God,  cannot  yet  be  proper!]^  called  religion;  it  onl^ 
contained  the  germs  of  reli^on.  Tylor  teaches  am- 
mation  of  nature,  but^  as  with  him  the  soul  or  spirit 
animates  material  objects,  nature-worship  is  ranged 
under  the  concept  of  Fetiflidsm.  De  la  Saussaye  ob- 
jects to  this  view  on  the  ground  that  nature-worship 
bears  the  strongest  impress  of  originality,  and  there- 
fore is  not  a  phase  of  Fetishism,  which  is  not  orijpnal. 
Darwin  seems  to  combine  the  ascription  of  life  to 
natural  objects,  dreams,  and  fears  (Descent  of  Man, 
I,  p.  65).  Thomas  says  that,  while  theoretically  sep- 
arable, magic  religion,  belief  in  ghosts  and  in  nature- 
worship  practically  run  into  one  another  and  become 
inseparablv  mingled;  therefore  it  is  idle  to  attempt 
to  establish  a  priority  in  favour  of  any  one  of  them 
(Social  Origins,  Chicago,  1909). 

De  la  Saussaye  confesses  that  it  is  equally  difficult 
to  determine  the  limits  of  nature-wonnip  in  the  op- 

Eosite  direction.  The  classification  of  rehgions  shows 
ow  wide  an  area  it  covers.  Thus  Tiele  divides  the 
religions  of  the  world  into  nature-religions  and  ethi- 
cal religions,  and  holds  that  the  latter  developed  from 
the  former.  Caird  keeps  the  same  division,  but  uses 
the  terms  "objective"  and  "subjective",  and  savs 
they  unite  in  Christianity.  Jastrow  objects  to  the 
classification  of  Tiele,  that  the  higher  nature-reli^ons 
contain  ethical  elements.  Hegel  holds  the  primitive 
religion  was  an  immediate  nature-religion,  which  be- 
trays its  features  in  various  primitive  peoples  and 
in  a  more  advanced  form  in  Cninese,  Pali,  and  San- 
scrit cults.  The  transition  from  the  lowest  stage  to 
the  next  hip^er,  according  to  him^  is  effected  by  means 
of  the  Persian  dualism,  the  Phoenician  reliadon  of  pain, 
and  the  Egyptian  religion  of  mystery.  De  la  Gras- 
si^re  (Des  religions  compart,  Paris,  1899)  says 
Naturism  is  at  the  origin  of  religions.  He  distin- 
guishes a  lesser  Naturism  and  a  greater  Naturism. 
The  lesser  Naturism  passes  into  Animism,  which  in 
turn  develops  into  Fetishism,  Idolatry,  and  Anthro- 
pomorphism. With  its  earlier  forms  the  object  is 
adored  in  its  concrete  reality;  at  a  later  period,  the 
soul  or  spirit  is  separated  from  the  object  and  becomes 
the  real  object  of  worship.  Lesser  Naturism  em- 
braces the  primitive  gods,  e.  g.,  those  which  person- 
ify the  woods,  mountains^  and  rivers.  It  has  many 
forms,  e.  g.,  worship  of  animals  as  in  Greek  and  Egyp- 
tian mythology,  worship  of  trees,  e.  g.,  laurels  of 
Apollo,  myrtle  of  Venus,  worship  of  groves  as  with 
Druids,  worship  of  stones,  water,  springs,  lakes,  moun- 
tains, the  elements.  Hence  it  embraces  the  mytho- 
logic  naiads,  fauns,  dryads,  fairies,  and  sirens. 

Greater  Naturism  refers  to  vast  gatherings  of  ob- 
jects and  especially  heavenly  bodies,  e.  g.,  sun.  moon, 
stars.  This  he  says  is  the  basis  of  the  Veoic  reli- 
gion, e.  g.,  Varuna,  i.  e.,  heaven  at  ni^t,  Mitri,  i.  e.. 
heaven  at  day,  Indra,  i.  e.,  rain,  Agni,  i.  e.,  fire,  ana 
survives  in  Sabsism.  This  Naturism  is  at  the  origin 
of  Greek  and  Latin  mythology,  e.  g.,  Zeus^  i.  e.,  the 
Heaven,  Aurora,  i.  e.,  the  dawn,  Apollo,  i.  e.,  light, 
Hephsestos,  i.  e.,  fire,  and  the  worship  of  mother  earth. 
Tiele  holds  that  the  religions  of  the  Redskins  and  ne- 
groes are  just  as  much  nature  religions  as  the  Baby- 
lonian, the  Vedic,  and  Greek,  though  he  admits  a  great 
difference  exists  between  the  former  and  the  latter. 
Von  Hartmann  designates  the  lowest  stage  of  religion 
as  "naturalistic  henotheism".  Jastrow  holds  that 
man's  consciousness  of  his  own  weakness  in  the  con- 


templation of  the  overwhelming  strength  of  nature 
furnishes  the  motive  for  seeking  support  from  certain 
powers  of  nature  and  to  accomplish  this  he  must  make 
them  favourably  disposed  to  him.  He  says  this 
theory  can  be  variously  put,  hence  can  furnish  a 
starting  point  for  pessimistic  views,  e.  g.,  Von  Hart- 
mann, and  of  optimistic  views  of  man's  position  in  the 
iiniverse,  and  it  appeals  to  minds  in  ^rmpathy  with  re- 
ligion as  to  those,  e.  g.,  Feuerbach,  who  regaiti  religion 
as  an  illusion. 

Thus  Naturism  teaches  that  man  originally  was 
destitute  of  religion,  and  that  ignorant  awe  in  /ace  of 
natural  forces  was  the  cause  of  his  earliest  faith.  But 
this  theory  cannot  be  accepted.  (1)  Its  basis,  viz., 
that  man  has  evolved  from  an  animal  state,  is  false. 
"We  know  now",  writes  Max  Muller  "that  savage 
and  primitive  are  very  far  indeed  from  meaning  the 
same  thing"  (Anthrop.  Relig.,  150).  Talcott  WU- 
liams  shows  the  necessity  of  revising  and  limitine  the 
confidence  with  which  the  modem  savage  has  been 
used  to  explain  a  nobler  past  (Smithsonian  Report 
of  1896).  Mttller  and  Kuhn  refute  Mannhardt  and 
Meyer  by  showing  that  popular  beliefs  of  modem 
folk-lore  are  fragments  of  a  higher  mytholofpr.  (2 )  It 
does  not  explain  how  man  gained  th^  predicate  God, 
which  is  the  real  problem  of  religion.  Jastrow  sa3's 
mere  personification  of  nature  lacks  a  certain  spiritual 
element  which  appears  to  be  essential  to  the  nse  of  a 

fenuine  religious  feeling  in  man.  Hence,  he  addfs 
iCdler  postulated  "the  preception  of  the  Infinite" 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1878),  and  Tiele  appeals  to  "man's 
original  unconscious  innate  sense  of  infinity"  (£lem. 
of  the  Scien.  of  Rel.,  II,  233).  Thus  Fairbaim  says, 
"the  constitutive  element  is  what  mind  brings  t4>  na- 
ture, not  what  nature  brings  to  mind"  (Studies  in 
the  PhiloB.  of  History  and  Religion,  New  York, 
1876). 

(3)  The  theory  is  defective,  for  it  does  not  explain  all 
the  facts  of  early  religious  consciousness.  If  nature 
were  the  only  source  of  religion,  man  would  express 
his  ideas  of  God  in  terms  drawn  from  nature  aJone. 
Now  the  science  of  language  shows  that  primitive  man 
expresses  his  idea  of  Goa:  (a)  In  terms  drawn  from 
physical  nature,  e.  g.,  Dvaus  Pitar  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
peansj  Zeus  pater  of  the  Greeks;  Jupiter  of  the  Latins; 
Tieu,  1.  e.,  heaven,  of  the  Chinese;  tne  Persian  Dteva; 
the  Celtic  Dia  from  the  Sanscrit  root  Div.,  i.  e.,  to 
shine,  (b)  By  moral  and  metaphysical  concepts: 
thus,  e.  g.,  Jahweh,  i.  e..  the  one  who  is;  Ahura,  i.  e., 
the  living  one;  El,  i.  e.,  tne  powerful  shown  in  Elohim, 
Allah,  Babylonia;  Shaddai,  i.  e..  the  mighty;  Bel,  i.  e., 
the  lord;  Molech,  i.  e.,  king;  Aaonai,  i.  e.,  lord.  Such 
concepts  are  found  with  barbarous  peoples,  e.  c.,  Un- 
kululu  of  the  Zulus,  i.  e.,  father;  Papang  of  the  Austra- 
lian, i.  e.^  father:  the  Mongolian  Teng-ri  and  Hunnish 
Tang-li,  i.  e.,  lord  of  the  sky.  Futhermore  the  earliest 
Indo-European  conception  of  God  is  Dyaus  Pitar, 
i.  e.,  the  heaven-father.  Hence  the  idea  of  pater- 
nity is  characteristic  of  their  primitive  consciousness. 
Such  a  concept  is  too  sublime  and  elevated  to  be  ex- 
plained on  the  principles  of  Naturism;  which  is  utterly 
unable  to  account  for  the  second  class  of  terms.  (4) 
The  main  support  for  the  theory  of  Naturism  is  the 
Vedic  religion.  It  is  true  that  traces  of  nature-reli- 
don  are  found  in  the  Vedas.  But  to  say  that  the 
Vedic  gods  are  nothing  more  than  nature  personified 
or  that  nature-worship  is  the  primitive  type  of  Indian 
religion  is  to  betray  the  superficial  observer.  The 
moral  and  spiritual  conceptions  are  older  than  the 
physical  faith.  That  the  ancient  Aryans  viewed  ns- 
ture  as  active  is  not  ground  to  hold  that  for  this  reason 
they  worshipped  nature.  We  express  ouraelves  after 
this  fashion  in  ordinary  conversation.  "  The  great 
truth  shown  by  the  Vedas  is  the  fact  of  degeneracy. 

II.  Philosophic  Natubism. — This  phase  is  based 
on  the  philosophic  unity  of  animated  nature.  The 
ancient  cosmogonies  represent  the  efforts  of  the  ho- 


NAUSEA  719  NAUSSA 

man  mind  to  attain  a  unity  amid  the  multiplidtv  of  infinite  and  eternal,  a  power  to  which  our  own  bdng 
external  |;hing8.  In  the  Stoic  conception  of  God  as  is  iuBeparably  connected,  in  the  Imowledge  of  whose 
the  soul  of  the  world  is  set  forth  a  Naturism  which  ways  alone  is  safetjy  and  well-being,  in  the  contempla- 
satisfies  the  intellectual  craving  for  unity  and  gives  tion  of  which  we  mid  a  beatific  vision.  Religion  be- 
scope  to  the  exercise  of  the  religious  emotions.  Hence  gins  with  nature-worship  which  in  its  essence  is  ad- 
it was  that  these  philosophers  could  look  with  indul-  miration  of  natural  objects  and  forces.  But  natural 
gent  tolerance  upon  the  reli^ous  practices  of  the  com-  mythology  has  ^ven  place  to  science,  which  sees 
mon  people.  The  basic  prmciple  with  both  was  the  mechanism  where  wiU,  purpose,  and  love  had  been 
same,  e.  g.,  the  worship  of  animated  nature.  To  the  suspected  before  and  drops  the  name  of  God,  to  take 
cultured  Roman  this  principle  was  conceived  as  a  phil-  up  instead  the  less  awful  name  of  Nature.  Nature  is  a 
oeophic  unity;  to  the  ordinary  mind  it  was  viewed  in  name  comprehending  all  the  uniform  laws  of  the  uni- 
manif old  forms  and  activities  which  were  the  source  verse^  as  known  in  our  experience.  It  is  the  residuum 
and  explanation  of  their  countless  nature-deities,  that  is  left  after  the  elimination  of  everything  super- 
Pantheism  in  its  various  forms  exhibits  the  same  natural,  and  comprehends  man  with  all  his  thoughts 
thought.  This  is  especially  true  of  modem  Pantheis-  and  aspirations  not  less  than  the  forms  of  the  material 
tic  theories.    The  substance  of  Spinoza,  tb?  synthesis  world. 

of  Fichte^  the  identity  of  Schelling,  the  absolute  idea  Here,  according  to  Seelev,  we  have  the  kernel  of 
of  Hegel  IS  at  basis  the  same  conception.  Its  religious  Christianity  and  the  purified  worship  of  natural  forms, 
significance  is  twofold:  (a)  the  more  spiritual  and  i.  e.,  the  higher  paganism.  He  holds  that  this  is  not 
metaphysical  form  appears  in  Neo-Hegelianism  which  Pantheism,  for  not  the  individual  forms  of  nature  are 
teaches  the  unity  of  human  and  Divine  consciousness,  the  objects  of  worship,  but  nature  considered  as  a  unit  v. 
This  reflects  the  nature-philosophy  of  H^el  which  ex-  Art  and  science  as  well  as  morality,  form  the  sub- 
hibits  the  idea,  i.  e.,  God  in  its  nnitude.  (b)  The  ideal-  stance  of  religion,  hence  culture  is  the  essence  of  re- 
jstic  Naturism  is  shown  in  the  writings  of  the  Ro-  lipion  and  its  fruit  is  the  higher  life.  Thus  religion,  in 
mantic  school,  e.  15.,  Goethe,  Shelley,  Wordsworth,  his  view,  in  the  individual  is  identified  with  culture, 
Coleridge,  and  attains  its  full  expression  in  Transcen-  in  its  public  aspect  is  identified  with  civilization.  For 
dentalism.  To  Emerson  as  to  Goethe,  God  was  the  Seeley  the  Church  is  the  atmosphere  of  thought,  feel- 
soul  of  the  world.  Emerson  seems  to  consider  religion  ing,  and  belief  that  surrounds  tne  State;  it  is  in  fact 
as  the  delight  which  springs  from  a  harmony  of  man  and  its  civilization  made  more  or  less  tangible  and  visible, 
nature.  Emerson  taught  that  the  universe  is  com-  His  universal  Church  is  universal  civilization.  And  as 
posed  of  nature  and  the  soul,  and  by  nature  means  all  culture  is  a  threefold  devotion  to  beauty,  goodness, 
the  not  me,  i.  e.,  physical  nature;  art,  other  man,  and  and  truth,  so  the  term  civilization  expresses  the  same 
his  own  body.  Hence  in  germ  the  worship  of  human-  threefold  religion,  shown  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  char- 
ity is  contamed  in  Emerson's  teaching,  just  as  it  is  acters,  institutions,  and  customs  of  nations.  (Cf. 
latent  in  Neo-Hegelianism,  and  appears  in  the  Hege-  Animism;  Deitt;  Fetishism;  Totemibm;  Than- 
lian  evolution  of  the  idea,  i.  e.,  the  Absolute  or  God,  bcendentaubm.) 
when  viewed  from  its  human  side,  i.  e.,  as  a  human  ,  ^'f«S2?^Q^**^«^*^'.**r«'^^«^.p^  '^J^^^Sl^iF*??' 

nmnaaa  burgh,  18»4) ;  Shaw,  Prectnct  af  Reltgxon  (New  York,  1908) ;  Dm 

prQC^^  «^  .    . I4A  GBABsiisBB,  Dm  reli^um*  compar^M  (Paris,  1899) ;  Gut  AN,  TA* 


III.  ScIBNCB-NaTURISM. — ^This  is  the  religion  of  the      Non-ReUoum  of  the  Future  (New  York,  1907)';  Tiblb,  Elements  of 


_  -  _  _  1900)' ...^    — w.-.,^-^         w~— i^..     ^    -«.,»,      --. — ~    

matic  form  by  Comte,  and  contains  the  principles  of  Oriain  (Chicago,  1909);  Ds  la  Saussate,  yianualoflhe'Sneneeof 

the  humanitarian  theories  so  prevalent  a  generation  5S^h^  ^^^T^R^\}^^^'  %**?°^'^  ?i"^^'*  f!^^<*P^V\^<^ 

ago     God  does  not  exist  or  at  least  cannot  le  known,  SiZlt^T^l  oSSS^^te*?  paS^S^C^^^^^^ 

therefore  mankind  calls  forth  the  sole  and  supreme  ex-  Natural  Religion  m  Ouarterly  Review  (Oct.,  1882) ;  Thoupson, 

pression  of  our  veneration  and    service,      (b)  Cosmic  S}^  **  Reliaion  in  BritUh  Quarterly  Renew  (October.  1879); 

religion,  a  title  invented  by  Fiske,  and  designated  the  ^^^^^^t.ZrL'^J^'^^^  ^JKJi'S": 

homage  of  reason  to  forces  of  nature  or  the  awe  of  Jx>ndon,  1884). 

phenomena  which  suggest  mysterious  and  destructive  John  T.  Dribcoll. 

power.    Spencer  speaks  of  the  emotion  resulting  from 

the  contemplation  of  the  unknowable  into  which  as  Nausea  Oatinized  from  the  German  Grau),  Fred- 
into  a  mystery  all  cosmical  questions  resolve.  Fiske  brig,  Bishop  of  Vienna,  b.  c.  1480  at  Waischenfeld 
develops  this  thought  and  makes  the  essence  of  reli-  (Blancicampium)  in  Franconia;  d.  6  Feb.,  1552,  at 
gious  emotion  very  largely  consist  in  the  sense  of  mys-  Trent.  He  was  the  son  of  a  wagonmaker  and  received 
tery.  To  Fiske  the  unknowable  manifests  itself  in  a  his  early  education  at  Bamberg  and  probably  at  Nu- 
world  of  law  and  is  yet  conceived  to  be  in  itself  some-  remberg  under  John  Cochlaeus:  with  Paul  of  Schwartz- 
thing  beyond  these  manifestations.  Hence  worship  enbei]g,  canon  of  Bamberg,  he  pursued  humanistic, 
is  ever  the  dark  side  of  the  shield  of  which  knowledge  juristic,  and  theological  studies  at  Pavia,  Padua,  ana 
is  the  bright  side.  Thus  Matthew  Arnold's  definition  later  at  Siena,  there  obtaining  degrees  in  Law  and 
of  reUgion  as  morality  touched  by  emotion  becomes  Divinity.  Cardinal  Lorenzo  Campeggio,  Archbishop 
with  "[l^ndall  poetry  and  emotion  in  face  of  matter  in-  of  Bologna  and  papal  legate  in  Germany,  empl^ed 
stinct  with  mmd.  Cosmism,  according  to  Fiske,  is,  him  as  secretarv  and  as  such  Nausea  was  at  the  Diet 
however,  more  than  a  mere  sentiment.  He  says  the  of  Nuremberg  (1524),  at  the  convention  of  Ratisbon, 
fundamental  principle  of  reUgion  is  obedience  to  the  at  the  Diet  ofOfen,  and  for  a  time  at  Rome.  In  1525 
entire  requirements  of  nature.  This  is  righteousness,  he  accepted  the  parish  of  St.  Bartholomew  at  Frank- 
just  as  sin  is  a  wilful  violation  of  nature's  laws.  fort-on-the-Main  and  the  dignity  of  canon,  but  was 
Science-Naturism  finds  its  most  complete  deline-»  soon  obliged  to  leave  on  account  of  the  intrigues  of  the 
ation  in  Seeley's  "Natural  Religion''.  He  uses  the  Lutherans  who  even  excited  popular  riots  against  him. 
term  "NatursJ  Religion"  in  contrast  with  the  super-  He  came  to  Aschaffenburg  and  (1526)  to  Mainz  as 
natural.  In  rejecting  supematuralism  and  submit-  preacher  of  the  cathedral.  He  attended  the  Diet  of 
ting  to  science  is  presented  a  theology  to  which,  he  Speier  (1529)  and  was  chosen  counsellor  and  preacher 
says,  all  men  do  actually  agree,  viz.,  nature  in  God,  (1534)  at  the  court  of  King  Ferdinand.  On  5  Feb., 
and  God  a  mere  synonsrm  for  nature.  Hence  there  is  1538,  he  was  named  coadjutor  to  John  Faber,  Bishop 
no  power  beyond  or  superior  to  nature  nor  anything  of  Vienna,  succeeding  him  in  1541.  Nausea  laboured 
like  a  cause  of  nature.  Whether  we  say  God  or  prefer  zealously  for  the  reunion  of  the  Lutherans  with  the 
to  sav  nature,  the  important  thing  is  that  our  minds  Catholics,  and  together  with  other  prelates,  asked 
are  filled  with  the  sense  of  a  power,  to  all  appearance  Rome  to  permit  the  clergy  to  many  and  the  laity  to 


HAVAJO                              720  HAVAJO 

use  the  communion  cup.    He  also  adviaed  Cologne  or  7300  were  transferred  to  Fort  Sumner  in  Bouth-eastem 

Ratisbon  as  the  place  for  holding  the  General  Ck>uncil.  New  Mexico.    About  1500  never  surrendered ;  about 

He  was  prevented  from  being  present  at  the  opening  400  fled  from  Fort  Sumner  to  their  old  homes.    On 

of  the  Council  of  Trent  by  contrary  orders  from  the  1  June,  1868,  General  Sherman  concluded  a  treaty 

kingj  but  met  Paul  III  at  Parma  (1546)  and  there  gave  with  them  by  which  they  were  permitted  to  return, 

to  him  his  ^'SylvBB  Synodales''.    When  the  Council  Ever  since  they  are  a  peaceful,  pastoral  people, 

was  reopened  at  Trent  in  1551  Nausea  was  present,  living  by,  with,  and  off  their  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats, 

taking  an  active  part  in  its  deUberations,  especially  Though  the  arid  character  of  their  country — good 

on  the  Sacraments.    Only  a  ^ort  attendance  was  for  grazing  purposes  only — forces  them  to  leaa  a 

granted  him,  for  he  died  there  of  a  fever.    His  body  nomadic  lire,  yet  most  of  the  families  have  one  abode 

was  brought  to  Vienna  and  buried  in  the  cathedral,  for  their  mam  home,  generally  in  a  well-watered 

In  the  Acts  of  the  Council  Nausea  is  praised  for  his  valley,  where  they  raise  com,  beans,  potatoes,  melons, 

great  knowledge,  his  exemplary  virtues,  and  His  eo-  oats,  alfalfa,  etc.    The  Navajo  women  weave  the 

clesiasfcical  convictions  (Theiner,  "  Acta  genuina  Cone,  renowned  Navajo  blankets^  noted  for  their  durability, 

Trid.",  I,  Zagreb,  1874,  652).    Among  his  writings  beauty  and  variety  of  design,  and  cu^ul  execution, 

are:  "Distich''  on  the  works  of  Lactantius;  '^Ars  whilst  a  number  of  the  men  are  clever  sUversmithB, 

Poetica";  sermons  and  homilies  on  evangelical  virtues,  makins  silver  necklaces,  belts,  bracelets,  wristlets, 

the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Blessed  V irgin  Mary,  rings,  buttons,  etc.,  of  rare  beauty,  out  of  Mexican 

the  life  of  a  true  Christian;  ''Catechismus  cath."  silver  dollars.    They  have  always  been  self-support- 

(Cologne,  1543);  ''Pastoralium  inquisitionum  elenchi  ing.    They  have  little  of  the  sullen,  reticent  di^xisi- 

tres"  (Vienna,  1547) ;  ^'On  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  tion  attributed  to  Indians  generally;  and  are  che^ul, 

and  of  the  dead''  (Vienna,  1551) ;  etc.    For  full  list  see  friendly,  hospitable,  and  industrious.    Their  govern- 

Metmer.  ment  is  democratic:  there  is  no  chief  of  the  whole 

MBiwrn,  Fr.NauMaauaWeisMigdt  (lUtisbon,  1884) ;  JKrcfc-  tribe,  and  their  local  chiefs  are  men  of  temporary  and 

S?5KjJ£'i?b§r^ii^"Ji2ik'^^^i:L2Sr^  iU-<l«fi?«l  authority,  whoee  power  dependa  largely 

(188^.  upon  their  personal  influence,  their  eloquence,  and 

Francis  MsBaHiiAN.  their  reputation  for  wisdom  and  justice.    The  tribe 

is  divided  into  about  58  clans  or  ^en/es,  grouped  under 

Namjo  IndianSt  numbering  about  20^000,  con-  several  original  or  nuclear  clans.  Exogamous  mar- 
stitute  the  largest  g^up  of  Indians  belonging  to  the  ria^es  with  Mexicans,  Utes,  Apaches,  but  more  e»- 
Athapaskan  or  D6ni  stock.  Other  groups  of  the  same  pecially  with  the  neighbounng  Pueblo  Indians,  cap- 
stock  are  the  Apaches  (Nd^),  lipanes  (lipa  Nd6),  tured  or  enslaved  ana  eventually  adopted  into  the 
Hupas  of  California,  and  various  D6n6  tribe  inhabit-  tribe,  are  responsible  for  a  number  of  clans.  In  con- 
ing British  Columbia  and  Alaska  (see  D^idbs).  This  sequence  there  is  nothing  like  a  pronounced  or  a 
pomts  to  a  migration  of  the  Navaios,  centuries  ago,  prevailing  Navajo  type.  Every  variety  of  form  and 
from  the  extreme  north.  They  themselves  have  a  ngure  can  be  found  among  them.  Marriage  is  con- 
vague  tradition  of  **Dm6  Nahodloni'',  i.  e.,  ''other  tracted  early  in  life.  Polygamy  and  divorce  are  still 
Navajos'',  living  far  away.  According  to  their  myths  prevalent.  Their  marriage  ceremony  is  only  permis- 
they  emerged  from  lower  worlds  somewhere  in  the  sible  at  the  marriage  of  a  virgin.  The  vices  of  abor- 
San  Juan  Mountains  in  south-western  Colorado.  At  tion,  infanticide,  race  suicide,  are  practicaUy  unknown 
present  they  occupy  an  extensive  reservation  in  the  among  them. 

north-east  comer  of  Arizona  and  the  north-west  cor-  The  elaborate  system  of  pagan  worship,  expressed 
ner  of  New  Mexico;  but  many  of  them  hve  beyond  in  chants,  sacrifices,  sand  paintings,  dances,  cere- 
its  borders,  especially  towards  the  south.  Formerly  monies,  some  of  which  last  nine  days,  make  the  Navajo 
their  habitat  extended  somewhat  farther  to  the  north-  appear  intensely  rehgious.  Though  they  have  no 
east.  conception  of  one  supreme  being,  their  anthropo- 

They  are  first  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Zaiate-  morphous  deities  are  numerous  ana  strikingly  demo- 
SalmehSn  in  1626,  as  Apaches  de  Nabaju.  In  1630,  cratic.  The  ideas  of  heaven  and  hell  being  unknown 
a  Franciscan,  Alonxo  Benavides,  in  his  Memorial  to  to  them,  they  believe  in  a  hereafter  consisting  in  a  life 
the  King  of  Spain  mentions  the  ''Province  of  the  of  happiness  with  the  peoples  of  the  lower  worlds. 
Apaches  of  Navajo"  and  adds  that  "these  of  Navajo  They  are  firm  believers  in  witchcraft  and  channs. 
are  very  great  farmers,  for  that  is  what  Navajo  signi-  Their  pathology  is  largely  mythological.  rUseases 
fies — great  planted  fields''.  Conseouently  the  word  are  attributed  to  evil  beings,  to  msJign  influences  of 
"Navajo"  may  be  derived  from  the  Spanish  nova  enemies,  and  to  various  occult  agencies.  Their  reme- 
meaning  "plain,  or  field".  The  Navajos  call  them-  dies  are  largely  magical  and  constitute  an  integral 
selves  Din6,  that  is,  people.  Benavides  then  mentions  part  of  their  religion.  The  superstitions,  ceremomes, 
the  treaty  of  peace  he  concluded  between  the  Navajo  and  customs  are  diligently  kept  alive  by  an  extraor- 
and  Pueblo  Indians  at  Santa  Clara  in  1630.  Previous  dinary  large  number  of  medicine-men  who  wield  a 
to  this  date,  as  Benavides  states,  and  subsequently,  powerful  i^uence  among  them.  Though  Protestant 
till  1862,  an  almost  continuous  guerilla  warfare  existed  missionaries  have  been  among  the  Navajos  since  the 
between  the  Navajo  and  the  Pueblo  Indians  and  early  ei^ties,  and  have  at  present  (1910)  eleven  dif- 
Mexicans.  The  number  of  Navajo  captives  in  Mex-  ferent  missions,  an  hospital,  and  three  sm^l  schools, 
loan  families  in  1862  has  been  estimated  at  between  the  number  of  their  adherents  is  very  insignificant. 
1500  and  3000.  In  1846  Colonel  Doniphan  made  an  After  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of  Fray  Benavides 
expedition  into  the  Navajo  country,  in  1849  Colonel  in  1630  to  Christianize  the  Navajos,  Padre  Menchero, 
Washington,  in  1854  General  Sumner.  In  1859  war  in  1746,  induced  several  hundrea  to  settle  at  Cebol- 
again  broke  out,  and  in  1860  the  Navajos  attacked  Fort ,  leta,  now  a  Mexican  town  north  of  Laguna;  but  the 
Defiance.  Colonel  Miles  and  Colonel  Bonneville  and  enterprise  soon  came  to  an  end.  In  1749  Padre 
General  Canby  made  campaigns  against  them.  When  Mendiero  made  another  attempt,  re-establishing  the 
the  Rebellion  broke  out  and  the  Texans  made  their  Cdboeleta  mission  and  founding  another  at  Encmal 
invasion,  all  the  troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  now  a  Laguna  village;  but  on  24  June,  1750.  the  In- 
Navajo  country,  whereupon  the  Navajos  rode  ovei  dians  abandoned  them  to  return  to  their  wilderness, 
the  country  rou^Hshod.  In  1862  General  Carleton  On  13  October,  1897,  the  Franciscans  of  Cincinnati, 
sent  Colonel  Kit  Canon  with  a  force  against  the  Ohio,  accepted  the  Navajo  mission  at  the  request  of 
Navajos.  He  subdued  them,  and,  mainly  by  killing  Mgr.  Stephan,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Catholic 
their  stock  and  destroying  tneir  crops,  forced  them  Indian  Missions,  and  of  Mother  Drexel.  The  mis- 
through  starvation  to  surrender,  whereupon  about  sionaries  took  charge  at  St.  Michael's,  Aiisona,  on  7 

■  'i 


NAVABBI                             721  NAVABBI 

October,  1898.    On  3  December,  1002,  an  industrial  dvnasty  was  Eneco  Arista  (830),  his  elder  brother, 

boarding-school  for  the  Navajos,  erected  by  Mother  Garcia  Semen^  having  received  as  a  dukedom  Vaa- 

Drexel,  was  opened  at  St.  Michael's,  and  has  since  conia,   the  onginal  Navarre.    After  the  death  of 

been    conducted    by  her    community,    the  Sisters  ^  Eneco  Arista  (852),  the  two  territories  were  united 

of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.    At  present  (1910)  the  and  Semen  Garcia,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Count  of 

school  is  attended  by  150  Nav^o  pupils.    A  branch  Alavaris,  was  chosen  king.    In  860,  the  united  Pam- 

mission  was  established  at  Chin  Lee,  Arizona,  in  1905,  plonese  and  Navarrese  gave  the  Crown  to  the  son  of 

and  a  chapel  built  at  Lukachukai,  Arizona.    231  chil-  Arista,  Garcia  II  Eneco,  who  zealously  defended  his 

dren  and  adults  have  been  baptized  at  St.  Michael's,  country  against  the  encroachments  of  Islam,  but  was 

and  78  have  made  their  first  Holy  Communion.    The  killed  at  Aybar  (882)  in  a  battle  against  the  Emir  of 

way  has  been  prepared ;  the  Navajos  are  well-disposed  Cordova.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Fortun 

towards  the  Catholic  missionaries  and  give  founded  Garcia,  who  was  held  a  prisoner  for  fifteen  years  by 

hopes  for  an  abundant  harvest  of  souls.  the  inndels,  and  who,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-two 

Much  attention  has  been  given  by  tJie  Franciscans  years,  became  a  monk  at  Le3rra,  the  oldest  convent  in 

to  the  study  and  construction  of  the  Navajo  language.  Navarre,  to  which  no  less  than  seventy-two  other  oon- 

In  1910  they  published  '*  An  Ethnologic  Enctionary  of  vents  were  subject. 

the  Navajo  Language",  and  also  ''A  Navajo  English  The  choice  of  the  Navarrese  now  fell  upon  his  son 

Catechism  of  Christian  Doctrine  for  the  Use  of  Navajo  Sancho  Garcia  I,  sumamed  Abarca  (905-925),  who 

Children";  other  works  are  in  preparation.  fought  against  the  Moors  with  repeated  success  and 

Ma-otbws,  Aj^^^^  joined  UltrarPuertos,  or  Basse-Navarre,  to  his  own 

tatn  Chant  ui  P%fM  Ann.  Rep.  cf  the  Bur.  of  Ethfud,  (WwAanaion,  j«.«:,»:««c.    ^«^o.m^:««.*  u»  *^w^4^^w^  «.  #»«  »»  'KT«:«.« 

1887):  lD«M.  The  Night  Chdnt,  a  Navajo  Ceremony  ia  M^^lreof  dommions.  esrtendmg  its  terntoiy  ss  f ar  as  Naiera. 

the  American  Mueeum  of  Natural  History,  VI  (New  York,  1002);  As  a  thank-offenng  for  his  VlCtOnes,  he  founded,  m 

Fbanciscan  FATOBRa,  An^iAn<*v»c  w^         of  the  Navajo  924,  the  convent  of  Albelda.    Before  his  death,  all. 

1898) ;  Stevenson,  Ceremonial  of  HaejeUi  DaOjU,  etc.  in  Eighth  cessor,  Garcfa  Sanchez  (925-70),  SUmamed  El  Tem- 

AnnwLl  Rep.  of  the  Bur.  of  Ethnol.  (Waahington.  1891) ;  Simmon,  bl6n  (the  Trembler),  who  had  the  support  of  his  CncT^ 

f rL^/Ji?i«^T?.^y"5SL4JlT^^  ^fiSrS:!jE^^.  petic  and  Siplomat^  mother  Teudariikewise  «igaged 

cwaahington,   1902) :  Benayxdib,  Memorial,  1630  in  Land  if  ma  number  of  conflicts  With  the  Moors.    Under  the 

Swtehine,  XIII  (1900).  Bway  of  his  son,  Sancho  el  Mayor  (the  Greair— 970- 

Ansblic  Webbb.  1033),  the  country  attaint  the  greatest  prosperity  in 

its  histonr.    He  seized  the  country  of  the  Pisuerga 

NftTUrre. — ^The  territory  formerlv  known  as  Na-  and  the  Gg%  winch  belonged  to  the  Kingdom  of  Leon, 
varre  now  belongs  to  two  nations,  Spain  and  France,  con(|uered  CastUe,  and  ruled  from  the  boundaries  01 
according  as  it  lies  south  or  north  of  the  Western  Galicia  to  those  of  Barcelona.  At  his  death,  he  un- 
Pyrenees.  Spanish  Navarre  is  bounded  on  the  north  fortunatelv  divided  his  possessions  among  nis  four 
bv  French  Navarre,  on  the  north-east  by  the  Province  sons,  so  that  the  eldest,  Garcfa,  received  Navarre, 
of  Huesca,  on  the  east  and  south-east  by  the  Province  Guipuscoa,  Vizcaya.  and  small  portions  of  B^am  and 
of  Saragossa,  on  the  south  by  the  province  of  Logrofio,  Bigorre;  Castile  ana  the  lands  between  the  Pisuerga 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Basque  Provinces  of  Guipuz-  and  the  C4&  went  to  Fernando;  to  Gonzalo  were  given 
coa  and  Alava.  It  Ues  partly  in  the  mountainous  Sobrarbe  and  Ribagorza;  the  Countship  of  Aragon 
r^on  of  the  Pyrenees  ana  partly  on  the  banks  of  the  was  allotted  to  the  youngest  son  Ramiro.  The  coim- 
Eoro;  in  the  laountains  dwell  the  Basques;  in  the  tiy  was  never  again  united:  Castile  was  permanently 
south,  the  Spaniards.  It  is  made  up  of  269  communes  jomed  to  Leon,  Aragon  enlaxged  its  temtory,  annex- 
in  the  five  districts  of  Pamplona.  Aoiz,  Estella,  Tar-  ing  Catalonia,  while  Navarre  could  no  longer  extend 
falla,  and  Tudela,  Pamplona  being  the  capital,  its  dominions,  and  became  in  a  measure  dependent 
French,  or  Lower,  Navarre  (Basse-Navarre)  belongs  upon  its  powerful  neighbours.  Garcia  III  (1035-54) 
to  the  Department  of  Basses-Pyrendes,  and  forms  the  was  succeeded  bv  Sancho  III  (1054-76),  who  was 
western  part  of  the  Arrondissement  of  Mauldon  and  murdered  by  his  brothers. 

the  Cantons  of  Hasparren  and  Labastide-Clairence  in  In  this  period  of  independence  the  ecclesiastical 

the   Arrondissement   of   Bayonne.    It   borders   on  affairs  of  the  countiy  reached  a  high  state  of  devdop- 

B^am  to  the  north,  on  Soule  to  the  east,  on  the  Pyr-  ment.    Sancho  the  Great  was  brought  up  at  Leyra, 

enees  to  the  south  and  south-west,  on  Labourd  to  the  which  was  also  for  a  short  time  the  capital  of  the  IHo- 

west  and  north-west,  and  extends  over  the  districts  of  cese  of  Pamplona.    Beside  this  see,  there  existed  the 

Arberoue,  Mixe,  Ostabar^s,  Oss^,  Baigorry,  Cize.  Bishopric  of  Oca,  which  was  united  in  1079  to  that  of 

The  principal  city,  Donajouna^  or  St.-Jean-Pied-de-  Burgos.    In  1035  Sancho  the  Great  re-established  the 

Port^  stands  on  the  River  Nive,  m  the  Arrondissement  See  of  Palencia,  which  had  been  laid  waste  at  the  time 

of  Maulton.  of  the  Moorish  invasion.    When,  in  1045,  the  city  of 

H18TOR7. — ^The  history  of  the  two  divisions  of  the  CalaJborra  was  wrested  from  the  Moors,  under  whose 
country  is  identical  until  the  year  1512.  when  Spanish  dominion  it  had  been  for  more  than  three  hundred 
Navarre  was  conquered  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  years,  a  see  was  also  founded  here,  which  in  the  same 
the  northern  part  remaining  French.  Little  is  known  year  absorbed  that  of  Najera  and,  in  1088.  that  of 
of  the  earliest  history  of  the  country^  but  it  is  certain  Alaba,  the  jurisdiction  of  which  covered  about  the 
that  neither  the  Romans  nor  the  Visigoths  nor  the  same  ground  as  that  of  the  present  diocese  of  Vitoria. 
Arabs  ever  succeeded  in  permanently  subjugating  the  To  Sancho  the  Great,  also^  the  See  of  Pamplona  owed 
inhabitants  of  the  Western  Pyrenees,  who  had  always  its  re-establishment,  the  kmfj;  having,  for  this  purpose, 
retained  their  own  lanp^age.  The  capture  of  Pam-  convoked  a  synod  at  Leyra  m  1022  and  one  at  ram- 
plona  by  Charlemagne  m  778  was  not  a  lasting  victory :  plona  in  1023.  These  synods  likewise  instituted  a  re- 
in the  same  year  the  Basques  and  Navarrese  defeated  form  of  ecclesiastical  life  with  the  above-named  con- 
him  at  the  Pass  of  Roncesvalles.    In  806  and  812,  vent  as  a  centre. 

Pamplona  seems  to  have  been  again  taken  by  the  After  the  murder  of  Sancho  III  (1076).  Alfonso  VI. 

Franks.    When,  however,  the  Prankish  emperors,  on  King  of  Castile,  and  Sancho  Ramirez  of  Aragon,  ruled 

acoount  of  difficulties  at  home,  were  no  longer  able  to  jointly  in  Navarre;  the  towns  south  of  the  Ebro  to« 

give  their  attention  to  the  outlying  borderlands  of  gether  with  the  Basque  Provinces  fell  to  Castile,  the 

their  empire,  the  country,  little  bv  little,  entirely  remainder  to  Aragon,  which  retained  them  until  1134. 

withdrew  from  their  allegiance,  and  about  this  time  Sancho  Ramirez  (1076-94)  and  his  son  Pedro  Sanchez 

began  the  formation  of  a  dynasty  which  soon  became  (1094-1104)  conquered  Huesca;  Alfonso  el  Batallador 

very  powerful.    The  first  King  of  Pamplona  of  this  (the  Fightei^—l  104-1 134),  brother  of  Pedro  Sanchez, 
X.— 46 


NAVABBI 


722 


NATABBS 


secured  for  the  countrv  its  greatest  temtorial  expan- 
sion. He  wrested  Tuaela  from  the  Moors  (1114),  re- 
conquered the  entire  country  of  Bureba,  which  had 
been  lost  to  Navarre  in  1042,  and  advanced  into  the 
Province  of  Burgos;  in  addition,  Roja,  Najera,  Lo- 
srofio,  Calahorra,  and  Alfaro  were  subject  to  him,  and, 
for  a  short  time,  Bayonne,  while  his  ships-of-war  lay 
in  the  harbour  of  Uuipuscoa.  As  he  died  without 
issue  (1134),  Navarre  and  Aragon  separated.  In  Aran 
gon,  Alfonso's  bix)ther  Ramiro  became  king;  in  Na- 
varre, Garcia  Ramirez,  a  grandson  of  Sancho  the 
Great,  who  was  obliged  to  surrender  Rioja  to  Castile 
in  1136,  and  Taragona  to  Aragon  in  1157,  and  to  de- 
clare himself  a  vassal  of  King  Alfonso  VII  of  Castile. 
He  was  utterly  incompetent,  and  at  various  times  was 
dependent  upon  the  revenues  of  churches  and  convents. 
His  son,  Sancho  Garcia  el  Sabio  (the  Wise — 1150-04), 
a  patron  of  learning,  as  well  as  an  accomplished  states- 
man, fortified  Navarre  within  and  without,  gave  char- 
ters (fueros)  to  a  number  of  towns,  and  was  never  de- 
feated in  battle.  The  reign  of  his  successor,  the  last 
king  of  the  race  of  Sancho  the  Great  (1194-1234), 
Sancho  el  Fuerte  (the  Strong),  was  more  troubled. 
He  appropriated  the  revenues  of  churches  and  con- 
vents, granting  them  instead  important  privil^es;  in 
1198  ne  presented  to  the  See  of  Pamplona  his  pidaces 
and  possessions  in  that  city,  this  gift  being  confirmed 
by  Pope  Innocent  III  on  29  January,  1199.  While 
he  was  absent  in  Africa,  whither  he  had  been  induced 
to  go  on  an  adventurous  expedition,  the  Kings  of  Cas- 
tile and  Aragon  invaded  Navarre,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, the  Provinces  of  Alava  and  Guipusooa  were 
lost  to  nim. 

The  greatest  glorv  of  Sancho  el  Fuerte  was  the  part 
he  took  in  the  battle  of  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa  (1212), 
where,  through  his  valour,  the  victory  of  the  Chris- 
tians over  the  Calif  En-Nasir  was  made  decisive. 
When  in  1234  he  died  in  retirement  (el  Encerrado),  the 
Navarrese  chose  to  succeed  him  Thibault  de  Cham- 
pagne, son  of  Sancho's  sister  Blanca,  who,  from  1234 
to  1253,  made  of  his  Court  a  centre  where  the  poetry 
of  the  Troubadours  was  welcomed  and  fostered,  and 
whose  reign  was  peaceful.  His  son,  Theobald  II 
(1253-70),  married  Isabel,  the  second  daught-er  of  St. 
Louis  of  France,  and  accompanied  the  saint  upon  his 
crusade  to  Tunis.  On  the  homeward  ioumey .  ne  died 
at  Trapani  in  Sicilv,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Henry  I,  who  had  already  assumed  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment duxine  his  absence,  but  reigned  only  three 
years  (1271-74).  His  daughter  Juana  not  vet  beins 
of  age,  the  country  was  once  more  invaded  from  aU 
sides,  and  the  queen  mother,  Blanca,  sought  refiige  with 
her  daughter  at  the  court  of  Philip  the  Bold  of  France, 
whose  son,  Philip  the  Fair,  had  already  married  Juana 
in  1284.  In  1276,  at  the  time  of  the  negotiations  for 
this  marriage,  Navarre  passed  under  French  domin- 
ion, and,  until  1328,  was  subject  to  Kings  Philip  the 
Fair  (d.  1314),  Louis  X  Hutin  (1314-16),  his  brother, 
Philip  the  Tall  (1316-22),  and  Charles  the  Fair  (1322- 
28).  As  Charles  died  without  male  issue,  and  Philip 
of  Valois  became  Kins  of  France,  the  Navarrese  de- 
clared themselves  inaependent  and  called  to  the 
throne  Joanna  II,  daughter  of  Louis  Hutin,  and  her 
husband  Philip  of  Evreux  (1328-1343),  sumamed  the 
Wise.  Joanna  waived  all  claim  to  the  throne  of 
France  and  accepted  for  the  counties  of  Champagne 
and  Brie  those  of  Angoul^me,  Longueville,  and 
Mortain. 

Philip  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of  the 
laws  of  the  country,  and  joined  King  Alfonso  XI  of 
Castile  in  battle  agamst  the  Moors  (1343).  After  the 
death  of  his  mother  (1349),  Charles  II  assumed  the 
reins  of  government  (1349-^7),  and,  on  account  of  his 
deceit  and  cruelty  received  thesumameof  the  Wicked. 
His  eldest  son.  on  the  other  hand,  Charles  III,  sur- 
named  the  Noole,  gave  the  land  once  more  a  peaceful 
and  happy   government    (1387-1425),   exerted   his 


strength  to  the  utnuist  to  lift  the  oountiy  from  its 
degenerate  condition,  reformed  the  government,  buDt 
canals,  and  made  navigable  the  tributaries  of  the 
Ebro  flowing  through  Navarre.    As  he  outlived  his 
sons,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter  Blanca  (14^- 
42)  and  her  husband  John  II  (1429-79),  son  of  Ferdi- 
nand I  of  Aragon.    As  John  II  ruled  Aragon  in  the 
name  of  his  brother,  Alfonso  V,  he  left  his  son,  Don 
Carlos  (Charles),  in  Navarre,  only  with  the  rajik  of 
governor,  whereas  Blanca  had  desired  that  Charles 
should  be  king.    In  1450,  John  II  lumself  repaired  to 
Navarre,  and,  urged  on  by  his  ambitious  second  wife, 
Juana  Enriquez  of  Csstile,  endeavoured  to  obtain  the 
succession  for  their  son  Fernando  (1452).    As  a  result 
a  violent  civil  war  broke  out,  in  which  the  ^powerful 
family  of  the  Agramontes  supported  the  long  and 
queen,  and  that  of  the  Beauinonts,  called  after  thdr 
leader,  the  chancellor.  John  of  B^umont,  espoused 
the  cause  of  Charles;  the  highlands  were  on  the  side  of 
the  prince,  the  plains  on  that  of  the  king.    The  un- 
happy prince  wss  defeated  by  his  father  at  Aybar,  in 
1451,  and  held  a  prisoner  for  two  vears,  during  wbuch 
he  wrote  his  famous  Chronicle  of  Navsire,  ^e  source 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  this  subject.    After  his 
release,  he  sought  in  vain  the  assistance  of  King 
Charles  VII  of  France  and  of  his  uncle  Alfonso  V  iS 
Naples;  in  1460  he  was  again  imprisoned  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  step-mother,  but  the  Catalonians  rose  in 
revolt  at  this  injustice,  and  he  wss  a^iin  liberated  and 
named  governor  of  Catalonia.    He  med  in  1461,  with- 
out having  been  sble  to  reconquer  his  kingdom;  he 
named  as  his  heir  his  sister  Blanca.  who  w^s/nowever, 
immediately  imprisoned  bv  John  II,  and  died  in  1464. 

Her  claim  descended  to  ner  sister  Leonor,  Countess 
of  Foix  and  B^am,  and,  after  her  death  and  that  of 
John  II,  which  occurred  almost  simultaneouslv,  to  her 
grandson,  Francis  Phc^us  (1479-83).  His  daught^ 
Catharine,  who,  as  a  minor,  remained  under  the  guai^ 
dianship  of  her  mother,  Madeleine  of  France,  was 
sought  oy  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  as  a  bride  for  his 
eldest  son;  but  she  gave  her  hand  (1494)  to  the  French 
Count  of  Perigord,  Jean  d'Albret,  a  man  of  vast  pos- 
sessions. Nevertheless,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  did 
not  relinquish  his  long- cherished  desups  on  Na- 
varre. As  Navarre  refused  to  join  the  Holy  League 
against  France,  declared  itself  neutral,  and  would 
have  prevented  the  passage  through  the  oountiy  of 
Ferdinand's  troops,  the  latter  sent  his  general  Don 
Fabrique  de  Toledo  to  invade  Navarre  in  1512.  Jean 
d' Albret  fled,  and  Pamplona,  Esteila,  Olita,  Sanguesss, 
and  Tudela  were  taken.  As  the  royal  House  of  Na- 
varre and  all  opponents  of  the  Holy  League  were 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  the  Navarrese  declared 
for  Ferdinand,  who  took  possession  of  the  kingdom  on 
15  June,  1515.  Lower  Navarre — ^the  part  of  the  coun- 
try lying  north  of  the  Pyrenees — he  generously  left  to 
his  enemies. 

Lower,  or  French.  Navarre,  received  from  Henry, 
the  son  of  Jean  d'Albret,  a  representative  assembly, 
the  clergy  being  rei)resented  by  the  Bishop  of  Ba- 
yonne and  Dax,  their  vicars-general,  the  parish  priest 
of  St -Jean -Pied -de -Port,  and  the  priors  of  Saint- 
Palais,  d'Utziat  and  Haramples.  When,  in  1589,  its 
administration  was  united  with  that  of  FiBnoe^  it  was  , 
still  called  a  kingdom.  After  Henry  IV,  the  kmgs  of 
France  bore  also  the  title  Kin^  of  Navarre.  The  i 
Basque  language  is  still  spoken  m  most  of  the  prov- 
inces. 

In  the  field  of  hiatorical  research,  the  most  «^***^nrgiithf^  mre*-     | 
tigators  hare  been,  for  Spanish  Nayarre,  Moret  ana  other  Jesuit 
scholarB,  one  of  their  pupils,  Ferreras,  and  the  Awgustinitn  M.     | 
Risco;  for  French  Navarre,  the  Benedictines,  de  Mares,  sad 
othera.     Chapputs,  HitUrin  du  royaumt  de  Nawam  (Fteis,  1590;     | 
1616):  Favtn.  HiUoirt  d*  Aasorr*  (Paris,  1S12):  GAUAin),  ^^ 
motret  nur  ta  Navarre  (Paris.  1S48) ;  di  Mabca.  Hutoirede  Bhr* 
(Paris,  1640) ;  OiiflfiMABT.  iVbtitia  vtriueque  Vaeeonim  (Paris.  IftM^- 
MoBBT,  InvetiaaUonn  historieat  del  reino  de  Nawarra  (Psiiiplao** 
1655) :  iDni,  Annalee  del  remo  de  Nawarra  (6  ▼ok.*  Psmploo^ 
1684-95;  12  vols..  Tolosa,  1800-92) :  FxBBauo.  La  Biihneif 
Bejmlia  (Madrid,  1700-27);  Bisco,  La  Vatoama  in  AyaSc  Sf 


KAVABBS 


723 


NAVABBSTE 


jrada,  XXXII  (Madrid,  1779) ;  Yamquab  t  MnuNDA*  Crdniea 
de  loB  r«]/ec  de  Nawarra  (Pamplona,  1843) ;  Idsm,  Hittoria  eompen- 
diada  del  reino  de  Navarra  (S.  Sebastian,  1832) ;  Idiii,  Diodonttrio 
ie  lae  arUiaUedadee  de  Navarra  (Pamplona,  1840-43) ;  Bascub  db 
LaobAib,  La  Nawrre  francaiae  (Paris,  1881) ;  Bladi,  Lee  Vaacone 
eepaanole  (Acen,  1891);  BoxaaONADK,  Hiatoire  delarhmiondela 
Natarre  A  la  CaatiUe  (Paris,  1893) ;  Jausgain,  La  Vaeconie  (Pau, 
1898 — ^):  RuANO  Pbzbto,  Anexi&n  del  Remo  de  Navarra  en  tiempo 
del  Rey  Caidlieo  (Madrid,  1899) ;  Arigiia  y  Lata,  CoUceidn  de  doeur 
fnentoe  para  la  h%Moria  de  Navarra  (Pamplona,  1900). 

Otto  Hartig. 
NaTarre,  Andbxw  L.    See  New  GuonBA,  Vicabi- 

ATB    ApOSTOUC  of. 

NaTarretei  Domingo  FernXndez,  Dominican 
missionary  and  archbishop,  b.  c.  1610  at  Pefiafiel  in 
Old  Castile;  d.  1689  at  Santo  Domingo.  He  received 
the  religious  habit  about  1630  and  on  completing  his 
studies  was  offered  the  chair  of  Thomistic  theology  in 
several  Spanish  universities.  He  preferred,  however, 
to  devote  his  life  to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen,  ana 
in  1646  with  twentyngeven  of  his  brethren  left  his  na- 
tive land  and  proceeding  by  way  of  Mexico,  arrived 
in  the  Philippine  Islands,  23  June,  1648.  He  taught 
theology  in  tne  Dominican  Universitv  of  St.  Thomas, 
Manila.  In  1657  with  several  of  his  brethren  he  went 
to  China  and,  after  learning  the  language,  took  up  mis- 
sionary labour  chiefly  in  the  province  of  Fo-kien.  The 
persecution  which  broke  out  in  1665  brought  disaster 
to  the  missions.  Forbidden  to  preach,  he  occupied 
himself  with  writing,  hoping  by  this  means  to  spread 
and  confirm  the  faim.  Being  hampered  too  much  he 
went  in  1673  as  prefect  of  the  Dominican  mission  to 
Rome  to  lay  before  the  authorities  there  the  question 
of  Chinese  Kites  which  had  reached  an  acute  stage  be- 
tween the  Jesuits  on  one  side  and  the  Dominicans  and 
Franciscans  on  the  other  (see  China)  .  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Innocent  XI,  who  wished  to  make  nim 
bishop  of  the  Chinese  missions.  He  refused  the  hon- 
our, but  on  his  return  to  Spain  in  1677  the  pope,  at 
the  su^estion  of  Charles  II,  forced  him  to  accept  the 
Archbishopric  of  Santo  Domingo,  where  he  laboured 
with  zeal  and  fideli^  till  his  death.  While  x)n  the 
question  of  Chinese  Kites  he  was  opposed  to  the  Jes- 
uits, sometimes  attacking  them  very  severely;  in  his 
diocese  he  entertained  Uie  highest  regard  for  them. 
In  his  letters  to  the  viceroy  and  to  the  kmg,  requesting 
them  to  perinit  the  fathers  of  the  Society  to  establie^  a 
college  in  his  remdential  dty,  he  pays  them  a  glowing 
tribute. 

Among  his  principal  works  may  be  mentioned  ''Tra- 
tados  hiBt6ricos.  politicos,  6tico6  y  religiosos  de  la 
monarqufa  de  China''  (Madrid,  1676);  ''Catechismus, 
lingua  sinica",  2  vols;  ''De  nurabilibus  Dei  nomini- 
bus^  lingua  sinica,"  2  vols.;  ''PrsBceptor  ethnicus  ex 
optimis  quibusque  Sinensium  Ubris  extractus,  et  ex 
eorumdem  sententiis  ooncinnatus,  lingua  sinica.'' 

Qn^nr-EcHASD,  35.  Ord.  Prod.,  II.  720-23;  Toxtbox,  Horn, 
lU,  de  Vordre  de  3.  Dominig^e»  V,  627-38. 

Joseph  Schroedsb. 

NaTarrete,  Juan  FernXndez,  a  Spanish  painter, 
b.  at  Logrofto,  1526  and  died  at  Segovia,  1579  (at 
Toledo,  February,  1579  or  28  March,  1579?).  He  is 
called  d  Mudo  (the  mute)  because  he  lost  his  hearing 
when  a  child  of  three  and,  in  consequence,  his  power 
of  speech.  His  parents,  who  were  well  to  ao  and  pei^ 
haps  of  noble  birth  placed  him  with  the  Hieronymite 
monks  of  Estrella  where  Fray  Vicente,  a  gifted 
brother,  was  his  first  teacher  in  art.  Navarrete's  tal- 
ents were  early  discovered  because  he  made  all  his 
wants  known  through  rapid  and  vigorous  black  and 
white  sketches.  He  may  have  been  a  pupil  of  Be- 
cerra.  Spain's  great  fresco  painter,  but  it  is  certain 
that  ne  went  when  a  ^outh  to  the  great  Italian  centres 
of  sxt  and  under  Titian  in  Venice  acquired  that  tech- 
nique and  knowledge  of  colour  which  earned  him 
the  name  of  "the  Spanish  Titian".  He  returned  to 
Spain  a  painter  of  repute,  and  travelled  extensively  in 
his  native  oountry,  leaving  works  from  his  hand  in  her 


important  cities.  In  1568  he  was  made  painter  to 
Philip  II,  received  a  salary  of  two  hundred  ducats, 
''besides  just  payment  for  his  work'\  and  was  com- 
missioned to  ciecorate  the  Escorial.  Li  1575  he  com- 
pleted a ''  Nativity  "  wherein  are  three  dominant  lights; 
one  from  St.  Joseph's  candle,  one  from  the  ^lory 
above,  and  the  mc^  radiant  of  all  from  the  divine 
Child  as  in  Corr^gio's  ''Notte".  In  one  "Holy 
Family"  he  paintedsuch  strange  accessories,  a  cat^  a 
dog,  and  a  partridge,  that  the  kmg  made  him  promise 
never  again  to  put  "such  indecorous  thin^  in  a  holy 
picture".  Thou^  called  the  Spanish  Titian,  Navar- 
rete  was  not  an  imitator  of  any  ItaUan;  he  was  an 
original  and  he  painted  rapidly,  freely,  and  spontane- 
ously. His  composition,  especially  m  groups  of  fig- 
utes,  was  masterly  and  was  excelled  omy  by  that  of 
Velasquez.  "  He  spoke  by  his  pencil  with  the  hrcarura 
of  Rubens  without  his  coarseness".  Navarrete's 
work  greatly  influenced  the  development  of  Spanish 
art  and  after  his  death  Lope  de  Vega  wrote:  "No 
countenance  he  painted  was  dumb'.  Despite  the 
artists's  infirmity  he  was  an  agreeable  companion, 
played  cards,  read,  and  wrote  much,  was  broad- 
minded  and  generous.  When  his  patron  ordered 
Titian's  "Last  Supper"  to  be  cut  because  it  was  too 
large  for  a  place  in  the  refectory  of  the  Escorial,  it  was 
el  Mudo  who  protested  most.  In  the  refectory  at 
Estrella,  where  he  received  his.  first  instruction  in 
painting  are  some  of  Navarrete's  best  pictures.  The 
following  works  may  be  mentioned:  "Holy  Family", 
at  Weimar;  "St.  John  in  Prison",  at  St.  Petersburg; 
"St.  Jerome",  in  the  Escorial;  "Holy  Family",  in  the 
Escorial. 

Stiblino-Maxwbll,  AnnaU  of  the  Artiste  of  Spain  (London, 
1891) ;  ViAROOT,  Lee  Mueiee  d^Eapagnet  d^Angleterre  el  de  Bdgiqite 
(Pans,  1843) ;  Fobd,  Handbook  far  Travden  in  Spain  (London, 
1847). 

Leigh  Hunt. 

Nayarrete,  MabtIn  FebnXndez  de,  a  Spanish 
navigator  and  writer,  b.  at  Avalos  (Logrofio),  8 
November^  1765;  d.  at  Madrid,  8  October,  1844.  He 
received  his  early  education  partly  in  his  native  town 
and  partlv  at  the  seminary  of  Vergara.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  entered  the  navy  and  a  little  later  in  1782 
served  with  distinction  in  the  unsuccessful  operations 
against  Gibraltar.  Through  overwork,  he  became 
broken  down  in  health  and  was  compelled  to  withdraw 
from  active  service  for  a  time;  but  during  this  period  of 
enforced  rest,  he  devoted  himself  to  historical  research 
and  in  1789  was  commissioned  by  the  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine to  search  the  national  archives  and  to  gather  all 
documents  and  data  in  connexion  with  the  maritime 
history  of  Spain.  He  devoted  three  years  to  this  work, 
and  among  the  documents  he  discovered  were  the 
diaries  of  the  first  and  third  voyages  of  Columbus. 
War  having  been  declared  between  Spain  and  France, 
he  rejoined  the  navy  in  1792  and  took  part  in  the  sie«^ 
of  Toulon.  Shortly  after  this  he  was  promoted  to  the 
grade  of  captain  in  the  navy.  He  was  then  placed 
under  the  orders  of  Captain  General  Langara  of  the 
Department  of  Cddiz  with  whom  he  afterwaids 
served  in  various  capacities  when  the  latter  was  made 
Minister  of  Marine.  While  in  the  Marine  Office,  he 
brought  about  many  improvements  and  reforms, 
amon^  them  the  planning  and  organizing  of  the  hydro- 
graphical  office  of  which  he  afterwards  became  the 
head  (1823).  In  1808,  he  resigned  his  government 
charges  and  retired  from  public  me  rather  than  recog- 
nize the  claims  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  who  had  been 
seated  upon  the  Spanish  throne.  In  1814,  he  was 
made  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  St.  Ferdinand,  and 
from  1824  until  his  death,  was  a  director  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  History.  Several  times  he  was  elected  to 
represent  his  province  as  senator,  but  his  career  in  the 
senate  was  not  a  brilliant  one.  Most  of  Navarrete's 
writing  is  historical.  His  best  work,  and  the  one 
which  gives  hun  his  reputation,  is  "Colecci6n  de 


724 


NAZABITH 


lo8  viaies  y  descubriimentoB  que  hideron  por  mar  loe 
espafioieB  desde  el  fin  del  siglo  XV ''  (Madrid,  1825- 
37).  This  was  published  at  govemment  expense, 
and  has  been  widely  read  and  quoted.  Among  his 
other  works  is  an  excellent  life  of  Cervantes,  pub- 
lished in  1819  in  connexion  with  an  edition  of  ''Don 
Ouijote"  brought  out  by  the  Spanish  Academy; 
''Colecci6n  de  documentos  in^tos"  written  in  col- 
laboration with  others;  "Disertaci6n  sobre  la  historia 
delaniLutica;"  and '' Biblioteca  maritimaespafiola''. 
The  last  two  were  published  after  his  death,  in  1846 
and  1851  xespectively. 

Vbntuba  Fuentbs. 


Nave,  architecturally  the  central,  open  space  of  a 
church,  west  of  the  choir  or  chancel,  and  separated 
therefrom  bv  a  low  wall  or  screen.  It  is  divided 
from  the  side  aisles  by  columns,  shafts,  or  piers,  is 
roofed  with  timber  or  vaulted  in  masonry,  and  usuaUy 
rises 


preaching  necessitated  an  even  greater  space  for  the 
congregation,  and  as  a  result  the  medieval  nave  in- 
creased to  vast  proportions  and  was  capable  of  holding 
crowds  that  often  numbered  tens  of  thousands.  Nor 
were  these  vast  auditoriums  reserved  exclusively  for 
reUgious  services;  in  many  cases  they  were  unconse- 
crated,  and  were  used  not  only  for  miracle  plays,  but 
for  many  strictly  secular  purposes.  The  line  between 
chancel  and  nave  was  always  very  clearlv  drawn:  in 
l^gland,  for  example,  the  parish  priest  had  full  au- 
thority in  the  former,  and  was  bound  to  keep  it  in 
repair  at  his  own  expense,  while  the  parish  itself  was 
responsible  for  the  care  and  maintenance  of  the  nave. 

Raij>h  Adams  Cbam. 


NftTlgaton'  Islands.    See  Samoa. 

Nazoa,  Abchdiocsss  of.    See  Ctcladbs. 

Nasarene  (Na^ipi^i^,  Ntuarenuti), — ^As  a  name  ap- 
"iT^'^^i™?^  ""^  TT"^  'i"  maK>iuy,  ana  usuauy  ^ued  to  Christ,  the  word  Nasarene  occura  only  once 
above  the  level  of  the  aisle  roofs  to  provide  hi^    {^  ^^e  Douai  Version,  via.  in  Matt.,  ii,  23,  where 


Latin  noma,  a  ship,  posdbly  with  some  reference  to    -.<),ii     r-  An«a  -rriv 
the  "ship  of  St.  Peter"  or  the  Ark  of  Noah.    The    ^Jr^imuB  a8'"^e'i 
norm  of  aU  subsequent  developmente,  whether  early      '   „  h„  „Kv5™„  ~i 


uniformly 

5  the  Christians  ate  spoken  of 

.            X  J      1           1.       1.  j.\.          ,  "J  iciKuutu  ao    uuo  scct  of  tho  NazareDes".    The 

i-u  •  *•       u    bseg'ient  developments,  wtethw  early  ^^    j^^  obvious  reference  to  Nasareth,  the  early 

Christian,  BvsMitme,  NonnM,  Medievd,  or  Renws-  ^^me  of  the  Saviour,  and  it  is  appUed  to  Him  in  the 

saoce,  IS  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  basilica,  with  its  Gospels  only  by  those  who  are  outside  the  cir«le  of 

wide,  centr^  area,  and  its  aisles  and  galleries  separated  His  mtimati  friends.    In  the  Acts,  however,  it  is  em- 

therefrom  by.  «>1«wmis  and  arches  MPPorting  the  ,    ^j  ^y  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  and  by  the  risen 

upper  waUs,  piwced  bv  windows,  and  the  timber  roof.  ^^  Hiiself,  according  to  Paul's  kccount  of  his  con- 

Dimng  the  thml  and  fourth  c^tunes  the  apae,  whȣt  version  oven  to  the  rttidtitude  of  angiy  Jews  who  had 

m  the  classical  examples  unmeduitely  terminated  the  attacked  him  in  the  Temple  (Arts,  xxu,  8).     In 

central  open  space,  vaa  pushed  back  and  separated  ^att.,  u,  23  we  i«ad  that  "  wming  he  dwelt  in  a  city 

from  tiie  nave  proper  by  a  transverse  nave  or  transept;  caUed  Nksareth:  tHat  it  might  bTfulfiUed  which  wi» 

I  <*«  l"Pf'°'»  3'  "^^f  ^■^"^PJ'  and  apse  (now  g^id  by  the  prophets:  That  he  shaU  be  called  a  Na«a- 

prolonged  mto  a  deep  choir  or  chancel)  was  sur-  ^g,,;'   No  explicit  prediction  to  this  eJfect  is  found 

'"?S^  °^  *  •     *•  ?'i***^*''  .**»«  .space  belo^  beinK  -^  ^^e  recorded  O.  T.  prophecies,  and  various  theories 

called  the  crowmg,  while  the  simple  system  of  equal  h^ye  been  advanced  to  ^lain  the  reference.    Some 

supports  equaUy  8|»ced  wm  for  a  time  abandoned  for  ^^^  connect  the  passage  with  the  neUer  (flower)  of 

the  alternating  system.    Simultoneouriy  the  upper  i,    ^   j   ^^^^  w5&Se  neizure  (dregs,  Douai)  of 

walls  were  mcr«»ed  m  haght,  the  wsles  vaultedm  i,   ^  ^  ^ut  these  interpretations  se^f ar^etched, 

masonry,  then  the  nave  itselT;  the  sohds  were  reduced  to  say  notiiing  of  other  difficulties.    That  the  jmalitj^ 

to  a  mimmum  in  favour  of  wmdows  that  tended  ever  ^  Nazariteii  alluded  to  by  the  Evangelist  is  dii 

to  mw«»se  m  suejthe  space  above  the  aisle  vaults  ^j  ^y  the  fact  that  Chiist  was  not  a  Nasarite, 

and  their  sloping  roofs  was  arcaded  and  thrown  o^n  £„  j^  the  theory  that  reference  is  here  made  to  some 

to^e  nave,  a  oraiplete  system  of  buttresses  was  de-  j^^  ^r  merely  traditional  prophecy  supported  by  any 

yi8edandperfected,aiidthecompleteGothicnavecame  ^jiy^  proif.    No  more  p&usible  J^anation  fa» 

mto  existence  (see  Gothic  Abchitbctotw).    Except  ^^  f^^^  j^an  the  one  given  by  St.  Jerome  in  his 

m  the  smallest  churches. the  nave  was  flanked  by  an  "Commentary  on  St.  Matthew",  vis.  that  the  men- 

SlS^fi'K^^S^^wu  t'-.f™*^?  ^•*-  '^ii"  ^^f?  ^*'"^  tion  of  the  "prophets"  in  the  plJiral  precludes  refer- 

^2  ^?.,^{jL^*l5^S*i.w*^r*"yi  "  "^.t^  '"^  ence  to  any  L^e  passage,  ancf  pointa  rather  to  the 

^„^^B?„  vL*55  *'"?**°*^  century,  there  were  ^  pi^dictibM^aTtiie  M^sias  would  be  de- 

!l***^I!^  ^^l.''^±^'^  ^'^''^^^i!^?:  &1  (<*.  John,  i,  46).  .  .    __ 


loftv  nave  with  arcade,  triforium,  and  clerestory, 
flanked  by  a  comparatively  low  aisle  on  each  side. 

In  early  Christian  basilicas  the  sanctuary  was 
hardly  more  than  a  semicircular  apse,  the  transept  or 
transverse  nave  serving  for  clergy  and  choir:  little 
by  little  the  chancel  was  deepened  to  accommodate 
the  increasing  number  of  clerics,  but  the  transept  and 
crossing  were  still  shut  off  from  the  people's  nave. 


(PariB,  8.  d.). 


Jambs  F.  Dbisooix. 


NasaraziM.    See  Ebiontteb;  Judaizxbb. 

Nanreth,  Sisters  of  Chabitt  of,  founded  Dec., 
1812,  by  the  Bev.  B.  J.  M.  David  (see  Louisville, 
Diocese  of).  Father  David,  while  establishing  his 
As  monasticism  developed,  more  and'  more  of  this  seminary  on  the  farm  of  St.  Thomas,  near  Baidstown, 
portion  of  the  church  was  enclosed,  until  in  many  Nelson  County,  Kentucky,  took  chari^  of  the  mis- 
Cistercian  abbey  churches  the  entire  central  space  sions  among  tne  surrounding  Cathohc  population, 
from  east  to  west  was  reserved.  In  the  soutn  of  Here  he  found  children  without  instructors,  sick. 
Europe  the  enclosed  choir  still  frexiuently  projects  aged^  and  poor  without  care.  The  need  of  devotea 
far  to  the  west  of  the  crossing;  but  in  France,  in  the  religious  women  was  felt.  He  found  a  few  ^roung 
great  cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ag^es,  nave,  transepts,  girls  willins  to  consecrate  their  lives  to  the  service  <m 
and  crossing  were  cleared,  the  chou-  screen  being  fixed  God  and  their  neighbour.  The  first  to  offer  heraelf 
at  the  eastern  side  of  the  crossing,  and  this  arrange-  was  Teresa  Carrico;  Catherine  Spalding,  her  assistant, 
ment  is,  in  modem  times,  almost  universal.  Durine  Harriet  Gardiner,  and  others  followecL  Very  soon 
the  Middle  Ages  also,  the  great  development  <3    ax  were  assembled,  and  the  number  continued  to  iiH 


NAZABITH  7 

crease.  All  were  daughters  of  pioneer  Bettlers  (see 
Kentuckt,  R«lioion);  their  zeal  imd  capacity  for 
good  works  formed  their  only  dower.  They  taught 
the  children,  spun  wool  or  flax,  and  wove  it  into  cloth 
out  of  which  Uiey  fashioned  garments  for  themaelvea 
and  for  Father  David's  seminarians,  who,  on  their 
side,  found  time  in  the  intervals  of  study  to  fell  trees, 
bew  logs,  and  build  the  seminary  and  convent.  The 
firet  loghouse  occupied  by  the  dstera  receiv  d  from 
FatherDavid  the  name  of  Naiareth.  This  n..me  the 
mot  her-^use  has  preserved,  and  thence  the  siatetB  are 
popularly  called  Sisten  of  Naiareth",  being  thus 
distinguished  from  other  Sisters  of  Chanty. 

Mother  Seton  could  not  spare  sisters  from  Enunitta- 
burg  to  train  the  new  commimitv,  as  Bishop  Flaget 
had  requested,  but  she  seat  him  tne  same  copy  of  the 
Rule  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  which  he  himself  had 
brought  her  from  France,  and  Father  David  carefully 
attended  to  the  training  of  the  novicca.  In  February, 
18It>,  he  found  the  first  sisters  sufficiently  prepared  to 
take  the  vows.  The 
little  body  was  fairly 
organised,     and    its 

tending.    Miss  Elea- 
nor O'Connell  (Sister 
KUen),    a    scholarly 
woman  and  expen- 
enoed  teacher,  came 
to  them  from  Balti- 
more, and  to  her  the 
early  suceesB  of  the 
educational  work  of 
Nazareth  is   largely 
due.  The  reputation 
ofNazarcth  Academy 
was  soon  established, 
and  etudents,   even 
from  a  distance, 
crowded   the   class- 
rooms,   although   it 
was  not  until    1829 
that  the  Legislature 
of  Kentucky  granted 
its    charter    to    the 
"Naiareth   Literary 
and  Benevolent   In- 
stitution".    Sister 
Ellen  prepared  others  to  assist  her,  establishing  what 
was  virtually  a  normal  school  for  the  sistera,  which  has 
been  lealoiisly  muntained  ever  since.    In  1822  the 
mother-house  was  removed  to  a  farm  purchased  for  the 
purpose  near  Bardstown.     Both  the  convent  church 
and  the  academy  building  were  completed  in  1825. 
The  sisters,  at  the  same  time,  never  lost  sight  of  their 
primary  work  of  succouring  the  sick  and  the  poor.     In 
each  of  their  houses  destitute  children  were  cared  for. 
St.  Vincent's  Orphan  Asylum  was  opened  in  Iiouis- 
ville,  after  the  cholera  epidemic,  in  1834.     Thence- 
forth schools,  hospitals,  and  asylums  grew  apace. 

Besides  the  mother-house,  the  congregation  now 
has  sixteen  branch  academies  and  high  schools  mod- 
elled upon  it.  The  sisters  teach  about  15,000  children 
in  parochial  schools,  and  care  for  more  than  5000 
■ick  in  their  hospitals  and  infirmaries.  On  oetition 
of  the  present  superior,  Mother  Eutropia  McMahon, 
the  congregation  received  the  formal  approbation  of 
the  Holy  See,  5  September,  1910,  nearly  98  years  after 
its  first  foundation. 

B«*ldM  tbe  historical  irorka  nfBrrad  to  mukr  KiirrtTCiT  Hid 
LoDUnuA  (M  Spaldino.  Sketches  of  Kniutky  (1S44);  Baktoh. 
Atlt't'  of  lilt  BaUlr/iM  nRS7):  Annati  of  Ihi  Sitltri  af  CharitM  of 
JVaiar«A,-  A  Bntl  Hitoncal  Skttcli  af  tht  Siiltri  of  Charili/  of 
JVaddr«lA,  KtntMckv  (IBDS). 

Marie  MENARn. 


25  NAZABITH 

the  Incarnation  of  the  Word,  and  where  Christ  lived 
until  the  age  of  thirty  years,  unknown,  and  obedient 
to  Mary  and  Joseph.  In  the  manuscripts  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  name  occurs  in  a  great  orthographical 

variety,  such  as  NafS^,  Sa(apte,  Nafopd,  Saiapir, 
and  the  like.  In  the  tiJne  of  Eusebiui  and  St.  Jerome 
(Onomastioon),  its  name  was  Nasara  (in  modem 
Arabic,  en  Ndiirah),  which  therefore,  seems  to  be  the 
correct  name:  in  the  New  Testament  we  find  its 
derivatives  written  Ba{iv^»4«,  or  NaJVpaioi,  but  never 
'Salaperain.  The  etymolo^  of  ^amra  is  niser, 
which  means  "a  shoot".  The  Vulgate  renders  this 
word  by  fioa,  "flower",  in  the  Prophecy  of  Isiuaa 
(xi,  1),  which  is  amjlied  to  the  Saviour.  St.  Jerome 
(Epist.,  xlvi,  "Ad  Marcellam")  gives  the  same  inter- 
pretation to  the  name  of  the  town. 

Nazareth  is  situated  in  the  most  southerly  hills 
of  the  Lebanon  range,  just  before  it  drops  abruptly 
down  to  the  pifun  of  Esdrtelon.    The  town  Ilea  in  a 
hollow  plateau  about  1200  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean,    be- 
tween hills  which  rise 
to  an  altitude  of  1010 
feet.     The    ancient 
Nazareth     occupied 
the  triangular  hillock 
that  extends  from  the 

north,  having  ita 
ptunt  turned  to  the 
south.  Its  north- 
western boundary  is 
marked  by  numerous 
Jewish  tombs  which 
have  been  discovered 
on  the  slope  of  Jebel 
es  Likh.  The  south- 
eastern limit  is  the 
ofnall  valley  that  do* 
scends  from  the 
beautiful  spring 
called  St.  Mary's 
Well,  which  was,  no 
doubt,  the  chief  at- 
traction for  the  first 
settlers.  In  the  last 
fifty  years  the  popu- 
lation has  increased 
rapidly,  and  amounts  at  the  present  day  to  more  than 
7000  souls.  The  modem  houses,  white  and  clean,  run 
up  all  alon^  the  hillsides,  especially  on  the  north. 
Spread  out  m  the  shape  of  an  amphitheatre,  set  in  a 
green  framework  of  vegetation,  Naiareth  ofi'ers  to 
the  eye  a  very  attractive  picture. 

HisTORT. — The  town  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  nor  even  in  the  worlis  of  Josephus.  Yet, 
it  was  not  such  an  insignificant  hamlet  as  ts  generally 
believed.  We  itnow,  first,  that  it  posBessecTa  syna- 
gogue. Neubauer  (La  g^graphie  du  Talmud,  p.  190] 
quotes,  moreover,  an  elegy  on  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, taken  from  ancient  Midrashim  now  lost,  and 
according  to  this  document,  Naiareth  was  a  home  for 


it  remained  excfusiveiy  a  Jewish  town.  St.  Epipha- 
nius  (Adv.  Htcresee.  I,  ii,  her.,  19)  relates  that  to  339 
Joseph,  Coimt  of  Tiberias,  told  him  that,  by  a  special 
order  of  the  emperor,  "he  built  churches  to  Christ  in 
the  towns  of  the  Jews,  in  which  there  were  none,  for 
the  reason  that  neither  Greeks,  Samaritans,  nor 
Christians  were  allowed  to  settle  there,  vii.,  at  Tibe- 
rias, at  Diocft'sarea,  or  Sepphoris,  at  Naiareth,  and  at 
Capharnaum".  St.  Paula  and  St.  Sylvia  of  Aqui- 
taine  visited  the  shrines  of  Naiareth  towards  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  as  well  as  Theodosius  about 
630j  but  their  short  accounts  contain  no  description 
The  Pilgrim  of  Piacenza  saw 


&r.  Mast's  Wiu,  Naiabeib 


of   Its 


NAZABITH 


726 


NAZAKBTH 


there  about  570,  besides  "  the  dwelling  of  Mary  con-  c«ted  the  house  of  the  Vu^  &t  the  top  of  the  aoutl^ 
verted  into  a  bamUca",  the  "ancient  aynaBogue".  A  em  point  of  the  hill,  which  risea»ome  30  feet  over  the 
little  treatise  of  the  ssjne  centuiy,  entitled  "Liber  plain.  The  dwelling  conaiBted  of  a  little  building  with 
nonuDum  loconun  ex  Actis",  speaks  of  the  church  of  a  ^tto  in  the  rear.  Even  now,  other  dwellings  like 
the  Annunciation  and  of  another  erected  on  the  site  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  Nasareth.  Explorations  made 
the  house  "where 
ourLord  was  brought 
up".  In'iTOAreulf 
^ve  Adamnan  an 
interesting  descrip- 
tion of  the  basilica 
of  the  Annunciation 
and  of  the  church 
of  the  "Nutrition  of 
Jeeus", 

The  toleration 
which  the  Moslems 
showed  towards  the 
Christians,  ajter  con- 
quering the  country 
in  637,  did  not  last 
long.  Willibald,  who 
visited  Nazareth 
about  725,  found 
only  the  basilica  of 
the  Annunciation, 
"which  the  Chris- 
tians", he  says, 
"often  redeemed 
from  the  Saracens, 
when  they  threat- 
ened to  destroy  it". 
However,  in  808  the  author  of  the 
ratorium   de   easis   Dei"    found   tweb 


1909,  beneath  and 
around  the  present 
church,  brou^t  to 
luht  the  whole  plan 
ofthe  an  ci  ent  basdica 
of  Constantine.  It 
was  built  from  west 
to  east,  divided  into 
three  navee  by  two 
rows  of  syenite  col- 
umns,  and  the  grotto 
wasin  the  north  nave. 
The  crusadras  fol- 
lowed the  same  plan, 
and   even  kept   the 

they  only  added  new 
pillars  and  gave  to 
the  facade,  as  well  as 
to  the  apee,  the  ap- 
pearance and  solid- 
ity of  a  fortresB.  The 
Franciscans  erected 
their  church  acroos 
the  ancient  building, 
so  as  to  bring  the 
grotto  beneath  the 
Commemo-    choir  at  the  end  of  the  central  nave.     The  crypt  waa 

.    .       _.    .._ .. monks   at    always  three  or  four  feet  below  the  pavement  of  the 

the  basilica,  and  eight  at  the  Precipice,  "a  mile    church.    Since  1730  there  have  been  fifteen  etepa 
away  from  the  town".     The  Greek  emperor,  John     leading  down  to  the  Chapel  of  the  Angel,  and  two 


Intuuob.  Chdbch 


ZimiBces,  reconquered  Galilee  from 
the  Arabs  in  920,  but,  five  years  after- 
wards, be  was  poisoned  by  his 
eunuchs,  and  his  soldiers  abandoned 
the  country.  The  basilica,  finally 
ruined  under  the  reign. of  the  Calif 
Hakem  (1010),  was  rebuilt  by  the 
crusaders  in  1101,  as  well  as  the 
church  of  theNutrition,or  St.  Joseph's 
House.  At  the  same  time  the  Grraks 
erected  the  church  of  St.  Gabriel  near 
the  Virgin's  Well.  The  arehicpis- 
copal  See  of  Scythopolis  was  also 
transferred  to  Nazareth.  After  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Hattin  (1187), 
the  crusaders,  with  the  European 
clergy,  were  compelled  to  leave  the 
town.  On  25  March,  1254,  St.  Louis 
and  Queen  Marguerite  celebrated  the 
feast  of  the  Annunciation  at  Naza- 
reth; but  nine  years  later,  the  Sultan 


AT  NAZARETH 


in  dwindled  down  to  apoor  village. 
In  the  fourteenth  century,  afew  Fran- 
ciscan Friara  eetablished  themselves 
there,  among  the  ruins  of  the  basilica. 
They  had  much  to  suffer  during  their 
stay,  and  many  of  them  were  even 
put  to  death,  especially  in  1385,  in  ""'■'•' 
1448,  and  in  1548,  when  all  the  friars  ch™ck 
were  driven  out  of  the  countiy.  In 
1620  Fakher  ed  Dtn,  Emir  of  the    ^^  nu«(.t 

Druses,    allowed    them    to   build  a    ,- .-,  . 

church  over  the  Grotto  of  the  Annun-    '^ — ^  ""•"  _^^ _   _ 

elation;  but  it  was  ruined  some  years  later  by  the     the  rock  descends  to  an  irregular  grotto  excavated 
Bedouins.      The  Franciscans  nevertheless  remained     beneath  the  sanctuary.     Several  interesting  details 
near  the  sanctuary,  and  in  1730  the  powerful  Sheikh     answer  to  the  description  given  by  Arculf  in  670.    The 
Dhaher  el  Amer  authorized  them  to  erect  the  church     Franciscans  are  about  to  rebuild  this  sanctuary. 
which  is  still  to  be  seen.  The  mountain  "whereon  the  city  is  built"  ends  in  a 

SiTBS. — In  the  fourth  century,  local  tradition  indi-    tow  of  hills  that  overlook  the  toT^.    On  the  south. 


more  to  the  Grotto  itself.  The  chapel 
is  the  traditional  site  of  the  house, 
properly  so-called,  of  the  Virgin;  at 
the  north  end  of  it,  the  mosaic  pave- 
ment is  well  preserved,  and  is  adorned 
with  an  inscription  in  Greek  lettera 
which  undoubtedly  dates  from  the 
sixth  century,  A  beautiful  altar  ded- 
icated to  the  mystery  of  the  Annun- 
ciation occupies  the  Grotto.  On  the 
left  are  two  columns  of  porphyry, 
certainly  placed  there  in  tne  fourth 
century. 

About  300  paces  northeast  of  the 
basilica  of  the  Annunciation,  "the 
church  of  the  Nutrition"  marked  the 
traditional  site  of  St.  Joseph's  dwell- 
ing, where,  after  the  warning  of  the 
Angel  (Matt.,  i,  20),  he  received 
Mary  his  spouse  with  the  ceremonial 
preecribed  by  the  law  for  matrimony. 
After  his  return  from  Egypt,  Joseph 
came  back  to  Nazareth  and,  with  the 
Virgin  and  the  Divine  Child,  again 
occupied  his  own  house.  There  Jesus 
waa  brought  up  and  dwelt  till  he  left 
the  town  at  the  beginning  of  His  pub- 
lic life.  Twodocumeotsofthe  fourth 
century  allude  to  this  place,  and  two 
others  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  men- 
tion the  chureh  of  the  Nutrition, 
built  over  it.  Excavations  made  in 
1909brouBht  to  light  the  lower  layera 
of  a  fine  chureh  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, from  which  a  staircase  hewn  in 


NAZABBTH                            727  NAZABItTS 

3ne  mile  and  a  half  away,  the  chain  of  hills  terminates  among  the  Nazarites  for  life,  but  nothing  is  known  of 

abruptly  in  two  precipitous  peaks  separated  by  a  deep,  him  in  that  connexion  beyond  what  is  mf erred  from 

wild  gorge.    The  western  peak  is  called  Jebel  el  Qaf-  the  promise  of  his  mother:  ''I  will  give  him  to  the 

sah,  ''Mount  of  the  Leap",  or  "of  the  Precipice".   A  Lora  all  the  days  of  his  life,  and  no  razor  shall  come 

monastery  built  on  this  mountain,  where  the  Jews  upon  his  head"  (I  Kings,  it  !!)•    It  has  likewise  been 

would  have  cast  Christ  down  headlong,  was  still  occu-  inferred  from  Jer.  (xxxv;  cl.  IV  Kings,  x,  15  soo.)  that 

pied  by  eight  monks  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen-  the  Rechabites  were  consecrated  to  the  Lord  oy  the 

tury.    The  ruins  now  to  be  seen  there  belong  to  the  Nasarite  vow^  but  in  view  of  the  context,  the  protest 

convent  of  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  against  drinkmg  wine  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 

5^SJS'^^**'*^/'*'^%  ^*7SV]i''^t^«?°S'o*?2y'2'*~^  assumption  is  probably  but  a  manifestation  on  the 

and  328;  GuAbin,  La  QalHU,  I  (Paris,  1880),  83-102;  Viaud,  _-_x  ^  >k«  «!««  #vf  ♦Wi;»  ^^r^^^y  r^^^^fi^^^r^v^  fr.*  ili*. 

Natar€th  H  —  igluea  d'apr^  UajauiiUt  riceiuet  (Pari  1910)1  P^  ,9\  "le  clan  of  their  general  preference  for  the 

MuaraBMAKM.  N€w  QuiiU  to  iA«  Holy  Land  (LondoD,  1907) ,  382-  Simplicity  of  the  nomadic  as  Opposed  to  the  settled  me. 

^1*                                  1)                 iv)r  ^  ^  passage  of  Amos  (ii.  11,  12)  the  Nazarites  are  ex- 

Babnab AS  Meibterm ANN.  pressly  mentioned  togetner  with  the  Prophets,  as  young 

Naiareth.    See  Tabni  and  Bablbtta,  Diocbbb  men  raised  up  by  the  Lord,  and  the  children  of  Israel 

OF.  ^^^  reproached  for  giving  them  wme  to  drink  m  vio- 

I  lation  of  their  vow.    The  latest  Old  Testament  refer- 

Nasarite  (nnj,  ONn?t<  inj,  consecrated  to  God),  ence  is  in  I  Mach.  (iu,  49,  50),  where  mention  is  made 

the  name  ^ven  by  the  Hebrews  to  a  person  set  apart  of  a  number  of  ''Nazarites  that  had  fulfilled  their 

and  especially  consecrated  to  the  Lord.    Although  days."    In  the  prophecy  of  Jacob  (Gen.,  xlix,  26), 

Nazarites  are  not  unknown  to  early  Hebrew  history,  according  to  the  Douay  Version,  Joseph  is  called  a 

the  only  specific  reference  to  them  in  the  Law  is  m  "Nazarite  among  his  brethren",  but  here  the  orimnal 

Num.  (vi,  1-21),  a  legal  section  of  late  origin,  and  em-  word  nazir  should  be  translated  "chief"  or  "leader" 

bodying  doubtless  a  codification  of  a  long-standing  — Nazarite  bemg  the  equivalent  of  the  defective  ren- 

usage.    The  regulations  here  laid  down  refer  only  to  dering  nazaroBus  in  the  Vulgate.    The  same  remark 

I>er8ons  consecrating  themselves  to  God  for  a  specified  applies  to  the  parallel  passage  in  Deuteronomy  (xxxiii, 

time  in  virtue  of  a  temporary  vow,  but  there  were  also  16),  and  also  to  Lam.  (iv,  7),  where  "Nazarites'* 

Nazarites  for  life,  and  there  are  even  indications  (Heb.  nezerim)  stands  for  "princes"  or  "nobles", 

pointing  to  the  consecration  of  children  to  that  state  Nazarites  appear  in  New  Testament  times,  and 

by  their  parents.  reference  is  maoe  to  them  for  that  period  not  only  in 

According  to  the  law  m  Num.  (vi.  1-21)  Nazarites  the  CSospel  and  Acts,  but  also  in  the  works  of  Josephus 

might  be  of  either  sex.    They  were  bound  to  abstain  (cf.  "Ant.  Jud.",  XX,  vi,  1,  and  "Bell.  Jud.",  II, 

during  the  penod  of  their  consecration  from  wine  and  xv,  1)  and  in  the  Tahnud  (cf . "  Mishna ",  iVarir,  iii,  6) . 

all  intoxicating  drink,  and  even  from  all  products  of  Foremost  among  them  is  generally  reckoned  John 

the  vineyard  in  any  form.     During  the  same  period  the  Baptist,  of  whom  the  angel  announced  that  he 

the  hair  must  be  allowed  to  grow  as  a  mark  of  holiness,  should   "drink    no  wine   nor   strong  drink".    He 

The  Nazarite  was  forbidden  to  approach  any  corpse,  ia  not  explicitly  called  a  Nazarite,  nor  is   there 

even  that  of  his  nearest  relatives,  under  pain  of  defile-  any  mention  of  the  unshaven  hair,  but    the  se- 

ment  and  consequent  forfeiture  of  his  consecration,  vere  austerity  of  his  life  agrees  with  the  supposed 

If  through  accident  he  finds  himself  defiled  by  the  asceticism  of  the  Nazarites.    From  Acts  (xxi,23  sqq.) 

presence  of  a  ooipse,  he  must  shave  "  the  head  of  his  we  learn  that  the  early  Jewish  Christians  occasiontaly 

consecration"  and  repeat  the  operation  on  the  seventh  took  the  temporary  Nazarite  vow,  and  it  is  probable 

day.    On  the  ei^th  day  he  must  present  himself  at  that  the  vow  of  St.  Paul  mentioned  in  Acts,  xviii.  18, 

the  sanctuary  with  two  turtle  doves  or  young  pigeons,  was  of  a  similar  nature,  although  the  shaving  oi  his 

one  of  which  was  ofifered  as  a  holocaust  and  the  other  head  in  Cenchrs,  outside  of  Palestine,  was  not  in  con- 

for  sin,  and  furthermore,  in  order  to  renew  the  lost  formity  with  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  sixth  chapter  of 

consecration,  it  was  necessary  to  present  a  yearling  lamb  Numbers,  nor  with  the  interpretation  of  them  by  the 

for  a  sin  ofifering.    At  the  expiration  of  the  period  de-  Rabbinical  schools  of  that  period.     (See  Eaton  in 

termined  by  the  vow  the  Nazarite  brought  to  the  sane-  Hastmgs,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  Nazarites.)   If  we  are 

tuary  various  ofiferings.  and  with  symbolical  cere-  to  believe  the  legend  of  Hegesippus  quoted  by  Euse- 

momes  including  the  shaving  of  the  head  and  the  bins  ("Hist.  Eccl.",  II,  xnii),  St.  James  the  Less, 

burning  of  the  hair  with  the  fire  of  the  peace  offering.  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  a  Nazarite,  and  performed 

he  was  restorwl  by  the  priest  to  his  former  liberty  with   rigorous   exactness   all   the  ascetic   practices 

fNum.,  VI,  ia-21).    The  meanmg  symbohzed  by  these  enjoined  by  that  rule  of  life. 

different  rites  and  regulations  was  in  part  negative,  MmKHABD.DeAonroM  (Jena.  1676)  :LB8iTM,iV(MarAii  in  Via.. 

separation  from  things  worldly,  and  partly  positive,  ^•.  ^JsJS^*  S-I"  ^^^*'  Fodabd,  Sainj  Pnyl,  m*  miuumM 

vii.  a  greater  fuhiess  of  life  and  holing  indiSted  by  SS^'ail  Si.*"'        ^^™^™«  ^^  ApouoU^m  (Pan.. 

the  growth  of  the  hair  and  the  importance  attached  to  '                                        Jaicbs  F.  Dbiscoll. 
ceremonial  defilement. 

The  existence  of  a  class  of  perpetual  Nazarites  is 

known  to  us  through  occasional  mention  of  them  in  NauriuSi  Saint,  fourteenth  abbot  of  the  monas- 

the  Old  Testament  writings,  but  these  references  are  tery  of  Lerins,  probably  sometime  during  the  reign  of 

BO  few  and  vague  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  Merovingian  Clotaire  II,  684-629.    He  success- 

the  origin  of  the  institution  or  its  specific  regulations,  fully  attacked  the  remnants  of  heathendom  on  the 

which  m  some  respects  at  least  must  have  differea  southern  coast  of  France,  overthrew  a  sanctuary  of 

from  those  specified  in  Num.  (vi,  1-21).  Thus  of  Venus  near  Cannes,  and  founded  on  its  site  a  convent 

Samson  who  is  called  a  "Nazarite  of  God  from  his  for  women,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in 

mother's  womb"  (Judges,  xiii,  5),  it  is  merely  said  that  the  eighth  century.    His  name  is  inscribed  on  the 

"no  razor  shall  touch  ms  head".    No  mention  is  made  calendar  of  saints  of  the  French  Chureh,  on  18  No- 

of  abstention  from  wine  etc.,  though  it  has  been  plau-  vember. 

flibly  assumed  by  many  commentators,  smce  that  r&-  (pS?  itrefliia^^'*  "^  '''*  ^^^  <^'»^^^  ^  P»o"*.  "I 

striction  is  enjoined  upon  the  mother  during  the  time  ^^       ^        •                                 ^  p  Kibsch. 
of  her  pregnancy.    That  his  quality  of  Nazarite  was 
considered  to  be  independent  of  defilement  through 

contact  with  the  dead  is  plain  from  the  account  of  his  Nasarius,    John   Paul,    Dominican   theologian, 

subsequent  career  and  the  famous  exploits  attributed  b.  in  1556  at  Cremona;  d.  in  1645  or  1646  at  Bologna, 

to  him.    The  prophet  Samuel  is  generally  reckoned  He  entered  the  order  at  an  early  age  in  his  native 


NAZARIU8 


728 


MXAU 


town  and  from  the  bednning  waa  noted  for  hu  spirit- 
uality and  love  of  stuofy.  It  ia  most  probable  that  he 
studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  University 
of  Bologna.  He  taught  with  c'eat  success  in  various 
schools  of  his  order  in  Italy.  In  1592  he  was  sent  by 
Clement  VIII  and  the  General  of  the  Dominicans, 
Beccaria,  to  accompany  the  Apostolic  Nuncio  to 
Prague  to  combat  the  prevailing  heresies.  There  he 
spent  three  years  teachmg  in  the  Studium  Generaie  of 
the  province,  lecturing  on  theology  in  the  university, 
preaching,  and  defending  the  Faith  against  the  errors 
of  the  innovators.  Returning  to  Italy  in  1596  he 
became  regent  of  studies  in  the  convent  at  Milan. 
The  following  year  the  pope  appointed  him  to  defend 
in  a  pubUc  disputation  at  Cniavenna  the  Catholic 
doctnne  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  against 
Calvinistic  preachers.  His  learning  and  doquence 
won  for  him  such  a  triumph  that  his  services  were 
sought  in  other  parts  of  the  countrv.  In  1620  the 
citizens  of  Milan  chose  him  as  ambassador  to  the 
Court  of  Philip  III  of  Spain  to  adjust  certain  matters 
of  importance  to  Milan;  in  May,  1622  he  represented 
as  dennitor  the  province  of  Lombardy  at  the  general 
chapter  held  at  Milan.  He  spent  the  close  of  nis  life 
at  Bolo^a  where  he  occupied  himself  with  teaching 
and  writing.  Of  his  works  the  following  are  the  most 
important:  ''Commentaria  et  Controversise  in  pri- 
mam  partem  Summae  S.  Thomse"  (Bologna,  1620) 
and  "  in  tertiam  partem  Summse  S.  Thom®  (Bolojsna. 
1625);  ''Opuscma  varia  theologica  et  philosophica 
(Bologna,  1630)  in  which  are  contained  the  acte  of  the 
above  mentioned  disputation; "  De  SS.  Patrum  et  doc- 
torum  Ecclesis  auctoritate  in  doctrina  theologica" 
(Bologna,  1633). 

QuAni^EcHABD,  S8,  Ord.  Praid,,  II,  544;  Toubon,  Horn,  JIL  dt 
Fordre  d»  8.  Dom,,  V,  268-08. 

'     JOSBPH  SCHROBDBB. 

Naiarlui  and  Celtua,  Saints,  Martyrs.— The 
only  historical  information  which  we  possess  regard- 
ing these  two  saints  is  the  discovery  of  their  bodies  b^ 
St.  Ambrose.  Paulinus  relates  (Vita  Ambrosii,  xxxii- 
xxxiii)  that  Ambrose,  at  some  time  within  the  last 
three  vears  of  his  life,  after  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  (d.  395),  discovered  in  a  garden  outside 
the  walls  of  Milan  the  bodv  of  St.  Nazarius.  with 
severed  head  and  etill  stained  with  blood,  and  that  he 
caused  it  to  be  carried  to  the  Basilica  of  the  Apostles. 
In  the  same  garden  Ambrose  likewise  discovered  the 
bodv  of  St.  C>l8U8,  which  he  caused  to  be  transported 
to  the  same  basilica.  Obviously  a  tradition  regarding 
these  martyrs  was  extant  in  the  Christian  community 
of  Milan  which  led  to  the  finding  of  the  two  bodies.  A 
later  legend,  without  historical  foundation,  places  the 
martyrdom  of  these  witnesses  to  the  faith  auring  the 
persecution  of  Nero,  and  describes  with  many  detidls 
the  supposed  joumeyings  of  St.  Nazarius  throu^ 
Gaul  and  Italy.  He  is  also  brought  into  relation 
with  the  two  martyrs  Gervasius  and  Protasius. 
Paulinus  says  distinctly  (1.  c.)  that  the  date  on  which 
Nazarius  suffered  martyrdom  is  unknown.  The 
discourse  eulogizing  the  two  saints,  attributed  to 
St.  Ambrose  (Sermo  Iv,  in  P.  L.,  XVII,  715  soq.), 
is  not  genuine.  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  speaks  in 
praise  of  St.  Nazarius  in  his  Poema  xxvii  (P.  L., 
LXI,  658).  A  magnificent  silver  reliquary  with  in- 
teresting figures,  dating  from  the  fourth  century,  was 
found  in  the  church  of  San  Nazaro  in  Milan  (Venturi, 
"Storiadeir  arte  italiana",  I,  Milan,  1901,  fig.  445-49). 
The  feast  of  the  two  martyrs,  with  that  of  Sts.  Victor 
and  Innocent,  is  on  28  July. 

MoMBRmus.  Sanctuarium,  II,  fol.  179  v-lS4  v;  Ada  SS.,  Julii, 
VI.  fi03-533;  Analwta  BoUandiana.  II  (1883).  302-307;  Bibli- 
otheea  hMiographiea  laliruit  II,  881-882;  DurouRCQ,  BhuU  aw  Ita 
*Q«Ha  Martyrum*  remain;  II  (Paris,  1907),  61  sqq.;  Batxo,  in 
Ambroaiana  (Milan,  1897);  Puricblu,  Dft,  martyribua  Naaario 
et  Celto,  ae  Protatio  ei  Oertatio,  Medidani  «ii2>  Nerone  ctBtit,  deque 
b^aUicit  in  quibua  eorum  corpora  guieeeunt  (Milan,  1656). 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 


Naiarlus  and  Companions,  Sainto.  In  the 
Roman  Martyrology  and  that  of  Bede  for  12  June 
mention  is  made  of  four  Roman  martyrs,  Basilides, 
Cyrinus,  Nabor,  and  Nazarius,  who  suffered  death 
under  Diocletian.  Their  names  were  taken  from  the 
''Martyrolozium  Hieronyanum",  in  the  Berne  MS. 
of  which  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duschesne,  Acta  SS.,  Nov. 
II  f77J )  we  read:  Ronue,  via  Aurelia  miliario  V, 
Basiledis,  Tribuli,  Nagesi^agdaletis,  Zabini,  Aureli, 
Cirini,  Nabori,  Nazari,  Donatdke,  Secundse.  The 
second  name  in  the  list,  Tribulus,  is  derived  from  a 
place-name,  Tripoli,  as  is  evident  from  the  Echter- 
nach  MS.,  and  those  foUowing  it  have  also  an  African 
origin.  In  an  ancient  itinerarv  to  the  graves  of  the 
Roman  mart^  (De  Rossi,  "lloma  Sotterranea",  I, 
183)  mention  is  made  of  a  mortuary  chapel  of  a  mar- 
tyr Basilides  on  the  Via  Aurelia;  he  is  another  Roman 
saint  whose  feast  is  on  10  June.  The  group  of  three 
Roman  saints,  Cjrrinus,  Nabor,  Nazarius,  to  which 
was  added  later  Basilides,  has  in  the  "  Sacramentarium 
Gelasianum"  (ed.  Wilson,  Oxford,  1894,  174-5)  its 
special  form  of  invocation  in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass. 
The  date  and  the  circumstances  of  the  deaths  of 
these  Roman  martyrs  are  unknown.  The  bones  of 
Saint  Nazarius  and  Nabor  were  transferred  by  Bishop 
Chrod^ang  of  Metz  to  his  diocese  (Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.,  Script.,  II,  268). 

Ada  SS.f  June,  11,  611  sqq.;  Qxtbntik,  Lea  martyrcUffea  Auf. 
du  maym-doe  (Paris,  1908),  61,  325,  373,  etc.;  Ubbaiv.  Ein  Mar^ 
tyrolog,  der  ehnaU,  Qemeinae  su  Rom  (Leipsig,  1901),  166  aq. 

J.   P.  KiBSCH. 

NaiianiUB)  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Cappadoda 
Tertia.  Nazianzus  was  a  small  town  the  history  of 
which  is  completely  unknown.  It  is  the  modem  vil- 
lage of  Nenizi  east  of  Ak-Serai  (formerly  Archelais), 
in  the  villayet  of  Koniah,  but  has  sometimes  been 
wrongly  identified  with  Diocsesarea.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourth  century  Nazianzus  was  suffragan  to 
CsBaGU'ea;  under  Valens  it  formed  part  of  Cappadocia 
Secunda,  the  metropolis  of  which  was  Tyana.  Later 
it  depended  on  Cappadocia  Tertia  and  on  Mocessus, 
and  finally  became  a  metropolitan  see  under  the  Em- 
peror Diogenes.  In  1370  it  was  united  to  the  metro- 
politan S^  of  Ceesarea.  Up  to  the  year  1200,  four- 
teen of  its  bishops  are  known.  Its  name  is  inseparably 
connected  with  its  illustrious  doctor  and  poetA)ishop, 
St.  Gregory. 

SiOTH,  Did.  Oreek  and  Roman  Oeog.,  ■.  tt:  Dioomaarta,  Naai- 
ansua;  VUmaslt,  Awm  Minor,  286;  La  Quibn,  Oriena  cSriat, 
(1740),  I,  409;  Mixumicb  and  Mullbh,  Aeta  oatriarehatua  Con" 
ataniinop.,  I  (Vienn*,  1860).  468,  636;  tee  Mullsb**  notes  to 
Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot.  1, 878. 

8.  PfrrRtDto. 

Noalo,  Lbonabd,  second  Archbishop  of  Baltimore, 
b.  near  Port  Tobacco,  Charles  County,  Maryland,  15 
Oct.,  1746;  d.  at  Georgetown,  D.  C,  18  June.  1817. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  Captain  James  Neaie,  the 
founder  of  the  family  in  Amenca,  who  settled  in  Mary- 
land as  early  as  1642.  At  twelve  Leonard  was  sent  to 
the  Jesuit  College  at  St.  Omen  in  French  Flanders. 
Thence  he  went  to  Bruges,  and  later  to  Li^ge,  where 
he  was  orduned  a  Jesuit  priest.  On  the  suppression 
of  the  Society  of  Jiesus^  Father  Neale,  together  with  the 
TCngliah  Jesuits,  repaired  to  England,  where  he  en- 
gaged in  pastoral  work  for  four  years,  but  in  response 
to  his  petition  for  a  foreign  mission,  he  was  assigned  to 
Demarara,  in  British  Guiana.  South  America,  where 
he  laboured  from  1779-83.  Discouraged  by  the  slow 
improvement  of  the  people,  and  with  health  impaired 
by  the  climate,  he  set  sail  for  America  in  January, 
1783,  arriving  in  Maryland  in  April,  associating  him- 
self with  his  former  Jesuit  brethren  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  among  them  the  Rev.  John  Carroll.  During  the 
yellow  fever  epidemic  in  Philadelphia,  in  1793,  the 
two  priests  of  that  city  were  stricken,  and  Father 
Neale  gladly  took  their  place.  For  nearry  six  years  he 
remained  there,  acting  as  vicar-general  to  the  then 


Bishop  CvtoH  of  Baltimore.     During  the  neoond  vim-    with  the  modem  Jebel  Neba,  an  oblong  ridite  on  on 
tAtinn  of  the  yellow  fever  to  Philaddphia  in  1797-8,     elevated  plateau  five  miles  aouth-west  of  Hesebon, 
iken  by  the  dread  disease.  2700  feet  above  sea  level. 


In  17^  Bishop  Carroll  called  Father  Neole  from  Houiuudu,  Ctnnmau.  in  Dm.JPtiv,  1»0I],  zii.sas.fieo 
Philadelphia  to  succeed  Rev.  Dr.  Dubourg  in  the  S^-  G»«™.  »«'■  «"  ".  BibU  vt(Nt^  Yor4.  is»).  iso; 
president  of  the  coU^  at  Georgetown.  He  acted  in  D«r™.^lnJ-^^  cvw.  c™m«u.  (N™  York.  IMS),  fl««w 
the  dual  capacity  of  president  and  tutor  tor  several  '  Jaueb  F.  Driscoll. 
years  and  under  his  Ruidance  the  institution  was  de- 
veloped from  ac  academy  into  a  colle^  in  ISOl.  The  Habruk*,  meaning  in  English,  "shallow  water", 
venerable  Bishop  CarroU  had  some  time  previous  to  occupies  gco^^phically  a  central  location  among  the 
this  applied  to  Rome  to  name  Father  Neale  as  his  co-  stat«e  of  the  Union  and  is  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  ter~ 
adjutor.  He  was  consecrated  by  Bishop  Carroll  in  ritorv,  purchased  from  France  in  1803.  It  is  bounded 
1300,  but  remained  as  President  of  Georgetown  until  on  the  north  by  South  Dakota^  on  the  east  by  the 
1806  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Father  Missouri  River,  which  separates  it  from  Iowa,  and  the 
Molyneux.  north-west  comer  of  M  issouri ;  on  the  south  by  Kansas 

Upon  the  death  of  Arehbishop  Carroll  on  3  Decern-  and  Colorado:  and  on  the  west  by  Colorado  and 
ber,  1815,  Bishop  Neale  succeeded  him  and  received  Wyoming.    It  has  an  area  of  76,340  souare  miles.   The 
the  pallium  from  Pius  VII  the  following  year.    Al-  surface  of  the  state  is  mainly  an  undulating  plain  with 
ready  nearly  seventy  years  old.  he  hved  most  of  the  a  gradual  upgrade  from  south-east  to  north-west  of 
time  at  Georgetown  in  quiet  and  retirement,  but  when  about  2300  feet.     It  is  drwned  by  several  streams,  the 
hisdutiesas  the  highest  dignitary  of  the  Church  in  the  principal  being  the  Platte,  which  is  formed  by  the 
United  States  called  lum  to  Baltimore,  he  was  remark-  juactionof  two  forks 
^ly  energetic  for  one  of  his  age  and  feeble  health,  rising  in  the  Rocky 
WhileinPhiladelphia.  Father  Neale  had  made  the  ao-  Mountains     and 
quaintance  of  Miss  Alice  Lalor,  through  whose  aid  he  flowing  east  through 
started   a  small  school  conducted  by  three  ladies,  the   centre    of    the 
which  was  destined  to  be  the  seed  of  agreat  religious  state   to    the    Mis- 
order  of  female  teachers  in  America.     Itus  school  was  souri,   and    receives 
broken  up  by  the  rav^es  of  yellow  fever,  but  the  many  tributaries  in 

Eroject  was  revived  by  Bishop  Neale  who  requested  its  course.  The 
li«  Lalor  with  another  lady  from  Philadelphia  to  come  Niobrara  flows 
to  Georgetown.  They  associated  themselves  with  the  north  to  the  Mio- 
Order  of  St.  CUre,  or  Poor  Clares.  In  1805,  on  the  souri,  and  the  Re- 
death  of  their  Abbess,  the  Poor  Clares  returned  to  publican  in  the  south 
Europe,  selling  their  convent  property  to  Bishop  empties  into  the 
Neale,  who  conveyed  it  to  Miss  Lalor  and  her  associ-  Kansas  River.  Ex- 
atee,  whom  he  permitted  to  enter  into  simple  vowsin  cept  at  certain  sea- 

1813.  After  his  accession  to  the  See  of  Baltimore,  the  sons,  all  these  rivets  °'*'-  "'  Neb«ab«* 
archbishop  petitioned  Pius  VII  for  the  r^ular  estab-  are  shallow.  The  population  by  the  census  of  1910 
lishment  of  a  moaastery  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation  is  1,192,214.  The  climat«  is  exceptionally  fine.  The 
of  the  Blessed  Virgtu  Mary  at  Georgetown,  which  re-  mountam  breezes  sweep  over  tne  plwns  and  ow- 
quest  was  readily  granted.  ing  to  the  splendid  drainage,  the  atmosphere,  purged 
His  health  fiuUng,  Archbishop  Neale  applied  to  of  all  malaria,  is  dry  and  exhilarating.  The  annual 
Rjime  to  have  Bishop  Cheverus  of  Boston  associated  mean  temperature  is  about  48°  Fahrenheit;  in  winter, 
with  him  in  governing  the  Diocese  of  Baltimore  with  22°  and  in  mid-smnmer,  75°.  The  winters  are  corn- 
right  of  succession.  But  Bishop  Cheverus  objected,  paratively  short  and  the  summers  free  from  excesmve 
proposing  instead  that  a  coadjutor  be  appointfil  with  heat  and  humidity. 

right  of  succession.     To  this  the  archbishop  agreed,  RESorRCBS. — Nebraska  may  bo  described  as  alto- 

and  Rev.  Ambroae  Mar^chal  was  selected  by  Arch-  ge;ther  an  aericultural  state,  being  practically  without 

bishop  Neale,  who  proposed  his  name  to  the  Holy  See.  minerals.     Deposits  of  coal  have  been  discovered  only 

By  a  brief  of  Pius  Vll,  dated  24  July,  1817,  Father  in  very  small  quantities.     Building  stone  of  the  lime- 

Mar6chal  was  appointed  coadjutor  with  right  of  sue-  stone  varieties  is   also  found,   but  not  extensively. 

cession,  under  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Stauropolis  in  Excepting  in  the  north-west  where  there  is  a  barren 

parlibua  injideliura.  but  before  the  arrival  of  tne  brief  tract,  known  as  the  Bad  Lands,  rich  in  fossil  remains, 

the  venerable  archoishop  had  already  died.  the  soil  is  a  deep,  rich  loam,  exceedingly  fertile.     Pro- 

C..«M«.  LiPtf  =/!&»  d««.f'l  BUIy<^.  r  (rjew  York.  1872);  fesBor   Aughey   m  "Nebraska,  Its  Advantages,  Re- 

iS^,"^;^:^.yS^.»^^(^«,t^™^™^^?4Tp'^"^''"''^  sources,  "|;i,.;says;'Oneofthemostremarkubled.^ 

J.  PsBBTOM  W.  McNbal.  poBito,  and  most  valuable  for  agricultural  purposes,  in 
the  world,  prevails  over  three  fourths  of  the  surface  of 

H8bo,Mou(JT(Heb.l33~irt;LXX.:Na^ai),amoun-  Nebraska.     It  is  known  as  the   lacustrine   or   loess 

tain  of  the  Abarim  (a.  v.)  range  east  of  Jordan  and  deposit".     Beneath  this  there   is  a  porous   Bub»oil 

the  Dead  Sea,  from* which  Moses  surveyed  the  Prom-  which  enables   Nebraska  to  stand  a  drought  much 

ised  Land  (Deut.,  xxxii,  49),  and  where  he  died  (ibid.,  longer  than  any  of  the  bordering  states.     The  report 

BKJv,  1,5).     The  same  is  probably  mentioned  in  the  of  the  monetary  value  of  Nebraska's  farm  output  for 

wanderings  in  Num.,  xxxiii,  47:  "And  departing  from  1909  is  extraordinary,  when  we  recollect  how  recently 

Helmondeblathaim,  they  came  to  the  mountains  of  this  territory  was  part  of  the  desert  and  so  designated 

Abarim  over  against  Nabo"   (Heb.  Nebo),   though  on  the  maos.     The  accompanying  tabic  is  taken  from 

here  the  reference  may  be  to  the  town  (see  Nabo).  the  carefully  prepared   report  of  H.  M.  Bushnell's 

The  location  of  Mount  Nebo  is  doubtful.     A  com-  Trade  Review,  published  in  Lincoln. 

Kison  of  Deut.,  iii,  27  (cf.  Num.,  xxvii,  12)  with  The  report  covering  the  manufactures  of  Nebraska 

ut.,  xixii,  49  mdicatee  that  the  "top  of  Phasga"  for  1008,  issued  in  August,  1909,  by  the  State  Bureau 

and  Nebo  were  variant  names  referring  to  the  some  of  labour  and  Statistics,  gives  the  amount  of  capital 

spot.     Difficulty  arises  in  that  from  no  point  of  the  invested   as  (90,593,629,   and   the  year's  output  at 

Abarim  range  does  it  seem  possible  to  behold  all  the  $100,232,792.     The  total  value  of  all  deeded  land,  in 

territory  mentioned  in  Deut.,  xxxiv,  1-3.  especially  1809,  embracing  34  419,471  acres,  waa»l,015,O4O,225. 

it  the  "turthermoat  sea"  means  the  Mediterranean,  For  1909,  the  total  valuation  of  all  property  in  the 

as  in  Deut.,  »,  24.    By  some  Nebo  is  identilicd  state  excluuve  of  railroads,  was  11,722,197,270;  the 


NEBRASKA 


730 


NEBRASKA 


yaluation  of  railroads  being  $274,044,325.  The  means 
of  communication  is  almost  exclusively  by  railroads, 
of  which  there  are  6105  miles  in  operation. 


Cora 

Wfaeat 

Oats 

Hay 

Alfalfa 

Hones 

Cattle 

Hoffs 

Barley,  lye,  and  cane 

Potatoes  

Poultry  produots   

Dairy  products 

Minor  crops,  beets,  fhiit,  etc. 


Total 


169.179,137  bushels 
60.313,600      ,. 
59.653.479      ., 
6,900,269   tons 
1,971,770      ., 


4.047.964  bushels 
7.386,497   „ 


993,048.450 
43,659,174 
23.861,000 
59,258,812 
23,661.140 
24,513.530 
26,375.812 
33.179.177 
3,796,977 
6,096,977 
18.732.436 
36.745.600 
10.650.000 


$402,579,085 


^UCATION  AND  Reugion. — Educational  facili- 
ties are  exceptionally  good.  The  State  University, 
founded  15  February,  1869,  enjoys  a  high  reputation 
as  an  institute  of  learning,  especially  in  all  technical 
branches  of  science.  The  professors  and  teaching 
staff  number  250  persons,  with  an  attendance  of  3611 
students.  The  appropriation  for  actual  expenses  for 
the  two  years  ending  31  March,  1911,  amounts  to 
31,238,000.  There  are  6930  public  schools,  of  which 
103  are  normal  training  high  schools.  The  total  ex- 
penditure for  schools  for  year  ending  13  July,  1908, 
was  $62416,342.  Of  this  amount,  $4,032,610,  was  di- 
vided m  salaries  amon^  10,355  teachers.  Catholic 
education  is  well  provided  for.  Besides  Creighton 
University,  there  are  one  college  for  boys,  fifteen  con- 
vent boarding  schools  for  girls,  and,  including  some 
district  schools,  practically  Catholic,  there  are  one 
hundred  and  four  parochial  schools  with  an  attend- 
ance of  10,714  pupds.  Of  these,  nine  are  accredited 
to  the  State  University^  and  three  are  recognized  by 
the  state  for  normal  training  work.  Of  non-Catholic 
educational  institutions,  the  principal  are:  Wesley  an 
University  (Methodist),  and  Cotner  University 
(Christian),  both  near  Lincoln;  Bellevue  College 
(Presbsrterian)  near  Omaha;  Doane  College  (Congre- 

gttional)  at  Crete;  Brownell  College  (EpiscopaUanXat 
maha.  Other  institutions  under  state  control  in- 
clude one  penitentiaiy,  one  reform  school,  two  indus- 
trial homes,  three  insane  asylums,  one  Home  for  the 
Friendless,  one  institute  for  the  feeble-minded^  one 
hospital  for  crippled  and  deformed  childroi.  one  insti- 
tute for  the  blind,  one  for  the  deaf  and  aumb,  two 
homes  for  soldiers  and  sailors.  Catholic  institutions 
include  four  hospitals  (Omaha,  Lincoln^  Columbus, 
and  Grand  Island),  managed  by  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis;  two  orphan  asylums,  containing  210  in- 
mates; a  reformatory  for  women,  managed  by  the  Sis- 
ters of  the  Good  Shepherd;  one  Industrial  and  Re- 
form school.  The  Methodists  and  Presbyterians  have 
each  a  hospital  at  Omaha. 

The  Constitution  of  Nebraska  guarantees  complete 
freedom  of  worehii)  and  egual  rights  to  men  of  every 
creed,  but  recognition  is  given  to  the  pre-eminence  of 
Christianity.  While  there  is  no  law  specially  directed 
against  blasphemy,  there  is  a  statute  agsdnst  prof anitv 
which  imposes  a  fine  of  twenty-five  cents  for  each  of- 
fence on  all  over  fourteen  years  who  profanely  swear 
by  the  name  of  God,  Jesus  Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghost 
(sec.  242.  Proc.  Crim.  Code  Neb.) .  The  observance  of 
Sunday  by  abstention  from  all  unnecessary  labour  is 
enforced  by  state  and  local  ordinances  with  reason- 
able strictness,  an  exemption  bdng  made  in  favour  of 
those  who,  by  a  precept  of  their  religion,  observe  the 
seventh  instead  of  the  first  day  of  the  week.  Oaths 
are  administered  by  raising  the  right  hand  and  calling 
God  to  witness;  where  conscientious  convictions  inter- 
pose, an  affirmation  can  be  made  instead.  Both 
nouses  of  the  legislature  are  opened  with  prayer  by 
a  chaplain,  appointed  to  hold  office  during  the  ses- 
QlQIl.    St?iti4tonrl^w  tempts  the  priest  from  revealing^ 


communications  made  under  seal  of  the  confessional 
without  the  consent  of  the  informant  (sec.  328, 
Civil  Code,  Neb.).  Christmas  Day  is  the  only  re- 
ligious holiday  recognized  as  such  by  law. 

Ecclesiastical  property,  by  diocesan  statute,  is 
vested  in  the  bishop  as  trustee,  but  there  is  no  civil 
statute  so  ordaining.  Under  sees.  4193-4,  *' Corpora- 
tions, 1909,  Nebraska  Civil  Code",  each  parish  can  or- 
ganize and  incorporate  in  the  manner  provided:  "The 
chief,  or  presiding  or  executive  officer  of  the  religious 
bodies,  sects,  and  denominations  mentioned  in  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  may,  at  such  place  in  this  state 
as  he  may  appoint  for  the  purpose,  convene  a  meeting 
of  himself  and  some  other  officer  subordinate  to  him- 
self, but  having  general  jurisdiction  throughout  the 
state  or  part  of  the  state  aforesaid,  and  the  priest,  min- 
ister or  clergyman  of  the  proposed  churcn,  pani^  or 
society,  and  at  least  two  laymen,  residents  within  the 
limits  thereof,  of  which  the  said  chief,  etc.  shall  be 
president  and  one  of  the  other  persons  present  shall  be 
secretary."  These  five  persons  shall  tnen  adopt  arti- 
cles of  incorporation  and  shall  have  power  to  name  the 
church  or  parish,  decide  the  manner  in  which  it  shall 
contract  and  be  bound  for  debts,  or  convej,  encumber 
or  charge  the  property,  regulate  succession  of  mem- 
bers, fill  vacancies,  name  time  corporation  is  to  last  and 
decide  by  what  officers  its  affairs  shall  be  conducted. 
Under  this  last  clause  the  diocesan  regulation  can  be 
adopted  as  the  rule  under  which  the  affairs  of  the 
parish  shall  be  conducted.  If  the  five  persons  ne^ect 
to  file  articles  of  incorporation  for  the  parish,  the  dioc- 
esan regulation  investing  the  property  in  the  bishop, 
as  trustee,  has  no  recognition  from  the  civil  law,  and 
without  a  supplementary  action  in  amendment,  a 
transfer  of  the  property  by  the  bishop,  as  trustee,  will 
be  defective  in  title.  If  the  five  persons,  at  the  time 
of  the  organization  of  the  parish,  skdopted  the  diocesan 
rule  and  then  filed  articles  of  incorporation,  the  action 
of  the  bishop,  as  trustee,  would  be  legal.  Otherwise, 
the  ne^ect  to  incorporate  obstructs  the  operation  of 
the  diocesan  statute.  Churches,  parochial  schools, 
and  charitable  institutions  are  exempt  from  taxation, 
and  clergymen  are  also  exempt  from  personal  taxes 
and  are  not  liable  to  military  or  jury  service.  Catho- 
lic priests  have  free  access  to  all  state  institutions  and 
their  courteous  treatment  has  been  a  rule  without 
exception. 

The  status  of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools  has 
been  the  subject  of  contention,  but  the  decisions  of  the 
Supreme  Court  are  not  very  clear  and  seem  oontradio- 
tory.  In  1899^  a  teacher  in  a  Gage  County  school  ob- 
tained permission  from  the  local  school  board  to  have 
religious  exercises  during  school  hours.  The  reading 
of  the  Bible  was  a  feature  of  the  exercises.  One  Dan- 
iel Freeman,  a  free-thinker,  whose  children  attended 
the  school,  objected.  The  question  was  referred  to 
the  state  superintendent  who  decided  against  Free- 
man. In  the  meantime  Freeman  b^an  an  action  at 
law  in  the  Gage  County  District  Court;  the  deci- 
sion was  agunst  him.  The  case  was  appealed  to  the 
Supreme  Court  and  the  judgment  of  tne  lower  court 
was  reversed.  Commissioner  Ames  decided  tiiat  the 
readingof  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools  was  a  breach 
of  the  Constitution.  In  this  opinion,  Commissioners 
Duffie  and  Albert  coincided.  Jud^  Sedgwick  coin- 
cided on  the  ground  that  the  instruction  was  sectarian. 
Judge  Holcomb  also  coincided  as  to  the  particular 
case,  but  held  that,  excepting  its  use  for  sectarian  pur- 
poses, the  reading  of  the  Bible  was  discretionary  with 
the  school  authonties  (State  of  Nebraska,  ex  rd,  Dan- 
iel Freeman  v,  John.  Scheve,  et  oZ.,  Vol.  LXV,  page 
853).  A  motion  for  rehearing  was  filed  21  January, 
1903,  and  Chief-Justice  Sullivan,  while  overruling  the 
motion  for  a  rehearing,  ^ave  the  opinion,  that  "The 
section  of  the  Constitution  which  provided  that  no 
sectarian  instruction  shall  be  allowed  in  any  school  or 
insfitutioa  support^  in  whole  or  in  part  by  the  public 


mBaASXA                          731  imBftASSA 

funds  set  apart  for  educational  purposes  cannot,  under  and  critics  claim  that  he  did  not  come  further  north 

any  canon  of  construction  with  whieh  we  are  ao-  than  a  point  in  Kansas,  near  Junction  City.    In  1662 

quainted,  be  held  to  mean  that  neither  the  Bible  nor  another  attempt  to  reach  Quivera  is  said  to  have  been 

any  (Murt  of  it,  from  Geneds  to  Revelation,  may  be  made  under  conunand  of  Don  Diego,  Count  of  Pene- 

read  in  the  educational  institutions  fostered  by  the  losa,  and  accompanied  by  Father  Nicholas  de  Freytas 

state.    We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  either  who  wrote  an  elaborate  and  detailed  account  of  the 

countenancing  or  discountenancing  the  reading  of  the  e3q)edition.     It  is  claimed  Peneiosa  reached  the  Platte, 

Bible  in  the  public  schools.    Even  where  it  is  an  irri-  where  he  found  a  very  populous  city  beloneing  to 

tant  element^  the  question,  whether  its  legitimate  use  Quivera.  As  it  was  burned  in  one  ni|ht,  it  could  have 

shall  be  contmued  or  discontinued,  is  an  administra-  been  but  a  large  Indian  village.    Fenelosa  returned 

tive  and  not  a  judicial  question;  it  belongs  to  the  to  Mexico  in  June,  1662.   Not  much  credence  is  given 

school  authorities  and  not  the  courts.    The  motion  for  to  the  stonr  of  Peneiosa.    In  1673  Spain  claimed  all 

a  rehearing  is  overruled  and  the  judment  heretofore  the  trans-Mississippi  region,  but  ten  years  later  La 

rendered  is  adhered  to"  (ibid.,  p.  887).  Salle  asserted  the  sovereimty  of  France.     In  1762 

Marriage  and  Divorce.— -Subject  to  procuring  a  the  French  relinquished  all  this  territory  to  Spain, 
civil  licence,  marriage  can  be  legally  performed  oy  but  it  was  recedea  to  France  in  1800;  finally  in  1803 
every  judge  and  justice  of  the  peace  and  every  under  the  name  of  Louisiana  Territory,  it  passed  by 
preacher  of  the  Gospel  authorized  by  the  usages  of  the  purchase  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States.  In 
Church  to  which  he  belongs.  Decrees  of  divorce  are  many  American  works  the  statement  is  made^  that 
given  for  the  following  causes:  adultery^  inmrison-  •  the  first  white  men  to  visit  and  fpve  a  description  of 
ment  for  three  years  or  more;  wilful  desertion  for  two  Nebraska  were  Lewis  and  Clark.  This  is  incorrect, 
years;  habitual  drunkenness;  extreme  cruelty;  wanton  The  sixth  volume  of  Pierre  Margry's  ''D6couvertes 
neglect  to  support  wife.  The  state  was  gettmg  an  un-  et  Etablissements  des  Fran^us  dans  I'Amdrique^ 
enviable  notoriety  for  the  facUity  of  securing  (uvorces,  (Paris,  1856),  now  in  the  library  of  the  State  Histori- 
and  many  outsiders  were  taking  advantage  of  it.  To  cal  Societ^r,  contains  the  records  of  several  expeditions 
stop  this,  amendatory  enactments  were  passed  by  the  to  the  regions  between  the  Missisdppi  and  the  Mis- 
legislature  of  1009.  At  present,  no  divorce  can  be  souri  and  further  west.  Among  them  is  the  original 
granted  for  any  cause  unless  petitioner  has  had  one  report  of  the  journey  of  Pierre  and  Paul  Mallet  and 
vear^s  actual  residence  in  the  state  immediately  before  their  compamons  across  Nebraska  on  a  mission  to 
bringing  suit  and  shaU  then  have  a  hana-fide  intention  Santa  F6  to  open  up  trade  facilities  with  the  Spaniards 
of  making  his  or  her  permanent  home  in  Nebraska —  of  New  Mexico.  The  MaUets  were  French  Canadians 
unless  the  marriage  was  solemnised  in  the  state  and  and  their  companions  were  Phillipe  Robitaille,  Louis 
the  parties  shall  have  resided  therein  from  the  time  of  Morin,  Michel  Beslot,  Joseph  Bellecourt,  also  Cana- 
marriage  to  the  filing  of  petition.  No  person  shall  be  dians,  and  Jean  Davia,  a  native  of  France, 
entitled  to  a  divorce  for  any  cause  arising  outside  of  The  report  reads:  ''To  understand  the  route  taken 
the  state  unless  petitioner  or  defendant  shall  have  re-  by  these  Canadians  to  discover  New  Mexico,  it  is  well 
sided  within  the  state  at  least  two  years  next  before  to  know  that  it  is  100  leagues  from  the  village  of  the 
brin^g  suit  for  divorce,  with  a  htmorfide  intention  of  Illinois  [Indians]  to  those  of  the  Miasouris  on  the  river 
makmghis  or  her  permanent  home  in  Nebraska.  No  of  that  name;  80  leagues  from  there  to  the  Canzes 
divorce  shall  be  granted  where  collusion  seems  to  have  [Kansas];  100  leagues  from  the  Kansas  to  the  Octoc- 
existed  between  the  parties  or  where  both  have  been  tates  [Otoes]  and  60  from  there  to  where  the  river  of 
guiltv  of  the  same  misconduct.  No  person  shall  be  the  Panimanas  [Omahas]  empties  into  the  Missouri 
entitled  to  a  divorce  unless  defendant  shall  have  been  [Omaha  Creek  in  the  nortn-east  of  Nebraska]", 
personally  served  with  a  process,  if  within  the  state,  or  This  nation  is  located  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of 
with  personal  notice  duly  proved  and  appearing  of  their  name  and  it  was  there  the  discoverers  took  their 
record,  if  outside  the  state.  After  three  months  of  rear  starting-point,  29  May,  1739.  All  who  had  hitherto 
sonable  search  after  filing  petition,  court  may  author-  attempted  to  reach  New  Mexico  thought  they  could 
ise  notice  by  publication.  Decree  becomes  operative  find  it  at  the  sources  of  the  Missouri,  and  with  that 
and  final  only  at  expiration  of  six  months,  in  1909  idea  had  gone  up  as  far  as  the  Ricaras  [Indians],  more 
there  were  1807  divorces.  In  the  same  period  there  than  150  leagues  above  the  Panis  [Pawnees],  with 
were  10982  marriages.  whom  th^  confound  or  include  the  Omahas  or  Pani- 

LiQUOR  Laws. — Liquor  laws  are  strict  and  well  mahas.  The  discoverers^  on  the  advice  of  some  of  the 
enforced.  The  manufacture  or  sale  of  intoxicating  fiiborigines,  took  an  entirely  different  direction  and 
liquor  is  forbidden  in  many  of  the  smaUer  towns  and  leaving  the  Pawnees  took  a  route  across  the  countr}^, 
cities,  and  n9tabty  in  Lincoln,  the  capital.  Where  the  retracing  their  steps  almost  parallel  with  the  Missouri, 
trade  is  licenised,  it  is  under  the  system  known  as  high  On  2  June,  they  met  with  a  river  which  they  called  the 
licence  and  subject  to  the  operation  of  the  Slocomb  Plate  [Platte]  and,  seeing  that  it  did  not  diverge  from 
Law.  the  most  effective  law  ever  passed  for  a  severe  the  route  they  had  mapped  out,  they  followed  up  its 
regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  under  the  licence  sys-  rig^t  bank  for  about  25  leagues  when  they  found  it 
tem.  Under  its  provisions,  treating  is  a  misdemeanour  made  a  fork  with  the  river  of  the  Padocas  which  emp- 
subject  to  fine;  selling  to  minors  is  punished  by  severe  ties  itself  at  this  point.  Three  days  after  that,  on  13 
penalties,  and  the  saloon-keeper  and  those  on  his  bond  June,  they  crossed  to  the  left  bank  of  said  river.  On  the 
are  liable  to  a  maximum  of  $5,000  damages  at  the  fifte^th  and  sixteenth  they  continued  across  the  coun- 
suit  of  any  woman  whose  husband  has  been  allowed  to  trv  and  on  the  seventeenth  thev  fell  upon  another  river 
become  a  habitual  drunkard  bv  frequenting  the  saloon-  which  they  named  Des  Costes  Blanches.  During  these 
keeper's  place  of  business.  By  statute  passed  during  three  days,  they  crossed  a  countiv  of  plains  where  they 
the  legislature  of  1909,  saloons  can  sell  bquor  only  be-  found  barely  enou^  wood  to  make  fires  and  it  appears 
tween  the  hours  of  7  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  on  week  days,  from  their  Journal  that  these  plains  extendi  all  the 
Sunday  trading  is  forbidden  and  the  law  rigidly  way  to  the  mountains  near  Santa  F^.  On  the  six- 
enforced,  teenth  they  camped  on  the  banks  of  another  river 

HisTORT. — (1)  Cwil. — Up  to  1641  the  history  of  which  they  crossed  and  named  Riviftre  Aimable.    On 

Nebraska  is  a  blank.    In  tnat  year  it  is  claimed  that  the  nineteenth  they  crossed  another  river  which  they 

Francisco  Vasquez  de  Coronado  led  a  party  of  Span-  called  Rivi^  des  Soucis.    On  the  twentieth  they 

iards  in  search  for  the  fabled  Kingdom  of  Quivera,  struck  the  Rivi^  des  Cances.    This  river  was  prob- 

BUppoeed  to  be  a  land  of  boundless  wealth.    It  is  ably  not  the  Kansas  but  the  Arkansas  River.    In  any 

daimed  that  he  reached  40°  N.  Lat^  which  is  the  case,  both  are  south  of  the  Nebraska  state  line,  mak- 

acmth  boundary  line  of  Nebraska.    This  is  disputed  ing  it  clear  that  these  French  Canadian  Catholics, 


732 


Pierre  and  Paul  Mallet^jBroBaed  Nebraska  in  a  south- 
westeriy  direction  in  1739  on  thdr  way  to  Santa  F^ 
and  gave  an  authentic  account  of  the  territoiy  sixty- 
five  yean  before  Lewis  and  Clark  visited  it. 

Subsequent  to  that  date,  many  French  Canadians 
and  Frmch  Creoles  of  Louisiana  made  their  homes  in 
Nebraska;  they  were  hunters  and  trappers  connected 
with  the  fur-trading  expeditions,  who  married  Indian 
women  and  lived  under  the  protection  of  the  tribes 
with  which  th^  had  become  i^ated.  When  allotting 
land  to  the  Inoians,  the  government  set  aside  a  tract 
in  the  south-east  part  of  the  state  called  the  ''Half- 
Breed  Tract",  the  French  Canadians  who  had  mar- 
ried squaws  settled  on  this  land.  Among  these  were 
Charles  Rouleau,  Henry  Fontenelle,  and  Michel 
Barada,  who  had  towns  named  after  them.  Sarpy 
county  is  also  called  after  a  French  Creole,  named 
Louis  Sarpy.  As  late  as  1846,  Nebraska  had  prac- 
tically no  other  population  than  the  Omahas,  Otoes. 
Poncas,  Pawnees,  and  Sioux.  In  that  year  occurred 
the  Mormon  heaira  and  a  temporary  settlement  in  the 
desert  was  made  by  them  at  Florence,  near  Omaha, 
lasting  for  about  a  year,  until  they  moved  on  to  Utah. 
The  m«t  permanent  white  settlers  came  in  the  train 
of  the  '49  rush  to  California,  and  on  30  May,  1854, 
Nebraska  was  organised  as  a  territory  with  an  area 
of  351,558  square  miles,  reaching  from  40^  N.  lat. 
to  the  British  boundary  line,  and  west  from  the 
Missouri  to  the  Rocky  Mountidns.  This  was  finally 
cut  down  to  the  present  area  of  the  state.  The  cre- 
ation of  the  Kansas  and  Nebraska  territories  was 
the  cause  of  the  bitter  auarrel  between  the  slavery  and 
anti-slavery  parties  ana  ultimately  led  to  the  secession 
of  the  southern  states.  On  1  March,  1867,  President 
Johnson  proclaimed  Nebraska  a  state  of  the  Union, 
adding  the  thirty-seventh  star  to  the  American  flag. 
After  the  Civil  War,  many  of  the  discharged  soldiers 
secured  grants  of  Nebraska  land  under  the  Home- 
stead Law.  They  were  followed  by  men  who  worked 
in  the  construction  of  the  Union  Pacific  and  Burling- 
ton railroads  and  who  boudit  up  the  land  donated  to 
the  railroad  companies.  There  was  a  steady  inflow 
of  inmiigrants  and  landnseekers  until  the  visitation 
of  the  grasshopper  nlague  in  1874,  when  many  settlers 
became  discouragea  and  left  the  state.  But  the  rush 
for  land  was  on,  the  grasshoppers  were  forgotten, 
and  an  increasing  stream  of  immigration  poured  in. 
There  are  no  statistics  to  indicate  the  nationality  of 
foreign-bom  immigrants,  but  the  Germans  are  the 
most  numerous,  followed  by  the  Scandinavians,  Irish, 
Bohemians,  and  British  in  the  order  named.  In  late 
years  Italians  have  become  an  immigrating  dement, 
but  not  to  any  considerable  extent.  Although  the 
first  to  enter  the  state,  French  Canadian  immigrants 
are  not  numerous. 

Catholic  Immigration. — While  many  Catholics 
were  among  the  immigrants  subseauent  to  1849. 
there  was  no  attempt  at  Catholic  colonization  until 
1855.  when  Father  Tracy  induced  a  number  of  Irish 
families  to  settle  in  Dakota  County,  where  their  de- 
scendants constitute  the  wealthiest  and  most  promi- 
nent people  in  that  section.  In  1874  General  O'Neill, 
with  eighteen  Irish  Catholics  from  Boston,  colonised  a 
tract  in  Holt  County;  they  were  followed  by  others, 
and  a  town  was  laid  out  which  they  named  O'Neill. 
O'Neill  is  now  one  of  the  most  progressive  cities  north 
of  the  Platte  and  the  centre  of  a  prosperous  Catholic 
community.  In  1877  some  of  those  who  went  to 
Holt  County  with  General  O'Neill,  dissatisfied  with 
the  outlook  there,  took  up  land  in  Greeley  County. 
In  compliment  to  Bishop  James  O'Connor  of  Omaha, 
General  O'Neill  named  his  first  town  site,  O'Connor. 
The  town  was  subsequently  moved  to  where  the 
church  and  convent  ol  O'Connor  now  stand,  while 
the  present  county  seat,  Greeley  Center,  was  built 
half  a  mile  north  of  the  original  site.  A  colonisation 
company  was  formed  and  a  tract  of  land  was  secured 


by  Bishop  O'Connor,  John  Fitsgerald.  William  Ouan. 
and  William  J.  Onahan  of  Chicago,  ana  othera,  and  aold 
at  $2  per  acre  to  Irish  colonists  from  Maflsachusetts 
and  Pennsylvania.  ThisisnowaveryproeperousCath- 
olic  section  embracing  the  thriving  towns  of  Gredey 
Center,  Spalding,  and  Scotia,  and  compriaing  a  wealthy 
farming  population.  Land  purchased  by  the  colonists 
at  $2  per  acre  is  appraised  in  1910  at  from  $60  to  $100 
per  acre.  Besides  these  organised  colonies,  many 
Irish  Catholic  families  drifted  into  Nebradca  during 
the  years  preceding  1874.  During  that  period  there 
was  also  a  comparatively  large  immigratioD  of  German 
Catholics,  but  without  anv  regular  effort  at  coloni- 
zation. The  Germans  followed  in  the  wake  of  the 
Catholic  priest.  Platte  County  is  almost  entirely 
populated  by  German  Cathofics,  the  immigration  be- 
mg^largelv  due  to  the  efforts  of  Father  Ambrose, 
O.F^.,  the  first  Franciscan  pastor  in  that  aecticm. 


In  Cedar  County,  there  are  eight  large  parishes  of 
German  Catholics,  who  were  induced  to  settle  in  that 
district  during  the  same  period  by  the  late  Father 
Daxascher,  the  first  pastor  of  St.  Helena  in  that 
county.  South  of  the  Platte  there  are  also  several 
well-to-do  German  settlements,  but  no  distinct  cfA- 
onies.  There  is  an  Austrian  settlement  at  Bellwood 
in  Buffalo  County.  Bohemian  Catholics  are  quite 
numerous  north  and  south  of  the  Platte.  The  Cath- 
olic inmiigrants  of  all  nationalities  who  settled  on  the 
land  have  prospered  in  a  measure  beyond  their  most 
sansuine  escpectations.  A  pleasing  feature  in  regard  to 
Catholic  settlement  in  Nebraska  is  the  frequent  inter- 
marriages between  the  young  people  of  different  races, 
especially  between  the  Irish  and  German  elements. 

Catholics  hold  prominent  positions  in  the  political, 
social,  and  industrial  life  of  the  community,  Uiough 
Nebraska  has  not  yet  had  a  Catholic  uoveroor. 
Prominent  among  the  benefactors  and  buildera  of  the 
state  have  been  Edward  and  John  Creighton,  foundais 
of  Crdghton  University  and  other  beneficial  institu* 
tions  in  Omaha.  John  Fitzgerald  of  Lincoln  was  also 
a  generous  benefactor  to  Catholic  works,  rdipous 
and  educational,  in  this  and  other  cities.  John  A« 
McShane  represented  the  then  First  Nebraska  dis- 
trict in  Congress  in  1886  and  in  1888  was  the  unsuc- 
cessful candidate  for  governor  in  opposition  to  Gen- 
eral John  M.  Thayer.  Constantine  J.  Smvthe  was 
attorney-general  of  the  state  from  1897  to  1901.  The 
present  state  treasurer  is  Lawson  G.  Brian.  Many 
Catholics  have  represented  congressional  districts; 
the  first  district,  which  includes  the  capital,  is  now 
(1910)  represented  by  John  A.  Maguire.  In  all  cases 
where  Catholics  have  held  public  offices,  th^  records 
have  been  most  creditable. 

(2)  Ecclesiastical  History,  —  Ecclesiastically,  Ne- 
braska was  first  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan Bernard  Boil,  Provincial  of  the  Franciscans  in 
Spain,  according  to  the  Bull  of  Alexander  VI,  dated 
25  June,  1493.  Theoretically,  it  became  part  of  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  Spain  until  1682.  when  it 
passed  over  to  the  spiritual  domain  of  the  Bishop  of 
Quebec.  In  1776  it  became  subject  to  the  Diocese  of 
Havana,  Cuba.  After  the  recession  of  the  Louimana 
territory  to  France,  the  French  exercised  jurisdiction 
until  1805,  when  the  territories  embraced  in  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  passed  to  the  spiritual  rule^ 
Bishop  Carroll  of  Baltimore.  In  1815  the  region  was 
transferred  to  the  Bishop  of  New  Orieans,  andi  in  1827 
to  the  Bishop  of  St.  Ix)uis.  In  1850  the  territory 
became  part  of  the  *' Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  tem- 
tory  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  :  this  vicariate  em- 
brsiced  all  the  territory  from  the  Missouri  River  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  from  the  south  boundary  of 
Kansas  to  the  British  line.  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Miege, 
S.  J.,  was  appointed  vicar-Apostolic.  In  1857  Kan- 
sas was  cut  off  and  the  Vicariate  of  Nebraska  was 
erected.  This  vicariate  was  further  reduced  to  the 
territories  of  Nebraska  and  Wyoming,  and  in  1885  the 


NBBUCHADNXZZAB  733  NECESSIT7 

State  of  N^raska  became  the  Diocese  of  Omaha,  wiih  metaphysical  necessity  for  God  to  be  infinite,  man 
the  then  vicar-Apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  James  O'Connor,  rational,  an  animal  a  living  being.  Metaphysical 
as  ita  first  bishop.  In  1887  all  that  part  of  Nebraska,  necessity  is  absolute.  Physical  necessity  exists  in  con- 
south  of  the  Platte  and  of  the  south  lork  of  the  Platte,  nexion  with  the  activity  of  the  material  beings  which 
was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Lincoln,  with  Rt.  constitute  the  universe.  While  they  are  contingent 
Rev.  Thomas  Bonacum  as  its  first  bishop.  The  Cath-  as  to  their  existence,  contingent  also  as  to  their  actual 
olic  population  of  Nebraska  is  estimated  at  a  sUght  relations  (for  God  could  have  created  another  order 
increase  over  117,058,  the  figures  g^ven  in  Wiltzius's  than  the  present  one),  they  are,  however,  necessarily 
Directory  for  1910.  The  coloured  and  Indian  determined  in  their  activity,  both  as  to  its  exercise 
Catholics  included  are  too  few  to  be  worthy  of  special  '  and  its  specific  character.  But  this  determination 
enumeration.  For  the  last  week  in  September,  1909.  is  dependent  upon  certain  conditions,  the  presence  of 
the  following  figures  were  raven  as  the  numerical  whicn  is  requited,  the  absence  of  one  or  the  other  of 
strength  of  the  various  non-Catholic  denominations  them  preventing  altogether  the  exercise  or  normal  ex- 
in  Nebraska:  Methodists,  642352;  Lutherans,  59.-  ercise  of  this  activity.  The  laws  of  nature  should 
485;  Presbyterians,  23.862;  Disciples  (Christians),  cdways  be  understood  with  that  limitation:  all  con- 
19,613;  Baptists,  17,939;  Conip^ationahsts,  16,629;  ditions  being  realized.  The  laws  of  nature,  therefore, 
Episcopalians,  6.903  (conunumcants) ;  United  Breth-  being  subject  to  physical  necessitv  are  neither  abso- 
ren,  6,086:  all  other  Protestants,  19,657.  lutely  necessary,  as  materialistic  Mechanism  asserts, 
CuuiMT,Ntb.JtfAdwaao^ttc.i^^  nor  merely  contingent,  as  the  partisans  of  the  phi- 

duMtriaist<uuHeM(hmec\n,im);N!AraakaSd  ^?!?P**3Jof  contmgency  declare;  but  they  aje  con- 

(Lincoln.  1910);  wiLTsxuB«  Directory  (1010);  lieporto  iVe6.iStoto  ditionally    or  hypothetically  necessary.    This  hy- 

Hiatariad  aoeufv;  Mabobt.  DitxmrUs  H  BtaMiuanmu  det  pothetical  necessity  is  also  called  by  some  consequent 

FrancaudanarAminqtuiFtLnB,  IS56)  ;SBim,Tfu  Morton  H%9-  !™aj„-/„       Jbfnrnl    nj>rjut»ilu    ia    nAAMnifv    cm    AnnliAH 

iaryo/JVe6nM*a  (Lincoln,  1906).  necessuy.    Moroi  Tiecessuy  \B  neceffiDty  as  appuea 

John  P.  Sxttton.  to  the  activity  of  free  beings.  We  know  that 
^  ^  .  .  r^  «.-r  men  under  certain  circumstances,  although  they  are 
Nabuehadneuftr.  See  Nabtjchodonosgr.  fpee,  will  act  in  such  and  such  a  way.  It  is  morally 
Necessity,  in  a  general  way  denotes  a  strict  con-  necessary  that  such  a  man  in  such  circumstances  act 
nexion  between  different  beings,  or  the  different  ele-  honestly;  it  is  morally  necessary  that  several  histo- 
ments  of  a  being,  or  between  a  oeing  and  its  existence,  rians,  relating  csrtain  facts,  should  tell  the  truth  con- 
It  is  therefore  a  primary  and  fundamental  notion,  and  ceming  them.  This  moral  necessity  is  the  basis  of 
it  is  im|K>rtant  to  detennine  its  various  meanings  and  moral  certitude  in  historical  and  moral  sciences, 
applications  in  philosophy  and  theology.  The  term  is  also  used  with  reference  to  freedom  of  the 
In  Logic,  the  Schoolmen,  studying  the  mutual  re-  will  to  denote  any  undue  physical  or  moral  influence 
lations  of  concepts  which  form  the  matter  of  our  judg-  that  might  prevent  the  will  from  freely  choosing  to 
ments,  divided  the  judgments  or  propositions  into  act  or  not  act,  to  choose  one  thing  in  prderence  to  an- 
judgments  in  necessary  matter  (in  mcUeria  necessaria),  other.  The  derivatives,  necessitation  and  necessa- 
and  judgments  in  contingent  matter  (in  materia  conn  riamsm,  in  their  philosophical  signification  express  the 
Ungenti).  (Cf.  S.  Thorn.,  I  Perihermen.  lect.  xiii.)  doctrine  that  the  will  in  all  its  activity  is  invariably 
The  judgments  in  necessary  matter  were  known  as  determined  by  physical  or  psychical  antecedent  con- 
vropositiones  per  se;  they  are  called  by  modem  phi-  ditions  (see  Determinism;  fsKS  Will). 
losophers  "analytic",  *' rational",  "pure",  or  "a  In  theology  the  notion  of  necessity  is  sometimes 
priori "  judgments.  The  propositio  per  se  is  defined  applied  witn  special  meaning.  Theologians  divide 
by  the  Schoolmen  as  one  the  predicate  of  which  is  necessity  into  absoluie  and  moral.  A  thmg  is  said  to 
either  a  constitutive  element  or  a  natural  property  of  be  absolutely  necessary  when  without  it  a  certain 
the  subject.  Such  is  the  case  with  primary  truths,  end  cannot  possibly  be  reached.  Thus  revelation  is 
metaphysical;  and  mathematical  principles.  (Cf.  S.  absolutely  necessary  for  man  to  know  the  mysteries 
Thom.,  "In  I  Anal.".  lect.  x  and  xxxv;  "de  Anima",  of  faith,  and  gra^ce  to  perform  any  supernatural  act. 
II,  lect.  xiv.)  It  is  oy  ignoring  the  last  part  of  this  Something  is  said  to  be  morally  necessary  when  a 
definition  and  arbitrarily  restncting  the  concept  of  certain  end  could,  absolutely  speaking,  be  reached 
analytic  judgments  to  those  of  which  the  predicate  is  a  without  it,  but  cannot  actually  and  properly  be 
constitutive  element  of  the  subjectj  that  Kant  in-  reached  without  it,  under  existing  conditions.  Thus, 
vented  the  false  notion  of  synthetic-a  priori  judg-  we  may  say  that,  absolutely  sp^Etking,  man  as  such 
ments.  is  able  to  Imow  all  the  truths  of  the  natural  order  or 
Considered  under  its  metaph3rsical  aspect,  being  to  observe  all  the  precepts  of  the  natural  law;  but 
in  its  relation  to  existence  is  divided  into  necessary  considering  the  concrete  circumstances  of  human  life 
and  contingent,  A  necessarjr  being  is  one  of  which  the  in  the  present  order,  men  as  a  whole  cannot  actually 
existence  is  included  ia  and  identical  with  its  very  e»-  do  so  without  revelation  or  grace.  Revelation  and 
sence.  The  different  beings  which  we  observe  in  our  grace  are  morally  necessary  to  man  to  know  suffi-  . 
daily  experience  are  subject  to  beginning,  to  change,  ciently  all  the  truths  of  the  natural  law  (cf.  S.  Thom., 
to  perfection,  and  to  destruction;  existence  is  not  es-  "Sum.  Theol.",  P.  Ia.,  Q.  1,  a  1;  "Contra  Gentil.", 
sential  to  theoi  and  they  have  not  in  themselves  the  I,  iv). 

reason  of  their  existence;  they  are  contingent.    Their        Again,  in  relation  to  the  means  necessary  to  salva- 

existcnce  comes  to  them  from  an  external  efficient  tion  theologians  divide  necessitv  into  necesn/yo/ means 

cause.    It  is  from  the  real  existence  of  contingent  and  necessity  of  precept.    In  the  first  case  the  means 

beings  that  we  arrive  at  the  notion  and  prove  the  ex-  is  so  necessary  to  salvation  that  without  it  (absolute 

istence  of  a  neccssarv  being — one  that  produces  them  necessity}  or  its  substitute  (relative  necessity),  even 

but  is  not  produced,  one  whose  existence  is  its  own  if  the  omission  is  guiltless,  the  end  cannot  be  reached, 

essence  and  nature,  that  is  at  the  same  time  eternal.  Thus  faith  and  baptism  of  water  are  necessary  by  a 

all-Derfect,  infinite,  viz.,  God  (see  Continqency).  necessity  of  means,  the  former  absolutely,  the  latter 

Ana  so  in  relation  to  existence,  God  alone  is  abso-  relatively,  for  salvation.    In  the  second  case,  neces- 

lutely  necessary;  all  other  beings  are  contingent.  sit^  is  based  on  a  positive  precept,  commanding  some* 

When  we  consider  the  divers  beings,  not  from  the  thmg  the  omission  of  which,  unless  culpable,  does  not 

point  of  view  of  existence,  but  in  relation  to  their  con-  absolutely  prevent  the  reaching  of  the  end. 
stitution  and  activity,  necessity  may  be  classified  as       Mracxra.  Orudcoie  (Louvain,  1002).  a.  3; Rickabt.  Firtt  Prin- 

metaphysical^  physical^  and  moral,     MetaphysiCCU  ne-  dfUa  of  Knowledge  (London,  1002),  I,  v;  Idxh.  Qenenl  MeUt- 

cessity  implies  that  a  thin^  is  what  it  is,  viz.,  it  has  iw»»cf  (London,  lOOl),  I,  iv. 

the  elements  essential  to  its  specific  nature.    It  is  a  Gborgb  M.  Bauvagb. 


MBCXAM  734  NIOBOLOOIIS 

Neckaxn    (Necham),    Alexandsr    or,   EngUah  eveiHrtainless  Yirgin  Mary,  and  also  of  the  twdve 

scholar;  b.  in  Hertfordshire,  1157;  d.  at  Kempsey,  hol}r  Apostles  by  whose  teaching  the  world  is  rendered 

Worcestershire.  1217.     His  first  studies  were  in  the  glorious  in  the  true  faith,  to  whose  honour  this  Min- 

abbey  school  of  St.  Albans;  his  higher  courses  began  in  ster,  which  is  called  the  New  Minster  in  distinction  to 

Paris,  in  the  school  of  Petit  Pons.     In  1180  he  com-  the  old  monastery  hard  b}^  there  are  set  down  here 

menced  his  career  as  teacher  with  great  success,  his  in  due  order  the  names  of  brethren  and  monks,  of 

comprehensive  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  of  tneol-  members  of  the  household  also  IfamUiariorum  (sic)], 

ogy,  and  his  Latin  style,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  at-  or  of  benefa^^rs  Uving  and  dead,  that  by  the  perish- 

tracting  many  students  to  his  lectures.    Returning  to  able  memorial  of  this  writing  th^  may  be  written  in 

England  in  1186,  he  was  first  appointed  teacher  at  the  page  of  the  heavenly  book,  by  the  virtue  of  whose 

Dunstable,  and  afterwards  at  St.  Albans.    After  join-  almsd^ds  this  same  family,  through  Christ's  bounty, 

ing  the  Au^ustinian  Order,  he  was  chosen,  in  1213,  is  fed.    And  let  also  the  names  of  all  those  who  have 

Abbot  of  Cuencester.  ooinmended  themselves  to  its  prayers  and  its  fellow- 

Neckam  was  a  prolific  writer  on  various  subjects,  ship  be  recorded  here  in  general,  in  order  that  ronem- 

but  his  works  are,  for  the  most  part,  still  in  manu-  branoe  may  be  made  of  them  daily  in  the  sacred  cele- 

script.     He   wrote   a   grammar,    commentaries   on  bration  of  the  Mass  or  in  the  harmonious  chanting 

Scnpture  and  the  works  of  Aristotle,  theological  trea-  of  psalms.    And  let  the  names  themselves  be  pre- 

tises,  and  sermons.    He  also  translated  the  Fables  of  sented  daily  by  the  subdeacon  before  the  altar  at  the 

.£sop  into  elegiac  verse.    Only  two  of  his  works,  early  or  principal  Mass,  and  as  far  as  time  afaaJl  allow 

however,  have  been  printed:  the  ^'De  naturis  rerum  let  them  be  recited  by  him  in  the  sisht  of  the  Most 

and  the  poem  "  De  laudibus  divins  sapientis "  (ed.  High.    And  after  the  oblation  has  Deen  ofifered  to 

Th.  Wri^t  in  Rolls  Scries).    In  the  former  he  di»-  God  by  the  right  hand  of  the  cardinal  priest  who  cele- 

cusses  the  heavens,  the  stars,  the  atmosphere,  the  earth,  brates  the  Mass,  let  the  names  be  laia  upon  the  holy 

water,  and  living  organisms.     Neckam  is  the  first  altar  during  the  very  mysteries  of  the  sacred  Mass 

European  author  to  mention  the  mariners'  compass,  and  be  commended  most  humbly  to  God  Almighty; 

nufn'mpiei.o/N(U.Biogr.,B.rr,ftm,L4»/aeuUi^t^^  SO  that  as  remembrance  is  made  of  them  upon  earth 

A0  luMver9iti  d»  Paru  .  .  .  moyen  d0«.  I  (Pans,  1S94),  268-76;  [•*>./#  ^v^m-^jm  •n««MyM-**y>  n^**,m  •'••   /  n. ,  .•_ «  «.u««^ r 

HuBTEB.  NomenclaU^,  II  (Innabruck.  1906),  224^25;  Hutoirt  lil^  If^^'jLfJT^^.  »»«J?r*^  ^^  W  '*n?*~*  Phnwe  from 

Urairt  de  la  France,  XVIII  (Paris.  1835).  621-23.  the  Ordmanum  MisssJ.  SO  m  the  life  to  come,  by  His 

J.  p.  KiBSCH.  indulgence  who  alone  knows  how  they  stand  or  are 

hereafter  to  stand  in  His  sight,  the  glory  of  those  who 

NaerologiaSy  or,  as  they  are   more   frequentlv  are  of  greater  merit  may  be  augmented  m  Heaven  and 
called  in  France,  dbituaires^  are  the  registers  in  which  the  accoimt  of  those  who  are  less  worthv  may  be 
religious  communities  were  accustomed  to  enter  the  lightened  in  His  secret  judgments.     Be  ye  glad  and  re- 
names of  the  dead — ^notably  their  own  deceased  mem-  jpice  that  your  names  are  written  in  Heaven,  through 
bers,  their  associates,  and  their  principal  benefactors —  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  to  whom  with  God  the  Eternal 
with  a  view  to  the  offering  of  prayers  for  their  souls.  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  there  remains  all  honour. 
The  institutions  which  maintained  such  necrologies  power,  and  glory  for  ever  and  ever.    Amen. " 
differed  almost  as  much  as  the  form  in  which  the  en-        This  account  is  particularly  interesting,  because, 
tries  were  made.    There  are  necrologies  connected  although  the  laying  of  the  necrology  upon  the  altar 
with  cathedral  chapters,  others  (and  those  the  most  during  Mass  afterwards  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  names 
numerous)   belonging  to  monasteries  and  religious  were  read  in  chapter  instead  of  in  choir,  still  the  extract 
houses,  others  to  colleges,  such  as,  e.  g.  the  SorTOnne  clearly  shows  that  the  book  of  obituaries  had  its  ori- 
(in  Molinier  et  Longnon,  "Obituaires",  I,  737-52),  gin  in  the  old  "diptychs"  (see  Diptych),  or  tablets, 
others  to  collegiate  churches,  others  again  to  parishes,  upon  which  were  formerly  entered  the  names  which 
while,  as  for  the  registers  themselves,  some  are  drawn  were  read  out  by  the  priest  at  the  Commemoration  of 
up  in  the  form  of  marginal  entries  in  martyrologies  the  Living  and  the  Commemoration  of  the  Dead  in 
or  calendars,  others  form  a  book  apart,  but  arranged  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.    So  far  as  can  be  seen,  the 
according  to  the  days  of  the  month,  others  again  are  recitation  of  the  names  of  the  defunct  bishops  in  the 
mere  disorderlv  lists  of  names,  which  seem  to  have  diptychs  was  later  on  represented  by  the  reading  of 
been  written  down  just  as  they  were  sent  in,  or  as  the  martyrologium  proper,  while  the  commemoration 
occasion  arose.    Not  less  diversified  are  the  names  of  benefactors  and  other  deceased  was  retained  in  the 
by  which  these  registers  were  known.     Perhaps   the  form  of  a  necrology.    It  will  be  remembered  that  in 
commonest  was  martyrologium,  because  they  often  the  everyday  Reouiem  Mass  {miasa  quotidiana  de- 
took  the  form  of  mere  additions  to  the  martyrologium,  functorum)  of  our  Missals,  the  priest  is  first  directed 
or  list  of  martvrs  and  saints  commemorated  on  each  to  pray  ''pro  defunctis  episcopis  seu  saoerdot&us", 
day.    We  find  also  necrologium,  memorude  mortuo"  next  "pro  fratribus,  propinquis  et  benefactoribus", 
rum,  or  memoriale  fratrum,  mortuologiumf  liber  obi-  and  lastly  "pro  omnibus  fidelibus  defunctis".    This 
(wum,  and,  more  rarely,  obittuiriuSf  sometimes,  owing  corresponds  to  the  classification  here,  vis.  of  those 
to  its  connexion  with  the  calendar,  calendariumf  some-  included  iu  the  martyrologium,  those  named  in  the 
times,   because   the  monastic   rule   was   commonly  necrology,  and  those  not  specially  mentioned  at  &M. 
bound  up  in  the  same  book,  liber  regida  or  simply  The  entry  of  the  names  of  the  dead  in  the  register  of  a 
reffuUif  sometimes,  from  the  occasion  when  it  was  read  monastery  or  other  religious  institution,  and  the  oon- 
aloud,  liber  capituli  (chapter  book),  sometimes,  in  sequent  participation  in  the  prayers  and  good  woxks 
reference  to  the  entries  ot  the  names  of  benefactors,  of  all  its  members,  was  a  pnvilege  which,  from  the 
Uber  fundationumf  or  liber  benefactorum.    Also,  al-  eighth  century  onward,  was  greatly  coveted.    Such 
though  Molinier  seems  to  contest  this  usage  ("Les  mutual  rights  of  the  insertion  of  the  names  of  de- 
Obituaires  fran^ais",  p.  22),   such  a  collection  of  ceased  brethren  in  each  other's  necrologies  was  a  con- 
names,  consisting  largely  of  benefactors,  was  occasion-  stant  subject  of  negotiation  between  different  abbeys, 
ally  called  liber  vitae  (Dook  of  life).  etc.,  and  at  a  somewhat  later  date  it  became  the  cus- 

No  better  description  of  the  purposes  served  by  tom  for  monasteries  to  send  messengers  with  "moi^ 

these  lists  and  of  the  spirit  which  animated  the  whole  tuary  rolls"  (rotuli)  requesting  the  promise  of  prayere 

institution  of  necrologies  can  be  foimd  than  that  which  were  to  be  entered  on  the  roll  and  enpging  the 

contained  in  the  preface  to  the  Winchester  book  of  the  senders  to  pray  for  the  deceased  brethren  of  the  moo> 

eleventh  century  known  as  the  "Hyde  Register",  asteries  who  rendered  them  this  service.     (But  for 

In  spite  of  its  length,  it  deserves  to  be  quoted  entire:  this  see  Rotuli.) 

''Behold,  in  the  name  of  God  Almighty  and  of  our        Although  the  entries  in  the  extant  necrologtes  of 

Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  of  His  most  Holy  Mother,  the  monastenes  and  cathedrals  are  generally  of  the  brief- 


NICBOMANGY          735  NXCROMANCT 

est  poflfflble  character^  only  the  day  of  the  month,  and  Ab  parallel  to  this  passage  of  Homer  may  be  men- 

not  the  year,  being  mdicated,  still  in  indirect  ways  tioned  the  sixth  book  of  Virgil's  i£2neid,  which  relates 

these  lists  of  names  have  been  regarded  as  of  oonsid-  the  descent  of  iEneas  into  the  infernal  regions.    But 

erable  importance  both  for  philological  and  histori-  here  there  is  no  true  evocation,  and  the  hero  himself 

cal  purposes.     A  large  number  have  been  published  goes  through  the  abodes  of  the  souls.    Besides  these 

in  Germany,  France,  England,  and  other  countries,  poetical  and  mytholo^cal  narratives,  several  instances 

MoLiNicR.  Lm  o&Uuairea  Frar^aU  au  moymdpe  (Paris,  1890);  of  necromantic  practices  are  recoroed  by  historians. 

^^''S^^i^i^^^Z^flJS^^SS^.  ^6?;  ^SSS;  At  cape  Tienanis  CallonA«  evoked  the  «)ul  of  Archi- 

RouUaux  dea  Morta  du  IX*  au  X  V  aiicU  (Paris.  1866).     Several  lochus,  whom  he  had  killed  (Plutarch,  "De  sera  nu- 

▼olumes  of  Necrologies  have  been  printed  in  the  auarto  series  of  the  minis  Vindicta",  xvii) .     Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth, 

Mon  Germ.  Hist.,  and  four  or  more  volume*  of  French  Necrolo-  ^            £  ^^                ^^              ^  Greece,  Sent  messen- 

siea  have  been  issued  in  the  Reetieil  det  H%atonens  de  la  France  by  •*"**  I^i^^           o«?»v^x*  »»*o^m*wu  w.  n-*«^^«,  kj^iv  &m«.«i«^u 

LoNONON  AND  MoLiNiBK  (Paris,  1902—).    The  first  volume  of  gers  to  the  Oracle  on  the  River  Acheron  to  ask  his  dead 

the  last-named  collection  contains  an  excellent  bibliography  of  wife,  Mellssa,  in  what  place  shc  had  laid  a  stranger's 

irG^^n^i^^^io^SrJ^ft^HA^}^^^:^  depo«t.    Her  phantom  appeared  tvn^  and,  at  the 

nNBACB.  Deuttehlands  OeachiehisqudUn.  second  appearance,  gave  the  required  mformation 

HsRBEBT  Thurston.  (Herodotus,  V,  xcii).    Pausanias,  King  of  Sparta,  had 

killed  Cleonice,  whom  he  had  mistaken  for  an  enemy 

Neeromancy      i'^'^P^t      ''dead'',     and    imrrtta^  during  the  night,  and  in  consequence  he  could  find 

"divination")  is  a  special  mode  of  divination  (q.  v.)  neither  rest  nor  peace,  but  his  mind  was  filled  with 

by  the  evocation  of  the  dead.    Understood  as  m^ro-  strange  fears.    Aft«r  trying  many  purifications  and 

mancy  {niger^  black),  which  is  the  Italian,  Spamsh.  expiations,  he  went  to  the  j^vcAopompeum  of  Phigalia, 

and  old  French  form,  the  term  suggests  ''black'  or  Heraclea,  evoked  her  soul,  and  received  the  assur- 

magic  or  "black"  art,  in  which  marvellous  results  ance  that  his  dreams  and  fears  would  cease  as  soon  as 

are  due  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits,  while  in  "white"  he  should  have  returned  to  Sparta.    Upon  his  arrival 

magic  they  are  due  to  human  dexterity  and  trickery,  there  he  died  (Pausanias  III,  xvii,  8, 9;  Plutarch,  "De 

The  practice  of  necromancy  supposes  belief  in  the  sur-  sera  num.  vind.",  x;  "Vita  Cimonis",  vi).    After  his 

vivafof  the  soul  after  death,  the  possession  of  a  supe-  death,  the  Spartans  sent  to  Italy  for  psychagogues  to 

nor  knowledge  by  the  disembodied  spirit^  and  the  evoke  and  appease  his  manes   (Plutarch,   "Desera 

posfflbility  of  communication  between  the  hving  and  num.  vind.",  xvii).    Necromancy  is  mixed  with  ono> 

the  dead.  The  circumstances  and  conditions  of  this  iromancy  in  the  case  of  Elysius  of  Terina  in  Italy, 

communication — such  as  time,  place,  and  rites  to  be  who  desired  to  know  if  his  son's  sudden  death  was 

followed — depend  on  the  various  conceptions  which  due  to  poisoning.    He  went  to  the  oracle  of  the 

were  entertained  concerning  the  nature  of  the  de-  dead  and,  while  sleeping  in  the  temple,  had  a  vision 

parted  soul,  its  abode,  its  relations  with  the  earth  and  of  both  his  father  and  his  son  who  gave  him  the 

with  the  body  in  which  it  previously  resided.    As  desired  information  (Plutarch,  "Consolatioad  Apol- 

divinities  frequently  were  but  human  heroes  raised  to  Ionium",  xiv). 

the  racik  of  gods,  necromancy,  mythology,  and  demon-  Among  the  Romans,  Horace  several  times  alludes  to 

ology  are  in  close  relation,  and  the  oracles  of  the  dead  the  evocation  of  the  dead  (see  especially  Satires,  I,  viii, 

are  not  always  easily  distinguished  from  the  oracles  25  sq.).    Cicero  testifies  that  his  friend  Appius  prac- 

of  the  gods.  tised  necromancy  (Tuscul.  qusest.,  I,  xvi),  and  that 

I.  Necromancy  in  Pagan  Countries. — Along  with  Vatinius  called  up  souls  from  the  netherworld  (in 

other  forms  of  divination  and  magic,  necromancy  is  Vatin.,  vi).    The  same  is  asserted  of  the  Emperors 

found  in  every  nation  of  antiquity,  and  is  a  practice  Drusus  (Tacitus,  "Annal.",  II,  xxviii),  Nero  (Sueto- 

common  to  paganism  at  all  times  and  in  all  countries,  nius,  "Nero",  xxxiv;  Plin}r,  "Hist,  nat.",  XXX,  v), 

but  nothing  certain  can  be  said  as  to  the  place  of  its  and  Caracalla   (Dio  Cassius,   LXXVII,  xv).    The 

origin.    Strabo  (Geogr.,  XVI,  ii,  39)  says  that  it  was  grammarian  Apion  pretended  to  have  conjured  up  the 

the  characteristic  form  of  divination  among  the  Per-  soul  of  Homer,  whose  country  and  parents  he  wished 

sians.    It  was  also  found  in  Chaldea,  Babylonia,  and  to  ascertain  (Pliny,  "Hist,  nat.",  XXX,  vi).  and  Sex- 

Etruria    (Clemens    Alex..    "Protrepticum",    II,    in  tus  Pompeius  consulted  the  famous  Thessalian  maei- 

Migne,  P.  G.,  VIII,  69;  Tneodoret,  "Grsecarum  affeo-  cian  Erichto  to  learn  from  the  dead  the  issue  of  tLe 

tionum  curatio",  X,  in  P.  G.,  LXXXIII,   1076).  struggle  between  his  father  and  Caesar  (Lucan,  "Phar- 

Isaias  (xix,  3)  refers  to  its  practice  in  Egypt,  and  salia",  VI).    Nothing  certain  can  be  said  concerning 

Moses   (Deuter.,  xviii,  9-12)   warns  the  Israehtes  the  rites  or  incantations  which  were  used;  they  seem 

against  imitating  the  Chanaanite  abominations,  among  to  have  been  very  complex,  and  to  have  varied  in  dX^ 

which  seeking  the  truth  from  the  dead  is  mentioned,  most  every  instance.    In  the  Odyssey,  Ul^rsses  digs  a 

In  Greece  and  Rome  the  evocation  of  the  dead  took  trench,  pours  libations  around  it,  and  sacrifices  black 

place  especially  in  caverns,  or  in  volcanic  re^ons,  or  sheep  whose  blood  the  shades  drink  before  speaking  to 

near  rivers  and  lakes,  where  the  communication  with  him.    Lucan  (Pharsalia,  VI)  describes  at  length  many 

the  abodes  of  the  aead  was  thought  to  be  easier,  incantations,  and  speaks  of  warm  blood  poured  into 

Among  these,  p€Kpofuirr§ia,  ilfvxofMvreia,  or  \l^vxorQfiT€la,  the  veins  of  a  corpse  as  if  to  restore  it  to  life.    Cicero 

the  most  celebrated  were  the  oracle  in  Thesprotia  (In  Vatin.,  VI)  relates  that  Vatinius,  in  connexion 

near  the  River  Acheron,  which  was  supposed  to  be  with  the  evocation  of  the  dead,  offered  to  the  inanes 

one  of  the  rivers  of  hell,  another  in  Laconia  near  the  entrails  of  children,  and  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen 

the  promontorjr  of  Taenarus,  in  a  large  and  deep  mentions  that  boys  and  virgins  were  sacrificed  and  dii»« 

cavern  from  which  a  black  and  unwholesome  vapour  sected  for  conjurmg  up  the  dead  and  divining  (Orat.  I 

Issued,  and  which  was  considered  as  one  of  the  en-  contra  Julianum,  xcii,  in  P.  G.,  XXV,  624). 

trances  of  hell,  others  at  Aomos  in  Epirus  and  Hera-  II.  Necromancy  in  the  Bible. — In  the  Bible  neo- 

clea  on  the  Propontis.     In  Italy  the  oracle  of  Cumse,  romancy  is  mentioned  chiefly  in  order  to  forbid  it  or 

in  a  cavern  near  Lake  Avemus  in  Campania,  was  one  to  reprove  those  who  have  recourse  to  it.^    The  He- 

of  the  most  famous.  brew  term  'dbdth  (sing.,  *dbh)  denotes  primarily  the 

The  oldest  mention  of  necromancy  is  the  narrative  spirits  of  the  dead,  or  pythons",  as  the  Vulgate  calls 
of  Ulysses'  voyage  to  Hades  (Odyssey,  XI)  and  of  his  tnem  (Deut.,  xviii,  11;  Isa.,  xix,  3),  who  were  con- 
evocation  of  souls  by  means  of  the  various  rites  indi-  suited  m  order  to  learn  the  future  (Deut.,  xviii,  10, 11; 
cated  by  Circe.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  in  this  in-  IKings,  xxviii,  8),  and  gave  their  answers  through  cer- 
stance,  although  Ulysses'  purpose  was  to  consult  the  tain  persons  in  whom  they  resided  (Levit.,  xx,  27;  I 
shade  of  Tiresias,  he  seems  unable  to  evoke  it  alone;  a  Kings,  xxviii,  7),  but  is  also  applied  to  the  persona 
uumb^  of  Others  also  appear,  together  or  successively,  themselves  who  were  supposed  to  foretell  eventa  under 


mOBOMAHCT 


736 


NICSQBUNOr 


the  guidance  of  these  "divining"  or  "pythonio'* 

?>irit8  (Levit..  xx,  6;  I  Kings,  xxviii,  3, 9;  Isia..  xix.  3). 
he  term  yidae  'onim  (from  yada,  ''to  know"))  wnich 
is  aJso  used,  but  always  in  conjunction  with  *obdthf  re- 
fen  either  to  knowing  spirits  and  persons  through 
whom  they  spoke,  or  to  spirits  who  were  known  and 
familiar  to  the  wizards.  The  term  *obh  signifies  both 
"a  diviner"  and  "a  leathern  bag  for  holding  water" 
(Job— xxxii,  19 — uses  it  in  the  latter  sense),  but  schol- 
ars ai^  not  agreed  whether  we  have  two  disparate 
words,  or  whether  it  is  the  same  word  with  two  re- 
lated meanings.  Manv  mainf>ain  that  it  is  the  same 
in  both  instances,  as  the  diviner  was  supposed  to  be 
the  recipient  ana  the  container  of  the  spirit.  The 
Septuagmt  translates  'obdth,  as  diviners,  by  "  ventrilo- 

auists  (^orrpvtt^M/),  either  because  the  translators 
tiought  that  the  diviner's  alleged  communication  with 
the  spirit  was  but  a  deception,  or  rather  because  of  the 
belief  common  in  antiouity  that  ventriloquism  was 
not  a  natural  faculty,  but  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
spirit.  Perhaps,  also,  the  two  meanings  may  be  con- 
nected on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  the  voice  of  the 
ventriloquist,  which  was  weak  and  indistinct,  as  if  it 
came  from  a  cavity.  Isaias  (viii,  19)  says  that  nec- 
romancers ''mutter"  and  makes  the  following  predic- 
tion concerning  Jerusalem:  "Thou  shalt  speiuc  out  of 
the  earth,  and  thy  speech  shall  be  heard  out  of  the 
ground,  and  thy  voice  shall  be  from  the  earth  like  that 
of  the  pvthon,  and  out  of  the  ground  thy  speech  shall 
mutter';  (xxix,  4).  Profane  authors  also  attribute  a 
distinctive  sound  to  the  voice  of  the  spirits  or  shades, 
although  they  do  not  agree  in  characterizing  it. 
Homer  (Diad,  XXIII,  101;  Od.,  XXIV  5,  9)  uses  the 
verb  rpl^iw^  and  Statins  (Thebais,  VII,  770)  atridere, 
both  of  which  mean  "to  utter  a  shrill  cry";  Horace 
qualifies  their  voice  as  triate  et  acutum  (Sat..  I,  viii.  40) : 
Virgil  speaks  of  their  vox  exigua  (^Gneid,  VI,  492)  and 
of  the  gemituB  lacrymdtrilis  which  is  heard  from  the 
grave  (op.  cit.,  Ill,  39);  and  in  a  similar  way  Shake- 
speare sa3rs  that  "  the  sheeted  dead  did  squeak  and  gib- 
ber in  the  Roman  streets"  (Hamlet,  I,  i). 

The  Moasio  Law  forbids  necromancy  (Levit.,  xix, 
31;  XX,  6),  declares  that  to  seek  the  truth  from  the 
dead  is  abhorred  by  God  (Deut..  xviii,  11,  12),  and 
even  makes  it  punishable  by  death  (Levit.,  xx,  27;  cf. 
I  Kings,  xxviiL  9).  Nevertheless,  owing  especially  to 
the  contact  of  the  Hebrews  with  pagan  nations^  we 
find  it  practised  in  the  time  of  Saul  (I  Kings,  xxviii,  7, 
9),  of  isaias,  who  strongly  reproves  the  Hebrews  on 
this  ground  (viii,  19;  xix,  3;  xxix,  4,  etc.),  and  of  Manaa- 
ses  (IV  Kings,  xxi,  6;  II  Par.,  xxxiii,  6).  The  best 
known  case  of  necromancy  in  the  Bible  is  the  evoca- 
tion of  the  soul  of  Samuel  at  Endor  (I  Kings,  xxviii). 
King  Saul  was  at  war  with  the  Philistines,  whose  army 
had  gathered  near  that  of  Israel.  He  "was  afraid  and 
his  heart  was  very  much  dismayed.  And  he  con- 
sulted the  Lord,  and  he  answered  him  not,  neither  by 
dreams,  nor  by  priests,  nor  by  prophets  "(5.6).  Then 
he  went  to  Endor,  to  a  woman  who  had  "a  divinine 
spirit",  and  persuaded  her  to  call  the  soul  of  SamueL 
The  woman  alone  saw  the  prophet,  and  Saul  recog- 
nized him  from  the  description  she  gave  of  him.  But 
Saul  himself  spoke  and  heard  the  prediction  that,  as  the 
Lord  had  abandoned  him  on  account  of  his  disobedi- 
ence, he  would  be  defeated  and  killed.  This  narrative 
has  given  rise  to  several  interpretations.  Some  deny 
the  reality  of  the  apparition  and  claim  that  the  witch 
deceived  Saul;  thus  St.  Jerome  (In  Is.,  iii,  vii,  11,  in 
P.  L.,  XXIV,  108;  in  Ezech.,  xiii.  17,  in  P.  L.,  XXV, 
119)  and  Theodoret,  who,  however,  adds  that  the 
prophecy  came  from  God  (In  I  Reg.,  xxviii,  QQ. 
LXIII,  LXIV,  in  P.  G.,  LXXX,  589).  Others  attrib- 
ute it  to  the  devi],  who  took  Samuel's  appearance; 
thus  St.  Basil  (In  Is.,  viii,  218,  in  P.  G.,  XXX,  497), 
St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  ("  De  pythonissa,  ad  Theodos, 
episc.  epist.",  in  P.  G.,  XLV,  107-14),  and  Tertullian 
(De  amma,  LVII,  in  P.  L.,  II,  794).    Others,  finally, 


look  upon  Samuel's  apparition  as  real;  thus  Joeephus 
(Antiq.  Jud.,  VI,  xiv,  2),  St.  Justin  (Dialogue  cum 
Tryphone  Judso,  105,  in  P.  G.,  VI,  721),  Origsn  (Id  I 
Rc^.,  xxviii,  "De  Engastriinytho ",  in  P.  G.,  XII, 
1011-1028),  St.  Ambrose  (In  Luc.  i,  33,  in  P.  L..  XV, 
1547),  and  St.  Augustine,  who  nnally  ad<^tea  this 
view  after  having  held  the  others  (De  divereis  qiuest 
ad  Simphcianum,  III,  in  P.  L^  XL.  142-44;  De  octo 
Dulcitii  quffist.,  VL  in  P.  L.,  XL,  162-65;  De  cura  pro 
mortuis,  xv,  in  P.  L.,  XL,  606;  De  doctrina  Christiana, 
II,  xxiii.  in  P.  L.,  XXXIV,  52).  St.  Thomas  (Summa, 
II-II,  Q.  clxxiv,  a.  5{  ad  4  um)  does  not  pronounce. 
The  last  interpretation  of  the  reatity  of  Samuers 
apparition  is  favoured  both  bv  the  details  of  the 
narrative  and  by  another  BibUcal  text  which  convinced 
St.  Augustine:  "After  this,  he  [Samuel]  dept,  and 
he  made  known  to  the  king,  and  showed  him  the  end 
of  his  life,  and  he  lifted  up  his  voice  from  the  earth 
in  prophecy  to  blot  out  the  wickedness  of  the  nation" 
(Ecdus.,  xlvi,  23). 

III.  Necromanct  IK  THE  CHRISTIAN  Era. — In  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the  practice  of 
necromancy  was  common  amongpagans,  as  the  Fa- 
thers frequently  testify  (see,  e.  g.,  Tertullian, "  Apol. ", 
X3riii,  P.  L,  I,  470;  "De  anima^'j  LVI,  LVit,  m  P.  L., 
II,  790  sqq.:  Lactantius,  "Diviiue  institutioDes", 
IV,  xxvii,  m  P.  L.,  VI,  531).  It  was  associated  with 
other  magical  arts  and  other  forms  of  demoniacal 
practices,  and  Christians  were  warned  against  such 
observances  "in  which  the  demons  represent  them- 
selves as  the  souls  of  the  dead"  (TertolHan,  De 
anima^  LVII,  in  P.  L.,  II,  703).  Nevertheless,  even 
Christians  converted  from  paganism  sometimes  in- 
dulged in  them.  The  efforts  of  Church  authorities, 
popes,  and  councils,  and  the  severe  laws  of  Christian 
emperors,  especially  Constantine,  Constantius.  Valen- 
tinian,  Valens,  Theodosius,  were  not  directedf  specif- 
ically against  necromancy,  but  in  general  against 
pagan  msgic.  divination,  and  superstition.  In  fact, 
little  by  little  the  term  necromancy  lost  its  strict 
meaning  and  was  applied  to  all  forms  of  black  art, 
becoming  closely  associated  with  alchemy,  witch- 
craft, and  magic.  Notwithstanding  all  efforts,  it  sur- 
vived in  some  form  or  other  during  the  Middle  Am, 
but  was  given  a  new  impetus  at  the  time  of  the  Re- 
naissance by  the  revival  of  the  neo-Platonic  doctrine 
of  demons.  In  his  memoirs  (translated  by  Roscoe, 
New  York,  1851,  ch.  xiii)  B^venuto  Celuni  shows 
how  vague  the  meaning  of  necromancy  had  become 
when  he  relates  that  he  assisted  at  "necromantic" 
evocations  in  which  multitudes  of  "devils"  appeared 
and  answered  his  questions.  Cornelius  Agrippa 
("  De  occulta  philosophia".  Cok)gne,  1510,  tr.  by  J.  r ., 
London,  1651)  indicates  the  magical  rites  by  which 
souls  are  evoked.  In  recent  times,  necromancy,  as  a 
distinct  belief  and  practice,  reappears  under  the  name 
of  spiritism,  or  spiritualism  (see  SnRrnsii). 

Tne  Church  does  not  deny  that,  with  a  special  per- 
mission of  God,  the  souls  of  the  departed  may  appear 
to  the  living,  and  even  manifest  things  unknown  to 
the  latter.  But,  understood  as  the  art  or  science  of 
evoking  the  dead,  necromancy  is  held  by  theologians 
to  be  due  to  the  agency  of  evil  spirits,  for  the  means 
taken  are  inadequate  to  produce  the  expected  results. 
In  pretended  evocations  of  the  dead,  there  may  be 
many  thin^  explainable  naturally  or  due  to  fraud; 
how  much  is  real,  and  how  much  must  be  attributed 
to  imagination  and  deception,  cannot  be  determined, 
but  real  facts  of  necromancy,  with  the  use  of  incanta- 
tions and  magical  rites,  are  looked  upon  by  theolo- 
gians, after  St.  Thomas^  II-II,  Q.  xcv,  aa.  iii^  iv. 
as  special  modes  of  divination^  due  to  demoniacal 
intervention,  and  divination  itself  is  a  form  of 
superstition. 

Lbnoruant,  La  wtoifie  ehet  U»  ChaldSfn*  (Paris.  1875) ;  Idcm.  La 
divination  el  la  acienee  dea  pr4»ag*M  ehez  lea  ChdtdienM  (Paris.  1875^ : 
BouchA-Lbclebcq.  Hutoirt  da  la  divinaticn  danm  tamtiqv^tt 
(Paria,  1879-82) ;  Ttlob,  AaMordbM  tntolAa  Barlt/Hiuory  ifMma^ 


mCTABIUB  737 


I  V.l  A 


Mmd  (LcndoB,  1865):  DftLLoroiR,  B§idewikum  und  Judmitkum  ia  not  commonly  esteemed  to  be  more  than  a  TeEdAl 

2^±3SiT5^^  f>    There  are  however,  two  notable  ^^^^^ 

BMt-iMtTM,  XXIII  ^1766),  174;  KAhlbh.  i>«  onoin*  el  pngreuu  this  statement :  (1)  if  a  person  18  careless  to  the  pomt 

necyontantia  mm  mantum  €9ooation4  apud  vHern  lum  Grmeot  him  of  Omitting  something  whlch  is  indispensable  for  sal- 

^:^^il!il^f-^^!^!f^;X^i^{]^li  vatioa  (*  nec««toteMf«lM),  or  (2)  if  the  r«ni«ne«  of 

Kiuo*9  Cvdop9dia  of  Bibiieai  Liuratw,  ■.  ▼.  ZMniMUum;  Wbxt>.  Will  be  BO  great  as  totally  to  extinguish  the  love  of  God 

BouM  in  Haatxngm.  Diti,  of  tK§  B%l>U,  ■.  v.  Sorcery;  LBsftTBs  in  in  the  souT,  then  the  sin  committed  is  obviously  griev- 

Zlf'^'y^T^^ii^iS^'^      '~^'  ^"""^  ^  Kircheniexi^  q^^    Negligence  is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with  in 

Q  j^^  DxTBRAT.  determining  the  liability  of  one  who  has  damaged 

another  in  any  way.  In  the  court  of  conscience  the 
Neetarius  (Nexripcot),  Patriarch  of  Constantino-  perpetrator  of  dania^  can  onl>[  be  held  responsible 
pie,  (381-397),  d.  27  Sept.,  397,  eleventh  bishop  of  ana  bound  to  restitution  when  his  action  has  been  at- 
that  city  since  Metrophanes,  and  may  be  counted  its  tended  with  moral  culpability^  i.  e.  has  been  done 
first  patriarch.  He  came  from  Tarsus  of  a  senatorial  freely  and  advertently.  The  civil  law  exacts  the  ex- 
famify  and  was  prsetor  at  Constantinople  at  the  time  ercise  of  diligence  whose  measure  is  established  ac- 
of  the  second  genend  council  (381).  When  St.  Greg-  cording  to  the  different  subject  matter  involved.  The 
oiy  Nazian^en  resimed  his  occupation  of  that  see  the  absence  of  this  deg^ree  of  care  on  the  part  of  an  agent  is 
people  called  for  Nectarius  to  succeed  him  and  their  assumed  by  the  civil  law  to  be  culpable,  and  is  pun- 
choice  was  ratified  by  the  Council  (Socrates,  '*  H.  £.  *'  ished  with  the  penalties  provided.  Thus  the  common 
V),  before  August,  381.  Sosomen  (H.  E.,  VII,  8)  law  generally  oistinguJshes  three  classes  of  n^ligence 
adds  that  Nectarius,  about  to  return  to  Tarsus,  asked  as  follows:  gross  n^gence  is  the  failure  to  employ 
Diodorus,  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  if  he  could  carry  any  even  the  smallest  amount  of  care,  such  as  any  person, 
letters  for  him.  Diodorus,  who  saw  that  his  visitor  no  matter  how  heedless,  would  use  for  the  safeguarding 
was  the  most  suitaJble  person  to  become  Bishop  of  of  his  own  interests;  ordinary  negligence  is  the  failure 
Constantinople,  persuaded  Meletius,  Bishop  of  Anti-  to  exercise  ordinary  care,  such  as  a  person  of  ordinary 
och,  to  add  his  name  to  the  list  of  candidates  presented  capacity  and  capable  of  governing  a  famil  v  would  take 
by  the  council  to  the  emperor.  The  emperor  then,  of  his  own  affairs;  slight  negligence  is  the  faUure  to 
to  every  one's  surprise,  chose  Nectarius.  mxo  was  not  bring  to  bear  a  high  degree  of  care,  such  as  very 
yet  baptized,  anci  in  neophyte's  robe  he  was  conse-  thoughtful  persons  would  maintain  in  looking  after 
crated  bishop.  Tillemont  (M^moires,  IX,  486)  doubts  their  own  interests.  The  civil  law  may  and  does  im- 
this  story.  Soon  after  Nectarius'  election  the  Coun-  pose  the  obligation  of  reparation  for  narm  wrought 
cil  passed  the  famous  third  canon  giving  Constanti-  i^ot  only  where  ordinary  and  gross  negligence  are 
nople  rank  immediately  after  Rome.  A  man  of  no  shown,  but  also  at  times  when  omy  slight  negligence  is 
verv  great  power,  Nectarius  had  an  uneventful  i«ign  proved  to  have  existed.  This  obli^tion  holds  good 
with  which  St.  Gregory  was  not  altogether  pleased  likewise  in  conscience,  once  the  deciaon  of  the  judge 
("Ep."  88,  91,  161,  etc.;  Tillemont,  op.  cU.,  IX,  488).  decreeing  it  has  been  rendered. 
Suspected  of  concessions  to  the  Novatians  (Socrates,  aw^'™'*o'*  ^**'*-ii?'  "/  ^'^r  ^t?^i«^^/7  ^°'^  ^m^l  ^' 


V 


MoralU  Intiituiion§9  (Louvain,  1898). 


.  10;  Sosomen,  VII,  12),  he  made  none  to  the  Arians, 
who  in  388  burnt  his  house  (Socrates,  V,  13).    Palsa-  Joseph  F.  Delant. 

mon  says  that  in  394  he  held  a  synod  at  Constantino-  w.i-«^.  a^-o^^  t>j»««/^  • 
pie  which  decreed  that  no  bishop  should  be  deposed  "•««^-  o^e  Race,  Negro.- 
without  the  consent  of  several  other  bishops  of  the       Nehemias,  Book  of.  also  called  the  second  Book 

same  province  (Harduin,  I,  955).    The  most  impor-  of  Esdras,  is  reckoned  both  in  the  Talmud  and  in  the 


penance  and  the  office  of  penitentiary  hitherto  held  num),  following  the  example  of  the  Jews,  still  con- 
by  a  priest  of  his  diocese.  The  incident  is  important  tinues  to  treat  it  as  making  one  with  the  Book  of 
for  the  history  of  Penance.  Nectarius  preached  a  Esdras.  The  union  of  the  two  in  a  single  book  doubt- 
sermon  about  the  martyr  Theodore  still  extant  (''P.  less  has  its  oriadn  in  the  fact  that  the  documents  of 
G."  XXXIX,  1821-40;  Nilles  ''Kalendarium  man-  which  the  Books  of  Esdras  and  Nehemias  are  com- 
uale,"  II,  96-100).  He  was  succeeded  by  St.  John  posed,  underwent  compilation  and  redaction  together 
Chrysostom  and  appears  as  St.  Nectarius  in  the  Ortho-  at  the  hands  probably,  as  most  critics  think,  of  the 
dox  Menaion  for  11  October  (Nilles,  op.  cU.  I,  300;  author  of  Paralipomenon  about  B.  C.  300.  The  sep- 
'' Acta  SS."  Ma^r,  II,  421).  aration  oi  the  Book  of  Nehemias  from  that  of  Esdras. 
TiLUBMpNT,  ifi^f^^  jwur  9erv%r  d  Vhittoiw  teeUtiattiqus  preserved  in  our  editions,  may  in  its  turn  be  justifiea 
gSJ:  ik^'^gUI'iso*^:  ^'"^^t^arfiJ^f^  ^y  «*«  oon«deration  that  the  fonw*  relate  fn  a  d«. 

ehriaaiehtn  kirch9urUer  dem  Kaiam-  TAMdoniw  (Freiburs.  1807).  ^^^\  manner  the  WOrk  accomplished  by  Neheimas, 

Adrian  Fortescue.  s>^d  is  made  up,  at  least  in  great  part,  from  the  authen- 

„    _.  ,_  tic  memoirs  of  the  principal  figure.    The  book  com- 

N6gll|renc6  (Lat.  nee,  not,  and  kgere,  to  pick  out),  prises  three  sections:  I,  i-vi;  II,  vu-xiii,  3;  III,  xiii, 

the  condition  of  not  heeding.     More  specifically  it  is  4-31.    Sections  I  and  III  will  be  treated  first,  and 

here  considered  as  the  omission,  whether  habitual  or  section  II,  which  raises  special  literary  problems,  will 

not,  of  the  care  required  for  the  performance  of  du-  be  discussed  at  the  end. 

ties,  or  at  any  rate,  for  their  full  and  adequate  dis-        Section  I:  i-vi,  (1)  comprises  the  account,  written 

charge.    In  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomas,  it  is  rated  not  by  Nehemias  hunself ,  of  the  restoration  of  the  walls  of 

only  as  a  characteristic  discernible  in  the  commission  Jerusalem.    Already  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes  (B.  C.  485- 

of  all  sins,  but  also  as  a  special  sin  in  itself.    Its  partio-  65),  and  especially  during  the  first  half  of  the  reign  of 

ular  deformity  he  judges  to  be  the  imputable  lack  of  Artaxerxes  I  (B.  C.  465-24),  the  Jews  had  attempted, 

such  solicitude  as  is  here  and  now  demanded  for  the  but  with  only  partial  success,  to  rebuild  the  walls  of 

satisfying  of  obligations.    He  therefore  assigns  pru-  their  capital,  a  work,  up  to  then,  never  sanctioned  by 

dence  as  the  virtue  to  which  it  is  directly  opposed,  the  Persian  kings  (see  I  Eed.,  iv,  6-23).     In  conse- 

What  has  been  said  applies  also  to  actions  which  are  quence  of  the  edict  of  Artaxerxes,  given  in  I  Esd.,  iv, 

not  of  precept,  once  it  is  resolved  to  undertake  them.  18-22,  the  enemies  of  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  forcibly 

Negligence,  according  to  St.  Thomas,  is  initially  at  stopped  the  work  (ibid.,  23)  and  pulled  down  apart  of 

least  a  lack  of  promptness  of  will,  and  is  quite  distin-  what  had  ah-eady  been  accomplished.     (2)  With  these 

^uishable  from  torpor  or  slipshodness  in  execution,  }t  events  the  be«nning  of  the  Book  of  Nehemi^  \^  99B- 


738 


neeted.  Nehemias,  the  son  of  Helchias,  relates  how. 
at  the  court  of  Artaxences  at  Susa  where  he  fulfilled 
the  office  of  the  kind's  cup-bearer,  he  received  the 
news  of  this  calamity  in  the  twentieth  year  of  the  king 
(Neh.,  i),  and  how,  thanks  to  his  prudence,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  himself  sent  on  a  first  mission  to 
Jerusalem  with  full  powers  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  the 
Jewish  capital  (Neh.,  ii,  1-8).  This  first  mission 
lasted  twelve  years  (v,  14;  xiii,  6);  he  had  the  title  of 
Pehah  (v,  14;  adi,  26)  or  Athersatha  (viii,  9;  x,  1).  It 
had  long  been  the  opinion  of  most  historians  of  Israel 
that  the  Artaxences  id  Nehemias  was  certainly  the 
first  of  that  name,  and  that  consequently  the  first  mis- 
sion of  Nehemias  fell  in  the  year  d.  C.  445.  The  Ara- 
maic papyri  of  Elephantine,  recently  published  by 
Sachau,  put  this  date  bcvond  the  shadow  of  a  doubt. 
For  in  the  letter  which  they  wrote  to  Bahohim,  Gov- 
ernor of  Judea,  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  Darius  II 
(B.  C.  40S),  the  Jewish  priests  of  Elephantine  say  that 
they  have  also  made  an  application  to  the  sons  of  San- 
absdlat  at  Samaria.  Now  Sanaballat  was  a  contem- 
poraiy  of  Nehemias,  and  the  Artaxerxes  of  Nehemias, 
therefore,  was  the  predecessor,  and  not  the  successor, 
of  Darius  II. 

(3)  On  his  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  Nehemias  lost  no 
time;  he  inspected  the  state  of  the  walls,  and  then 
took  measures  and  gave  ordere  for  taking  the  work  in 
hand  (ii,  9-18).  Chapter  iii,  a  document  of  the  high- 
est importance  for  determining  the  area  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  B.  C,  contains  a  de- 
scription of  the  work,  carried  out  at  all  points  at  once 
under  the  direction  of  the  zealous  Jewish  governor. 
The  high  priest  Eiiasib  is  named  first  among  the  fel- 
low workers  of  Nehemias  (iii  ^  1 ) .  To  bring  the  under- 
taking to  a  successful  termination  the  latter  had  to 
fight  against  all  sorts  of  difficulties.  (4)  First  of  all, 
the  foreign  element  had  great  influence  in  Judea.  The 
Jews  who  had  returned  from  captivity  almost  a  cen- 
tury before,  had  found  the  country  partly  occupied  by 
people  belonging  to>the  neighbouring  races,  and  being 
unable  to  organize  themselves  politically,  had  seen 
themselves  r^uced,  little  by  little,  to  a  humiliating 
position  in  their  own  land.  And  so,  at  the  time  oT 
Nehemias,  we  see  certain  foreigners  taking  an  exceed- 
ingly arrogant  attitude  towards  the  Jewish  governor 
and  his  work.  Sanaballat  the  Horonite,  chief  of  the 
Samaritans  (iv.  1,  2),  Tobias  the  Ammonite,  Gossem 
the  Arabian,  claim  to  exercise  constant  control  over 
Jewish  affairs,  and  try  by  all  means  in  their  power,  by 
calumny  (ii,  19),  scoffs  (iv,  1  ff),  threats  of  violence 
(iv,  7  ff),  and  craft  (vi,  1  ff),  to  hinder  Nehemias' 
work  or  ruin  him.  The  reason  of  this  was  that  the 
raising  up  again  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  was  destined 
to  bring  about  the  overthrow  of  the  moral  domination, 
which  for  many  years  circumstances  had  secured  for 
these  foreigners. 

(5)  The  cause  of  the  foreigners  was  upheld  by  a 
party  of  Jews,  traitors  to  their  own  nation.  The 
prophet  Noadias  and  other  false  prophets  sought  to 
ternfy  Nehemias  (vi,  14) ;  there  were  some  who,  like 
Samaia.  allowed  themselves  to  be  hired  by  Tobias  and 
Sanaballat  to  set  snares  for  him  (vi.  10-14).  Many 
Jews  sided  with  Tobias  on  account  of  the  matrimonial 
alliances  existing  between  his  family  and  certain  Jew- 
ish families.  Nehemias,  however,  does  not  speak  of 
the  mixed  marriages  as  if  thev  had  been  actually  for- 
bidden. The  father-in-law  of  Tobias*  son,  MosoUam, 
the  son  of  Barachias,  on  the  contrary,  was  a  fellow 
worker  of  Nehemias  (vi,  18;  iii,  4).  The  law  of  Deu- 
teronomy only  forbade  marriages  between  Jews  and 
Chanaanites  (Deut.  vii,  1,  3).  (6)  Diflficulties  of  a 
social  nature,  the  result  of  the  selfish  treatment  of  the 
poor  by  the  rich,  who  misused  the  common  distress  for 
their  own  ends,  likewise  called  for  the  energetic  inter- 
vention of  Nehemias  (v).  On  this  occasion  Nehemias 
TecaUs  the  fact  that  previous  governors  had  practised 
extortion,  while  be  was  the  first  to  show  himself  disin- 


terested in  the  discharp  of  his  duties  (v,  15  ff).  (7) 
In  spite  of  all  these  difficulties  the  rebuilding  of  the 
wall  made  rapid  progress.  We  learn  from  vii,  1 5,  that 
the  work  was  completely  finished  within  fifty-one 
days.  Josephus  (Ant.,  V,  7,  8)  says  that  it  lasted  two 
years  and  four  months,  but  his  testimony,  often  far 
from  reliable,  presents  no  plausible  reason  for  setting 
aside  the  text.  The  relatively  short  duration  of  the 
woriL  is  explained,  when  we  consider  that  Nehemias 
had  only  to  repair  the  damage  wrought  after  the  pro- 
hibition of  Artaxerxes  (I  Esd.,  iv,  23),  and  finish  offthe 
construction,  which  might  at  that  moment  have  bem 
already  far  advanced  [see  above  (1)]. 

Section  III :  xiii,  4-31.  After  the  expiration  of  his 
first  mission,  Nehemias  had  returned  to  Susa  in  the 
thirty-second  year  of  Artaxerxes  (B.  C.  433;  xiii,  6). 
Some  time  after,  he  was  charged  with  a  fresh  mission 
to  Judea,  and  it  is  with  his  doings  during  this  second 
mission  that  xiii,  4-31  is  concerned.  The  account  at 
the  beginning  seems  mutilated.  Nehemias  relates 
how,  at  the  time  of  his  second  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  he 
began  by  putting  an  end  to  the  abuses  which  Tobias, 
the  Ammonite,  supported  by  the  high  priest  Eiiasib, 
was  practising  in  the  temple  in  the  matter  of  the  de- 
pository for  the  sacred  offerings  (xiii,  4-9) .  He  severely 
blames  the  violation  of  the  right  of  the  Levites  in  the 
distribution  of  the  tithes,  and  takes  measures  to  pre- 
vent its  occurrence  in  future  (xiii,  1(V-14) ;  he  insists  on 
the  Sabbath  being  strictly  respected  even  by  the  for- 
eign merchants  (xiii,  15-22).  Finally  he  dealt  se- 
verely with  the  Jews  who  were  guilty  of  marriagps 
with  strange  wives,  and  banished  a  grandson  of 
Eiiasib  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Sanaballat 
(xiii.  23-28).  To  this  son-in-law  of  Sanaballat  is  gen- 
erally attributed  the  inauguration  of  the  worship  in 
the  temple  of  Garizim.  It  is  plain  that  Nehemias' 
attitude  during  his  second  mission  with  regard  to 
mixed  marriages  differs  greatly  from  his  attitude  at 
the  beginning  of  his  first  stay  at  Jerusalem  [see  section 
I,  (5)1. 

Section  II:  vii-xiii,  3,  (1)  contains  accounts  or  doc- 
uments relating  to  the  work  of  politico-social  and  re- 
ligious organization  effected  by  Nehemias,  after  the 
waUs  were  finished.  Here  we  no  longer  have  Nehe- 
mias speaking  in  the  first  person^  except  in  vii,  1-5, 
and  in  the  account  of  the  dedication  of  the  walls  (xii, 
31,  37,  39).  He  relates  how,  after  having  rebuilt  the 
walls,  he  had  to  proceed  to  erect  houses,  and  take 
measures  for  bringing  into  the  town  a  population  more 
in  proportion  to  ito  importance  as  the  capital  (vii,  1-5 ; 
cf.  Ecclus.,  xlijL  15).  (2)  He  gives  (vii,  5  ff.)  the  list  of 
the  families  wno  had  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zorobabel.  This  list  is  in  I  Esd.,  ii.  It  is  remarkable 
that  in  the  Book  of  Nehemias^  following  on  the  list  we 
find  reproduced  (vii,  70  ff.)  with  variants,  the  remark 
of  I  Esd.,  ii,  6S-70  about  the  gifts  given  towards  the 
work  of  the  temple  by  Zorobabers  companions,  and 
the  settlement  of  these  latter  in  the  country;  and  again 
that  Neh.,  viii,  1  resumes  the  narrative  in  the  very 
words  of  I  Esd.,  iii.  This  dependence  is  probably  due 
to  the  redactor,  who  in  this  place  gave  a  new  form  to 
the  notes  supplied  him  by  the  Jewish  governor's 
memoirs  whicn  also  explains  the  latter's  being  spoken 
of  in  the  third  person,  Neh.,  viii,  9.  (3)  There  is  a  de- 
scription of  a  great  gathering  held  in  the  seventh 
month  under  the  direction  of  Nehemias  (viii,  9-12)  at 
which  Esdras  reads  the  Law  (viii,  13).  Tliey  then 
kept  the  feast  of  Tabernacles  (viii,  1^18).  When 
this  feast  is  over,  the  people  gather  together  a^gain  on 
the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  seventh  month  (ix,  1  ff.) 
to  praise  God,  confess  their  sins,  and  to  bind  them- 
selves by  a  written  covenant  faithfully  to  oh^rve 
their  obligations.  Chapter  X  after  giving  the  list  of 
the  subscribers  to  the  covenant,  sets  forth  the  obliga> 
tions,  which  the  people  bind  themselves  to  fulfil;  in 
particular  the  prohibition  of  mixed  marriages  (vem 
30):  the  keeping  of  the  Sabbath,  especially  in  theii 


73d  HtSBta, 


h:i  ^:^^^^^^^^^^H\i^^^^^^^^^^aA:i 


fcteatment  of  foreign  merchants  (verse  31),  the  yearly  had  proved  rebellious  to  all  preventive  cisasures  (x). 

tribute  of  a  third  part  of  a  side  for  the  Temple  (verse  The  political  and  social  situation  described  in  the  first 

32),  and  other  measures  to  ensure  the  regidar  celebra-  six  chapters  of  Nehemj.&s  [see  above,  section  1  (4),  (5). 

tion  of  sacrifices  (verses  33-34),  the  offering  of  the  first-  (6)],  the  religious  situation  to  which  the  proceedings  of 

fruits  and  of  the  first  bom  (verses  35-37),  and  the  pay-  the  gathering  in  Neh.,  x,  beax  witness  [see  above,  seo- 

ment  and  the  distribution  of  the  tithes  (verses  35-39).  tion  II  (3)].  do  not  admit  of  bein^  explained  as  imme- 

After  chapter  x  it  is  advisable  to  read  xii,  43-xiii,  1-3;  diately  foUowing  after  the  mission  of  Esdras,  who 

the  appointment  of  a  commission  for  the  administration  particularly,  in  virtue  of  the  kins's  edict,  disposed  of 

of  thmgs  brought  to  the  Temple,  and  the  expulsion  of  very  valuable  resources  for  the  cdebration  of  worship 

foreigners  from  among  the  conmiunity.    Cnapter  xi,  (I  £sd.,  vii,  viii,  25  ff.).    Esdras  is  again  entirely  un- 

1,  2,  recalls  the  measiu^s  taken  to  people  Jerusalem;  noticed  in  Neh.,  i-vi,  and  in  the  list  of  the  subscribers 

verses  3-36  give  the  census  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  to  the  covenant  (x,  1  fit.).    He  is  mentioned  in  Neh., 

other  towns  as  Nehemias'  measures  left  it.    In  chap-  viii,  1  fif.,  and  in  xii,  35,  as  fulfilling  subordinate  func- 

ter  xii,  27-43,  we  have  the  account  of  the  solemn  deai-  tions.    (Considering  the  singular  number  of  the  verbs 

cation  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem;  Esdras  the  scribe  is  in  Neh.,  viii,  9,  10,  it  is  probable  that  in  the  former  of 

mentioned  as  beins  at  the  head  of  a  group  of  singers  these  two  verses  ''Esdras  and  the  Levites''  being 

(verse  35).    The  fist  in  xii,  1-26,  has  no  connexion  named  as  part  of  the  subject  of  the  phrase  is  due  to  a 

whatever  with  the  events  of  this  epoch.  later  hand.    At  the  epoch  of  Nehemias,  therefore.  Ech 

(4)  The  proceedings  set  forth  m  viii-x  are  closely  dras  was  at  the  beginning  of  his  career,  and  must  nave 
connected  with  the  other  parts  of  the  history  of  Nehe-  gone  a  little  later  to  Babylonia,  whence  he  returned  at 
mias.  The  obligations  imposed  by  the  covenant,  do>  the  head  of  a  band  of  emigrants  in  the  seventh  year  of 
scribed  in  x,  have  to  do  with  just  the  very  matters  Artaxerxes  II  (b.  c.  398).  (6)  Many  critics  have 
with  which  Nehemias  concerned  himself  most  during  maintained  that  in  Neh.,  viii,  we  have  the  history  of 
his  second  stay  (see  above,  section  III).  The  regula-  the  first  promulgation  of  the  "Priestly  Code"'  by 
tion  concerning  the  providing  of  the  wood  for  the  altar  Esdras,  but  the  narrative  in  question  does  not  author- 
(x,  34)  is  recalled  by  Nehemias  in  xiii,  31,  and  the  very  ize  such  an  interpretation.  £)sdrajB  was  probably  still 
words  used  in  x,  39  (end  of  verse),  we  find  again  in  a  very  young  man  at  this  time,  and  all  he  does  is  to 
xiii,  11.  The  covenant  entered  into  by  the  people  read  the  Law  before  the  assembled  people.  It  is  quite 
during  Nehemias'  first  mission  was  broken  in  his  ab-  true  that  in  I  Esd.,  vii,  there  is  made  mention  in  the 
sence.  At  the  time  of  his  second  mission  he  put  down  royal  edict  of  the  Lieiw  of  his  God  which  Esdras  has  in 
the  abuses  with  severity.  For  instance,  the  attitude  mind  (verse  14),  but  besides  the  fact  that  we  hold  the 
he  takes  towards  mixed  marriages  is  quite  different  events  related  in  I  Esd.,  vii,  to  be  posterior  to  Neh., 
from  his  attitude  at  the  beginning  of  his  first  stay  [see  viii  [see  above  (5)],  these  words  must  not  be  under- 
aix>ve  section  I  (5) ;  section  III].  This  change  is  ex-  stood  literally  of  a  new  document  of  which  Esdras  was 
plained  precisely  by  the  absolute  prohibition  pro-  the  bearer.  In  the  same  terms  mention  is  made  of  the 
nounced  a^^ainst  these  marriages  in  the  assembly  de-  wisdom  of  his  God  which  Esdras  has  in  mind  (verse 
Bcribed  in  ix-x.  The  view  has  been  put  forward  that  25),  and  in  this  same  passage  it  is  supposed  that  Es- 
viii-x  gives  an  account  of  events  belonging  to  the  pe-  dras'  compatriots  already  know  the  Law  of  their  God. 

riod  of  the  organization  of  worship  under  Zorobabel,  .^^i^^^^j,?*!:?  ^!^  Nehemiahj  thHr  Uvea  and  times  (London, 

the  names  of  WehemiaS  Cvm,  y,  X,  i;  and  lliSdras  Cvni,  Wittom  Davibs,  JSr*ro,  Nehemiah  and  BMlher  (Edinburgh.  The 

1  fit.)  havmg  been  added  later.      But  there  was  Cer-  Century  Bible) ;  Bbrtheau.  i>i€  BilcA^r  fjro,  iVeAemiaimdi^Ater, 

thinly  sufficient  reason  for  the  reorganization  of  wor-  «*•  ?T"»H>^^®*P"«»,1??^^!  Schlattbb.  sur  Topoqraphie  und 

Bhl^in  the  time  of.Nehemiaa  (cf  J,e  Book  of  Mala-  ''.^t^S^X^'^  S^Jd^S'^ofrrLi'^i^'drfiS^S;! 

Chias  and  Neh.,  Xiu).     Others  on  the  contrary  would  Uchen  ExU  (Freiliurg,  1900) ;  Van  Hoonackeb.  Nihimie  et  B9dra9 

regard  Neh.,  viii-x,  as  the  sequel  to  the  narrative  of  I  (Louvain.  1890) ;  iDKUjNiMmie  m  Van  gq  d'ArtaxerxeB  J,  Eadraf 

TT^nua    Jv-i   and  iht*v  HIcawiap  hnlH  ihtki  NAhpmifua'  en  Ton  7  cTArtoxerxM  J  J  (Gand  and  Lcipiig,  1892);  Idbm,  JV<m»el- 

l!4Sara&  IX-X,  ana  tney  lUtewiSe  noia  tnat  INenemiaS  ^  ^^^  ^^  j^,  Re9taurai%on  juive  aprit  VexU  de  BahvUme  (Pari* 

name  has  been  mterpolated  m  Neh.,  Vlll,  9,  and  X,  1.  and  Louvain.  1806);  Idbm.  NoUb  nur  rhistoire  de  la  Reatauration 

This  theory  is  equally  untenable.     It  is  true  that  in  /«•»»«  ^P****  ^^^  ^  BabyUme  in  Revue  hH)l,iq^e  (Paria,  Januarys 

the  Third  Book  of  lidras  (the  Greek  I  Esdras)  the  ^p'"'  ^®^^>-                              A.  Van  Hoonackeb. 
narrative  of  Neh.,  viii,  is  reproduced  inunediately 

after  that  of  Esdras,  ix-x;  but  the  author  of  the  third  Nahor,  Stephan  Jakob,  church  historian;   b.  at 

Book  of  Esdras  was  led  to  do  this  by  the  fact  that  Ebnat,  24  July,  1829;  d.  at  Nordhausen,  7  Oct..  1902. 

Neh.,  viii,  presents  his  hero  as  reader  of  the  Law.    He  His  family  were  country^  people  of  Ebnat,  a  village  in 

has  moreover  preserved  (III  Esd.,  ix,  50)  the  informa-  the  district  of  Neresheim  in  Wiirtemberg,  and  upon 

tion  of  Neh.,  viii,  9,  about  the  intervention  of  the  the  conclusion  of  his  studies  in  the  gymnasium  Neher 

Athersatha    (Nehemias),    Esdras'    superior,    which  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 

clearly  proves  that  this  account  does  not  refer  to  the  versity  of  Tubingen.    After  his  ordination,  he  laboured 

epoch  when  Esdras  had  returned  to  Jerusalem  en-  as  pastor  of  Dorfmerkingen,  then  of  Zobineen,  and 

trusted  bv  the  king  with  full  powers  for  the  adminis-  finally  of  Nordhausen  (in  the  district  of  Elfwangen, 

tration  of  the  Jewish  commumty.    See,  moreover,  the  Wurtemberg).    In  addition,  Neher  devoted  himself 

following  paragraph.  throughout  his  life  to  intellectual  pursuits,  princi- 

(5)  According  to  our  view  the  return  of  Esdras  with  psdly  to  canon  law  and  church  history,  giving  Kb  at- 
his  emigrants  and  the  reform  effected  by  him  (I  Esd.,  tention,  in  the  latter  study,  chiefly  to  the  two  branch 
vii-x)  ought,  chronologically,  to  be  placed  after  the  sciences  of  ecclesiastical  geography  and  ecclesiastical 
history  of  Nehemias,  and  the  Artaxerxes,  in  the  seventh  statistics,  in  which  he  accomplished  great  results.  In 
year  of  whose  reign  E^ras  returned  to  Jerusalem,  is  his  first  considerable  work,  which  appeared  in  1861,  he 
Artaxerxes  II  (b.  c.  405-358).  As  a  matter  of  fact,  deals  with  the  topic  of  the  privileged  Altar  (altare 
Esdras  finds  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  rebuilt  (I  Esd.,  ix,  primlegiatum).  In  1864  he  puDUshed  the  first  volume 
9),  Jerusalem  well  populated  (x,  1  ff.),  the  Temple  of  his  great  and  carefully  planned  work,  "Kirchliche 
treasure  under  proper  management  (viii,  29  ff.),  Jona-  Geographic  und  Statistik'',  which  comprifvs  three 
than,  son  of  Eliasib,  high  priest  (x,  6;  cf.  Neh.,  xii,  23,  volumes  (Ratisbon,  1864-68).  It  was,  for  that  day, 
Hebrew  text),  and  the  unlawfulness  of  mixed  mar-  a  most  important  work,  indispensable  to  historians. 
riages  reco^zed  by  every  one  (ix^  1  ff.).  The  radical  Its  author  was  one  of  the  first  in  modem  times  to  reo- 
reform,  which  Esdras  introduced  m  this  matter  with-  ognize  the  importance  of  this  branch  of  church  hi»- 
out  being  troubled  by  foreigners  who  still  held  the  toiy,  collecting  with  great  care  material  often  very 
uoper  hand  at  the  time  of  Nehemias'  first  coming,  difficult  to  procure,  and  arranging  it  systematically, 
definitively  put  an  end  to  the  abuse  in  question  which  His  book  on  the  celebration  of  two  Masses  by  a  prieet 


miiATOll 


740 


on  the  same  day  pertaiiis  to  canon  law,  and  it  bean 
the  title:  ''Die  Bination  nach  ihier  geschichtlichen 
Entwicklung  und  nach  dem  heutisen  Kecht"  (Ratis- 
bon,  1874).  After  1878  Neher  edited  the  statistical 
"PersonaUcataloK"  of  his  own  diocese  of  Rottcnburg, 
and  was  one  of  the  principal  contributors  to  the  sec- 
ond edition  of  the  Kircnenlexikon  of  Wetzer  and 
Welte.  For  this  work  he  wrote  no  fewer  than  235  arti- 
cles, or  greater  parts  of  articles.  Their  content  is 
chiefly  matter  relating  to  church  history,  or  to  ecdea- 
asticiu  statistics;  his  best  articles  are  those  relating  to 
the  latter  subject;  those  of  purely  historical  interest 
are  often  imperfect. , 

J.  P.  KiBSCH. 

Mlatozi,  AuQUSTB,  famous  French  surgeon;  bom 
in  Paris,  17  June.  1807,  d.  there  21  Sept.,  1873.  He 
made  his  medical  studies  in  Paris,  pniauating  in  1836 
with  a  thesis  on  tuberculous  affections  of  bones.  All 
his  subsequent  university  career  was  passed  at  Paris. 
After  the  publication  of  his  ''Traits  des  tumeurs  de  la 
mamelle''  he  became  agrigi  in  1839.  In  1851  he  be- 
came professor  of  clini(»J  surgery  with  a  thesis  which 
attracted  wide  attention  and  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man the  following  ^eai.  As  a  member  of  the  surgical 
staff  of  the  St.  Louis  Hospital,  he  devised  a  number  of 
original  surgical  procedures  and  operations,  was  the 
first  to  suggest  the  ligature  of  both  ends  of  arteries  in 
primary  and  secondary  hemorrhage,  and  developed 
several  phases  of  plastic  surgery.  The  N61aton  probe 
with  the  porcelain  knob,  which  he  invented,  was  suc- 
cessfully used  by  him  in  Garibaldi's  case,  in  1862,  to 
locate  a  bullet  in  the  ankle  joint.  Some  of  his  sugges- 
tions with  regard  to  operations  were  important  ad- 
vances in  abdominal  and  pelvic  surgery.  He  was, 
lastly,  noted  as  a  great  teacher  of  surgery  and  a  con- 
summate operator. 

Pagel,  tne  German  historian  of  medicine,  in 
his  ''Biographical  Dictionary  of  Prominent  Phy- 
sicians of  the  Nineteenth  Century",  says  of  N61aton: 
"He  was  a  man  of  very  clear  judgment,  of  ripe 
experience,  of  solid  wisdom,  and  deservedly  occupies 
a  place  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  French  surgeons 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  **  In  1863  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Paris  Academ^r  of  Medicine  and  in  1867 
of  the  French  Institute  of  Science,  and  became  Sena- 
tor of  the  French  Empire  in  1868.  His  fame  as  a 
writer  on  surgery  rests  upon  hb  "  Elements  of  Surgical 
Pathology"  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1854-60).  The  last  vol- 
ume was  completed  with  the  collaboration  of  A.  Ja- 
main.  In  1867  N61aton  had  an  important  share  in 
preparing  the  "Report  on  The  Progress  of  Surgery 
m  France". 

QuYON  in  Butteliru  et  Mtmoir—  (U  la  Soe.  de  Chxr.  (1876); 
BAcLAao  in  Mimoirea  de  VAeadimU  de  M6d.,  XXXII ;  Qurlt, 
Biogr,  Lex.  der  kenorrag.  AertL 

J.  J.  Walbh. 

Neznora,  Jordanus  (Jordanis)  de,  the  name  ^ven 
in  MSS.  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centunes  to 
a  mathematician  who  in  the  Renaissance  period  was 
called  Jordanus  Nemorarius.  A  number  of  his  works 
are  extant,  but  nothing  is  known  of  his  life.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  place  him  early  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Emile  Chasles,  the  geometrician,  concluded  from  a 
studv  of  the  "Algonsmus  Jordani"  that  its  author 
Uvea  not  later  than  the  twelfth  century.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  English  Dominican  Nicolas 
Triveth.  in  a  chronicle  of  his  order  ^attributed  the  "  De 
ponderious  Jordani"  and  the  "De  lineis  datis  Jor- 
dani" to  Jordanus  Saxo,  who,  in  1222^  succeeded  St. 
Dominic  as  master  general  of  the  Fnars  Preachers. 
Since  then,  the  identity  of  Jordanus  Saxo  with  Jor- 
danus Nemorarius  has  been  accepted  by  a  great  many 
authors;  it  seems  difficult  to  maintain  this  opinion, 
however,  as  the  Dominican  superior  general  never 
adds  de  Nemore  to  his  name,  and  the  mathematician 
never  csdls  himself  Saxo.    The  literal  translation  of 


JcrdanuB  de  Nemore  (Giordano  of  Nemi)  would  in<fi- 
cate  that  he  was  an  Italian.  Jordanus  had  a  i^reat 
vogue  during  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  "Opus  Majus", 
under  "  De  oommunibus  natune  ",  Roger  Bacon  quotes 
his  "  De  ponderibus",  as  well  as  a  commentary  whidi 
had  been  written  on  it  at  that  period.  Thomas  Brad- 
wardine  and  the  logicians  who  succeeded  him  in  the 
school  of  Oxford  likewise  make  a  great  deal  of  use  of 
the  writings  of  Jordanus.  During  the  Renuasanoe 
his  "De  ponderibus"  powerfully  influenced  the  devi^ 
opment  of  the  science  of  statics. 

The  treatises  composed  by  Jordanus  de  Nemore  are: 
(1)  "Algorismus"^  a  theory  of  the  elementary  oper- 
ations of  arithmetic.  An  "  Algorithmus  demonstratus 
Jordani"  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in  1534,  by  Pe- 
treius  for  Johannes  Schdner.  The  ''Algorithmus  "  re- 
produced an  anonymous  MS.  found  among  the  papers 
of  Regiomontanus.  It  was  erroneously  attributed  to 
Jordanus,  and  had  really  been  composed  in  the  thir- 
teenth centuiy  by  a  certain  Maipster  Gemardus 
(Duhem  in  "fiibliotheca  mathematica",  3rd  aeries, 
VI,  1905.  p.  9).  The  genuine  "Demonstrato  Algo- 
rismi "  ot  Jordanus,  which  E.  Chasles  had  already  ex- 
amined, has  been  rediscovered  by  M.  A.  A.  Bjombd 
(G.  Enestrdm  in  "Bibliotheca  mathematical',  3rd 
series,  VII,  1906,  p.  24),  but  is  still  unpublished.  (2) 
"Elementa  ArismeticsD":  this  treatise  on  arithmetic, 
divided  into  dUtinclioneSy  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1496 
and  in  1514,  to  the  order  of  Lefdvre  d'Etaples,  who 
added  various  propositions  to  it.  (3)  "De  numeris 
datis",  published  m  1879  by  Treutlein  ("Zeitschr. 
Math.  Phys.",  XXIV,  supplem.,  pp.  127-«6)  and 
again  in  1891  by  Maximilian  Curtse  (ibid.,  XXXVI, 
"Histor.  liter.  Abtheilung",  pp.  1-23,  41-63,  81-95, 
121^138).  (4)  "De  triuigufis".-Jonianus  himself 
^ve  this  treatise  the  name  of  Philotechnes  (Duhem 
m  "Bibliotheca  mathematica",  3rd  series,  V,  1905,  p. 
321;  "Archiv  fOr  die  Geschichte  der  Naturwissen- 
schaften  und  der  Technik".  I,  1909,  p.  88).  It  was 
published  by  M.  Curtze  ("Mittheil.  aer  Copemicu»- 
vereins  flir  Wissenschaft  imd  Kunst",  VI — ^Thom, 
1887).  (5)  "Planispherium". — This  work  on  map- 
drawing  gives,  for  tne  first  time,  the  theorem:  The 
stereographic  projection  of  a  circle  is  a  circle.  It  was 
printed  by  VsJderus,  at  Basle,  in  1536,  in  a  collection 
containing  the  cosmoflraphical  works  of  Ziegler,  VrO" 
dus,  Berosius.  and  Theon  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
"Planisphere''  of  Ptolemy.  (6)  "De  Speculis",  a 
treatise  on  catoptics,  still  unedited.  (7)  "De  pon- 
deribus' '.  or  better, "  Elementa  super  demonstrationem 
ponderis  ,  a  treatise  on  statics,  m  nine  propositions, 
still  unpublished,  seems  to  have  been  compoeed  as  an 
iotroduction  to  a  fra^pient  on  the  Roman  oalance  at- 
tributed to  one  Chanstion,  contemporary  and  friend 
of  Philo  of  Byzantium  (second  century,  b.  c).  This 
fragment  has  survived  under  two  forms:  (a)  a  Latin 
version  directly  from  the  Greek,  entitled  "De  ca> 
nonio";  (b)  a  ninth-century  commentary  by  the  Arab 
mathematician  Th&bit  ibn  Kurrah,  translated  into 
Latin  by  Gerard  of  Cremona. 

Most  of  the  propositions  of  the  "De  ponderibus 
Jordani"  are  gravely  erroneous.  But  the  last  offers 
a  remarkable  demonstration  of  the  principle  of  the 
lever,  introducing  the  method  of  virtual  work  for  the 
first  time  in  mathematical  historv.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  or  tne  begixming  of  the 
fifteenth,  an  anonymous  author  expanded  the  demon- 
strations in  Jordanus's  treatise :  in  this  enlarxed  form, 
the  treatise,  combined  with  the  "  De  canonic  ,  is  found 
in  many  MSS.  under  the  title  "Liber  Euclidis  de 
ponderibus".  There  is  also  an  anonymous  comm^i- 
tarv  on  the  "De  ponderibus",  based  on  ideas  appar- 
ently borrowed  from  Aristotle's  "Quffistiones  mecha- 
nics". This  Aristotelean  commentuy  is  mentioned 
by  Roger  Bacon  in  his  "Opus  majus";  together  with 
an  enlarged  edition  of  the  "libcr  Eucdidis  de  pon- 
deribus',  it  was  printed  at  Nuremberg,  in  1533,  by 


NEM&OD 


741 


KSOCJBSAftfiA 


JohanneB  PetreiuB;  under  the  direction  of  Petrus 
ApianuSy  under  the  title  "liber  Jordani  Nemorarii, 
viri  clariflsimi,  de  ponderibus".  In  the  thirteenth 
centurv  an  anonymous*  author  undertook  to  write  a 
preamble  to  a  fragment  on  mechanics,  this  fragment 
Dcing  of  Hellenic  origin,  and,  apparently,  later  than 
Hero  of  Alexandria.  For  this  purpose  ne  resinned 
Jordanus's  work,  correcting,  however,  its  errors  in 
mechanics.  The  method  of  virtual  work,  employed 
by  Jordanus  to  justify  the  law  of  equilibrium  of  the 
straight  lever,  supplies  this  anonymous  writei^  with 
Bome  admirable  demonstrations  for  the  law  of  e(|uilib- 
rium  of  the  bent  lever  and  for  the  apparent  weight  of 
a  heavv  body  on  an  inclined  plane.  This  preambfe 
is  found  in  man>r  manuscripts,  with  the  Hellenic  frag- 
ment. In  1554  it  was  c^cally  pla^arized  by  Nicolb 
Tartaglia  in  his  "Quesiti  et  inventioni  diverse'';  the 
manuscript  text,  found  in  Tartaglia's  P&pcrs,  was  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  in  1565,  by  Antius  Trojanus,  under 
the  title:  ''Jordani  Opusculum  de  ponderositate,  Ni- 
colai  Tartalese  studio  correctum"  (A  Brief  Work  of 
Jordanus,  on  Ponderosity,  carefully  corrected  by 
Nicold  Tartaglia). 

Cantor,  VbrMtunaen  fl6«r  dU  OeachiehU  der  MathenuUikt  II 
(2nd  ed.,  Letpsis,  1900),  5^-<86;  Dimvu^  Lea oriffine$  de  la  SUUigue, 
I  (Paris,  1906),  OS-155;  Idbm,  Btudee  eur  Uonard  de  Vinci,  eeux 
qu'il  aluaet  eeux  qui  VorU  2u,  lat  aeries  (Paris.  1906),  310-16. 

PiSRRS  DUHEM. 

Naxnrodr  or  Nimrod  (niD^  of  uncertain  significa- 
tion, LXX  Ne/3pc6d),  the  name  of  a  descendant  of 
Chus  (Gush),  son  of  Cham  (Ham),  represented  in 
Gen.,  X,  8-12,  as  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian  em- 
pire and  as  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord.  This 
last  may  be  taken  in  the  strict  sense — shunter  of  wild 
beasts,  for  such  we  know  the  Babylonian  princes  to 
have  been;  or  in  the  sense  of  warrior,  the  original 
word  gibbor  having  the  meaning  "hero".  The  name 
of  Nemrod  has  not  yet  been  discovered  among  those 
found  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  and  the  attempts 
made  by  Assyriologists  to  identify  him  with  historical 
or  legendary  personages  known  to  us  through  these 
sources  rest  on  more  or  less  plausible  conjectures. 
Thus  by  some  scholars  (Delitsch,  Hommel,  P. 
Haupt,  etc.)  he  is  identified  with  Gilgamesh,  the  hero 
of  the  Babylonian  epic.  The  latter,  whose  name  ap- 
pears frequently  in  the  inscriptions,  and  who  is  often 
represented  in  the  act  of  strangling  a  lion,  is  described 
in  the  poem  as  a  powerful  prince  who  subdues  the 
monster  ox-faced  man  Eabani  and  makes  him  his 
companion,  after  which  he  triumphs  over  the  tyrant 
Humbaba,  and  slays  a  monster  sent  against  him 
by  the  deities^  Anu  and  Ishtar.  Like  the  Biblical 
Nemrod  he  reigns  over  the  city  of  Erech  (Douai, 
Arach),  but  the  texts  fail  to  mention  the  other  towns 
enumerated  in  Gen.,  x.  10,  namely:  Babylon.  Achad, 
and  Chalanne  (Galneh).  For  the  philological  reasons 
underl3ring  this  hypothesis  see  Vigouroux,  s.  v.,  and 
Hastings,  s.  v.  Nimrod.  Sayce  less  plausibly  iden- 
tifies Nemrod  with  the  Kassite  king,  Nazi-Murutas, 
and  T.  Pinches  (in  Hastings)  considers  him  to  be 
the  same  as  Marduk,  the  great  Babylonian  deity.  In 
Grenesis,  x.  11,  we  read:  ''Out  of  that  land  came  forth 
Assur,  and  built  Ninive  .  .  "  This  rendering  of  the 
Vulgate  seems  preferable  to  that  of  the  Revised 
Version:  ''Out  of  that  land  he  (Nimrod)  went  forth 
into  Assyria  and  builded  Nineveh.''  Be  that  as  it 
mayi  we  know  from  other  sources  that  Assjrria  with 
its  capital  Nineveh  was  at  first  a  Babylonian  colony, 
and  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Nemroa 
in  the  sense  that  it  was  a  development  of  the  power 
and  civilization  of  Ghaldea.  A  great  niunber  of 
Oriental  legends  grew  up  around  the  meagre  Biblical 
data  concerning  Nemroa.  Thus  with  probable  refer- 
ence to  the  supposed  root  of  the  name  ("IID  marad. 
"he  revolted"),  he  is  credited  with  having  instigated 
the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel  and  of  being  the 
author  of  Babylonian  idolatry.    Another  legend  is 


to  the  effect  that  Abraham  having  refused  to  worship 
the  statue  of  Nemrod  was  cast  into  a  fiery  furnace. 
A  trace  of  this  legend  appears  in  II  Esd.,  ix,  7,  where 
the  translator  of  the  Vulgate  renders  the  original  "Ur 
of  the  Chaldees"  (from  which  the  Lord  called  Abra- 
ham), by  "fire  of  the  Ghaldeans".  It  was  only  nat- 
ural that  the  renown  of  Nemrod  as  a  builder  should 
have  caused  his  name  to  be  connected  with  nearly  all 
of  the  principal  mounds  and  ruins  to  be  found  in 
Mesopotamia. 

Hetzbnaueb,  Commentariua  in  librum  Geneeia  (Qrai  and 
Vienna,  1910),  190  sqq.;  HuMiiXLAUBit,  Commentariua  in  Qene- 
aim  (Paria,  1908),  317  aqq.;  a  Lapiob,  Commenioria  in  Scrip, 
Sac  I  (Paria,  1869),  166  aqq. 

Jame^  F.  Driscoll. 

NeocAsarea,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Hierapolis 
in  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  sometimes  called 
Gsesarea^  as  in  "Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis  ro- 
mani"  (ed.  Gelzer,  1882).  Among  its  bishops  were 
Paul,  whose  hands  were  burned  by  order  of  Licinius 
and  who  attended  the  Goimcil  of  Nicsea  in  325  (Theo- 
doret,  "Hist,  eccl.",  I,  VII);  Meletius,  opposed  to  the 
Gouncil  of  Ephesus  in  431 ;  Patricius  (451)  and  John 
(553).  In  the  sixth-century  "  Notitia  episcopatuum" 
of  Anastasius  (Echos  d'Orient,  Paris,  X,  145)  this  see  is 
mentioned  as  a  suffragan  of  Hierapolis.  According  to 
Procopius  (De  iEdificiis  II,  9),  Justinian  accomplished 

f'eat  things  there.  Neocsesarea  was  a  fort  on  the 
uphrates.  not  far  from  Zeugma.  Ghabot  thinks  its 
site  was  the  actual  ruins  of  Balkiz  (La  fronti^re  de 
TEuphrate  de  Pomp6e  k  la  conqu6te  arabe,  Paris, 
1907,  278  so.). 

Lb  Quibn.  Oriena  chriatianua,  II  (Paria,  1741),  947;  Qblbbb, 
Oeorgii  Cyprii  Deacriptio  orbia  romani  (Leipaig),  161;  Chabot, 
Journal  aaiatique,  II  (Paria.  1900),  279  sq. 

S.  Vailb£. 

Neocsosarea,  a  titular  see  of  Pontus  Polemoniacus, 
at  first  called  Gabira,  one  of  the  favourite  residences 
of  Mithridates  the  Great,  who  built  a  palace  there, 
and  later  of  King  Polemon  and  his  successors.  Pom- 
pey  made  it  a  city  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Diopolis, 
while  Pythodoris,  widow  of  Polemon,  made  it  her 
capital  and  callea  it  Sebaste.  It  is  not  known  pre- 
cisely when  it  assumed  the  name  of  Neocssarea  men- 
tioned for  the  first  time  in  Pliny,  "Hist.  Nat.",  VI, 
III,  1,  but  jud^ng  from  its  coins,  one  might  suppose 
that  it  was  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  It  became 
the  civil  and  rehgious  metropolis  of  Pontus.  We 
know  that  about  240,  when  Gregory  Thaumaturgus 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  his  native  city,  Neocsesarea 
had  but  seventeen  Ghiistians  and  that  at  his  death 
(270)  it  counted  only  seventeen  pagans.  In  315  a. 
great  council  was  held  there,  the  acts  of  which  are  still 
extant.  In  344  the  city  was  completely  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  (Hieronymus,  "Chron.",  anno  2362), 
meeting  a  similar  fate  in  499  (Theodorus  Lector,  II. 
54).  During;  the  Middle  Ages  the  Mussulmans  and 
Ghristians  disputed  the  possession  of  Neocsesarea,  and 
in  1068  a  Seljuk  general,  Melik-Ghazi,  whose  tomb  is 
still  visible,  captured  and  pillaged  it;  later,  in  1397,  it 
passed,  together  with  the  whole  district,  under  the 
sway  of  the  Ottomans.  Beinp  early  placed  at  the 
head  of  an  ecclesiastical  province,  Neocsesarea  had 
four  suffragan  sees  about  640  ("Ecthesis"  of  pseudo- 
Epiphanius,  ed.  Gelzer,  539),  retaining  them  until  the 
tenth  century,  when  Trebizond  obtained  its  independ- 
ence and,  by  degrees,  the  other  three  suffragans  were 
suppressed.  In  1391  the  Archdiocese  of  Neocsesarea 
was  confided  to  the  metropolitan  of  Trebizond  (Miklo- 
sich  and  MuUer,  "Acta",  II,  154).  About  1400  there 
was,  however,  a  regular  metropolitan  (op.  cit.,  II,  312) 
and  there  is  still,  but  he  resides  at  Ordou.  Among  the 
twenty-seven  bishops  of  this  city  mentioned  by  Le 
Quien,  the  most  noted  are  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus 
and  St.  Thomas,  a  mart3rr  of  the  mnth  century.  Neo- 
csesarea, now  called  Niksar,  is  a  small  city  of  4000  in- 
habitants in  the  sanjak  of  Tokat  and  the  vilayet  of 


NIOPHTTS 


742 


MIO-PLATONISM 


Sivas,  with  a  Greek  aodsan  Armenian  church,  both  of 
which  are  schismatic. 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Qrtek  and  Roman  Owf/raphy  (London, 
1870).  I.  462,  II.  418,  s.  ▼.  Cabira  et  Ntoemareia;  Ls  Quibn. 
OrieM  ekrUtianut,  I  (Paris,  1741),  499-508;  Cuinet,  La  Turquie 
tTAne,  I  (Paris,  1892).  733-35;  Cumoitt,  Studia  Ptmtiea  (Brua- 
seU,  1906).  259-273. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Neophyte  (p€64fvroij  the  newly  planted,  i.  e.  incor- 
porated with  the  mystic  Body  of  Christ),  a  term  ap- 
plied in  theology  to  all  those  who  have  lately  entered 
upon  a  new  ana  higher  state  or  condition  of  life,  e.  g. 
those  who  have  b^gun  the  ecclesiastical  life,  or  have 
joined  a  religious  order.  More  particularly  is  it  used 
of  those  who,  lately  converted  from  heathenism,  have, 
by  the  sacrament  of  Baptism,  been  transplimted  into 
the  hisher  life  of  the  Church.  From  very  early  times 
there  nave  been  prohibitions  against  neophytes  in  this 
last  sense  being  promoted  too  quickly  to  Holv  Orders 
and  to  positions  of  responsibility  in  the  Chureh.  Thus 
the  Council  of  Nicsea  in  its  second  canon  lays  down 
rules  on  this  subject,  on  the  ground  that  some  time  is 
necessary  for  the  state  of  a  Catechumen  and  for  fuller 
probation  after  baptism;  for  the  Apostolic  decree  is 
dear  which  savs,  'Not  a  neoph3rte,  lest  being  puffed 
up  with  pride,  he  fall  into  the  judsment  of  the  devir' 
(I  Tim.,  iii,  6).  The  period  which  should  elapse 
fJter  conversion  before  promotion  is  not  fixed  but 
(Bened.  XIV,  "De  syn,'\  vii,  65-6)  is  left  to  the  di*- 
cretion  of  the  bishop  and  will  vary  with  the  individual 
case.     (See  Divorce,  sub-title  Pauline  PrUnUge.) 

Bbnbdict  XIV,  De  8yn.  Dioe.^  Lib.  XIII,  cap.  zl;  Fxbrabib, 
Prwnpta  BibltotKeea,  a.  v.;  Mionb,  Dictionnatrt  de  Diaeivline 
BeeUnaatique,  0.  v.;  Corp%i$  Juri»  Canon^t  aad  in  general  the 
MaauaJs  ot  Moral  Theology. 

Abthub  S.  Barnes. 

Neo-Platontomr  a  system  of  idealistic,  spiritual- 
istic philosophv,  tending  towards  mysticism,  which 
flourished  in  tne  pagan  world  of  Greece  ana  Rome 
during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  It 
is  of  interest  and  importance,  not  merely  because  it  is 
the  last  attempt  of  Greek  thou^t  to  rehabilitate  itsdf 
and  restore  its  exhausted  vitality  by  recourse  to 
Orientid  religious  ideas,  but  also  because  it  definitely 
entered  the  service  of  pagan  polytheism  and  was  used 
as  a  weapon  against  Cnristianity.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  its  first  representatives  drew  their 
inspiration  from  Plato's  doctrines,  although  it  is  well 
known  that  man^  of  the  treatises  on  which  they  re- 
lied are  not  genuine  works  of  Plato.  It  originated  in 
Egypt,  a  circumstance  which  would,  of  itself,  indicate 
that  while  the  system  was  a  characteristic  product  of 
the  Hellenic  spirit,  it  was  largely  influenced  by  the  re- 
ligious ideals  and  mystic  tendencies  of  Oriental 
thought. 

To  understand  the  neo-Platonic  system  in  itself,  as 
well  as  to  appreciate  the  attitude  of  Christianity  to- 
wards it,  it  is  necessary  to  explain  the  two-fold  purpose 
which  actuated  its  founders.  On  the  one  hand,  phil- 
osophical thought  in  the  Hellenic  world  had  proved  it- 
self inadequate  to  the  task  of  moral  and  religious  re- 
generation. Stoicism,  Epicureanism,  Eclecticism  and 
even  Scepticism  had  each  been  set  the  task  of  "  making 
men  happy '',  and  each  had  in  turn  failed.  Then  came 
the  thought  that  Plato's  idealism  and  the  religious 
forces  of  the  Orient  might  well  be  united  in  one  philo- 
sophical movement  which  would  give  definiteness, 
homogeneity,  and  unity  of  puipose  to  all  the  efforts 
of  the  pagan  world  to  rescue  itself  from  impending 
ruin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  strength  and,  from  the 
pagan  point  of  view,  the  aggressiveness  of  Christianity 
began  to  be  realizea.  It  became  necessary,  in  the  in- 
tellectual world,  to  impose  on  the  Christians  by  show- 
ing that  Paganism  was  not  entirely  bankrupt,  and,  in 
the  political  world,  to  rehabilitate  the  official  polythe- 
ism of  the  State  by  furnishing  an  interpretation  of  it, 
that  should  be  acceptable  in  philosophy.  Speculative 
Stoictsm  had  reduced  the  gods  to  personifications  of 


natural  forces;  Aristotle  had  definitely  denied  their 
existence;  Plato  had  sneered  at  them.  It  was  time, 
therefore,  that  the  growing  prestige  of  Christianity 
should  be  offset  by  a  philosomiy  which,  claiming  the 
authority  of  Plato,  whom  the  Christians  reverea« 
should  not  only  retain  the  gods  but  make  them  aa 
essential  part  of  a  plulosophicS  system.  Such  was  the 
origin  of  neo-Platonism.  It  should,  however,  be  added 
that,  while  the  philosophy  which  sprang  from  these 
sources  was  Platonic,  it  did  not  disdain  to  appropriate 
to  itself  elements  of  Aristoteleanism  and  even  Epicu- 
reanism, which  it  articulated  into  a  Syncretic  system. 

I.  Forerunners  of  Neo-Platonism. — ^Among  the 
more  or  less  eclectic  Platonists  who  are  regarded  as 
forerunners  of  the  neo-Platonic  school,  the  most  im- 
portant are  Plutaroh,  Maximus,  Apuleius,  ^neside- 
mus,  Numenius.  The  last-mentioned,  who  flour»hed 
towards  the  end  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  had  a  direct  and  immediate  influence  on  Plotinus, 
the  first  systematic  neo-Platonist.  He  taught  that 
there  are  three  gods,  the  Father,  the  Midcer  (Demi- 
urgos),  and  the  World.  Philo  tne  Jew  (see  PhojO 
JuDAUs),  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  finit  cen- 
tury, was  also  a  forerunner  of  neo-Platonism,  although  it 
is  difficult  to  say  whether  his  doctrine  of  the  mediation 
of  the  Logos  had  a  direct  influence  on  Plotinus. 

II.  Ammonius  SaccaSt  a  porter  on  the  docks  at  Alex- 
andria, IB  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  neo-Platonic 
school.  Since  he  left  no  writing  it  is  impossibie  to 
say  what  his  doctrines  were.  We  know,  however, 
that  he  had  an  extraordinary  influence  over  men  like 
Plotinus  and  Origen.  who  willingly  abandoned  the  pro- 
fessional teachers  ot  philosophy  to  listen  to  his  dis- 
courses on  wisdom.  Accoroing  to  Eusebius,  he  was 
bom  of  Christian  parents,  but  reverted  to  paganism. 
The  date  of  his  birtii  is  given  as  242. 

III.  PlotinuSf  a  native  of  Lyoopolis  in  E^^jrpt,  who 
lived  from  205  to  270  was  the  first  S3r8tematic  pluloeo- 
pher  of  the  school.  When  he  was  twenty-eight  years 
old  he  was  taken  by  a  friend  to  hear  Ammonius,  and 
thenceforth  for  eleven  years  he  continued  to  pront  by 
the  lectures  of  the  porter.  At  the  end  of  the  first  dis- 
course which  he  heard,  he  exclaimed :  "This  man  is  the 
man  of  whom  I  was  in  seareh."  In  242  he  accompa- 
nied the  Emperor  Gordian  to  Mesopotamia,  intending 
to  go  to  Persia.  In  244  he  went  to  Rome,  who«,  for 
ten  years;  he  taup;ht  philosophy,  counting  amons  hia 
hearers  and  admirera  the  Empmr  G^enus  and  his 
wife  Salonina.  In  263  he  retired  to  Campania  with 
some  of  his  disciples,  including  Porphyry,  and  there 
he  died  in  270.  His  works,  consisting  of  fifty-four 
treatises,  were  edited  by  Porpnyry  in  six  groups  of  nine. 
Hence  they  are  known  as  the  '^Emneads" .  The  '* En- 
neads"  were  first  published  in  a  Latin  translation  by 
Marsilius  Ficinus  (Florence,  1492) ;  of  recent  editions 
the  best  are  Breuzer  and  Moser's  (Oxford,  1S55),  and 
Kirehoff's  (Leipzig,  1856).  Parts  of  the  ''Enneads'' 
are  translated  into  English  by  Taylor  (London,  1787- 
1817). 

Plotinus'  starting-point  is  that  of  the  idealist.  Be 
meets  what  he  considers  the  paradox  of  materialism, 
the  assertion,  namely,  that  matter  alone  exists,  bv  an 
emphatic  assertion  of  the  existence  of  spirit.  If  the 
soul  is  spirit,  it  follows  that  it  cannot  have  originated 
from  the  body  or  an  aggregation  of  bodies,  'n^e  true 
source  of  reality  is  above  us,  not  beneath  ua.  It  is  the 
One,  the  Absolute,  the  Infinite.  It  is  God.  God  ex- 
ceeds all  the  categories  of  finite  thought.  It  is  not 
correct  to  say  that  He  is  a  Being,  or  a  Mind.  He  is 
over-Being,  over-Mind.  The  only  attributes  which 
may  be  appropriately  applied  to  £Qm  are  Good  and 
One.  If  God  were  only  One,  He  should  remain  for- 
ever in  His  undifferentiated  unity,  and  there  should  be 
nothing  but  God.  He  is,  however  good;  and  good- 
ness, like  light,  tends  to  diffuse  itsell.  Thus,  from  the 
One,  there  emanates  in  the  fiivt  place  Intellect  (Kovf), 
which  is  the  image  of  the  One,  and  at  the  same  time  a 


NIO-PLATONX8M  743  M10-PLAT0NX8M 

partially  differentiated  derivative,  because  it  is  the  Old  Testament  and  the  comparative  study  of  relis^ona 
woild  of  ideas,  in  which  are  the  multiple  archetypes  His  work  "De  Antro  Nympharum''  is  an  elaborate 
of  thin09.  From  the  intellect  emanates  an  image  in  allegorical  interpretation  and  defence  of  pagan  my- 
which  there  is  a  tendency  to  d3mamic  differentiation,  thology.  His'A0o/>/iaZ  (Sentences)  is  an  exposition  of 
namely  the  World-Soul,  which  is  the  abode  of  forces,  Plotinus's  philosophy.  His  biographical  writings  in- 
as  the  Intellect  is  the  abode  of  Ideas.  From  the  eluded  ''Lives''  of  Pvthagoras  and  Flotinus  in  which 
World-Soul  emanate  the  Forces  (one  of  which  is  the  he  strove  to  show  that  these  ''god-sent"  men  were 
human  soul),  which  by  a  series  of  successive  degrada-  not  only  models  of  philosophic  sanctitv  but  also 
tions  towards  nothing  become  finallv  Matter,  the  Bavfiarovpyoi,  or  " wonder-workers'',  endowed  with 
non-existent,  the  antithesis  of  God.  All  this  process  theurgic  powers.  The  best  known  of  all  his  works  is 
is  called  an  emanation,  or  flowing.  It  is  descnbed  in  a  logical  treatise  entitled  e&vayvy^  or  "Introduction 
figurative  language,  and  thus  its  precise  philosophical  to  the  Categories  of  Aristotle",  in  a  Latin  transla- 
value  is  not  determined.  Similarly  the  One.  uod,  is  tion  made  by  Boethius,  this  work  was  very  widely 
described  as  light,  and  Matter  is  said  to  be  darkness,  used  in  the  early  Middle  Ages,  and  exerted  oonsidera- 
Matter,  is,  in  fact,  for  Plotinus,  essentially  the  opposite  ble  influence  on  the  growth  of  Scholasticism.  It  is, 
of  the  Good:  it  is  evil,  and  the  soiu'ce  of  all  evil.  It  is  as  is  well  known,  a  passage  in  this  "Isagoge"  that  ia 
unreality  and  wherever  it  is  present,  there  is  not  only  a  said  to  have  given  occasion  to  the  celebrated  ooi^ 
lack  of  goodness  but  also  a  lack  of  reality.  God  alone  troversy  concerning  universals  in  the  eleventh  and 
is  free  from  Matter;  He  alone  is  Light;  He  alone  is  twelth  centuries.  In  his  expository  works  on  the 
fully  real.  Everjrwhere  there  is  partial  differentiation,  philosophy  of  Plotinus,  Porphyry  lays  great  stress  on 
partial  darkness,  partial  imreality;  in  the  Intellect,  the  importance  of  theurgic  practices.  He  holds,  of 
m  the  World-Soul,  in  Souls,  in  the  material  uni-  course,  that  the  practices  of  asceticism  are  the  starting- 
verse.  God,  the  reality,  the  spiritual,  is,  therefore,  point  on  the  road  to  perfection.  One  must  b^^  the 
contrasted  with  the  world,  the  unreal,  the  material,  process  of  perfection  by  "thinning  out  the  veil  of 
God  is  noumenon,  everything  else  is  appearance,  or  matter"  (the  body),  which  stands  between  the  soul 
phenomenon.  and  spiritual  things.    Then,  as  a  means  of  further 

Man,  being  composed  of  bod^  and  soul,  is  partly,  advancement,  one  must  cultivate  self-contemplation, 
like  God,  spiritual,  and  partly  like  matter,  the  oppo-  Once  the  stage  of  self-contemplation  is  attained,  fur- 
site  of  spiritual.  It  is  his  duty  to  aim  at  returning  to  ther  progress  towards  perfection  is  dependent  on  the 
God  b3r  eliminating  from  hi^  being,  his  thoughts,  and  consultation  of  oracles,  divination,  bloodless  sacrifices 
his  actions,  everything  that  is  material  and,  there-  to  the  superior  gods  and  bloody  sacrifices  to  demons, 
fore,  tends  to  separate  him  from  God.    The  soul  came  or  inferior  powers. 

from  God.    It  existed  before  its  union  with  the  body :        V.  lanrnichus,  a  native  of  Syria,  who  was  a  pupil  of 

its  survival  after  death  is,  therefore,  hardly  in  need  or  Porphyry  in  Italy,  and  died  about  the  year  330,  while 

proof.    It  will  return  to  God  by  way  of  knowledge,  inferior  to  his  teacher  in  power  of  exposition,  seemed 

because  that  which  separates  it  from  God  is  matter  to  have  a  firmer  grasp  of  the  speculative  principles 

and  material  conditions,  which  are  only  illusions  or  of  neo-Platonism  and  modified  more  profoundly  the 

deceptive  appearances.    The  first  step,  therefore,  in  metaphysical  doctrines  of  the  school.    His  works  bear 

the  return  of  the  soul  to  God  is  the  act  bv  which  the  the  comprehensive  title  "Summary  of  Pythagorean 

soul,  withdrawing  from  the  world  of  sense  by  a  process  Doctrines  ".    Whether  he  or  a  disciple  of  his  is  the  au- 

of  purification  («cdto/Mrif),  frees  itself  from  the  tram-  thor  of  the  treatise  "DeMysteriisuSlgyptiorum"  (first 

mels  of  matter.    Next,  having  retired  within  itself,  pub.  by.  Gale,  Oxford,  1678,  and  afterwards  by  Par- 

the  soul  contemplates  within  itself  the  indwelling  thev,  Berlin,  1857),  the  book  is  a  product  of  his  school 

intellect.    From  the  contemplation  of  the  Intellect  and  proves  that  he.  like  Porphyry,  emphasized  the 

within,  it  rises  to  a  contemplation  of  the  Intellect  magic,  or  theurgic,  factor  in  the  neo-Platonic  scheme 

above,  and  from  that  to  the  contemplation  of  the  One.  of  salvation.    As  regards  the  speculative  side  of 

It  cannot,  however,  reach  this  final  stage  except  bv  Plotinus's  system,  he  ofevoted  attention  to  the  doctrine 

revelation,  that  is,  by  the  free  act  of  God,  Who,  shedl-  of  emanation,  which  he  modified  in  the  direction  of 

ding  around  Him  the  light  of  His  own  greatness,  sends  completeness  and  greater  consistency.    The  precise 

into  the  soul  of  the  philosopher  and  saint  a  special  nature  of  the  modification  is  not  clear.    It  is  safe, 

light  which  enables  it  to  see  Uod  Himself.    This  mtui-  however,  to  say  that,  in  &  general  way,  he  forestallea 

tion  of  the  One  so  fills  the  soul  that  it  excludes  all  con-  the  effort  of  Proclus  to  distinguish  three  subordinate 

sciousness  and  feeling,  reduces  the  mind  to  a  state  "moments",  or  stages,  in  the  process  of  emanation, 
of  utter  passivity,  and  renders  possible  the  union  of        While  these  philosophical  defenders  of*  neo-Platon- 

man  with  God.    The  ecstasy  {iKfrrofftt)  by  which  this  ism  were  directing  their  attacks  against  Christianity, 

union  id  attained  is  man's  supreme  happiness,  the  goal  representatives  of  the  school  in  the  more  practical 

of  aU  his  endeavour,  the  fulnlment  of  his  destiny.    It  walks  of  life,  and  even  in  high  places  of  authority, 

is  a  happiness  which  receives  no  increase  by  continu-  carried  on  a  more  effective  warfare  in  the  name  of  t£e 

ance  of  time.    Once  the  philosopher-saint  has  at-  school.    Hierocles,  pro-consul  of  Bithynia  during  the 

tained  it,  he  becomes  confirmed,  so  to  speak,  in  grace,  reign  of  Diocletian  (284-305),  not  only  persecuted  the 

Henceforth  forever,  he  is  a  spiritual  being,  a  man  of  Chnstians  of  his  province,  but  wrote  a  work,  now  lost, 

God ,  a  prophet,  and  a  wonder-worker.    He  commands  entitled  "The  discourse  of  a  Lover  of  Truth,  sigainst  the 

all  the  powers  of  nature,  and  even  bends  to  his  will  the  Christians  ",  setting  up  the  rival  claims  of  neo-Platonio 

demons  themselves.    He  sees  into  the  future,  and  in  a  philosophy.  He,  like  Julian  the  Apostate,  Celsus  (q.  v.), 

sense  shares  the  vision,  as  he  shares  the  life,  of  God.  and  others^  was  roused  to  activity  chiefly  by  the  claim 

IV.  Porphyry,  who  in  beauty  and  lucidity  of  style  which  Christianity  made  to  be,  not  a  national  reli^on 
accels  all  the  otner  followers  of  Plotinus^  and  who  is  like  Judabm,  but  a  world-wide,  or  universal,  religion, 
distinguished  also  by  the  bitterness  of  his  opposition  Julian  sums  up  the  case  of  philosophy  against  Chris* 
to  Chnstianity,  was  bom  a.  d.  233,  probably  at  Tyre,  tianity  thus:  "Divine  Government  is  not  through  a 
After  having  studied  at  Athens,  he  visited  Rome  and  special  society  (such  as  the  Christian  Church)  teach- 
there  became  a  devoted  disciple  of  Plotinus,  whom  he  ing  an  authontative  doctrine,  but  through  the  order  of 
accompanied  to  Campania  in  263.  He  died  about  the  the  visible  universe  and  all  the  variety  of  civic  and 
year  303.  Of  his  work  "Against  the  Christians"  only  national  institutions.  The  underlying  harmony  of 
a  few  fragments,  preserved  in  the  works  of  the  Chris-  these  is  to  be  sought  out  by  free  examination,  which  ia 
tian  Apologists,  have  come  down  to  us.  From  these  philosophy"  (Whittaker,  "Neo-Platonists",  p.  155). 
it  appears  that  he  directed  his  attack  alon^  the  lines  of  It  is  in  the  li^t  of  this  principle  of  public  pohcy  that 

wb&t  W9  sbould  Qow  Q^l  historicf^  critioisin  of  the  W9  w^  view  tbe  attempt  of  lambUcbus  to  furnish  a 


HXO-PLATONI8K                       744  M10-FLAT0KX81C 

systematic  defence  of  Polytheism.     Above  the  One,  he  fection,  error,  and  moral  evil.    The  birth  of  a  hnmaa 

•ays,  ia  the  Absolutely  First.    From  the  One,  which  being  is  the  descent  of  a  soul  into  matter.    The  soul, 

is  thus  itself  a  derivative,  comes  intellect,  which,  as  however,  may  ascend,  and  redesc^id  in  another  birth. 

the  Intellectual  and  the  Intelligible,  is  essentially  dual.  The  ascension  of  the  soul  is  brought  about  by  asceti- 

Both  the  Intellectual  and  the  Intelligible  are  divided  cism,  contemplation,  and  the  invocation  of  the  supe- 

into  triads,  which  are  the  superterrestrial  gods.  Beneath  rior  powers  by  magic,  divination,  oracles,  miracles,  etc 

these  and  subordinate  to  them,  are  the  terrestrial  gods  VII.  The  Laal  Neo^PlaUmiats, — Proclus  was  the 

whom  he  subdivides  into  three  hundred  and  sixty  last  great  representative  of  neo-Platonism.     His  di»> 

celestial  beings,  seventy-two  orders  of  sub-celestial  gods,  ciple,  Marinus,  was  the  teacher  of  Damascius,  who 

and  forty-two  orders  of  natural  gods.    Next  to  these  are  represented  the  school  at  the  time  of  its  suppression 

the  semi-divine  heroes  of  mythology  and  the  philoeo-  by  Justinian  in  529.    Damascius  was  accompanied  in 

pher-saints  such  as  Pytha«>ras  and  Plotinus.    From  his  exile  to  Persia  by  Simplicius,  celd^rated  as  a  neo* 

this  it  is  evident  that  neo-Platonism  had  by  this  time  Platonic  commentator.    About  the  middle  of  the  sixth 

ceased  to  be  a  purely  academic  question.    It  had  en-  century  John  Philoponus  and  Olympiodonis  flour- 

tered  yeiy  vigorously  into  the  contest  waged  against  ished  at  Alexandria  as  exponents  of  neo-Platonism. 

Christianity.    At  the  same  time,  it  had  not  ceased  to  They  were,  like  Simplicius,  commentators.    \Mien 

be  the  one  force  which  could  claim  to  unify  the  sur-  they  became  ChristiansM,he  career  of  the  School  of 

viving  remnants  of  pagan  culture.    As  such,  it  ap-  Plato  came  to  an  end.    The  name  of  Olympiodorus  is 

pealed  to  the  woman-pMlosopher  Hypatia,  whose  fate  the  last  in  the  long  line  of  scholarchs  which  began  with 

at  the  hands  of  a  Christian  mob  at  Alexandria,  in  the  Speusippus,  the  msciple  and  nephew  of  Plato, 

year  422,  was  cast  up  as  a  reproach  to  the  Christians  VIII.  Influence  of  Neo-PlaUmUm, — Christian  think- 

(see  Ctril  OF  Alexandria).    Among  the  contempo-  ers,  almost  from  the  beginning  of  Christian  specula- 

raries  of  Hjrpatia  at  Alexandria  was  another  Hierocles,  tion.  found  in  the  spiritualism  of  Plato  a  powerful  aid 

author  of  a  commentary  on  the  Pythagorean ''Golden  in  defending  and  maintaining  a  conception  of  the 

Verses".  human  soul  which  pagan  materialism  rejected,  but  to 

VI.  Produs,  the  most  systematic  of  all  the  neo-  which  the  Christian  Church  was  irrevocably  com- 

Platonists,  ana  for  that  reason  known  86 ''the  scholas-  mitted.    All  the  early  refutations  of  psychological 

tic  of  neo-Platonism,"  is  the  principal  representative  materialism  are  Platonic.    So,  too^  when  the  ideas 

of  a  phase  of  philosophic  thought  wnich  developed  at  of  Plotinus  began  to  prevail,  the  Christian  writers  took 

Athens  during  the  fifth  century,  and  lasted  down  to  the  advantage  of  the  support  thus  lent  to  the  doctrine 

year  529,  when,  by  an  edict  of  JustinianL  the  philo-  that  there  is  a  spintual  world  more  rcaU  than  the 

BOphical  schools  at  Athens  were  closed.     The  founder  world  of  matter.    Later,  there  were  Christian  phi- 

of  the  Athenian  school  was  Plutarch,  sumamed  the  losophers,  like  Nemesius  (flourished  c.  450),  who  took 

Great   (not  Plutarch  of  Chseronea.   author  of  the  over  the  entire  system  of  neo-Platonism  so  far  as  it 

"Lives  of  Illustrious  men"),  who  died  in  431.     His  was  considered  consonant  with  Christian  docna.  The 

most  distinguished  scholar  was  Proclus,  who  was  bom  same  may  be  said  of  S3mesiiis  (Bishop  of  Ptolemais,  c. 

at  Constantinople  in  410,  studied  Aristotelean  logic  410),  except  that  he,  having  been  a  pa^an,  did  not, 

at  Alexandria,  and  about  the  year  430  became  a  pupU  even  after  nis  conversion,  sive  up  the  notion  that  neo- 

of  Plutarch  at  Athens.    He  died  at  Athens  in  485.  Platonism  had  value  as  a  force  which  unified  the  va- 

He  is  the  author  of  several  Commentaries  on  Plato,  of  rious  factors  in  pagan  culture.    At  the  same  time  there 

a  collection  of  hymns  to  the  gods,  of  many  works  were  elements  in  neo-Platonism  which  appealed  very 

on  mathematics,  and  of  philosophical  treatises,  the  strongly  to  the  heretics,  especially  to  tne  Gnostics, 

most    important  of  which  are:   "Theological  Ele-  and  these  elements  were  more  and  more  strongly   ac- 
ments,"  aTw,x*^<^**  ^Xoyuc^,  printed  in  the  Paris  ed.  *  centuated  in  heretical  systemsj  so  that  St.  Augustine, 

of  Plotinus's  works);  "Platonic  Theology"  (printed,  who  knew  the  writings  of  Plotmus  in  a  Latin  transla- 

1618,  in  a  Latin  translation  by  i£mUius  Portus);  tion,  was  obliged  to  exclude  from  his  interpretation  of 

shorter  treatises  on  Fate,  on  Evil,  on  Providence,  etc.,  Platonbm  many  of  the  tenets  which  characteriied  the 

which  exist  only  in  a  Latin  translation  made  by  Wil-  neo-Platonic  school.    In  this  way,  he  came  to  profess 

liam  of  Moerbduk  in  the  thirteenth  century.    These  a  Platonism  which  in  many  respects- is  nearer  to  the 

are  collected  in  Cousin's  edition,  "Procli    Opera",  doctrineof  Plato's  "Dialogues "  than  is  the  i>hilo6ophy 

Paris,  1820-25.    Proclus  attempted  to  systematize  of  Plotinus  and  Proclus.  ^  The  Christian  writer  whose 

and  ^ntiiesise  the  various  elements  of  neo-Platonism  neo-Platonism  had  the  widest  influence  in  later  times, 

by  means  of  Aristotelean  logic.  The  cardinid  principle  and  who  also  reproduced  most  faithftilly  the  doctrines 

on  which  his  attempt  rests  is  the  doctrine,  already  of  the  school,  is  the  Pseudo-Dionysiua  (see  Diontsius, 

foreshadowed  by  lamblichus  and  others,  that  in  the  the  Pseudo-Areofaoite).    The  works  "De  Divinis 

process  of  emanation  there  are  always  three  subordi-  Nominibus".  "De  hierarchia  coelesti",  etc.,  are  now 

nate  stages,  or  moments,  namely  the  oi^ginai  (amih}),  admitted  to  nave  been  written  at  the  end  of  the  fifth, 

emergence  from  the  original  (ir/>6o^f),  and  return  to  orduringthefirstdecadesof  the  sixth,  century.     They 

the  original  (^rMTpo^i)).    The  reason  of  this  principle  are  from  the  pen  of  a  Christian  Platonist,  a  disciple  of 

is  enunciated  as  follows:  the  derived  is  at  once  unlike  Proclus,  probably  an  immediate  pupil  of  that  tesu^er, 

the  ori^al  and  like  \t]  its  unlikeness  is  the  cause  of  as  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  they  embody,  not  only 

its  derivation,  and  its  likeness  is  the  cause,  or  reason,  Proclus's  ideas,  but  even  lengthy  passages  from  his 

of  the  tendency  to  return.    All  emanation  is,  there-  writings.    The  author,  whether  mtentionally  on  his 

fore,  sezial.    It  constitutes  a  "chsun"  from  the  One  part,  or  by  some  mistake  on  the  part  of  his  rouJers.. 

down  to  the  antithesis  of  the  One,  which  is  matter,  came  to  be  identified  with  Dionysius  who  is  mentioned 

By  the  first  emanation  from  the  One  come  the  "hensr  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  convert  of  St.  Paul, 

dee",  the  supreme  gods  who  exercise  providence  over  Later^especially  in  France,  he  was  furth^  identified 

worldly  affairs;  from  the  henadcs  comes  the  "triad",  with  Dionysius  the  first  Bishop  of  Paris.     Thus  it 

intelligible,  intdligible-intcllectual,  and  intellectual,  came  about  that  the  works  of  Uie  Pfieudo-Areopaffite, 

corresponding  to  being,  life,  and  thought;  each  of  after  having  been  used  in  the  Blast,  first  by  the  Mo- 

these  IS,  in  turn,  the  origin  of  a  "hebdomad",  a  series  nophysites  and  later  by  the  Catholics,  became  known 

corresponding  to  the  chief  divinities  of  the  pagan  pan-  in  the  West  and  exerted  a  widespr^ul  influence  all 

theon:  from  these  are  derived  "forces",  or  "souls",  through  the  Middle  Ages.     They  were  translated  into 

which  alone  are  operative  in  nature,  although,  since  Latin  by  John  Scotus  Eriugena  about  the  middle  of 

they  are    the  lowest   derivatives,  their   efficacy  is  the  ninth  century,  and  in  this  form  were  studied  and 

least.     Matter,  the  antithesis  of  the  One,  is  inert,  commented  on,  not  only  by  mystic  writers,  such  as  the 

dead,  and  can  be  the  cause  of  nothing  except  imper-  Victorioes,  but  9i^  by  the  t^rpical  r^rooentaUvoB  of 


ino-»irt&AOOttiA»  745  ino.^ti«A6o&SAtt 

Scholasticism,  such  as  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  None  of  there  appears  a  philosopher  who  reverts  to  the  Pythli- 
the  later  scholastics^  however,  went  the  full  len^^th  of  gorean  doctrine  of  nuraoers,  and  in  a  general  way  man- 
adopting  the  metaphysics  of  the  Pseudo-Areopagite  ifests  the  tendency  of  the  school  towards  religious 
in  its  essential  principles,  as  did  John  Scotus  Eriugena  ethics  and  the  practices  of  asceticism.  Beginning 
in  his  "  De  divisione  natune".  with  the  middle  of  the  first  century  B.  c,  a  more  sys- 
After  the  suppression  of  the  Athenian  school  of  tematic  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  speculative 
philosophy  by  Justinian  in  529,  the  representatives  of  philosophy  of  the  Pythagoreans  and  combine  it  with 
neo-Platonism  went,  as  we  have  seen,  to  Persia.  They  the  practice  of  astrology  and  sorcery.  The  first  of 
did  not  remain  long  in  that  country.  Another  exo-  these  systematic  neo-Pytha£oreans  was  Figulus,  a 
dus,  however,  had  more  permanent  oonseouences.  A  Roman  philosopher  who  livecTat  Alexandria  about  the 
number  of  Greek  neo-Platonists  who  settled  in  Sjnria  middle  of  the  nrst  century  b.  c,  and  was  a  friend  of 
carried  with  them  the  works  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Cicero.  Other  Romans  also  contributed  to  the  move- 
which,  having  been  translated  into  S3rriac,  were  after-  ment,  the  chief  of  whom  were  Vatinius  and  the  Sex- 
wards  translated  into  Arabic,  Hebrew,  and  Latin,  and  tians.  It  was,  however,  at  Alexandria  that  the  most 
thus,  towards  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  centurv,  began  influential  of  the  neo-Pythagoreans  taught.  In  the 
to  re-enter  Christian  Europe  through  Moorish  Spain,  second  and  third  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
These  translations  were  accompanied  by  commen-  philosophers  of  the  school  became,  so  to  speak,  apos- 
taries  which  continued  the  neo-Platonic  tradition  com-  ties  of  the  cult,  and  travelled  throughout  the  Roman 
menced  by  Simplicius.  At  the  same  time  a  num-  Empire.  The  names  most  prominently  associated 
ber  of  anonymous  philosophical  works,  written  for  the  with  this  active  philosophical  campaign  are  those  of 
most  part  under  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Proclus,  Moderatus  of  Gades,  Apollonius  of  Tyc^&i  Nicoma- 
Bome  of  which  were  ascribed  to  Aristotle,  began  to  be  chus  of  Gerasa^  Numenius,  and  Philostratus.  Like 
known  in  Christian  Europe,  and  were  not  without  the  neo-Platonists  (see  Neo-Platonism),  the  neo- 
influence  on  Scholasticism.  Again,  works  like  the  Pjythagoreans  definitely  placed  their  philosophy  at  the 
''Fonsvitse'' of  Avicebrol,  which  were  known  to  be  of  disposal  of  the  pagan  opponents  of  Christianity. 
Jewish  or  Arabian  origin,  were  neo-Platonic,  and  Their  original  aim — ^to  save  the  pagan  world  from 
helped  to  determine  the  doctrines  of  the  scholastics,  moral  and  social  ruin  by  the  introduction  of  the  re- 
For  examole,  Scotus's  doctrine  of  materia  vrimo-prima  ligious  element  into  philosophy  and  into  conduct — 
is  acknowledged  by  Scotus  himself  to  be  aerivea  from  was,  of  course,  conceived  witnout  any  reference  to  the 
AvicebroL  Notwithstanding  all  these  facts,  Scholas-  claims  of  Christianity.  But  as  soon  as  the  Christian 
tic  philosophy  was  in  spirit  and  in  method  Aristo-  religion  came  to  be  recognized  as  a  factor  in  the  intel- 
telean;  it  explicitly  rejected  many  of  the  neo-Platonic  lectual  and  political  life  of  the  Roman  Empire,  phi- 
interpretations,  such  as  the  unity  of  the  Active  Intel-  losophy,  in  the  form  of  Neo-Pythaporeanism,  made 
lect.  For  this  reason  all  unprejudiced  critics  agree  active  campaign  against  the  Christians,  proclaimed 
that  it  is  an  exaggeration  to  describe  the  whole  Scho-  its  own  system  of  spiritual  regeneration,  and  set  up 
lastic  movement  as  merely  an  episode  in  the  history  in  opposition  to  Christ  and  the  Saints  the  heroes  of 
of  neo-Platonism.  In  recent  times  this  exa^erated  philosophical  tradition  and  legend,  especially  Pythag- 
view  has  been  defended  by  M .  Picavet  in  his ' '  ^quisse  oras  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana. 
d'une  histoire  compar6e  aes  philosophies  m^di^vales ''  Speculative  System. — ^The  neo-Pythagoreans  were 
(Paris,  1907).  methodical  eclectics.  They  admitted  into  their 
The  neo-Platonic  elements  in  Dante's  ''Paradiso''  speculative  system  not  only  the  traditional  teachings 
have  their  origin  in  his  interpretation  of  the  scholas-  of  the  Pythagorean  school  but  also  elements  of  Pla- 
tics.  It  was  not  until  the  nse  of  Humanism  in  the  tonism.  Aristoteleanism,  and  Stoicism.  Besides,  they 
fifteenth  century  that  the  works  of  Plotinus  and  Pro-  derived  from  Oriental  religions  with  which  they  were 
dus  were  translated  and  studied  with  that  zeal  which  in  contact  at  Rome  as  well  as  at  Alexandria,  a  highly 
characterized  the  Platonists  of  the  Renaissance.  It  spiritual  notion  of  God.  There  was,  naturally,  very 
was  then,  too,  that  the  theurgic,  or  magic,  elements  in  little  coherence  in  a  system  developed  from  prmciplee 
neo-Platonism  were  made  popuJar.  Tne  same  tend-  so  divergent.  Neither  was  there  agreement  in  the 
ency  is  found  in  Bruno's ''  Eroici  Furori  ",  interpreting  school  even  in  respect  of  fundamental  tenets.  Never- 
Plotinus  in  the  direction  of  materialistic  Pantheism,  theless,  it  may,  m  general,  be  said  that  the  school 
The  active  rejection  of  Materialism  by  the  Cambridge  placed  God,  the  supremely  spiritual  One,  at  the  head 
Platonists  in  the  seventeenth  century  carried  with  it  of  all  reality.  This,  of  course,  was  Oriental  in  its 
a  revival  of  interest  in  the  neo-Platonists.  An  echo  origin.  Next,  they  interpreted  the  P3rthagorean  doo- 
of  this  appears  in  Berkeley's  ''Siris",  the  last  phase  trine  in  a  Platonic  sense,  when  they  taught  that  num- 
of  his  opposition  to  materialism.  Whatever  neo-  bers  are  the  thoughts  of  God.  Thirdly,  borrowing 
Platonic  elements  are  recognizable  in  the  transcen-  from  Stoicism,  they  went  on  to  maintain  that  numbers, 
dentalists,  such  as  Schelling  and  Hegel,  can  hardly  be  emanating  as  forces  from  the  divine  thoughts,  are,  not 
cited  as  survivals  of  philosophical  principles.  They  indeed  the  substance  of  things,  but  the  forms  accord- 
are  rather  inspirational  influences,  such  as  we  find  ii^g  to  which  things  are  fashioned.  From  Aristotle 
in  Platonizing  poets  like  Spenser  and  Shelley.  they  borrowed  the  doctrine  that  the  world  is  eternal 
Cbeusck  and  Moskb.  edd.,  Piotini  opera  (Oxford,  1835),  tr.  and  that  there  is  a  distinction  between  terrestrial  and 

Tatu>b  (Loadon.  1794-1817);  Johkson  (tr.),  TArM  Treatises  of  nplmtiAl   mRffpr      Thpir  rnRmnlnirv    in  nnitft  nffhia 

Plotinue  (Osoeola,  Miaaouri,  1880) ;  Cousin,  i^roeli  Opera  (Pari/,  ^eiestiai  matter.      1  neir  COSmoiORT,  in  spiie  OTtniS 

1864).  tr.  Taylor  (London.  1789  and  1825);  Nauck  ed.,  Por^  Anstotelean  influence,  IS  dominated  to  a  great  extent 

phurii  Opuseuia  (Leip«ig,  1860  and  1886).  tr.  Tatlor;  Idem,  tr.  by  the  belief  that  the  Stars  are  deities  and  that  the 

1886J ;  Neo-Ptatoniem  (London,  1896) ;  Vacherot,  L'EcoU  d'Alex-  ETHICS  AND  RELIGION. — In  their  theory  of  COnduct 

andrie  (Pnia,  iSi&-i^i);  SiMOK,  Histoire  derscoUd'AiexandrU  the  neo-Pythagoreans  attach  great  importance  to 

^S&'V^'i^'i:S^/r1^^%iZ,^r^U^^^  Pf"""*!  asceticism  contemplation,  and  the  wordiip 

ton;  1903).  205  aqq.  ^^^  of  a  purely  spintual  deity.    At  the  same  time,  it  is 

William  Turner.  a^  essential  part  of  their  ethical  system  that  freedom 

from  the  trammels  of  matter  and  nnal  union  with  God 

Noo-Pythagorean  Philosophy. — The  ethico-re-  are  to  be  obtained  only  by  invoking  the  aid  of  friendly 

limous  society  founded  by  Pythagoras,  which  flour-  spirits  and  God-sent  men  and  by  thwarting  the  eflForts 

ished  especially  in  Magna  Gnecia  in  the  fifth  century  of  malign  demons.    This  latter  principle  led  to  the 

'  B.  c,  disappears  completely  from  history  during  the  practice  of  magic  and  sorcery  and  eventu^ly  to  a  good 

fourth  century,  when  philosophy  reached  the  zenith  deal  of  charlatanry.    The  principle  that  the  friendly 

of  its  perfection  at  Athens.    Here  and  there,  however,  spirits  and  the  souls  of  God's  special  messengers  aid 


mO-S0ROLA8TICI81f 


746 


mO-SCBOLA8TICI8M 


men  m  the  struggle  for  spiritual  perfection  led  to  the 
practice  of  honouring  and  even  deifying  the  heroes  of 
antiquity  and  the  representatives  of  wisdom  such  as 
Pythagoras  and  ApoUonius.  With  this  purpose  in 
view  the  philosophers  of  this  school  wrote  "Lives'*  of 
Pythagoras  which  are  full  of  fabulous  tales,  stories 
in  which  more  than  natural  wisdom,  skill,  and  sanctity 
are  attributed  to  the  hero.  The;^  did  not  hesitate 
to  invent  where  exaggeration  failed  to  accomplish 
their  aim,  so  that  they  gave  only  too  much  justifi- 
cation to  the  modem  critic's  description  of  their  bio- 
graphical activity  as  representing  the  "Golden  Age  of 
Apocryphal  literature '\  In  this  spirit  and  with  this 
purpose  in  view  Philostratus,  about  the  year  a.  d.  220, 
wrote  a  "Life  of  ApoUonius"  which  is  of  special  im- 
portance because,  while  it  is  not  a  professed  imitation 
of  the  Gospels,  it  was  evidently  written  with  a  view  of 
rivalling  the  gospel  narrative.  ApoUonius  was  bom 
at  Tyana  in  Cappadocia  four  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  At  an  earlv  age  he  devoted  himself  under 
various  masters,  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  the 
practice  of  asceticism.  After  the  five  vears  of  silence 
imposed  by  the  rule  of  Pythagoras,  he  began  his  jour- 
neys. Throughout  Asia  Minor  he  travelled  from  city 
to  city  teaching  the  doctrines  of  the  sect.  Then  he 
journeyed  to  the  far  East  in  search  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  magi  and  the  brahmans,  and,  after  his  return, 
took  up  once  more  the  task  of  teaching.  Later  he 
went  to  Greece,  and  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  lived 
for  a  time  under  the  emperor  Nero.  In  69  he  was  at 
Alexandria,  where  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Ves- 
pasian. Summoned  to  Rome  by  Domitian,  he  was 
cast  into  prison,  but  escaped  to  Greece,  and  died  two 
years  later.  The  place  oi  his  death  is  variously  given 
as  Ephesus,  Rhodes,  and  Crete.  Into  the  framework 
of  these  facts  Philostratus  weaves  a  tissue  of  alleged 
miraculous  events,  prophecies,  visions,  and  prodigies  of 
various  kinds.  It  is  important  to  remark  in  criticism 
of  Philostratus's  narrative,  that  he  lived  one  hundred 
years  after  the  events  which  he  describes.  Moreover, 
according  to  Philostratus's  own  account,  ApoUonius 
did  not  lay  claim  to  divine  prerogatives.  He  be- 
lieved that  the  "virtue"  which  he  possessed  was  to  be 
attributed  to  his  knowledge  of  Pythagorean  philos- 
ophv  and  his  observance  of  its  prescriptions.  He 
held,  as  a  general  principle  that  anyone  who  attained 
the  same  degree  of  wisdom  and  asceticism  could  ac- 
quire the  same  power.  The  parallel,  therefore,  which 
was  drawn  between  his  extraordinary  deeds  and  the 
miracles  narrated  in  the  Gospels  does  not  stand  the 
verdict  of  criticism.  Our  Lora  claimed  to  be  God,  and 
appealed  to  His  miracles  as  a  proof  of  His  divinity. 
ApoUonius  regarded  his  own  powers  as  natural. 
Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  Pytha- 
gorean biographers  openly  acknowledged  "the  prin- 
ciple of  permitting  exaggeration  and  deceit  in  the 
cause  of  philosophy"  (Newman).  The  "Lives"  of 
Pythagoras  and  ApoUonius  are  to  be  judged  by  the 
standards  of  fiction  and  not  by  the  canons  of  historical 
criticism.  Among  those  who,  overlooking  this  dis- 
tinction, have  tried  to  make  capital  against  Christian- 
ity out  of  this  class  of  Pythagorean  literature  are  Lord 
Herbert  and  Blount,  mentioned  in  Newman's  eSsay  on 
ApoUonius,  and  Jean  de  Castillon,  who  was  instigated 
by  Frederick  the  Great. 

Philostratufl's  Life  of^  ApoUonitu,  and  the  LeUert  ascribed  to  the 
latter  were  published  in  Fhilo8Tratu8,  Opera  Omnia  (Lcipsig, 
ed.  Olbabius,  1709);  Ibid.  (ed.  Katber,  1870-71);  the  worts  of 
NicoifACHua  OF  Gerasa  are  included  in  Iambuchus,  TA«oto(^- 
tnena  ArUhmetiea  (ed.  Abt,  Leipzig,  1817);  Zeller,  Philoaophie 
der  Griechen,  III,  2  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1881).  79  fl.;  Newman,  His- 
torical Sketches,  I  (London.  1882),  301  ff.;  Turner,  History  of 
Philoeophu  (Boston,  1003).  204  ff. 

William  Turner. 

Neo-Scholasticiszn. — ^The  Name  and  Its  Mean- 
ing.— Neo-Scholasticism  is  the  development  of  the 
Scholasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century.    It  is  not  merely  the  resus- 


citation of  a  philosophy  long  since  defunct,  but  rather 
a  restatement  in  our  own  day  of  the  philoaovhia  peren," 
nia  which,  elaborated  by  the  Greeks  and  brought  to 
perfection  by  the  great  medieval  teachers,  has  never 
ceased  to  exist  even  in  modem  times.  It  has  some- 
times been  called  neo-Thomism  partly  because  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  in  the  thirteenth  century  gave  to 
Scholasticism  among  the  Latins  its  final  form,  partly 
because  the  idea  has  gained  ground  that  only  Thom  ism 
can  infuse  vitality  into  twentieth  century  scholasti- 
cism. But  Thomism  is  too  narrow  a  term:  the  sys- 
tem itself  is  too  large  and  comprehensive  to  be 
expressed  by  the  name  of  any  single  exponent. 

This  article  will  deal  with  the  elements  which  neo- 
Scholasticism  takes  over  from  the  past;  the  modifica- 
tions which  adapt  it  to  the  present;  the  wdcome  ac- 
corded it  by  contemporary  thought  and  the  outlook 
for  its  future;  its  leaioing  representatives  and  centres; 
its  bibliography. 

I.  Traditional  Elements.  —  Neo  -  Scholasticism 
seeks  to  restore  the  fundamental  organic  doctrines 
embodied  in  the  Scholasticism  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turv.  It  claims  that  philosophy  does  not  vary  with 
each  passing  phase  of  history;  that  the  truth  of  seven 
hundred  years  ago  is  still  true  to-day,  and  that  if  the 
great  medieval  thinkers — Aquinas,  Bonaventure,  and 
Duns  Scotus — succeeded  in  constructing  a  sound  phi- 
losophical system  on  the  data  supplied  by  the  Greeks, 
especially  by  Aristotle,  it  must  be  possible,  in  our  own 
day,  to  gather  from  the  speculation  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  soul  of  truth  which  it  contains.  These  essen- 
tial conceptions  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  Goa,  pure  actuality  and  absolute  perfection,  is 
substantially  distinct  from  everv  finite  thing:  lie 
alone  can  create  and  preserve  all  beings  other  than 
Himself.  His  infinite  knowledge  includes  ail  that  has 
been,  is,  or  shall  be,  and  likewise  all  that  is  possible. 

(2)  As  to  our  knowledge  of  the  matenal  world: 
whatever  exists  is  itself,  an  incommunicable,  individ- 
ual substance.  To  the  core  of  self-eustaining  reality, 
in  the  oak-tree  for  instance,  other  realities  (accidents) 
are  added — size,  form,  roughness,  and  so  on.  All  oak- 
trees  are  alike,  indeed  are  identical  in  respect  (^  certain 
constituent  elements.  Considering  this  likeness  and 
even  identity,  our  human  intelligence  groups  them  into 
one  species  and  again,  in  view  of  their  conunon  char- 
actenstics,  it  ranges  various  species  under  one  genus. 
Such  is  the  Aristotelean  solution  of  the  problem  of 
universals  (q.  v.).  Each  substance  is  in  its  nature 
fixed  and  determined;  and  nothing  is  farther  from  the 
.spirit  of  Scholasticism  than  a  theory  of  e\'olution 
which  would  regard  even  the  essences  of  things  as 
products  of  change. 

But  this  statism  requires  as  its  complemoit  a  mod- 
erate djmamism,  and  this  is  supplied  by  the  central 
concepts  of  act  and  potency.  Whatsoever  changes  is, 
just  for  that  reason,  limited.  The  oak-tree  passes 
through  a  process  of  growth,  of  becoming:  whatever 
is  actually  m  it  now  was  potentially  in  it  from  the  be- 
ginning. Its  vital  functions  ^  on  unceasing! v  (acci- 
dental change) ;  but  the  tree  itseJf  will  die,  and  out  of 
its  decayed  trunk  other  substances  will  come  forth 
(substantial  change).  The  theory  of  matter  and  form 
is  simply  an  interpretation  of  the  substantial  changes 
which  bodies  undergo.  The  union  of  martter  and  form 
constitutes  the  essence  of  concrete  being,  and  this 
essence  is  endowed  with  existence.  Throughout  all 
change  and  becoming  there  runs  a  rhythm  of  finality; 
the  activities  of  the  countless  substances  of  the  uni- 
verse converge  towards  an  end  which  is  known  to  God; 
finalitv,  in  a  word,  involves  optimism. 

(3)  Man,  a  compound  of  body  ^matter)  and  of  soul 
(form),  puts  forth  activities  of  a  higher  ondep — knowl- 
edge and  volition.  Through  his  senses  he  perceives 
concrete  obiects,  e.  g.  this  oak;  through  his  intelleet 
he  knows  tne  abstract  and  universal  (the  oak).  All 
our  intellectual  activity  rests  on  sensory  function;  but 


M10-8CHOLA8TICZ8M 


747 


M10-8CHOLA8TICZ8M 


through  the  active  intellect  (inteUeetua  ageru)  an  ab- 
stract representation  of  the  sensible  object  is  provided 
for  the  inteUecius  passibilis.  Hence  the  characteristic 
of  the  idea,  its  non-mat-eriality,  and  on  this  is  based 
the  principal  argument  for  the  spiritualitv  and  immor- 
tality of  the  soul.  Here,  too,  is  the  foundation  of  logic 
and  of  the  theory  of  knowledge,  the  justification  of  our 
judgments  and  syllogisms. 

Upon  knowledge  follows  the  appetitive  process, 
sensory  or  intellectual  according  to  tne  sort  of  knowl- 
edf^e.  The  will  (appetUua  int^llectiialis)  in  certain  con- 
ditions is  free,  and  thanks  to  this  liberty  man  is  the 
master  of  his  destiny.  Like  all  other  beings,  we  have 
an  end  to  attain  and  we  are  morally  obliged,  though 
not  compelled,  to  attain  it. 

Natural  happiness  would  result  from  the  full  de- 
velopment of  our  powers  of  knowing  and  loving.  We 
should  find  and  possess  God  in  this  world  since  the 
corporeal  world  is  the  proper  object  of  our  intelligence. 
But  above  nature  is  the  order  of  grace  and  our  supei^ 
natural  happiness  will  consist  in  the  direct  intuition  of 
God,  the  beatific  vision.  Here  philosophy  ends  and 
theology  begins. 

II.  Adaptation  to  Modern  Needs. — The  neo- 
Scholastic  programme. includes,  in  the  next  place,  the 
adaptation  of  medieval  principles  and  doctrines  to  our 
present  intellectual  needs.  Complete  immobility  is 
no  less  incompatible  with  progress  than  out-and-out 
relativism.  Vita  in  motu.  To  make  Scholasticism 
ri^id  and  stationary  would  be  fatal  to  it.  The  doc- 
trines revived  by  the  new  movement  are  like  an  in- 
herited fortune;  to  refuse  it  would  be  folly,  but  to 
manage  it  without  regard  to  actual  conditions  would 
be  worse.  With  Dr.  Ehrhard  one  may  say:  ''Aquinas 
should  be  our  beacon,  not  our  boundary'  ("Der  Ka- 
tholicLsmus  imd  das  zwanzigste  Jahrh.  im  Lichte  der 
Kirchlichen  Entwicklung  der  Neuzeit",  Stuttgart, 
1902,  252).  We  have  now  to  pass  in  review  the  vari- 
ous factors  in  the  situation  and  to  see  in  what  respect 
the  new  Scholasticism  differs  from  the  old  and  how  far 
it  adapts  itself  to  our  age. 

(1)  Eliminalion  of  False  or  Useless  Notions. — Nco- 
Scholasticism  rejects  the  theories  of  physics,  celestial 
and  terrestrial,  which  the  Middle  Ages  grafted  on  the 
principles^  otherwise  sound  enough,  of  cosmology  and 
metapnysics;  e.  g.  the  perfection  and  superiority  of 
astral  substance,  the  "incorruptibility'*  of  the  heav- 
enlsr  bodies,  their  external  connexion  with  "motor 
spirits",  the  influence  of  the  stars  on  the  generation  of 
earthly  beings,  the  four  "simple"  bodies,  etc.  It  fur- 
ther rejects  those  philosophical  theories  which  are 
disproved  by  the  results  of  investigation;  e.  g.  the 
diffusion  of  sensible  "species"  throughout  a  medium 
and  their  introduction  into  the  organs  of  sense.  Even 
the  Scholastic  ideas  that  have  been  retained  are  not 
^1  of  equal  importance;  criticism  and  personal  con- 
viction may  retrench  or  modify  them  con8idenJi>ly, 
without  injury  to  fundamental  principles. 

(2)  Study  of  the  History  of  Philosophy. — ^The  medi- 
eval scholars  cultivated  the  history  of  philosophy  solely 
with  a  view  to  its  utility,  i.  e.  as  a  means  of  gathering 
the  deposit  of  truth  contained  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancients  and,  especially,  for  the  purpose  of  refuting 
error  and  thus  emphasizing  the  value  of  their  own  doc- 
trine. Modern  students,  on  the  contrary,  regard 
every  human  fact  and  achievement  as  in  itself  signifi- 
cant, and  accordingly  they  treat  the  history  of  philos- 
ophy in  a  spirit  that  is  more  disinterested.  With  this 
new  attitude,  neo-Scholasticism  is  in  full  sympathy; 
it  does  its  share  in  the  work  of  historical  reconstruction 
by  emplo>nng  critical  methods;  it  does  not  attempt  to 
condense  the  opinions  of  others  into  a  syllogism  and 
refute  them  with  a  phrase,  nor  does  it  commend  the 
practice  of  putting  whole  systems  into  a  paragraph  or 
two  in  order  to  annihilate  them  with  epithet  or  invec- 
tive. Neo-Scholasticism,  however,  does  not  confine 
itfi  interest  to  ancient  and  medieval  philosophy;  its 


chief  concern  is  with  present-day  83rBtemB.  It  takes 
issue  with  them  and  offsets  their  theories  of  the  world 
by  a  synthesis  of  its  own.  It  is  only  by  keeping  in 
touch  with  actual  living  thought  that  it  can  claim  a 
place  in  the  twentieth  century  and  command  the  at- 
tention of  it«  opponents.  And  it  has  everything  to 
gain  from  a  discussion  in  which  it  encounters  Posi- 
tivism, Kantism^  and  other  forms  or  tendencies  of 
modem  speculation. 

(3)  Cultivation  of  the  Sciences.— ^The  need  of  a  phi- 
losophy based  on  science  is  recognized  to-day  by  every 
school.  Neo-Scholasticism  simply  follows  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Aristotelean  and  medieval  philosophy  in 
takins  the  data  of  research  as  the  groundwork  of  its 
speculation.  That  there  are  profound  differences  be- 
tween the  Middle  Ages  and  modem  times  from  the 
scientific  point  of  view,  is  obvious.  One  has  only  to 
consider  the  multiplication  of  the  sciences  in  special 
lines,  the  autonomy  which  science  as  a  whole  has 
acquired,  and  the  clear  demarcation  established  be- 
tween popular  views  of  nature  and  their  scientific 
interpretation.  But  it  is  equally  plain  that  neo- 
Scholasticism  must  follow  up  each  avenue  of  investi- 

§ation,  since  it  undertakes,  as  Aristotle  and  Aquinas 
id,  to  provide  a  synthetic  explanation  of  phenomena 
by  referring  them  to  their  ultimate  causes  and  deter- 
mining their  place  in  the  universal  order  of  things;  and 
this  undertaking,  if  the  synthesis  is  to  be  deep  and 
comprehensive,  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  details 
furnished  by  each  science.  It  is  not  possible  to  explain 
the  world  of  phenomena  while  neglecting  the  phenom- 
ena that  make  up  the  world.  "All  that  exists,  as  con- 
templated by  the  human  mind,  forms  one  large  system 
or  complex  fact.  .  .  .  Like  a  short-sighted  reader,  its 
eye  pores  closely,  and  travels  slowly,  over  the  awful 
volume  which  lies  open  for  its  inspection.  .  .  .  These 
various  partial  views  or  abstractions  .  .  .  are  called 
sciences  .  .  .  they  proceed  on  the  principle  of  a  divi- 
sion of  labour.  .  .  .  And  further  the  comprehension 
of  the  bearings  of  one  science  on  another,  and  the  use 
of  each  to  each,  and  the  location  of  them  all,  with  one 
another,  this  belongs,  I  conceive,  to  a  sort  of  science 
distinct  from  all  of  them,  and  in  some  sense,  a  science 
of  sciences,  which  is  my  own  conception  of  what  is 
meant  by  philosophy"  (Newman,  "Idea  of  a  Univei^ 
sity",  Discourse  III,  iii,  iv,  44  sqq.). 

There  is,  of  course,  the  pedagogical  problem;  how 
shall  philosophy  maintain  its  control  over  the  ever- 
widening  field  of  the  various  sciences?  In  reply,  we 
may  cite  the  words  of  Cardinal  Mercicr,  a  prominent 
leader  in  the  n^o-Scholastic  movement:  "  As  a  matter 
of  fact",  he  declares,  "the  difficulty  is  a  serious  one, 
and  one  mav  say  in  general  terms,  that  it  is  oot  going 
to  be  solvea  by  any  one  man.  As  the  domain  of  fact 
and  observation  grows  larger  and  larger,  individual 
effort  becomes  less  competent  to  survey  and  master  it 
all :  hence  the  necessity  of  co-operative  effort  to  supply 
what  is  lacking  in  the  work  of  isolated  investigators; 
hence  too  the  need  of  union  between  the  synthetic 
mind  and  the  analytic,  in  order  to  secure,  by  daily 
contact  and  joint  action,  the  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  philosophy  and  science".  ("La  philosophie 
n6o-scholastique"  in  "  Revue  n^o-scholastique",  1894, 
17). 

(4)  Innovations  in  Doctrinal  Matters. — Once  it 
turned  its  attention  to  modem  fashions  of  thought, 
neo-Scholasticism  found  itself  face  to  face  with  prob- 
lems of  which  medieval  philosophy  had  not  the  subt- 
est suspicion  or  at  any  rate  did  not  furnish  a  solution. 
It  had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  conflict  between  its  own 
principles  and  those  of  the  systems  in  vogue,  especially 
of  Positivism  and  Criticism.  And  it  had  to  take  up, 
from  its  own  point  of  view,  the  questions  which  are 
favourite  topics  of  discussion  in  the  schools  of  our 
time.  How  far  then,  one  may  ask,  has  neo-Scholasti- 
cism been  affected  by  modem  thought  r  First  of  all, 
as  to  metaphysics:  in  the  Middle  Ages  its  claim  to  va- 


HIO-SCHOLASTICZSM 


748 


NIO-SCHOLA8TICX8M 


Kdity  met  with  no  challenge,  whereas,  in  the  twentieth 
century,  its  very  possibility  is  at  stake  and.  to  defend 
it  against  the  concerted  attack  of  Hume  ana  Kant  and 
Comte,  the  true  significance  of  such  concepts  as  being, 
substance,  absolute,  cause,  potency,  and  act  must  be 
explained  and  upheld.  It  is  further  needful  to  show 
that,  in  a  very  real  sense,  God  is  not  unknowable;  to 
rebut  the  charges  preferred  by  Herbert  Spencer 
against  the  traditional  proofs  of  God's  existence;  to 
deal  with  the  materials  furnished  by  ethnography  and 
the  history  of  religions;  and  to  study  the  various  forms 
which  monism  and  immanentism  nowadays  assimie. 

Cosmology  can  well  afford  to  insist  on  the  tradi- 
rional  theory  of  matter  and  form,  provided  it  pay  due 
attention  to  the  findings  of  physics,  chemistry,  crys- 
tallography, and  mineralogy,  and  meet  the  objections 
of  atomism  and  dynamism,  theories  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  scientific  authority,  are  less  satisfactory  as 
explanations  of  natural  phenomena  than  the  hylomoi^ 
phism  (q.  v.)  of  the  Scholastics.  The  theory  also  of 
quaJtties,  once  the  subject  of  ridicule,  is  nowadays 
endorsed  by  some  of  the  most  prominent  scientists. 
In  psychology  especially  the  progressive  spirit  of  neo- 
Scnofasticism  makes  itself  felt.  The  theory  of  the 
substantial  union  of  body  and  soul,  as  an  interpreta- 
tion of  biological,  psychical,  and  psycho-physiologi- 
cal facts,  is  far  more  serviceable  than  the  extreme 
spiritualism  of  Descartes  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Positivism  of  modem  thinkers  on  the  other.  As 
Wundt  admits,  the  results  of  investigation  in  physio- 
logical psychology  do  not  square  either  with  material- 
ism or  with  dualism  whether  of  the  Platonic  or  of  the 
Cartesian  type;  it  is  only  Aristotelean  animism,  which 
brings  psychology  into  connexion  with  biology,  that 
can  offer  a  satisfactory  metaphysical  interpretation  of 
experimental  psychology  (  GrundzOge  d.  physiol. 
Psychologic".  II,  540).  So  vigorous  indeed  has  been 
the  growth  ot  psychology  that  each  of  its  offshoots  is 
developing  in  its  own  way :  such  is  the  case  ^ith  crite- 
riology,  sesthetics,  didactics,  pedagogy,  and  the  numer- 
ous ramifications  of  applied  psychology.  Along  these 
various  lines,  unknown  to  medieval  philosophy,  neo- 
Scholasticism  is  working  energetically  ana  success- 
fully. Its  criteriology  is  altogether  new:  the  older 
Scholasticism  handl<^d  the  problem  of  certitude  from 
the  deductive  point  of  view;  God  could  not  have  mis- 
shaped the  faculties  with  which  He  endowed  the  mind 
in  order  that  it  might  attain  to  knowledge.  Neo- 
Scholasticism,  on  the  other  hand,  proceeds  by  analy- 
sis and  introspection :  it  states  the  problem  in  the  terms 
which,  since  fcant*s  day,  are  the  only  admissible  terms, 
but  as  against  the  Kantian  criticism  it  finds  the  solu- 
tion in  a  rational  dogmatism.  Its  aesthetics  holds  a 
middle  course  between  the  extreme  subjectivism  of 
many  modem  thinkers  who  would  reduce  the  beautiful 
to  a  mere  impression,  and  the  no  less  extreme  objectiv- 
ism which  the  Greeks  of  old  maintained.  It  is  equally 
at  home  in  the  field  of  experimental  psychology  which 
investigates  the  correlation  between  conscious  phe- 
nomena and  their  physiological  accompaniments;  in 
fact,  its  theory  of  the  substantial  union  of  body  and 
soul  implies  as  its  corollary  a  "bodily  resonance" 
corresponding  to  each  psychical  process. 

The  laws  and  principles  which  the  modem  science  of 
education  has  drawn  from  experience  find  their  ade- 
ouate  explanation  in  nco-Scnolastic  doctrine;  thus, 
tne  intuitive  method,  so  largely  accepted  at  present  as 
an  essential  element  in  education,  is  based  on  the  Scho- 
lastic theory  that  nothing  enters  the  intellect  save 
through  the  avenue  of  sense.  In  the  study  of  ethical 
problems,  neo-Scholasticism  holds  fast  to  the  vital 
teachings  that  prevailed  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  takes  into  account  the  histori- 
cal and  sociological  data  which  explain  the  varying 
application  of  principles  in  successive  ages.  In  view 
of  contemporary  systems  which,  on  a  purely  experi- 
mental basisj  attempt  to  set  aside  all  moral  impera- 


tives and  ideas  of  value,  it  is  necessary  to  inaist  on  the 
older  concepts  of  good  and  evil,  of  finality  and  obli^i- 
tion — a  nee^l  which  is  easily  supplied  by  neo-Scholas- 
tic  ethics.  As  to  logic,  the  most  perfect  part  of  Aris- 
totle's great  constructive  work  and  therefore  that 
which  has  been  least  modified  in  the  course  of  time, 
its  positions  still  call  for  defence  against  the  objections 
of  writers  like  Mill,  who  regard  the  syllogism  as  a 
"solemn  farce".  Accordin^^lv,  with  due  considera- 
tion for  modem  modes  of  thinking,  neo-Scholasticism 
adapts  the  teaching  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  actual  con- 
ditions. Even  as  regards  the  relations  between  phi- 
losophy and  religion^  there  are  important  chiuiges  to 
note.  For  the  medieval  mind  in  the  Western  world, 
philosophy  and  theology  were  identical  until  about  the 
twelfth  century.  In  the  thirteenth  the  line  of  de- 
marcation was  clearly  drawn,  but  philosophy  was  stUl 
treated  as  the  preliminary  training  for  theology. 
This  is  no  longer  the  case;  neo-Scholasticism  assigns 
to  philosophy  a  value  of  its  own  as  a  rational  explana- 
tion of  the  world,  on  a  par  in  this  respect  with  Posi- 
tivism and  other  systems;  and  it  welcomes  all  who  are 
bent  on  honest  research,  whether  their  aim  be  purely 
philosophical  or  apologetic. 

Parallel  with  these  modifications  are  those  which 
affect  the  pedagogical  phase  of  the  movement.  The 
methods  of  teaching  philosophy  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury were  too  closely  dependent  on  the  culture  of  that 
age;  hence  they  have  been  replaced  by  modem  pro- 
c^ures.  curricula,  and  means  of  pi'opa^tion.  It 
would  oe  ill-advised  to  wrap  neo-Scnolastic  doctrine 
in  medieval  envelopes,  e.  g.  to  write  books  on  the  plan 
of  the  theological  "Summse"  or  the  "Quodlibetal 
Questions"  that  were  current  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Without  at  all  lessening  its  force,  syllogistic 
demonstration  ^ains  in  attractiveness  when  its  essen- 
tial characteristics  are  retained  and  clothed  about  with 
modem  forms  of  presentation.  In  this  connexion,  the 
use  of  living  languages  as  a  means  of  exposition  has 
obvious  advantages  and  finds  favour  with  many  of 
those  who  are  best  qualified  to  judge. 

III.  Appreciation, — By  interesting  itself  in  mod- 
em questions,  interpreting  the  results  of  scientific 
research  and  setting  forth  its  principles  for  thorough 
discussion,  neo-Scholasticism  has  compelled  atten- 
tion :  it  has  to  be  reckoned  with.  Among  non-Catho- 
lics, many  leaders  of  thought  have  frankly  acknowl- 
edged that  its  methods  and  doctrines  deserve  to  be  ex- 
amined anew.  Men  like  Boutroux  admit  that  Aris- 
totle's system  may  well  serve  as  an  offset  to  Kantism 
and  evolution  (Aristote,  Etudes  d  'histoire  et  de  phi- 
losophic, Paris.  1901,  202).  Paulsen  ("Kant  der 
Philosoph  des  Protestantismus"  in  "Kantstudien", 
1899)  and  Eucken  ("Thomas  von  Aquino  u.  Kant, 
Ein  Kampf  zweier  Welten",  loc.  cit.,  1901)  declare 
that  neo-Thomism  is  the  rival  of  Kantism  and  that 
the  conflict  between  them  is  the  "  clash  of  two  worlds  ". 
Hamack  ("Lehrbuch  d.  Dogmengesch.",  Ill,  3rd. 
ed.,  327),  Seeberg  ("Realencyklopfidie  f.  Prot.  Theol." 
s.  V.  "Scholastik")  and  others  protest  against  those 
who  underrate  the  value  of  scholastic  doctrine. 

Among  Catholics,  Neo-Scholasticism  gains  ground 
day  by  day.  It  is  doing  away  with  Ontologism,  Tra- 
ditionalism, the  Dualism  of  GOnther,  and  the  exagger- 
ated Spiritualism  of  Descartes.  It  is  free  from  the 
weaknesses  of  Pragmatism  and  Voluntarism,  ss^texns 
in  which  some  thinkers  have  vainly  sought  tne  recon- 
ciliation of  their  philosophy  and  their  faith .  Neo-Scho- 
lasticism has  a  character  of  permanence  as  truth  itself 
has;  but  it  is  destined  in  its  development  to  keep  up 
with  scientific  progress.  Like  eveiything  that  Uvea, 
it  must  advance;  arrested  growth  would  mean  decay. 

IV.  The  Leaders  and  theib  Work. — ^The  Neo- 
Scholastic  movement  was  inaugurated  by  such  writeis 
as  Sanseverino  (1811-65)  and  Comoldi  (1822-92)  in 
Italy;  Gonzales  (1831-92)  in  Spain;  Kleutgen  (1811- 
83)  and  Stockl  (1823-95)  in  Germany;  de  San  (1832- 


MKPHTALI   .  749  NSPHTAU 


of  LeoXIIl(4Aug.,  1879)  that  imparted  to  neo^cho-  phie  und  spekulative  Theologie"  (Paderborn,  since 
laBticism  ito  definitive  character  and  quickened  its  de-  1887) ;  "St.  Thomas  Blfttter"  (Ratisbon,  since  1888) ; 
veiopment.  This  document  sets  forth  the  principles  B61cseleti-Foly6irat  (Budapest,  since  1886);  "Revista 
by  which  the  movement  is  to  be  suided  in  a  progre»-  Lulliana"  (Barcelona,  since  1901);  "Ciensa Tomista" 
mve  spint,  and  by  which  the  medieval  doctrme  is  to  (Madrid,  since  1910).  In  addition  to  these,  various 
take  on  new  life  in  its  modem  environment.  "If,"  periodical  publications  not  specially  devoted  to  phi- 
says  the  pope,  "there  be  an;ything  that  the  Scholastic  losophy  have  given  neo-Scholasticism  their  cordial 
doctors  treated  with  excessive  subtlety  or  with  insuf-  support. 

ficient  consideration,  or  that  is  at  variance  with  well         various  oommeatoriee  on  the  EnoycUe*!  ^Umi  IhtrU:  Van 

founded  teachings  of  later  date,  or  is  otherwise  im-    ^?,°'**"?*'''.^'^~^*^*g^«'«f'5./^x/^^ 

probable,  we  by  to  means  intend  that  it  shall  be  pro-    de»  «.  Tfumat  und  ihrt  Btdevtunofur  die  Qege^vmn  (Wiir.burg, 

posed  to  our  age  for  imitation.   .   .   .  We  certainly  do      1881);  Rorcs,  Pope  Leo'a  philoto^ieal  movement  and  Ue  relatione 

not  blame  those  learned  and  energetic  men  who  turn  *®.  ""^^  thouffiu  in  Ree.Caih,  PeAy.  (1903):  m«bci«Bj^  oK- 
totheprofitofphilo«ophytheiro^a«siduouslabours    ^TJ^iiSS^SS^JX^ 

ana  erudition  as  well  as  the  results  of  modem  mvesti-     loetmhy,  medietal  and  modem,  tr.  Coftbt  (Dublin.  1907) ;  iDSif .  /n- 

gation;  for  we  are  fully  aware  that  all  this  goes  to  the    i!;^'''*^^Jii^^'^^/i<^ 

ArfvATiPAmATit  nf  IrnnwIoHfro  »»  Fbbribb,  The  Reneal  of  Scholaetic  Fhiloeophy  %n  the  Nineteenth 

aavancement  Of  knowledge.  Century  (New  York.  1909) :  Le  mmaement  n4o-4homiete,  periodical 

In   Italv,   the   movement   was  vigorous  from   the      bulletin  pubUabed  in  Rente  nio-ecotasHque  de  Philoeo^ie  (Lou- 

Btart.  The  Accademia  di  San  Tommaso,  founded  in  TSS^) J  9^*'™°''^  ^9*  *^  neurecfuOaetUehePhUoeophie  (MQMter. 
1874,  published  up  to  1891,  a  nmew  eWtled  "La    i^iS^^^iJ:^^^^'*^^^ 

Scienza  Itahana".  Numerous  works  were  produced  (Siena.  1878);  Fbuchkopp,  Die  Peychologie  der  neuen  Ldwener 
by  Zigliara  (1833-93),  Satolli  (1839-1909),  liberator©     §*«'•  (Lucerne.  1908) ;  BmitJDeuxcentreedui^ 

a8ia-92),  Barberis  (1847-96)  Schiffini  (1841-1906).    p:Z^ptSrr^]^Il^S  ^TB^JSTl^t::^ 

de  Mana,  1  alamo,  Lorenzelll,  Ballenni,  MatUSSl,  and     laetieehe  Philotophie  der  Loewener  SchuU,  introduction  to  German 

others.  The  Italian  writers  at  first  laid  special  em-  *'•  ^^  ^J^^  Peychoiogie  (Kempten,.  1906);  Coftbt,  PhilMo- 
phasis  on  the  metaohysical  features  of  Scholasticism,    flSe^T^olta^^lSSrA^^^^  f^^ 

without  paymg  sufficient  attention  to  the  sciences  or     de  filoeoM  en  la  unieereidad  eat6liea  de  Lotaina  (Madrid.  1901); 

to  the  history  of  philosophy.    Recently,  however,    Van  Bbcbijibrij.  l^  pAOotopAw  m^mA^  depuw 

4-1««a  am^KA^;^^.*  Kaa  i«n#lA»<M%n^  o  Al.»n»A  nrkUu  w^m^^z^^  jueQud  not  jouTB  (Ncw  Yorlc,  1904) ;  aULMCf  Htetoire  de  la  phtloto- 
this  mtuation  has  undergone  a  change  which  promises     phi  tt   paUiaU^rement  de   la   phUo^ophie   eontemporaine,    in 

excellent  results.  (Lyons.  1896) ;  EncKSN.  Neuthomiemue  und  die  neuere  Wieeen^ 

From  Italy  the  movement  spread  into  the  other    ««*?^''»  f'S^'^JP**  ^«»»«^A<fey888);lpmi,  Thsmae  ton  Aquino 
Europeimcountri«  and  found  supporters  in^^^      SSJ  I^SJ^JfSife 

such  as  Kleutgen,  Stdckl,  the  authors  of  the  "Phlloso-     1904):  GdiiuIsQCiBBOo  in  Rineta  di  Aragon  (1903);  Condb. 

Jihia  Lacensis",  published  at  Maria  Laach  by  the      ?!**  «*^**^  filoe&fioa  par  BepaHa  inReeieta   tbero^nurieana 
amite  (Peach,  Aontheim,  C3athmn),  Gutberlet/Com-    iiTi-/J^S&JS2ri'88f;??2Sr  Ir"  flZJl^cSl^ttJ^ 

mer,  Wlllmann,  Kaufmann,  GloSSner,  Grabmann,  and      Thought  in  Catk.  Unie.  Bulletin  (1896);  Picavst.  Le  moueement 

Schneid.  These  scholars  have  made  valuable  contri-  nio-thomi^e  ux  Rnue  Piuiotophioue  (idW;  1896;  1902) ;  Vkl.  Le 
butions  to  the  history  of  philosophy,  especiaUy  that  of    TSiS^The  vSw^SSL*^^ 

the  Middle  Ages.     Stdckl  led  the  way  with  his  ''Ge-     Committee  of  the  Privy  councU  of  Ireland  aft^Pleadinge  and  m- 

schichte  d.  Philoeophie  des  Mittelalters"    (Msdns,  ^«» 'f°"*«i  onOetobt^is-iB,  /PO^jDubUn.  i90g);  Mah«b. 

1864^)     Ehrle  and  Denifle  (q.  v.)  founded  in  1886  Sj^d^^SS^N^^^oZ tSS).'^^  '"^^■'  "^"^^  ^^ 

the  "Arcmv  fttr  Literatur  u.  Kirchengesch.  d.  Mittel-  M.  Db  Wulf. 
alters  ",  and  the  latter  edited  the  monumental  "  Char^ 

tularium"  of  the  University  of  Paris.    In  1891.  Von  Nrahtali  (A.  V.,  Naphtau),  sixth  son  of  Jacob 

Hertling  and  B&umker  be^an  the  publication  or  their  and  Bala  (Gen.,  xxx,  8).    The  name  is  explained 

''Beitr&ge  zur  Gesch.  d.  Phil,  des  Mittelalters''.  (ibid.)  by  a  paranomasia  which  causes  no  small  pei^ 

Belgium   has   been    particularly   favoured.    Leo  plexity  to  commentators.     Modem  interpreters,  fol- 

XIII  established  (1891)  at  Louvain  the  "Institut  de  lowing  Simonis  and  Gesenius,  translate  it "  WresUings 

philosophie"  for  the  special  purpose  of  teaduns  the  of  God  have  I  wrestled  [D.  v.,  ''God  hath  compared 

doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  together  with  histor^r  and  the  me'l  with  my  sister,  and  I  have  prevailed."  According 

natund  sciences.    The  Institute  was  placed  in  charge  to  this  rendering,  Nevktalia  would  mean  "my  wrest- 

of  Mgr  (now  Cardinal)  Mercier  whose  ''Cours  de  ling'S    or    simply    "wrestling".    Pseudo-Jonathan, 

Ehilosophie"  has  been  translated  into  the  principal  commenting  on  Gen.,  xlix,  21,  tells  us  Nephtali  was 

mguages  of  Europe.  the  first  to  annoimce  to  Jacob  that  Joseph  was  alive; 

In  Fnmce,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  Vallet,  in  another  passage  of  the  same  Targum,  Nephtali  is 

Gardair,  Fonsegrive,  and  Piat  have  taken  a  prominent  mentioned  among  the  five  whom  Joseph  presented  to 

^ut  in  the  movement;  in  Holland  (Amsterdam)  de  Pharaoh  (Gen.,  xlvii,  2).    According  to  the  apocry- 

Groot;  in  Switzerland  (Freiburg),   Mandonnet;  in  phal  "Testament  of  the  twelve  Patriarchs",  he  died 

Spain,  Orti  y  Lara.,  Urr&buru,  Gomel  Izqulerdo:  in  m  his  one  hundred  and  thirt3r-second  year  and  was 

Mexico,  Garcia;  in  Brazil,  Santroul;  in  Hungary.  Kiki  buried  in  E^ypt.    These  details,  however,  are  unre- 

and  Pecsi;  in  England.  Clarke,  Maher,  John  Riclcaby,  liable;  in  point  of  fact,  we  know  nothing  with  cei^ 

Joseph  lUckaby,  Boeader  (Stonyhurst  Series);  in  the  tainty  beyond  the  fact  that  he  had  four  sons:  Jaziel, 

United  States,  Coppens,  Poland,  Brother  Chrysostom,  Guni,  Jeser,  and  Sallem  (Gen.,  xlvi,  24;  Num.,  xxvi, 

and  the  professors  at  the  Cathouc  University  (Shana-  48  sqq.;  I  Par.,  vii,  13). 

han.  Turner,  and  Pace).  Thb  Tribe  of  Nephtau  counted  53,400  men  "able 
Neo-Scholasticism  has  been  endorsed  by  four  Catho-  to  go  forth  to  war"  (Num.,  i,  42),  beins  thus  the  sixth 
licCongresses:  Paris  (1891):  Brussels  (1895);  Freiburs  in  importance  among  the  tribes  of  Israel.  The  second 
(1897);  Munich  (1900).  A  considerable  number  of  census  brought  it  down  to  the  eighth  place,  and  re- 
reviews  have  served  as  its  exponents  :"Divus  Thomas"  ported  only  45,400  warriors  (Num.,  xxvi.  48-50). 
(1879-1903);  "Rivista  Itahana  di  filosofia  neo-sco-  During  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert, 
lastica"  (FlorencCi  since  1909);  "Annales  de  Philoso-  the  tnbe  of  Nephtau,  under  the  command  first  ot 


NEPX 


750 


MIFVIU 


Ahiia,  and  later  on  of  Phedad,  was  always  united 
with  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  Aser.  When  spies  were 
sent  from  the  desert  of  Pharan  to  view  the  land  of 
Chanaan,  Nahabi.  the  son  of  Vapsi,  represented  the 
.  tribe  in  the  expedition  (Num^  xiii,  15).  The  terri- 
tory allotted  to  Nephtah  in  Chanaan  lay  to  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Palestine,  and  was  bounded  (Jos.,  xix, 
33-34)  on  the  north  by  the  River  Leontes  (Nahr  d- 
Qanmiyeh)^  on  the  east  by  the  course  of  the  Jordan  as 
far  as  12  miles  south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  on  the  west 
by  the  tribes  of  Aser  and  Zabulon;  and  on  the  south  by 
that  of  Issachar.  Including  some  of  the  finest  land  in 
Palestine,  "it  invites  the  most  slothful  to  take  pains 
to  cultivate  it"  (Joseph.,  "Bell.  Jud."^  Ill,  iii,  2). 
Naturally,  the  Chanaanites  of  that  district  were  most 
unwilling  to  give  up  their  rich  possessions;  the  Book 
of  Judges  possibly  even  implies  that  the  Hebrews 
could  not  overcome  the  natives  (i,  33) ;  in  fact,  foreign- 
ers were  at  all  times  numerous  in  that  neighbourhood, 
called  on  that  account  "Galilee  of  the  Gentiles"  (Isa., 
ix,  1;  IV  Kinss.  xv,  29).  Finally,  they  banded  to- 
gether under  JaDin  and  Sisara  to  drive  the  Israelites 
out  of  the  land.  How  this  confederacy  was  defeated 
by  Barac,  a  man  of  Cedes,  with  the  warriors  of  Zabu- 
lon and  of  his  own  tribe,  called  together  by  Debora,  to 
the  glory  of  Nephtali,  needs  not  be  recounted  here 
(Judges,  iv,  v).  A^ain,  with  Gedeon,  warriors  of 
Nephtali  took  part  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Madianites 
(Judges,  vii,  23),  and  sent  to  David  at  Hebron  a  con- 
tingent of  1000  captains  and  37,000  men  "furnished 
with  shield  and  spear"  (I  Par.,  xii,  34).  And  the  men 
of  Nephtali,  according  to  Josephus,  guarding  the  "En- 
trance of  Emath",  the  key  to  northern  Palestine,  were 
"inured  to  war  from  their  infancy"  ("  Bell.  Jud.  ,  loc. 
cit,). 

JosspBUS,  Judean  Wart,  III,  iii;  CommgiUariea  on  Gtn.,  Joa., 
and  Deut.;  Merrill,  Galilee  in  the  Time  of  Chriat  (Boston,  1881) ; 
Thoimon,  The  Land  and  the  Book,  II  (Loadoa,  1881);  Dhormr, 
Lee  paye  bMutuee  et  VAeeurie  in  Revue  Biblimte  (Apr.,  lOlCb,  105, 
'  107;  Laorakqb,  La  PropMtie  de  Jacob  in  Revue  Biblique  (1808). 
634. 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 

Nop!  and  Sutzl  (Nepbsin  et  Scttrin),  united  sees 
of  the  province  of  Rome,  central  Italv,  in  the  CHmin- 
ian  region.  Nepi  is  situated  on  a  hill  of  tufa,  and  is 
surrounded  by  great  walls;  its  cathedral,  which  occu- 
pies the  site  of  an  ancient  temple  of  Jupiter,  contains 
paintings  by  Titian,  Perugino,  and  Zuccari;  the  com- 
munal palace  was  b^un  by  Vignola,  and  the  fort  was 
built  bv  Peter  Louis  Famese.  There  still  exist  at 
Nepi  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  and  of  ancient 
batns,  from  which  several  statues  in  the  Vatican  mu- 
seum were  taken,  among  these  the  one  in  basalt  of 
King  Nectanabis  I,  with  an  E^^tian  inscription. 
Nepete  and  Sutrium,  as  these  cities  were  called,  be- 
longed to  the  Faliscans.  who  called  the  Romans  to 
their  assistance  when  tne  Etruscans  invaded  them; 
the  invaders  (389,  311.  310),  after  twice  defeating  the 
Romans,  went  beyond  the  Ciminian  forest  to  attack 
the  Etruscans  in  Etruscan  territory:  wherefore,  Livy 
calls  these  towns  "claustra  Etrurise'^  in  382,  they  be- 
came Latin  colonies.  In  the  (jrothic  War  Nepi  was  one 
of  the  last  strongholds  of  the  Goths.  The  town  was 
sacked  by  the  Lombards  in  569,  and  then  fell  into  de- 
cadence. In  the  eighth  centiuy,  however,  it  became 
the  seat  of  Tuto,  a  Lombard  dux^  known  for  his  inter- 
ference in  the  papal  election  of  768.  In  the  stru^le 
between  the  emperors  and  the  popes.  Nepi  was  im- 
perialist during  the  reigns  of  Alexander  II,  Nicholas 
II,  Gregory  Vfl,  and  Innocent  II;  on  the  other  hand, 
in  1160,  it  fought  against  the  commune  of  Rome,  ana 
in  1244,  was  besieged  by  Frederick  II.  A  feudal  pos- 
session, first  of  the  prefects  of  Vico,  and  then  of  the 
Orsinis,  of  the  Colonnas,  and  of  Cfpsar  Borgia,  from 
1537  to  1545,  it  was  erected  into  a  duchy  in  favour  of 
Peter  Louis  Famese;  and  when  the  latter  was  trans- 
ferred to  Parma,  Nepi  returned  to  immediate  depend- 
ence on  the  Holy  See.    In  1798  the  French  set  fire  to 


the  cathedral  and  to  the  episcopal  palace^in  wbidi 
last  edifice  valuable  archives  were  lost.  The  exist- 
ence of  an  early  Christian  cemetery  witnesses  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  Church  of  Nepi,  which  vener- 
ates, as  its  evangelizer,  St.  Ptolemsus.  who,  it  is 
claimed,  was  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles.  In  419,  Eul»- 
lius,  competitor  of  Pope  St.  Boniface  I,  was  made 
Bishop  of  Nepi:  Bishop  Paulus  was  sent  as  visitor  to 
Naples  by  St.  (Gregory  the  Great;  Bi^op  Stephanus, 
in  868,  was  one  of  the  presidents  and  papal  legates  of 
the  Council  of  Constantinople  against  Photius.  The 
sees  of  Nepi  and  Sutri  were  unit^  in  1435. 

Sutri  is  placed,  like  a  hanging  garden,  upon  a  steep 
hill  on  the  Cassian  Way;  the  ancient  town  occupied 
two  hills  connected  by  a  bridge,  and  its  waUs,  built  of 
great  tufa  rocks,  are  yet  to  be  seen.    In  the  neigh- 
bourhood, there  are  many  Etruscan  tombs;  the  an- 
cient amphitheatre,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  is  a  re- 
markable work.    The  cathedral  is  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  modernized  by  frequent  alterations.    Santa 
Maria  della  Grotta  is  an  interesting  church.    The  his- 
tory of  Sutri  in  antiquity  resembles  that  of  Nepi,  for 
Sutri  also  was  taken  by  the  Lombards  in  569,  but  was 
retaken  by  the  exarch  Romanus;  Luitprand  likewise 
took  the  town  in  726,  but  in  the  following  year  re- 
stored it  to  "St.  Peter''.    As  the  city  is  on  the  Cas- 
sian Way  not  far  from  Rome,  it  was,  as  a  rule,  the  last 
halting-place  of  the  German  emperors  on  their  way  to 
the  city,  and  sometimes  they  received  there  the  papfA 
legate.    Two  famous  synods  were  held  at  Sutri,  one  in 
1046j  at  which  Sylvester  II  was  deposed,  and  resigned 
the  tiara;  the  other  in  1059,  was  held  against  Benedict 
IX.    Here  also  the  agreement  of  1111  between  Pas- 
chal II  and  the  emperor  Henrv  V  was  concluded.    In 
1120,  the  antipope  Gregory  YIII  withdrew  to  Sutri, 
and  was  besieged  there  by  Calixtus  II;  he  was  finally 
delivered  up  to  the  pope  by  the  Sutrians  (1121). 
After  this,  the  possession  of  the  city  was  frequently 
contested  by  the  Guelph  coimts  of  Aji|;uillara  and  the 
Ghibelline  prefects  of  Vico,  especially  m  1264.     Sutri 
was  contained  in  the  Duchy  oi  Nepi.    This  town  also 
has  an  ancient  Christian  cemetery  where  the  body  of 
St.  Romanus  was  foimd,  who  is  the  patron  of  the  city; 
the  cathedral  possesses  a  statue  of  him  bv  Bernini. 
Among  the  martyrs  of  Sutri  is  St.  Felix  (about  275). 
The  fi^rst  bishop  of  known  date  was  Eusebius  (4G5); 
other  bishops  were  Martinus,  or  Marinus,  who  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Otho  I  in  963;  B^iedictus,  who, 
in  975,  became  Pope  Benedict  VII;  the  famous  Bishop 
Bonitho  (Bonizo),  historian  of  the  Gregorian  epoch, 
who  was  driven  from  his  diocese  by  the  anti-papal  fac- 
tion and  later  was  made  Bishop  of  Piacenza.    The 
diocese  was  united  to  Nepi  under  Bishop  Luke  de  Tar- 
taris  (1345)  J  under  Pomponius  Cesi  (1519),  who  be- 
came a  cardinal,  the  cemetery  of  St.  Savinilla  was  dis- 
covered; Michael  Ghislieri  (1556)  became  Pope  St. 
Pius  V;  Joseph  Chianti  (1701)  founded  the  seminary* 
Camillus  Simeoni  (1782)  was  exiled  by  the  French  ana 
became  a  cardinal.    In  the  territory  of  this  diocese  is 
the  city  of  Braciano  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name 
(locus  Sabazius) ;  it  is  believed  by  some  to  be  the  an- 
cient Forum  Claudii,  the  bishop  of  which  was  at  the 
council  of  Pope  Melcniades  in  303;  others  identify  the 
Forum  Clatuiii  with  Oriolo,  which  is  in  the  Diocese  of 
Viterbo.    The  united  sees  of  Nepi  and  Sutri  are  imme- 
diately dependent  upon  Rome;  they  have  31  parishes, 
with  42,000  inhabitants,  13  religious  houses  of  men, 
and  13  of  women,  10  of  which  maintain  schools. 

CAPPBLLrm,  Le  Chieee  iC  Italia,  V;  Rancbxasci,  Memarit 
etoriche  della  eittd  di  Nepi,  elo.  (Todi,  1845-47) ;  Nispi-I.axdi.  Uan- 
tiea  eittd  di  Sutri  (Rome,  1887). 

U.  Banioni. 

NepvoUt  Francis,  writer  on  ascetics!  subjects,  h. 
at  St.  Malo,  29  April,  1639 :  entered  the  novitiate  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  12  Octooer,  1654,  when  but  fifteen 
years  old.  Successively  professor  of  Grammar,  of 
Humanities  and  Rhetonc  tor  six  yean,  and  of  Philoe- 


KXBSU8 


751 


NESEUS 


ophy  for  eight  years,  he  was  afterwards  employed  in 
the  government.  In  1679  he  was  made  superior  at 
Nantes;  in  1684  rector  at  Vannes;  in  1694  and  1700 
rector  at  Orleans;  in  1697  at  Rouen;  in  1704  at  Rennes 
where  he  was  director  of  retreats  until  his  death, 
17  February,  1708.  Father  Nepveu,  described  as  a 
man  of  great  zeal  and  intelligence,  wrote  voluminously 
on  ascetical  subjects,  and  some  of  his  works  have  ^one 
through  many  editions,  having  been  translated  into 
various  languages.  Among  his  more  important  works 
are  nimibered  the  following:  ''De  Tamour  de  Notre 
Seigneur  J^sus-Christ,  et  des  Moyens  de  Tacqudrir" 
(Nantes,  1684),  has  gone  through  no  less  than  four- 
teen editions  in  France,  selections  from  it  were  printed 
in  the  "Petite  Bibliothdque  Chr^tienne",  issued  by 
A.  Vromont,  Brussels,  1893,  and  it  has  been  trans- 
lated into  German.  Italian  (six  editions),  Spanish, 
Flemish,  Polish,  ana  English,  ed.  by  the  Rev.  Henry  J. 
Coleridge,  S.J.  and  issu^  by  Bums  and  Gates,  18(39: 
**  Retraite  selon  Tesprit  et  la  m^thode  de  Saint  Ignace 
(Paris,  1677, 514  pp.),  also  numbers  fourteen  editions  of 
the  original  and  translations  have  been  made  into  Ger- 
man, Spanish,  Flemish,  Italian,  and  six  editions  in 
Latin ; '  M^thode  facile  d'oraison,  r6duite  en  pratique  " 
(Nantes),  went  through  more  than  twelve  editions  in 
French  and  was  severiu  times  issued  in  Spanish ;  "  Pen- 
s6e3  et  Reflections  Chr^tiennes  pour  tous  les  jours  de 
Tann^e"  (4  vols.,.  Paris,  1695),  nad  eighteen  French 
editions,  the  latest  bv  Guyot,  Paris,  1850, 640  pp.,  and 
went  through  some  eleven  editions  in  foreign  languages ; 
"L'esprit  du  Christianisme  ou  la  Conformity  du 
Chretien  avec  Jdsus-Christ"  (Paris,  1700,  380  pp,), 
went  through  twenty-four  editions,  and  three  editions 
of  extracts  therefrom  appeared  in  Belgium,  also  trans- 
lated into  foreign  languages,  ten  editions  coming  out 
in  Italian.  A  full  list  of  Father  Nepveu's  works, 
which  numbered  nearly  a  score,  may  be  had  in  the 
authorities  cited  below. 

SoififBBVOOBL,  Bibliothique  de  la  Compaonie  de  Jiaut,  V,  1626; 
De  Backbb,  Bibliolhique  du  Bcrivaitu  de  la  Compoffnie  de  Jieue^ 


first  aeriM,  509. 


Edward  F.  Garbbch£. 


Noreus  and  AehllleuB,  Domitilla  and  Pancra- 
tius,  Saints  and  Martyrs. — The  conmiemoration  of 
these  four  Roman  saints  is  made  by  the  Church  on 
12  May,  in  common,  and  all  four  are  named  in  the 
Proper  of  the  Mass  as  martyrs.  The  old  Roman  lists, 
of  tne  fifth  century,  and  which  passed  over  into  the 
Martyrologium  Hieronymianum,  contained  the  names 
of  the  two  martyrs  Nereus  and  Achilleus,  whose  grave 
was  in  the  Catacomb  of  Domitilla  on  the  Via  Ardear 
tina;  in  the  same  calendar  was  found  the  name  of  St. 
Pancratius,  whose  body  rested  in  a  catacomb  of  the 
Via  Aurelia.  The  notice  in  the  more  complete  vei^ 
sion  given  by  the  Berne  Codex,  runs  as  follows:  "IIII 
id.  Maii,  Romse  in  coemetcrio  Prsetextati  natale  Nerei 
et  Achillei  fratrum,  et  natale  sci.  Pancrati  via  Au- 
rclia  miliario  secundo''  (On  12  May  at  Rome  in 
the  cemetery  of  Pnetextatus  [an  evident  error  for 
Domitilla]  the  natal  day  of  Nereus  and  Achilleus,  and 
the  natal  day  of  St.  Pancratius,  on  the  Aurelian  Way 
at  the  second  milestone'';  ed.  de  Rossi-Duchesne, 
Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  [59] ).  In  the  invocation  of  the 
Mass  for  their  feast,  in  the  **  Sacramentarium  Gelasi- 
anum  *\  the  names  of  Nereus  and  Achilleus  alone  are 
mentioned,  and  tliis  is  because  only  their  invocation 
in  the  Mass  was  entered  in  the  collection,  the  feast 
of  St.  PancratiuR  being  celebrated  in  the  church  built 
over  his  grave  on  the  Via  Aurelia.  In  the  Mass  of  his 
festival,  the  formula  of  which  is  unknown  to  us,  his 
name,  without  doubt,  was  alone  mentioned.  In  the 
fourth  and  following  centuries  there  was  celebrated 
on  12  May  in  both  places,  at  the  grave  of  Saints 
Nereus  and  Achilleus  on  the  Via  Ardeatina,  and  at 
that  of  St.  Pancratius  on  the  Via  Aurelia,  a  special 
votive  Mass.  The  Itineraries  of  the  graves  of  the 
Roman  martyrs,  written  in  the  seventh  century,  are 


unanimous  in  their  indication  of  the  restins-plase  of 
these  saints  (de  Rossi,  ^'Roma  sotterranea  ,  I.  180- 
83).  The  church  which  was  erected  in  the  fourth 
century  over  the  grave  of  St.  Pancratius,  stands  to- 
day in  somewhat  altered  style.  The  legend  describ- 
ing the  martyrdom  of  the  saint  is  of  later  origin,  and 
not  reliable  historically;  it  is  probable  that  he  was 
put  to  death  in  the  persecution  of  Valerian  (257-58) 
or  in  that  of  Diocletian  (304-06). 

The  church  built  over  the  grave  of  Sts.  Nereus  and 
Achilleus  in  the  Via  Ardeatina,  is  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourth  century;  it  is  a  three-naved  basilica,  and 
was  discovered  by  de  Rossi  in  the  Catacomb  of  Domi- 
tilla. Amongst  the  numerous  objects  found  in  the 
ruins  were  two  pillars  which  had  supported  the 
giborium  ornamented  with  sculptui^BS  representing 
the  death  of  the  two  saints  by  decapitation;  one  of 
these  pillars  is  perfectly  preserved,  and  the  name  of 
Achilleus  is  carved  upon  it.  There  was  also  found  a 
large  fragment  of  a  marble  slab,  with  an  inscription 
composed  by  Pope  Damasus,  the  text  of  which  is  well- 
known  from  an  ancient  copy.  This  oldest  historical 
mention  of  the  two  saints  (Weyman,  "Vier  Epi- 

§ramme  des  hi.  Papstes  Damasus",  Munich,  1905; 
e  Rossi,  ^'Inscriptiones  christian®'',  II,  31;  Ihm, 
"Damasi  epigrfunmata",  Leipzig,  1895, 12,  no.  8)  tells 
how  Nereus  and  Achilleus  as  soldiers  were  obedient  to 
the  tyrant,  but  suddenly  being  converted  to  Christian- 
ity, joyfully  resigned  their  commission,  and  died  the 
martyr's  death;  as  to  the  date  of  their  glorious  con- 
fession we  con  moke  no  inference.  The  acts  of  these 
martyrs,  legendary  even  to  a  romantic  degree,  have 
no  historical  value  for  their  life  and  death;  they  bring 
no  fewer  than  thirteen  different  Roman  martyrs  into 
relation,  amongst  them  even  Simon  Magus,  according 
to  the  apocryphal  Petrine  Acts,  and  place  their  death 
in  the  end  of  the  first  and  beginning  of  the  second 
centuries.  These  Acts  were  written  in  Greek  and 
Latin;  according  to  Achelis  (see  below)  the  Greek  was  « 
the  original  text,  and  written  in  Rome  in  the  sixth 
century;  Schaefer  (see  below)  on  the  other  hand  holds 
the  Latin  to  have  been  the  older  version,  and  seeks  to 
prove  that  it  emanated  from  the  first  half  of  the  fifth 
century ;  so  remote  a  date  is  improbable,  and  the  sixth 
century  is  to  be  preferred  as  the  source  of  the  Acts. 
According  to  these  legends  Nereus  and  Achilleus  were 
eunuchs  and  chamberlains  of  Flavia  Domitilla,  a  niece 
of  the  Emperor  Domitian;  with  the  Christian  virgin 
they  had  been  banished  to  the  island  of  Pontia,  and 
later  on  beheaded  in  Terracina.  The  graves  of  these 
two  martyrs  were  on  an  estate  of  the  Lady  Domitilla 
near  the  Via  Ardeatina,  close  to  that  of  St.  Petronilla. 
The  author  of  this  legend  places  the  two  saints  quite 
differently  from  Pope  Damasus,  in  his  poem:  as 
Nereus  and  Achilleus  were  buried  in  a  veiy  ancient 
part  of  the  catacomb  of  Domitilla,  built  as  far  back  as 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  we  may  conclude 
that  they  are  among  the  most  ancient  martyrs  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  stand  in  very  near  relation  to  the 
Flavian  family,  of  which  Domitilla,  the  foundress  of 
the  catacomb,  was  a  member.  In  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  St.  Paul  mentions  a  Nereus  with  nis  sister,  to 
whom  he  sends  greetings  (Rom.,  xvi.  15).  perhaps  even 
the  martyr  was  a  descendant  of  tnis  disciple  of  the 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  Owing  to  the  purely  legend- 
ary character  of  these  Acts,  we  cannot  use  them  as  an 
argument  to  aid  in  the  controversy  as  to  whether 
there  were  two  Christians  of  the  name  of  Domitilla  in 
the  family  of  the  Christian  Flavian,  or  only  one,  the 
wife  of  the  Consul  Flavius  Clemens  (see  Flavia  Domi- 
tilla) .  As  to  other  martyrs  of  the  name  Nereus,  who 
are  especially  noted  in  the  old  mart3rrolo^es  as  mar- 
tyrs of  the  faith  in  Africa,  or  as  being  natives  of  that 
country  (e.  g.,  in  the  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum, 
11  May.  15  or  16  October,  16  Nov.)  thou^  there  is 
one  of  tne  name  in  the  present  Roman  Martyrology 
under  date  of  16  Oct.,  nothing  more  is  known. 


NUtt 


762 


NESO 


On  fits.  Neretli  &&d  AckilleuB:  Ada  SS„  M«y,  HI.  6-13;  Mom- 
tiBinus,  Santiuarium,  I,  238-^40;  II,  150  sqa.,  201;  BtbliolKtea 
hagiographiea  laiina,  II,  883  aqq.;  Biblioiheea  M(f.  graea,  2nd  ed., 
185;  WiRTH.  Acta  SS.  Nerei  ti  AehilUi  (LeipsiR,  1890);  Achkub. 
Ada  SS.  Nerti  tl  AchiUei  in  TbxU und  Unttrauchungen,  XI,  2  (Leip- 
ai«,  1892);  Schabfer,  Die  AkUn  der  hi.  Ntreu*  und  AehiUJtu*  in 
R6mi»ek€  QuartaUehrift  (1894).  89-119;  Dufourcq,  Lea  Quia. 
Marturum  RomainM,  I  (Paris,  1900).  251-55,  305-07;  Ubbain, 
Bin  Martyrologium  der  chritU.  Oemeindt  tu  Rom  (Leipiic,  1901), 
143-44;  Allard,  Hittoire  de»  p«r$ieuUon»,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Pam,  1892), 
168  aq.;  db  Roaai  in  BuUtUino  di  arckeologia  eriHiana  (1874),  5 
aqq.,  68  aqq.,  122  aqq.  (1875).  5  aqq.;  Mabuccbi,  Guide  dee  eata- 
eombee  romainee  (Rome,  19()i3),  97  aq.  On  St.  Pancratiua:  Ada 
SS.,  May.  III.  21;  AnaUda  BoUanduina,  X,  53-56;  DurouBcq, 
Geeta  Mariyrum  Romainat  I*  235-37;  Mabccchi,  Guide  dee  catt^ 
eombee  romatnaa » 43-46. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Neri,  Antonio,  Florentine  chemist,  b.  in  Florence 
m  the  sixteenth  century;  d.  1614,  place  unknown. 
We  have  but  few  details  of  his  life;  Dr.  Merret,  an 
English  physician,  who  translated  his  work  only  fifty 
years  after  its  first  pubUcation,  states  in  his  preface 
that  he  could  find  no  account  whatever  of  the  author. 
It  is  known  however  that  he  was  a  priest  and  devoted 
to  the  study  of  chemistry:  he  travelled  somewhat 
extensively  m  Italy  and  Holland,  and  during  these 
journeys  g^ed  a  great  deal  of  information  concerning 
the  manufacture  of  glass  and  its  treatment  for  various 
purposes.  This  knowledge  he  gave  to  the  world  in  his 
book  "L'Arte  Vetraria",  which  for  a  long  time  formed 
the  basis  of  most  other  works  on  this  subject.  It  is  a 
book  rich  in  detail,  giving  the  then  known  methods  of 
making  glass,  of  colouring  it,  and  of  imitating  precious 
stones.  The  original  work  has  appeared  m  three 
editions:  Florence,  1612;  Florence,  1661;  and  Milan, 
1817.  In  1662  Merret  translated  it  into  I^tin,  adding 
to  it  notes  and  a  commentary  of  his  own:   this  was 

fiublished  at  Amsterdam  in  1668  and  again  in  1681. 
t  was  translated  into  German  by  Johann  Kunckel, 
who  published  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  it  in 
1689.  About  a  centurv  later  there  appeared  the 
French  edition,  "Art  de  fa  Verrerie  de  Nen,  Merret  et 
Kunckel'',  etc.,  "Traduits  de  I'Allemand  par  M. 
D***"  (Paris,  1752). 

Bbunbt,  Manu^  du  Libraire,  IV  (Paria,  1863) ;  PoooBNDOBrr, 
HandwiiTierhueh  gur  Geeehiehie  der  exaden  Wieaeneeha/ien,  II 
(Leipais,  1863);  prefaoea  to  the  varioua  tranalationa  mentioned 
above. 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 

Nerinckz,  Chableb,  missionary  priest  in  Ken- 
tuckv,  founder  of  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot 
of  the  Cross,  b.  in  Herfifelingen,  Belgium,  2  Oct., 
1761;  d.  at  Ste.  Genevieve.  Mo.,  12  August,  1824. 
He  was  the  eldest  of  the  lourteen  childjnen  of  Dr. 
Sebastian  Neiinckx  and  Petronilla  Langendries.  He 
studied  at  Enghien  and  Gheel,  made  his  philosophy  at 
Louvain,  and  entered  the  theological  seminary  of 
Mechlin  in  1781.  Ordained  in  1785,  he  became  vicar 
at  the  cathedral  of  Mechlin,  where  he  was  noted  for 
his  zeal  among  the  working  classes.  In  1794  he  ob- 
tained the  pastoral  charge  of  Everberg-Meerbeke, 
where  the  devotion  to  the  spiritual  interest  of  his 
people  developed  that  deep  love  for  children  which 
later  characterized  his  missionary  labours  in  America. 
During  his  incumbency  he  wrote  several  theolo^cal 
treatises  the  manuscripts  of  which  are  still  preserved 
in  the  pan^  archives.  The  French  Directoire  re- 
sented nis  activity  and  ordered  his  arrest,  but  he 
eluded  the  gens  d'armes  (1797)  and  for  four  years  was 
in  hiding  at  the  Hospital  of  Dendermonde,  where  he 
continu^  his  ministry  amid  continual  dangers.  He 
came  to  America  in  1804,  Bishop  Carroll  assigning  him 
to  Kentucky  in  1805.  The  district  given  to  his  charge 
was  over  two  hundred  miles  in  length  an^r*  ^vered 
nearly  half  the  State.  He  lived  in  the  saddle;  eveiy 
year  of  his  apostolate  was  marked  by  the  organi- 
zation of  a  new  congregation  or  the  building  of  a 
church.  Of  all  the  missionaries  who  worked  in  that 
field  none  deserves  so  well  the  title  of  '^  Apostle  of 
Kentucky".   His  direction  of  souls  was  so  efficient 


and  enlightened  that  to  this  very  day  the  grand- 
children of  his  penitents  are  still  prominently  known 
for  the  earnestness  of  their  faith  and  the  solid- 
ity of  their  virtue.  His  well-deserved  fame  reached 
Baltimore  and  Bishop  Carroll  induced  the  Holy  See 
to  appoint  him  Bishop  of  New  Orleans,  but  Father 
^erinckx  refused  the  honour.  The  Catholic  education 
of  children  was  his  most  cherished  work  and  to  secure 
its  permanency  he  founded  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sisters  of  Loretto  in  1812.  He  crossed  the  ocean  twice 
to  secure  help  and  labourers  for  the  missions;  he  thus 
became  instrumental  in  bringing  from  Belgium  the 
first  Jesuits  who  settled  in  the  West,  notably  Father 
De  Smet  and  Bishop  Van  de  Velde.  He  brou^t  to 
America  a  number  of  paintings  which  are  to  this  day 
the  most  valu^le  art  treasures  of  the  Diocese  of 
Louisville.  Persecution  was  not  wanting  to  him,  and 
for  the  sake  of  peace  he  went  to  Missouri  in  1824, 
intending  to  consecrate  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  the 
Indians,  out  death  overtook  him  at  Ste.  Genevieve. 
His  mortal  remains  were  brought  back  to  Loretto. 
The  Sisters  erected  a  marble  statue  of  their  founder  at 
the  mother-house  in  1910. 

Spalding,  Skelehee  of  Keniueky  (Louiaville.  1844):  Wkbb,  Ce>^ 
tenary  of  CathoUeity  in  Kentucky  (Louiaville,  1884) ;  Maks,  Life  nf 
Rev.  Charlea  Nerinckx  (Cincinnati,  1880);  MSS.  of  tke  BoUandid 
Library  (BruaaeUi). 

Camillub  P.  Majbs. 

NorOy  54-68,  the  last  Roman  emperor  of  the  Julian- 
Claudian  line,  was  the  son  of  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
bus  and  JuUa  Agrippina,  niece  of  Emperor  Claudius. 
After  the  violent  death  of  his  first  wife,  Valeria  Messa- 
lina.  Emperor  Claudius  married  Julia,  adopted  her  son 
Nero  and  gave  him  in  marriage  his  own  daughter, 
Octavia.  Nero's  mother  had  a  mind  to  commit  any 
crime  to  put  him  on  the  throne,  and  to  prepare  him  for 
this  station  she  had  L.  Annseus  Seneca  appointed  his 
tutor,  and  caused  the  freedman  Afranius  Burrus,  a 
rou^  but  experienced  soldier,  to  be  made  commando' 
of  the  Praetorian  guard.  These  men  were  the  advisers 
and  chief  supporters  of  Nero  on  his  becoming  emi)eror, 
after  the  suaacn  death  of  Claudius.  Nero  was  bom  in 
Antium  on  15  December,  a.  d.  37,  and  was  seventeen 
years  old  when  he  became  emperor.  He  believed  him- 
self to  be  a  ^reat  singer  and  poet.  All  the  better  dispo- 
sitions of  his  nature  had  been  stifled  by  his  sensuality 
and  moral  perversity.  Agrippina  had  expected  to  be 
a  partner  of  her  son  in  the  government,  but  owing  to 
her  autocratic  character,  this  lasted  only  a  short  time. 
The  first  years  of  Nero's  reign,  under  the  direction  of 
Burrus  and  Seneca,  the  real  holders  of  power,  were 
auspicious  in  every  way.  A  series  of  regulations  either 
abrogated  or  lessened  the  hardships  of  direct  taxation, 
the  arbitrariness  of  legislation  and  provincial  adminis- 
tration, so  that  Rome  and  the  empire  were  delighted, 
and  the  first  five  years  of  Nero's  government  were 
accounted  the  happiest  of  all  time,  regarded  by  Trajan 
as  the  best  of  the  imperial  era. 

Under  Claudius,  the  Armenians  and  Parthians  had 
revolted,  and  the  proconsul  had  been  unable  to  uphold 
the  prestige  of  the  Roman  arms.  Seneca  advised  Nero 
to  assert  his  ri^ts  over  Armenia,  and  Domitius  Cor- 
bulo  was  recalled  from  Germany  and  Britain  to  go 
with  fresh  troops  to  Cappadocia  and  Galatia,  where 
he  stormed  the  two  Armenian  capitals,  Artaxata  and 
Tignmocerta  in  a.  d.  59  and  made  his  headouarters  in 
the  cit^  of  Nisibis.  King  Tividates  was  dethroned, 
and  Timmes,  Nero's  favourite,  made  vassal  in  his 
stead.  But  the  position  of  Tigranes  was  insecure,  and 
Vologeses,  King  of  the  Parthians,  who  had  previously 
retir^  from  Armenia  and  given  hostages  to  the  Ro- 
mans, rekindled  the  war,  defeated  the  new  proconsul 
Patus,  and  forced  him  to  capitulate.  Corbulo  again 
took  command  and  recognised  Tividates  as  king  on 
condition  that  he  should  lay  down  his  crown  before  the 
image  of  Nero,  and  acknowledge  his  lordship  over 
Armenia  as  granted  by  Nero;  this  so  flattered  the 


753  NXBO 

a  the  Forum  with  luB  mates  rioted  by  night  through  the  city,  at- 

.  ■  on  the  h^  tackini?  men,  aseaulting  women,  and  filled  the  vacant 

of  Tividatea.    At  the  same  time  a  dangerouB  war  broke  .  positiona  at  the  imperial  Court  from  the  dregs  of  the 

outinBrit^D.    Strong  campH  and  forta  had  been  built  citv.     In  the  civic  adminlRlration  cxtravoganct:  waa 

there  in  the  first  years  of  Nero's  reign,  and  the  pro-  unbounded,  in  the  court  luxury  unbridled.    Financial 

consul,  Suetonius  PauJinus,  hsd  undertaken  here,  as  deficita  grew  over  night;    the  fortunes  of  those  who 

had  Corbulo  in  the  past,  to  extend  the  frontiers  of  the  ■  had  been  condemned  at  law,  of  freedmen,  of  all  pre- 

Roman  conquests.    With  the  native  po;iulation  com-  t«nders  by  birth  filled  the  depleted  exchequer,  and  the 

plaining  of  excessive  taxation,  conscnption,  the  ava-  coin  was  deliberately  debased.     All  efforts  to  stem 

rice  of  Roman  officials,  came  suddenly  the  summons  these  diaastets  were  vain,  and  the  general  misery  bad 

of  the  heroic  Queen  of  the  Iceni,  Boadicea,  bidding  her  reached  its  highest,  when  in  a,   d.  64  occurred  the 

tribes  to  free  themselves  from  Roman  tyranny  (a.  d.  t«rrible  conflagration  which  burnt  entirely  three,  and 

61).     The  procurator,  Decianus  Catus,  had  driven  partly  seven,  of  the  fourteen  districts  into  which  Home 

this  noble  woman  to  despair  by  his  odious  and  cruel  was  divided.    The 

greed;  and  when  this  opprFssion  and  the  shame  of  her  older    authors, 

own  and  her  daughters  vioFation  became  known  to  Tacitus  and  Sueto- 

her  people  and  the  neighbouring  tribes,  their  wrath  nius,   say  clearly, 

and  nopes  for  revenge  alone  beset  them.    The  Roman  and  the  testimony 

cam[>s  were  destroyed,  the  troops  surprised  and  elain,  of  all  later  heathen 

and  more  than  70,000  colonists  paid  the  penalty  of  and  Christian  writ- 

their  oppression  by  the  loss  of  home  and  life.    London  era    concurs   with 

waa  burned  to  the  ground,  and  the  proconsul,  Sue-  them,    that   Nero 

tonius  Faulinus,  came  but  dowly  to  the  help  of  the  re-  himself   gave    the 

maining  colonists  from  his  incurnon  upon  the  Island  order   to    set   the 

ofMona.   Onhisarrival  was  fought  the  battle  of  Deva  capital  on  fire,  and 

(Dee),  in  which  Britain  succurnbed  to  Roman  disci-  that  the  people  at 

plLoe,  and  was  agfun  subjugated  with  the  aid  of  fresh  large  believed  this 

troops  from  Germany.  report.     Nero  was 

After  the  death  of  Claudius,  Agrippina  had  caused  in   Antium    when 

to  be  poisoned  her  old  enemy  Narcissus,  the  protector  he    heard    that 

of  Britannicus,  and  Junius  Sifanus,  because  of  his  Julian  Rome     was      in 

kinship.    Pallas,  the  powerful  finance  minister,  and  flames,    he    hast- 

her  most  valiant  adherent,  was  deprived  of  his  oflice,  cned   thither,  and 

and  her  personal  influence  in  the  government  con-  ia  said  to  have  as- 

Btantly  lessened.    That  she  might  regain  her  power,  cendcd  the  tower 

she  courted  the  neglected  Octavia,   and  sought  to  of   Mecenas,   and 

make  the  impotent  Britannicus  a  rival  of  her  son;  this  looking  upon  the 

induced  Nero  to  order  the  murder  of  Britannicus,  who  sea    tn    flame    in 

was  poisoned  at  a  banquet  amidst  his  own  family  and  which   Rome    lay 

friends,  Burrus  and  Seneca  both  consenting  to  the  engulfed,  to  have  sung  on  his  lyre  the  song  of  the  ruin 

crime.    When  Nero  had  seduced  Popptea  Saoina,  the  of  Ilium. 

wife  of  his  friend  Salvius  Otho,  she  resented  playing         In  place  of  the  old  city  with  its  narrow  and  crooked 

the  r61e  of  concubine  and  aspired  to  that  of  empress,  streets,  Nero  planned  a  new  residential  city,  to  be 

Tbix  brought  about  a  crisis  between  son  and  mother,  called  Neronia.    For  six  days  the  fire  ravaged  the 

for  wi^  ^  her  vice«  Agrippina  had  never  lacked  a  closely  built  quarters,  and  many  thousands  perished 

certain  external  dignity,  and  had  expressed  in  her  con-  in  the  flames;  countless  great  works  of  art  were  lost  in 

duct  the  sentiment  of  imperial  power.     Now  when  the  ruins.     Informers,  tribed  for  the  purpose,  de- 

through  hatred  of  Poppsa  she  undertook  to  protect  dared  that  the  Christians  had  set  Rome  on  firo. 

the  interests  of  Octavia,  to  whom  indeed  Nero  owed  Thrir  doctrine  of  the  nothingness  of  earthly  joys  in 

his  throne,  the  son  determined  to  rid  himself  of  his  comparison  with  the  delights  of  immortal  souls  in 

mother.    He  invited  her  to  a  pleasure  party  at  Bain,  heaven  was  an  enduring  reproof  to  the  dissolute  em- 

and  the  ship  which  waa  to  convey  her  out  to  sea  was  peror.    There  bMan  a  fierce  persecution  throughout 

BO  constructed  as  to  sink  at  a  given  order.    Hiis  at-  the  empire,  and  through  robbery  and  confiscation  the 

tempt  having  miscarried,  he  ordered  that  she  should  Christians  were  foroed  to  pay  in  great  part  for  the 

be  clubbed  to  death  in  her  country  house,  by  his  freed-  building  of  the  new  Rome.    In  tliis  persecution  Saints 

men  (*.  n.  69).    The  report  was  then  miread  abroad  Peter  and  Paul  were  martyred  in  Rome  in  a.  d.  67, 

that  Agrippina  had  sought  the  life  of  her  son,  and  Broad  streets  and  plazas  were  planned  by  the  imperial 

Seneca  so  dishonoured  his  pen  as  to  write  to  the  senate  architects;  houses  of  stone  arose  where  before  stood 

a  brieif  condemning  the  mother.    One  man  alone  of  those  of  lime  and  wood;  the  DtrniiM  aurea,  enclosed  in 

all  the  Senate  bad  the  courage  to  leave  his  seat  when  wonderful  gardens  and  parks,  in  extent  greater  than  a 

this  letter  was  read,  Thrasea  Ptetus  the  phikMOpher.  whole  former  town-quarter  astonished  men  by  its 

Bumis  dying  in  a.  d.  62,  left  Seneca  no  longer  able  to  splendour  and  beauty.    In  order  to  compass  iJie 

withstand  the  influence  of  Poppcea  and  of  Sophonius  colossal  expenditures  for  these  vast  undertakings,  the 

Tigellinus,  Prefect  of  the  Pnetorian  guards.    He  re-  temples  were  stripped  of  their  works  of  art,  of  their 

tired  into  private  life,  and  new  crimes  were  conceived  gold  and  silver  votive  offerings,  and  justly  or  unjustly 

and  ^eoted.  the  fortunes  of  the  great  families  confiscated.     The 

Sulla  aiid  Plautus,  great-nephews  of  Augustus,  be-  universal  discontent  thus  aroused  resulted  in  the  con- 
ing in  exile,  were  beheaded  by  Nero's  command,  and  spiracy  of  Calpumius  Piso.  The  plot  was  discovered, 
his  marriage  with  Octavia  being  annulled,  she  was  and  the  conspirators  and  their  families  and  frienda 
banished  to  Campania.  The  populace  resented  deeply  condemned  to  death.  Amongst  the  most  noted  of 
the  maltreatment  of  Octavia,  and  the  tumults  which  them  were  Seneca,  Lucan,  Petronius,  and  the  Stoic 
occurred  in  consequence  served  only  to  mcrease  the  Thrasea  Pietus,  of  whom  Tacitus  s^d  that  he  was  vir- 
fear  and  hatred  of  Poppsa,  Octavia  was  sent  lo  the  tue  incarnate,  and  one  of  the  few  whose  courage  and 
island  of  Pandataria,  and  there  beheaded.  Popp^a  justice  had  never  been  concealed  in  preeenoe  of  the 
now  assumed  the  title  of  Augusta,  her  image  was  murderous  Cceaar.  Popptea  too,  who  had  been  bru- 
stamped  upon  the  coin  of  the  Roman  State,  and  her  tally  kicked  by  her  husband,  died,  with  her  unborn 
opponents  were  murdered  by  dagger  or  poison.    Nero  child  soon  after.    Finally  the  emperor  started  on  « 


754 


|>tea8ure  tour  through  lower  Ital^  and  Greece ;  as  actor, 
ainger,  and  harp  player  he  gamed  the  scorn  of  the 
world;  he  heaped  upon  his  triumphal  chariots  the  vic- 
tor-crowns of  the  great  Grecian  games,  and  so  dis- 
honoured the  dignity  of  Rome  that  Tacitus  through 
respect  for  the  mighty  ancestors  of  the  Cesar  womd 
not  once  mention  ms  name. 

Outbreaks  in  the  provinces  and  in  Rome  itself  now 
presaged  the  approaching  overthrow  of  the  Neronian 
tyranny.  Julius  Vindex.  Proconsul  of  Gallia  Lugdu- 
nensis,  with  the  intent  of  giving  Gaul  an  independent 
and  worthy  government,  raised  the  banner  of  revolt, 
and  sought  an  alliance  with  the  Proconsuls  of  Spain 
and  the  Rhine  Provinces.  Sulpicius  Galba,  Proconsul 
of  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  who  was  ready  for  the 
change,  agreed  to  the  plans  presented  to  him.  declared 
his  fealty  to  Nero  ended,  and  was  proclaimea  emperor 
bv  his  own  army.  L.  Verginius  Rufus,  Proconsul  of 
Upper  Germany,  was  offered  the  prindpate  by  his 
troops,  and  led  them  against  the  usurper  Vindex.  In 
a  battle  at  Vesontio  (Besan^on)  Vindex  was  defeated, 
and  fell  by  his  own  sword.  In  Rome  the  prsetorians 
dazxled  by  the  exploits  of  Galba  deserted  Nero,  the 
Senate  declared  him  the  enemy  of  his  coimtry.  and 
sentenced  him  to  the  death  of  a  common  murderer. 
Outlawed  and  forsaken,  he  committed  suicide  in  the 
house  of  one  of  his  freeamen,  June,  a.  d.  68.  At  once 
and  eveiywhere  Sulpicius  Galba  was  accepted  as  em- 
peror. The  sudden  disappearance  of  Nero,  whose 
enemies  had  spread  the  report  that  he  had  flea  to  the 
East,  gave  rise  to  the  later  legend  that  he  was  still  liv- 
ing, and  would  return  to  sit  again  upon  the  imperial 
throne. 

ScHXLLBR,  Oetdk.  dor  rdm,  Kaiur^  I  (Qotha,  1883) ;  SrxoiJfATVB, 
TaeituM  fl6er  dtn  Brand  ton  Rom  in  Stimmen  au*  Metria  Laaeh, 
LXXVIII  (Ftaibuiji,  1010),  2;  ton  Domahbwuici.  Geteh,  dor 
rdm.  KaUor,  II  (Le^sig,  1009).  KaKL  Hobbeb. 

Nenas  I-IV9  Armenian  patriarchs. — Nerses  I, 
sumamed  the  Great,  d.  373.  Bom  of  the  royal  stock, 
he  mpent  his  youth  in  Gaesarea  where  he  married  San- 
ducnt,  a  Mamikonian  princess.  After  the  death  of 
his  wife,  he  was  appointed  chamberlain  to  King  Ar- 
shak  of  Armenia.  A  few  years  later,  having  entered 
the  ecclesiastical  state,  he  was  elected  catholicoSf  or 
patriarch,  in  353.  His  patriarchate  marks  a  new 
era  in  Annenian  history.  Till  then  the  Church  had 
been  more  or  less  identified  with  the  royal  family  and 
the  nobles;  Nerses  brought  it  into  closer  connexion 
with  the  people.  At  the  Council  of  Ashtishat  he  pror 
mul^ted  numerous  laws  on  marriage,  fast  days,  and 
Divme  worship.  He  built  schools  and  hospitals,  and 
sent  monks  throughout  the  land  to  preach  the  Gospel. 
Some  of  these  reforms  drew  upon  him  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure, and  he  was  exiled,  probably  to  Edessa. 
Upon  the  accession  of  King  Bab  (369)  he  returned  to 
his  aee.  Bab  proved  a  dissolute  and  unworthy  ruler 
and  Nerses  forbade  him  entrance  to  the  church. 
Under  the  pretence  of  seeking  a  reconciliation,  Bab 
having  invited  Nerses  to  his  table  poisoned  him. 

Nebses  II,  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Aschdarag  in 
BagrevancL  was  patriarch  from  548  to  557.  He  was  a 
Jacobite  Monophysite  (cf.  Ter-Minassiantz,  163-64). 
Under  him  was  held  the  Second  Council  of  Tvin  or 
Dovin  (554). 

Nerses  III  of  Ischkan,  sumamed  Schinogh,  ''the 
church  builder '\  was  elected  patriarch  in  641 ;  d.  661. 
He  lived  in  days  of  political  turmoil.  The  Armenians 
had  to  choose  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians, 
and  their  new  conquerors,  the  Arabs.  Nerses  remained 
friendly  to  the  Greeks,  whilst  the  military  chiefs  sided 
with  the  Arabs.  Constans  II  (642-48)  hastened  into 
Armenia  to  punish  the  rebels  and  subject  them  to  the 
Greek  Church.  Nerses  and  a  number  of  bishops  went 
forth  to  meet  him,  and  declared  they  accepted  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon.  Disagreemont  with  the  satrap 
Theodonis  compelled  Nerses  to  withdraw  from  the 

of  the  patriarchate  from  662  to  658. 


Nerses  IV  sumamed  Klmenta  from  the  place  of 
his  birth,  and  Schnorkhali,  ''the  Gracious",  from  the 
elegance  of  his  writings^  b.  at  Hromcla,  Cilicia;  d.  1 173. 
He  was  educated  bv  his  grand  uncle,  Patriarch  Greg- 
ory Vkaiaser  and  af  terwuds  by  the  varlabed^  or  doctor 
of  theology,  Stephen  Manuk.  Having  been  conse- 
crated bishop  by  his  brother,  Patriarch  Gregory  III, 
he  was  sent  to  preach  throughout  Armenia,  lie  was 
present  at  the  Latin  Council  of  Antiodi  in  1141  and 
was  elected  patriarch  in  1 166.  Nerses,  together  with 
Emperor  Manuel  Comnenus,  laboured  hard  to  unite 
the  Greek  and  Armenian  Churches.  The  unicm. 
however,  was  never  consummated,  the  majority  of 
the  bishops  remaining  obstinate.  Nerses  is  regard^i 
as  one  of  the  greatest  Armenian  writers;  His  prose 
works  include:  "Prayers  for  every  hour  of  the  day" 
(Venice,  1822);  his  '^Synodal  letter"  and  five  "Let- 
ters"  to  Manuel  Comnenus  (tr.  Latin  by  CapelWti, 
Venice,  1833).  He  wrote  in  verse:  "lesu  Orti",  a 
Bible  histonr;  an  ''elegy''  on  the  capture  of  Edessa;  a 
"History  of  Armenia  ;  two  "Homilies",  and  many 
hymns.  In  the  "lesu  Orti",  the  elegy  on  Edessa, 
and  the  first  letter  to  Manuel  Comnenus,  we  find  tes- 
timonies to  the  primacy  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Lanoloib,  CoUection  de»  historuns  do  rArminio,  U  (Puis. 
1869);  Ormanian,  L'iglioo  artninienne,  $on  kutoire^  oa  doetrino, 
ton  rSifimOt  aa  dieipline,  oa  Uturgie^  oa  UiUraturOt  oonnrioerti  (Pftria, 
1910):  HsrcuB.  HiH.  ofiho  CounciU  o/tho  Church,  lY  (tr.  Cuuu. 
Edinburgh,  1805) ;  Sukias  Somal,  Quadro  deUa  ttoria  Uttoraria  di 
Armenia  (Venice,  1829):  Wbber.  Die  kathoL  Kireho  m  Armenitm 
(Freibiuv.  1903);  Ter-Minabsiamts,  Dm  armenioeho  Kir^o  in 
ihren  Bonohunaen  ru  den  ouritchen  Kirdien  bio  turn.  Bnde  deo  IS 
Jahrhunderta  (LeipEi^,  1904) ;  NEUifAKK.  Veroueh  einer  Geoeh.  der 
armen.  LiUor.  (Leipzig,  1836) ;  Fink,  G«»tk.  der  armen.  IMUr.  in 
Otoeh.  der  ehrtoU,  lAUer.  deo  Orumto  (Leipsig;  1907);  Axabiak, 
Eedeoia  Armenia  tradilio  do  Romani  Ponttficio  prtmotM  ita^odie*- 
tionio  ot  inerrabili  magiaterio  (Rome,  1870);  Chamich,  BioL  of 
Armenia,  (Calcutta,  1827). 

A.  A.  Vaschaldk. 

Nenas  of  Lambron,  b.  1153  at  Lambron,  Gli- 
cia;  d.  1198:  son  of  Oschin  II,  prince  of  Lambron  and 
nephew  of  the  patriarch,  Nerses  IV .  Nerses  was  well 
versed  in  sacred  and  profane  sciences  and  had  an  ex- 
cellent knowledge  of  Greek,  Latin,  Syriac,  and  prob- 
ably Coptic.  Ordained  in  1169,  he  was  consecrated 
Archbishop  of  Tarsus  in  1176  and  became  a  sealous 
advocate  of  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Annenian 
Churches.  In  1 179  he  attended  the  Council  of  Hrom- 
cla, in  which  the  terms  of  the  union  were  discusw^l; 
his  address  at  this  council  is  considered  a  masterpiece 
of  eloquence  and  style.  The  union  was  decided  upon 
but  never  consummated  owing  to  the  death  of  f^- 
peror  Manuel  Comnenus  in  1180.  Manuel's  succes- 
sors abandoned  the  negotiations  and  persecuted  the 
Armenians,  who  dissatisfied  with  the  Greeks  now 
turned  to  tne  Latins.  Leo  II,  Prince  of  Cilicia,  desir- 
ous to  secure  for  himself  the  title  of  King  of  Annenia, 
sought  the  support  of  Celestine  III  and  of  Emperor 
Henry  VI.  Tne  pope  received  his  request  favourably, 
but  made  the  granting  of  it  dependent  upon  the  imion 
of  Cilicia  to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  sent  Conrad, 
Archbi£^op  of  Mayence,  to  Tarsus,  and  the  terms  of 
union  havmg  been  signed  by  Leo  and  twelve  of  the 
bishops,  among  whom  was  Nerses,  Leo  was  crowned 
King  of  Armenia,  6  January,  1198.,  Nerses  died  six 
months  afterwards,  17  July.  Nerses  is  j ustly  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  writers  in  Armenian  literature. 
He  deserves  fame  as  poet,  prose  writer^  and  translator. 
He  wrote  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Nerses 
IV,  and  many  hymns.  His  prose  works  include  his 
oration  at  the  Council  of  Hromcla  (tr.  Italian  by 
Aucher,  Venice,  1812;  tr.  German  by  Neumann,  Lei]>- 
zig,  1834) ;  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  Wisdom,  and  the  Minor  Prophets;  an  ex- 
planation of  the  liturgv;  a  letter  to  Leo  II  and  another 
to  Uskan,  a  monk  of  Antioch ;  and  two  homilies.  He 
translated  into  Armenian  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict; 
the  ''Dialogues''  of  Gregoi^  the  Great;  a  life  of  this 
saint;  and  the  letters  of  Lucius  III  and  Clement  III  to 
the  patriarch,  Gregory.    From  the  Syriac  he  tran^ 


MISQUILLY 


755 


MBBTOBinS 


lated  the  "HomilieB"  of  Jacob  of  Serugh  and,  prob- 
ably from  the  Coptic,  the  ''life  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Desert".  Some  writers  ascribe  to  him  an  Armenian 
version  of  a  commentary  of  Andreas  of  Gesarea  on 
the  Apocalypse:  Nerses  in  his  ori^nal  writings  fre^ 
quently  refers  to  the  primacy  and  mfallibility  of  the 
pope. 

CONTBXAiis,  The  Armenian  Vereion  of  RepeUUion  (London, 
1907):  aee  alK>  Nsbsu  I-IV. 

A.  A.  Vabchalds. 
Nefquallj.    See  Seattle,  Diocbbb  of. 

NostorluB  and  Nestorianlsm.— I.  The  Herb- 
BiARCH. — Nestorius,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  Ne»- 
torian  heresy, was  b.  at  Germanicia.  in  Syria  Euphorsr 
tensis  (date  unknown)  j  d.  in  theThebaid,  Egypt,  c.  451. 
He  was  living  as  a  pnest  and  monk  in  the  monastery 
of  Euprepius  near  the  walls,  when  he  was  chosen  by  the 
Emperor  Theodosius  II  to  be  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople in  succession  to  Sisinnius.  He  had  a  high  repu- 
tation for  eloquence,  and  the  popularity  of  St.  Chiys- 
ostom's  memory  among  the  people  of  the  imperial 
city  may  have  influenced  the  Emperor's  choice  of  an- 
other priest  from  Antioch  to  be  court  bishop.  He  was 
consecrated  in  April,  428,  and  seems  to  have  made  an 
excellent  impression.  He  lost  no  time  in  showing  his 
zeal  against  heretics.  Within  a  few  days  of  his  con- 
secration Nestorius  had  an  Arian  chapel  destroyed, 
and  he  persuaded  Theodosius  to  issue  a  severe  edict 
against  heresy  in  the  following  month.  He  had  the 
churches  of  the  Macedonians  in  the  Hellespont  seized, 
and  took  measures  against  the  Quartodecimans  who 
remained  in  Asia  Minor.  He  also  attacked  tiie  Nova- 
tians,  in  spite  of  the  good  reputation  of  their  bishop. 
Pelagian  refugees  from  the  West,  however,  he  did  not 
expel,  not  being  well  acquainted  with  their  condemna- 
tion ten  years  earlier.  He  twice  wrote  to  Pope  St. 
Celestine  I  for  information  on  the  sub j  ect .  He  received 
no  reply,  but  Marius  Mercator,  a  disciple  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, published  a  memoir  on  the  subject  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  presented  it  to  the  emperor,  who  duly  pro- 
scribed the  neretics.  At  the  end  of  428.  or  at  latest  in 
the  early  part  of  429,  Nestorius  preachea  the  first  of  his 
famous  sermons  against  the  word  TheoiokoSf  and  de- 
tailed his  Antiocman  doctrine  of  the  Incarnation. 
The  first  to  nuse  his  voice  against  it  was  Eusebius, 
a  layman,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Dorylsum  and  the 
accuser  of  Eutyches.  Two  priests  of  the  city,  Philip 
and  Proclus,  who  had  both  oeen  unsuccessful  candi- 
dates for  the  patriarchate,  preached  against  Nestorius. 
Philip,  known  as  Sidetes,  from  Side,  his  birthplace, 
author  of  a  vast  and  discursive  history  now  lost,  ac- 
cused the  patriarch  of  heresy.  Proclus  (who  was  to 
succeed  later  in  his  candidature)  preached  a  flowery, 
but  perfectly  orthodox,  sermon,  yet  extant,  to  which 
Nestorius  replied  in  an  extempore  discourse,  which 
we  also  possess.  All  this  naturally  caused  great 
excitement  at  Constantinople,  especially  among  the 
the  clergy,  who  were  clearly  not  well  disposed  towaids 
the  stranger  from  Antioch.  St.  Celestine  immediately 
condemned  the  doctrine.  Nestorius  had  arranged 
with  the  emperor  in  the  summer  of  430  for  the  assem- 
bling of  a  council.  He  now  hastened  it  on,  and  the 
summons  had  been  issued  to  patriarchs  and  metropol- 
itans on  10  Nov.,  before  the  pope's  sentence,  delivered 
through  Q^l  of  Alexandria,  had  been  served  on  Nes- 
torius (6  Dec.).  At  the  council  Nestorius  was  con- 
demned, and  the  emperor,  after  much  delay  and  hesi- 
tation, ratified  its  finding.  It  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  III. 

The  lot  of  Nestorius  was  a  hard  one.  He  had  been 
handed  over  by  the  pope  to  the  tender  mercies  of  his 
rival.  Cyril;  he  had  been  summoned  to  accept  within 
ten  days  under  pain  of  deposition,  not  a  pap^  defini- 
tion, but  a  series  of  anathemas  drawn  up  at  Alexan- 
dria under  the  influence  of  Apollinarian  forgeries. 
The  whole  council  had  not  condemned  him,  but  only 


a  portion,  which  had  not  awaited  the  arrival  of  the 
bishops  from  Antioch.  He  had  refused  to  recognize 
the  jurisdiction  of  this  incomplete  number,  and  had 
consequently  refused  to  appear  or  put  in  any  defence. 
He  was  now  thrust  out  of  his  see  by  a  change  of  mind 
on  the  part  of  the  feeble  emperor.  But  Nestorius  was 
proud:  he  showed  no  sign  of  yielding  or  of  coming 
to  terms ;  he  put  in  no  plea  of  appeal  to  Rome.  He  re- 
tired to  his  monastery  at  Antioch  with  dignity  and 
apparent  relief.  His  friends,  John  of  Antioch  and  his 
party,  deserted  him,  and  at  the  wish  of  the  Emperor, 
at  the  beginning  of  433,  joined  hands  with  Cyril,  ana 
Theodoret  later  did  the  same.  The  bishops  who 
were  suspected  of  being  favourable  to  Nestorius  were 
deposed.  An  edict  of  Theodosius  II,  30  July,  435, 
condemned  his  writings  to  be  burnt.  A  few  years 
later  Nestorius  was  dragged  from  his  retirement  and 
banished  to  the  Oasis.  JEIe  was  at  one  time  carried 
off  by  the  Nubians  (not  the  Blemmyes)  in  a  raid,  and 
was  restored  to  the  Thebaid  with  his  hand  ana  one 
rib  broken.  He  gave  himself  up  to  the  governor  in 
order  not  to  be  accused  of  having  fled. 

The  recent  discovery  of  a  Syriac  version  of  the  (Loet) 
Greek  apology  for  Nestorius  by  himself  has  awakened 
new  interest  in  the  question  of  his  personal  orthodoxy. 
The  (mutilated)  manuscript,  about  800  years  old, 
known  as  the  '' Bazaar  of  Heraclides",  and  recently 
edited  as  the  "Liber  Heraclidis"  by  P.  Bedjan  (Paris, 
1910),  reveals  the  persistent  odium  attached  to  the 
name  of  Nestorius,  since  at  the  end  of  his  life  he  was 
obliged  to  substitute  for  it  a  pseudonym.  In  this 
work  he  claims  that  his  faith  is  that  of  the  celebrated 
''Tome",  or  letter,  of  Leo  the  Great  to  Flavian,  and 
excuses  his  failure  to  appeal  to  Rome  by  the  general 
prejudice  of  which  he  was  the  victim.  A  fine  passage 
on  the  Eucharistic  Sacrifice  which  occurs  in  the 
"Bazaar"  may  be  cited  here:  "There  is  something 
amiss  with  you  which  I  want  to  put  before  you  in  a 
few  words,  in  order  to  induce  you  to  amend  it,  for  you 
aro  miick  to  see  what  is  seemly.  What  then  is  this 
faultr  Presently  the  mysteries  are  set  before  the 
faithful  like  the  mess  granted  to  his  soldiers  by  the 
king.  Yet  the  army  of  the  faithful  is  nowhere  to  be 
seen,  but  they  are  blown  away  together  with  the  cate- 
chumens like  chaff  by  the  wind  of  indifference.  And 
Christ  is  crucified  in  the  nrmbol  [wrd  rdr  r^oy], 
sacrificed  by  the  sword  of  the  prayer  of  the  Priest; 
but,  as  when  He  was  upon  the  Cross,  He  finds  Hia 
disciples  have  already  fled.  Terrible  is  this  fault, — a 
betrayal  of  Christ  when  there  is  no  persecution,  a 
desertion  by  the  faithful  of  their  Masters  Body  when 
there  is  no  war"  (I.<oofs,  "Nestoriana",  Halls,  1905, 
p.  341). 

The  writings  of  Nestorius  were  originally  very 
numerous.  As  stated  above,  the  "  Bazaar"  has  newly 
been  published  (Paris^  1910)  in  the  Syriac  translation 
in  which  alone  it  survives.  The  rest  of  the  fragments 
of  Nestorius  have  been  most  minutely  examined, 
pieced  together  and  edited  by  Loofs.  His  sermons 
show  a  real  eloquence,  but  very  little  remains  in  the 
original  Greek.  The  Latin  translations  by  Marius 
Mercator  are  very  poor  in  style  and  the  text  is  ill  pre- 
served. Batiffol  has  attributed  to  Nestorius  many 
sermons  which  have  come  down  to  us  under  the  names 
of  other  authors:  three  of  Athanasius,  one  of  Hippoly- 
tus,  three  of  Amphilochius,  thirty-eight  of  Basil  of 
Seleucia.  seven  of  St.  Chiysostom;  out  Loofs  and 
Baker  do  not  accept  the  ascription.    Mercati  has 

Sainted  out  four  fragments  in  a  writmg  of  Innocent, 
ishop  of  Maronia  (ed.  Amelli  in  "SpicD.  Cassin.",  I. 
1887),  and  Armenian  fragments  have  been  published 
by  Ludtke. 

II.  The  Heresy. — Nestorius  was  a  disciple  of  the 
school  of  Antioch,  and  his  Christology  was  essentially 
that  of  Diodorus  of  Tarsus  and  Theodore  of  Mopsues- 
tia^  both  Cilician  bishops  and  great  opponents  of 
Ananism.    Both  died  in  the  Catholic  Church.    Dio* 


HXSTORinS 


766 


NIBTORinS 


donu  was  a  holv  man,  much  venerated  by  St.  John 
Chiysoetom.  Theodore,  however,  was  condemned  in 
person  as  well  as  in  his  writings  by  the  Fifth  General 
Council,  in  553.  In  opposition  to  many  of  the  Arians. 
who  taught  that  in  tne  Incarnation  tne  Son  of  God 
assimied  a  human  body  in  which  His  Divine  Na- 
ture took  the  place  of  soul,  and  to  the  followers 
of  Apollinarius  of  Laodicea,  who  held  that  the  Di- 
•vine  Nature  supplied  the  fimctions  of  the  higher 
or  intellectual  soul,  the  Antiochenes  insisted  upon 
the  completeness  of  the  humanity  which  the  Word 
assumed.  Unfortunately,  they  represented  this  hu- 
man nature  as  a  complete  man,  and  represented 
the  Incarnation  as  the  assumption  of  a  man  by  the 
Word.  The  same  way  of  speaking  was  common 
enough  in  Latin  writers  {assumere  hominem,  homo  <m- 
9umptu8)  and  was  meant  by  them  in  an  orthodox 
sense;  we  still  sing  in  the  Te  Deum:  ''Tu  ad  liberan- 
dum  suscepturus  nominem",  where  we  must  under- 
stand "ad  liberandum  hominem,  humanam  naturam 
Buscepisti".  But  the  Antiochene  writers  did  not 
mean  that  the  "man  assumed"  (i  Xii^Mt  dpBp^nrot) 
was  taken  up  into  one  hypostasis  with  the  Secona 
Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  They  preferred  to  speak 
of  fl-i/ro^/a,  "junction",  rather  than  *iw^»f,  "unifi- 
cation", and  said  that  the  two  were  one  person  in 
dignity  and  power,  and  must  be  worshipped  together. 
The  word  person  in  its  Greek  form  vpAavwop  might 
stand  for  a  juridical  or  fictitious  unity:  it  does  not 
necessarily  imply  what  the  word  person  implies  to  us. 
that  is,  the  unity  of  the  subject  of  consciousness  ana 
of  all  the  internal  and  external  activities.  Hence  we 
are  not  surprised  to  find  that  Diodorus  admitted  two 
Sons,  and  that  Theodore  practically  made  two  Christs, 
and  yet  that  they  cannot  be  proved  to  have  really 
made  two  subjects  in  Christ.  Two  things  are  certain : 
first,  that,  whether  or  no  they  believed  in  the  unity  of 
subject  in  the  Incarnate  Word,  at  least  they  explained 
that  unity  wrongly;  secondly,  that  they  used  most  un- 
fortunate and  misleading  language  when  they  spoke 
of  the  union  of  the  Manhood  with  the  Godhead — 
language  which  is  objectively  heretical,  even  were  the 
intuition  of  its  authors  good. 

Nestorius,  as  well  as  Theodore,  repeatedly  insisted 
that  he  did  not  admit  two  Christs  or  two  Sons,  and  he 
frequently  asserted  the  unity  of  the  rftltawcow.  On  ar^ 
riving  at  Constantinople  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  very  different  theology  which  he  found  rife 
there  was  a  form  of  Arian  or  ApoUinarian  error.  In 
this  he  was  not  wholly  wrong,  as  the  outbreak  of  Euty- 
chianism  twenty  years  later  may  be  held  to  prove.  In 
the  first  months  of  his  pontificate  he  was  implored  by 
the  Pelagian  Julian  of  Eclanum  and  other  expelled 
bishops  of  his  party  to  recognize  their  orthodoxy  and 
obtain  their  restoration.  He  wrote  at  least  three 
letters  to  the  pope,  St.  Celestine  I,  to  inquire  whether 
these  petitioners  had  been  duly  condemned  or  not, 
but  he  received  no  reply,  not  (as  has  been  too  often 
repeated)  because  the  pope  imagined  he  did  not  re- 
spect the  condemnation  of  the  Pelagians  by  himself 
and  by  the  Western  emperor,  but  because  he  added  in 
his  letters,  which  are  extant,  denunciations  of  the  sup- 
posed Arians  and  Apollinarians  of  Constantinople,  and 
m  so  doing  gave  clear  signs  of  the  Antiochene  errors 
soon  to  be  known  as  Nestorian.  In  particular  he 
denounced  those  who  employed  the  word  ^cor^of, 
though  he  was  ready  to  admit  the  use  of  it  in  a  certain 
sense:  "Ferri  tamen  potest  hoc  vocabulum  propter 
ipsum  considerationem,  quod  solum  nominetur  de  vir- 

6'ne  hoc  verbum  hoc  propter  inseparabilc  templum 
fei  Verbi  ex  ipsa,  non  quia  mater  sit  Dei  Verbi;  nemo 
enim  antiquiorem  se  pant. "  Such  an  admission  is 
worse  than  useless,  for  it  involves  the  whole  error  that 
the  Blessed  Virgin  is  not  the  mother  of  the  Second 
Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  It  is  therefore  unfortu- 
nate that  Loofs  and  others  who  defend  Nestorius 
should  appeal  to  the  frequency  with  which  he  repeated 


that  he  could  accept  the  BwrUot  if  only  it  was  propaly 
understood.  In  tne  same  letter  he  speaks  quite  cor- 
rectly of  the  "two  Natures  which  are  adored  in  the 
one  Person  of  the  Only-begotten  by  a  perfect  and  un- 
eonfused  conjunction",  but  this  could  not  palliate  his 
mistake  that  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  mother  of  one  na- 
ture, not  of  the  person  (a  son  is  necessarily  a  person 
not  a  nature),  nor  the  fallacy:  "No  one  can  bring 
forth  a  son  older  than  herself".  The  deacon  Leo, 
who  was  twenty  years  later  as  pope  to  define  the 
whole  doctrine,  gave  these  letters  to  John  Cassian  of 
Marseilles,  who  at  once  wrote  against  Nestorius  his 
seven  books,  "D^  incamatione  Christi".  Before  he 
had  completed  the  work  he  had  further  obtained  some 
sermons  by  Nestorius,  from  which  he  quotes  in  the 
later  books.  He  misunderstands  and  exaggerates  the 
teaching  of  his  opponent,  but  his  treatise  is  important 
because  it  stereotyped  once  for  all  a  doctrine  which 
the  Western  world  was  to  accept  as  Nestorianism. 
After  explaining  that  the  new  here^  was  a  renewal  of 
Pelagianism  and  Ebionitism,  Cassian  represents  the 
Constantinoplitan  patriarch  as  teaching  that  Christ 
is  a  mere  man  {hoino  solUarius)  who  merited  union 
with  the  Divinity  as  the  reward  of  His  Pasaon.  Cas- 
sian himself  brings  out  quite  clearly  both  the  unity 
of  person  and  the  distinction  of  the  two  natures,  yet 
the  formula  "Two  Natures  and  one  Person"  is  loss 
plainly  enunciated  by  him  than  by  Nestorius  himself, 
and  the  discussion  is  wanting  in  clear-cut  distinctions 
and  definitions. 

Meanwhile  Nestorius  was  bdng  attacked  by  his 
own  clergy  and  simultaneously  by  ot.  Cyril,  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  who  first  denounced  him,  though  with- 
out giving  a  name,  in  an  epistle  to  all  the  monks  of 
Egypt,  then  remonstrated  with  him  personally  by 
letter,  and  finally  wrote  to  the  pope.  Loofs  is  of  the 
opinion  that  Nestorius  would  never  have  been  dis- 
turbed but  for  St.  Cyril.  But  there  is  no  reason  to 
connect  St.  Cyril  with  the  opposition  to  the  here- 
siarch  at  Constantinople  and  at  Rome.  His  rivals 
Philip  of  Side  and  Proclus  and  the  layman  Eusebius 
(afterwards  Bishop  of  Doiylsum),  as  well  as  the 
Roman  Leo,  seem  to  have  acted  without  any  impulse 
from  Alexandria.  It  might  have  been  expected  that 
Pope  Celestine  would  specify  certain  neresies  of 
N^torius  and  condemn  them,  or  issue  a  definition  of 
the  traditional  faith  which  was  being  endangered. 
Unfortunately,  he  did  nothing  of  the  kmd.  St.  Cyril 
had  sent  to  Rome  his  correspondence  with  Nestonus. 
a  collection  of  that  Patriarch^s  sermons,  and  a  work  ot 
his  own  which  he  had  just  composed,  consisting  of  five 
books  "Contra  Nestorium".  The  pope  had  them 
tnmslated  into  Latin,  and  then,  after  assembling  the 
customary  council,  contented  hixnself  with  giving  a 
general  condenmation  of  Nestorius  and  a  general 
approval  of  St.  Cyril's  conduct,  whilst  he  delivered 
the  execution  of  this  vague  decree  to  C>yril,  who  as 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria  was  the  hereditary  enemy 
both  of  the  Antiochene  theologian  and  the  Constanti- 
noplitan bishop.  Nestorius  was  to  be  summoned  to 
recant  within  ten  days.  The  sentence  was  as  harsh  as 
can  well  be  imagined.  St.  Cyril  saw  himself  obliged 
to  draw  up  a  form  for  the  recantation.  With  the  help 
of  an  Egyptian  council  he  formulated  a  set  of  twelve 
anathematisms  which  simply  epitomise  the  errors  he 
had  pointed  out  in  his  five  books  "Against  Nestorius", 
for  tne  pope  appe^«d  to  have  agreed  with  the  doctrine 
of  that  work.  It  is  most  important  to  notice  that  up 
to  thispoint  St.  Cyril  had  not  rested  his  case  upon  Ap- 
oUinanan  documents  and  had  not  adopted  the  ApoUi- 
narian formula  /da  ^Oait  o'tffopKv/Uni  from  Pseudo- 
Athanasius.  He  does  not  teach  in  so  many  words 
"two  natures  after  the  union",  but  his  work  against 
Nestorius,  with  the  depth  and  precision  of  St.  Leo,  is  an 
admirable  exposition  of  Catholic  doctrine,  worthy  of  a 
Doctor  of  the  Church,  and  far  surpassing  the  treatise 
of  Cassian.  The  twelve  anathematisms  are  less  bappy» 


MlSTOBinS 


767 


MlSTOBinS 


for  St.  Cyril  was  always  a  diffuse  writer,  and  his  soli- 
iarv  attempt  at  brevity  needs  to  be  read  in  connexion 
with  the  work  which  it  summarizes. 

The  anathematisms  were  at  once  attacked,  on  be- 
half of  John.  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  in  defence  of  the 
Antiochene  School,  by  Andrew  of  Samosata  and  the 
great  Theodoret  of  Cyrus.  The  former  wrote  at  An- 
tioch;  his  objections  were  adopted  by  a  synod  held 
there,  and  were  sent  to  Cyril  as  the  official  view  of  all 
the  Oriental  bishops.  St.  Cyril  published  separate 
replies  to  these  two  antagonists,  treating  Andrew  with 
more  respect  than  Theodoret,  to  whom  he  is  com- 
temptuous  and  sarcastic.  The  latter  was  doubtless 
the  superior  of  the  Alexandrian  in  talent  and  learning, 
but  at  this  time  he  was  no  match  for  him  as  a  theolo- 
gian. Both  Andrew  and  Theodoret  show  themselves 
d^tious  and  unfair:  at  best  they  sometimes  prove 
that  St.  Cyril's  wording  is  ambiguous  and  ill-chosen. 
They  uphold  the  objectionable  Antiochene  phraseol- 
ogy, and  they  reject  the  hypostatic  imion  {fytoait  koB 
Mo'TCM'iy)  as  well  as  the  ^vvtx^  tmaait  as  imorthodox 
and  unscriptural.  The  latter  expression  is  indeed 
unsuitable,  and  may  be  mbleadin^.    Cyril  had  to  ex- 

f^lain  that  he  was  not  summarixmg  or  defining  the 
aith  about  the  Incarnation,  but  simply  putting  to- 
gether the  principal  errors  of  Nestorius  in  the  heretic's 
own  words.  In  his  books  against  Nestorius  he  had 
occasionally  misrepresented  him.  but  in  the  twelve 
anathematisms  he  gave  a  perfectly  faithful  picture  of 
Nestorius's  view,  for  in  fact  Nestorius  did  not  disown 
the  propositions,  nor  did  Andrew  of  Samosata  or 
Theodoret  refuse  to  patronize  any  of  them.  The  anath- 
ematisms were  certainly  in  a  general  way  approved 
of  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  but  they  nave  never 
been  formally  adopted  by  the  Church.  Nestorius  for 
his  part  replied  by  a  set  of  twelve  contra-anathema- 
tisms.  Some  of  them  are  directed  against  St.  Cyril's 
teaching,  others  attack  errors  which  St.  Cyril  dia  not 
dream  of  teaching,  for  example  that  Christ's  Human 
Nature  became  through  the  union  imcreated  and  with- 
out beginning,  a  silly  conclusion  which  Was  later  as- 
cribed to  the  sect  of  Monophysites  called  Actistetie. 
On  the  whole,  Nestorius's  new  programme  emphasized 
his  old  position,  as  also  did  the  violent  sermons  which 
he  preached  anainst  St.  Cyril  on  Saturday  and  Sun- 
day, 13  and  14  December,  430.  We  have  no  difficulty 
in  defining  the  doctrine  of  Nestorius  so  far  as  words  are 
ooncemed :  Mary  did  not  bring  forth  the  Godhead  as 
such  (true)  nor  the  Word  of  G(^  (false),  but  the  organ, 
the  temple  of  the  Godhead.  The  man  Jesus  Christ  is 
this  temple,^ 'the  animated  purple  of  the  King",  as  he 
expresses  it  in  a  passage  of  sustained  eloouence.  The 
Incarnate  God  did  not  suffer  nor  die,  out  raised  up 
from  the  dead  him  in  whom  He  was  incarnate.  The 
Word  and  the  Man  are  to  be  worshipped  together,  and 
he  adds:  d(&  Thv  f^poOvra  rhv  f^poufjxpoy  94p<a  (Through 
Him  that  bears  I  worship  Him  Who  is  borne).  If  St. 
Paul  speaks  of  the  Lord  of  Glory  being  crucified,  he 
means  the  man  by  **the  Ix)rd  of  Glory  '.  There  are 
two  natures,  he  says,  and  one  person;  but  the  two  na- 
tures are  regularly  spoken  of  as  though  they  were  two 
persons,  and  the  sayings  of  Scripture  about  Christ  are 
to  be  appropriated  some  to  the  Man.  some  to  the 
Word,  u  Mary  is  called  the  Mother  of  God,  she  will 
be  made  into  a  goddess,  and  the  Gentiles  will  be  scan- 
dalized. 

This  is  all  bad  enough  as  far  as  words  go.  But  did 
not  Nestorius  mean  better  than  his  words?  The  Ori- 
ental bishops  were  certainly  not  all  disbelievers  in  the 
unity  of  suDJect  in  the  Incarnate  Christ,  and  in  fact 
St.  Cyril  made  peace  with  them  in  433.  One  may 
point  to  the  fact  that  Nestorius  emphatically  declared 
that  there  is  one  Christ  and  one  Son,  and  St.  Cyril 
himself  has  preserved  for  us  some  passages  from  his 
sermons  which  the  saint  admits  to  oe  perfectly  ortho- 
dox, and  therefore  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  rest. 
For  example:  "  Great  is  the  mystery  of  the  gifts!   For 


this  visible  infant,  who  seems  so  youn^  who  needs 
swaddling  clothes  for  His  body,  who  in  the  substance 
which  we  see  is  newly  bom,  is  the  Eternal  Son.  as  it  is 
written,  the  Son  who  is  the  Maker  of  all,  the  Son  who 
binds  together  in  the  swathin^-bands  of  His  assisting 
power  the  whole  creation  which  would  otherwise  be 
dissolved."  And  again:  ''Even  the  infant  is  the  all- 
powerful  God,  so  far,  O  Arius,  is  God  the  Word  from 
Dein^  subject  to  God."  And:  "We  recognize  the  hu- 
manity of  the  infant,  and  His  Divinity;  the  unity  of 
His  Sonship  we  guard  in  the  nature  of  humanity  and 
divinity."  It  wul  probably  be  only  just  to  Nestorius 
to  admit  that  he  fully  intended  to  siueguard  the  unity 
of  subject  in  Christ.  But  he  gave  wrong  explanations 
as  to  the  unity,  and  his  teacmng  logically  led  to  two 
Christs,  thou^pli  he  would  not  have  admitted  the  fact. 
Not  only  his  words  are  misleading,  but  the  doctrine 
which  underlies  his  words  is  misleading,  and  tends  to 
destroy  the  whole  meaning  of  the  Incarnation.  It  is 
impossible  to  deny  that  teaching  as  well  as  wording 
which  leads  to  such  conseouences  is  heresy.  He  was 
therefore  unavoidably  conaemned.  He  reiterated  the 
same  view  twenty  years  later  in  the  "Bazaar  of 
Heraclides",  which  shows  no  real  change  of  opinion, 
although  he  declares  his  adherence  to  the  Tome  of  St. 
Leo. 

After  the  council  of  431  had  been  made  into  a  law  by 
the  emperor,  the  Antiochene  party  would  not  at  once 

five  way.  But  the  council  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
ixtus  III,  who  had  succeeded  St.  Celestine,  and  it  was 
received  by  the  whole  West.  Antioch  was  thus  iso- 
lated, and  at  the  same  time  St.  Cyril  showed  himself 
ready  to  make  explanations.  The  Patriarchs  of  An- 
tioch and  Alexandria  agreed  upon  a  "creed  of  union" 
in  433  (see  Euttchianisu).  Andrew  of  Samosata 
and  some  others  would  not  accept  it,  but  declared 
the  word  ^eor^xos  to  be  heretical.  Theodoret  held  a 
council  at  Zeugma  which  refused  to  anathematize 
Nestorius.  But  the  prudent  Bishop  of  Cyrus  after  a 
time  perceived  that  in  the  "creed  of  union"  Antioch 
gained  more  than  did  Alexandria;  so  he  accepted  the 
somewhat  hollow  compromise.  He  says  himself  that  he 
commended  the  person  of  Nestorius  whilst  he  anathe- 
matized his  doctrine.  A  new  state  of  things  arose 
when  the  death  of  Str  Cyril,  in  444,  took  away  his  re- 
straining hand  from  his  intemperate  followers.  The 
friend  of  Nestorius,  <Co\mt  Irensus,  had  become 
Bishop  of  Tjrre,  and  he  was  persecuted  by  the  Cyril- 
lian  party,  as  was  Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (q.  v.),  who 
had  been  a  great  teacher  in  that  city.  These  bishops, 
together  with  Theodoret  and  Domnus,  the  nephew 
and  successor  of  John  of  Antioch,  were  deposed  by 
Dioscorus  of  Alexandria  in  the  Robber  Coimcil  of 
Ephesus  (449)'.  Ibas  was  full  of  Antiochene  theology, 
but  in  his  famous  letter  to  Maris  the  Persian  he  disap- 
proves of  Nestorius  as  well  as  of  Cyril,  and  at  the 
Council  of  Chaicedon  he  was  willing  to  cry  a  thousand 
anathemas  to  Nestorius.  He  and  Theodoret  were 
both  restored  by  that  council,  and  both  seem  to  have 
taken  the  view  that  St.  Leo's  Tome  was  a  rehabilita- 
tion of  the  Antiochene  theology.  The  same  view  was 
taken  by  the  Monophysites.  who  looked  upon  St.  Leo 
as  the  opponent  of  St.  Cyril's  teaching.  Nestorius  in 
his  exile  rejoiced  at  this  reversal  of  Iu>man  policy,  as 
he  thought  it.  Loofs,  foUowed  by  many  wnters  even 
among  Catholics,  is  of  the  same  opinion.  But  St.  Leo 
himself  believed  that  he  was  completing  and  not  im- 
doing  the  work  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  and  as  a 
fact  his  teaching  is  but  a  clearer  form  of  St.  Cyril's 
earlier  doctrine  as  exposed  in  the  five  books  against 
Nestorius.  But  it  is  true  that  St.  Cyril's  later  phrase- 
ology, of  which  the  two  letters  to  Succensus  are  the 
type,  is  based  upon  the  formula  which  he  felt  himself 
bound  to  adopt  from  an  Apollinarian  treatise  believed 
to  be  bv  his  great  predecessor  Athanasius:  /da  ^dvct 
rod  Qeod  A6yov  ctaapKUftdr^.  St.  Cyril  foimd  this  for* 
mula  an  awkward  one,  as  his  treatment  of  it  shows, 


MIBTOBIUB                           758  MISTOBIUS 

and  it  became  in  fact  the  watchword  of  heresy.    But  ih&r  own  country  nine  became  bishops,  inchiding 

St.  C3rril  does  his  best  to  understand  it  in  a  right  sense,  Barsumas,  or  Barsaiima.  of  Nisibis  and  Acacius  of 

and  goes  out  of  his  way  to  admit  two  natures  even  Beit  Aramage.    The  scnool  at  Edessa  was  finaOy 

after  the  union  ip  Btupi^^  an  admission  which  was  to  closed  in  489. 

save  Severus  himself  from  a  good  part  of  his  heresy.  At  this  time  the  Church  in  Persia  was  autonomous, 

That  Loofs  or  Hamack  should  fail  to  perceive  the  having  renounced  all  subjection  to  Antioch  and  the 
vital  difference  between  the  Antiochenes  and  St;  Leo,  "Western"  bishops  at  the  Council  of  Seleucia  in  410. 
is  easily  explicable  by  their  not  believing  the  Catholic  The  ecclesiastical  superior  of  the  whole  was  the  Bishop 
doctrine  of  the  two  natures,  and  therefore  not  catching  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  who  had  assumed  the  rank 
the  perfectly  simple  explanation  given  by  St.  Leo.  of  catholicos.  Tnis  prelate  was  Babaeus  or  Babowu 
Just  as  some  writers  declare  that  the  Monophysites  (457-84)  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Nestorisn 
always  took  4^a  in  the  sense  of  inrbarafftt,  so  Loofs  professors  from  Edessa.  He  appears  to  have  received 
and  others  hold  that  Nestorius  took  inrhrraffit  always  them  with  open  arms.  But  Barsatima,  having  be- 
in  the  sense  of  ^^o-cr,  and  meant  no  more  by  two  hypos-  come  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  the  nearest  great  city  to 
to«e<  than  he  meant  by  ixoo  natures.  But  the  words  Ede8sa,brokewiththeweakcatholicos.and,  atacoun- 
seem  to  have  had  perfectly  definite  meanings  with  all  cil  which  he  held  at  Beit  Lapat  in  April,  484.  pn>- 
the  theologians  of  tneperiod.  That  the  Monophysites  nounced  his  deposition.  In  the  same  year  Babowai 
distinguished  them,  is  probable  (see  Monopuysites  was  accused  before  the  king  of  conspinng  with  Con- 
AND  Monophtsitism),  and  all  admit  they  unquestion-  stantinople  and  cruellv  put  to  death,  b^g  hung  up 
ably  meant  by  hypostasis  a  subsistcnt  nature.  That  by  his  nng-finger  and  also,  it  is  said,  crucified  and 
Nestorius  cannot,  on  the  contrary,  have  taken  nature  scourged.  There  is  not  sufficient  evidence  for  the 
to  mean  the  same  as  hypostasis  and  both  to  mean  cs-  story  which  makes  Barsadma  his  accuser.  The  Bishop 
sence  is  obvious  enough,  for  three  plain  reasons:  first,  of  Nisibis  was  at  all  events  in  high  favour  with  King 
he  cannot  have  meant  anything  so  absolutely  opposecl  Peroz  (457-84)  and  bad  been  able  to  persuade  him 
to  the  meaning  given  to  the  word  hypostasis  by  tliat  it  would  l>e  a  good  thing  for  the  Persian  kingdom 
the  Monophysites;  secondly,  if  he  meant  nature  bv  if  the  Christians  in  it  were  all  of  a  different  complexion 
^^tfrao-if  he  had  no  word  at  all  left  for  **  subsistence  from  those  of  the  Empire,  and  had  no  tendency  to 
(for  he  certainly  used  otcia  to  mean  "essence''  rather  gravitate  towards  Antioch  and  Constantinople,  which 
than  "subsistence");  thirdly,  the  whole  doctrine  of  were  now  officially  under  the  sway  of  the  "Henoti- 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  Nestorius's  own  refusal  con"  of  Zeno.  Consequently  all  Christians  who  were 
to  admit  almost  any  form  of  the  communicatio  idio-  not  Nestorians  wore  driven  from  Persia.  But  the 
matunif  force  us  to  take  his  "two  natures  "  in  the  sense  story  of  this  persecution  as  told  in  the  letter  of  Simeon 
of  subsistent  natures.  of  Beit  Arsam  is  not  generally  considered  trustworthy. 

The  modem  critics  also  consider  that  the  orthodox  and  the  alleged  number  of  7700  Monophysite  martyrs 
doctrine  of  the  Greeks  against  Monophysitism — in  is  c|uite  incredible.  The  town  of  Tai^rit  alone  re- 
fact  the  Chalcedonian  doctrine  as  defended  for  many  maincd  Monophysite.  But  the  Armenians  were  not 
years — was  practically  the  Antiochene  or  Nestorian  gained  over,  and  m  491  they  condemned  at  Valaisapat 
doctrine,  until  Leontius  modified  it  in  the  direction  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  St.  Leo,  and  BarsaOma. 
conciliation.  This  theory  is  wholly  gratuitous,  for  Peroz  died  in  484,  soon  after  having  murdered  Babo> 
from  Chalcedon  onwunds  there  is  no  orthodox  contro-  wai,  and  the  energetic  Bishop  of  Nisibis  had  evidently 
versialist  who  has  left  us  any  con.siderable  remains  in  less  to  hope  from  his  successor,  Balash.  Thougn 
Greek  by  which  we  might  be  enabled  to  judge  how  far  Barsatima  at  first  opposed  the  new  catholicos,  Acacius, 
Leontius  was  an  innovator.  At  all  events  we  know,  in  August,  485^  he  nad  an  interview  with  him,  and 
from  the  attacks  made  by  the  Monophysites  them-  made  his  submission,  acknowledging  the  necessity  tor 
selves,  that,  though  they  professed  to  regard  their  subjection  to  Seleucia.  However,  he  excused  himself 
Catholic  opponents  as  Crypto-Nestorians,  in  so  doing  from  being  present  at  Acacius's  council  in  484  at 
they  distinguished  them  from  the  true  Nestorians  who  Seleucia,  where  twelve  bishops  were  present.  At  this 
openly  professed  two  hypostases  and  condemned  the  assembly,  the  Antiochene  Christology  was  affirmed 
word  0€OT6Kot,  In  fact  we  may  say  that,  after  John  and  a  canon  of  Beit  Lapat  permitting  the  marriage 
of  Antioch  and  Theodoret  had  made  peace  with  St.  of  the  clcrpr  was  repeated.  The  Synod  declared  that 
Cyril,  no  more  was  heard  in  the  Greek  world  of  the  they  despfsed  vainglory,  and  felt  bound  to  humble 
Antiochene  theology.  The  school  had  been  dLstin-  themselves  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  horrible  cleri- 
guished,  but  small.  In  Antioch  itself,  in  Syria,  in  cal  scandals  which  disedified  the  Persian  Magians  as 
Palestine,  the  monks,  who  were  exceedingly  mfluen-  well  as  the  faithful;  they  therefore  enacted  Siat  the 
tial,  were  Cyrillians,  and  a  large  proportion  of  them  clergy  should  make  a  vow  of  chastity;  deacons  may 
were  to  become  Monophysites.  it  was  beyond  the  marry,  and  for  the  future  no  one  is  to  be  ordained 
Greek  world  that  Nestorianism  was  to  have  its  devel-  priest  except  a  deacon  who  has  a  lawful  wife  and  chil- 
opment.  There  was  at  Edessa  a  famous  school  for  dren.  Though  no  permission  is  given  to  priests  or 
Persians,  which  had  probably  been  founded  in  the  bishops  to  marry  (for  this  was  contrary  to  the  canons 
days  of  St.  Ephrem,  when  Nisibis  had  ceased  to  belong  of  the  Eastern  Church),  yet  the  practice  appears  to 
to  the  Roman  Empire  in  363.  The  Christians  in  Per-  have  been  winked  at,  possibly  for  the  regularization 
sia  had  suffered  terrible  persecution,  and  Roman  of  illicit  unions.  Barsadma  himself  is  said  to  have 
Edessa  had  attracted  Persians  for  peaceful  study,  married  a  nun  named  Mamo6;  but  according  to  Mare, 
Under  the  direction  of  Ibas  the  Persian  school  of  this  was  at  the  inspiration  of  King  Perot,  and  was 
Edessa  imbibed  the  Antiochene  theology.  But  the  only  a  nominal  marriage,  intended  to  ensure  the  pres- 
famous  Bishop  of  Edessa,  Rabbdla,  though  he  had  ervation  of  the  lady's  fortune  from  confiscation, 
stood  apart  from  St.  Cyril's  council  at  Ephesus  to-  The  Persian  Church  was  now  organized,  if  not 
gether  with  the  bishops  of  the  Antiochene  patriar-  thoroughly  united,  and  was  formally  committed  to 
chate.  became  after  the  council  a  convinced,  and  even  the  theology  of  Antioch.  But  Acacius,  when  sent 
a  violent,  Cyrillian,  and  he  did  his  best  against  the  by  the  king  as  envoy  to  Constantinople,  was  obliged 
school  of  the  Persians.  Ibas  himself  became  his  sue-  to  accept  the  anathema  against  Nestorius  in  order  to 
cesser.  But  at  the  death  of  this  protector,  in  457,  the  be  received  to  Commimion  there.  After  his  return 
Persians  were  driven  out  of  Edessa  by  the  Monophy-  he  bitterly  complained  of  being  called  a  Nestorian 
sites,  who  made  themselves  all-powerful.  Syria  then  by  the  Monophysite  Philoxenus,  declaring  that  be 
becomes  Monophysite  and  produces  its  Philoxenus  "knew  nothing'' of  Nestorius.  rfeverthelesB  Nesto- 
and  many  another  writer.  Persia  simultaneously  be-  rius  has  always  been  venerated  as  a  saint  by  the  Per- 
comes  Nestorian.    Of  the  exiles  from  Edessa  into  sian  Church.    One  thing  more  was  needed  for  the 


KS  TSMXBS 


759 


NSTHE&XiAMBS 


Nefitorian  Church;  it  wanted  theological  schools  of  its 
own,  in  order  that  its  clergy  might  be  able  to  hold 
their  own  in  theological  argument ,  without  being 
tempted  to  study  in  the  orthodox  centres  of  the  East 
or  in  the  numerous  and  brilhant  schools  which  the 
Monophysites  were  now  establishing.  Barsaiima 
opened  a  school  at  Nisibis,  which  was  to  become  more 
famous  than  its  parent  at  Edessa.  The  rector  was 
Narses  the  licprous,  a  most  prolific  writer,  of  whom 
little  has  been  preserved.  Tnis  university  consisted 
of  a  single  college,  with  the  regular  hfe  of  a  monastery. 
Its  rules  are  still  preserved  (see  Nisibis).  At  one 
time  we  hear  of  800  students.  Their  great  doctor 
was  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  His  commentaries  were 
studied  in  the  translation  made  by  Ibas  and  were 
treated  almost  as  infallible.  Theodore's  Canon  of 
Scripture  was  adopted,  as  we  learn  from  "  De  Partibus 
DivmsB  Legis"  of  Junilius,  (P.  L.,  LXVIII,  and  ed.  by 
Kihn),  a  work  which  is  a  translation  and  adaptation 
of  the  published  lectures  of  a  certain  Paul,  professor 
at  Nisiois  The  method  is  Aristotelean,  ana  must  be 
connected  with  the  Aristotelean  revival  which  in  the 
Greek  world  is  associated  chiefly  with  the  name  of 
Philoponus,  and  in  the  West  with  that  of  Boethius. 
The  tame  of  this  theological  seminary  was  so  great 
that  Pope  Agapetus  and  Cassiodorus  wished  to  found 
one  in  Italy  of  a  similar  kind.  The  attempt  was  im- 
possible in  those  troublous  times;  but  Cassiodorus's 
monastery  at  Vivarium  was  inspired  by  the  example 
of  Nisibis.  There  were  other  less  important  schools 
at  Seleucia  and  elsewhere,  even  in  small  towns. 

Barsaiima  died  between  492  and  495,  Acacius  in 
496  or  497.  Narses  seems  to  have  lived  longer.  The 
Nestorian  Church  which  they  founded,  though  cut  off 
from  the  Catholic  Church  by  political  exigencies,  never 
intended  to  do  more  than  practise  an  autonomy  like 
that  of  the  Eastern  patriarchates.  Its  heresy  con- 
sisted mainly  in  its  refusal  to  accept  the  Coimcils  of 
Ephesus  ana  Chalcedon.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  neither  Junihus  nor  Cassiodorus  spec3u  of  the 
school  of  Nisibis  as  heretical.  They  were  probably 
aware  that  it  was  not  quite  orthodox,  but  the  Per- 
sians who  appeared  at  the  Holy  Places  as  pilgrims  or  at 
Constantinople  must  have  seemed  like  Catholics  on 
account  of  their  hatred  to  the  Monophysites,  who 
were  the  great  enemy  in  the  East.  The  official  teach- 
ing of  the  Nestorian  Church  in  the  time  of  Kins 
Chosroes  (Khusran)  II  (died  628)  is  well  presented 
to  us  in  the  treatise  '^De  unione''  composed  by  the 
energetic  monk  Babai  the  Great,  preserved  in  a  MS. 
from  which  Labourt  has  made  extracts  (pp.  280-87). 
Babai  denies  that  hypostasis  and  person  have  the  same 
meaning.  A  hypostasis  is  a  singular  essence  (oAj/a) 
subsisting  in  its  independent  being,  numeri(»illy  one, 
separate  from  others  by  its  accidents.  A  person  is 
that  property  of  a  hypostasis  which  distinguishes  it 
from  others  (this  seems  to  be  rather  '' personality" 
than  ''person'')  as  being  itself  and  no  other,  so  that 
Peter  is  Peter  and  Paul  is  Paul.  As  h3rpo8tases  Peter 
and  Paul  are  not  distinguished,  for  they  have  the 
same  specific  qualities,  but  they  are  distinguished  by 
their  particular  quahties,  their  wisdom  or  otherwise, 
their  height  or  their  temperament,  etc.  And,  as  the 
singular  property  which  tne  hypostasis  possesses  is  not 
the  hypostasis  itself,  the  singular  property  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  is  called  ''person''. 

It  would  seem  that  Babai  means  that  "a  man" 
{indwiduum  nagum)  is  the  hypostasis,  but  not  the 
person,  until  we  add  the  individual  characteristics  by 
which  ne  is  known  to  be  Peter  or  Paul.  This  is  not 
by  any  means  the  same  as  the  distinction  between  na- 
ture and  hypostasis,  nor  can  it  be  assert^  that  hv 
hypostasis  Babai  meant  what  we  should  call  specific 
natitre.  and  by  person  what  we  should  call  hypostasis. 
The  tneory  seems  to  be  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
justify  the  traditional  Nestorian  formula:  two  hypos- 
tases in  one  person.    As  to  the  nature  of  the  umon, 


Babai  falls  on  the  Antiochenesa3ring  that  it  is  Ineffable, 
and  prefers  the  usual  metaphors — assumption,  in 
habitation,  temple,  vesture,  junction — to  any  defini- 
tion of  the  union.  He  rejects  the  communicalio  idio^ 
malum  as  involving  confusion  of  the  natures,  but 
allows  a  certain  "interchange  of  names",  which  he 
explains  with  great  care. 

The  Persian  Christians  were  called  "Orientals", 
or  "Nestorians",  by  their  neighbours  on  the  West. 
They  gave  to  themselves  the  name  of  Chaldeans;  but 
this  denomination  is  usually  reserved  at  the  present 
day  for  the  large  portion  of  the  existing  remnant  which 
has  been  united  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  present 
condition  of  these  Uniats,  as  well  as  of  the  branch  in 
India  known  as  "Malabar  Christians",  is  described 
under  Chaldean  Christians.  The  history  of  the 
Nestorian  Church  must  be  looked  for  under  Persia. 
The  Nestorians  also  penetrated  into  China  and 
Mongolia  and  left  behind  them  an  inscribed  stoce,  set 
up  in  Feb.,  781,  which  describes  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  China  from  Persia  in  the  reign  of 
T'ai-tsong  (627-49).  The  stone  is  at  Chou-Chih, 
fifty  miles  south-west  of  Si-an  Fu,  which  was  in  the 
seventh  century  the  capital  of  China.  It  is  known  as 
"the  Nestorian  Monument". 

For  biblioKraphy  see  Ctbil  of  Alexandria  ;  Ephesus,  Coun- 
cil of;  Dioscukub,  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Here  may  be 
added,  on  I:  Gabnieb,  Opera  Marti  Mereatorit,  II  (Paris.  1673); 
P.  £..,  XLVIII,  669;  Tillemont.  AHmoirea,  XIY;  Asseuani, 
Biblioiheea  Orient.,  Ill,  pt.  2  (Rome.  1728);  Loofb  in  Realency 
ktopddie,  8.  V.  Neetoritu;  Fendt.  Die  Chriatoloaie  dee  Netloriua 
(Nlunich.  1010);  Batiffol  in  /2evu«  Biblique,  IX  (1900),  329-53; 
MsRCATiin  TheoloQ.  Revue,  VI  (1907),  63;  LeamK in ZeiCeehr.  far 
KirchenQeech.,  XXIX  (1908).  385. 

On  the  early  struggle  with  Nestorianiam:  Assemani,  Bibliotheea 
OrierUalie,  III,  parts  1  and  2  (Rome,  1728);  Doucin.  Hietoire  du 
Neetorianieme  (1089). 

On  the  Persian  Nestorians:  the  Monophyute  historians 
Michael  Stbus,  ed.  Chabot  (Paris,  1899)  and  BARHEBBiSUB, 
edd.  Abbbloos  and  Lamy  (Paris.  1872-77) ;  the  Mohammedan 
Sahbabtani,  ed.  Cubeton  (London,  1842);  and  especially  the 
rich  information  in  the  Nestorian  texts  themselves;  Gismondi, 
Marie  Amri  et  Slibce  de  patriarchia  Neetorianie  eomtnentaria,  e 
eodd.  Vat.;  the  Liber  Turria  (Arabic  and  Latin,  4  parts,  Rome, 
189(^99) ;  Bedjak.  Hietoire  de  Mar  Jab- Aloha  U317),  pairiarehe, 
et  de  Raban  Sautna  (2Dd  ed.,  Paris,  1895) ;  Synodicon  ofBbedjeeu  in 
Mai.  Scriptorum  vett.  nova,  coll.,  X  (1838);  Braun,  Dae  Buck  der 
Synhadoe  (Stuttgart  and  Vienna.  1900) ;  Chabot.  Synodicon  Ori- 
entale,  ou  recueU  de  Synodee  Neatoriena  in  Notee  et  Extraite, 
Synhadoe  (Stutt^^  ana  Vienna,  19(X)) ;  Chabot.  Synodicon  Ori- 
entate, ou  recuetl  de  Synodee  Neetoriene  in  Notee  ei  Extraite, 
XXXVII  (Paris.  1902) ;  Ouidi.  Oeteyrieehe  bieehoft  und  BiechofeUte 
in  ZeiUchrifl  der  MorgenldndL  Gesdleeh.,  (1889).  XLIII.  388; 
Idbu,  Gli  etaltUi  delta  ecuota  di  Nieibi  (Syriao  text)  in  Giomale 
delta  Soc.  Aeiatica  Ttal.,  TV;  Addai  Scheb,  Chronique  de  Siert,  hie- 
toire Nettorienne  (Arabic  and  French),  and  Cauee  de  la  fondation 
dee  ieoUe  (Edessa  and  Nisibis)  in  Patrologia  Orienialie,  IV  (Paris, 
1908)  ;  Budge  ed..  The  Book  of  Qovemore,  by  Thomae  Biehop  of 
Marga.  840  (Syriac  and  Eng.)  (2  vols..  London.  1893).  The  best 
general  history  is  by  Laboubt,  Le  Christianieme  dane  V Empire 
Peree  (Paris,  1904). — See  also  Pbtbruann  and  Kbssleb  in  Real- 
encyklop.,  s.  v.  Neetorianer;  Funk  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Neetoriue 
und  die  Neetorianer;  Duchesne,  Hiet.  ancienne  de  VEgliee,  III 
(Paris,  1910). — On  the  "Nestorian  Monument",  see  Pabkeb  in 
/>ub/tn  Review,  CXXXI  (1902),  2.  p.  380;  Cabus  and  Holm,  The 
Neetorian  Monument  (London,  1910). 

John  Chapman. 

Ne  Temere.  See  Clandestinitt;  Marbiagb, 
Moral  and  Canonical  Aspect  of. 

Netherlands  (Germ.  Niederlande;  Fr.  Pays  Bos), 
The. — The  Netherlands,  or  Low  Countries,  as  organ- 
ized by  Charles  V,  under  whom  the  Burgundian  era 
ended,  comprised  practically  the  territory  now  in- 
cluded in  Holland  and  Belgium,  thenceforth  known  as 
the  Spanish  Netherlands.  For  the  previous  history  of 
this  country  see  Bitrgxtndy  and  Charles  V.  Shorn 
of  the  northern  provinces  by  the  secession  of  Holland 
as  the  Commonwealth  of  the  United  Provinces  (1579), 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,  on  their  cession  to  Austria 
(1713-14)  were  reduced  to  the  provinces  now  em- 
braced in  Belgium,  subsequently  called  the  Austrian 
Netherlands. 

The  Spanish  Netheriands. — When  Philip  II  by 
the  abdication  of  his  father,  Charles  V  (q.  v.),  became 
sovereign  of  the  Low  Countries  and  took  up  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Seventeen  ProvinceSi  he  found  them  at 


291THKBLAMD8                        760  MBTBBSLAMDS 

the  Benith  of  their  prosperity^  u  is  evident  from  the  character  and  lacking  in  political  shrewdness.    On  the 

description  given  in  1567  by  Luigi  Guicdardini  in  his  other  hand  stood  William  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Change, 

"Descrittione  di  tutti  i  Paesi  Bassi"  Cl'otius  Belgti  sumamed  "the  Silent"',  a  politician  and  diplomat  of 

descriptio,  Amsterdam,  1613).  the  first  rank,  filled  with  ambition  which  he  well  knew 

Few  countries  were  so  well  governed;  none  was  how  to  conceal,  having  no  religious  scruples,  being 
richer.  Antwerp  had  tidcen  the  place  of  Bruges  as  Catholic,  Lutheran,  or  Calvinist  as  it  suited  him,  a 
oommerdal  metropolis;  every  day  saw  a  fleet  of  500  man  who  had  made  the  downfall  of  Spanish  rule  the 
sea-going  craft  enter  or  leave  its  port.  Of  Ghent  one  aim  of  his  life.  Grouped  around  tnese  two  duefs 
(Gand),  his  native  town,  Charies  V  used  to  say  were  a  number  of  nobles  irritated  with  the  Govern- 
jocosely:  Jt  mdtrais  Ports  dans  mon  Gand  [I  could  ment.  many  of  them  deeply  involved  financially  or 
put  Paris  in  my  glove  (^n/)].  Luxury,  however,  oor-  morally  corrupt  like  the  too  welMmown  Brederode. 
rupted  the  earlier  good  morals  of  the  people,  and  They  kept  up  the  agitation  and  demanded  fresh  con- 
humanism  gradually  undermined  the  faitn  of  some  in  cessions  dav  by  day.  Thev  insisted  upon  the  rMsll  of 
the  upper  classes.  Protestantism  too  had  already  the  Spanish  soldiers,  and  the  king  yielded  (1561). 
^ectea  an  entrance,  Lutheranism  through  Antwerp  They  demanded  more  moderate  language  in  the  public 
and  Calvinism  from  the  French  border.  The  Anabap-  placard  against  heresy,  and  even  sent  the  Count  of 
tists  also  had  adherents.  In  addition  the  more  power-  Egxnont  to  Spain  to  obtain  it  (1565);  and  Elgmont, 
ful  of  the  nobility  now  hoped  to  play  a  more  influential  having  been  nattered  and  f  ^ted  at  the  Spanish  Court, 
part  in  the  government  than  they  had  done  under  came  back  convinced  that  his  mwiian  had  been  suc^ 
Charles  V^  and  were  already  planmng  for  the  reaHza-  cessful.  Soon,  however,  royal  letters  dated  from  the 
tion  of  this  ambition.  The  situation  presented  many  Forest  of  Segovia,  17  and  20  October,  1565,  brought 
difficulties,  and  unfortunately  Philip  II  was  not  the  the  king's  formal  refusal  to  abate  cme  jot  in  the  repres- 
man  to  cope  with  them.   He  liad  little  in  common  with  sion  of  heresy. 

his  Low-Countiy  subjects.    Their  language  was  not  The  irreconcilable  attitude  of  the  king  created  a 

his;  and  he  was  a  stranger  to  their  customs.    From  situation  of  increasing  difficulty  for  the  government 

the  day  he  quitted  the  Netherlands  in  1559,  he  never  of  Margaret  of  Parma.    Heresy  was  spreading  every 

set  foot  in  them  again,  but  governed  from  far-off  day ,  and  it  was  no  longer  confined  to  the  cities  but  was 

Spain.    He  was  despotic,  severe,  crafty^  and  desirous  obtaining  a  foothold  in  the  smaller  towns  and  even  in 

01  keeping  in  his  own  hands  all  the  reins  of  govern-  country  places.    Protestant  preachers,  for  the  most 

ment,  m  minor  details  as  well  as  in  matters  of  more  part  renegade  monks  or  priests,  like  the  famous  Da- 

importance,  thereby  causing  many  unfortunate  delays  thenus,  assembled  the  people  at  ''sermons"  in  which 

in  affairs  that  deoAnded  rapid  transaction.    He  wzis  they  were  exhorted  to  open  war  on  the  Catholic 

on  the  whole  a  most  unsuitable  ruler  in  spite  of  his  religion.     Calvinism,  a  sect  better  organised  than 

sincere  desire  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  his  royal  office  and  Lutheranism,  became  the  popular  heresy  in  the  Low 

the  time  and  pains  he  consecrated  to  them.  Coimtries.    It  had  supporters  in  ever^r  grade  of  so- 

It  must  be  said  in  justice  that  from  a  reli^ous  point  ciety ;  and  although  its  members  continued  to  be  a 

of  view,  he  brou^t  about  one  of  the  most  important  small  minority,  their  daring  and  clever  propaganda 

events  in  the  history  of  the  Netherlands  wnen  he  made  them  a  most  dangerous  force  in  presence  of  the 

caused  the  establishment  of  fourteen  new  dioceses,  inaction  and  sluggishness  of  the  Cathohcs.   Stined  up 

The  want  had  long  been  recognized  and  the  sovereigns,  by  these  Calvinist  preachers.  Catholic  and  Protestant 

particularly  Philip  the  Good  and  Charles  V,  had  often  nobles  formed  an  alliance  which  was  called  Le  Com- 

thought  of  this  measure.    In  all  the  seventeen  prov-  pramis  des  NobUs,  with  the  object  of  obtaining  the 

inces  there  were  but  four  dioceses:    Utrecht  in  the  suppression  of  the  Inquisition.   A  body  of  them  num- 

north;  Toumai,  Arras,  and  Cambrai  in  the  West;  and  benng  several  hundrra  came  to  present  a  petition  to 

all  of  them  were  subject  to  foreign  metropolitans,  that  effect  to  the  regent  (5  April,  1566).    It  is  related 

Utrecht  to  Cologne  and  the  others  to  Reims.    More-  that  as  she  showed  signs  of  alarm  at  this  demoostia- 

oyer  tfa^  ^rc»ter  part  of  the  country  was  under  the  tion  Count  de  Berlaymont,  member  of  the  Council  of 

direct  jurisdiction  of  foreign  bishops:  those  of  Li^ge,  State  and  a  loyal  supporter  of  the  Government,  said  to 

Trier,  Mets,  Verdun,  etc.    Hence  arose  great  difficuK  her: " Rassurez-vous,  Madame, ce ne aont que dtsaueux" 

ties  flknd  endless  conflicts.    The  Bull  of  Pope  Paul  IV  (Courage,  Madam,  they  are  <mly  beggars).    The  con- 

(12  Blay,  1559)  put  an  end  to  this  situation  by  raising  federates  at  once  took  up  the  word  as  a  party  name, 

Utrecht  and  Cambrai  to  archiepLsconal  rank,  and  by  and  thus  this  famous  name  made  its  entry  mto  his- 

ereating  foiuleen  new  sees,  one  of  tnem,  Mechlin,  an  toiry. 

archbishopric.     The  others  were  Antwerp,  Ghent,  Up  to  that  time  the  Gueux  meant  to  remain  faithful 

Bruges,  ipres,  St^Omer,  Namur,  Bois-le-Duc  (Herto-  to  the  king,  jusqu*d  la  besace  (to  begsary),  as  one  of 

genbosch);  Roermond,  Haarlem,  Deventer,  Leeuwar-  their  mottoes  had  it.   They  seemed  tonave  been  made 

den,  Gromngen,  and  Middelburg.    This  act,  excellent  up  of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  indiscriminately,  who* 

from  a  religious  point  of  view,  gave  rise  to  many  com-  were  partisans  of  religious  tolerance;   and  Vive  Uf 

plaints.   To  endow  the  new  sees  it  was  found  necessary  '  Gueux  was  originally  the  rally-«ry  of  a  sort  of  national 

to  incorporate  with  them  the  richest  abbeys  in  the  psrty.    This,  nowever,  was  a  delusion  soon  apparent, 

country,  and  in  certain  provinces  these  carried  the  The  Calvinist  leaders  held  the  movement  in  their 

right  oif  voting  in  the  States-General.    And  this  right  hands,  and  did  not  hesitate  when  sure  of  their  own 

being  for  the  future  exercised  through  the  bishops,  the  strength  to  disclose  its  real  fanatical  opposition  to  the 

result  was  that  the  king  who  nominated  them  gained  Catholic  Church.     Roused  and  excited  oy  the  impas- 

a  considerable  influence  in  the  Parliament,  which  had  sioned  appeals  of  the  preachers,  the  rowdy  element  of 

hitherto  always  acted  as  a  check  on  the  royal  power,  the  people  perpetrated  unheard-of  excesses.     In  the 

To  aggravate  matters,  the  Protestant  faction  spread  a  latter  part  of  August,   1566,   bands  of  iconoclasts 

rumour  that  the  erection  of  the  new  bishoprics  was  but  scoured  the  country,  wrecking  and  pillaging  churches, 

a  step  towards  introducing  the  Spanish  Inquisition  and  in  a  few  dsLVS  they  had  plundered  tour  hundred, 

into  the  Netherlands.    Lastly  the  abbeys  began  to  among  them  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  Antwerp, 

complain  c^  their  lost  autonomy-^the  place  of  the  These  crimes  opened  uie  eyes  of  many  who  up  to  ^t 

abbot  being  now  occupied  by  the  bishop.  time  had  been  too  lenient  with  the  sectarians.     Public 

The  opposition  of  the  nobles  was  led  by  two  men,  opinion  condemned  the  iconoclastic  outrages  and  sided 
remarkable  in  different  ways.  On  one  hand  was  the  with  the  Government,  which  thus  suddenly  found  its 
Count  of  Egmont  (see  Egmoxt,  Lamoral.,  Coitst  of),  position  fijeatly  strengthened.  Once  more,  unfcurtu- 
the  victor  at  St-Quentinand  Gravelin ^ — -» man,  nately,  Philip  ll  ¥ras  not  eaual  to  the  occasion.  In- 
frank  and  honest,  a  lover  of  popu^                      \  in  stead'  of  skilfully  profiting  oy  this  tum  of  events  to 


MITHEBLAMDS  761  MITBIBLAHDS 

win  back  those  who  were  shocked  by  the  violence  of  ciliate  the  disaffected.    Nor  was  he  more  successful 

the  heretics,  he  looked  on  all  his  subjects  in  the  Nether-  in  capturing  the  town  of  Leyden  which  withstood  one 

lands  as  equally  guilty,  and  he  swore  by  his  father's  of  the  most  heroic  sieges  in  history.     His  death  left 

soul  that  he  would  make  an  example  of  them.   Aeainst  the  country  in  a  state  of  anarchy, 
the  advice  of  the  regent,  despite  faithful  Granvelle,  in        The  Council  of  State  took  over  the  reins  of  govern- 

spite  of  the  pope,  who  exhorted  him  to  clemency,  he  ment  pending  the  arrival  of  the  new  regent,  Don  John 

dispatched  the  Duke  of  Alva  to  the  Low  Countries  on  of  Austria,  brother  of  Philip  II.    It  was  a  favourable 

A  punitive  expedition  (1567).  Straightway  William  of  moment  for  the  ambitious  schemes  of  William  of 

Orange  and  the  more  compromised  nobles  went  into  Orange.    Thanks  to  the  intrigues  of  his  agents,  the 

exile.    Recklessly  and  tnusting  to  his  past  services,  members  of  the  Council  of  State  were  arrested  and  did 

the  Count  of  E^ont  had  refused  to  follow  them.    His  not  regain  their  freedom  till  those  most  attached  to  the 

mistake  cost  him  dear,  f or  Al  va  caused  him  and  Count  kind's  mterests  had  been  removed  and  others  appointed 

de  Homes  to  be  arrested  and  brought  before  a  sort  of  in  their  places.    This  packed  council  was  but  a  tool  of 

court  martial  which  he  called  the  Conseil  des  Troubles,  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  its  first  act  was  to  convene 

but  known  more  more  popularly  as  the  Conseil  du  Sang  the  States-General  to  deal  with  the  affairs  of  the  coun- 

(Blood  Tribunal).    The  accused  men,  being  members  tr^,  without  any  reference  to  the  king.    On  the  motion 

of  the  Golden  Fleece,  could  be  punished  only  by  their  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  the  delegates  met  at  Ghent  the 

order;  but  in  snite  of  this  privilege  they  were  judged,  representatives  of  the  rebel  provinces  of  Holland  and 

condemned,  and  executed  (1568).  Zealand,  where  the  authority  of  the  prince  was  still 

When  the  two  counts  were  arrested,  Margaret  of  unquestioned,  and  together  they  debated  a  scheme  for 
Parma  resigned  her  office,  and  the  Duke  of  Alva  was  securing  tolerance  for  ail  forms  of  worship  until  such 
Appointed  her  successor;  with  him  began  a  system  of  time  as  the  States-General  should  have  finally  decided 
merciless  repression.  Blood  flowed  freely,  and  all  the  the  matter,  also  for  obtaining  the  removal  of  the  Span- 
traditional  rights  of  the  people  were  disregarded;  the  ish  troops.  During  the  course  of  these  deliberationb 
Spaniard  Juan  Vargas,  cnief- justice  of  the  Council  of  an  event  happened  which  filled  the  whole  country 
Troubles,  replied  to  complaint  of  the  University  of  with  fear  ana  norror.  The  Spanish  soldiers,  who  for  a 
Louvain  that  its  privileges  had  been  violated:  mm  long  time  had  received  no  pay,  mutinied,  seised  the 
curamus  privilegios  vestroa.  (We  are  not  concerned  city  of  Antwerp,  and  pillaged  it  ruthlessly,  seven  thou- 
with  your  privileges.)  Besides  this,  heavy  taxes,  10  sand  persons  perishing  during  these  disorders,  which 
per  cent  on  the  sales  of  chattels,  5  per  cent  on  the  sale  are  usually  referred  to  as  the  Spanish  Fury.  The 
of  real  estate,  and  1  per  cent  on  all  property,  completed  provinces  no  longer  hesitated,  and  their  delegates 
the  popular  discontent,  and  turned  even  a  number  of  signed  the  famous  Pacification  of  Ghent  on  8  Novem- 
gooa  Ciatholics  against  the  Government.    TheProtes-  ber,  1576. 

tants,  encouraged  by  these  events,  began  military        Thus  triumphed  the  crafty  and  artful  diplomacy  of 

operations  by  land  and  sea,  and  the  aueiLx  des  bois  the  Prince  of  Orange.    He  had  succeeded  in  causing 

(Land-Beggars)  and  the  gueux  de  met  (Water-Beggars)  the  loyal  provinces  to  vote  toleration  of  worship,  while 

started  a  guerilla  warfare  and  a  campaign  of  pulage  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand  of  which  ne  was 

which  were  soon  followed  by  the  more  serious  attack  master,  formally  refused  to  allow  within  their  limits  the 

of  the  Prince  of  Orange  and  his  brother,  Louis  of  Nas-  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion.    No  doubt  it  was 

sau.     But  the  Duke  of  Alva  frustrated  all  their  efforts,  stipulated  that  this  refusal  was  only  provisional,  and 

and  when  he  had  repulsed  Louis  at  Jemmingen,  ana  that  the  States-General  of  the  seventeen  provinces 

prevented  William  from  crossing  the  Gcete,  he  caused  would  finally  settle  the  question;  but  meanwhile  Prot- 

a  statue  of  himself  to  be  set  up  at  Antwerp  rep-  estantism  gained  an  immense  advantage  in  the  Cath- 

resenting  him    crushing   under  Toot  the  hydra  of  olic  provinces  without  giving  anythmg  in  return, 

anarchy.    Then  just  as  he  thought  he  had  mas-  Furthermore  the  prince  had  taken  the  precaution  to 

tered  the   rebellion,    news   was    brought    that    on  have  it  stipulated  that  he  should  remain  admiral  and 

1  April,  1572,  the  Water-Beggars  had  taken  the  port  of  regent  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  and  all  these  measures 

Briel.    Henceforth  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Low  were  passed  in  the  name  of  the  king  whose  authority 

Countries  they  had  a  point  for  rally  or  retreat,  and  they  completely  defied. 

their  progress  was  rapid.  In  auick  succession  they  Such  was  the  situation  when  the  new  regent  arrived, 
captured  many  towns  in  Holland  and  Zealand.  These  On  the  advice  of  his  best  friends  he  ratified  by  his 
Water-Beggars,  under  their  leader,  William  de  la  "Edit  perp^tuel  de  Marche  en  Famenne"  (1577)  the 
Marck,  Lord  of  Lummen,  were  for  the  most  part  main  clauses  of  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  which  rallied 
ruffians  devoid  of  all  human  feeling.  When  they  to  him  a  majority  of  the  people.  Then  he  set  about  es- 
took  the  town  of  Crorkum  they  put  to  death  in  a  most  tablishing  his  authority,  no  easy  task  in  face  of  the 
barbarous  manner  nineteen  priests  and  monks  who  re-  unwearying  effort  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  prevent 
^used  to  abjure  their  Catholic  Faith.  The  Church  it.  When,  in  order  to  obtain  a  reliable  stronghold, 
venerates  these  brave  victims  on  9  July,  under  the  he  seized  the  citadel  of  Namur,  the  States-General, 
title  of  the  Martyrs  of  Gorkum.  About  the  same  prompted  by  William  of  Orange,  declared  him  an 
time  Louis  of  Nassau  took  Mons  in  Hainault,  and  enemy  of  the  State  and  called  in  as  regent  Archduke 
William  of  Orange  made  a  second  descent  on  the  Matthias  of  Austria,  to  whom  William  succeeded  in 
country  with  an  army  of  hirelings  that  committed  being  made  lieutenant-general.  Don  John  defeated  the 
frightful  excesses.  But  he  failed  before  the  superior  army  of  the  States-General  at  Gembloux,  and  WU- 
forces  of  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Mons  was  recaptured  and  liam  made  a  fresh  appeal  to  foreign  Protestants.  From 
William  once  more  driven  out.  Alva  then  turned  his  a?l  the  neighbouring  countries  adventurers  flocked  in 
arms  against  the  provinces  of  the  north;  Zotphen,  to  fight  the  Catholic  Government.  The  Calvinists 
Naarden,  and  Haarlem  fell  successively  into  his  hands  took  sonr.e  of  the  large  cities,  Brussels,  Antwerp, 
and  were  treated  most  shamefully,  but  contrary  to  his  Ghent,  and  held  them  in  a  state  of  terror.  In  the  last- 
hopes  the  rest  of  the  rebel  country  did  not  submit.  named  town  two  of  the  leaders,  Hembyse  and  Ryhove, 

At  last  Philip  II  realized  that  the  duke's  mission  gave  themselves  up  to  every  excess,  persecuted  the 

had  failed.     Yielding  to  the  entreaty  of  his  most  Catholics,  and  endeavoured  to  set  up  a  sort  of  Prote&- 

faithful  subjects — the  bishops  and  the  University  of  tant  republic  as  Calvin  had  done  at  Geneva.   To  crown 

Louvain — he  recalled  Alva  and  appointed  as  his  sue-  all  these  misfortunes,  the  young  regent  was  carried  off 

cessor  Don  Luis  of  Rcquoncns.     During  his  brief  re-  by  illness  in  1578,  and  all  seemed  lost  for  the  Catholic 

gency  (1573-75)  Don  Luis  did  not  succeed  in  restoring  religion  and  the  royal  authority, 
royal  authority  in  the  revolted  districts,  although  he        But  the  eyes  of  the  Catholics  were  at  last  opened. 

obQW^  greater  humanity  and  an  inclination  to  cou-  Seeing  that  under  pretext  of  freeing  them  from  Spaa- 


762 

Uk  tyiamiy  they  mn  beinj^  endawd  under  Prote»»  they  extended  to  the  religious  f^^trhln^  orden.  More 
tantasm,  tbeT  turned  from  Ml  illiam's  partv  and  sought  over  tbe^  showed  themselves  generous  patrons  of 
once  more  their  lawful  king,  in  spite  of  tne  just  com-  science,  bterature,  and  art,  and  protected  the  interests 
plaints  they  had  against  his  government.  This  reao-  of  commerce  and  agriculture,  blameless  in  their  pri- 
tionary  movement  was  most  marked  in  the  Walloon  vate  life  and  deeply  pious,  they  gave  an  example  of 
provinces:  Artois,  Hainault,  and  French  Flanders  in  virtue  on  the  throne  not  alwavs  to  be  found  there, 
the  van;  Namur  and  Luxemburg  joining  them  later.  Unfortunately  they  died  chikfless,  Albert  in  1621, 
It  began  as  a  league  among  the  nobles  of  these  prov-  Isabella  in  1633,  and  their  death  put  an  end  to  the 
inces  who  styled  themselves  the  Malcontents,  and  reviving  prosperity  of  Belgium.  Once  more  the  coun- 
who  broke  with  the  States-General  to  recognise  anew  try  was  arawn  into  endless  wars  by  Spain,  principally 
the  authority  of  Philip  II.  It  was  they  whoprevented  against  France,  and  became  the  battle-field  of  numer- 
the  realisation  of  the  great  scheme  of  William  of  ous  international  conflicts.  It  was  repeatedly  de- 
Orange  to  federate  the  seventeen  provinces  in  a  league  spoiled  of  some  of  its  provinces  by  Louis  XTV ,  sikI 
of  wbach  he  was  to  be  the  heaa,  and  which  would  cruelly  plundered  by  aU  armies,  friendly  and  hostile, 
ultimately  cast  off  all  allegiance  to  the  king.    Wlien  he  that  marched  across  its  plains.    The  seventeenth  oen- 


his  great  ambition  foiled,  William  contented  him-  tury  was  the  most  calamitous  of  its  history.    Such 

self  with  uniting  the  northern  provinces  in  the  Union  then  was  the  condition  of  Belgium  until  the  peace  of 

of  Utrecht  (1579),  under  the  name  of  the  United  Utrecht  (1713),  which  followed  by  that  of  Rastatt  put 

Provinces,  and  with  proclaiming  the  deposition  of  an  end  to  the  long  and  bloody  wars  of  the  Spanish 

Philip  II  at  least  within  these  provinces.   To  the  Mai-  Succession  which  gave  Spain  to  the  Bourbons  and 

contents,  therefore,  is  due  the  credit  of  saving  the  handed  ON'er  the  Catholic  Low  Countries  to  the  Haps- 

royal  authority  and  the  Catholic  religion  in  the  bur^  of  Austria. 

Belgian  provinces.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  all  these 

1^  new  regent,  Alessandro  Famese,  son  of  the  for-  calamities,  domestic  and  foreign,  had  left  Belgium 
mer  regent,  Margaret  of  Parma,  grasped  the  situation  entirely  unfruitful  from  the  point  of  view  of  civiliia- 
admirably.  He  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  tion.  Nothing  could  be  more  false;  though  it  is  a 
Malcontents,  and  reconciled  them  with  the  king's  charge  often  made  even  in  Belgium  by  writers  whose 
government  bv  redressing  their  grievances;  then  with  prejudices  would  fain  discover  in  Catholicism  a  retaid- 
their  support  he  set  about  recovering  by  force  of  arms  mg  force  for  Belgium's  progress.  The  University  of 
the  towns  that  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Protes-  Louvain  with  its  forty-two  colleges,  where  Erasmus, 
tants.  One  after  the  other  they  were  recaptured,  Bellarmine,  and  Justus  Lipsius  had  taught,  had  always 
some,  like  Toumai  and  .\ntwerp,  only  after  meraor-  been  the  centre  of  orthodoxy,  and  did  not  oease  even 
able  sieges,  till  at  last  Ostend  alone  of  all  Belgium  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  to 
remained  in  Protestant  hands.  And  now  the  popular  manifest  great  activity,  chiefly  in  the  domains  of 
regent  was  preparing  for  a  campaign  against  the  theology  and  law,  which  were  expounded  there  by  a 
northern  provinces,  demoralized  by  the  assassination  large  number  of  eminent  scholars.  Side  by  side  with 
of  William  of  Orange  in  15S4,  when  once  more  Philip  Louvain  stood  the  University  of  Douai  founded  in 
II 's  ill-advised  policy  ruined  everything.  Instead  of  1562  by  Philip  II  as  a  breakwater  against  heresy,  and 
allowing  Famese  to  continue  his  military  success  in  it  also  sent  forth  many  famous  men.  Among  the  new 
the  Netherlands,  Philip  used  him  as  an  instrument  of  bishops  were  men  whose  fame  for  learning  was  only 
wild  projects  against  France  and  England.  At  one  equalie<i  by  their  well-known  piety.  It  is  no  doubt 
moment  obliged  to  take  part  in  maritime  preparations  true  that  the  controversies  of  the  day  have  left  their 
against  England,  and  at  another  to  cross  the  frontier  mark  on  the  religious  life  of  that  period.  Thus, 
in  support  of  the  League  a^inst  Henry  IV,  Famese  Michael  Baius,  a  professor  at  Louvain,  was  con- 
had  to  leave  his  task  unfinished,  and  he  died  in  1592  demned  by  Rome  for  his  theories  on  free  will,  prrdesti- 
of  a  wound  received  in  one  of  his  French  expe<litions.  nation,  and  justification,  but  he  retracted  in  all 
His  death  was  the  greater  misfortune  for  Belgium  humility.  His  teaching  came  up  again  in  a  more 
because  Bfaurice  of  Nassau,  son  of  William  of  Orange,  pronounced  form  in  a  pupil  of  one  of  his  pupils, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  war-captains  of  the  age,  was  Cornelius  Jansen,  Bishop  of  Ypres,  and  it  is  well 
just  then  coming  to  the  front.  known  how  the  "  Augustmus",  a  posthumous  work  of 

Philip  finally  saw  that  a  new  policy  mast  be  tried,  this  prelate,  which  appeared  in  1640,  gave  rise  to  what 

He  betnought  htm  of  separating  the  Catholic  Nether-  is  called  Jansenism.     Another  manifestation  of  the 

lands    from  Spain,  and  of  giving  the   sovereignty  intellectual  and  scientific  activity  of  Belgium  was  the 

to  his  daughter  Isal)ella  and  her  husl^and  the  Arch-  beginning  of  the  celebrated  collection  known  as  the 

duke  Albert  of  Austria;   in  the  event  of  their  being  "Acta  Sanctorum"  by  the  Belgian  Jesuits.    H^ribert 

childless  the  country  was  to  revert  to  Spain  (159S).  Rosweyde  drew  up  the  plans  for  the  undertaking,  and 

This  was  one  of  the  most  important  events  in  the  his-  Father  Jan  van  Bolland  bepin  to  carry  them  out, 

tory  of  Belgium,  which  thus  became  once  more  an  leaving  the  continuation  to  his  successors,  the  BoUan- 

independent  nation,  acquired  a  national  dynasty,  and  dists.    Amongst  these  Henschen  and  Papebroch  in  the 

might  now  hope  for  the  return  of  former  prosperity;  seventeenth  century  contributed  brilliantly  to  the 

that  this  hope  was  frustrated  was  the  result  of  events  work  which  has  not  yet  reached  its  conclusion, 

which  defeated  the  plans  of  statecraft  and  the  wishes  If,  apart  altogether  from  the  religious  aspect,  we 

of  the  new  sovereigns.  would  complete  the  picture  of  Belgium's  culture  in  the 

During  the  short  space  of  their  united  reign  (159S-  seventeenth  century,  we  have  but  to  recall  that  art 
1621)  Albert  and  Isabella  lavished  benefits  on  the  reached  its  anogee  in  the  Flemish  School,  of  which 
country.  Ostend  was  recaptured  from  Holland  after  Rubens  was  the  head,  and  Van  Dyck,  Teniers,  and 
a  three-years'  siege  which  claimed  the  attention  of  all  Jonijens  the  greatest  masters  after  him.  It  would  thus 
Europe,  and  a  truce  of  twelve  years  (1609-21)  made  be  easy  to  prove  that  the  Catholic  Low  Countries, 
with  the  United  Provinces  was  emploved  to  the  though  caueht  as  in  a  vise  between  powerful  neigh- 
greatest  advantage.  The  damage  done  by  the  reli-  hours  and  ever  in  the  throes  of  war,  did  not  give  way 
gious  wars  was  repaired;  more  than  three  hundred  to  despair,  but  in  the  days  of  direst  calamity  drew 
churches  and  religious  houses  were  founded  or  re-  from  t  neir  own  bosom  works  of  art  and  beauty  which 
stored;  local  customs  were  codified  by  the  Perpetual  have  servecl  to  adorn  even  our  present  day  civihsation. 
Edict  of  1611,  which  has  been  called  the  most  splendid  The  Austrian  Netherlanos. — The  Treaty  of 
monument  of  Belgian  law;  public  education  was  fos-  Utrecht  opened  an  era  of  comparative  peace  and  pros- 
tered  in  every  way,  and  the  new  sovereigns  brought  perity  for  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  but  did  not  bring 
fibout  the  founding  of  many  colleges  by  the  protection  contentment.    The  AustriaQ  r6g;ime  vmder  wbi^  t|K 


NBTHIBLANDS  763  MITBBfiLAllDft 

country  was  nofw  to  exist  was  that  of  an  absolute  mon-  policy  revealed  themselves  in  tneastires  more  and  more 

archy,  which  by  continued  encroachments  on  the  hostile  to  the  Church.    The  empress  herself  was  of  the 

traditional  privileges  of  the  people,  drove  them  at  opinion  that  the  Church  ought  to  be  subject  to  the 

length  to  rebellion.    It  was  not  merely  its  absolutism,  State  even  in  religious  matters.    "  The  authority  of 

it  was  the  anti-religious  atmosphere  of  the  Govern-  the  priesthood  *\  she  wrote,  "  is  bv  no  means  arbitrary 

ment  which  really  aroused  the  people.    The  actuating  and  independent  in  matters  of  dogma,  worship,  and 

Srinciple  of  the  Government  in  its  dealings  with  the  eccleedastical  discipline".    The  statesmen  in  her  ser- 

atholic  Chureh  was  that  the  civil  power  was  supreme  vice,  imbued  as  thev  were  with  the  Voltairean  spirit, 

and  could  make  rules  for  the  Chureh,  even  in  purely  were  zealous  in  appi3ring  those  principles.    The  more 

religious  matters.    This  policy,  which  is  known  as  famous  among  them  were  the  Prince  of  Kaunitz,  the 

Joeephinism,  from  Joseph  II,  its  most  thoroughgoing  Count  of  Cobenzl,  and  Mac  Neny.    On  the  slightest 

exponent,  had  prevailed  at  the  Austrian  Court  from  pretext  they  constantlv  stirred  up  petty  and  at  times 

the  beginning.    It  found  a  theorist  of  great  authority  ridiculous  conflicts  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities, 

in  the  famous  canonist  Van  Espen  (164&-1728),  a  such  as  forbidding  assemblies^f  the  bishops;  trying 

erofessor  at  the  University  of  Lou  vain,  who  justified  to  insist  on  the  relaxing  of  the  Lenten  Fast;  claiming 
eforehand  all  attacks  on  the  liberty  of  the  Church,  censorship  over  breviaries  and  missals,  and  going  so 
The  opposition  between  the  tendencies  of  the  Govern-  far  as  to  mutilate  copies  of  them  containing  the  Office 
ment,  which  threatened  alike  the  national  liberties  of  St.  GregorvVII;  calling  in  question  the  jurisdiction 
and  the  rights  of  the  Church,  and  the  aspirations  of  the  Church  in  matrimonial  affairs;  hindering  and 
of  the  Belgian  people,  devoted  alike  to  religion  and  interfering  in  every  conceivable  way  with  the  work  of 
liberty,  gave  rise  during  the  Austrian  occupation  of  the  religious  orders,  even  busjring  themselves  with  the 
the  country  to  endless  misunderstandings  and  un-  dress  worn  by  the  clerics;  in  a  word  pursuing  a  most 
rest.  The  situation  was  not,  however,  uniformly  the  irritating  ana  malicious  policy  wherever  the  Church 
same.  It  varied  under  different  reigns,  each  of  which  was  concerned.  If  in  spite  of  all  this  the  name  of 
had  its  own  peculiar  characteristics.  Maria  Theresa  is  of  kindly  memory  in  Belgium,  it  is  be- 
Under  the  reign  of  Charles  VI  (1713-1740)  Belgium  cause  her  subjects  knew  the  sincerity  of  her  piety,  and 
quiddy  learned  that  she  had  gained  nothing  by  the  her  undoubted  good-will.  They  were  grateful  for  this, 
changing  of  her  rulers.  One  of  the  clauses  of  the  and  believing  that  for  the  most  part  she  was  unaware 
Peace  of  Utrecht  obliged  Austria  to  sign  a  treaty  with  of  most  of  the  actions  of  her  representatives,  they  did 
the  United  Provinces,  called  the  Treaty  de  la  Barri^re  not  place  the  blame  at  her  door.  Moreover  the  Goyer- 
(the  Frontier  Treaty)  entitling  the  United  Provinces  nor-General  of  the  Austrian  Low  Countries,  Prince 
to  garrison  a  number  of  Belgian  towns  on  the  French  Charles  of  Lorraine,  brother-in-law  of  the  empress,  was 
frontier  as  a  protection  against  attacks  from  that  a  man  of  infinite  tact,  who  knew  how  to  moderate 
<|uarter.  This  was  a  humiliation  for  the  Belgians,  and  what  was  unpopular  in  the  action  of  the  Government, 
it  was  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  these  garrison  and  even  cause  it  to  be  forgotten.  It  was  personal 
troops,  who  were  all  Protestants  and  enjoyed  the  free  esteem  for  these  two  royal  personages  which  caused 
exeroise  of  their  religion,  had  many  religious  quarrels  the  policy  of  the  Government  to  be  tolerated  as  long 
with  the  Catholic  people.  Moreover,  the  United  Prov-  as  they  hved. 

inces,  controlling  the  estuary  of  the  Scheldt,  had  closed  But  there  came  a  great  change  as  soon  as  Joseph  II 
the  sea  against  the  port  of  Antwerp  since  1585 ;  so  that  mounted  the  throne  (1780^ .  He  was  the  son  of  Maria 
this  port  which  had  at  one  time  been  the  foremost  Theresa,  a  pupil  of  the  philosophers,  and,  inspired  by 
commereial  city  of  the  north  was  now  depleted  of  its  their  teachings,  was  ever  ready  to  defy  and  disregara 
trade.  This  was  a  fresh  injustice  to  the  Cfatholic  Low  the  Church.  As  was  not  unusiud  in  hia  day  he  held  the 
Countries.  To  all  this  must  be  added  the  oppressive  opinion  that  the  State  was  the  source  of  all  authority, 
and  ill-advised  policy  of  the  Marauess  de  Prie,  deputy  and  the  source  of  all  civilizing  progress.  He  set  him- 
for  the  absent  governor-general,  Prince  Eugene  of  self  without  delay  to  apply  his  policy  of ''enlightened 
Savoy.  Pri4,  like  another  Alva,  treated  the  countiy  despotism".  Forgetful  of  his  coronation  oath  to  ob- 
with  the  utmost  severity.  When  the  labour  guilds  of  serve  the  constitutions  of  the  several  Belgian  prov- 
Brussels  protested  vigorously  against  the  government  inces  he  began  a  career  of  reform  which  ended  by 
taxes  ana  tried  to  assert  their  ancient  privileges,  Pri4  overturning  the  existing  state  of  affairs.  ^  His  first  act 
caused  the  aged  Francois  Anneessens,  syndic  or  chair-  was  to  publish  in  1781  an  edict  of  toleration,  by  which 
man  of  one  of  these  guilds,  to  be  arrested  and  put  to  Protestants  were  freed  from  all  civil  disabilities,  a  just 
death  (1719).  The  citizens  of  Brussels  have  never  for-  measure  in  itself,  and  one  that  might  well  be  praise- 
gotten  to  venerate  the  memory  of  their  fellow-towns-  worthy,  if  it  were  not  that,  in  the  light  of  his  subse- 
man  as  a  martyr  for  public  liberty.  The  Government  quent  actions  it  betrayed  the  dominant  idea  of  his 
compensated  the  nation  by  founding  the  East  and  whole  reign,  namely,  hostility  to  the  Catholic  Chureh. 
West  Indian  Trading  Company  of  Ostend  in  1722.  The  Church,  he  thought,  ought  to  be  a  creature  of  the 
This  company,  which  was  enthusiastically  hailed  by  State,  subject  to  the  control  and  supervision  of  the 
the  public,  was  of  immense  benefit  in  the  beginning,  civil  power.  He  undertook  to  realize  this  ideal  by 
and  promised  an  era  of  commereial  prosperity.  Un-  substituting  for  the  Catholic  Church  governed  by  the 
fortunately  the  jealousy  of  England  and  of  the  United  pope  a  national  Chureh  subject  to  the  State,  along  the 
Provinces  sealed  its  fate.  To  win  the  consent  of  these  lines  laid  down  by  Febronius,  who  had  met  with  many 
two  powers  to  his  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by  which  he  supporters  even  within  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  The 
hoped  to  secure  the  undisputed  succession  of  hisdaugh-  measures  he  adopted  to  enslave  the  Church  were  end- 
ter  Maria  Theresa,  the  emperor  agreed  to  suppress  the  less.  He  forbade  religious  orders  to  correspond  witbi 
Ostend  company  and  once  more  to  close  the  sea  against  superiors  outside  the  country ;  he  forbade  tne  bishops 
Bel^n  traae.  His  cowardly  concessions  were  of  no  to  ask  Rome  for  dispensations  in  matrimonial  cases, 
avail,  and  at  his  death  in  1740  his  daughter  was  obliged  He  tried  to  gain  control  of  the  education  of  the  dergy 
to  undertake  a  long  and  costly  war  to  maintain  her  in-  by  erecting  a  central  seminary  to  which  he  endeav- 
heritance  and  Belgium,  invaded  and  conquered  bv  oured  to  force  the  bishops  to  send  their  future  priests. 
France  in  1745,  was  not  restored  to  the  empress  till  He  interfered  with  the  professors  and  the  teaching  of 
the  Peace  of  Aachen  in  1748.  the  University  of  Louvain  because  he  considered  them 
Under  the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa  (1740-80)  the  too  orthodox.  He  suppressed  as  useless  all  convents 
Government  was  in  a  position  to  occupy  itself  peace-  of  contemplative  orders  and  all  pious  confraternities, 
fully  with  the  organization  of  the  Belji^ian  provinces,  and  replaced  them  by  one  of  his  own  invention  which 
On  the  whole  it  fostered  the  material  mterests  of  the  he  grandiloquently  called  "The  Confratemitv  of  the 
oountiy,  but  the  principlea  underlying  its  rsligious  Active  Love  of  our  Neighbour".    He  prohibited  all 


Mintft  764  ttlTTIR 


pikiimaflsefl  and  the  exposition  of  relics.    He  limited    ^/^r^'f!*^,  (5_^vol».,  Ajtttwem.  I87e-8p);  Ptpr,  Le  rigm 
fhe  number  of  procesrioas  and  ordered  that  aU  parish    ^,;^S!^l^p^,ir/iS*J?i?rS^  ('12 


1874); 

festivals  (Jcemiissaea)  be  kept  on  the  same  day.    He  8eisrT872T:'  D^lplV-k.^m^a'^// ciliTr^tJ^ 

interfered  with  the  garb  of  religious  and  in  liturgical  (P"»«^'  >**®*2!  /?""»?S'  ^^.^'^JtJS^J*  ^  '^  Bavihre  dan*  in 

9ue.tion«  and  even  went  «,  far.aa  to  forbid  the  mak-  ^S!^^  aV^^^TSL  ^?7'SSlfenl2S;  i^'  ^  "^  * 

ing  of  coffins,  so  as  to  economize  the  wood  supplv.  Godefroid  Kubtb. 
The  dead^  he  thought,  ought  to  be  buried  in  sackcloth. 

At  last  his  interference  in  and  wanton  meddling  with  Netter,  Tbomab.  theologian  and  oontrovermalist, 
ecclesiastical  matters  won  for  him  the  well-deserved  b.  at  Safifron  Walaen,  Essex,  England,  about  1375; 
sneer  of  Frederick  II,  King  of  Prussia,  who  called  him  d.  at  Rouen,  France,  2  Nov.,  1430;  from  his  birth- 
"  My  brother,  the  sacristan ".  ^  place  he  was  commonly  called  Waldensis.  He  en- 
All  these  measures  had  been  carried  into  effect  with-  tered  the  Carmelite  Order  in  London,  and  pursued 
out  meeting  other  oppoffition  than  the  calm  respectful  his  studies  partly  there  and  partly  at  Oxfora,  where 
protest  of  the  clergy.  But  it  was  quite  otherwise  he  took  degrees,  and  spent  a  number  of  years  in 
when  Joseph  II  was  so  imprudent  as  to  interfere  with  teaching,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  titles  of  his 
civil  institutions  and,  in  violation  of  the  most  solemn  writings  (the  actual  works  being  for  the  greater  part 
oaths,  to  lay  hands  on  the  liberties  of  the  people,  lost),  which  embrace  the  whole  of  philoeophy,  Soip- 
Then  the  country  was  thoroughly  aroused,  there  were  ture.  Canon  Law,  and  theology,  that  is,  a  complete 
ations  m  the  public  streets,  and  protests  academical 


demonstrations  m  the  public  streets,  and  protests  academical  course.  He  was  well  read  in  the 
reached  the  Government  from  all  parts  (1787) ;  but  and  the  ecclesiastical  writers  known  at  the  beginning 
Joseph  II  was  stiff-necked,  and  would  not  listen  to  of  the  fifteenth  century,  as  is  proved  by  numerous 
reason.  Convinced  that  force  would  overcome  all  op-  quotations  in  his  own  writings.  Only  tiie  dates  of 
position,  he  hurried  Count  d' Alton  with  an  armv  into  his  ordinations  as  acolyte  and  subdeaoon  are  on  record, 
the  Low  Countries,  with  orders  to  restore  authority  1394  and  1395.  His  public  life  began  in  1409,  when 
by  bloodshed  if  necessary.  Then  as  a  protest  against  he  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Pisa,  where  he  is  said 
the  violence  of  d'Alton,  the  provincial  states,  availing  to  have  upheld  the  rights  of  the  council.  Back  in 
themselves  of  the  rights  granted  them  by  the  Con-  England  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  prosecution 
stitution,  refused  to  vote  subsidies  for  the  expenses  of  of  Wycliffites  and  Lollards,  assisting  at  the  trials  of 
the  Government,  and  d'Alton  was  so  ill-advised  as  to  William  Tailor  (1410),  Sir  John  Oldcastie  (1413), 
declare  the  proceedings  null  and  the  Constitution  William  White  (1428),  preaching  at  St.  Paul's  Cross 
abolished.  This  was  a  signal  for  revolution,  the  only  against  Lollardism,  and  writing  copiously  on  tiie 
resource  left  to  Belgian  liberty.  Two  committees  auestions  in  dispute  C'De  religione  perfectorum", 
directed  the  movement  along  widely  differing  lines.  "De  paupertate  Christi",  "De  Corpore  Chiisti", 
The  one,  under  the  leadership  of  a  lawyer  named  Van  etc.) .  The  House  of  Lancaster  having  chosen  Carme- 
der  Noot,  had  its  headquarters  at  Breda  in  the  United  lite  friars  for  confessors,  an  office  which  included  the 
Provinces,  the  other  xmder  another  lawyer,  Vonck,  at  duties  of  chaplain,  almoner,  and  secretary  and  whidi 
Hasselt  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Li^ge. '  That  imder  frequentiy  was  rewarded  with  some  small  bishopric, 
Van  der  Noot,  a  man  of  great  popularity,  looked  to  the  Netter  succeeded  Stephen  Patrington  as  confessor  to 
foreign  powers  for  help;  the  other  rehed  on  the  Bel-  Henry  V  and  provincial  of  theCarmelites  (1414),  while 
gians  to nelpthemselves,  and  began  recruiting  a  volun-  other  members  of  the  order  held  similar  poets  at  the 
teer  army.  The  one  was  conservative,  almost  reaction-  courts  of  the  dukes  of  York  and  of  Clarence,  of  Car- 
arv,  and  aimed  merelv  at  restoring  the  akUus  quo;  the  dinal  Beaufort,  etc.  No  pohtical  importance  seema 
otner  was  eager  for  reforms  such  as  France  was  asking,  to  have  been  attached  to  such  positions, 
but  was  faithful  to  the  religion  of  its  fathers  and  took  In  1415  Netter  was  sent  by  the  king  to  the  Council 
as  its  motto  Pro  aria  elfocia.  In  their  union  lay  their  of  (Donstance,  where  the  English  nation,  though  small 
strength.  The  volunteer  army  defeated  the  Austrians  in  numbers,  ass^ted  its  influence.  He  must  have 
at  Tumhout  (1789)  and  forced  them  step  b^r  step  to  interrupted  his  residence  at  (Donstance  by  one,  if  not 
evacuate  the  country.  The  bitterness  of  tms  defeat  several,  visits  to  his  province.  At  the  conclusion 
killed  Joseph  II.  of  the  council  he,  with  William  Clvnt,  doctor  in 
The  States-General  of  the  country  were  convened  at  Divinity,  and  two  knights,  was  sent  by  the  English 
Brussels  and  voted  that  Belgium  should  be  an  inde-  king  on  an  embaser^  to  the  King  of  Poland,  the  Grand 
pendent  federated  republic  under  the  name  of  the  Duke  of  Lithuania,  and  the  Grand  master  of  the 
United  States  of  Belgium.  Unfortunately  the  heads  Teutonic  Knights.  The  pope  was  represented  by 
of  the  new  Government  were  novices  in  statecraft,  and  two  Italian  bishops,  and  the  emperor  by  the  Arch- 
differences  arose  between  the  Van  der  Noot  party  and  bishop  of  Milan.  The  object  of  the  mission  was  to 
the  followers  of  Vonck.  So  that  in  the  following  year  bring  about  a  mutual  imderstanding  and  prevent 
Leopold  II,  who  had  succeeded  his  father,  Joseph  II,  the  failure  of  the  papal  army  against  the  Hussites, 
had  the  countrjr  once  more  under  his  authority.  He  It  has  been  asserted  that  on  this  occasion  Netter 
was,  however^  wise  enough  to  restore  it  all  the  privileges  converted  Vitort,  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania^  to 
it  enjoyed  pnor  to  the  senseless  reforms  of  Joseph  II.  Christianity,  and  was  instrumental  in  his  recogmtion 
The  Belgians  were  therefore  to  all  intents  once  more  as  king  and  nis  subsequent  coronation.    Although  all 

a  free  people,  and  " 

the  day  when  the 
the  pretext  of  emancipating 

For  the  later  history  of  this  territory  see  Belgium,  also  established  several  convents  of  his  order  in 

-,     Q w .                VT          *r«.  o-     i-^r  tv  .  r  PHissia.    Hc  retumed  to  England  in  the  autumn  of 

/J«im6/ic  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1856);  JxjbtI  HUtoire  de  la  rHolw  1^20,  and  devoted  the  remamder  of  his  life  to  the 

tion  deM  Paya  Baa  aoua  Philippe  IT  (2  vols..  Bniaselfl,  1863-^7);  government  of  his  provmce  and  the  composition  of 

NuTBWB,  Oe^chiadenia  daa  neda-fand^/ic  beroerten  in  da  XVI-  ^^  principal  work.    Fragments  of  his  Correspondence 

Jeeuw.  (6  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1865-68);    de  Lettsnbove,  Lea     i^aA.. uk-u^j  ai..^^  T  i;-i,*  *v«  ui^  ^w*A^m,^,,<m^  :. 

Hu(n*enota  el  lea  Oueux  (6  vols,,  Brussels.  1882^5);  PireIine.  l^^^^V  published  throw  a  hght  on  hiS  endeavours  m 

Hiataire  de  Bdqique,  III  (2nd  ed.,  Brussels,  1907);  Blok,  Ge-  the  former  Capacity,  showing  him  a  stnct  reformer, 

sdWjd«nn  iwn  lut  nedeffandaehe  volk.  III.  tV.  V   (Groningea.  yet  kind  and  even  tender. 

1806*1902);  Gossart.  L  HabliaaemerU  du  r^nme  expoffnol  dana  "^    tt^^—.  \t  u»..:»»  ^;*vrl  \^  !.:«  »«M«a    1%^  b«>««a*-.  »a 

to Poy«Bas«</'m»ufreciwm (Brussels,  1905);  iDEM.^aXmiTM-  .   Henry  V  having  died  m  his  arms,  he  appeaiB  to 

Hon  eapagnole  dana  lea  Paya  Baad  la  fin  du  rkgne  de  Philippe  II  have  acted  as  tutor  (rather  than  0OnfeS80r)>tO  the  in- 

(Bnissels.  1906)        ^  ,_r.              n...,,  fant  Kmg  Henry  VI,  whose  piety  may  be  attributed. 

The  Austrian   Kbtherx.and«. — Gachard,   Hxatoira  de  la  «♦  i«„„4.  T«   ^««*    *^  \l^*^^^Z  ;n<li.<>.«]L      T7«  m.^^^^ 

"-•-^-M*  au  commencement  du  XVlIh  ai^cle  (Brussels.  1880);  **  *®*?*  }^  P^^*  ^,  Netters  mfluenoe.      He  aooom- 

--cauKawM {L,UATaort),Oem:hiedeni§derooeienri9keche  pamed  the  young  kmg  to  France  m  the  spring  of 


NlTOAftT  76S 

1430,  and  died  six  months  later  in  the  odour  of  sano-  res  matemos  Rudolphi  I  regis  esdiibens'',  was  edited 

tity.  Miracles  having  been  wrought  at  his  tomb,  the  by  Weber  (Klagenfurt.  1850). 

question  of  the  confirmation  of  his  cult  is  at  present  Badeb.  Do*  eh^malioe   kloMer  St.Blanm  au/  dem  Schvart^ 

7inift\    U^f^w^    *l«A    r«rvn«ntfk»ii4:<»n    ^f    Du^^      Vv    k'.a  wMe  ttiMi  tMiM  GeUhHenakademte   (Freiburg,   1874),   115--120; 

(1910)    before   the   Congregation   of    Rites.     Of    his  Hdetbr,  Arom«nrfa<or(Inii8bnick.  1895).  869  k|. 

numerous  works  only  the  "Doctnnale  antiqmtatum  J.  p.  Kirsch. 
fidei  ecclesiie  catholicse"  has  permanent  value.    It  is 

inthreeparts,  the  first  of  which  might  be  termed  "De  Naum  (Latin  neumaf  pneuma,  or  neupmaf  from 

vera  religione",  the  second  bears  me  title  ''De  sacra-  Greek  wwtOfia,  a  breath,  or  Mv^a,  a  nod),  a  term  in 

mentis  inversus  Wiclefistas"  etc.,  and  the  last  "De  medieval  music  theory.    It  does  not  seem  to   have 

sacramentalibus".    The  first  two  were  presented  to  been  used  before  the  eleventh  century.    From  that 

the  pope,  who  on  8  August,  1427,  expressed  his  satis-  time  it  was  generally  taken  in  two  senses,  to  denote, 

faction,  encouraging  the  author  to  continue  his  useful  first,  a  kina  of  melody,  second,  a  notations!  sign, 

and   learned   undertaldng,   and   communicating  to  Guido  of  Aresso  C'Micrologus'',  xv)  takes  it  in    a 

him  ihe  text  of  the  Bull  condemning  the  errors  of  third  sense,  in  which  he  seems  to  be  singular,  saying: 

Wydif  ''Dudum  i^  apostolorum".  Nevertheless  the  "As  in  metrics  there  are  letters  and  syllables,  parts 

work,  owing  to  its  bulk,  would  have  fallen  into  oblivion  and  feet,  and  verses,  so  in  music  there  are  tones,  of 

had  not  some  Carmelites,  notably  Ludovicus  de  which  one,  two,  or  three  join  to  make  a  syllable;  of 

Lyra  and  John  Hottus,  discovered  it  in  the  library  of  these  one  or  two  make  a  neuma,  that  is  a  part  of  the 

Paris  and  secured  its  publication  (1523).    It  was  re-  melody;  while  one  or  several  parts  make  a  distinction 

printed  at  Paris  (1532),  Salamanca  (1557),  Venice  (phrase),  that  is,  a  suitable  place  for  breathing." 

(1571  and  1757).    It  is  a  complete  apologia  of  Oath-  Applied  to  a  melody,  the  term  means  a  series  of 

olic  dogma  and  ritual  as  against  the  attacks  of  the  tones  sung  without  words,  generally  on  the  last  vowel 

Wyclimtes,  and  was  largely  drawn  upon  by  the  con-  of  a  text.   The  older  name  for  such  a  melody  is  iuhilua. 

troversialists  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen-  Thus  St.  Jerome  (In  Psalm,  xxxii,  P.  L.^  XXVI,  915) 

turies.  defines:  '^ That  is  called  iubilus  which  neither  in  words 

Ztmhtomaw,  Monummia  hitur.  CamuL,  I  (L^rins,  1907),  442  nor  syllables  nor  letters  nor  in  speech  can  utter  or  de- 

****•                                     n.^ ^ r._^ ^,.„  fine  how  much  man  ought  to  praise  God".    Similarly 

BBNEDiCT  Zimmerman.  g^  Augustine  says  (Ps^  xcix,  P.  L.,  XXXVII  1272) : 

''He  who  sings  a  iubilus ^  does  not  utter  words,  but  the 

Neugart,  Tbudpbbt.  Benedictine  historian,  b.  at  iubilua  is  a  song  of  joy  without  words.''    And  agiun 

Villingen.  Baden,  23  February,  1742;  d.  at  St.  Paul's  (in  Ps.  xxxii,  P.  L.,  XXXVI,  283) :  "And  for  whom  is 

Benemctine  abbey,  near  Klagenfurt,  (Darintlua,  Aus-  this  iubUoHo  more  fitting  than  for  the  ineffable  God?" 

tria,  15  December,  1825.    Of  middle-class  origin  Neu-  Finally  the  following  passage  from  St.  Augustine's 

eart  studied  in  the  chissical  schools  of  the  Benedictine  contemporanr,  Cassian  ("  De  Ccenobiorum  Inst.",  II, 

Abbeys  of  St.  George  and  St.  Blasien,  entered  the  order  ii,  P.  L.,  XLIX,  77)  must  remove  any  doubt  as  to  the 

at  the  latter  monastery  in  1759,  and  was  ordained  use  of  such  iubili  in  the  Liturgy.    He  says  of  certain 

priest  in  1765;  in  1767  he  was  appointed  professor  of  monasteries  that  "they  held  there  should  be  sung 

Biblical  languages  at  the  University  of  Freiburg.    In  every  night  twenty  or  thirty  psalms  and  those,  too, 

1770,  however,  he  returned  to  St.  Blasien^  where  he  prolonged  by  antiphon  melodies,  and  the  joining  on  of 

professed  theology.    While  engaged  in  this  work  he  certain  mooulations." 

published  a  treatise  on  penance,  "  Doctrina  de  sacra-  The  usual  place  of  such  neums  is  in  responsorial 

mento  pcenitentise  recte  administrando"  (St.  Blasien,  singing  (see  Plain  Chant),  especially  at  the  end  of 

1778).    His  f^bot,  Gerbert,  had  planned  the  publica-  the  Alleluia  which  follows  the  Gradual  of  the  Mass. 

tion  of  a  Churoh  history  of  Germany  on  a  larae  sc^e  In  the  later  Middle  Ages,  however,  from  about  the 

(Germania  sacra).    In  1780  at  his  reouest  Neugart  twelfth  century  onwards,  the  custom  grew  up  of  add- 

began  an  elaborate  research  into  the  nistory  of  the  ing  neums,  definite  formulae,  one  for  each  mode,  to  the 

Diocese  of  Constance.    On  Gerbert's  death  in  1793.  office  antiphons,  there  being  special  rubrics  in  the 

Neugart  declined  the  di|(nity  of  abbot  but  accepted  litur^cal  books  as  to  the  days  on  which  they  should  be 

the  provostship  of  Krosmgen,  near  Freiburg,  so  as  to  sung  or  not  sung.    The  more  important  use  of  the 

be  able  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  historical  studies,  term  is  that  in  which  it  means  the  signs  used  in  the 

He  published  the  ori^^inal  charters  and  documents  for  notation  of  Gre^rian  Chant.    Akin  to  this  use  is  the 

the  nistory  of  the  Diocese  of  (Donstance  in  a  separate  one  which  applies  it  to  the  tones  or  groups  of  tones 

publication,  "Codex  diplomaticus  Alemannis  et  Bui^  designated  by  the  notational  signs.    Also  in  this  sense 

gundise  transjuranie  intra  fines  dioecesis  Constantien-  the  term  cannot  be  traced  farther  back  than  the  elev* 

sis"  (I,  St.  Blasien,  1791;  II,  St.  Blasien,  1795).    With  enth  century.    The  names  of  the  various  signs,  too, 

this  as  a  basis  he  wrote  at  Krosingen  the  first  in-  seem  to  date  from  about  the  same  period.    Previously 

stalment  of  his  history  of  the  Diocese  of  (Donstance  the  general  name  for  the  notation  was  usus.    The 

"Episcopatus  Constantiensis  Alemannicus  sub  metro-  names  of  the  single  signs  varied  with  time  and  place. 

g>h  Moguntina"  (part  I,  vol.  I,  to  the  year  1100,  St.  The  tables  of  neums  found  in  several  MSS  not  only 
lasien,  1803).  Soon  the  abbey^  of  St.  Blasien  was  differ  in  the  number  of  names,  but  also  give  different 
secularized.  Notwithstanding  Neugart 's  efforts  for  its  names  for  the  same  sign,  or  differ^it  signs  for  the  same 
preservation  it  was  assigned  to  Baden,  and  absorbed  name.  In  this  article  we  shall  use  the  names  as  ap- 
with  all  its  landed  possessions.  In  1807  Neugart  went  plied  in  the  Preface  to  the  Gradual  recently  issued 
to  Vienna  to  negotiate  for  the  settlement  of  the  ex-  from  the  Vatican  printing  establishment, 
pelled  monks  in  Austria,  and  succeeded.  The  abbot  The  neumatic  notation  of  Plain  (3hant  is  first  met 
and  monks  of  St.  Blasien  were  granted  the  Abbey  of  with  in  MSS  of  the  ninth  century  and.  with  slight 
St.  Paul,  near  Klagenfurt  in  the  valley  of  the  Lavant.  modifications,  is  to  be  seen  in  liturgical  books  issued 
suppressed  by  Joseph  II.  Here  Neugart  completea  to-day.  Whether  its  use  goes  much  farther  back, 
the  second  volume  of  his  diocesan  history  extenoing  to  whether,  in  particular,  St.  Gregorv  the  Great  em- 
1308,  but  it  was  not  published  until  1862.  He  then  ployed  notation  in  his  typical  Antiphonarium,  cannot 
turned  his  attention  to  the  history  of  Carinthia  and  of  oe  said  with  certainty.  The  fact  that  at  the  date  of 
the  Abbev  of  St.  Paul,  where  he  and  his  companions  our  earliest  MSS.  the  insufficiency  of  the  notation  was 
had  found  refuge.  After  his  death  there  appeared  his  felt,  and  various  efforts  were  made  to  supply  the  de- 
"Historia  monasterii  Ord.  S.  Benedicti  ad  S.  Paulum  feet,  would  seem  to  point  to  an  antecedent  develop- 
in  valle  inferioris  Carinthiie  Lavantina"  (Klagenfurt,  ment  of  considerable  duration.  On  the  other  hand 
1848, 1854).  Several  historical  treatises  and  compila-  the  fact  that  from  the  beginning  we  find  several  fami- 
tions  are  still  in  MS.   Another  work,  "  libellus  majo-  lies  of  notation  like  those  of  St.  Gall  and  Meti,  whidi. 


MBUM 


766 


NEUM 


while  agreeing  in  the  main  principles,  show  (consider- 
able divergence  in  matters  of  detail,  would  seem  to 
suffgest  that  at  the  time  when  these  families  started, 
only  the  fundamental  idea  had  been  conceived,  while 
the  full  development  of  the  whole  system  took  place 


Accordingly  the  fundamental  principle  is  that  the 
rifle  and  fall  of  the  melody  are  expressed  by  the  Bigns 
of  the  accentus  acutus  (  /  )  and  the  accent  us  gravis 
(X )  •  The  acutus,  being  drawn  upwards,  from  left  tc 
right,  indicates  a  rise  in  the  melody,  a  higher  note ;  the 


t' 


a  iff 


IflM 


f  f  I     I  _i  J  i'i'^ 


tafjJukpUttC'i  timed -yhde 

'  ^r  ^''  It'     'U-  ■ 

vxail  doaitc  ucrbam  cAtvpLCxum* 


r-A'rdj/'f-  -J' 


Iwcqxna 

th^iU^  M  JidJarrmnt 


rrtdij''    ' 


^UtT 


A.P  OlllKJOKlV 


luu  I. — ^Tm  WiNCHum  Taom  (XI  Ccntuiit) 

Jhruti  College,  Cambridiie, 
(reduoed  aboat  one-third) 


Coipua  Chruti  College,  Cambridge,  Na  473 

tird) 


more  or  less  independently  at  the  various  centres. 
Judging  by  the  consideration  mentioned  first,  we 
should  have  no  difficulty  in  believing  that  St.  Gregory 
used  neumatic  notation  in  hb  Antiphonary.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  second  view,  however,  we  should 
feel  inclined  to  put  the  beginning  of  neumatic  writing 
about  the  eighth  century. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  neums  students  are  now  on 
the  whole  agreed  that  they  are  mainly  derived  from 


gravis,  being  drawn  downwards,  a  fall  in  the  melody,  a 
lower  note.  From  the  combination  of  these  two  signs 
there  result  various  group  signs:  (1)  A,  acutus  and 
gravis,  a  higher  note  followed  by  a  lower  one,  a  descend- 
ing group  of  two  notes  (clivis) ;  (2)  V  ,  gravis  and  acu- 
tus, lower  and  higher  notes  (pes  or  podatus) ;  (3)  /V , 
acutus,  gravis,  acutus;  a  group  of  three  notes  of  which 
the  second  is  the  lowest  (porrectus) ;  (4)  y\ ,  grains, 
acutus,  gravis;  a  group  of  three  notes  of  which  the  sec- 


;  //r- 


•>  <i 


^U  r  I  u  1  i^ 


/r- 


(^ 


bA  no  btf- 


^4ibre   ^OT7l7t^e  letiam  AntmAm 


III.  II. — CoDcx  121  (X-Xl  Centurt),  Einbibdeln 


the  accent  marks  of  the  grammarians.  In  that  way, 
of  course,  they  point  back  to  Greece.  From  the  fact, 
however,  that  some  of  the  signs  in  the  developed  sys- 
tem look  like  signs  in  Byzantine  notation,  and  that 
some  of  the  names  are  Greek  in  origin,  some  investi- 
gators have  concluded  that  the  whole  svstem  was 
taken  over  from  Greece.  Recently  J.  Thibaut  has 
defended  this  theory  in  a  rather  fanciful  book,  **Ori- 
ffine  Byzantine  de  la  Notation  Neumatique  de  I'Eglise 
Latine".  But  the  prevailing  opinion  is  that  the  neu- 
matic system  is  of  Latin  growth* 


ond  is  the  highest  (torculus) ;  and  so  on.  In  these 
combinations  the  elements  generally  preierve  their 
original  form  pretty  clearly,  except  that  the  angles  are 
often  roundea  off,  as  indicated  below.  When  used 
singly,  the  acutus,  too,  retained  its  shape  fairiy  accu- 
rately and  from  its  shape  received  the  name  virga  (vir- 
gula).  The  gravis,  however,  was  generally  converted 
into  a  short  horizontal  line  ( — >) ,  or  a  dot  (  • ),  or  some- 
thing similar,  and  hence  received  the  name  of  punc- 
tum.  In  this  form  it  is  also  used  in  an  ascending 
group  of  three  or  more  notes  (^  ,  scandicufl)  and  in  a 


il     L-le-      lii-    ra.      •  (>: 


muM  767  mm 

ramilBrdeecendiiiK  group  (/%,  climEusus).    More  com-    follows  on  the  same  syllable.    An  analvria  of  all  the 

plicated  combinatioos  were  designated  aa  modifica-  cases  of  liquesccnce  occurring  in  the  MS.  Gradual  339 
tions  of  the  simpler  groups.  The  addition  of  a  lower  of  St.  Gall  is  made  in  the  second  volume  of  the  "  Pal£^ 
ographic  Musicale"  {mi.  41  sqq.),  where  the  subject  is 
treated  very  fully.  tW  amUysis  shows  that  by  far 
the  largest  number  of  cases  (2450  out  of  3504}  occur 
when  a  vowel  is  followed  by  two  or  more  consonants 
la.  "  tj.  the  first  of  which  is  one  of  the  "liquids"  (1,  m,  n,  r) 
either  within  a  word  (like  ^antit^)  or  through  the  col- 
^  ._■■--  .^*.  '."".  ~  I  J  location  of  two  words  (as  in  («).  A  considerable  num- 
i  *  ^  rf*  ■  ft  I  r^*'^^  'ft  i  ]  ■  ■  f^  ber  is  found  before  an  eitplosive  dental  at  the  end  of  a 
word  followed  by  another  word  beginning  with  one  or 

yr\  .i„  A^  „„  Ki,.  nx  ™:  .-.^  ™:,=  ,:         man  consonants  (317  before  t,  48  before  d).    Forty- 

.  Ost^n-de  nobis  D6-  mi-ne  miseri-       ^^^  ^^^  ^  -^  fo^ind  before  a  final  s  followed  by 

- I      another  consonant  (e.  g.  nodijt  DomtTie)  and  six  times 

P  J*  ■  ■  ■■.    kj      ,  I  ^  J     before « in  larahel ;  seventy-three  times  before  g,  thirty- 

*  ft       ♦    '*.i*«fW  ■     I     >     i  *  t^_      two  times  before  two  consonants  the  second  of  which 

is  j   (e.  g.  adjidm),  forty-six  times  before  Bngle  m, 
c6rdi-am  tu-  am  :  et  salu-ti-        thirty-four  timee  before  a  single  g  followed  by  e  or  i. 

One  hundred  and  fifty-nme  times  on  the  diphthong  au, 
J   ^        ■_      ^      ^         .._i.      *     >  y." .  ,  ^^'^  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  times  before  a  mn- 

C  *    ^*.3(    °^».i***     «  *n.^<^f^1t  w    i     ^*  }  (i'loluding  one  hundred  and  fifty-three  cases  on 

It  is  clear  from  what  has  been  said,  that  this  liques- 
fC  tu-  cence  must  be  connected  with  the  proper  pronuncia- 

tion of  the  consonants.  But  as  to  what  it  should 
mean  in  the  rendering,  authors  are  not  agreed.  Thus 
the  preface  to  the  Vatican  Gradual  says:  "ipsa  co- 
gente  syllabamm  natura,  vox  de  una  a<f  alteram  lim- 
iim*da     no-    bis.  P'^^  transiena  tunc  'liquescit';itaut  in  orecompreesa 

'nonfiniri  videatur',  et  quasi  dtmidium  sufe,  non 
mone,  sed  poteetatis  amittat".  This  is  not  easy  to 
translate,  but  it  would  seem  that  the  last  tone  of  the 
liquescent  neum  should  "lose  one  half,  not  of  its 
length,   but   of   its   strength".     The   " Palfographie 

.  Musicale"  on  the  other  hand,  says  that  in  the  exact 

note  to  a  group  ending  with  a  higher  note  was  indi-  pronunciation  of  certain  comoinations  of  conaonanta 
cated  by  the  adjective  flexus,  the  addition  of  a  higher  an  obscure  vowel  sound  enters  between  them,  so  that 
note  to  a  group  ending  with  a  lower  note,  by  resupinus.    a  word  like  eonjw^AanXuT  would  sound  con'/un'dan*> 


^^^ 


"^1 


v; cH  Ul%.  •  -  NArl,.  S  (.ki  Ac.\  I  H .M-.v.viT 


lu.  III.— MS.  330  <IX-X  Centviit).  L*om 
Thus  even  the  clivis  (more  correctly  chnis)  was  at  an  lur  and  that  it  is  this  after-sound  which  exerts  its  in- 
early  period  called  virea  flexa,  and  the  torculua  could  lluence  on  the  tone  preceding  the  first  consonant.  It 
be  considered  as  a  pes  flexus.  Thesim^/V  would  be  a  is  not  easy  to  see  why  this  obscure  vowel  sound  com- 
porrectua  flexus,  the  W  a  torculua  reaupinua,  etc.  ing  after  the  first  consonant  should  influence  the  tone 
Again  the  placing  of  several  puncia  before  a  sign  is  ex-  precpding  it,  nor  why  the  consonants  should  change 
pressed  by  the  term  prffipunctis,  Iheir  addition  after  a  the  dynamic  character  of  the  preceding  vowel  sound, 
sign  subp metis.   In  accordance  with  that  a  scandicus  is  Possibly  the  nature  of  the  liquid  consonants,  1,  n"  "  ~ 

^ly  j^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^  theliqu 

,    ,    ., -  ., ,   --,  ,   J  give  a  more  satisfactory  explanation. 

compunctis,  the  last-named  adjective  indicating  the  It  is  well  known  that  these  consonants  can  be  sung, 

addition  of  punctis  before  and  after.  that  is  he  prolonged  on  a  definite  and  varying  pitch. 

A  special  modification  of  the  neum  form  is  that  It  would  seem,  then,  that  when  one  of  these  conso- 

wbich  is  called  liquescent  or  semivocal.     It  consists  nants  follows  a  vowel,  then  sometimes  the  last  note  on 

generally  of  a  shortening,  attenuating,  or  curling  of  the  vowe!  sound  is  smoothly  fused  into  the  consonan- 

the  last  stroke.     It  occurs  only  at  the  transition  from  tal  sound,  part  of  its  time  value  being  given  to  the 

one  syllable  lo  the  next  and  there  only  in  certain  cir-  singing  of   the  liquid  or  semivocal  consonant.     This 

euDtstancM.    It  IB  never  found  when  another  neum  would  oonveoienUy  apply  to  the  fint  c)M9  of  caaee 


768 


mentioned  above,  wfaicli  eomprise  the  lai|pe  maiority 
of  ml]  the  cases.  Also  to  the  case  of  sin^  m  ana  j  (or 
i),  the  latter  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  liquid  oon- 
sonants.  It  would  further  apply  to  the  case  of  bi^  if 
we  suppose  that  that  combination  was  pronouneed  ny, 


Intr.  I; 
I.      - 


G 


^^ 


* 


Aude-  amus  *  omnes  in  D6-mi- 


i    *  *k» 


X 


i^ 


no,  di-em  festum  ce-lebrintes  sub  hon6- 


re     Agathae  Mdrty-ris:de  cujus  passi-6- 

tj? ^ 


ne  gaudent  Ange-        li,    et  colliu-  dant 


%-w^^s^ 


F(-  li-  um    De-      L 

Mrs.  Ex.  2 

and  to  the  case  of  final  s,  if  that  consonant  was  voiced, 
when  it  also  could  be  sung.  In  the  case  of  the  diph- 
thong au  the  liquescenoe  would  consist  in  the  transi- 
tionfrom  the  6  ret  vowe!  to  the  second.  The  remain- 
ing cases  of  double  consonants  should  be  explained  by 
analogy,  the  liquesrenre  con.sisting  simply  in  the  short- 
ening of  the  vowel  sound  made  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinct pronunciation  of  the  group  of  consonants  with- 
out loss  of  time.  This  explanation  would  have  the 
further  advantage  of  beioK  in  accordance  with  the 
practice  of  the  bopt  choirs  that  nowadaj-s  make  a  pecu- 
oar  study  of  Plain  Chant. 
Some  oi  the  liqur«cent  neums  have  special  names. 


I-ti-entes  •  veni-  tc       ad  a-quas, 


di-cit  Domi-nus  :    et  qui  non  habe-tis 

+ 


pr6-  ti-um,  veni-  te,    bi-  bi  te    cum  lae-  ti- 


ti-   a. 

Mra.  Ex.  3 

Thus  the  liquescent  po*iatU5  is  callt^l  epiphonus,  the 
liqut'scent  cli\~i:s  ct^pfauilicu^s  the  liqutscuni  cliui^icus, 
aiuHis. 

in  a«liiition  to  the  m-ums  which  are  derived  from 
tho  ai\>nit8  and  whi«'h  form  the  pnmndwork  of  the 
ntninialio  system,  there  is  another  claas  which  may  be 
taken  as  indicating  special  eileets.  They  have,  as 
Warner  ha/s  pointed  out,  as  a  common  feature,  the 


hook  form.  In  the  fint  place  we  mentaon  the 
CUB,  having  the  shape  of  a  comma  (  >  ).  When  occur- 
ring singly,  it  is  called  apostropha,  whai  doubled,  dis- 
tropha:  when  trebled,  tristroplia.  The  apostn^ha  is 
generally  found  at  the  end  of  another  neum,  or  fol- 
lowed by  a  distn^>ha  at  a  higher  pitch;  it  is  never  used 
as  a  angle  note  over  a  syuable.  When  added  to  a 
neum,  it  is  generally  represented  in  the  later  staff- 
notatx>n  manuscripts  at  the  same  pitdi  as  the  last 
note  of  that  neum.  But  there  is  rciaon  to  brieve  that 
originally  there  was  an  interval  smaller  than  a  semi- 
tone between  those  two  notes.  The  distropha  and 
tristropha  indicate  a  ouick  repetition  of  the  same 
note,  possibly  again  witn  a  minute  <tifferenee  of  pitch 
between  the  repeated  notes. 

Akin  to  the  wpoetiopha  is  the  orisciiB,  having  a 
shape  somewhat  tike  th»  :  S .  Apostrophe  and  oris- 
CU8  are  sometimes  interchanged  m  different  manu- 
scripts.   In  a  few  instances  the  oriseoa,  however,  is 


J 


Ustus*  ut  palma  etc  y.  Ad  annun- 


ti-indum  ma- 


/\U^U  i  i  *    i  J 


Vni^J 


ne     mi- 


se>ric6rdi-ain  to- 


am,      et  veri-titem 


t\^:  ^.!j".:v,^|/s 


tu- 


am 


•  per 


no- 


e  Ki '  ,>. 


ctem. 


Ex.  4 


found  as  the  single  sign  over  a  syllable.  The  qui- 
lisma  is  irenerally  written  as  a  number  of  hooks  open  to 
the  right  and  joined  together  {U^  ^  *^^>.  It  occuis  in- 
variably as  the  middle  note  in  an  ascending  S^^niq)  and 
seems  to  indicate  a  glide  of  the  voice,  bemg  accom- 
panied by  a  sustaining  of  the  note  or  group  of  notes 
preceding  it.  The  saliois  is  a  figure  nke  tne  seandi- 
cus,  but  with  the  second  note  in  the  shape  of  a  hook 
opening  downwards  '  ^  ).  It  seems  to  indicate  a  pro- 
longation of  the  middle  note.  Sometimes,  in  staff- 
notation  manuscripts,  the  firat  two  notes  are  ^ven  at 
the  same  pitch.  Possibly  here  again  there  was  a  liif- 
ference  of  leso?  than  a  semitone  between  them.  The 
pressus  is  a  kind  of  combination  of  a  viiga  with  added 
oriscus  and  a  punctum  (  /?  ),  pressus  minor,  AC ,  pres- 
sus major  > .  It  is  generally  unaentood  as  equivalent  to 
a  cLivis  with  the  first  note  prolonged  and  rendered 
gforzalo.  Finally  to  be  mentioned  is  tbe  tiigon.  a  com- 
bi nation  of  three  puncta^  the  middle  one  being  higher 
than  the  other  two  (.\V  From  its  shape  it  would 
seim  to  be  a  kind  of  torculus,  but  it  is  often  tnn- 
scrihed  with  the  first  t«t>  nc^es  at  the  same  pitch,  sug- 
gi>&^  ing  once  more  a  minute  interval  not  expreasikle  in 
gtaif  nv»tAiion. 
The  illustrations  whidi  acooeipnny  this  artide  «n» 


Kproduced,  by  kind  permiasioti  of  the  editors,  Fram  pes  aubpunctis,  on  the  last  syllabic  of  talutifere.    The 

the  " PalSographie  Musioale".     Illustration  I  ("Pal,  strophicus  (on  med)  has  here  no  distinct  sign,  but  is 

Mus.",  Ill,  pi.  179)  represents  the  type  of  the  An^lo-  written  with  the  ordinary  virza  sign.    The  oriscus, 

Saxon  neums  of  the  elevanth  oentun^    The  piece  is  a  however,  is  clearly  marked.    Thus  we  have  a  virga 

trope  for  the  Introit  "In  medio".    The  tliree  portions  with  oriacua  (also  called  franculusj  on  the  first  sylla- 

^  .   '.  .    .         >>        A*/  •- 


ttdtn  diuivlocat!'  uttioM^  ^"< 


■^^■'■1 


■I     i 


f  r 


lu.  IV.— Men 


Libruy  of  SL  1 

of  the  Introit  itself  are  merely  indicated  by  the  cues 
In  Med.,  Et  impteb.,  and  SUda.  The  ugns  for  the 
single  notes  arc  the  plain  virga  and  the  round  punc- 
tum,  the  former  on  the  last  syllable  of  ioAannu,  the 
second  and  tliird  syllables  of  aawvpUnt,  etc.,  the  latter 
on  the  second  syllable  of  Gratia,  the  second  syllable  of 
Dei,  the  first  of  iohannU,  etc.  In  the  pooatus  the 
gravis  is  a  short  horixontal  stroke,  the  acutus  a 
Straight  virga  joining  almost  at  a  right  angle;  see  tliird 
syllable  of  Gratia,  third  of  aaiulifere,  third  of  dogmala, 
etc.  There  is  also  a  second  form  consisting  of  a  dis- 
jointed punctum  and  virga,  see  third  syllable  of 
Qloria  (last  line  on  left  page),  first  syllable  of  xristua 


■  (I.B.  loea) 


blc  of  Gratia,  and  the  full  preesue  (virga,  oriseus,  and 
punctum}  on  the  first  syllable  of  pectut,  the  first  of 
Suxentnt,  etc.  The  quilisma  is  shown  on  the  second 
syllable  of  ceUa,  where  we  first  have  a  punctum,  serV' 
inf[  as  the  starting-point,  then  the  triple  curve  of  the 

auilisma  itself,  to  which  the  virga  stroke,  representing 
le  highest  note,  is  attached.  We  liave  it  aniin  on 
the  second  syllable  of  impUb.,  where  a  aecona  virga 
follows,  the  whole  figure  representing  the  notes/n  a  b  t^. 
A  less  usual  sign  ie  found  on  the  first  syll^le  of 
cams  (last  hne,  right  page).  The  quilisma  there  is 
followed  by  a  ciimacus  m  which  the  three  signs,  acutua 
and  two  gravee  ore  joined  together:  />>  • 


Tt l.ji-f..^l — -»/%>■■>; — _>. — .••  -^..L^.f,         {'    J 


/:i 


(first  line  of  right  page),  third  syllable  of  alemum        Illustration  II  ("Poltegr.  Mus.",  IV,  pi.  A)  is  from 
(fourth  line).    This  is  considered  as  indicating  a  long    a  MS.  written  in  the  monastery  of  Einuedein  at 


„   .  d  sylla-  dent.    There  are,  however,  a  number  of  peculiarities. 

ble  of  pectin,  second  and  fourth  of  aolutifere.    The  First  we  find  a  greater  variety  of  signs.    Thus  the 

liquescent  form  (cephalicus),  somewhat  shortened,  is  virga  appeais  in  two  forms,  one  shEbtly  curved  to  the 

seen  on  the  third  syllable  of  iohannem  (first  line  on  right  and  vanishing  at  the  top,  the  other  str^ghter 

right  page).     The  torculus  is  seen  on  the  first  syllable  and  with  a  thickenmg  at  the  top.     This  second  vari- 

01  odimpttm,  first  Hyllnblc  of  docente  (fourth  line),  ety  arises,  graphically,  from  its  being  drawn  down- 

etc.    On  the  first  syllable  of  eeUa  we  have  the  torculus  wards,  the  pen  spreading  itself  a  little  at  the  start  of 


Mixnft 


770 


on  the  first  syllable  of  tiuim  (second  ngn),  etc.  Sim- 
ilarly we  have  for  the  punctum,  besides  the  dot  form, 
that  of  a  short  horizontal  line.  This  is  also  some- 
times used  for  one  of  the  puncta  of  the  climacus  (first 
syllable  of  tuam,  third  and  sixth  neums,  etc.)  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  group  neuma  on  notns  (fifth 
sign  from  the  end)  we  sec  a  trigon  subpuncte,  the 
last  dot  of  the  trigon  and  the  added  punctum  being 
drawn  out.  The  podatus  appears  in  three  forms: 
first  with  rounded  comer,  as  on  the  third  syllable  of 
AUeluia  (first  sign) ;  second  with  some  pen  pressure  on 
the  initial  stroke  and  a  fairly  square  angle,  as  on  the 
fourth  syllable  of  AUeluia  (third  sign):  and  third,  with 
a  more  elaborate  gravis,  as  in  the  final  neuma  of  nobis 
(second  last  sign).  The  first  may  be  considered  as 
the  normal  form,  the  second  marks  a  firmer  rendering 
of  the  first  note,  and  the  third  a  decided  leaning  on  it. 
The  torculus  appears  in  its  plain  form  (second  syllable 
of  Oatendey  fourth  syllable  of  misericordiam)  and  with 
I>cn  pressure  on  both  graves  ( ^  )  marking  a  prolongar 
tion  of  the  whole  figure  (first  syllable  of  tuunif  seventh 
sign).  The  two  forms  of  the  pressus,  minor  and  ma- 
jor, are  found  in  the  final  neuma  of  Alleluia  (fourth 
last  and  last  signs).  Of  liauescent  signs  we  have  a 
Bcandicus  liquescens  on  the  nrst  syllable  of  Allduiaf  a 


century  (see  "Pal.  Mus.",  IV,  pi.  9;  Wagner,  "Ein- 
leitimg  ",11,114).  The  liUenB  significativtB  are  of  two 
classes,  one  referring  to  rhythm,  the  other  referring  to 
pitch.  Of  the  former  class  we  find  in  our  illustration 
frequently  the  c  (eeleriter)  and  the  t  (tenete).  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Offertory  (last  line  of  illustration^ 
we  find  fdso  the  m  (mediccriter)  modifying  the  eflfect 
of  the  preceding  c.  Of  the  second  class  we  find  the  e 
(eqttaliter)  enjoining  the  same  pitch  between  damine 
and  misericardiam  between  the  second  and  third 
^llables  of  misericardiam  and  between  tuam  and  et. 
To  give  a  clearer  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  neums  in 
this  illustration  we  subjoin  the  notation  of  the  same 
piece  according  to  the  Vatican  edition ^  pointing  out 
only  the  few  differences  in  the  two  readmes.  On  the 
first  syllable  of  ''Alleluia"  the  Vatican  edition  omits 
the  liquescence;  similarly  on  the  third  syllable  of  that 
word  and  on  the  final  syUable  of ' '  misericordiam  ".  It 
may  be  mentioned  in  this  connexion  that  a  very  fre- 
quent use  of  liquescence  is  characteristic  of  the  St.  Gall 
school.  The  strophici  on  Alleluia  and  luum  are  given 
as  ordinary  puncta.  Similarly  the  special  sign  for  the 
pressus  has  disappeared  and  is  replaced  by  a  doubling 
of  the  first  note.  The  first  of  these  two  notes  of  the 
same  pitch  is  then  sometimes  combined  with  the  i^re- 


'i^^J^tmic  hotter*         *" 


-«♦-'*     ,—   ^.'- 


i0mm*g^ 


— i^Tft 


K.- , 


V 


.» 


III.  VI. — Gradual  and  Tbopcr  or  St-Evrouw  (XII  Ckntubt) 
Bibliothdque  Nationale.  Paria.  Foods  latin.  Na  10508 


distropha  liquescens  on  the  third,  an  epiphonus  on  the 
last  syllable  of  misericordiam. 

A  second  peculiarity  of  the  St.  Gall  notation  is  the 
occasional  addition  of  a  little  stroke  to  the  neums, 
ipRrking  a  prolongation  of  the  affected  note.  The 
"Paltographie  Musicale"  (IV,  pi.  17)  has  given  the 
name  episema  to  this  little  addition.    Mention  has  al- 


ceding  neum.  Thus  at  the  end  of  the  AUeluia  neuma 
it  joins  the  virga  to  form  a  clivis,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
neuma  on  nobis  the  podatus  of  the  MS.  L«:  changed  into 
a  torculus.  These  things  are  in  accordance  with  the 
general  practice  of  the  later  Middle  Ages.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  neuma  on  tuam  (where  in  the  MS.  the 
neums  surmount  the  second  syllable)  the  staff  nota- 


ready  been  made  of  the  thickening  of  the  head  of  the  tion  substitutes  a  pes  subbipunctis  for  a  viiga  and 

yirga,  which  often  amoimte  to  a  distinct  stroke.    Our  climacus— a  mere  graphic  difference.     Similarly  on 

illustration  gives  examples  of  a  similar  addition  to  the  da  a  porrectus  and  virga  are  replaced  by  a  clivis  and 

last  note  of  the  torculus  i  CO  instead  of  cn  )  the  last  podatus. 

of  the  porrectus,  the  first  and  the  second  of  the  clivis.  Illustration  III,  taken  from  a  MS.  of  the  ninth 
The  episematic  torculus  is  seen  in  the  final  neuma  of  or  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century  in  the  library 
nobis  (before  the  first  trigon).  The  first  siirn  in  the  of  Laon.  which  is  in  course  of  publication  in  the 
same  neuma  is  also  an  episematic  torculus  followed  by  *'  Pal.  Mus."  (p.  28),  shows  the  Meta  notation.  On  the 
another  long  punctum.  On  the  first  syllable  of  luum  first  two  syllables  of  Qaudeamu^  we  have  the  familiar 
we  have  an  episematic  porrectus,  followed  by  two  punctum  dot.  On  the  third  we  recognize  easily 
puncta,  while  the  plain  porrectus  appears  on  the  first  a  podatus  followed  by  a  virga.  But  on  the  last  we 
syllable  of  dfmine  (third  sign).  The  clivis  with  meet  the  most  characteristic  sign  of  this  school,  the 
episema  to  the  first  note  is  found  on  the  first  syllable  punctum  consisting  of  a  short  slantmg  line  with  a  little 
of  iuam  (first  sign)  and  twice  towards  the  end  of  the  hook  added.  Of  the  chvis  form  pecuhar  to  this  school 
neimia  on  tuum.  On  the  second  syllable  of  nobiSy  our  illustration  contains  no  example;  but  on  the  second 
after  the  torculus  subpunctis  aheady  mentioned,  we  syllable  of /cs/um  and  the  second  and  fourth  of  cf be- 
have a  clivis  with  the  episema  attached  to  the  second  brantes  we  have  the  porrectus,  which  m  its  first  two 
note,  the  clivis  being  preceded  by  two  short  puncta  strokes  contains  the  clivis.  There  are  two  forms  of  the 
and  followed  by  a  long  one.  torculus,  one  with  sharp  angles,  on  the  first  syllable 
Thirdly,  we  find  as  a  peculiarity  of  this  notation  the  of  domino,  the  second  of  hanore  (where  it  is  preceded 
addition  of  certain  letters.  These  are  often  called  by  a  punctum),  etc.;  the  other  roimded,  on  the  third 
"Romanian"  letters,  because  a  St.  Gall  writer  of  the  syllable  of  honors  and  the  fourth  of  passume.  Of 
eleventh  century  attributes  their  use  to  a  singer  named  liquescent  neums  we  find  the  epiphonus  on  the  second 
Romanus  who,  according  to  him,  brought  the  chant  syllable  of  rfiem  and  the  third  of  cefe&rante«,  the  cephat- 
uom  Rome  to  St.  Gall  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  icus  on  thu  first  of  (wne»,  a  pes  subbipunctis  liquesceM 


muM 


771 


MSITM 


(the  first  punctum  connected  with  the  pes  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  torculus  and  the  second,  liquescent,  bent  back 
to  the  left)  on  the  second  syllable  of  coUavdant  and  a 
porrectus  compunctis  liquescens  on  the  last  syllable 
of  filium.    The  oriscus  is  found  after  the  podatus  on 


it  stanas  for  aUe,  The  idea  of  high  pitch  is  expressed 
by  the  f  occurring  twice  on  domino.  The  first  time 
it  refers  evidently  to  the  rise  of  the  melody  to  c,  the 
second  time  it  probably  enjoins  a  b  natural  instead  of 
bflat. 


\ 


omm  (mnt.  SEie^tr  tlb  pttp^ 


4^atM  en  )n«  tmonit  jgio 


c. 


(Ofttfitlt   vx 


-^  dm  ct 


/iitif;«i»i 


VX 


$t 


•  V 
i 

J. 


l%;,|fuau«  utfcdnuifl^t 


'r 


4 


tm,  ^iotnbum  lojiumcm^ 


A 


III.  Vn.— MS.  411  (241)  (XIV  Cbmtubt) 
BibliothAque  Maaarine,  Paria 


agcUhce  and  the  quilisma,  consisting  of  two  hooks,  on 
the  second  syllable  of  domino^  the  second  of  angeli  and 
the  first  of  dei,  in  each  case  a  porrectus  being  joined 
to  it. 

Another  peculiarity  of  this  school  is  the  frequent 
use  of  disjoint  neums,  all  of  which  indicate  a  prolon|;a- 
tion  of  the  notes.  Mention  was  made  of  a  disjoint 
podatus  in  connexion  with  the  first  illustration.  We 
find  it  here  on  in  and  the  first  sellable  of  ceUbranUs, 
A  torculus  of  this  kind  is  shown  m  the  second  syllable 
of  marlyris.  The  descending  figures  are  indicated  by 
the  puncta  placed  perpendicularly.  Thus  we  have  a 
divis  on  the  second  syllable  of  omneSf  the  second 


The  comparison  with  the  reading  of  the  Vaticana 
will  show  a  close  resemblance.  We  only  notice  that 
on  gaudent  and  angdi  the  MS.  adds  a  liquescent  note 
to  the  podatus  and  porrectus  subbipunctis,  and  on 
cdebranUs  has  twice  a  porrectus  for  the  strophic  clivis, 
which  suggests  that  the  apostropha  (oriscus)  was  sung 
slightly  higher  than  the  last  note  of  the  clivis,  as  men- 
tioned above* 

Illustration  IV  is  taken  from  an  eleventh-century 
MS.  of  Silos,  written  in  the  Mozarabic  notation 
(**Pal.  Mus.  ,  I.  pi.  II)  in  order  to  show  that  even 
this  is  based  on  tne  same  principles.  The  usual  forms 
of  vu-ga,  pimctum,  podatus,  clivis,  torculus,  porrectus 


imfptevlJjmirtij'mfitebmmir^yi^^ 


iifto  itfjtalmg  (bit       tit!:: 


b  •'. 


mum^Itm 


I- 


.,Hi  ^  n  ^  "^''  ''^ 


moonnini'^ 


III.  VIII.— Gothic  Nkuiu  (a.  d.  1436) 
Cathedral  Library,  Trier 


(before  the  quilisma)  and  the  third  of  domino,  the 
third  of  angeli  (where  the  lower  one  got  attached 
to  the  1),  etc.;  a  climacus  on  angeli^  preceding  the 
quilisma. 

We  note  further  the  use  of  litera  significativa. 
Thus  we  have  the  c  used  in  the  same  sense  as  in  the 
St.  Gall  school,  on  agalhfE.  Similarly  a  t  appears  at 
the  bottom  of  the  illustration  under  the  word  med. 
The  a  on  Gaudeamus  stands  here  for  augete  and  is. 
therefore,  synonymous  with  the  t,  whereas  in  St.  Gall 


will  be  recognized  easily.  The  other  features  will  be 
explained  with  reference  to  the  modem  form  of  the 
Vatican  Gradual.  The  piece  occurs  in  the  Roman 
Liturgy  as  Introit  of  the  Saturday  after  the  fourth 
Sunday  of  Lent.  On  the  last  syllable  of  SitienUa  the 
MS.  has  a  pes  subbipunctis,  with  the  puncta  joined 
together,  representing  the  same  notes  as  the  staff  no- 
tation without  the  pressus.  On  the  first  syllable  of 
venite  the  MS.  has  a  clivis  instead  of  the  single  note  of 
the  Roman  version,  on  the  second,  the  punctum  and 


772 


mUM 


torculus  (placed  one  over  the  other)  are  only  graphi- 
cally different  from  the  pes  and  clivis.  On  the  nrst 
syllable  of  eqiuis  a  tristopba  takes  the  place  of  the 
trigon.  On  the  second  syllable  of  dicit  the  MS.  omits 
the  last  note  of  the  print.  On  the  second  syllable  of 
domintta  the  disjoint  punctum  and  clivis  correspond 
to  the  conjoint  torculus.  The  second  figure  on  non 
is  a  liquescent  torculus.  It  begins  below  with  the 
gravis  to  which  the  acutus  is  attached  in  the  usual 
manner,  but  the  last,  liquescent,  gravis  is  represented 
by  a  curve  to  the  left  of  the  acutus.  The  remaining 
sIiRht  differences  are  like  those  alreadv  explained. 

As  has  been  sufficiently  indicated,  the  neums  merely 
marked  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  melody.  They  gave, 
in  themselves,  no  clear  information  as  to  the  exact 
amoimt  of  rise  and  fall,  in  other  words,  they  did  not 
mark  the  intervals.  A  podatus,  c.  s.,  may  indicate  a 
second,  a  third,  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  without  change  in  its 
form.  This  may  now  be  accepted  as  an  established 
fact.  The  various  efforts  made  from  time  to  time, 
most  recently  by  Fleischer  in  his  "Neumenstudien". 
to  find  interval  signification  in  the  neums,  have  failed 
completely.  It  is  clear  then,  that  at  no  time  could 
the  meloay  be  read  absolutely  from  the  neumatic 
notation.  Rather  this  served  merely  as  an  aid  to 
memory.  Nor  did  the  choir  sing  from  the  notation. 
The  MS.  was  only  for  the  choir-master,  or  at  most  for 
the  solo  singer.  The  whole  body  of  the  Plain  Chant 
melodies  had  to  be  committed  to  memory  in  the  re- 
hearsing room,  and  wc  know  from  contemporary 
writers  that  it  took  a  singer  several  years  to  become 
acquainted  with  all  the  melodies.  In  the  course  of 
time,  as  oral  tradition  began  to  grow  less  reliable,  a 
desire  was  felt  to  have  also  the  amount  of  rise  or  fall 
fixed.  Accordingly  we  find  even  at  the  date  of  our 
earliest  M8S.  the  use  of  letters,  added  to  the  neums, 
to  warn  the  singer  here  and  there  as  to  the  intervals, 
as  we  have  mentioned  above.  These  indications,  how- 
ever, were  again  merely  va^e  and  could  not  nnally 
satisfy.  Various  efforts  which  space  forbids  us  to  de- 
tail here,  were  then  made  to  supplement  the  neumatic 
notation.  All  of  them,  however,  were  destined  to  dis- 
appear before  the  introduction  of  a  new  principle, 
which  was  to  distinguish  the  higher  or  lower  pitch  of 
the  tones  by  the  higher  or  lower  position  of  the  notes, 
grading  the  distances  between  tne  notes  in  strict  ac- 
cordance with  the  intervals.  Attempts  in  this  direc- 
tion can  be  noticed  even  in  the  class  of  MSS.  which 
have  been  considered  up  to  this.  Our  example  of 
Metz  notation  shows  pretty  clearly  an  endeavour  on 
the  part  of  the  scribe  to  place  the  notes  according  to 
pitch.  The  full,  systematic  carrying  out  of  this  idea 
IS  found  in  the  tenth  century,  first  in  the  Lombardic 
notation,  shortly  afterwards  in  the  Aquitanian .  Illus- 
tration Y,  taken  from  an  eleventh-century  Versicu- 
lary  and  Prosary  from  St.  Martial  in  Limoges  (''Pal. 
Mus. ",  II,  pi.  86)  belongs  to  the  latter  class,  which  is 
further  characterized  by  the  almost  complete  dis- 
joining of  the  neums.  There  being  no  clef,  the  semi- 
tones cannot  be  found  from  the  notation.  But  apart 
from  that  the  intervals  can  be  read  without  difficulty, 
it  being  kept  in  mind  that  notes  placed  perpendicularly 
should  be  read  downwards,  as  in  the  Metz  notation. 
A  few  remarks  will  suffice  to  point  out  the  difference 
between  the  MS.  and  the  reading  of  the  Vaticana 
given  above.  On  palma  the  MS.  gives  a  liquescent 
note,  on  the  first  pliable  of  adnunciandum  it  has  a 
podatus  (a  c,  or  d  f ,  as  this  notation  should  be  read  a 
fifth  lower)  instead  of  a  single  note;  in  the  last,  a 
podatus  instead  of  an  epiphonus.  The  first  group  on 
mane  is  the  same  as  in  the  Vaticana,  the  lowest  mark 
being  a  mere  blot.  In  the  third  ^up  the  MS.  has  a 
fourth  (c  g,  or  f  c)  instead  of  a  third  (d  g).  After  the 
fifth  group  there  is  an  omission  of  the  whole  passage 
which  in  our  staff  notation  example  is  placed  between 
^^^*  *'"*lc  bars  at  the  end  of  the  second  line.  Such 
not  uncommon,  it  being  supposed  that 


the  singer  knew  f  reciuently-occurring  long  neumata  by 
heart.  The  omission  is  indicated  in  the  MS.  by  tiine 
little  perpendicular  line.  On  the  first  syllable  of  mi$- 
encofdiam,  the  first  two  notes  of  the  Vaticana  are 
omitted.  At  the  end  of  the  line  we  observe  the  cus- 
toB,  indicating  the  piteh  of  the  first  note  of  the  second 
line.  On  iuam.  there  is  again  an  omission  of  a  whole 
group  indicated  as  above.  On  veritatem  the  fourth 
dot  IS  an  accidental  blot.  At  the  end  of  the  second 
tuam  the  MSS.  has  a  third  (f  d)  instead  of  a  fourth 
(c  g) .    The  final  neuma  is  left  incomplete. 

This  procedure  solved  in  principle  the  problem  of 
diastematic  (interval)  notation.  For  greater  con- 
venience, however,  scribes  soon  began  to  draw  hori- 
zontal lines  which  helped  to  facilitate  the  correct  plac- 
ing and  reading  of  the  notes.  It  was  the  work  <A  the 
Benedictine  monk  Guido  of  Arezzo  (about  1000)  to  fix 
the  use  of  these  lines  finally  in  such  a  way  that  ad- 
jacent lines  mark  the  interval  of  a  third,  the  interven- 
mg  note  being  placed  between  the  two  fines.  Letters 
were  also  affixed  to  the  beginning  of  the  staff  to  give 
the  alphabetical  name  of  one  or  several  places  on  the 
staff  and  thus  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  semitones. 
Soon  c  and  f  were  used  for  this  purpose  by  preference 
and  out  of  them  by  a  graphic  transformation,  our 

{)resent  C  and  F  (bass)  clefs  evolved.  Later  the 
etter  g  was  employed,  which  throu^  the  addition 
of  an  ornamental  flourish  developed  into  the  modem 
violin  clef.  In  the  beginning,  however,  the  f  and  c 
lines  were  run  over  with  various  colours,  or  if  f  fell 
into  space,  a  coloured  tine  was  drawn  between  the  e 
and  g  lines. 

In  the  staff  thus  perfected  the  neums  were  written 
according  to  the  forms  that  had  been  previously  in 
use  in  the  various  locatities,  such  modifications  b^g 
introduced  as  were  necessary  to  mark  the  exact  posi- 
tion of  the  notes,  notably  the  thickening  of  the  nead 
of  the  acutus.  Illustration  VI,  taken  from  a  twelfth- 
century  Gradual  of  St.  Evroult  ("PsJ.  Mus.".  Ill,  pi. 
194),  shows  the  process  clearly.  It  has  four  oiy  tines 
drawn  on  the  parchment,  of  which  the  one  for  f  was 
coloured  red,  that  for  c  green.  The  other  two  lines 
have  the  clef  letters  a  and  e. 

From  the  thirteenth  century  the  notes  began  to  be 
written  larger,  so  that  the^  nught  be  read  by  a  num- 
ber of  singers  at  the  same  time.  The  thickening  of  the 
strokes  at  the  exact  place  the  notes  occupy  alsobecame 
more  pronounced.  Thus  gradually  in  tne  LaUn  coun- 
tries the  type  shown  in  the  foregoing  illustration 
evolved  which  is  practicaUy  the  one  adopted  in  our 
modem  chant  books. 

Illustration  VII  ("Pal.  Mus.",  Ill,  pi.  207  B)  is 
taken  from  a  fourteenth-century  plenary  Miasal  be- 
longing to  Notre  Dame  in  Paris.  In  the  first  line  on 
the  right-hand  column  the  flroup  a  c  b  g  has  been 
written  twice  by  mistake.  Of  interest  is  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  quitisma  at  the  end  of  the  final  neuma, 
also  the  substitution  of  c  f or  b  on  florMl  at  the  end  of 
the  group  on  per  (which  word  is  written  a  little  too 
far  to  the  left). 

niustration  VIII  ("Pal.  Mus.",  Ill,  pi.  146)  shows 
the  pecutiar  type  of  notation  which  developed  in 
Germany  and  is  caUed  Hufnagdschrift  (horseshoe- 
nail  writing).  The  illustration  is  from  a  Gradual 
written  at  Trier  in  1435.  There  are  five  black  lines, 
but  the  f  line  was  coloured  red.  The  illustration 
shows  clearly  that  a  second  line  was  drawn  over  the 
first.  In  the  third  staff  we  find  the  g  def  and  the  red 
f  line  drawn  in  the  space  between  e  and  g.  Melodi- 
cally  the  frequent  substitutes  of  c  for  b  is  remarkable 
on  Justus,  twice  on  florebit,  on  cedruSf  ete.).  This  is  a 
peculiarity  of  the  German  tradition. 

For  the  rhythmic  signification  of  the  neums  see  the 
article  on  Plain  (I)hant. 

The  principal  work  on  the  rabjeot  is  the  PaUogmjM^  JjiusinU, 
published  in  quarterly  Issues  mnoe  1889,  first  at  Solesmcs,  after- 
wards at  Toumai.  An  exhaustive  list  of  the  earlier  literatare  is 
given  in  the  preface  to  the  first  volume.    Suppfemental  to  this  are 


Iha  pubBiatlou  sf  tlw  Plain  Sana  and  UtHanl  Untie  SadKv 


MOUToa,  i^eiUtf^  CSoral- 

I,  Orit/iat  BytanUiu  tU  L. ... 

'"---    ">■">      "n  BynDti»  oMaUuu  _•  ■» 
tcHrtfi  im  lO.bit  JS.  JaSrKumUrt 


NBUmftim,  JoHANK  Bai/tbabab,  b.  1687  at  Eger: 
d.  1753  at  Wtirzburg,  master  or  the  rococo  style  ana 
one  of  tlie  greatest  and  most  productive  artiata  of  the 

eighteenth  century;  diati&giuiBhed  aa  a  decorator,  but 
more  so  as  an  architect.  He  came  from  Eger  to 
Wdnbui^  aa  a  cannon  founder,  and  served  chiefly  with 
the  French  army.  After  he  had  travelled  to  perfect 
himself  as  an  architect,  he  followed  that  profesaion  in 
southern  Germany  and  on  the  Rhine,  eatering  into 
Buch  succ^afut  competition  with  the  French  masters 
of  the  period  that  de  Cotte  and  BofTrand,  who  judged 
his  plans  for  the  epiBCopal  palace  at  WUrzburg,  after- 
wards  eagerly  laid  claim  to  the  authorship.  While 
in  the  service  of  Prince-Bishop  Frans  von  Schfinbom 
0719)i  Neumann  laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  palace 
(1720).  It  ia  ostentatious  but  habitable,  a  vast  rec- 
tangle, 544  ft.  by  189  ft.,  with  five  well  laid  out  couria 
and  three  entrance  gates  ornamented  with  pilasters, 
columns,  and  balcomea.  The  throne  room  with  the 
Bplendid  adjoining  state  apartments,  and  the  court 
chapel,  although  not  externally  remarkable,  excel  all 
the  rest  in  aumptuoue  splendour  with  an  enormous 
outlay  in  mat«rial  and  skill.  The  baroque  style  of  the 
edifice  is  here  replaced  by  the  moat  finished  decora- 
tive rococo.  The  details  are  frequently  of  marvellous 
beauty;  the  arrangement,  notwithstanding  the  over- 
crowmng,  is  not  inharmonious,  although  in  combina^ 
tion  it  is  bizarre  and  whimsical.  The  rococo  artist 
obviously  intends  to  produce  not  only  picturesque 
effects,  but  a  demonstration  of  hia  unrestricted  power 
over  material  substances.  The  interior  decorations 
for  a  palace  built  at  Bruchsal  for  another  6ch5nbom, 
Bishop  of  Speyer,  are  magnificent,  though  simpler. 
For  a  third  Schiinbom  he  built  a  castle  at  Coblens 
which  was  likewise  distinguished  for  immense,  har- 
monious proportions  and  splendid  arrangement.  A 
palace  in  Wemeck  is  also  his  work.  He  completed 
the  designs  for  palaces  in  Vienna,  Carlaruhe,  etc.  The 
cathedru  of  Speyer,  destroyed  by  the  French  army,  was 
restored  by  Neumann  with  a  clever  adaptation  of  the 
existing  conditions.  In  the  facade,  which  was  later 
removM,  he  followed  the  prevailing  taste  in  every  de- 
tail. In  the  restoration  of  the  west  side  of  Maim 
cathedra!  he  was  unsuccessfu!,  and  more  so  with  his 
piecework  on  the  cathedral  of  Wdribur^.  In  addition 
to  these  restorations  he  built  the  Pilgnms'  church  at 
Vieriehnheiligen,  and  the  collegiate  church  at  Neres- 
heim,  both  important  buildinga,  with  oval  spires,  vast 
areas,  and  stately  proportions.  They  are  in  rococo 
style,  which  is  no  longer  attributed  entirely  to  him. 
Among  his  other  works  are  the  Elominican  church  at 
Wiirzburg,  the  family  chapel  of  the  SchOnboms  in  the 
same  place,  and  the  church  at  Grdeweinstein.  He 
made  numerous  designs  for  parterres,  buildings  for 
practical  purposes,  and  objecte  of  handicraft.  He  was 
a  product  of  his  age,  thou^  he  towered  above  it  by 
reason  of  the  unusual  artistic  talent  with  which  nature 
had  endowed  him.  More  recent  times  have,  within 
certain  Umits,  justified  his  choice  of  style. 

DoniH,  Gu€h.  d^  dtaitclitn  BauJbutui  (ElBrliii,  18851:  Faiivraii. 
each,  dv  drulicAcn  KunK,  III  (Leipiig.  1S6S|:  Kdhh.  AUa. 
XunilaHcA.  (Nev  York.  CinciiuiKti.  CbigicD,  1600). 

G.  GlHTHANN. 

Nsunuim,  JohnNepomuceke,  Venerabli,  fourth 
Bishop  of  PhUadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  U.  S.  A.,  b.  at 
Pischatiti,  Bohemia,  28  March,  I8I1,  «noneoualy  set 


VsNEBiBix  Joan  Nsroitucnn 


signs  of  a  vocation  to  the  priesthood,  and  entered  the 
aeminaiyof  Budweisin  1S31.     A  profound  theolo^an, 
thorou^y  versed  not  only  in  all  branches  of  sacred 
learning  but  in  the  natural  sciences  as  well,  parUcu- 
larly  in  botany,  he  spoke  fluently  many  Slavic  dialects 
and  at  least  eight  modem  lansuages,  beeidee  bong 
master  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,     When  Kahop 
of  Ptuladelphia  he  learned  Iriah  t«  help  the  Iiish  im- 
mi^^ranta  in  his  diocese.     Finishing  his  course  at  the 
Umversity  of   Prague  with  distinction  in  August, 
1835,  he  returned  to  Budweis,  his  nKtJve  diocene,  for 
ordination.     While  at  the  seminary,  the  letters  of 
Father    Bara^    afterwards    Bishop   of   Marquette^ 
Michigan,  wntten 
to    the    Leopold 
Missionary    Soci- 
ety, inspired  Neu- 
mann   with     the- 
desire    of    conse- 
crating himself  to 
the  American  mis- 
sions.    Accord- 
ingly,  while  yet  a 


was  adopted,  and 
(25  June,  1836) 
ordained  by  Bish- 
op Dubois  of  New 
York,  who  sent 
him  without  delay 
to  western  New 
York,  where  he 
laboured  for  four 
years  amid  incred- 
ible  hardslups.  In  1840  he  entered  the  Redemptorist 
Congregation,  and  was  the  first  of  its  members  pro- 
fessed in  America,  16  January,  1843.  For  three  years 
Neumann  was  superior  of  the  Redemptorista  at 
Pittsburg,  where  be  built  the  church  of  St.  Pliilo- 
mens  and  by  labours  especially  among  the  Germui- 
speaking  people,  won  the  gratitude  and  pr^se  of 
Bishop  O  Connor.  In  1846  he  was  made  vice-pro- 
vincial of  the  Redemptorista  in  America,  and  in  1852 
at  the  suggestion  of  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  Baltimore 
Hus  IX  gave  Father  Neumann  a  command  under 
obedience  to  accept  the  Bishopric  of  Philadelphia,  to 
which  he  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Keniick 
at  St.  Alpbonsus,  Baltimore,  28  March,  1852.  In  lus 
Bolicutude  for  his  flock  he  visited  the  larger  congr^^Sf 
tions  of  his  diocese  evei?  year  and  the  smaller  ones 
every  two  years,  remaining  several  days  in  the  coun- 
try places,  preaching^  hearing  confessions,  confirming, 
visiting,  and  anointmg  the  sick.  He  once  walked 
twenty-five  miles  and  back  to  confirm  one  boy. 

Indefatigable  in  the  cause  of  education,  both  eccled- 
Bstical  and  secular,  he  raised  the  standard  of  study 
and  discipline  at  the  diocesan  seminary  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  and  founded  (1859)  an  ecclesiastical  pre- 
paratory collie,  to  this  day  a  credit  and  a  blessing  to 
the  great  diocese  of  Philadelphia.  One  of  his  first 
acts  was  to  provide  Catholic  schools.  At  his  conse- 
cration (1852)  there  were  but  two  parochial  schools  in 
Philadelphia:  at  his  death  eight  years  later,  their  num- 
ber was  nearly  one  hundred.  The  boys  be  entrusted 
to  the  Christian  Brothers,  and  the  girls  to  different 
nstorhoods:  St,  Joseph,  Charity,  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary,  Notre  Dame  of  Namur  and  Notre  Dame  of 
Mumch.  These  last  he  helped  to  establish  firmly  in 
the  United  States,  and  befriended  in  many  ways.  He 
introduced  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  France 
to  take  charge  of  an  industrial  school.  At  the  advice 
of  IHuB  IX  he  founded  the  Philadelphia  branch  of  the 
Siflten  of  St.  FMnda,  and  he  was  also  the  staunch 


NSUMATft 


774 


MfUTftA 


ftiend  of  the  Colored  Oblate  Sisters  in  Baltimore, 
whom  by  his  tact  and  charity  he  saved  from  dissolu- 
tion. In  five  years  he  erected  fifty  churches  and  com- 
pleted the  exterior  of  the  cathedral.  Conspicuous  at 
the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  (1852),  he  was 
one  of  the  American  bishops  invited  by  Pius  IX  to 
Rome  in  1854  for  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception.  Noted  for  his  devotion  to 
the  Most  Blessed  sacrament,  Neumann  was  the  first 
American  bishop  to  introduce  the  Forty  Hours  devo- 
tion into  his  diocese  in  1853;  he  also  inaugurated  the 
Eractice  now  in  vogue  in  many  places  of  reciting  the 
itany  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  Rosary  before 
Hi^  Mass  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days.  His  remains 
lie  interred  in  a  vault  before  the  altar  in  the  lower 
chapel  of  St.  Peter's  Redemptorist  church,  Philadel- 
phia. Neumann  left  no  published  works  except  two 
catechisms  of  Christian  Doctrine,  which  received  the 
approbation  of  the  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
a  Bible  history,  confraternity  manuals,  a  Latin  pamph- 
let on  the  Forty  Hours,  and  Acts  of  the  synods  neld  by 
him  every  two  years.  His  pastoral  letters  are  remark- 
able for  their  solidity,  beauty,  and  unction.  On  15 
December,  1896,  he  received  the  title  of  Venerable  and 
the  authorities  of  Rome  have  under  consideration  the 
acts  of  the  Process  of  Beatification. 

BBBasB,  Lehen  und  Wirken  (New  York.  1883),  tr.  GRmu  (New 
York.  1884)-  MaontbiC  Short  Life  (St.  Louis.  1897);  Clabkb, 
Uvea  ofDeeeaaea  aiahopa  in  U.  S.,  II  (New  York.  1872),  431  aq.; 
Shba,  Hittory  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  U  S.,  IV  (New  York, 
1892),  397  sq.;  Funeral  Obeequies  of  Right  Rev.  John  N.  Neumann 
(Philadelphia,  I860):  Ave  Maria,  XXX.  181;  Berichte  der  Leo- 
poUinen  Stiftung,  XXV,  33;  Metropolitan,  I- VI;  Xcw  York  Free 
wxn*e  Journal  (7  Aug.,  1852);  Pittsburg  Catholic,  IX,  245:  XVI, 
264:  Catholic  Herald,  XX,  XXVI:  Catholic  Mirror,  I,  X;  The 
Catholic  Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  I  (New  York,  19()8).  23G-37; 
Anur.  Bed.  Review.  XVI,  393  aq.,  XXIII,  315  aq..  XXXIII.  182 
■q.  (an  unpubiiahea  letter  and  facsimile). 

Joseph  Wissel. 

Neumayr,  Franz,  preacher,  writer  on  theological, 
controversial  and  ascctical  subjects,  and  author  ot 
many  dramas  on  sacred  themes  in  Latin,  b.  at  Munich, 
17  January,  1697;  d.  at  Augsburg,  1  May,  1765.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  3  October,  1712,  and  after 
his  studies  in  the  Society,  taught  rhetoric  and  belles 
lettres  for  ten  years.  lie  then  for  two  years  preached 
on  the  missions,  when  he  was  made  director  of  the 
celebrated  Latin  sodality  at  Munich,  a  post  which  he 
filled  with  great  credit  for  eleven  years.  From  1752 
to  1763  he  preached  at  the  cathedral  of  Augsburg  with 
extraordinary  success.  His  controversial  sermons, 
directed  in  a  great  part  against  the  false  teach  in  ps  of 
the  Lutherans,  and  in  particular  against  the  apostate 
monk  Rothfischer,  and  Chladonium,  were  of  a  solidity 
of  argument  that  baffled  the  efforts  of  his  adversaries. 
Father  Neumajrr  produced  a  surprising  number  of 
volumes:  Latin  plays  for  the  use  of  his  Latin  sodality, 
which  periodically  staged  such  productions  for  the 
pleasure  and  edification  of  the  literary  men  of  Munich; 
sermons  which  he  had  delivered  in  the  pulpit  of 
Augsburg  cathedral;  works  on  asceticism,  treatises 
on  Rhetoric  and  Poetry,  and  some  essays  on  moral 
theology  in  defence  of  the  Jesuit  system.  Some  of 
his  Latin  plays  were  republished  in  his  two  collections 
"Theatrum  Asceticum^'  and  "Theatrum  Politicum". 
"Theatrum  Asceticum,  sive  Meditationes  Sacrae  in 
Theatro  Congregationis  Latins  de  B.  V.  Mariae,  ab 
Angelo  Salutatae  exhibitee  Monachi  vemo  jejunii 
tempore  ab  anno  1739  usque  ad  annum  1747  ",871  pp., 
Ingolstadt  and  Augsburg,  1747  (5  editions),  contains 
dramatic  renderings  of  such  subjects  as  the  conversion 
of  St.  Augustine,  aevotion  to  the  B.  V.  Mary,  the  evil 
of  sin,  the  fear  of  God,  Divine  Mercy  and  Love. 
"Theatrum  Politicum  sive  Tragoediae  ad  commenda- 
tionem  Virtutis  et  Vitiorum  detestationem,  etc.", 
Augsburg  and  Ingolstadt,  1760,  518  pp.,  contains 
episodes  from  the  lives  of  Eutropius,  Papinianus,  Ana- 
Btasius,  Dicorus,  Tobias,  and  Sara,  etc.  One  amusing 
title  which  occurs  is  "Proceaeus  iup'»'^^«''«  '»«ntra  fures 


temporis".  These  plays,  besides  numerous  others, 
were  published  also  in  separate  booklets.  On  his 
ascetical  writings  probably  the  most  famous  and  most 
valuable  is  the  excellent  httle  book  ''Idea  Theologis 
Asceticse,  Scientiam  Sanctorum  exhibens",  a  posthu* 
mous  work  first  published  in  Rome  by  Alexander 
Monaldi  in  1839.  It  has  gone  through  five  editions 
in  Latin  and  has  been  translated  into  various  lan- 
guages. The  English  edition  bears  the  title:  "The 
Science  of  the  Spiritual  Life."  He  wrote  also  several 
works  in  defence  of  Probabilism.  Of  his  literary 
treatises  the  ''Idea  Rhetorices"  deals  with  the  pre- 
cepts and  use  of  Rhetoric;  "Idea  Poesis"  is  a  similar 
volume  on  poetry  and  in  the  title  he  t«lls  us  the  uses  of 
the  art,  "  Ad  Ingeniorum  Culturam.  Animorum  Oblec- 
tationem  ac  Morum  Doctrinam  — ends  which  he 
had  very  well  kept  in  mind  in  his  own  dramatic  works. 
A  tribute  to  Father  Neumayr  on  the  occasion  of  his 

J'ubilee  in  religion  styles  him:  "The  Champion  of 
'"aith  and  Good  Morals,  a  Follower  and  Rivad  of  the 
great  Paul,  the  Hammer  of  the  Heretics,  PhysidAn 
of  Sinners  and  Oracle  of  the  Just!"  His  works,  &s 
enumerated  in  Sommervogel,  number  112  books  and 
pamphlets. 

SoMUSBTOOEL,  BiMtothkijua  de  la  Compa^ie  de  JSaus,  V,  new 
edition;  ds  Backer,  BibUoUiiQue  daa  Beriaatna  de  la  Compagnie  de 
Jiaua;  Knbllsb  id  KirchenUx.^  a,  v. 

Edward  F.  Gare6ch£. 

Nmiaohl,  Diocese  of  (Hung.  BeszterczebAnta; 
Lat.  Neosoliensis),  founded  in  1776  by  Maria 
Theresa.  Cardinal  Peter  PazmAny  had  already  con- 
templated founding  four  new  sees  in  order  to  relieve 
the  Archdiocese  of  Gran ;  one  of  these  was  Neusohl,  but 
this  project  was  dropped  in  1636.  Instead  of  four 
sees,  four  Jesuit  colleges  were  established  in  Kassa, 
Neusohl,  Kossy,  and  Safron.  After  the  suppression 
of  the  Jesuit  Order  the  project  of  the  new  diocese  was 
again  taken  up.  On  7  December,  1775,  Maria  Theresa 
informed  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Gran  that  it  had 
been  decided  to  establish  a  new  see,  and  asked  the 
chapter  to  state  what  revenues  would  be  assigned 
to  it.  On  11  January,  1776,  the  new  diocese  was 
founded  by  royal  decision,  and  on  13  March,  the  papal 
decree  was  made  public.  Baron  Frans  Berchtold  was 
named  the  first  bishop  (1776-93),  and  in  1778-85  held 
the  first  canonical  visitation.  His  ^orts  to  benefit 
the  diocese  materially  were  imsucceasful,  and  the 
great  fire  of  1782,  which  destroyed  the  episcopal  resi- 
dence, had  such  a  bad  effect  upon  the  see,  that  Joseph 
II  contemplated  giving  it  up,  and  planned  the  trans- 
fer of  Berchtold  to  the  bee  of  Gran,  but  the  bishop  op- 
posed the  plan,  as  well  as  that  of  the  union  of  the  dio- 
cese with  that  of  Ss^kes  or  Ro8ssny6.  The  seminary, 
lyceum  and  the  four  archdeaneries  were  founded  m 
the  time  of  Bishop  Anton  Mackay  (1818-23).  A  dioc- 
esan synod  was  held  at  Neusohl  21  November,  1821, 
where  the  diocesan  constitution  was  drawn  up,  which 
is  valid  to  this  day.  Bishop  Joseph  Rudnyciuszky 
(1844-50)  was  persecuted  by  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment on  account  of  his  political  views,  and  on  20  Au- 
gust, 1846,  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  six  years'  im- 
Srisonment,  and  deprived  of  his  episcopal  honours. 
[e  retracted  in  1850,  whereupon  he  was  released  from 
prison.  Among  the  more  recent  bishops  Arnold 
Tpoizi  was  distinguished.  The  present  bishop  is  Wol- 
fang  Radnoi.  Since  1835  the  cathedral  chapter  pos- 
sesses its  own  insignia,  and  is  composed  of  six  mem- 
bers; there  are  also  six  titular  canons.  The  diocese 
has  a  provost,  112  parishes,  and  371  chapels;  there  are 
168  priests  and  49  clerics^  2  monasteries  and  2  nunner- 
ies.   In  1902  the  Cathohc  population  numbered  in  all 

223,779  Bouls. 

Dae  Katolische  Ungam  (Catholie  Humffary)  (Badmpask.  1801) ; 
Schematiemue  duaoeaia  Naoaolienaia  pro  anno  190S» 

A.  AidXbt. 

Neutra  (Nitria;  Ntttra),  Digcbbb  of  (Nitribn- 
sis) ,  in  Western  Hungary,  a  sufifragani  of  Gran.     The 


SEVADA  775  HSTADA 

exactdateofitsfoundationiH  unknown,    Someattrib-  winters  are  generally  long  and  Bomelimee  severe.    In 
ute  the  foundation  to  Fridieit,  wife  of  Rosemund,  the  late  spring  and  early  autumn  there  prevails  a  warm 
Marconian  chief,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  westerly  wind  which  has  often  disastrous  effects,  as  it 
but  without  any  more  evidence  than  the  alleged  foun-  is  generally  accompanied  by  sand  storm.    The  mean 
dation  by  Archoiahop  Wolf  of  Lorch.     Nor  is  the  see  temperature  in  January  is  28°,  while  that  of  summer  is 
a  direct  continuation  of  one  which  existed  in  Svato-  71°.    The  average  rainfall  throughout  the  year  is  ten 
pluk's   time  and  was  suffragan   of  Pra^-Potesover;  inches,  and  the  greater  part  of  this  precipitation  comee 
neither  is  it  probable  that  the  saintly  King  Stephen  between  the  months  from  December  to  May. 
founded  it.     The  see  was  probably  founded  in  the         Population. — The   history  of  the  population  of 
time  of  King  Cotoman  about  1105-07,  although  St.  Nevada  since  1850  presents  some  of  the  most  inter- 
Ladislaua  hwl  it  in  contemplation,  for  a  royal  docu-  esting  figures  in  the  United  States  Census  records, 
ment  still  emts,  in  which  ne  endows  the  church  at  From  the  time  of 
Neutra  with  much  property.     The  church,  dedicated  the    early    settle- 
to  St.  Emmeram,  was  there  in  the  lifetime  of  St.  menu  in  1850-60 
Stephen,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  endowed  by  to  the  years  of  the 
Queen  Gisela.     Gervasius  whs  the  first  bishop  (1105-  great   niining   de- 
14),  and  was  followed  bv  Nicholas  (1133).    The  sue-  velopmenta    in 
cessorsof  St.  Lad islaua  increased  the  revenues  of  the  1860- 1S80,     the 

see  to  which  the  city  of  Neutra  belonged  from  the  mid-  population  rapidly  i 

die  of  the  thirteenth  centurv.    The  cathedral  chap-  increased  from    a 

t«T  was  in  all  probability  established  at  the  same  time  few  hundred   pio-  ' 
as  the  see;  but  until  the  seventeenth  century  very  neers     to    60,000 
little  is  known  about  it.     There  were  only  nine  canons  people,  while  after 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  the  number  was  in-  188.^  (demonetiia- 
creased  to  ten  in  1780,    The  see  shared  the  fate  of  the  tion  of  silver)  it  de- 
country,  the  invasion  of  the  Turks,  the  HusaitES,  in-  clined    until     the 
temal  ouarrels,  all  of  which  wrought  much  mischief,  end  of  the  century, 
especially  the  disastrous  battle  of  Mohacs  (1526).  and  from  that  lime                  „           jT 
The  see  was  in  time  deprived  of  its  revenues  which  began  to  increase                             "    ""'*"* 
tell  into  the  hands  of  the  laity.     Valentine  Toorch  very  rapidly.     The  figures  showing  the  population  of 
first  had  possession  of  them,  and  then  later  Alexius  the  state  since  1860,  according  to  U.  S.  Census  Re- 
ThurdiJ,  after  which  the  latter' a  brother,  Bishop  Frani  ports,  are  significant  of  these  fluctuations:  1860,6,857; 
Thurdd,  acquired  them,  but  later  on  became  a  Prot-  1870,43,491;  1880,62,226;  1890,  45,761;  1900,42,335; 
eetant.    The  Reformation  found  a  foothold  in  Neutra,  1910,  81,875. 

owing  to  the  aympathy  of  certain  noble  families.        Mineral  PBonccnoN, — The  mineral  production 

Bishop  Paul  Bomemissoa  tried  to  restore  the  financial  of  Nevada  consists  chiefly  of  Kold  and  silver.    For  the 

conditions  of  the  see,  but  unsuceeaafuUy;  during  the  year  1908  the  entire  mineral  production,  consisting 

wars  with  the  Turks  the  chapter  was  oblieed  to  flee  chiefly  of  gold,  silver,  and  a  Uttic  lead,  was  valued  at 

and  only  returned  to  Neutra  in  1607.     Bishop  Frani  $19,043,820,  while  in  1909  the  gold  production  alone 

Forzach  was  the  first  bishop  to  oppose  the  spread  of  was  valued  at  $15,908,400  and  that  of  silver  at  $4,657,- 

the  Reformation  (1596~1607);hisworkwBscBrTiedan  000,  or  a  total  production  of  $20,565,400  in  gold  and 

by  his  successors,  especially  by  the  Jesuits,  who  since  silver  alone. 

1645  worked  leBlously  tor  the  re-eat ablish ment  of  the         Aoiticcri.TnRK  and  Stock  Raibinq. — The  agricul- 

Catholic  religion.     In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  tural  products  of  Nevada  for  1909  were  valued  thus: 

centuries  religious  orders  settled  in  the  diocese.     The  wheat,  $1,074,000;  oats,  $1,165,000;  barley,  $228,000; 

cathedral  as  it  stands  to-day  was  erected  by  Ladislaus  potatoes,  $459,000;  hay,  $5,187,000.     From  these  fig- 

Erdodyl  (1796-36).     Among  the  more  famous'bishops  ures  it  can  he  seen  that  the  [iroduction  of  hay  is  bm 

was  August  Roskov&ny  (1859-92),  famed  as  a  theo-  important  one,  being  greater  in  1909  than  the  entire 

logian  and  canonist.      Bishop  Emmerich  Bende  has  production  of  silver.    In  stock  raising  the  most  impoi^ 

been  bishop  since  1893;  his  coadjutor  with  right  of  tant  industiT  is  that  of  sheep.     In  1909  the  entire 

succession  is  Count  William  Batthyany.     The  see  in-  number  of  ^eep  in  the  state  was  1,585,000  and  the 

eludes  a  |iart  of  the  counties  of  Neutra  and  Trenescen,  wool  clip  amounted  to  8,754,720  lbs.    Cattle  raising  is 

and  is  divided  into  4  archdeaneries.    There  are  148  also  an  important  indust^. 

parishes,  237  priests,  194  of  whom  are  parish  priests;  Hibtorv, — The  fimt  European  to  visit  what  is 
also  15  religious  orders,  numbering  145  membeTs.  of  now  the  State  of  Nevada,  was,  in  all  probability,  the 
both  sexes.  In  1007  the  Catholic  population  num-  Franciscan  Friar  Francisco  Gdrces.  Father  Gdjres 
bered  350,398.  The  cathedral  chapter  is  composed  started  from  Sonora,  in  northern  Mexico,  with  Colonel 
of  ten  canons,  and  there  are  six  titular  canons,  also  3  Ania  for  California  in  1775.  In  this  famous  journey, 
titular  abbots.  Gilrces  stopped  at  the  junction  of  the  Gila  and  Colo- 
Die  KmOaii  und  siadia  Uai/arn4.  KnmiiiUNiriiTa  (Budapeit,  rado  Rivers,  in  order  to  explore  the  surrounding  coun- 
J*i^^i/K^n^iTiJ>V-^;\CimrHJr^rj.Um^  ^^  ^d  estabhsh  a  mission.     No  settlements  were 

<Pa«D,  1776);  Ufmaria  epiicaporum  aiiritniium  (Pnen,  1K35J.  made  or  mission  founded,  but  from  the  account  of 

A.  ALoXsr.  Father  Gdrcea'  journey  as  given  by  Father  Pedro 
Font,  who  accompanied  Girces  ana  wrote  a  fairly 

Nenu,  a  Western  state  of  the  United  States,  complete  history  of  their  travels,  it  seems  practically 
bounded  on  the  North  by  Or^on  and  Idaho,  on  the  certain  that  they  visited  Nevada,  which  was  then,  and 
East  by  Utah  and  Arizona,  and  on  the  South  and  Wpst  in  fact  until  1850-60,  a  nameless  desert.  The  next  to 
by  CaUfomia.  It  Ues  between  the  latitudes  of  35°  (in  visit  Nevada  were  also  Franciscan  miesionariee. 
its  extreme  southern  point)  and  42°  north,  and  he-  These  were  Pr.  Atanasio  Dominlquei  and  Fr.  Silvestre 
tween  the  meridians  of  1 14°  and  120°  longitude.  The  Velez  de  Escalante,  who  on  their  journey  to  Monte- 
extreme  length  of  the  stale  from  north  to  south  is  483  rey,  California,  turned  to  the  East,  crossed  the  Colo- 
miles,  while  its  extreme  breadth  from  east  to  west  is  rado  River  at  the  37"  parallel,  crossed  the  extreme 
320  miles.  The  total  area  of  the  state  of  Nevada  is  southern  part  of  what  is  now  Nevada,  and  proceeded 
110,590  square  miles.  to  explore  Utah.    These  friars  also  merely  explored 

CiJMATB.— The  climate  of  Nevada  is  dry,  pleasant,  these  regions  and  no  settlements  were  made  nor  mis- 
and  healthful.  Summers  are,  as  a  rule,  very  warm,  sions  established.  After  these  visits  of  the  Francis- 
except  iji  the  hi^  mountainous  districts,  while  the  cans  it  is  veiy  probable  that  the  military  expeditions 


HIVADA 


776 


ME7ADA 


from  New  Mexico  from  time  to  time  reached  the  Colo- 
rado River  near  Nevada,  but  we  have  no  record  of  any 
expedition  having  actually  croeeed  over  into  the  ter- 
ntoiy  in  question.  In  1825,  however,  Peter  Skeen 
O^en,  an  American  trapper  from  the  Columbia 
River  m  the  North-West,  accompanied  by  a  few  men. 
started  to  explore  the  country  to  the  south-east  ana 
reached  the  nver  now  known  as  the  Humboldt  River, 
in  the  present  State  of  Nevada,  which  was  in  1825  a 
namdees  country,  lying  between  California  (which 
was  then  an  indefinite  stretch  of  coun^  north  of 
southern  Odifomia)  and  New  Mexico,  which  included 
in  1825,  Arisona  and  parts  of  Utah  ana  Colorado.  All 
the  above  territories,  with  unsettled  boundaries  on  the 
north  and  east,  belonged  to  Mexico  until  the  treaty  of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo  in  1848,  at  the  close  of  the  \lexi- 
can  War.  when  they  were  ceded  to  the  United  States. 
Long  before  these  events,  however,  Utah  and  Nevada 
were  settled  by  Americans  and  even  provisional  gov* 
emment  estabfished.  After  the  explorations  of  Ogden 
and  his  companions,  American  adventurers,  mostly 
trappers,  went  to  Utah  and  Nevada,  amon^  wnom  was 
Kit  Carson  (then  living  in  Taos,  New  Mexico),  who  in 
company  with  many  others  visited  the  country  in  1831, 
1833, 1844, 1845.  In  1843-44,  Fremont  with  Carson 
and  Godey,  conducted  various  explorations,  largely 
huntinx  expeditions,  into  Nevada,  and  in  1844-45, 
ElishaStevens,  with  a  small  party,  among  whom  were 
two  women^  passed  through  Nevada  on  his  journey 
from  the  Missouri  River  country  to  California.  This 
was  the  first  caravan  to  traverse  all  this  stretch  of  ter- 
ritory. After  the  Mexican  cession  of  1848  and  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California,  Nevada  was  frequently 
traversed  by  the  gold  seekers  and  other  western  pio- 
neers on  their  way  to  California.  Shortly  after  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  the  Mor- 
mons who  had  migrated  westwcupd  and  built  the  city 
of  Salt  Lake,  established  the  State  of  Deseret,  a  com- 
monwealth which  was  to  include  what  is  now  Utah, 
Nevada.  Arizona,  parts  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  Ore- 
gon, ana  California.  These  Mormons  found  it  profit- 
able business  to  meet  the  travellers  on  their  way  to 
CiUifomia  and  furnish  them  provisions.  In  these 
trading  expeditions  they  advanced  south  and  west 
from  salt  Lake  City,  and  in  1849,  they  founded  the 
first  settlement  in  what  is  now  Nevada,  near  the  Car- 
son River.  In  1850,  Congress  organized  the  territo- 
ries of  Utah  (what  is  now  Utah  and  Nevada),  New 
Mexico  (what  is  now  New  Mexico  and  Arisona),  and 
the  State  of  California.  The  territory  now  com- 
prised in  the  State  of  Nevada  was  organised  as  Carson 
County,  Utah,  under  the  political  control,  therefore, 
of  the  Mormons.  Congress  had  fixed  tne  western 
boundary  of  the  Territory  of  Utah  as  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada. The  fact  that  the  Sierra  Nevada  was  continu- 
ally kept  in  mind  as  the  barrier  between  Utah  and 
California,  may  have  given  an  occasion  to  call  the  ad- 
jacent territory  east  ofCalifomia,  Nevada,  though  the 
name  does  not  come  into  prominence  until  1860.  By 
1856,  the  mines  were  being  strongly  developed  and 
American  immi^tion  was  rapidly  settling  Carson 
County.  A  pobtical  conflict  between  the  Mormons 
and  the  Gentiles  for  the  control  of  the  governmental 
affairs  of  Carson  County  (which  included  practically 
all  of  what  is  now  Nevada)  lasted  for  several  years. 
In  1865  the  citizens  of  this  county,  mostly  gentiles, 
petitioned  the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  be 
annexed  to  California  or  be  organized  as  a  separate 
territory.  The  Government  gave  little  heed  to  these 
demands,  and  for  five  years  the  political  struggle 
raged  fiercely  between  the  two  factions.  Congress  at 
last  put  an  end  to  these  troubles,  and  in  1861  Carson 
County,  Utah,  was  organized  as  the  Territory  of  Ne- 
vada. James  W.  Nye  was  appointed  as  the  first  ter- 
ritorial ^vemor.  Three  years  later  a  constitutional 
convention  was  held,  a  State  constitution  adopted. 
•sd  in  1864  Nevada  was  admitted  as  a  State,  and 


H.  G.  BUuadel  was  elected  the  first  governor.  During 
the  3rear8  1865-85,  the  material  developments  in  Ne- 
vada made  rapid  strides,  though  continiudly  hampered 
by  a  heaver  debt  contracted  since  the  eariy  days  A  ter- 
ritorial legislatures. 

CrovERNMSNT. — Nevada  was  a  part  of  the  Territory 
of  Utah  from  1850  to  1861,  a  separate  territory  bom 
1861  to  1864,  and  oiganized  as  a  SUte  in  1864.  The 
State  constitution  when  first  adopted  granted  numer- 
ous privileges  to  mining  interests.  While  at  first  tUs 
seemed  to  oe  an  incentive  to  the  development  of  the 
rising  mining  industries,  it  soon  proved  to  be  unfair 
to  the  commonwealth  at  large.  A  long  aeries  of  liti- 
gations, costly  to  both  sides,  ensued  between  the  State 
and  the  mine  owners,  in  view  of  the  amendments  to 
the  constitution,  which  struck  out  idl  parts  whidi  gave 
special  privileges  to  the  mining  industry.  The  State 
constitution  after  many  amendments  is  now  a  »fe- 
guard  to  the  State  and  to  the  rights  of  its  citiaens.  At 
present,  Nevada  is  represented  in  the  United  States 
Congress  by  two  senators  and  one  representative. 

Education. — ^At  the  time  of  tne  admission  of 
Nevada  as  a  territoiy  in  1861,  there  was  no  public- 
school  system  and  there  were  no  schools.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  territory  was  about  7000-8000  people,  but 
there  were  only  four  or  five  small  private  scmoois.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  organise  a  school  system  in  1861, 
but  be^rond  the  appointment  of  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  and  the  establishment  of  a  few 
schools  with  little  or  no  funds,  practically  nothing 
was  done  until  1864,  when  Nevada  was  organised  as  a 
State.  The  number  of  schools  was  then  eighteen,  and 
by  1865  there  were  thirty-seven,  and  the  numl^r  of 
pupils  was  about  1000.  At  present,  Nevada  has  a 
complete  system  of  education,  gradually  developed, 
whicn  begins  with  the  primarv  school  and  ends  with 
the  State  University.  The  ed.ucational  affaire  of  the 
State  are  controlled  and  managed  by  a  State  Board  of 
Education  consisting  of  the  State  governor,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  University,  and  the  State  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction.  The  State  is  divided  into 
five  educational  districts,  each  district  being  under 
the  sup)ervision  and  control  of  a  deputy  superintendent 
and  there  are  no  county  superintendents.  According 
to  the  law  of  the  State  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  eight  to  fourteen  years  are  compelled  to  attend 
school,  but  the  law  has  never  been  rigidly  enforced. 
At  present  (1908),  there  are  in  Nevada  17,583  children 
under  twenty-one  years  of  age,  of  whom  thirty-ei^t 
are  negroes  and  fifty  Mongouans.  Of  all  these,  6,733 
attend  the  public  schools  and  595  attend  private  and 
denominational  schools.  The  total  number  of  schools 
in  the  State  is  308  with  414  teachers.  There  are  two 
Catholic  schools  with  about  200  pupUs  and  an  orphan 
as\^um  under  the  care  of  religious. 

The  State  University  was  opened  in  1886.  It  is 
now  located  at  Reno  and  has  various  departments  of 
arts,  titerature,  science.  The  teaching  torce  consists 
of  fifty-four  professors,  assistant  pro^ssors,  and  in- 
structors, and  in  190&-10  the  attendance  was  220 
students.  The  annual  expenditures  are  at  present 
about  $200,000,  some  of  this  money  being  appro- 
priated for  building  purposes.  The  State  has  also  a 
mining  school,  located  at  Virginia  City,  with  about 
thirty  students. 

Religion. — ^The  first  Catholic  church  to  be  built 
in  Nevada  was  the  one  erected  by  Father  Gallagher, 
at  Genoa,  in  1861.  In  1862  the  church  was  blown 
down  and  another  built  in  its  place.  In  1864  Father 
Monteverde  erected  the  first  Catholic  church  at  Aus* 
tin,  and  in  1871  Father  Merril  built  the  first  diurch 
at  Reno.  The  efforts  of  these  first  sealous  priests 
were  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  Catholicism  in 
Nevada.  Nevada  has  at  present  no  bishop  and  the 
State  does  not  form  a  diocese.  The  eastern  half  of 
the  State,  east  of  the  117th  meridian,  includins  also 
Austin  and  the  country  bordering  on  tne  Reese  River 


777 


rAvx 


to  the  West  of  che  same  meridian,  belong  eocleoasti- 
cally  to  the  Diocese  of  Salt  Lake,  Provmce  of  San 
Francisco,  while  the  territory  west  of  the  117th  merid- 
ian, with  the  exception  of  Austin  and  the  country  bor- 
dering on  the  Reese  River,  belong  to  the  Diocese  of 
Sacramento,  of  the  same  province.  According  to  the 
Bureau  of  the  United  States  Census  (Bulletin  No.  103, 
Religious  Bodies,  1906)  the  Catholic  population  of 
Nevada  was  then  9,970,  or66%of  theentirerelif^ous 
population  of  the  State.  The  following  are  the  prmci- 
pal  denominations  of  the  State  and  the  church  mem- 
bers in  each:  Catholics  9,970,  or  66%  of  the  total; 
Episcopalians  1,210,  or  8%;  Latter  Day  Saints 
1,105,  or  7%;  Methodists  618,  or  4%;  Presbyterians 
520,  or  3M%;  Baptists  316,  or  2%. 

Catholic  ImmigraiUm, — Catholics  have  gone  toNe- 
vada  at  different  times,  along  with  the  general  influx 
of  population  into  the  Western  States  from  the  Middle 
States  in  1845-75.  Since  the  very  beginning  of  the 
history  of  the  State,  the  Catholic  Church  has  been  an 
important  factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  common- 
wealth and  the  welfare  and  education  of  the  people. 
The  difficulties  encountered  were  not  easy  to  overcome 
in  the  midst  of  an  unsettled,  careless,  and  often  law- 
less community  in  the  years  1850-70.  After  the  es- 
tablishments of  the  first  Catholic  churches  in  the  new 
country  by  Fathers  Gallagher,  Monteverde,  and  Mer- 
ril,  came  the  great  benefactor  Father  Monogue,  who 
in  1863  established  the  pioneer  benevolent  organizsr 
tion  of  Nevada  or  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  B^ievolent 
Society.  This  was  at  a  time  when  organizations  of 
this  kmd  were  very  much  in  need  in  the  western  coun- 
tries, and  the  praiseworthy  work  of  this  societv,  the 
chanties  of  which  were  extended  to  all,  regiurdless  of 
creed,  cannot  be  too  highly  commended.  Father 
Monogue  also  established  in  1864,  the  Nevada  orphsm 
asylum,  two  Catholic  schools.  St.  Mary's  school  for 

girls  and  St.  Vincent's  school  for  boys,  and  St.  Mary's 
ospital,  all  under  the  care  of  Sisters. 
Kdigioua  Polity. — ^The  State  constitution  guaran- 
tees to  all  individuals  absolute  freedom  of  worship  and 
toleration  of  religious  sentiment.  By  statutory  law, 
all  amusements,  business  transactions,  openmg  of 
saloons  and  gambling,  are  forbidden  on  Sundays,  but 
the  law  has  never  b^n  rigidly  enforced.  There  is  no 
law  demanding  a  compulsory  administration  of  a  fixed 
form  of  oath,  and  a  simple  affirmation  or  negation 
suffices  before  the  law.  There  are  no  statutory  laws 
of  any  kind  that  forbid  blasphemy  or  profanity.  It  is 
customary  to  open  the  Lc^lature,  the  school  year 
at  the  State  University  and  many  of  the  public  schools 
with  prayer,  but  there  are  no  laws  either  for  or  against 
such  practices.  By  statutory  law,  however,  rehgious 
instruction  of  any  kind  is  absolutely  forbidden  in  the 
public  schools,  and  the  public  school  funds  cannot  be 
used  for  sectarian  purposes.  Sunday,  New  Year's 
Day,  Washington's  Birthday,  (Admission  Day), 
Thanksgiving,  and  Christmas  are  designated  by  law 
as  non-judicial  days  and  are  observed  asl^al  holidays. 
There  is  no  law  reco^zing  religious  hoU£iys  as  such. 
No  statutory  law  exists  as  regards  the  seal  of  confes- 
sion, but  it  is  presumed  that  the  same  is  inviolable. 
Churches  may  oe  incorporated.  All  church  property 
that  is  used  only  for  church  purposes  is  by  law  exempt 
from  taxation,  and  malicious  injuiy  to  churches  or 
church  property  is  by  law  punishable  by  fine  or  even 
imprisonment.  The  lawfully  licensed  cler^  of  all 
denominations  is  exempt  from  jury  and  military  ser- 
vice. Marriage  is  recognized  by  law  as  a  civil  con- 
tract. It  may  be  performed  by  any  licensed  minister 
or  a  civil  judse.  With  the  consent  of  the  parents 
marriage  may  be  contracted  by  a  man  and  woman  of 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  sixteen  respectivdy ,  and  with- 
out the  parents'  consent  only  at  the  ages  of  twenty-one 
and  eignteen  or  over  respectively.  The  parties  con- 
tracting marriage  must  not  be  nearer  kin  than  second 
cousins,  or  cousins  in  the  second  blood.    The  divorce 


sixth  century  ("Echos  d'Orient",  X. 
city  of  Neve  is  referred  to  by  George  or 


laws  of  the  State  are  very  liberal.  By  the  State  law, 
divorces  may  be  granted  for  impotency,  adultery, 
desertion,  infamy,  cruelty,  drunkeimess,  or  neglect  to 
provide. 

Bancboft.  HiUory  of  Nevada^  Colorado  and  Wyoming  (San 
Franoisoo.  1890) ;  B\^n%al  report  of  the  State  SuperintmdMt  of 
Public  Irutruelion  of  Nevada  (Caraon  City*  1009) ;  Bureau  of  the 
Ceneue  of  the  United  Statee:  Bulletin  No,  lOS,  Religume  Bodies 
(Waahington,  1906);  CxmiNO,  Compiled  Lowe  of  the  StaU  of 
Nevada,  1861-1900  (Caraon  City.  1900);  Catholic  Directory  (Mil- 
waukee and  New  York.  1910) ;  Hietory  of  Nevada  (Oakland,  1881) : 
International  Year  Book  (New  York.  1909);  RepoH  of  the  United 
Statee  Commiaeioner  of  Education  (Waahinston.  1908,  1909); 
Univereity  of  Nevada,  Regieterfor  190&-10  (Caraon  City.  1910). 

AxTBEuo  M.  Ebpinoba. 

N6T6,  titular  see  of  Arabia,  suffragan  of  Bostra. 
Two  of  its  bi^op«  are  known:  Petronius,  who  at* 
tended  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in  431,  and  Jobius, 
who  was  present  at  that  of  Chalcedon  in  451.  Isaac, 
a  third  bii^op,  mentioned  by  Le  Quien  about  540 
C'Oriens  christ.",  II,  864)  was  not  a  bishop  of  Neve 
but  of  Nineve,  and  lived  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury ("Echos  d'Orient".  IV,  11).  The  Diocese  of 
Neve  is  noticed  in  the  ''Notitia  episcopatuum  "  of  An- 
tioch  in  the 
145),  and  the 

Cyprus  ("Descriptio  orbis  romani".  ed.  Gelzer.  54)  in 
the  next  century.  The  "Revue  bibUque"  published 
(III,  625)  some  Greek  inscriptions  from  the  locality. 
A  large  Mussulman  village  called  Nawa,  in  the  Hau- 
ran,  now  occupies  the  site  of  this  former  see  and  the 
tower  of  the  ancient  Christian  church  is  still  visible. 
Neve  must  not  be  confounded  with  Mount  Nebo,  situ- 
ated about  94  miles  south  of  the  town. 

8.  VailhA. 

Ndre,  Fblix-Jean-Baptibte-Josisph,  orientalist 
and  pMlologist,  b.  at  Ath,  Belgium,  13  June,  1816;  d. 
at  Louvain,  23  May,  1893.  His  parents  were  devout 
Catholics.  Graduated  with  distinction  from  the 
Catholic  college  of  LiUe,  N^ve  completed  a  course  of 
academic  studies  at  the  university  of  Louvain,  obtain- 
ing in  1838  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and 
Letters.  His  pronounced  taste  for  classical  and  ori- 
ental languages  led  him  to  pursue  higher  studies  under 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  Europe. 
F^fessors  Lassen  of  Bonn,  Tiersch  of  Munich,  and 
Bumouf  of  Paris.  He  became  acquainted  with  many 
oriental  scholars^  some  of  them  already  famous,  others 
destined  like  himself  to  win  fame  in  after  years. 
Among  these  were  Muir,  Wilson.  A.  Weber.  &uhn. 
Max  MUller,  and  the  distinguisned  orientalist  and 
Catholic  priest.  Dr.  Windischmann. 

In  1841  N^ve  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Greek 
and  Latin'  Literature  in  the  University  of  Louvain, 
and  while  teaching  the  classics,  gave  a  course  of  studies 
in  the  Sanskrit  language  and  Uterature.  This  work  he 
kept  up  with  unsparing  energy  and  marked  success  for 
thirty-six  years,  at  the  same  time  making  known  the 
results  of  his  studies  in  books  and  in  articles  con- 
tributed to  the  "Journal  Asiatique",  "Annales  de 
Philosophie  Chr^tienne",  "  Correspondant ".  and 
other  periodicals.  When  in  1877  ne  was  released 
from  ms  arduous  duties  with  the  title  of  professor 
emeritus,  his  industry  continued  unabated,  and  for 
the  next  fifteen^  years  a  series  of  publications  came 
from  his  pen.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Paris,  the  Asiatic  Society  of  London,  the 
Roval  Academy  of  Belgium,  and  was  a  Knight  of  the 
Order  of  Leopold. 

To  Ndve  belong  the  honour  of  giving  the  first  im- 
petus to  the  cultivation  of  Sanslmt  studies  in  Bel- 
gium. The  most  important  of  his  numerous  publica- 
tions in  this  field  are:  (1)  his  translation  of  selected 
hymns  from  the  Rig-Vedr  ''Etudes  sur  les  hymnes  du 
Rig-Veda,  avec  un  choix  d'hymnes  traduits  pour  le 

gremier  fois  en  fran^ais"  (Louvain,  1842);  (2)  his 
ne  study  of  the  ancient  Brahmin  cult  of  the  Rib- 
hanas,  ''Essai  sur  le  mythe  dee  Ribhanas  .  .  .  avec 
le  texte  Sanskrit  et  la  traduction  f rangaise  des  hymnes 


ftddrewte  a  ces  divinity"  (Puis,  IS47) ;  (3)  his  trena- 
latioD  of  the  Indian  drama  ba«cd  od  the  story  of  the 
epic  hero  Rama,  "Le  dfnourmcnt  de  I'histoire  de 
Raiaa.  Outtara-Rama-Charita,  drame  de  Bhavab- 
hout),  tnduit  du  sanalcrit"  (Bruswis,  18K0);  (4)  hia 
collectioD  of  eeaays  on  the  Vcdanta  philosophy  asd 
the  epio  and  dramatic  poetry  of  India,  published  under 
the  title  "Epoquea  httfrairee  de  I'lnde"  (Brussels, 
1SS3). 

N^e  was  also  learned  in  the  Armenian  language 
and  Lterature.    A  number  of  valuable  translations 
and  studies  based  on  Armenian  texts  came  from  his 
pen.     Among  these  may  be  mentioned:  (I)  the  Ar- 
menian story  of  the  Tatar   invasion,   "Expose  dcs 
guerres  de  Tamerlan  et  de  Schab-ltolth  dans  rAsie  oc- 
cidentale,  d'aprfa  le  chroniaiie  arm6nienne  in6iiite  de 
Thomas  de  Medxoph",  published  in  "Mimoirea  de 
I'Acadfimie  Koyale  de  Hclfiiquc"  (1881);  (2)  the  Ar- 
menian account   of 
the  exploits  of  God- 
frey   de     Bouillon, 
"iJes  chefs beldi'H  de 
la  premiere  croisnde 
d'apr^slesluBtorienH 
arm^nieos"    (Brus- 
sels, 1859);  (3)  the 
valuable    collection 
of  studies  on  early 
Christian  Armenian 
prayers  and  hymns 
entitled"L'Ann*nie 
chr^tlenne  et  sa  lit- 
erature" (Louvain, 
1880),      Amonn  the 

Eublications  of  N6ve 
earinfconphilology, 
a  place  of  honour 
should  be  Riven  to 
hia  account  of  the 
learned  men  who  in 
the    sixteenth    and 

seventeenth  cen-  C*twu«*i. g» SrCni  ( 

tunes  laboured  for 

the  upbuilding  of  the  University  of  Louvain,  "La  re- 
Diussance  dcs  Icttres  et  I'esuor  de  I'drudition  an- 
cienne  en  Belgiqu 


S  mmBS 

make  King  of  France  under  the  name  of  Charles  X; 
Spifame  (lMS-58)  who  became  a  Calviniet  id  1559, 
and  was  aftcmards  accuxed  of  forgery  and  beheaded 
at  Geneva  in  1556;  the  polemist  Sorbin  de  Sle-Foi 
(1578-1606)  a  voluminous  writer.  Among  the  saints 
of  this  diocese  must  be  mentioned:  Sts.  Paul,  prie^; 
Ptfreux  and  Pflerin,  martyrs  between  272  and  303;  St. 
Paroie  (Patritius),  Abbot  of  Nevcrs  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury; the  hermit  St.  Franchy  (Francovffcup) ;  the 
priest  St.  Vincent  of  Magny  in  the  ninth  centurv; 
Blessed  Nicholas  ApplaJne,  canon  of  the  collepisle 
church  of  Pr^mery  (fifteenth  century)  whose  cassock 
Louis  XI  claimed  as  a  relic.  Claude  Fauchet,  consti- 
tutional Bishop  of  Calvados  during  the  Revolution, 
was  a.  native  of  the  diocese. 

In  1168,  William  IV,  Count  of  Nevere,  willed  to  the 
Bishop  of  Bethlehem  in  Palestine  the  stnall  town  of 
Pantenor  neaJ  Clamecy,  also  the  hospital  at  Clamecy 
founded  by  his 
father  William  111 
in  1147.  In  1223, 
owing  to  the  incui^ 
sionsof  the  Mu--*^!- 
mans  in  Palestine, 
theBiehopofBelhie- 
hem  settled  at  Clam- 
ecy,    and    exercised 

t'  urisdiclion  over  the 
lospitnl  and  the  fau- 
bourg of   Panlenor; 


chosenby  the  counts, 
later  by  the  dukf* 
of  NfverB,  with  the 
approval  of  the  pope 
and  the  king.  In 
1413  Charles  VI 
tried  to  obtain  for 
the  titular  bishops 
of  Bethlehem  ihe 
"vilegea      enjoyed 


tl8' 


.   Wm 


■   <k   rAaidfmU    RjlMtf   dl   Brloill 


t,  Ni«< 


r  fniiernl 


Charles  F.  Aiki 


Nsren,  Diocghr  or  (Nivernum),  includes  the 
Department  of  Ni6vre,  in  France.  Suppressed  by  the 
Concordat  of  1801  and  united  to  the  See  of  Autun,  it 
was  re-eatablished  in  1823  aa  suffragan  of  Sens  and 
took  over  a  part  of  the  former  Diocese  of  Autun  and  a 
partof  the  former  Diocese  of  Auxerre  (nee  Skns).  The 
''Gallia  Christiana"  men  tions  as  GrstBishopofNevers 
St.  Eladius,  restored  to  health  in  the  reign  of  Clovis 
by  St.  Severinus,  Abbot  of  St.  Maurice.  According 
to  Duchesne  the  first  authentic  bishop  is  Tauricanus, 
present  at  the  Council  of  Epaon  in  517.  A  numlwr  of 
former  bishops  of  Nevers  are  venerated  as  saints:  St. 
Arey  (Arigius)  549-52);  St.  Agricola  (580-94);  St. 
Jerome  (80()-16)  who  rebuilt  in  honour  of  the  martyrs 
QuiricuB  and  Julitta,  the  cathedral  until  then  dedi- 
cated to  Sta.  Gervosius  and  Protasius.  It  is  possible 
that  in  the  seventh  century  three  other  swnta  occu- 
pied the  See  of  Neveni:  St.  Did  (Deodatus),  the  same 
perhaps  who  died  a  hermit  in  the  Vospea;  St.  Noctarius 
and  St.  Itier  (Itherius).  The  following  bishops  ot 
Nevera  were  notable:  the  future  cardinal  Pierre  I  Ber- 
trandi  (1320-22)  who,  in  1329-30,  defended  ecclesias- 
tical immunities  against  the  barons  in  the  celebrated 
conferences  of  Paris  and  V'incennes  presided  over  by 
Phihp  VI;  Charles  de  Bourbon  (1540-47)  subse- 
quently MU^nal  and  whom  the  Leaguers  wished  to 


realm,    but 

the  French  clergy  were  oppi.trd  to  this  and  the 
titular  of  Bethlehem  was  always  considered  a  bishop 
in  partibua  inJiiirUum.  The  assembly  of  the  clerp>'  of 
France  in  1635  granted  the  bialtops  of  Bethlehem 
an  annual  prnsion.  Christopher  d'Authier  erf  Sisgan, 
founder  of  the  Missionary  Priests  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  celebrated  for  his  ser- 
mons to  the  g.i  I  ley-slaves  of  Marseilles  was  Bishop  of 
Bethlehem  1651-63.  The  Abbey  of  I..a  Charity  sur 
Loire,  founded  in  1056,  and  known  as  the  "eldest 
daughter"  of  Cluny,  was  inaugurated  in  1106  by  Pas- 
cal II;  the  celebrated  Suger,  then  a  simple  cleric,  has 
left  an  account  of  the  ceremony.  The  Benedictine 
Abbey  of  C>>rbigny,  founded  under  Charlemacae  was 
occupied  by  the  Huguenots  in  1563,  as  a  basis  of  opera- 
tions. Bernadette  Soubirous  (see  Lourdes,  Kotoe- 
Daub  db)  died  in  the  Visitandine  Convent  of  Nevcrs, 
12  December,  1878.  Thechietplaceaof  pilgrimapein 
the  diocese  are:  Notre  Dame  de  Pitifi  at  Si.  Martin 
d'Heuillc,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century;  Notre 
Dame  de  Faubouivin  at  Corancy,  dating  from  1590; 
Notre  Dame  du  Morvan  at  Dun-eur-Grand  Ry, 
dating  from  1876.  Prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
law  of  1901,  the  Diocese  of  Nevers  counted  Nlarists, 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Oratorians,  and  several 
orders  of  teaching  brothers.  Among  the  congrega- 
tions for  women  which  originated  in  the  diocese  must 
be  mentioned:  the  Itrsuline  nuns,  a  teaching  order 
founded  in  1622  at  Nevers  by  the  Duke  of  Cikmuga 
and  Ihe  Nevcrs  aldermen;  the  HospitAllers,  founded 
in  1630  at  La  Charit€-eur-Loire  by  Sister  MMard- 
Varlet;  the  great  congregation  of  Sisters  of  Charity 
and  Christian  Instruction,  foimded  in  1680,  with 
mother-house  at  Neveis.    At  the  beginning  of  <ltc 


NBVILLB 


779 


NBWABK 


twentieth  century  the  religious  oonf^regations  of  the 
diocese  had  charge  of  22  day  nurseries,  5  orphanages 
for  girls.  2  sewing  rooms,  18  hospitals  or  asylums,  1 
house  of  retreat.  1  home  for  incurables,  1  insane  asy- 
lum, 2  religious  nouses  for  the  care  of  toe  sick  in  their 
own  homes.  In  1908  the  Diocese  of  Nevers  had  313,- 
972  inhabitants,  95  parishes,  and  272  succursal  par- 
ishes. 

Gallia  ChriHiana,  XII,  nova  (1770),  025-^5;  JnHrumenta,  297- 
358;  Duchesne,  FaHe*  Episeopauz,  II,  475;  Fibquet,  France  pon- 
tifioaU,  Never§  (Paria,  1866) ;  Poumbrbau,  Histoire  det  eomtea  •< 
ds»  duca  de  Nevtra  (Paiia,  1897) ;  de  Soultrait,  Armorial  de  Netert 
(Paris,  1852);  Crobnier,  Haoidoaie  Nivemaiae  (Nevera,  1858); 
Idem,  Monographie  de  la  cathidraU  de  Nevera,  euivie  de  Vhiatoire 
dee  Svi^uea  de  Nevera  (Paris,  1854). 

Geobqes  Gotau. 

NernUe,  Eduxtnd  (aliaa  Salbs),  a  Jesuit,  b.  at 
Hopcut,  Lancashire,  1605;  d.  in  England,  18  July, 
1847.  Educated  at  St.  Omer,  he  entered  the  Eng- 
lish College,  Rome,  29  June,  1621,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  philosophy.  He  joined  the 
Jesuits,  24  May,  1626;  was  stationed  at  Ghent,  1636, 
and  sent  on  the  London  mission,  1637.  He  was  pro- 
fessed, 3  August,  1640;  served  in  the  Oxford  district, 
1642,  and  in  South  Wales,  1645.  Being  a  suspected 
priest  he  was  seized  under  the  Commonwealth  but 
soon  released.  He  wrote  the  "Palm  of  Christian 
Fortitude"  (St.  Omer,  1630),  an  account  of  the  Jap- 
anese persecutions;  a  '^Life  of  St.  Augustine"  and 
'^ Second  Thoughts"  both  unprinted.  (2)  His  uncle 
Edmund  Neville  (alias  Elijah  Nelson),  probably 
the  son  of  Sir  John  Neville  of  Leversedge,  d.  in  York- 
shire about  1563;  d.  1648,  his  death  hastened  by  the 
treatment  he  received  in  prison.  Ordained  for  the  Eng- 
lish mission,  12  April,  1608,  he  entered  the  Society, 
1609.  He  is  considered  to  have  been  the  dejure  seventh 
Earl  of  Northumberland.  (3)  Manv  members  of  the 
Scarisbrick  familv  of  Scarisbrick  Hall,  near  Ormskirk. 
became  Jesuits  during  the  penal  times  and  assumea 
the  aliaa  "Neville".  Among  them  were  Edward 
ScABiSBRicK  (Neville),  b.  1639.  Educated  at  St. 
Omer,  he  entered  the  Societv  at  Watten,  7  Septem- 
ber, 1660,  and  was  stationed  at  Li^e,  1671,  and  St. 
Omer,  1675.  Sent  to  England,  he  was  one  of  Oates's 
intended  victims.  James  II  appointed  him  royal 
chaplain.  He  was  instructor  of  the  Jesuit  tertians 
at  Ghent,  1693.  He  returned  to  Lancashire,  where 
he  died,  19  February,  1708-9.  He  wrote  "Life  of 
Lady  Warner"  (St.  Omer.  1691);  "Catholick  Loy- 
alty"  (London.  1688);  "Kules  and  Instructions  for 
the  Sodahty  of  the  Immaculate  Conception",  etc. 
(4)  Edward  Neville  (Scarisbrick),  b.  1663;  d.  15 
November,  1735.  He  became  a  Jesuit,  1682;  served 
on  the  Derbyshire  mission,  1701,  and  after  1728  at 
Bushey  Hall,  Watford,  Herts.  (5)  Edward  Neville 
(Scarisbrick),  b.  1698;  d.  7  July,  1778.  He  entered 
the  Society,  7  September,  1728.  Superior  of  the 
Derbyshire  mission  in  1764,  he  laboured  also  in  Lan- 
cashire. (6)  Sir  Edward  Neville,  son  of  Baron 
Bergavenny.  a  courtier  of  Henry  VIII^  took  part  in 
the  war  in  France,  and  wap  made  the  king's  standard 
bearer,  1531.  He  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of  Lord 
Windsor.  Arrested  3  November,  1538,  on  the  charge 
of  conspiracy  with  the  brother  of  Cardinal  Pole,  he 
was  sent  to  the  Tower,  tried  at  Westminster,  and  be- 
headed for  the  faith,  8  December. 

Dr  Backrr,  Bibl.  dea  icrivaina  de  la  Comp.  de  Jiaua,  II  (1521); 
FoLBr,Reeorda  of  the  EnolUh  Province  of  the  S.J.  (LoDdon,  187»- 
80),  V,  347,  360-1;  VI,  296,  406;  VII.  686;  OLiyBB,  CoOeetanea 
8.J„  148;  Camm.  Livea  of  the  Bngliah  MaHyra,  I  (London,  1904), 
617  aqq. 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

New  Abbey.— The  Abbev  of  Sweetheart,  named 
New  Abbey  Pow,  or  New  Abbey,  in  order  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Dimdrennan  in  the  same  county,  is  situ- 
ated near  the  River  Pow,  in  the  parish  of  Loch  Ken- 
derloch,  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Diocese  of  Galloway, 
about  eight  miles  from  the  town  of  Dumfries,  Scot- 


land. The  title  of  Abbey  of  Sweetheart  was  glvea 
by  the  foundress  of  the  abbey,  Lady  Devorsilla, 
daughter  of  Alan,  Lord  of  Galloway,  who  erectea  the 
monastery  in  order  to  keep  in  it  a  casket  of  ivory 
and  silver,  in  which  was  embalmed  the  heart  of  her 
husband.  King  John  de  Baliol.  Sweetheart  is  the  last 
in  order  of  the  Cistercian  abbeys  in  Scotland.  It  was 
begun  in  1275,  being  a  daughter  of  Dundrennan,  of  the 
lineage  of  Clairvaux.  Henry,  the  first  abbot,  built 
a  magnificent  church  in  the  early  English  style.  It 
measured  203  feet  in  length,  with  a  central  tower  92 
feet  high;  it  had  a  nave  with  aisles,  transepts  ^th 
chapels  on  their  eastern  sides,  and  a  choir  without 
aisles.  The  monastic  buildings  were  in  proportion, 
and  were  surrounded  with  a  massive  granite  enclosing 
wall,  from  eight  to  ten  feet  high,  large  portions  of 
which  still  remain.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  old 
history  of  Sweetheart,  except  that  the  Maxwells,  lords 
of  Kirkconnel,  whose  castle  was  near  by,  and  who 
were  descendants  of  the  MaxweU  kings,  were  great 
benefactors  of  the  place.  The  most  celeorated  supe- 
rior of  the  abbey  was  Abbot  Gilbert  Broun,  the  last 
of  the  line.  He  continued  to  uphold  the  Catholic 
faith  long  after  the  Reformation,  and  was  a  powerful 
opponent  of  Protestantism.  He  was  denounced  sev- 
eral times  on  the  charge  of  enticing  to  ^'papistrie" 
from  1578  to  1(K)5;  he  was  seized  by  his  enemies  in 
1605  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  the  whole  country- 
side, taken  prisoner,  and  conveyed  to  Edinburgh, 
whence  he  was  banished.  He  then  became  rector  of 
the  Scots  College,  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1612  at  the 
age  of  eighty- four.  Tne  possessions  of  Sweetheart 
Abbey  pa^cd  into  the  hands  of  Sir  John  Spottiswoode 
in  1624,  and  with  them  the  title  of  Lord  of  New  Ab- 
bey. The  monastery  soon  became  a  mere  quarry  for 
those  who  wanted  ready-cut  material  for  building. 
The  chapter,  with  the  remains  of  the  library  over  it, 
and  a  part  of  the  church,  are  all  that  remain  to-day. 

Hensiqdbk,  Menologium  Ciatercienae  (Antwerp.  1630) ;  Jonos- 
UNU8,  Notitia  Abbatiarum  Ord.  Cvitereieneia  (Cologne,  1040); 
Janauschek,  Originum  Ciatercienaium  tomue.  I  (Vienna,  1877); 
Barbstt,  The  SeoUiah  CiaUreiana  (Edinburen) ;  Rsais,  a.  M.  de 
Neubotle;  New  Statietical  Account  of  Scotland. 

Edmond  M.  Obbecht. 

Newark,  Diocese  of  (Novarcensis)^  created  in 
1853,  suffragan  of  New  York  and  comprising  Hudson, 
Passaic,  Bergen,  Essex,  Union,  Morris,  and  Sussex 
counties  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  U.  S.  A.,  an  area 
of  1699  square  miles.  The  diocese  originally  included 
the  whole  State,  but  the  fourteen  other  counties  were 
taken  (15  July,  1881)  to  form  the  Diocese  of  Trenton. 
As  early  as  1672  the  records  show  that  there  were 
Catholics  at  Woodbridge  and  at  Eliaabethtown,  the 
capital  of  East  Jersey,  and  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Harvey 
and  Gage,  Governor  jDongan's  chaplains  in  New  York, 
visited  them.  Other  priests  came  at  a  later  period. 
Several  of  these  pioneers  were  Alsatians  who  had  come 
over  with  Carteret  to  engage  in  the  salt-making  in- 
dustiy.  William  Douglass,  elected  from  Bergen,  was 
excluded  from  the  first  General  Assembly  held  at  Elis- 
abethtown,  26  May,  1668,  because  he  was  a  Catholic. 
Two  years  later  he  was  arrested  and  banished  to  New 
England  as  a  '' troublesome  person''.  The  whole  at- 
mosphere of  the  colonv  was  intensely  anti-Catholic. 
The  law  of  1698  granted  religious  toleration  in  East  Jer- 
sey, but  "provided  that  this  should  not  extend  to  any 
of  the  Romish  religion  the  right  to  exercise  their  manner 
of  worship  contrary  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  Eng- 
land'', in  West  Jersey,  the  pioneers  were  Quakers 
and  more  tolerant.  It  is  claimed  that  John  Tatham, 
appointed  Governor  of  West  Jersey  in  1690,  and  the 
founder  of  its  great  pottery  induefby,  was  really  an 
English  Catholic  whose  name  was  John  Gray.  Father 
Robert  Harding  and  Father  Ferdinand  Farmer  (Stein- 
meyer)  from  the  Jesuit  communit^r  in  Philadelphia, 
made  long  tours  across  the  State  in  the  eighteenth 
century  ministering  to  the  scattered  groups  of  Cath* 


MBWABK 


780 


NBWABK 


oUcB  at  Mount  Hope,  Maoopin,  Baaking  Ridge,  TVen- 
ton,  Ringwood,  and  other  places.  The  settlement  at 
Maoopin  (now  Echo  Lake)  was  made  by  some  Gennan 
Cathcuics  sometime  before  the  Revolution  and  their 
descendants  m^e  up  the  parish  to-day. 

During  the  Revolution  Washington's  army  brought 
many  Catholics  through  the  State.  In  the  camp  at 
Morristown  the  Spanish  agent  Don  Juan  de  MiraUes, 
died  28  April,  1780,  and  his  funeral  was  conducted  by 
Father  Seraphin  Bandol,  chaplain  of  the  French  Minis- 
ter, who  came  specially  from  Philadelphia  to  adminis- 
ter the  last  sacraments  to  the  dying  Spaniard.  Wash- 
ington and  the  other  officers  of  the  army  attended  the 
ceremony.  When  in  the  following  May  the  remains 
were  removed  to  Philadelphia,  Congress  attended  the 
Requiem  Mass  in  St.  Maiy's  church.  It  was  at  Mor- 
ristown in  1780^  that  the  first  official  recognition  of  St. 
Patrick's  Day  is  to  be  found  in  Washington's  order 
book,  still  preserved  there  at  his  headquarters.  Mar- 
bois,  writing  from  Philadelphia,  25  March,  1785,  gives 
the  number  of  Catholics  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
as  1700;  more  than  half  of  these  were  probablv  in 
New  Jersey.  There  were  ma^  French  refugees  from 
the  West  Indies  in  Princeton,  Elizabeth,  and  its  vicin- 
ity, and  Fathers  Vianney,  Tissorant,  and  Malou  used 
to  minister  to  them  from  St.  Peter's,  New  York,  in  the 
earlv  years  of  the  last  century.  Mines,  furnaces,  glass 
works,  and  other  industries  started  in  various  sec- 
tions of  the  State,  brought  Catholic  immira*ants.  The 
Augustinian  Missionary,  Father  Philip  Larisey,  vis- 
ited Paterson  about  1821,  and  the  first  parish  in  the 
State,  St.  Francis,  Trenton,  was  established  in  1814. 
Newark's  first  church,  St.  John's,  was  opened  in  1828, 
the  pastor  being  the  Rev.  Gregory  B.  Pardow  of  New 
York,  and  the  first  trustees  Patrick  Murphy,  John 
Sherlock.  John  Kelly,  Christopher  Rourke,  Morris 
Fitzgerald,  John  Gillespie,  and  Patrick  Mape.  The 
first  native  of  Newark  to  be  ordained  to  the  priesthood 
was  Daniel  G.  Duming,  son  of  Charles  Duming,  in 
whose  house  Mass  us^  to  be  said  before  the  first 
church  was  built.  In  1820  Father  Richard  Bulger 
erected  the  first  church  in  Paterson.  In  New  Bruns- 
wick the  first  Mass  was  said  by  Rev.  Dr.  Power  of  New 
York  in  1825,  and  the  first  church  was  opened  by  Rev. 
Joseph  A.  Schneller,  19  December,  1831.  In  Jersey 
Citv,  originally  called  Paulus  Hook,  Mass  was  first 
said  in  1^0,  and  the  first  church  opened  by  the  Rev- 
erend Hugh  Mohan  in  1837.  At  Macopin  the  little 
band  of  German  Catholics  before  mentioned  had  a 
church  as  early  as  1829.  Thus  during  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a  slow  but 
steady  growth  of  the  Faith  all  over  the  State,  and  as  it 
was  receiving  a  substantial  share  of  the  great  inflow 
of  Catholic  immigrants,  the  Holy  See  deemed  the  time 
opportune  to  separate  it  from  the  Diocese  of  New  York, 
and  the  See  of  Newark  was  erected.  The  Reverend 
James  Roosevelt  Bayley  (q.  v.),  then  secretary  to 
Bishop  Hughes  of  New  York,  was  chosen  the  first 
Bishop  of  Newark,  and  consecrated  30  October,  1853. 
There  were  then  between  fifty  and  sixty  thousand 
Catholics  in  his  diocese,  for  the  most  part  Irish  and 
Germans. 

In  organizing  the  new  diocese  Bishop  Bayley  found 
he  could  count  on  only  twenty-five  priests.  There 
were  no  diocesan  institutions  except  small  orphanages, 
and  the  people  were  poor  and  of  httle  social  influence. 
In  the  interest  of  Catholic  education,  one  of  his  chief 
concerns,  he  founded  the  Madison  Congregation  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  (q.  v.),  and  to  supply  the  lack 
of  funds  for  the  work  of  new  churches,  he  obtained 
assistance  from  the  Association  of  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith  of  Lyons,  France,  and  the  Lcopoldine 
Society  of  Vienna.  Seton  Hall  College  was  opened 
by  him  in  September,  1856,  and  everywhere  the  dio- 
cese responded  to  the  energy  of  his  zeal  and  practical 
effort.  In  ten  years  the  churches  increased  to  67,  the 
priests  to  63,  and  a  monastery  of  Benedictines  and 


another  of  Passioniflts  was  established.  The  SisteiB 
of  Charity  became  a  community  of  87  members,  con- 
ducting 17  different  establishments.  Other  notable 
additions  were  2  convents  of  Benedictine  nuns,  2  of 
German  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame;  2  of  Sisters  of  the 
Poor  of  St.  Francis:  a  flourishing  college,  an  acad&ny 
for  youns  ladies,  a  boarding  school  for  boys,  and  par- 
ish schoolB  attached  to  most  of  the  churches,  while  the 
old  wooden  chapels  had  been  replaced  by  buildings  of 
brick  and  stone.  ''All  this  has  beoi  done",  the  bishop 
wrote,  ''in  the  midst  of  a  population  of  emigrants, 
comparatively  poor,  without  incurring  a  great  debt!'' 
In  twelve  years  the  Association  of  the  Pro|>agation  of 
the  Faith  gave  the  d[iocese  $26,600.  This  progress, 
too,  was  made  in  spite  of  much  local  narrowness  and 
bigotry,  the  culmination  of  which  on  5  November. 
1854,  resulted  in  a  riot  during  which  an  anti-Catholic 
mob  desecrated  and  sacked  the  little  German  church 
of  St.  Mary  in  Newaric  served  by  the  Benedictine 
Father  Nicholas  Balleis.  In  this  disturbance  a  Cath- 
olic was  killed  and  several  others  wounded. 

Bishop  Bayley  was  promoted  to  the  Archbishopric 
of  Baltimore,  30  July,  1872,  and  his  successor  as 
second  bishop  of  the  see  was  the  Right  Reverend 
Michael  Augustine  Corrigan  (q.  v.)  consecrated  4 
May,  1873.  He  successfully  overcame  a  numiber  of 
complicated  financial  entanglements,  and  established 
a  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd  for  girls  24  May,  1875, 
in  Newark,  a  protectory  for  boyB  about  the  same  time 
at  Denville,andin  June,  1880,  in  Newark  a  community 
of  Dominican  Nuns  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration,  from 
Ouillins,  France.  On  8  and  9  May,  1878,  an  import 
tant  synod  was  held,  and  in  July,  1881,  the  Diocese  of 
Trenton,  which  cut  off  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Newark  territory  in  the  southern  section,  was  estab- 
lished. On  1  October,  1880,  Bishop  Corrigan  was 
made  titular  Archbishop  of  Petra  and  coadjutor  of 
New  York,  and  to  succeed  him  as  third  Bishop  of 
Newark,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Winand  M.  Wigger.  then  pi^or 
at  Madison,  was  chosen  and  consecrated  18  October 
1881.  Bishop  Wigger  was  born  of  German  parents 
in  New  York  City,  9  December^  1841,  and  made  his 
classical  studies  at  St.  Francis  Xavier  s  College,  New 
York.  His  theological  course  was  followed  at  Seton 
Hall  and  at  the  college  of  Brignole-Sale,  Genoa,  Italy, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  10  June,  1865.  Follow* 
ing  the  example  of  his  predecessors  Bishop  Wigger 
made  the  diocesan  seminary  one  of  the  objects  of  his 
chief  solicitude.  In  1883  he  removed  the  Catholic 
Protectory  to  Arlington  and  established  the  Sacred 
Heart  Union  to  aid  in  its  maintenance.  The  Fifth 
Diocesan  Synod  was  held  by  him  17  November,  18S6, 
at  which  strict  regulations  were  enacted  in  regard  to 
funerals  and  the  attendance  at  parochial  and  public 
schools.  On  11  June,  1899,  he  laid  the  cornerstone 
of  a  new  cathedral  church  at  Newark,  and  soon  after 
was  forced  to  go  abroad  in  search  of  rest  and  health. 
On  his  return  he  took  up  his  duties  with  zeal,  but  died 
of  pneumonia,  5  January,  1901.  The  record  of  his 
administration  shows  a  character  entirely  disinterested 
and  unselfish  united  to  a  poverty  truly  apostolic. 

The  Vicar-General  John  J.  O'Connor  was  the  choice 
of  the  Holy  See  as  fourth  bishop,  and  was  consecrated 
25  July,  1901.  Bom  at  Newark,  11  June,  1855,  he 
made  his  college  course  at  Seton  Hall.  In  1873  he  was 
sent  to  the  American  College  at  Rome  where  he  spent 
four  years.  After  another  year  at  Louvain  he  wsj^ 
ordained  priest  22  December,  1877,  and  on  his  return 
to  NewarK,  was  appointed  professor  at  Seton  Hall 
College  where  he  became  Director  of  the  Seminary  in 
which  he  remained  for  the  following  eighteen  years. 
He  was  then  named  vicar-general  and  on  30  October, 
1895,  rector  of  St.  Joseph's.  Early  in  his  administra- 
tion he  adopted  measures  for  the  completion  of  the 
new  cathedral  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  begun  by  Bishop 
Winger,  making  this  the  spedal  object  of  the  golden 
jubike  of  the  (uocese.    At  this  it  was  shown  UuLt  in 


\ 


\ 


MEWBATTLB 


781 


MEW   CALIDONIA 


the  brief  space  of  fifty  years,  there  had  been  an  in- 
crease of  tenfold  in  the  number  of  churches  and  nine- 
fold in  population,  with  nearly  50,000  children  at- 
tending 167  Catholic  schools  and  institutions,  and 
396  pnests  attending  the  416  churches  and  chapels 
tliToughout  the  State.    Religious  communities  novr 
represented  in  the  diocese  are,  men:  the  Jesuits,  Pas- 
Bionists,  Benedictines,  Carmelites,  Dominicans,  Fran- 
ciscans, Salesians,  Pious  Society  of  the  Missions,  the 
Christian  Brothers,  Alexian  Brothers,  and  Xaverian 
Brothers;  women:  Sisters  of  Charity  (Newark),  Sisters 
of  St.  Benedict,  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  Charity  (Gray  Nuns),  Domin- 
ican Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Rosary,  Sisters  of  St. 
rX)minic,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of 
St.  Fnuicis,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph,  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  of  Peace,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor^elician 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Sorrowful  Mother,  Fallotine 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Daughters  of  Our  Ladv  of  Help,  Franciscan 
Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Baptistine 
Sisters. 

Statistics  (1910):  Priests,  368  (regulars,  88); 
churches  with  resident  priests,  162:  missions  with 
churches,  36;  stations,  10:  chapels,  82;  seminary,  1, 
students,  42;  students  in  Europe,  7;  seminaries  of  re- 
ligious, 3,  students,  31 ;  colleges  and  academies  for  bojrs, 
6;  academies  for  girls,  12;  parish  schools,  116,  pupils. 
52,600;  orphan  asylums,  12,  inmates,  2400;  industrial 
and  reform  schools,  4,  inmates  450;  protectory  for 
boys,  1,  inmates,  180;  total  young  people  under  Cath- 
olic care,  56,000;  hosi)itals,  10;  houses  for  aged  poor,  2; 
other  charitable  institutions,  8;  Catholic  population, 
365,000. 

FLTifN,  The  Catholic  Church  in  New  Jeraey  (Morrutown,  1004) ; 
8b«a,  Hietory  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  in  the  U.  8,  (New  York,  1889-92); 
Rbum,  Biog.  Cyel.  of  the  Cath.  Hierarchy  in  the  U.  S.  (Milwaukee, 
1898) :  Batlbt.  a  Brief  Sketch  of  the  Sarly  Hiet.  of  the  Cath.  Ch.  on 
the  Isiand  of  New  York  (New  York,  1853) ;  GBirrur,  Catholiee  in 
the  Am.  Resolution,  I  (Ridl^  Park,  Pa.,  1907);  Tanguat,  Docu- 
fnente  rioting  to  the  Colontal  Hilary  of  New  Jeraey  (Newark, 
1880) :  Hietory  Cath.  Ch.  in  Patereon,  N.  J.  (Paterson,  1883) ;  Hist. 
City  ofBlieabeth  (EUaabeth,  1899):  Freeman's  Journal  and  Truth 
Teller  (New  York)  filee;  The  CatJudie  Directory  (1856-;910). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Newbattle  (Neubotlb,  i.  e.  new  dwelling),  in  the 
ancient  Diocese  of  St.  Andrews,  about  seven  miles 
from  Edinburgh,  was  founded  about  1140,  being 
the  second  of  the  six  Cistercian  Monasteries  estab- 
lished by  St.  David,  Kins  of  Scotland.  Newbattle 
Abbey  was  a  filiation  of  Melrose  (itself  a  daughter  of 
Clairvaux)  and  was  situated,  according  to  Cistercian 
usages,  in  a  beautiful  valley  along  the  South  Esk. 
Rudolph,  its  first  abbot,  a  strict  and  severe  observer 
of  the  rule,  devoted  himself  energetically  to  the 
erection  of  proper  buildings.  The  church,  cruciform 
in  shape,  was  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  length, 
and  the  other  buildings  in  proportion;  for  the  com- 
munity numbered  at  one  period  as  many  as  eighty 
monks  and  seventy  lay-brothers.  The  abbey  soon 
became  prosperous,  and  famous  for  the  regularity  of 
its  memoers,  several  of  whom  became  well-known 
bishops.  It  was  especially  dear  to  the  kings  of 
Scotland,  scarcely  one  of  whom  failed  to  visit  it 
from  time  to  time,  and  they  were  always  its  generous 
benefactors.  One  of  the  principal  sources  d[  income 
was  the  coal  mines  in  its  possession,  for  these  monks 
were  amongthe  first,  if  not  the  first,  coal  miners  in 
Scotland.  The  earliest  mention  of  coal  in  Scotland  is 
to  be  found  in  a  charter  of  an  Earl  of  Winchester, 
granting  to  them  a  coal  mine.  Newbattle  suffered 
much  from  English  incursions  at  various  times,  par- 
ticularly in  1385,  when  the  monastery  and  church  were 
burned,  and  the  religious  either  carried  away,  or 
forced  to  flee  to  other  monasteries;  it  required  forty 
yean  to  repair  these  losses.  A  part  of  the  monastery 
was  agun  destroyed  by  the  Earl  of  Hertford,  but  the 
destruction  seems  to  nave  been  chiefly  ooiifiii«d  to 


the  church.  At  the  time  of  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion but  few  of  the  monks  remained,  and  these  were 
pensioned  by  the  commendator,  Mark  Keir,  ancestor 
of  the  Lothian  family,  its  present  owners.  The  stones 
of  the  church  were  used  to  convert  the  monastic  build- 
inES  into  a  secidar  house. 

SfAMRxqua,  Annales  Cieterdensea  (Lyons,  1542);  Dodswobtb 
AND  DuoDAUB,  MonosHoon  Anglicanum  (1661);  Rsaxs,  S.  M.  de 
Neubotle:  New  StaHstieal  Account  of  Scotland,  vol.  I;  Babbbtt, 
The  Scottish  Cistercians  (Edinbur^. 

Edmond  M.  Obbscht. 

New  Bruntwiek.  See  Chatham,  Diocesb  of; 
Saint  John,  Diocesb  or. 

New  Caledonia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. — New 
Caledonia,  one  of  the  largest  islands  of  Oceania,  lies 
about  900  miles  east  of  Queensland,  Australia,  between 
20**  10' and  22^  16' S.lat.,  and  between  164** and  167^E. 
long.  It  is  about  250  miles  long  by  30  broad,  and  has 
an  area  of  7650  square  miles.  It  is  a  Frencn  colony, 
its  principal  dependencies  being  the  Isle  of  Pines  and 
Loyalty  Islands  (includinj^  Lifou,  Mare,  and  Uvea). 
Its  population,  together  with  that  of  these  dependen- 
cies, is  estimated  at  53,000  inhabitants  (13,000  free; 
11,000  of  convict  origin;  29,000  black).  The  coasts 
of  New  Cidedonia  are  deeply  indented,  and  the  island 
is  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  an  immense  madre- 
pore reef,  which  now  retires  to  some  distance  from  and 
now  approaches  close  to  the  shore,  but  regularly  leaves 
a  broad  channel  of  water  between  itself  and  the  island. 
This  species  of  canal,  in  which  the  sea  is  always  calm, 
greatly  facilitates  communication  between  the  various 
settlements  on  the  coast.  The  island  is  very  moun- 
tainous, and  about  one  half  of  its  area  is  thus  unculti- 
vatable.  The  so-called  central  chain,  which  divides 
the  island  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  section,  at- 
tains the  height  of  over  5500  feet.  The  hills  which 
fringe  the  coast,  and  at  times  rise  sheer  from  the  water, 
do  not  in  general  exceed  the  height  of  600  feet.  Be- 
tween these  lesser  ranses  stretch  good-sized  plains  of 
great  fertility,  admirably  watered  by  numerous  streams 
which  the  natives  skilfully  utilize  for  purposes  of  irri« 
gation.  The  streams  of  the  same  basin  usually  unite 
to  form  one  river  which  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  li^t 
draught  for  about  a  dozen  miles  from  the  coast.  Un- 
like most  intertropical  regions,  the  island  has  no  well- 
defined  wet  season,  some  years  being  very  rainy  and 
others  characterized  by  prolonged  droughts.  The 
scenery  is  wonderfully  oeautiful  and  for  ^ubrity  of 
climate  the  island  is  almost  unrivalled .  The  tempera- 
ture rarely  reaches  the  extremes  of  96**  by  day  during 
the  hot  season  (December  to  March)  and  56**  by  ni^t 
durinp;  the  cold  (May  to  August) .  The  administration 
has  divided  the  island  into  three  sections:  the  convict 
settlement,  that  reserved  exclusively  for  the  natives, 
and  the  remainder  which  is  leased  to  colonists  by  the 
French  Government.  The  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts are  coffee,  maize,  sugar,  grapes,  and  pineapples, 
while  efforts  are  being  made  at  present  to  foster  the 
cultivation  of  wheat,  rubber,  and  cotton.  The  island 
also  possesses  valuable  deposits  of  nickel,  cobalt, 
chrome,  and  copper  ores,  all  of  which  are  being  ex- 
ploited chiefly  by  Australian  miners.  Discovered  by 
Captain  Cook  in  1774,  the  island  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1853^  and  on  2  Sept.  1863,  a  decree  was 
passed  authorizmg  the  establishment  of  a  convict  set- 
tlement there.  In  May,  1864,  the  first  criminals  ar- 
rived, and  between  that  date  and  1896,  an  aggregate 
of  about  22,000  were  transported  thither.  As  no 
convicts  have  been  sent  since  1896,  the  convict  ele- 
ment of  the  population  is  rapidly  diminishing.  Nou- 
mea is  the  chief  town  and  the  seat  of  government.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbour  for  the  improvement  of  which 
various  works  are  in  course  of  execution.  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  council 
consisting  of  various  officials  and  two  notables  nomi- 
nated by  the  governor,  lliere  is  also  an  dective 
general  counoiL 


nXWGASTLK 


782 


MXWFOUIIDLAIID 


The  ethnology  of  the  natives,  whose  number  is 
gradually  decreasing,  is  somewhat  uncertain,  but  they 
probably  spring  from  a  mixed  Melanesian  and  Western 
Polynesian  stock.  Their  height  is  above  that  of  the 
average  South  Sea  Islander;  they  are  as  a  rule  well 
built  and  quite  erect;  their  colour  varies  from  a  ver;y 
dark  brown  to  a  light  complexion,  and  their  hair  is 
coarse  and  woolly.  Cannibalism,  which  was  generally 
practised  on  the  island  in  former  times,  has  disap- 
peared in  consequence  of  the  strict  measures  taken  by 
the  administration.  Although  the  men  of  the  same 
tribe  live  together  in  the  greatest  harmony  (such 
being  in  fact  a  leading  dictate  of  their  religious  belief) 
intertribal  wars  have  been  always  frequent,  and  have 
been  in  the  past  almost  the  sole  occasion  of  cannibal- 
ism, as  the  flesh  of  a  fellow  tribesman  is  one  of  the 
most  intelli^ble  of  their  numerous  and  in  very  many 
cases  pecuhar  taboos.  The  native  religion  is  so 
closely  jntertwined  with  superstitions  that  distinction 
is  rather  difficult.  The  natives  undoubtedly  have  a 
firm  belief  in  a  future  life;  the  dead  are  supposed  to 
live  under  the  great  mountidn  ilf  u,  where  the  good  are 
welcomed  after  death  and  where  the  general  conditions 
bear  some  striking  analogies  to  the  Harmonic  Hades. 
Ancestral  worship  is  universally  practised  among  the 
pagan  natives,  and  there  is  a  special  class  whose  office 
it  is  to  feed  the  deceased  kinsmen,  partly  by  consum- 
ing the  food  as  their  proxies  and  partly  by  exposing 
it  for  them  in  a  taboo  hut.  The  natives  live  together 
according  to  their  tribes  imder  chiefs,  who  exercise 
an  extensive  authority  in  purely  native  affairs.  The 
food  of  the  natives  consists  of  yams^  taros,  sugar-cane, 
dried  fish,  and  shell-fish.  At  vanous  places  on  the 
island  are  held  markets^  at  which  the  natives  of  the 
coast  and  of  the  mountains  meet  to  exchange  produce, 
dancing  forming  a  regular  feature  of  the  transaction. 
Though  excellent  farmers  ^he  natives  are  lasy. 

New  Caledonia  was  separated  from  Central  Oceania 
and  erected  into  a  distinct  vicariate  Apostolic  by  de- 
cree of  2  July  and  Brief  of  13  July,  1847.  Besides  the 
main  island,  the  vicariate  includes  the  Isle  of  Pines  and 
the  Belep  and  Loyalty  Islands.  The  mission  is  en- 
trusted to  the  Marist  Fathers,  who,  bemdes  minister- 
ing to  the  French  settlers  and  convicts,  have  devoted 
themselves  sedulously  and  with  the  greatest  success 
to  the  conversion  of  the  natives.  According  to  the 
latest  statistics  the  vicariate  includes:  35,000  Catho- 
lics (11,500  natives);  48  missionary  priests  and  40 
brothers  of  the  Marist  Congregation;  126  sisters;  61 
catechists;  68  churches  and  several  chapels;  45  schools 
with  1881  pupils;  1  orphanage  with  50  mmatee.  The 
present  vicar  Apostohc,  who  is  the  fourth  to  fill  the 
office,  is  Mgr.  Cfhaurion,  titular  Bishop  of  Cariopolis. 

SlaUaman'g  Year  Book  (London,  1910);  Afunonea  ApokoUca 
(Home,  1907);  Guilleuand,  Atutralanat  II  (London.  1894),  455- 
63,  in  Compendium  of  Geogra^y  artd  Travel;  Atkinson,  The 
Nativea  of  New  Caledonia  in  Fuh-Lore,  XXV  (London,  1903). 
243-59. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 
Newcastle.    See  Hexham  and  Newcastle,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

Newfoundland,  a  British  colony  of  North  America 
(area  42,734  square  miles),  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  which  separates  it  from  its  de- 
pendency Labrador  (area  120,000  square  miles),  on 
the  east  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  lies  between  46**  36' 
and  51*  40'  lat.  N.,  and  bT  35'  and  59°  25'  long.  W.  It 
was  the  first  portion  of  North  America  discovered  by 
European  voyagers.  The  Caboto  sailed  from  Bristol 
in  1497,  and  on  24  Jime  of  that  year,  the  festival  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  they  landed  in  the  harbour  to  which 
they  gave  the  name  of  St.  John's,  which  it  bears  to  the 
present  day.  The  Cabots,  like  all  the  early  naviga- 
tma.  had  in  view  not  only  the  discovery  of  new  lands, 
""  "  of  the  power  and  wealth  and  territory 

mtry,  but  also  the  spread  of  the  Gos- 
ersion  of  the  heathens  to  the  Chri»- 


tian  Faith.  Henoe  they  brought  with  them  priests 
and  missionaries.  Those  who  accompanied  Cabot 
were  Augustinians  or  ''Black  Friars".  We  may  be 
sure  that  Mass  was  celebrated  on  these  shores  in  1497. 

In  the  year  1500  the  Portuguese  imder  Caspar  de 
Ck>rtereal  took  possession  of  the  country  and  founded 
the  settlement  and  Church  of  Placentia.  In  1534  the 
French  voyager,  Jacques  Cartier,  visited  the  country, 
and  explored  Uie  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  He  also  had 
chaplams  with  him  who  celebrated  Mass  at  Catalina 
in  Newfoundland,  and  Brest,  or  Old  Fort^  on  Labra^ 
dor.  In  1622  Lord  Baltimore  founded  his  colony  of 
Ferryland.  He  brought  out  three  Jesuit  Fathers  with 
him,  and  had  Mass  celebrated  regularly,  "and  all 
other  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  Rome  were  used  in 
ample  manner  as  'tis  used  in  Spain."  Such  was  the 
complaint  made  against  him  to  the  Board  of  Trade  by 
the  Protestant  clergyman,  Mr.  Stourton.  In  1650  the 
Frendi  founded  a  church  at  Placentia  on  the  site  of  the 
one  iJbandoned  by  the  Portuguese.  But  none  of  those 
attempts  succeeded.  The  real  foundation  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Newfoundland  is  due  to  priests 
from  Ireland,  who  came  out  towards  the  close  of  the 
eif^teenth  century. 

The  population  of  the  country  by  the  last  census, 
taken  in  1901,  was  217,037.  Of  these  the  Catholics 
number  75,657,  members  of  the  Church  of  England 
71 ,470,  Methodists  60,700.  The  remainder  belong  to 
different  denominations,  vis.  Presbyterians,  Congre- 
gationalists,  etc. 

All  denominations  are  equally  recognized  by  the 
law,  and  there  is  no  Established  Church.  In  the 
early  history  of  the  country  the  Catholics  were  looked 
on  as  a  proscribed  class  by  the  governors  of  the  time^ 
who  were  generally  commanders  of  British  wai^^hips. 
Priests  were  hunted  and  persecuted,  people  who  har- 
boured them,  or  permitted  Mass  to  be  celebrated  in 
their  houses  were  fined,  imprisoned,  and  flogged,  and 
their  houses  either  burned  or  pulled  down.  In  one 
unique  case  a  house  where  Mass  had  been  celebrated 
was  towed  into  the  sea  and  sunk.  These  acts  were 
undoubtedly  illegal,  as  there  was  no  law  in  the  statutes 
of  the  country  penalizing  the  exercise  of  the  Catholic 
Religion,  but  the  penal  laws  of  Ireland  were  supposed 
to  TO  applicable  to  Newfoundland.  However,  the 
principle  would  not  work  both  ways,  and  when  Catho- 
lic Emancipation  was  granted  to  Ireland  these  same 
interpreters  of  the  law  held  that  the  privileges  of 
Emancipation  did  not  apply  to  NewfouncUand.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  course  of  ins  episcopate  Bishop  Fleming 
fou^t  against  these  injustices  and  finally  succeeded 
in  (£taimng  full  freedom  for  the  Catholics. 

In  educational  matters  Catholics  also  enjoy  every 
freedom.  The  denominational  system  is  established 
by  law.  A  sum  is  granted  by  (jovemment  amounting 
to  about  $1.13  per  cajnU  of  the  population,  or  $5.25 
per  pupil  actually  attending  school.  It  is  true  this 
amount  is  smalt  as  compared  with  some  of  the  Cana- 
dian Provinces,  or  States  of  the  Union,  but  a  laqce 
amount  is  paid  by  private  individuals  to  Catholic  cd* 
leges  and  convents  wluch  is  not  included  in  Uie  above 
figures.  The  results  compare  most  favorably  with 
those  of  other  countries.  About  thirty  ^ears  ago  a 
branch  of  the  Irish  Christian  Brothers  was  introduced, 
an  inunediate  impulse  was  given  to  education  through- 
out the  island,  and  it  is  now  at  a  very  high  standard. 
The  Brothers  nave  charge  of  two  very  large  schools  in 
St.  John's — St.  Patrick's  and  Holy  Cross  schools. 
Tliere  are  ten  class-rooms,  containing  about  a  thou- 
sand boys.  The  Brothers  also  have  charge  of  the  col- 
lege in  which  some  three  hundred  bo3r8  are  educated, 
sixty  being  boarders.  Here  are  trained  the  pupil- 
•  teachers  mio  will  have  charge  of  the  public  schools 
throu^out  the  island.  The  college  is  affiliated  to  the 
Oxfom  Examining  Board  and  the  London  University 
Board.  A  local  council  of  higher  education  (non- 
denominaUcmal}  looks  after  the  local  Examinatiosa 


NEW  a&ANADA  783  NBW  aunnsA 

The  Rhodes  bequest  siyes  three  places  for  Newfound-  Gre^r,  Monckton,  Strong,  Berton,  Beccari,  and  d'Al- 
land  in  perpetuity.  They  are  all  filled  this  year  f6r  bertis)  have  furzushed  us  with  a  comparatively  accu- 
the  first  time,  and  of  the  three  occupants  two  are  rate  loiowledge  of  the  coasts  and  of  tne  south-eastern 
pupils  of  the  College  of  St.  Bonaventure.  There  are  portion  of  the  island.  For  the  scanty  knowledge  we 
thirteen  convents  of  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  Order  possess  of  the  German  territory  we  are  indebted 
in  the  country  (9  in  St.  John's  Diocese,  3  in  Harbor  mainly  to  Dr.  Schlechter  (1907) :  the  lofty  mountain 
Grace,  and  1  in  St.  Geoive's),  and  eight  convents  of  the  ranges,  which  hem  in  and  render  almost  inaccessible 
Sisters  of  Mercy  (5  in  St.  John's,  2  in  Harbor  Grace,  the  greater  part  of  the  German  and  especially  of  the 
and  1  in  St.  George's).  The  Presentation  Sisters  have  Dutch  section,  the  difficulty  of  travellmg  and  trans- 
free  schools,  the  nuns  being  paid  out  of  the  Govern-  porting  supplies,  the  character  of  the  native  tribes  who 
ment  grant.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  have,  besides  free  regard  the  setting  foot  on  their  special  territory  as  a 
schools,  a  pa3ring  school  and  a  boaraine  academy.  The  hostile  act,  and  the  insalubrious  climate,  constitute  for 
total  number  ot  children  attending  school  is  over  13,-  the  explorer  obstacles  greater  perhaps  than  any  he  has 
000.  There  are  also  two  orphan  asylums,  or  industrial  to  encounter  elsewhere  in  the  world, 
schools,  one  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  for  girls,  and  The  northern  coast  of  New  Guinea  is  in  general 
one  under  the  Christian  Brothers  for  boys.  These  steep  and  regular,  and  possesses  but  few  places  of  safe 
contain  about  200  orphans,  or  one  for  every  375  of  anchorage.  The  only  gp:-eat  indentation  here  is  the 
the  Catholic  population,  which,  considering  that  this  is  vast  Ge^vink  Bay.  The  most  important  of  the  other 
a  maritime  and  fishing  colony,  and  the  losses  at  sea  inlets  are  Humboldt,  Cornells,  and  Astrolabe  bays, 
are  abnormal,  is  not  an  excessive  number.  Huan  Gulf  (all  in  German  New  Guinea),  and  Acland 
The  Catholic  religion  is  not  only  holdingits  own.  Bay  (British).  The  coasts  are  lined  with  groups  of 
but  advancing  rapidly  in  Newfoundland.  The  most  islands  which  are  mostly  volcanic  (some  still  activelv) 
harmonious  relations  exist  between  the  different  de-  or  otherwise  flat  and  sandy.  The  chief  grouos  on  the 
nominations,  which  are  only  interrupted  on  occasions  north  and  east  are  the  Schouten  Islands  (at  the  en- 
of  public  excitement,  when  persons  aspiring  to  politi-  trance  to  Geelvink  Bay),  the  Admiralty  Islands,  and 
cal  position  and  honours  do  not  scruple  to  stir  up  feel-  Bismarck  Archipelago  (of  which  New  Pomerania  is 
ings  of  religious  bigotry  and  theological  hatred  among  the  largest  island)  off  the  German  territory,  and  the 
the  more  simple-mmded  of  the  people.  A  sreat  future  D'Entrecasteaux  Islands,  the  Bennett  group,  and  the 
is  opening  up  for  the  country.  Large  industries  are  Louisiade  Archipelago  off  British  New  Guinea.  On 
being  started  in  the  interior,  the  scene  of  the  new  the  southern  side  of  the  island  the  sea — which  on  the 
devdopments  beins  principally  in  the  Dioceses  of  northern  is  frequently  too  deep  for  safe  anchorage — 
HaHt>or  Grace  and  St.  Geoige's.  becomes  shaUow,  anci  the  precipitous  rocks  give  place 

M.  F.  HowuBY.  to  wide  plains.    This  is,  as  already  stated,  almost  the 

N.W  Or«i^    See  Cou,hbi..  Repx^uc  or.  ~^Tk^'=fS\^C?h*'!.erGSrhigf "clt^^ 

New  Qulneai  the  second  largest  island  and  one  of  again  skirt  the  coasts,  and  the  groups  of  islands  once 

the  least  known  countries  of  the  world,  lies  immedi-  more  become  numerous  (Arm,  Wessel^  and  K^  Islands, 

ately  north  of  Australia,  extendi^  from  the  equator  etc.).    From  the  north-western  portion  of  the  island 

to  about  12^  S.  lat.  and  from  130^ 50^  to  154**  30*  E.  two  great  peninsulas,  Onin  and  Berau,  are  almost 

Ions.    It  is  1490  miles  in  length,  its  maximum  breadth  severed — the  latter  by  McCluer's  Inlet,  which  very 

is  about  430  miles,  and  its  total  area  some  310,000  sq.  deeply  indents  the  coast  in  an  easterly  direction, 
miles.    Its  population  is  placed  at  the  purelv  conjee-        Our  knowledge  of  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  New 

tural  figure  of  875,000.    An  examination  of  the  report  Guinea  is  still  to  a  great  extent  hypothetical,  and  the 

of  D'Abreu,  who  was  long  credited  with  the  discovery  calculation  of  their  heights  only  approximate  and  sub- 

of  New  Guinea  (1511),  shows  that  he  only  reached  the  ject  to  revision.    Beginning  with  British  New  Guinea 

eastern  coast  of  Further  India  (Cambodia) ;  whether  m  the  south-east,  we  find  the  eountr]^  traversed  by  a 

Jos4  de  Menzes  (1526),  Saavedra  (1536),  and  Grijalva  continuous  chain  of  which  the  successive  members  are 

(1537)  reached  New  Guinea  is  still  uncertain.  But  there  the  Stirling  and  Stanley  ranges  (Mount  Albert,  14.400 

can  be  no  doubt  in  the  case  of  Jingo  Ortiz  de  Retas  feet),  the  Yule  (Mt.  Yule,  14,730  feet)  and  Albert 

il545),  who  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Augustine  Victor  (13,120  feet)  mountains,  and  the  Sir  Arthur 

now  the  Kabenau)  River,  and  took  possession  of  the  Gordon  (13,120  feet)  and  Victor  Emmanuel  (12,810 

country  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain.    It  was  he  feet)  ranges.    This  chain  is  continued  in  Dutch  New 

who  gave  the  island  the  name  m  Nueva  Guinea.    On  Guinea  by  the  Charles  Louis  range,  which  attains  the 

Mercator's  map  of  1569  New  Guinea  and  numerous  heij^t  of  about  16,000  feet  (probably  the  greatest 

E laces  and  islands  on  its  northern  coast  are  indicated,  altitude  in  New  Guinea).   How  the  central  chain  con- 

fuis  de  Torres  (1606),  whose  name  is  commemorated  tinues  in  the  western  portion  of  the  island  is  still  un- 

in  the  strait  separating  New  Guinea  from  Australia,  known.    The  principal  range  in  German  New  Guinea 

was  the  first  to  circumnavigate  the  greater  portion  of  is  the  Bismarck  Mountains  (variously  estimated  be- 

the  island.    The  voyages  of  Taaman  (1643-44),  Vuik  tween  14,000  and  16,000  feet  in  height).   Between  the 

(1653),  and  Kayto  (1674)  added  greatly  to  our  knowl-  central  chain  and  the  sea  run  numerous  parallel 

edse  of  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  and  in  the  ranges,  mostly  of  a  lower  altitude.    With  few  excep- 

eighteenth  century,  thanks  to  the  efforts  of  Dutch,  tions,  the  rivers  flow  through  narrow  and  steep  ravines 

English,  and  French  explorers  (Schouten,  Lemaire.  until  within  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  and  assume. 

Captain  Cook,  De  Bougainville,  etc.),  the  picture  ot  during  the  wet  season,  the  character  of  violent  tor- 

the  island  began  in  some  measure  to  approach  the  rents.    As  they  form  practically  the  sole  means  of 

actuality.   However,  Captain  William  Dampier's  map  access  to  immense  areas  of  the  island,  the  difficulties 

of  the  north-western  portion  of  the  island,  while  ex-  confronting  the  explorer  will  be  readily  understood, 

hibiting  a  great  advance  beyond  the  precec^g,  shows  The  most  important  rivers  of  the  northern  coasts 

how  erroneous  still  were  the  views  concerning  the  are:  the  Amberno  (still  unexplored),  which  enters  the 

exact  contour  of  the  island.    The  rapid  growth  of  sea  by  a  vast  delta  at  Point  d'Urville;  the  Kaiserin 

European  interest  in  Australia  in  the  mneteenth  cen-  Aup^a  (navigable  by  ocean  steamers  for  180  miles), 

tury  invested  New  Guinea  with  enhanced  importance:  which  rises  in  the  Charles  Louis  range  and  enters  the 

voyages  of  exploration  multiplied,  although,  owing  to  Pacific  at  Cape  della  Torre;  the  Ottalien,  which,  after 

the  warlike  and  cannibal  character  of  the  natives,  a  course  of  great  length,  empties  into  the  ocean  near 

landings  were  still  few.    It  was  only  during;  the  last  the  last-mentioned;   the  Mambre,  which  discharges 

decades  of  the  century  that  active  exploration  of  the  near  the  An^o-German  boundary.    On  the  southern 

Uand  began.  Numerous  successful  expeditiooB  (Mao*  coast  Uie  prmcipal  rivers  are  the  Purari  or  Queen's 


raw  QVTHEk  784  raw  ainiiK4 

Jubilee  River  (navigable  by  whale  boat  120  miles)  and  Papuan  believes  in  another  self  or  soul,  which  deserts 

the  Fly  (navigable  oy  whale  boat  600  miles),  both  of  the  body  temporarily  during  sleep  and  finally  aft«r 

which  discharge  into  the  Gulf  of  Papua.    No  impor-  death.    Disease  and  death  never  result  from  natural 

tant  river  is  known  to  exist  in  the  western  section  of  causes:  they  are  always  the  result  of  evil  spirits,  act- 

the  island,  which  is  of  course  still  a  terra  incoaniia,  ing  either  directly  or  through  a  poisoner.     Against 

The  climate  of  New  Guinea  is  characterised  in  gen-  these  evil  influences  talismans  (mostly  pieces  of  carved 

eral  by  its  great  heat  and  humiditv.  and  in  the  low-  wood,  crocodile  teeth,  etc.)  are  carried.    The  na- 

lying  districts  fever  abounds.    Altnough,  generally  tive  weapons  are  the  bow  and  arrow,  knives  of  bam- 

speaking,  the  temperature  seldom  rises  above  104^  in  boo,  stone  clubs,  spean,  and  haidwood  shidds  and 

the  southern  portion,  it  rarely  falls  below  86".    The  dubs. 

climate  is,  however,  tempered  by  the  regular  winds  New  Guinea  is  divided  politically  into  the  Dutch, 
from  the  south-east  and  north-east,  and  at  an  altitude  German,  and  English  protectorates,  the  last  two  being 
of  3000  feet  above  sea  level  is  pleasantlv  cool.  The  known  officially  as  Kaiserwilhehnsland  and  the  Tern- 
annual  rainfall  varies  from  30  to  130  inches  along  the  tory  of  Papua.  In  1884  Great  Britain  proclaimed  its 
coasts,  rain  falling  more  abundantly  in  the  north  and  protectorate  over  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
north-east  than  idong  the  southern  seaboard.  The  island,  and  in  1885,  after  Germany  had  annexed  the 
difficulties  of  the  climate  are  ag^vated  by  the  mos-  north-eastern  section,  the  delimitation  of  the  territo- 
Quitoes  and  the  leeches,  which  insinuate  themselves  ries  of  ^e  two  countries  was  effected  by  the  Anglo- 
through  the  most  closely  woven  clothing  and  whose  German  treaty  of  that  year,  Holland  retaining  the 
bite  often  occasions  burning  ulcers.  portion  of  the  island  west  of  141"  E.  long[.    The  boun- 

To  the  great  uniformity  seen  in  the  geographical  dary  line  between  the  German  and  Bnlish  sections 

build  of  the  island  corresponds  a  general  ethnical  uni-  runs  from  5°  S.  lat.  at  the  141st  meridian  E.  to  9*  on 

formity  among  its  inhabitants  (see,  however, ''Journal  the  coast.    The  Anglo-Dutch  Treaty  <^  May,  1895, 

of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Society  of  Great  Britain  confirmed  the  western  boundary.    The  area  of  the 

and  Ireland'',  XXIa,  London,  1909,  pp.  246  sqq.^  314  British  territory  is  90,540  sq.  miles;   its  population 

aqo.).    In  the  case  of  a  country  so  vast  and  still  so  about  500,000  natives  and  1250  whites.    Coooarnuts, 

Uttle  explored,  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  indicating  rubber,  sisal  hemp,  Mirva  fibre,  coffee,  tea,  and  to- 

the  general  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants,  passing  bacco  are  cultivated.    The  forests  contain  valuable 

over  the  local  differences  which  manifest  themselves  in  timbers  (sandal-wood,  etc.);    gold  is  found  in  the 

the  native  customs  and  mode  of  life.   The  Papuans,  as  Louisiade  Archipelago,  on  the  mainland,  and  on  Wood- 

they  are  called  (the  name  is  unknown  to  themselves),  lark  Idand.   The  four  ports  of  entry  are  Port  Moresby, 

belong  to  the  Melanian  family:  they  are  larger  than  Samarai,  Dam,  and  Eionagai.    The  German  territory 

the  Mala3r,  are  dark  brown  or  black  in  colour,  have  a  has  an  area  of  sbout  70,000  sq.  miles,  and  a  population 

smooth  skin,  narrow  forehead,  dark  eves,  dohcnoceph-  of  110,000  (?)  natives  and  391  foreigners  (184  white), 

alous  skull,  and  prominent  nose.    Their  black,  natu-  Its  development  is  entrusted  to  the  German  New 

rally  frixsled  hair  is  usually  artistically  arranged.  Guinea  Company,  but  its  administration  is  under- 

They  wear  a  lavish  number  of  bracelets  (mostly  of  taken  by  the  Imperial  Government.    The  principal 

turtle-shell)  on  both  upper  and  lower  arms:  these  not  ports  are  Berlinhafen  and  Konstantinhafen.    Areca 

only  serve  as  a  protection  against  arrows,  but,  accord-  and  sa«o  pahns,  bamboos,  ebony,  and  other  woods 

ing  to  their  shape  and  colour,  are  employed  by  certain  abound:  coco-palms  and  caoutchouc  are  grown  on  the 

tribes  as  an  outward  token  of  mourning.    Necklaces  small  area  yet  under  cultivation.     Gold  has  been 

are  also  generally  worn:  they  are  usually  made  of  recently  discovered  on  the   Bismarck  Mountains, 

rin^  of  vegetable  fibre  or.  in  the  case  of  the  wealthier  Dutch  New  Guinea  has  an  area  of  150,000  sq.  miles; 

natives,  of  wild  boar's  teetn.    The  lower  limbs  are  less  its  population  is  estimated  purely  conjecturally  at 

usually  adorned,  except  on  festive  occasions.   Agricul-  262,000.    Although  it  is  considered  by  some  authoii- 

ture  is  as  yet  little  developed:  the  natives  depend  for  ties  the  richest  part  of  the  island,  very  little  attempt 

their  sustenance  mainly  on  tneir  hunting  (wild  boar,  has  been  made  to  develop  it.    Extensive  coal-fields 

opossum,  crocodile,  wila  fowl),  fishing,  and  the  wild  exist  near  the  north-western  coast.    The  principal 

sago,  wmch  grows  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the  settlement  is  Merauke.    The  fauna  of  New  Guinea  is 

Vfuleys  and  marshy  lands  and  which  is,  according  to  very  poor  in  mammals;  only  about  seventy-five  spe- 

the  missionaries,  largely  responsible  for  the  unprogres-  cies  are  known,  the  most  important  being  the  wild 

sive  character  of  the  natives.  boar,  rat,  mouse,  bat,  opossum,  and  crocodile.    The 

A  comparatively  high  sense  of  justice  exists  among  avifauna  is,  on  the  other  hand,  both  numerous  and 

the  native  tribes,  each  community  possessing  its  various,  and  includes  among  the  five  hundred  known 

strictly  defined  hunting  and  fishing  grounds  and  sa^  species  many  (such  as  the  cdebrated  bird  of  paradise) 

fields.   Many  of  the  tribes  are  celebrated  for  their  skill  which  are  peculiar  to  New  Guinea  and  some  other 

in  boat-buildinp.  Commerce  is  carried  on  between  the  islands  in  this  region. 

maritime  and  inland  tribes.   The  trading  is  not  con-        Mission  History.— On  1  July,  1885,  the  first  Cath- 

fined  to  mere  exchange:  wild  boar's  tusks,  and  in  cer-  olic  priest,  Father  Verjus,  set  foot  on  Pi4>uan  soiL 

tain  districts  bracelets  and  stone  hatchets  are  accepted  He  oevoted  himself  immediately  to  the  care  of  the 

in  payment.    Of  the  greatest  value  and  universally  re-  sick  and  the  study  of  the  native  language,  but  was 

cognised  as  a  medium  of  exchange  are  the  small  glass  soon  compelled  to  withdraw  in  consequence  of  the 

pins  and  jewelry.    These  are  generally  beUeved  to  be  opposition  of  the  Protestant  missionariea  and  the 

the  product  of  the  old  Indian  glassworkers,  and  the  pressure  they  brought  to  bear  on  the  British  authori- 

natives  instantly  detect  modem  productions,  which  ties.   A  change  of  ^vemors  allowed  the  return  of  the 

are  little  valued.   While  cannibaliun  still  exists  on  the  CathoUc  missionanes,  and  on  1  May,  1889.  British 

island,  the  members  of  the  same  tribe  or  community  New  Guinea  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic 

live  together  in  the  greatest  peace.    In  general  the  and  Father  Navarre  appointed  vicar  Apoetonc.    He 

strictest  endogamy  is  practisea,  and  there  are  certain  introduced  the  Sisters  ot  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Issoudim. 

well-defined  degrees  of  relationship  within  which  mar-  who  rendered  valuable  assistance  by  instructing  the 


ture  practised:  all  observers  testify  to  ihe  kinaman-  limyra  and  coadjutor  to  Mgr  Navarre.    The  task  of 

ner  in  which  wives  are  treated,  and  to  the  modesty  and  conversion  is  attended  with  great  difficulty,  as  the 

high  moral  character  of  the  Papuan  women  in  ^eno^.  adult  native,  though  he  shows  no  resentment  to  his 

Tltough  with  no  definite  views  oonooming  a  deity,  the  religious  customs  being  ridiculed,  obstinately  adheres 


\ 


\ 


NEW  HAHPSHIBX                         785  m 

to  then,  even  when  they  cause  him  excessive  phywcal  teau  ariae  some  two  hundred  peaks  in  two  sroupa;  the 

exertion.    The  latest  etatistica  assigD  to  the  nussion:  White  and  Sandwich  Mountains  to  the  eastward,  and 

28  miaeionariBe,  21  brothers,  38  sisters  (all  of  the  Sa-  the  Franconia  to  the  westward.     This  range  divides 

oredHeart  of  Issoudun),  15  catectiista,  1500  Catholics,  the  waters  of  the  Androecoggin,  the  Saco,  and  the 

7  stations  with  church  and  school,  2  orphanages,  28  Mcrrimac  rivers  on  the  east  from  those  ot  the  Con- 

Bchools  with  1400  pupils.    The  Prefecture  Apostohc  of  necticut  on  the  west.     The  White  Mountain  r^on  ia 

Dutch  New  Guinea  was  separated  from  the  Vicariate  strildngly  grand.    Here  Mount  Washington  (6290 

ApostoboofBatavia  on  22  December,  1902,  Attended  feet)  and  Mounts  Adams,  Jefferaon,  Clay,  Monroe, 

at  first  by  the  Jesutt«,  it  was  later  entrusted  to  the  and  others  each  rise  nearly  a  mile  in  height.     The 

Missionary  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Iseoudun.  fame  of  the  beauty  and  sublimity  of  this  reson  ia 

The  present  prefect  Apostolic  is  the  Rev,  Father  world-wide  and  attracts  countless  visitois.    In  the 

Noyens  (teddence  on  the  Island  of  Langur) ,  appointed  south-eastern  por- 

in  January,  1903.     The   mission  now  cont^ns  14  tion  of  the  state. 

Fathers  and  11  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  7  Sis-  from  the  Merriiuac 

ters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  16  native  cate-  valley  to  the  sea, 

ctusts;  2911  Catholics;  210  catechumens;  4  churches  the  land  is  lower 

with  resident  priest;  12  churches  without  residence;  and  much  of  it  fer- 

12  sub-stations;  16  Bcbools  with  300  pupils.     (ForGer-  tile.       Two-thirds 

man  New  Guinea,  see  KAtsBRWiLBEUtaLAND.)  of  the  largest  cities 

Rib,  iSiUMWMpAv  a/  Hf  Quiiua  in  SupfUmmUuv   Papen.  (md  towns  of  the 

ltiivaJOtoar.fii>e.<LoiidoD,lSS4);  Kaimu.Mc.,  JV.O.(evoli..Ber'  ^.,.    ^,.    ;_    .i,;. 

liD.l$ae)J  MacObkhib,  Arttith  AT.  (7.  (London,  1897):  Tbohkh,  «*™    *™J?    "™ 

Brititli  N,  a.  (LoadOD.  1801);  Okvt.  /minuil.  XXXII  (LontiaD,  section.      The  dl- 

.    „.  ™„   ..       ...__.,._.  ._    _.    ___,«—_...   .._  ..  mate  ia  rugged  and 

„.c«...  ,™..u,,"  healthy,    the    eix 

:   Tijdtrkrijt  nn  puK  and  bracing; 

^,. —  —  . ... \mde  mn  Ntdrr-  the  summers  are 

0«<v-  ».  siniiiik.  xxxii  (Vieoiw,  1910).  433^3.    Conwroin*  flyon  ana  cnange- 

ttw  CBtholic  minioQi,  »e  Jdubh,  Z^h  muiiimt  dt  la  JVauMlb-  able,   but  the  aU- 

thiiHit  (inoadim.  1898) :  Fiolet,  z^i  munoni  caihoi.,  IV,  3S9~  tumn  is  generally 

S9;  ^■.-„-.ir.p««,«i*<J.  11810).  sm               kmnmt  delightful:    The  winters  are  very  severe,  though  le.  so 

Thomab  KBKNmr.  j^^  tg^^,^eya  ^f  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimac.  Cold 

Haw  HaiDpshln,  the  most  northerly  of  the  thi>  weather  usually  lasts  eight  months,  with  snow  half 

teen  original  states  of  the  United  States,  lying  be-  that  period. 

tween70°37'  and  72°  37'  west  long.,  and  between  42°  BxeouitcBB.—Agneuilare:  The  soil  of  the  state  out- 
40'  and  4S°  18'  23"  north  lat.  It  comprises  an  area  of  side  the  mountun  r^ions  is  well  watered  and  fairiy 
9305  square  miles,  and  according  to  the  census  of  1010,  productive,  and  good  crops  are  raised  of  the  ordinary 
has  a  population  of  430,572.  New  Hampshire  is  larm  staples:  hay,  com,  oats,  potatoes,  etc.,  but  the 
bounded  on  the  south  by  Massachusetts,  the  dividing  chief  tood  supply  comes  from  the  west.  InduxlTiet: 
Une  beginning  on  the  Atlantic  shore  at  a  point  three  By  the  last  census  (1900)  the  grosa  value  of  the  manu- 
miles  north  of  the  Merrimac;  thence  westerly,  follow-  factures  in  the  state  is  placed  at  $123,610,904,  the  net 
ing  the  course  of  the  river  at  the  same  distance  to  a  value  at  $85,008,010.  These  manufactures  are 
pomt  three  miles  north  of  Pawtucket  Falls,  thence  largely  confined  to  the  cities  and  leading  towns,  wldch 
westerly  fifty-five  miles  to  the  western  bank  of  the  eontam  65.8  per  cent,  of  the  establishments,  manufao- 
Connecticut;  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  for  about  ture  79.2  per  cent,  of  the  value,  and  pay  81.4  per  cent. 
eighteen  miles  from  said  southern  boundary  to  the  of  the  wages.  Among  the  chief  manufactures  are 
middle  of  the  mouth  of  Piscataqua  hari)Our,  thence  by  boots  and  shoes,  about  $23,500,000;  leather  goods, 
the  State  of  Maine  to  the  Canada  line,  the  dividing  $23,000,000;  lumber,  $9,125,000;  woollens,  $7,700,- 
line  between  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  be^nning  at  000;  paper  and  pulp,  $7,125,000;  machinery,  cars,  oar- 
thc  middle  of  the  mouth  of  Pi»cataqua  harbour,  riages,  and  furniture.  Mineralt:  Chief  among  the 
thunceup  the  middle  of  the  river  to  its  most  northerly  mineralproductsiHgranite,of  which  there  are  valuable 
head,  thence  north,  two  degrees  west,  to  the  C^iada  quarries  at  Concord,  Hoolcsctt,  Mason,  and  other 
line;  on  the  north  by  the  Province  of  Quebec^  the  towns.  Steatite  or  soapstone  is  alao  found  in  quan- 
dividii^  line  passing  alone  the  highlands  that  divide  tity  at  Franccstown,  Orford,  and  elsewhere;  the  qaairy 
the  rivers  emptying  into  tne  St.  Lawrence  from  those  at  Francestown  bein^  one  of  the  most  valuable  m  the 
emptying  into  the  sea;  on  the  west  by  the  Province  of  Union.  Graphite,  mica,  limestone,  and  slate  are  alao 
Quebec,  southerly  to  the  forty-fifth  parallel  of  lati-  found.  Commerce:  New  Hampshire  has  but  one  sea- 
tudc,  and  by  the  State  of  Vermont,  the  line  passing  port,  Portamoutb,  which  has  considerable  coasting 
from  the  north-west  head  of  the  Connecticut  river  trade.  The  importation  of  foodstuffs  and  raw  ma- 
sJong  the  middle  ot  that  river  to  the  forty-fifth  paral-  teritd,  and  the  distribution  of  her  vast  volume  of  man- 
lel  of  north  latitude  (Treaty  of  1783),  and  thence  fol-  ufactures  constitute  an  important  interstate  and  do- 
lowing  the  western  bank  of  that  river  to  the  Massa-  mestic  commerce,  carried  on  chiefly  by  rail.  For^gn 
chusetts  hne.  The  south-west  part  of  the  Isles  of  importations  come  chiefly  throu^  Boston.  The 
'  Shoala,  off  the  coast  of  New  Hampshire,  belongs  to  state  is  covered  by  a  network  of  steam  and  electric 
that  state,  the  rest  to  Mtune,  the  dividing  line  passing  railroads,  connecting  every  city  and  town  of  any  im- 
betwecn  Cedar  and  Smutty  Noee  Islands,  Maine  and  portonce  with  the  business  centres. 
Star  Island,  the  most  populous  of  the  group  in  New  Educational  Stbteu.— The  state  has  always  care- 
Hampshire,  fully  provided  for  education.    Under  the  Constitution 

pHTSicAL  Characteristicb. — New  Hampshire  is  a  (Part  II,  art.,  82),  it  is  the  duty  of  the  legislature  and 
state  of  hills  and  mountains,  sloping  gradually  from  magistrate  to  cherish  the  int^eots  of  hterature,  the 
north  to  south.  A  range  of  hills  runs  through  the  sdences,  and  all  seminaries  and  pubhc  schools;  to  en- 
state  from  the  southern  boundary  nearly  to  its  north-  courage  private  and  public  institutions,  rewards,  and 
em  extremity,  buttressed  at  uneven  intervals,  south  immunities  for  the  promotion  of  arts,  sciences,  etc.: 
of  the  White  Mountains,  by  Mounts  Monadnock,  but  no  money  raised  by  taxation  shall  ever  be  applied 
Kearaorge,  and  Cardigan;  a  httle  further  north  it  for  the  use  of  the  schools  or  institutions  of  any  relis- 
spreods  into  the  plateau  of  the  White  Mountains,  ioua  denomination.  'The  law  directs  that  every  child 
some  thirty  miles  long  by  forty-five  wide,  and  from  from  eight  to  fourteen  shall  attend  school  at  least 
sixteen  to  eighteen  hundred  feet  high.    From  this  pla-  twelve  weeks  each  year.    Practically  every  town  is  ft 


mw  HAMP8HISI 


786 


MEW  HAMP8HIBS 


school  district  and  may  raise  money  by  taxation  for 
school  purposes,  and  may,  separately  or  i?nit.ing  with 
other  oistncts,  establish  a  high  school,  or  contract 
with  academies  in  its  vicinity  for  instruction  of  its 
scholars.  The  districts  must  meet  at  least  once  annu- 
ally; oftener,  if  necessary.  In  l^e  larger  towns  and 
cities  the  schools  are  graded  and,  liberally  provided 
for,  are  in  charge  of  local  officials,  elected  by  the  peo- 

gle  in  every  district,  town,  and  ward,  and  known  as 
chool  Committees.  In  the  cities  these  form  school- 
boards  and  appoint  superintendents.  AU  are  under 
the  general  care  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction,  appointed  by  the  governor.  In  1908 
there  were  2127  public  schools,  wiQi  a  membership  of 
54,472  Dupils,  under  2999  teachers,  of  whom  255  were 
men.  Manual  training  is  provided  in  Manchester, 
Concord,  Portsmouth,  Rochester,  and  Berlin. 

Evening  schools  are  maintained  in  three  cities,  at- 
tended by  365  pupils,  of  which  308  are  male.  In 
places  of  4000  people  and  over,  796  children  attend 
kindergartens.  The  New  Hampshire  School  for  the 
Feeble  Minded,  at  Laconia,  has  89  inmates,  under  4 
instructors.  There  were  58  public  high  schools,  with 
243  teachers  (84  jnen),  and  5250  pupils.  The  State 
Normal  School  at  Plymouth  (founded  1870)  has  14 
teachers  and  180  pupils,  with  350  children  in  the 
model  schools.  Another  normal  school  is  in  pros- 
pect. The  total  revenue  from  taxation  for  the  public 
schools  (1906-7)  was  $1,293,013.  Apart  from  Catho- 
lic schools,  there  are  24  secondary  schools  reported  in 
1908,  with  167  teachers  and  3235  pupils,  over  900  of 
these  being  elementaiy.  Among  the  private  acade- 
mies in  the  state,  Phiflips  Exeter  Academy  deserves 
special  mention.  The  New  Hampshire  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  the  Mechanical  Arts  at  Durham  (founded 
1867)  is  an  excellent  and  Uberally  endowed  state  insti- 
tution with  196  students  (1908),  9  men  and  13  women 
in  general  science;  48  men  and  2  women  in  agriculture, 
and  124  men  in  engineering;  professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 31.  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  (found^ 
1769)  the  chief  university  of  the  state,  is  an  incorpor- 
ated institution,  not  under  state  control.  It  has  69 
professors  in  its  collegiate  department  and  23  in  its 
professional  departments;  1102  collegiate  students 
and  58  professional,  including  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, the  Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineering,  and  the 
Amos  Tuck  School  of  Finance.  St.  Anselm^  CoUe^ 
founded  by  the  Benedictine  Fathers  in  1893  at  the  m- 
vitation  of  Bishop  Bradley,  is  situated  in  Cofifstown. 
The  courses  are  collegiate,  academic,  and  conunercial, 
with  18  professors,  3  assistants,  and  156  students. 
There  is  a  fine  state  library  at  Concord  and  excellent 
libraries  in  all  the  cities.  Every  town  of  any  impor- 
tance either  has  its  own  library  or  is  in  easy  reach  of  ex- 
cellent library  acconmiodations. 

History.-— Curif. — ^The  first  to  settle  in  the  limits  of 
New  Hampshire  seems  to  have  been  David  Thom- 
son, a  Scotchman,  who  in  1622  was  granted  6000  acres 
and  an  island  in  New  England  (N.  H.  State  Papers, 
XXV,  715).  Forming  a  partnership  with  some  Ply- 
mouth merchants,  he  came  over  in  1623  and  settled 
south  of  the  Piscataqua,  calling  the  place  Little  Har- 
bour. Nothing  is  known  of  this  settlement,  except 
that  about  three  years  afterwards  Thomson  moved 
to  an  island  in  Boston  harbour  which  still  bears  lus 
name.  It  is  claimed  with  reason  that  at  about  the 
same  time  William  and  Edward  Hilton  settled  a  few 
miles  further  up  the  Piscataqua  at  what  was  called 
Hilton's  Point  or  Northam,  now  Dover,  though  the 
formal  grant  of  their  patent  was  1630  (Belknap, 
"Hist.",  8).  Also,  that  all  these  men  were  sent  by 
John  Mason,  Ferdinando  Gorges,  and  a  companv  of 
English  merchants.  In  1621,  1622.  and  1629,  Sir  I^er- 
dinando  Gorges,  an  officer  in  the  English  navy,  and 
Captain  John  Mason,  a  London  merchant,  afterward 
a  naval  officer  and  Governor  of  Xewfounaland.  both 
-*— '  '^vourites,  procured  various  grants  of  what  is 


now  New  Hampshire  and  a  great  deal  more,  from  the 
Plymouth  Company,  organued  bv  James  I  "for  the 
planting,  ruling,  and  governing  of  New  England  ",  and 
apparently  under  some  arrangement  with  Thomson 
and  others  interested,  sent  over  some  eighty  men  and 
women  duly  supplied  and  furnished,  by  whom  settle- 
ments were  made  on  both  sides  of  the  IMscataqua  near 
its  mouth.    Building  a  house,  called  Mason  Hall,  they 
began  salt  works,  c^ling  the  settlement  Strawberry 
Bfuik;  while  at  Newitchwannock,  now  South  Berwick, 
Maine,  they  built  a  saw  mill.    Things  went  along 
passably  well  tiU  Mason  died  in  1635,  after  which 
the  houses  and  cattle  were  taken  to  satisfy  the  wages 
and  claims  of  his  servants.    Neither  he  nor  Gorges 
seem  to  have  reaped  any  profit  from  their  investment. 
The  claims  of  the  Mason  neirs  were  a  bone  of  conten- 
tion till  1788,  when  a  settlement  was  effected.    On 
two  different  occasions  they  delivered  the  colony  from 
Massachusetts's  swajr  on  account  of  the  influence  the 
claimants  had  first  with  Charles  II  in  1679  and  again 
with  William  III  in  1692. 

The  settlements  spread  slowly,  the  people  coming 
chiefly  from  Hampsnire  County,  where  Mason  had 
held  a  lucrative  office  under  the  crown  and  from  which 
he  had  named  the  plantation  ''  New  Hampdiire".  In 
1638  John  Wheelwright,  a  preacher,  who  had  been  dis- 
franchised and  banished  from  Boston  for  his  religious 
opinions,  settled,  with  some  adherents,  at  Squamscott 
Falls,  as  being  outside  the  Massachusetts  i>atent,  call- 
ing tne  place  Exeter,  and  here  they  organized  a  local 
government,  creating  three,  magistrate  the  laws  to 
be  made  by  the  townsmen  in  public  assembly,  with 
the  assent  of  the  magistrates.  The  settlements  at 
Dover  and  Strawberry  Bank  (Portsmouth)  soon  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  Exeter  and  established  local  sdf- 
govemment.  It  is  important  to  note  that  Mason, 
Uorges,  Thomson,  the  Hiltons,  and  the  wealthy 
merchants  associated  with  them,  were  devoted  sup- 
porters of  the  Church  of  England.  The  powerful 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  then  the  very  essence  of 
intense  Puritanism,  soon  turned  its  attention  to  the 
struggling  AngUcan  colonies  on  its  northern  borders, 
which  it  determined  to  seise.  Proceeding  with  oon- 
sununate  craft  and  skill,  thev  laid  out  me  town  of 
Hampton,  clearly  within  the  Mason  patent,  and  set- 
tled it  with  people  from  Norfolk  (Belknap,  1, 38),  over 
the  Mason  protest.  They  procured  powcaf  ul  Puritan 
friends,  Lords  Say  and  Brook,  and  others,  to  buy  up 
the  Hilton  patent  at  a  cost  of  £2150,  and  to  sokI  over 
large  numbers  of  West  of  England  Puritans  and  a 
minister  who  built  and  fortified  a  church  on  Dover 
Neck  (Belknap,  1, 32).  Jealousies,  fears,  and  factions 
arose  between  the  old  settlers  and  the  new  oomers. 
Then  emissaries  from  the  Bay  app^uned  at  the  proper 
time  on  the  Piscataqua  (Fry,  37),  "to  understand  the 
minds  of  the  people  and  to  prepare  Uiem'',  and  their 
report  was  entirely  satisfactory  to  thdr  principals. 
They  then  (1641)  eot  the  purchasers  of  the  HDt<Hi 
patent  to  put  it  solemnly  under  the  government  of 
Massachuestts.  And  now,  the  time  b^ng  ripe,  and 
England  too  distracted  with  her  own  internal  doubles 
to  interfere,  Massachusetts  assumed  jurisdiction  over 
the  New  Hampshire  settlements  (Octdber,  1641). 
Very  soon  after  Puritans  appeared  among  the  settlers 
and  obtained  possession  of  the  principal  offices,  ctivid- 
ing  among  themselves  a  goodly  share  of  the  common 
lands  (Fry,  30).  They  silenced  the  Anglican  minister 
at  Portsmouth,  seised  the  church,  parsonage,  and  Uie 
fifty  acres  of  glebe  that  had  been  granted  mat  church 
by  Governor  Williams  and  the  people,  and  in  due  time 
turned  them  over  to  a  Puritan  minister.  Minister 
Wheelwright  left  Exeter  and  went  to  Maine. 

For  nearly  one  hundred  years,  or  until  the  capture 
of  Quebec  by  Wolfe  and  the  subsequent  suxrenaer  of 
Canada  (1759-63),  the  development  of  New  Hamp- 
shire was  seriously  impidred  by  the  Indian  wars,  her 
territory  bdng  not  only  the  boideriand,  but  also  in  the 


MEW  HAMPSHIBI 


787 


MEW  HAMPSHIBI 


war-path  of  the  Indians  from  Canada  to  the  New  Eng- 
land settlements.  These  wars  seem  to  have  been  oc- 
casioned by  the  misdeeds,  aggression,  or  treachery  of 
the  whites  (Belknap,  "ffistTHr,  133,  242).  There  is 
no  doubt  that  encroachments  on  their  lands  and  fraud 
in  trade  gave  sufhcient  grounds  for  a  quarrel  and  kepi 
up  jealousy  and  fear  (Belknap,  I,  123).  And  the 
same  writer  gives  the  eastern  settlers  of  New  England 
but  a  poor  character  for  reli^on  and  deems  their  con- 
duct unattractive  to  the  Indians  (Hist.,  II,  47).  Such 
would  surely  be  the  drowning  by  some  rascals  of  the 
Saco  chief  Squando's  babe;  while  the  treachery  of 
Major  Waldron  in  1676  in  betraying  them  in  time  of 
peace  in  his  own  home,  and  consigning  two  hundred  of 
them  to  slavery  or  death,  was  never  forgotten  nor  for- 
given (Belknap,  I,  143),  and  brought  untold  horrors 
on  the  people  till  it  was  avenged  in  his  blood  on  his 
own  hearth-stone  in  the  Indian  attack  on  Dover  in 
1689.  But  through  war  or  peace  the  population 
steadily  increased.  Estimated  at  between  3b00  and 
4000  in  1679,  it  was  placed  at  52,700  in  1767,  and  in 
1775  at  83,000.  The  settlers,  of  course,  were  mainly 
English,  but  about  1719  a  colony  of  one  hundred  fami- 
lies of  Ulster  Protestants  came  from  Ireland  to  Massa- 
chusetts and  after  many  trials  a  number  of  them  set- 
tled on  a  tract  in  New  Hampshire  above  Haverhill, 
known  as  Nutfield,  where  they  established  the  towns 
of  Londonderry  and  Derry;  the  rest  settling  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  This  hardy  and  industrious 
element  brought  with  it  to  New  Hampshire  the  po- 
tato. After  the  capture  of  Quebec  the  settlements  in- 
creased more  rapidly,  soon  clashing  in  the  west  with 
New  York's  claims,  till  the  boundary  was  settled  by 
roval  decree  in  1764. 

None  of  the  thirteen  colonies  was  better  satisfied 
with  British  rule  than  New  Hampshire.  She  had  an 
extremely  popular  governor  and  had  receiv^  fair 
treatment  from  the  home  government.  It  is  true 
that  patriots  took  alarm  at  the  assumption  of  power  to 
tax  the  people  without  their  consent,  and  at  the  sever- 
ity exercised  towards  the  neighbouring  sister  colony; 
and  took  due  precautions  to  consult  for  the  common 
safety;  also,  that  when  the  king  and  council  prohibited 
the  exportatioit  of  powder  and  military  stores  to 
America,^  the  citizens,  in  December,  1774,  quietly 
removed' one  hundred  barrels  of  powder,  the  hght 
cannon,  small  arms,  and  militarv  stores  from  Fort 
William  and  Mary  in  Portsmouth  harbour  to  more 
convenient  places.  The  provincial  convention,  early 
in  1776,  in  formins  a  provisional  government,  publicly 
declared  they  had  been  happy  under  British  rule  and 
would  rejoice  if  a  reconciliation  could  be  effected,  but 
when  they  saw  the  home  government  persevere  in  its 
design  of  oppression,  the  Assembly  at  once  (15  June, 
1776)  instructed  its  delegates  at  Philadelphia  to  join 
in  declarini^  the  thirteen  colonies  independent,  and 
pledged  their  lives  and  fortunes  thereto.  This  pledge 
was  well  redeemed  through  the  war  from  Bunker  Hill 
to  Bennington  and  Yorktown,  and  New  Hampshire's 
soldiers  under  Stark  and  Sullivan,  Scammeil  and 
Cilley,  and  others,  did  their  full  part  and  more;  while 
the  hardy  sailors  of  Portsmouth  and  its  vicinity  did 
gallant  service  in  the  navy  under  Paul  Jones,  whose 
ship,  ''The  Ranger'',  was  ouilt  and  fitted  out  at  that 
port.  After  careful  consideration  New  HampeJiire 
adopted  the  Constitution,  21  June,  1788,  being  the 
ninth  state  to  do  so;  thus  making  the  number  re- 
quired to  give  it  effect.  During  the  war  of  the 
Rebellion,  notwithstanding  considerable  difference  of 
party  opinion,  the  state  supported  Lincoln  and  con- 
tributed its  full  share  of  men  to  the  Union  army  and 

na\T' 

Ecdesiaalical. — It  was  not  eighty  years  from  Henry 
VIII  to  Mason,  and  so  it  was  that  men  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  the  English  penal  laws  settled  New  Hamp- 
shire, whether  of  the  CavaUer  stripe,  such  as  Mason, 
Gorg<BB»  and  the  Hiltons,  or  Puritan,  such  as  Higgins, 


the  Waldrons,  and  the  Moodeys.  In  the  book  of  the 
Puritan  the  word  "toleration"  was  not  written,  or 
only  mentioned  to  be  denied  and  scoffed  at  by  the 
gravest  and  most  venerable  of  their  teachers  and  upon 
the  most  solenm  occasions.  President  Oakes  calls 
toleration  "The  first  bom  of  all  abominations"  (Elec- 
tion Sermon,  1673),  "Having  its  origin,"  says  Shep- 
herd, "with  the  devil"  (Election  Sermon,  1672).  As 
Dr.  Belknap  sums  it  up,  "Liberty  of  conscience  and 
toleration  were  offensive  terms  and  they  who  used 
them  were  supposed  to  be  the  enemies  of  religion  and 
government "  (Hist.,  84).  The  rigidity  with  which  this 
idea  was  carried  out  towards  their  brethren  who  dif- 
fered with  them  is  shown  in  the  case  of  Roger  Williams, 
and  the  people  of  Salem^  who  were  disfranchised  and 
their  property  rights  withheld  for  remonstrating  in 
favour  of  liberty  of  conscience;  Williams  escaping  only 
by  fli^t  to  Narragansett  Bay:  and  in  multitudes  of 
other  instances,  as  well  as  in  their  merciless  persecu- 
tion of  the  Quakers,  extending  to  imprisonment, 
scourging,  mutilation,  and  death;  as  witness  their  laws 
from  1656  to  1661,  and  the  barbarities  perpetrated 
under  them.  It  was  during  Massachusetts'  usurpa- 
tion in  New  Hampshire,  and  probably  by  one  of  the 
parties  she  colonized  on  the  Hilton  Patent,  the  noto- 
rious Richard  Waldron,  that  the  three  Quakers,  Anna 
Coleman,  Mary  Tomkins,  and  Alice  Ambrose  were 
ordered  to  be  whipped,  like  infamous  criminals,  from 
Dover  through  eleven  towns,  and  to  the  disgrace  of 
the  colony,  ^e  sentence  was  executed  as  far  as  the 
Massachusetts  line;  where  the  victims  were  rescued 
and  set  free  by  some  ruse  of  the  CavaUer  Doctor 
Barefoot,  and  some  friends,  as  the  story  goes,  Wal- 
dron's  warrant  running  in  Massachusetts  also. 

Such  being  their  attitude  towards  their  Protestant 
brethren,  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  so  few  Catho- 
lics appear  amone  the  early  settlers;  especially  as  thev 
were  banned  by  tne  charter  of  the  Plymouth  Council, 
which  excluded  from  New  England  all  who  had  not 
taken  the  Oath  of  Supremacy.  Catholics  were  denied 
the  right  of  freemen  under  the  Royal  Commission  of 
1679,  which  required  the  Oath  of  Supremacv  and  this 
was  endorsed  by  the  General  Assembly  held  at  Ports- 
mouth the  following  year;  and  in  1696  an  odious  and 
insulting  test-oath  was  imposed  on  the  people  under 

?ain  of  fine  or  imprisonment.  The  proscription  of 
latholics  continued  to  disfigure  the  state  constitution 
even  after  the  adoption  of  the  federal  constitution. 
The  State  Constitutional  Convention  of  1791  refused 
to  amend  the  constitution  of  1784.  by  abolishing  the 
religious  test  that  excluded  Catholics  from  the  office 
of  governor,  councillor,  state  senator,  and  representa- 
tive, the  vote  standing  thirty  yeas  to  fifty-one  nays. 
It  is  significant  that  the  names  of  those  votingnay  are 
not  entered  on  the  record  (Journal,  p.  52).  The  con- 
vention of  1876  abolished  all  religious  disqualifications, 
and  this  was  adopted  by  the  people  except  as  to  one 
clause  empowering  towns,  parishes,  etc.  to  provide 
at  their  own  expense  for  puolic,  "Protestant'  teach- 
ers of  religion  and  moraUty.  The  convention  of  1889 
voted  to  abolish  this  distinction;  but  this  vote  also 
failed  of  ratification,  and  the  discrimination  stiU  re* 
mains  a  blot  on  the  fairest  and  first  of  all  written 
American  state  constitutions. 

First  Catholic  Missions. — In  1816  Rev.  Virgil  Bar- 
ber, an  Episcopal  minister  and  principal  of  an  Acad- 
emy at  Fairfield,  N.  Y.,  son  of  Rev.  Daniel  Barber  of 
Clarcmont,  N.  H.,  observing  a  prayer-book  in  the 
hands  of  a  Catholic  servant,  made  inquiries  which  re- 
sulted in  his  giving  up  his  school  and  pastorate  and 
becoming  a  CathoUc.  Afterwards,  by  agreement  be- 
tween hmiself  and  his  wife,  they  separated.  He  and 
his  son  entered  the  Jesuits,  and  Mrs.  Barber  and  her 
four  daughters  entered  convents.  Father  Barber  was 
ordained  in  1822  and  sent  to  Claremont.  where  he 
built  a  small  brick  church  and  academy,  still  standing; 
and  according  to  Bishop  Fenwick  in  1825  there  were 


788 


about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pereons,  almost  all  oon- 
vertBi  attending  it.  The  following  year  Father  Bar- 
ber was  sent  by  Bishop  Fenwick  to  visit  the  eastern 
part  of  the  diocese  and  found  one  hundred  Catholics 
in  Dover,  eager  for  a  church.  In  1828  Father  Charles 
Ffrench  was  assigned  to  that  mission,  which  extended 
from  Dover  to  Eastport  and  Bangor.  Father  Ffrench 
built  the  church  of  St.  Aloysius  at  Dover  (dedicated 
1836).  the  second  Catholic  church  in  the  state.  In 
1833  Father  Lee  was  appointed  resident  pastor,  and 
the  following  year  he  was  succeeded  by  Fatner  Patrick 
Canovan.  in  1835  the  Catholic  population  of  the 
state  is  given  as  385:  in  1842  it  was  placed  at  1370, 
ministereid  to  by  Fathers  Daly  and  Canovan.  Then 
came  the  emigration  from  Ireland  (1845).  In  Man- 
chester, N.  H.,  in  1848  there  were  five  hundred  Catho- 
lics^and  Bishop  Fitzpatrick  sent  thither  Rev.  William 
McDonald,  a  wise,  farnaeeing,  zealous,  and  devoted 
priest.  A  church  was  soon  built,  the  present  church 
of  St.  Anne,  rebuilt  in  1852.  In  1857  he  built  a  con- 
vent near  the  church  for  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  organ- 
ized schools,  using  the  basement  of  the  church  till  he 
could  build  or  purchase  buildings.  The  influx  of  Irish 
Catholics  continuing,  in  1867  he  built  St.  Joseph's 
church,  now  the  cathedral.  He  secured  eligible  sites 
for  a  church,  a  school,  and  charitable  purposes :  an  or- 

Ehan  asylum,  a  Home  for  Aged  Women,  ana  a  fine 
rick  school  for  girls.  Emigration  from  Canada  set  in, 
which  he  duly  cs^red  for,  as  he  spoke  French,  tiU  in 
1871  a  Canadian  priest.  Rev.  J.  H.  Chevalier,  was  sent 
to  Manchester,  where  he  built  a  fine  church  and  devel- 
oped a  flourislung  parish.  Father  McDonald  died  in 
1885,  greatly  beloved,  honoured,  and  lamented  by  his 
fellow  citizens,  irrespective  of  creed.  A  beautiful 
mortuary  chapel  was  erected  by  Bishop  Bradlejr  over 
his  remains.  Meanwhile  such  men  as  the  late  Fathers 
O'Donnell  and  Millette  of  Nashua,  Barry  of  Concord. 
Murphy  of  Dover,  O'Callaghan  of  Portsmouth  ana 
other  zealous  priests  built  up  fine  parishes  in  the  chief 
manufacturing  centres. 

In  1853  Mame  and  New  Hampshire  were  created  a 
diocese.  Father  David  W.  Bacon,  consecrated  bishop 
in  1855,  died  in  1874,  and  was  succeeded  (1875)  by  the 
Right  Kev.  J.  A.  Healy.  In  1884  the  state  was  made 
the  Diocese  of  Manchester  with  Father  Denis  M. 
Bradley,  then  pastor  of  St.  Joseph's,  as  its  first  bishop. 
Under  Bishop  Bradley,  a  man  of  great  mental  power 
and  breadth  of  view,  of  quick  perception  and  sound 
judj^ent,  singularly  sweet  in  disposition,  an  able  ad- 
ministrator and  utterly  devoted  to  his  calling,  the 
progress  of  the  diocese  was  almost  incredible.  The 
tide  of  French  Canadian  immi^tion  to  the  manufac- 
turing centres  of  the  state  now  mcreased  tremendously 
and  the  new  bishop  spared  no  pains  to  procure  the  best 
pastors  to  care  for  the  ever-increasing  flock.  Two 
other  magnificent  brick  churches  for  this  element,  St. 
Mary's  and  St.  Geori^'s,  with  schools  for  each  sex, 
and  convents  for  the  sisters,  were  built,  together  with 
all  the  usual  parish  institutions.  In  1884  there  were 
45,000  Catholics  in  the  state,  with  27  churches,  5  con- 
vents. 40  priests,  and  3000  children  in  the  parochial 
schools.  After  nineteen  years,  there  were  100,000 
Catholics,  91  churches,  24  chapels,  36  stations.  107 
priests,  12.000  children  in  the  parochial  schools,  4  hos- 
pitals, 4  homes  for  aged  women.  Bishop  Bradley 
died  13  December^903,  and  was  succeeded  m  1004  by 
Bishop  John  B.  Delaney,  whose  untimely  death  in 
June,  1906,  cut  short  his  administration.  His  succes- 
sor is  the  present  bishop.  Right  Rev.  George  Albert 
Guertin.  The  new  prelate  has  evidently  brought  with 
him  the  same  prudence,  zeal,  and  administrative 
ability  that  marked  his  career  as  a  priest^and  his  work 
thus  far  has  already  borne  rich  fruit.  There  are  now 
in  the  diocese  over  126,000  Catholics,  with  118  secular 

Sriests,  and  19  regulars;  99  churches^  24  chapels,  and 
4  stations;  over  13,000  children  m  the  parochial 
^  oiphan  asylums,  caring  for  718  (wphans,  5 


homes  for  working  girls,  with  many  other  charitable 
institutions.  No  Catholic  has  yet  held  the  office  of 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court;  recently  a  CaUiolic,  Hon, 
John  M.  Mitchell  of  Concora,  was  ^>pointed  judge  of 
the  Superior  Court  of  the  State. 

Religious  Poutt. — ^Freedom  of  worship  is  now 
recognized  as  "  a  natural  and  unalienable  right "  under 
the  Constitution;  and  no  one  shidl  be  molested  in  per- 
son or  property  for  exercising  the  same  as  his  con- 
science dictates,  or  for  his  sentiments  or  persuasion; 
or  be  compelled  to  pay  to  the  support  of  another  per- 
suasion; and  no  subordination  of  one  denomination  to 
,  another  shall  ever  be  established  by  law  (Bill  of 
Rights,  Art.  5).     All  work,  business,  and  labour  of 
one's  secular  calling  to  the  disturbance  of  others  on 
Sunday,  except  works  of  necessity  and  mercy,  are  for- 
bidden under  penalty  of  fine  and  imprisonment,  and 
no  person  shall  engage  in  any  play,  game  or  sport  6n 
that  day  (Gen.  laws;  Ch.  271).    The  form  of  oath  of 
office  prescribed  in  the  Constitution  is,  "  I  do  solemnly 
swear,  etc. — so  help  me  God.*'    Or,  in  case  of  persons 
scrupulous  of  swearing;  "This  I  do  under  the  pains 
and  penalties  of  perjury".    The  same  forms  are  fol- 
lowed in  respect  to  witnesses  in  the  courts,  but  any 
other  form  may  be  used  which  the  affiant  professes  to 
believe  may  be  more  binding  on  the  conscience.    Open 
denial  of  the  existence  of  God^  or  wilful  bla^hemy  of 
the  name  of  God,  Jesus  Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghoet, 
cursing  or  reproaching  His  word  contained  in  the 
Bible,  are  punishable  with  severe  fine  and  sureties  for 
^ood  behaviour  for  a  vear.    Profane  cureing  or  swear- 
ing is  punishable  by  nne  of  one  dollar  for  first  offence, 
and  two  dollars  for  subsequent  offences.    Opening  the 
legislature  by  prayer  is  a  matter  of  custom  since  1745, 
though  as  early  as  1680  the  Assembly  was  opened  b> 
prayer.    Christmas  Day  is  recognized  as  a  legal  holi- 
day.   Under  the  Puritan  regime  whoever  kept  Christ- 
mas Dav  had  to  pay  five  pounds,  over  twenty-four 
dollars  (Commissioners  Rep.  to  King).     The  seal  of 
confession  is  not  recognized  by  law.    No  instances 
of  its  being  attacked  have  arisen,  and  probably  public 
opinion  would  frown  down  any  such  attempt. 

Incorforation  of  Charities. — Apart  from  special 
incorporation  by  the  legislature,  easily  obtainable, 
any  nve  persons  may  associate  themselves  toother 
and  become  a  corporation  for  religious  or  charitable 
purposes,  by  filing  articles  of  agreement  with  their 
town  clerk,  and  the  Secretary  of  State.  The  laws 
could  not  well  be  more  hberal  toward  such  societies.  A 
reUgious  society,  though  not  incorporated,  is  a  corpo- 
ration in  this  state,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  and 
using  donations  or  grants  worth  not  more  than  $5000 
a  year.  Any  officers,  such  as  trustees  or  deacons,  of 
any  church,  if  citizens,  shall  be  deemed  a  corporation, 
to  hold  any  grants  or  donations  of  the  above  value, 
either  to  them  and  their  successors,  to  their  church  or 
to  the  poor.  No  religious  society  shall  be  dissolved, 
or  its  right  to  any  property  affected,  by  failure  to  hold 
its  annual  meeting,  to  choose  its  officers,  or  for  any 
informaUty  in  electing  or  qualif3ring  its  officers,  or  for 
any  defect  in  its  records. 

Taxation. — All  ''Houses  of  Public  Worship"  are 
exempt  from  taxation;  also  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars  of  the  value  of  parsonages  owned  by  religious 
societies  and  occupied  by  their  pastors:  also  school 
houses  and  "Seioinaries  of  learning''.  Ordained 
ministers  are  exempt  from  jury  duty,  but  not  from 
military  duty.  The  sale  of  liquor  is  regulated  by  a 
stringent  hi^  licence  law,  sale  for  sacramental  pur- 
poses being  expressly  recognized  and  coming  uncfer  a 
low  licence  fee,  ten  dollars. 

Marriage  and  Dh'^orce. — ^The  age  of  consent, 
for  females  is  thirteen,  for  males  fourteeo.  Marria^ 
to  the  degree  of  first  cousins  are  incestuous  and  void, 
and  the  issue  illegitimate.  Marris^ges  may  be  aolem* 
nized  by  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  his  countv,  or  by  an 
ordained  minister  in  good  standing,  renoent  in  the 


NSW  HBBBIDE8 


789 


NBWHOUSX 


state:  also  by  ministers  out  of  the  state,  commissioned 
by  the  governor  to  be  legally  authorized  officers. 
CJhildren  bom  before  marriage  and  duly  acknowledged 
thereafter  are  deemed  legitimate.  The  legitimacy  of 
the  children  is  not  to  be  affected  by  decree  of  divorce 
unless  so  expressed  in  the  decree.  If  one  of  the 
parties  thereto  beheved  they  were  lawfully  married 
and  the  marriage  was  consimmiated,  it  is  valid,  al- 
thou^  before  a  vup-posed  but  not  actual  justice  or 
minister,  or  under  an  informal  or  defective  certificate 
of  intention.  The  causes  for  legal  divorce  are  im- 
potency,  adultery,  extreme  cruelty,  conviction  of  crime 
entailing  over  a  year's  imprisonment;  treatment  seri- 
ously injuring  health  or  reason,  habitual  drunken- 
ness, refusal  to  cohabit  or  support  for  three  years^  re- 
fusal for  six  months,  when  conjoined  with  religious 
belief  (Gen.  Stat.,  Ch.  174).  Where  legal  cause  for 
divorce  exists,  all  the  objects  of  separation — ^non- 
access,  non-interference  with  person  and  propertv, 
alimony,  custody  of  children — can  be  obtained  witn- 
out  a  legal  divorce,  should  the  injured  party  so  desire 
(Stat.,  1909). 

Pbibons  and  Reformatories. — ^The  rules  of  all 
prisons,  houses  of  correction,  or  public  charitable  or 
reformatory  institutions,  shall  provide  for  suitable  re- 
ligious instruction  and  ministration  to  the  inmates. 
These  are  to  have  freedom  of  religious  belief  and  wor- 
ship, but  may  not  interfere  with  proper  discipline. 
Wills  and  Testaments. — ^Everv  peraon  of  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  sound  mind  (married  women  in- 
cluded), may  dispose  of  any  right  in  property  by  will 
in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator  and  subscribed  in 
his  presence  by  three  credible  witnesses.  No  seal  is 
required.  Husband  or  wife  may  waive  the  provisions 
of  a  will  and  take  the  share  allowed  them  respectively 
by  law. 

Charitable  Bequests. — These  are  governed  bv 
the  principles  of  the  common  law.  The  courts  wifi 
order  them  to  be  executed  according  to  the  true  intent 
and  will  let  no  trust  lapse  for  want  of  a  trustee  (2 
N.  H.,  21-55;  N.  H.,  463-470—36;  N.  H.,  139). 

The  following  is  a  rough  estimate  of  the  nationality 
of  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese: 

French  Canadians 66,200 

Irish 62,250 

Poles 6,000 

Lithuanians 1,500 

Ruthenians 750 

As  reported  in  1906  the  membership  of  the  principal 
Qon-Catholic  denominations  is  as  follows: 

Congregationalists 19,070 

MethocBsts 12,529 

Baptists 9,741 

Free  Baptists 6,210 

Unitarians 3,629 

UniversaUsts 1,993 

Advent  Christians 1,608 

Christians 1,303 

Presb3rterianB 842 

Chab.  a.  O'Connor. 

New  Hebrides,  Vicariate  Apostouc  of,  in  Oceania, 
comprises  the  New  Hebrides,  with  Banks  and  Torres, 
islands  situated  between  13^  and  21°  S.  lat.  ana 
between  166''  and  170°  E.  long.  The  total  area 
is  about  580  sq.  miles.  The  inmgenous  population, 
which  has  decreased  considerably,  amounts  to  about 
75,000;  they  are  for  the  most  part  of  an  oUve  or  brown 
complexion,  varying  in  darkness.  Their  languages, 
which  are  ver^  numerous,  belong  to  the  Malay  stock 
and  their  religious  worship  has  for  its  obiect  the  souls 
of  the  dead,  but  they  also  recognize  a  higher  Being 
who  is  gooa.  The  white  population  is  about  1000, 
nearly  650  of  whom  are  French,  and  300  English. 
The  islands  belong  jointly  to  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain under  what  is  known  as  the  "Condominium  of  the 
New  Hebrides''.    They  were  disoovered  in  1606  by 


the  Spaniards  under  Quiros,  and  were  named  Tieira 
Austnil  del  S.  Espiritu.  In  1768  the  French  navigar 
tor,  Bougainville,  in  sailing  round  the  globe,  came 
upon  the  same  group  and  named  them  the  Grandes 
Cydades.  Six  years  latw.  Cook  discovered  the  is- 
lands and  gave  them  their  present  name.  According 
to  the  account  of  Quiros,  the  Franciscans,  who  acted 
as  chaplains  to  his  ships,  celebrated  Mass  several 
times  in  a  chapel  built  on  the  shore,  and  even  held  a 
procession  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  Nevertheless, 
the  islands  had  to  wait  long  for  the  preaching  of  Cath- 
olic missionaries.  Not  until  January,  1887,  did  four 
Marist  priests,  sent  by  Mgr  Fraysse.  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  New  Caledonia,  dennitivelv  establish  here  the  first 
missions,  and  they  did  it  amid  great  difficulties.  The 
missions,  however,  developed  rapidly,  and  in  1900, 
at  the  petition  of  Mgr.  Fraysse,  the  New  Hebrides 
were  separated  from  Us  iurisaiction  and  made  a  pre- 
fecture Apostolic,  under  r^re  Doucer6,  of  the  Society 
of  Mary.  In  1904  this  mission  became  a  vicariate 
Apostolic,  and  Pdre  Doucer6,  as  vicar  Apostolic,  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Terenuthis.  His  resi- 
dence is  at  Port- Vila.  Tne  staff  of  the  mission  now 
comprises  26  priests  and  3  lay  brothers  of  the  Lyons 
Society  of  Mary.  Their  labours  are  seconded  by  16 
religious  women  of  the  regular  Third  Order  of  Mary, 
and  a  certain  number  of  native  catechists.  There  are 
20  missionary  residences,  besides  numerous  annexes. 
Each  mission  has  its  schools.  Near  the  episcopal 
residence  is  established  a  training-school  for  native 
catechists.  Religious  instruction  and  education  for 
white  children  are  secured  by  two  schools  at  Port- 
Vila:  a  school  for  boys,  conducted  by  the  Little 
Brothers  of  Mary;  one  for  girls,  imder  the  sisters  of  the 
mission  who  also  serve  the  hospital  at  Port-Vila  and 
conduct  at  MaUicolo  a  crhcke  for  little  orphans.  Con- 
versions from  paganism  progress  slowly,  but  con- 
tinuously. The  native  Catholics,  now  numbering 
rather  more  than  one  thousand,  are  well  instructed 
and  faithful  to  their  rehgious  duties.  There  are  about 
600  white  CathoUcs,  and  this  number  is  iticreasing 
rapidly,  botii  by  births  and  by  immigration. 

P.  Doucer£. 

Newhoiue,  Abbey  of,  near  Brockelsby,  Lincoln, 
the  first  Premonstratensian  abbey  in  Enuand,  was 
founded  in  1143  by  Peter  de  Gousel.  with  the  consent 
of  his  lord,  Hugh  de  Bayeux.  and  tne  approbation  of 
Alexander,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  with  a  colony  from 
Liegues  Abbey  near  Calais,  France,  then  under  the  rule 
of  Abbot  Henry.  On  their  arrival  in  England  the  White 
Canons  were  hospitably  received  by  William,  Earl  of 
Lincoln,  who  confirmed  the  donations  made  to  Gelro, 
the  first  Abbot  of  Newhouse,  by  Peter  de  Gousel  the 
founder,  by  Ralph  de  Halton,  and  Geoffrey  de  Tours. 
The  abbey  was  Duilt  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  aiid  St. 
Martial,  Bishop  of  Limoges.  In  time  Newhouse  be- 
came the  parent  house  of  eleven  of  the  Premonstraten- 
sian houses  in  England.  The  seal  of  Newhouse  repre- 
sents an  abbot  at  full  length  with^his  crozier  and  the 
inscription:  Sigill.  amvenius  Sci  Marcialis,  Ep.  Li.  de 
Newhouse.  Of  this  abbey  which  was  granted  (30 
Henry  VIII)  to  Charles,  Duke  of  Suffolk,  parts  only 
of  the  old  foundations  still  remain.  The  names  of 
twenty-six  abbots  are  known,  the  last  being  Thomas 
Harpham,  who  was  abbot  from  1534  to  the  suppression 
of  the  abbey  by  Henry  VIII.  The  f ollowing list  gives 
in  alphabetical  order  the  names  and  the  dates  of  foun- 
dations of  the  Premonstratensian,  or  Norbertine, 
abbeys,  made  from  the  Abbey  of  Newhouse  and  ex- 
isting in  England  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation: 
Alnwick,  Northumberland,  this  was  the  first  founda- 
tion made  from  Newhouse  (1147) ;  Barlings,  near 
Lincoln  (1154);  Bilei^^,  near  Maldon,  Essex  (1180); 
Coverham,  Yorkshire  (originally  established  at 
Swainby,  1190);  Croxton.  near' Melton  Mowbray, 
Leiceeterahire  (1162);  Dale,  Derbyshire  (1162);  St. 


NEW  JXB8IT 


790 


NEW  JBB8BT 


^^tha's  at  Easby ,  near  Richmond,  Yorkflhire  (1152) ; 
Newbo,  near  Barrowby,  Linoohiflhire  (1198);Sulby) 
Northamptonflhire  (originally  established  at  Wei- 
fold  (1155). 

Ddodaui,  MoiuuHeon  Anglieanum.  VI;  CoUtdanm  Analtk- 
PrmmonM.  in  Rsoubn.  RtgiMter,  ed.  GABQuar  (Royal  Hiatonoal 
Bodety.  3id  Mries.  VI,  X,  XII);  Oxudbhb.  A  Sktiek  of  tlu  Fn- 
monatraUnnan  OrMr  and  %U  Ammm  in  Ormt  Britain  and  Inland 
(London.  1878);  Huoo,  Annalu  FrmmonatraUnM»  (Naaoy.  1734). 

F.  M.  Gbudinb. 

New  JerM7,  one  of  the  orupnal  thirteen  states  of 
the  American  Union.  It  ratified  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution on  18  December,  1787,  being  preceded  only  by 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  The  capital  of  the  state 
is  Trenton.  The  extreme  len^h  of  New  Jersey  from 
north  to  south  is  160  miles,  its  extreme  breadth  70 
miles,  and  its  gross  area  7815  square  miles.  It  is  situ- 
ated between  38°  55'  39"  and  41°  21'  19"  N.  lat.,  and 
between  73°  53'  51"  and  75°  33'  3"  W.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  New  York  State,  on  the  east 
by  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the 
south  by  Delaware  Bay,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Dela- 
ware River.  In  1910  the  population  was  2,537,167 
(1,883,669  in  1900),  the  state  being  thus,  notwith- 
standing its  large  mountainous  and  forest  areas,  more 
densely  populated  than  the  most  fertile  of  the  prairie 
states  or  the  great  manufacturing  States  of  New  York 
or  Pennsylvania.  New  Jersey  has,  in  proportion  to  its 
area,  more  miles  of  railway  than  any  other  state,  the 
majority  of  the  eastern  trunk  lines  traversing  it.  Its 
farms  yield  a  larger  income  in  proportion  to  the  area 
cultivated  than  the  richest  states  of  the  Mississippi 
valley.    In  manufactures  it  ranks  sixth  in  the  Union. 

Physical  Characteristics. — Much  of  the  north- 
em  half  of  New  Jersey  is  motmtainous,  and  much  of 
its  southern  half  is  covered  with  forest.  The  state 
divides  itself  naturally  into  four  belts,  differing  in  age, 
in  the  nature  of  the  underlying  rocks,  and  in  topog- 
raphy. The  Appalachian  belt,  made  up  of  the  Kitta- 
tinny  range  and  valley,  forms  the  north-western  part 
of  the  state.  This  ridge  is  due  to  tilted-up  layers  of 
hard  rock,  which  have  been  able  to  resist  the  agents  of 
waste,  while  the  softer  rocks  were  beine  slowly  worn 
away  to  form  the  Kittatinny  valley.  The  Kittatinny 
Mountains  constitute  the  highest  land  in  the  state, 
and  are  clothed  with  forests;  the  valley,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  the  state,  is  devoted  to  gen- 
eral farming  and  grazing.  ^  There  a^  no  large  cities, 
and  but  little  manufacturing,  in  this  section.  The 
Highland  belt  is  the  oldest  part  of  the  state,  and  is  a 
portion  of  the  ve^  ancient  mountain  system  of  which 
the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  are  a  worn-down  remnant. 
The  Highlands  (generally  less  than  1500  feet  high)  are 
a  region  of  lakes,  forests,  and  picturesque  valleys,  but 
are  not  a  productive  farming  section.  Here,  in  an- 
cient crystalline  rocks,  are  found  valuable  beds  of  iron 
and  of  smc  ore,  but  there  are  no  large  cities  and  no  ex- 
tensive manufacturing.  The  Piedmont  belt  is  a  roll- 
ing plain  from  which  rise  abrupt  ridges  of  hard  trap- 
rock.  The  Palisades  along  the  Hudson  and  the 
Orange  or  Watchung  Mountains  are  the  most  promi- 
nent of  these  ridges.  While  the  rocks  of  the  Piramont 
plain  are  mostly  sandstone  and  shale,  the  trap-rocks 
are  ancient  lava  sheets.  This,  the  belt  of  dense  popu- 
lation, many  cities,  great  manufacturing  activity,  and 
generally  productive  soil,  is  by  far  the  most  wealthy 
part  of  the  state.  The  northern  part  of  New  Jersey 
was  covered  by  the  ice  sheet  of  the  dacial  period.  As 
a  result,  there  are  many  swamps,  lakes,  and  water- 
falls, a  glacial  soil  with  many  boulders,  and  the  ter- 
minal moraine  formed  by  low  rotmded  hills.  These 
hills  are  composed  of  till,  gjavel,  boulders,  etc.. 
brought  together  by  the  advancing  ice  sheet  and  piled 
up  along  its  front.  The  coastal  putin  is  the  youngest, 
flattest,  and  larges^  of  the  four  natural  divisions  of 
the  state,  of  which  it  forms  more  than  one  half.  It  is 
lompoeed  of  layer  upon  layer  of  sand,  clay,  gravel,  and 


marl  sediments,  that  were,  in  past  ages,  slowly  de- 
posited in  the  ocean  waters  along  the  coast,  and  after- 
wards into  a  low,  sandy  plain.  The  marl  belt  and  a 
few  other  portions  are  alone  fertile.  More  than  half 
of  the  coastal  plain  is  covered  with  pine  forests  and  is 
thinly  peopled.  Outside  of  the  larger  cities,  the  rais- 
ing of  fruit  and  vexetables  for  the  city  markets  and  the 
manufacture  of  gfass  are  the  chief  industries.  The 
sesrooast  is  fringed  with  summer  resorts. 

Civil  History. — ^The  precise  date  of  the  first  settle- 
ment in  New  Jersey  is  not  known,  though  it  is  believed 
that  the  Danes  or  Norwegians,  wno  crossed  the  Atlan- 
tic with  the  Dutch  colonists,  began  a  settlement  at 
Bergen  about  1624.  Ten  years  previously  an  attempt 
had  been  made  to 
form  a  settlement 
at  Jersey  City.  In 
1623  the  Dutch 
West  India  Com- 
pany sent  out  a 
flhipundertheoom- 
mand  of  Captain 
Cornelius  Jacobse 
Mey.  Entering 
Delaware  Bay,  he 
gave  his  name  to  its 
northern  cape,  and 
then,  sailing  up  the 
river  to  Gloucester, 
built  Fort  Nas- 
sau, which  may  be  S»al  of  New  Jxkskt 
considered  the  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  state. 
In  1632  Charles  I  granted  to  Sir  Edmund  Plowden  a 
vast  tract  of  land  embracins  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  and  Maryland,  althou^  he  had 
previously  granted  Maryland  to  Lord  Baltimore.  In 
1634  Plowden  made  a  grant  of  ten  thousand  acres  to 
Sir  Thomas  Danby  on  condition  that  he  would  settle 
one  hundred  planters  on  it,  and  would  not  permit 
"any  to  live  thereon  not  believing  or  professing  the 
three  Christian  creeds  commonly  called  the  Apos- 
tolical, Athanasian,  and  Nicene".  In  1642  Plowden 
sailed  up  the  Delaware  River,  which  he  named  "The 
Charles^',  and  foimded  at  Salem  City  a  settlement  of 
seventy  persons.  The  efforts  of  Thomas  and  George 
Plowden  to  assert  their  claims  to  the  lands  granted  to 
their  grandfather  proved  futile,  the  possessions  having 
fallen  into  other  hands  after  the  latter  had  retired  to 
Virginia  during  the  Commonwealth.  In  1606,  prior 
to  the  grant  of  Charles  I  to  Plowden,  King  James  had 
mnted  a  new  patent  for  Virginia  (inioiing  that  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  dated  1584).  in  which  was  included 
the  territory  now  known  as  tne  New  England  States, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennaylvania,  and  Maryland. 
The  possession  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  ad- 
jacent lands  was  subsequently  chdmed  by  the  Dutdi 
and  Swedes.  The  former  built  Fort  Nassau  on  the 
Delaware  near  Gloucester.  ^  Disputes  as  to  the  light* 
ful  possession  of  this  territory  continued  until  12 
March,  1664,  when  Charles  II  with  royal  disr^ard  for 
previous  patents,  grants,  and  charters,  deedea  to  his 
brother  James,  Duke  of  York,  a  vast  tract  embracing 
much  of  New  England,  New  York,  and  all  o£  what  is 
now  New  Jersey.  This  was  accompanied  by  active 
preparations  to  drive  the  Dutch  from  America,  as 
their  possession  of  New  Jersey,  if  acquiesced  in,  would 
practically  separate  the  New  England  Colonies  from 
Virginia,  Maiyland,  and  the  Carolinas.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1664  armed  vessels  appeared  in  New  York  har* 
hour,  and  after  negotiations  the  Dutch  surrendered. 

In  the  meantime  the  Duke  of  York  transferred  to  two 
favourites.  Lord  John  Berkelev  and  Sir  George  Car- 
teret, practically  what  is  now  the  State  of  New  Jersey 
by  tne  following  description:  "  AU  that  tract  of  land 
adjacent  to  New  England  and  lying  and  being  to  the 
westward  of  Long  Island,  bounded  on  the  east  part  bv 
the  main  sea  andpart  by  the  Hudson  River,  and  hatJi 


MXW  JKBOBY                          791  HEW  JERSST 

upon  the  west,  Delaware  bay  or  river,  and  extendeth  Society  of  Friends.  Salem  was  settled  in  1675;  Bur<> 
southward  to  the  main  ocean  as  far  as  Cape  May.  at  lington,  Gloucester,  and  Trenton  about  five  years 
the  mouth  of  Delaware  bay,  and  to  the  northward  as  later,  while  within  ten  years  the  "shore"  oommuni-> 
far  as  the  northernmost  branch  of  said  bav  or  river  of  ties  of  Cape  May  and  Tuckerton  came  into  existence. 
Delaware,  which  is  forty-one  degrees  and  forty  min-  The  Society  of  Friends  established  in  West  Jersey  a 
utes  of  latitude,  and  worketh  over  thence  in  a  straight  series  of  communities  in  which  the  life  of  the  people 
line  to  Hudson  river,  which  said  tract  of  land  is  here-  was  different  from  that  of  East  Jersey.  As  East  Jer^ 
after  to  be  called  by  the  name  or  names  of  Nova  Ci&-  s^  resembled  New  England  in  civil  government,  so 
sarea  or  New  Jersey".  This  name  was  given  in  hon-  West  Jersey  resembled  Virginia.  The  political  and 
our  of  Carteret's  gallant  defence  of  the  Island  of  Jersey  social  centres  of  the  large  plantations  were  the  shire 
(Cesorea),  of  which  he  was  governor,  duringthe  par-  towns;  slave-holding  was  common;  a  landed  aristoc- 
liamentary  wars.  This  grant  regarded  the  Dutcn  as  racv  was  established ;  prominent  f  aznilies  intermarried, 
intruders,  and  Berkeley  and  Carteret  not  only  became  and,  under  the  advice  of  WilUam  Penn  and  his  friends, 
rulers,  but  acquired  the  right  to  transfer  the  privilege  good  faith  was  kei)t  with  the  Indians.  Capital  pun- 
to  others.  Measures  were  speedily  devised  for  peopling  ishment  was  practically  unknown,  and  disputes  were 
and  governing  the  oountiy.  The  proprietors  pubh  frequently  settled  by  arbitration. 
lishedT  a  constitution,  dated  10  February,  1664,  by  Two  elements  of  cusoord  marked  the  genesis  of  East 
which  the  government  of  the  province  was  to  be  ex-  Jersey  and  West  Jersey.  One  was  external,  and  arose 
ereised  by  a  governor,  council,  and  e[eneral  assembly,  from  the  attitude  of  the  Duke  of  York.  As  we  have 
The  governor  was  to  receive  his  appomtment  from  the  already  noted,  New  Jersey  was  recaptured  in  1673 
proprietors.  On  the  same  da^  that  the  instrument  of  by  the  Dutch,  who  held  the  colony  until  the  early 
government  was  signed,  Phihp  Carteret,  a  brother  of  spring  of  1674.  A  question  arose  as  to  the  Duke  of 
one  of  the  proprietors,  received  a  commission  as  Gov-  York^  title  after  1674;  reconveyances  were  made,  but 
emor  of  New  Jersey,  and  landed  at  Elisabeth  in  in  spite  of  past  assurances  the  dulre  claimed  the  pro- 
August,  1665.  By  granting  a  liberal  form  of  govern-  prietary  right  of  government.  To  that  end  Sir  Ed- 
ment  and  extolling  the  advantages  of  their  colony,  so  mund  Anoros  was  commissioned  Governor  of  New 
well  located  for  agriculture,  commerce,  fishing,  and  Jersey,  and  a  climax  was  reached  in  1680  when  the 
mining,  Carteret  and  Berkel^  attracted  settlers  not  proprietary  Governor  of  East  Jersey  was  carried  pris- 
onlv  from  England,  but  from  Scotland,  New  England,  oner  to  New  York.  In  1681  the  Crown  recognised  the 
and  particularly  from  Long  Island  and  Connecticut,  justice  of  the  proprietors'  contention,  and  local  gov- 
These  planters  were  largelv  Calvinists  from  Presby*  emment  was  re-established,  but  not  oefore  the  seeds 
terian  and  Congregational  communities,  and  occu-  of  disaffection  were  sown  that  bore  fruit  in  the  Revo- 
pied  mainly  lancTin  Newark,  Elisabeth,  and  upon  the  lutionary  War.  An  internal  disturbance  was  the  con- 
north  shore  of  Monmouth  ootmty.  The  vallev  of  the  test  between  the  Board  of  Proprietors  and  the  sm^l 
Delaware  remained  unsettled.  The  Calvinists  brou^t  landowners.  Both  in  East  and  West  Jersey,  Carteret 
¥rith  them  into  East  Jersey  their  distinctive  views  and  Bericelev  and  their  assigns  had  transfeired  to 
upon  religious  and  dvil  matters.  wealthy  combinations  of  capitalists  (mostly  non-resi- 
The  first  Legislative  Assembly  met  at  Elizabeth-  dent)  much  of  the  broad  acreage  of  the  colonies.  With 
town  on  26  May,  1668.  The  session  lasted  four  days,  the  land  went  the  right  of  selection  of  governors  and 
and  was  characterised  bv  harmony  and  strict  atten-  of  members  of  executive  councils,  which  right  Berke- 
tion  to  the  business  for  which  the  burgesses  and  repre-  ley  and  Carteret  derived  from  the  Crown.  This,  with 
sentativee  were  summoned  by  Governor  Carteret.  It  "  quit-rent "  agitation  in  East  Jersey,  led  to  much  bit- 
map be  noticed  that  this  assembly  passed  laws  by  temess.  Finally,  disgusted  with  turmoil  and  reoog- 
which  twelve  distinct  offences  were  made  punishabJe  nizine  the  sentunents  of  revolt  entertained  by  the 
with  death.  The  assembly  adjoiuned  sine  die,  and  people,  the  Boards  of  Proprietors  surrendered  to  the 
seven  years  elapsed  before  another  convened.  The  Crown  in  1702  their  rights  of  government,  retaining 
capture  of  New  York  by  the  Dutch,  on  30  July,  1673,  only  their  interest  in  the  soil.  East  and  West  Jersey 
was  followed  by  the  subjection  of  the  surrounding  were  now  united  and  the  two  orovinces  became  the 
country,  including  the  province  of  New  Jersey.  The  royal  colony  of  New  Jersey.  Queen  Anne  appointed 
whole  of  the  temtory,  however,  was  restorea  to  the  Lord  Combury,  Governor  of  New  York  and  New  Jer- 
English  Crown  by  the  Anglo-Dutch  Treaty  of  9  Feb-  sey,  but  each  continued  to  have  a  separate  assembly, 
ruary,  1674.  The  second  General  Assembly  began  ite  In  1738  New  Jersey  petitioned  for  a  distinct  adminis- 
sessions  on  5  November,  1675.  Laws  were  enacted  tration,  and  Lewis  Morris  was  appointed  governor, 
concerning  tiie  proper  military  defence  of  the  prov-  The  population  was  then  about  40,000.  The  last 
inoe,  the  institution  of  regular  courts,  and  the  assess-  royal  governor  was  William  Franklin,  the  natural  son 
ment  of  taxes.  A  code  of  capital  laws  was  also  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  The  opening  of  the  Revolu- 
adopted.  similar  in  its  provisions  to  that  passed  in  tion  found  New  Jersey  sentiment  unevenly  crvstal- 
1668.  Un  18  March,  1673,  Lord  Berkeley  disposed  of  lized.  Few,  if  any,  favoured  absolute  independence, 
his  rifiht  and  interest  in  the  province  to  John  Fenwick  There  were  three  elements.  One.  the  Tory  and  oon- 
and  Edward  Byllinge.  members  of  the  Society  of  servative  class  and  led  by  Wilham  Franklin,  em- 
Quakers,  or  Friends,  tor  the  sum  of  one  thousand  braced  nearly  all  the  Episcopalians,  a  vast  proportion 
pounds.  John  Fenwick  received  the  conveyance  in  of  the  non-combatant  members  of  the  Society  of 
trust  for  Edward  Byllinge,  and  a  dispute  as  to  the  Friends,  and  some  East  Jersey  Calviniste.  Another 
terms  l^vingarisen,  William  Penn  was  called  in  as  element  was  composed  of  men  of  various  shades  of  be- 
arbitrator.  Me  gave  one-tenth  of  the  province  and  a  lief,  some  in  favour  of  continual  protest,  others  desir^ 
considerable  sum  of  money  to  Fenwick,  the  remainder  ous  of  compromise.  This  included  at  the  outbreak  of 
of  the  territory  being  adjudged  to  Byllinge.  In  1676  a  the  struggle  most  of  the  Calvinists,  some  few  Quakers 
division  of  the  Carteret  and  Berkeley  interesto  oo-  of  the  younger  generation,  and  the  Irish  and  Scotch, 
curred.  By  the  ''Indenture  Quintiputite",  dated  1  The  third  party  drew  its  support  from  a  few  bold,  ag- 
July,  1676,  the  line  of  division  was  made  to  extend  gressive  spirite  of  influence,  whose  following  includ^ 
across  the  province  from  Little  Egg  Harbor  to  a  point  men  who  believed  that  war  for  independence  would 
in  the  Delaware  River  in  forty-one  degrees  N.  lat.  benefit  their  fortunes.  The  part  played  in  the  Revo- 
These  divisions  were  known  reQ>ectively  as  East  and  lution  by  New  Jersey  has  been  frequently  told. 
West  Jersey,  until  the  charters  of  both  were  sup*  Events  succeeded  rapidly  after  Trenton  and  Prince- 
rendered,  and  the  two  portions  included  together  ton;  Monmouth  and  Red  Bank  are  ever-memorable, 
under  a  royal  government.  After  Berkeley's  transfer  while  the  raids  at  Salem,  Sprinsfield,  Elizabeth,  in  the 
the  dominant  influence  in  West  Jen^  was  that  tA  th«  valley  of  the  Haokensack,  and  the  winter  at  Monia- 


MSW  JIBSIY  792  NSW  JIBSIY 

town  are  a  part  of  national  history.    Lying  between  otherwise  have  gone  without  great  pemnal  danger. 

New  York  and  Philadelphia,  its  soil  was  a  theatre  Sometimes,  however,  his  real  character  was  diacov- 

where  the  drama  of  war  was  always  presented.    At  no  ered,  and  several  times  he  was  shot  at  in  New  Jersey, 

time  was  the  Tory  element  suppressed,  finding  its  ex-  He  used  to  carry  in  his  missionary  exciu^ons  a  manu- 


picion,  the  Society  of  Friends  was  neutral,  for  con-  in  Trenton  in  1776.  He  was  interested  in  the  cause  of 
science'  sake,  remaining  faithful  to  the  teachings  of  its  the  patriots,  and  helped  to  furnish  the  boats  used  to 
creed.  The  close  of  the  struggle  found  the  people  of  transport  General  Washington's  army  across  the  Dela- 
New  Jersey  jubilant  and  not  disposed  to  relinquish  ware  on  25  December,  1776.  Captain  Michael  Kear- 
their  sovereignty.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  ney,  a  Catholic,  lived  near  Wnii)pany  in  Morris 
were  weak  and  had  become  a  byword  and  a  jest.  County  on  his  large  estate,  consisting  of  about  one 
There  was  much  state  pride  and  much  aristocratic  thousand  acres,  known  as  "The  Irish  Lott".  The  in- 
feeling  among  the  old  families  who  continued  to  domi-  scription  on  his  tomb  bears  witness  to  his  genial  hoa- 
nate  state  politics.  pitality  of  disposition,  and  to  his  having  served  aa  a 

Ecclesiastical  History. — ^Early  Missionary  Ef-  captain  in  the  British  Navy.    He  died  at  the  a^  of 

forts. — The  comparative  liberality  of  the  proprietaiy  seventy-eight  years,  six  months,  and  twenty-eight 

rule  of  Berkeley  and  Carteret,  especially  m  religious  days  on  5  April,  1797.    Molly  Pitcher  (rUe  McCau- 

matters,  attracted  some  Catholic  settlers  to  New  Jer-  ley),  who  ac(juired  fame  at  the  Battle  of  Monmouth, 

sey.    As  early  as  1672  we  find  Fathers  Harvev  and  was  a  Cathohc  girl.    One  Pierre  Malou,  who  had  been 

Gage  visiting  both  Woodbridge  and  Elizabetntown  a  general  in  the  Belgian  Army,  was  a  resident  of 

(then  the  capitfd  of  New  Jersey)  for  the  purpose  of  Pnnceton  from  1795  to  1799:  he  purchased  five  hun- 

mmistering  to  the  Catholics  in  those  places.    Kobert  dred  acres  of  land  in  Cherry  YaUey;  subsequently  he 

Vanquellen,  a  native  of  Caen,  France,  and  a  Catholic,  sailed  for  Europe  in  order  to  bring  his  wife  and  two 

lived  at  Woodbridge,  and  was  survevor  general  of  that  sons  to  New  Jersey.    On  the  return  voyage  his  wife 

section  of  New  JersW  in  1669  and  1670.    Catholics  died.    He  returned  to  Europe,  became  a  la^  brother 

were,  however,  regarcled  with  some  suspicion  and  eon-  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  afterwards  he  studied  theol- 

siderable  bigotry  at  times  manifested  itself.    A  Cath-  ogy,  and  was  later  raised  to  the  priesthood,  came  to 

olic  by  the  name  of  William  Douglass,  when  elected  a  America  again  and  was  stationed  in  Madison.    Father 

representative  from  Bergen  County,  was  excluded,  be*  Pierre  Malou  died  at  New  York  on  13  October,  1S27, 

cause  of  his  religious  convictions,  from  the  General  and  is  buried  under  St.  Peter's  Church  in  Barclay 

Assemblv  of  1668.    In  1691  the  New  York  Assembly  Street. 

passed  the  first  anti-Catholic  enactment,  which  was  When  Bishop  John  Carroll  returned  from  England 
followed  by  laws  strongly  opposed  to  Catholics  and  he  received  Father  John  Rossiter,  an  Augustinian, 
their  beliefs  both  in  New  YorK  and  New  Jersey.  Lord  into  his  diocese  in  1790.  On27May,  1799,theAugus- 
Combury.  when  appointed  governor  in  1701.  was  tinians  were  given  permission  to  establish  convents  of 
instructed  by  Queen  Anne  to  permit  liberty  of  con-  their  order  in  the  united  States.  They  established 
science  to  aUpersons  except  ''papists''.  missions  in  New  Jersey  at  Cape  May  and  at  Trenton 

The  first  Catholics  in  New  Jersey  were  probably  in  1803  and  1805,  and  at  Paterson  a  little  later.  8t. 
those  who  availed  themselves  of  the  grant  made  by  John's  parish  at  Trenton,  now  the  parish  of  the  Sa- 
Charles  I  in  1632  to  Sir  Edmund  Plowden,  and  of  cred  Heart,  was  the  first  parish  established  in  New 
Plowden's  convevance  in  1634  to  Thomas  Danby.  In  Jersey  (1799).  St.  Joseph's  Church  in  Philadelphia 
this  way  a  Catholic  settlement  was  founded  near  was  the  first  parish  church  for  the  Catholics  of  Penn- 
Sfdem.  The  fine  clay  found  at  Woodbridge  attracted  sylvania.  New  Jersey,  and  New  York.  The  Father 
some  Catholics  to  that  place  as  early  as  1672.  The  Harding  above  referred  to  was  pastor  of  this  parish, 
ship  "  Philip  ",  which  is  said  to  have  brought  Carteret  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  priest  to  have  visited 
to  America,  also  transported  several  French  Catho-  New  Jersey  prior  to  1762.  St.  John's  Church  in  New- 
lies,  who  were  skilled  ss  salt  makers,  to  New  Jersey,  ark  was  built  in  1828,  and  the  first  pastor  was  Rev. 
The  records  show  Hugh  Dunn  and  John  and  James  Gregory  Bryan  Pardow.  Father  Pardow  was  bom  in 
Kelly  in  Woodbridge  in  1672.  In  1741  some  fanatics,  England  in  1804,  and  in  1829  was  named  as  first  pas- 
unable  to  bear  the  toleration  which  the  Catholics  were  tor  of  the  first  Catholic  parish  fotmded  in  Newark, 
enjoying  in  the  province,  endeavoured  to  arouse  ill-  During  and  after  the  terrible  famine  in  Ireland  about 
feeling  against  them  by  accusing  them  of  complicity  1848  a  great  number  of  Irish  Catholics  came  to  New 
in  the  ''Negro  Plot  .  In  the  persecution  thus  Jersey.  About  this  time  Father  Bernard  J.  McQuaid 
aroused  Father  John  Ury,  a  Catholic  priest  (see  Fljrnn.  (q.  v.)  began  his  missionary  career  in  New  Jersey.  He 
op.  cit.  in  bibliography,  pp.  21-2),  who  had  exercised  became  pastor  at  Madison  in  1848,  and  had  missions 
unostentatiously  his  sacred  ministry  in  New  Jersey,  at  Momstown,  Dover^  Mendham,  Basking  Rid^e,  and 
and  had  been  engaged  for  about  twelve  months  m  Springfield.  His  pansh  extended  from  Madison  to 
teaching  at  Burlington,  was  put  to  death  in  New  York  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  including  Morris,  Somer- 
City,  the  real  cause  being  the  violent  hostility  of  set,  Warren,  and  Sussex  Counties,  besides  Short  Hills 
the  rabble  towards  the  Catholic  name  and  priest-  in  Essex  and  Sprin^eld  in  Union.  He  opened  the 
hood.  Father  Robert  Harding  arrived  in  Philadel-  first  Catholic  scnool  m  New  Jersey  at  Madison;  built 
phia  from  England  in  August,  1749,  when  the  City  of  the  Church  of  the  Assumption  at  Morrist^wn*  St. 
Brotherly  Love  contained  only  2000  homes.  He  la-  Joseph's  at  Mendham:  and  St.  Rose's  at  Spnngneld, 
boured  in  New  Jersey  from  1762  until  his  death  in  now  removed  to  Short  Hills.  He  became  rector  of  St. 
1772,  at  the  age  of  seventy  years.  Father  Ferdinand  Patrick's  pro-cathedial  at  Newark  in  1853,  upon  the 
Farmer,  whose  family  name  was  Steenmeyer  (q.  v.),  arrival  of  the  BuUs  from  Rome  appointing  James 
may  be  considered  the  true  missionary  of  New  Jersey.  Roosevelt  Bayley,  first  Bishop  of  Newark;  he  built 

In  "First  Catholics  in  New  Jersey",  in  1744,  Seton  Hall  College  and  was  its  first  president,  and 

Father  Theodore  Schneider,  a  distinguished  Jesuit,  brought  the  Sisters  of  Charity  into  the  Diocese  of 

professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  Europe,  Newark. 

visited  New  Jersey  and  celebrated  Mass  at  the  iron        Diocbsbs  and  Catholic  Population. — ^The  State 

furnaces  there.   Having  some  skill  in  medicine,  he  of  New  Jersey  is  divided  ecclesiastically  into  the  Dio- 

was  accustomed  to  cure  the  body  as  well  as  the  soul;  ceses  of  Newark  and  Trenton,  which  are  treated  in 

and  travelling  about  under  the  name  of  Doctor  Schnei-  separate  articles.    The  total  Catholic  population  of 

der  he  obtained  access  to  places  whither  he  could  not  the  state  is  about  500,000. 


NSW   JSBSBY 


793 


MXW  JIB8XY 


Legislation  on  Matters  Directly  Affecting 
Religion. — ^The  First  Constitution  of  the  State  of 
New  Jersey,  adopted  at  the  Provincial  Congress  held 
at  Burlington  on  2  July.  1776,  was  a  mak^ift  war 
measure,  and  provided  tnat  all  state  officers  of  promi- 
nence e^ould  DC  dected  by  a  legislature  chosen  b^ 
voters  possessing  property  qualifications.  While  this 
instrument  provided  "that  no  person  shall  ever, 
within  this  colon^r,  be  deprived  of  the  inestimable 
privilege  of  worwiping  Ahni^ty  God  in  a  maimer 
agreeable  to  the  dictates  of  ms  own  conscience;  nor 
under  any  pretense  whatever  be  compelled  to  attend 
any  place  of  worshi]).  contrary  to  his  own  faith  and 
judgment";  and  while  it  also  provided  "that  there 
ehsM  be  no  establishment  of  any  one  religious  sect  in 
this  province  in  preference  to  another",  yet  it  dis- 
crimmated  by  implication  against  Catholics  for  pub- 
lic office  in  the  following  language:  "that  no  Prot- 
estant inhabitant  of  this  colony  shall  be  denied  the 
enjoyment  of  any  civil  right  merely  on  account  of  his 
religious  principles,  but  that  all  persons  professing  a 
belief  in  tne  faith  of  any  Protestant  sect,  who  shall  de- 
mean themselves  peaceably  under  the  government,  as 
hereby  established,  shall  be  capable  of  being  elected 
into  any  office  of  profit  or  trust,  or  being  a  member  of 
either  branch  of  the  Legislature,  and  shall  fully  and 
freely  enjoy  every  privilege  and  immunity  enjoyed 
by  others  their  fellow-subjects".  The  Constitution 
agreed  upon  in  convention  at  Trenton  in  1844,  and 
ratified  by  the  people  at  an  election  held  on  13  August, 
1844,  guarantees  absolute  freedom  of  worship,  and 
further  provides  that  "no  religious  test  shall  be  re- 
quired as  a  qualification  for  any  office  or  public  trust; 
and  no  person  shall  be  denied  the  enjoyment  of  any 
civil  right  merely  on  account  of  his  reu^ous  princi- 
ples." In  it  there  is  no  discrimination  m  favour  of 
Protestants  as  in  the  earlier  instrument. 

The  statutes  of  the  state  prohibit  all  worldly  em- 
ployment or  business,  except  works  of  necessity  or 
charity,  on  Sunday.  Oaths  are  administered  to  all 
witnesses  in  courts  of  justice  either  by  the  ceremony 
of  the  uplifted  hand  or  on  the  Bible,  except  where  one 
declares  himself,  for  conscientious  reasons,  to  be  scru- 

Eulous  concerning  the  taking  of  an  oath,  in  which  case 
is  solemn  affirmation  or  declaration  is  accepted. 
Blasphemy  and  profanity  are  prohibited  by  statute 
and  punishable  by  fine,  while  perjury  is  punished  by 
fine  and  imprisonment,  beades  disqualification  after- 
wards on  the  part  of  the  person  convicted  to  give  evi- 
dence in  any  court  of  justice.  The  sessions  of  the 
Legislature  are,  through  custom,  opened  by  prayer. 
Catholic  clergymen  have  frequently  officiated  m  both 
houses  on  such  occasions.  The  legal  holidays  in  New 
Jersey  are  New  Year's  I^ay;  Lincoln's  Birthday,  12 
February;  Washington's  Birthday,  22  February; 
Good  Fnday:  Memorial  Day,  also  known  as  Decora- 
tion Day,  30  May;  Independence  Day,  4  July;  12  Oc- 
tober, known  as  Columbus  Day;  the  first  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November,  or  Election  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day,  which  is  fixed  oy  the  governor's 
proclamation^  and  Christmas  Day.  There  is  no  stat- 
utory provision  recognizing  the  seal  of  the  confes- 
sional, but  no  attempt  to  compel  an  answer  to  a  ques- 
tion which  would  involve  a  breach  of  the  sacramental 
seal  has  ever  been  known  in  the  history  of  New  Jersey 
jurisprudence. 

Legislation  on  Mattebb  Affecting  Religious 
Work. — In  1875  a  liberal  statute  was  enacted,  wlidch 
has  since  then  been  supplemented  and  amended, 
whereby  parochial  corporations  can  be  created  through 
the  filing  with  the  county  clerk  of  a  certificate  of  in- 
corporation signed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
the  diocese  concerned,  the  vicar-general  (or,  in  case  of 
the  vacancy  of  either  of  those  offices,  the  administra- 
tor of  the  diocese  for  the  time  being),  and  two  lay 
members  of  the  church  or  congregation.  Religious 
societies  organised  imder  this  act  may  acquire,  pur- 


chase, and  hold  lands,  legacies,  donations^  and  othex 
personal  property  to  an  amount  not  exceedins  $3000  a 
year  (exclusive  of  the  church  edifices,  school-houses, 
and  parsonaffes,  and  the  lands  whereon  the  same  are 
erected),  andf  burying-places.  The  religious  corporar 
tion  may  grant  and  dispose  of  its  real  and  personal 

groperty;  But  aU  proceedings,  orders,  and  acts  must 
e  tnose  of  a  majority  of  the  corporation,  and  not  of  a 
less  number,  and  to  be  valid  must  receive  the  sanction 
of  the  bishop.  Under  an  Act  of  the  Legislature  ap- 
prove on  11  April,  1908,  any  Roman  Catnolic  diocese 
may  become  a  corporation,  and  be  able  unlimitedly  to 
acquire  and  hold  real  and  personal  property.  The 
legal  corporate  title  of  the  Newark  oiocese  is  ''The 
Roman  Catholic  Diocese  of  Newark'';  that  of  the 
Trenton  Diocese  is  "The  Diocese  of  Trenton". 
Church  property  is  exempt  from  taxation;  parsonages 
owned  by  religious  corporations,  and  the  land  whereon 
they  stand,  are  exempt  to  an  amoimt  not  exceeding 
$5000. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — ^A  revision  of  the  stat- 
utes relating  to  marriage,  enacted  in  1010,  empowers 
the  following  officers  to  perform  marriages  between 
such  persons  as  may  lawfully  enter  into  the  matri- 
monial relation:  the  chi^  justice  and  each  justice  of 
the  supreme  court,  the  chancellor  and  each  vice-chan- 
cellor, and  each  judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas 
and  justice  of  the  peace,  recorder  and  police  justice, 
and  mayor  of  a  city,  ana  every  "stated  and  ordained 
minister  of  the  gospel";  and  '  evexy  religious  society, 
institution  or  organization  in  this  State  may  join  to- 
gether in  marriage  such  persons  as  are  memblers  of  the 
said  society,  or  when  one  of  such  persons  is  a  member . 
of  such  society,  according  to  the  rules  and  customs  of 
the  society,  institution  or  organization  to  which  they 
or  either  of  them  belong".  The-same  act  renders  ab- 
solutely void  any  mamage  within  the  following  pro- 
hibited, degrees  of  relationship:  "A  man  shaU  not 
marry  any  of  his  ancestors  or  descendants,  or  his  sis- 
ter, or  the  daughter  of  his  brother  or  sister,  or  the  sis- 
ter of  his  father  or  mother,  whether  such  collateral 
kindred  be  of  the  whole  or  half  blood.  A  woman  shall 
not  marry  any  of  her  ancestors  or  descendants,  or  her 
brother,  or  the  son  of  her  brother  or  sister,  or  the 
brother  of  her  father  or  mother,  whether  sucn  collat- 
eral kindred  be  of  the  whole  or  half  blood".  Since  1 
July,  1010,  it  is  necessary  for  persons  intending  to  be 
married  to  obtain  first  a  marriage  licence  and  deliver 
the  same  to  the  clergyman,  magistrate,  or  person  who 
is  to  officiate,  before  the  proposed  marriage  can  be 
lawfully  performed;  but,  if  the  marriage  is  to  be  per- 
formed by  or  before  any  religious  society,  institution, 
or  organization,  the  licence  shall  be  delivered  to  the 
said  religious  society,  institution,  or  organization,  or 
any  officer  thereof.  In  Chaper  274  of  the  Laws  of 
1910,  which  makes  such  licences  necessary,  it  is  pro- 
vided that  "nothing  in  this  act  contained  shall  be 
deemed  or  taken  to  render  any  common  law  or  other 
marriage,  otherwise  lawful,  invalid  by  reason  of  the 
failure  to  take  out  a  licence  as  is  herein  provided". 

With  certain  limitations,  decrees  of  nullity  of  mar- 
riage may  be  rendered  in  aJl  cases,  when  (1)  either  of 
the  parties  has  another  wife  or  husband  living  at  the 
time  of  a  second  or  other  marriage,  (2)  the  parties  are 
within  the  degrees  prohibited  by  law,  (3)  the  parties, 
or  either  of  them,  are  at  the  time  of  marriage  physic- 
ally and  incurably  impotent,  (4)  the  parties,  or  either 
of  themj  were,  at  the  time  of  the  munage  incapable  of 
oonsentmg  thereto,  and  the  marriage  has  not  been 
subsequently  ratified,  (5)  at  the  suit  of  the  wife,  when 
she  was  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  at  the  time  of 
the  marriage,  unless  such  marriage  be  confirmed  by 
her  after  arriving  at  such  age ;  (6)  at  the  suit  of  the  hus- 
band, when  he  was  under  the  age  of  eighteen  at  the 
time  of  the  marriage,  unless  such  marriage  be  con- 
firmed by  him  after  arriving  at  such  age.  The  decree 
of  nullity  of  marriage  does  not  render  illegitimate  the 


794 


iflflue  of  any  marriage  bo  diBSolved,  except  where  the 
marriage  is  diBSolved  because  either  of  the  parties  had 
another  wife  or  husband  tiving  at  the  time  of  a  second 
or  other  marriage.  Such  marriage  shall  be  deemed 
void  from  the  beginning,  and  the  issue  thereof  shall  be 
illegitimate.  The  grounds  for  absolute  divorce  are: 
(1)  adultery;  (2)  wmul,  continued,  and  obstinate  de- 
sertion for  the  term  of  two  years.  Divorces  a  mensa 
ft  tharo  may  be  decreed  for  (1)  adultery;  (2)  wilful, 
continued,  and  obstinate  desertion  for  the  term  of  two 
years;  (3)  extreme  cruelty  in  either  of  the  parties.  In 
all  cases  of  divorce  a  merua  ei  thoro^  the  court  nuiy 
decree  a  separation  for  ever  thereafter,  or  for  a  limited 
time,  with  a  provision  that,  in  case  of  a  reconciliation 
at  any  time  thereafter,  the  parties  may  apply  for  a 
revocation  or  suspension  of  the  decree,  and  upon  such 
application  the  Court  shall  make  such  order. 

Wills. — All  persons  of  sound  mind  and  of  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years  are  legally  competent  to  dispose 
of  property  by  will.  No  specific  form  of  words  is 
necessary  in  a  will,  but  the  testator  must  state  in  the 
document  that  it  is  his  will :  and  it  must  be  signed,  and 
declared  or  published,  by  the  testator  as  his  will  in  the 
presence  of  at  least  two  subscribing  witnesses.  The 
witnesses  must  sign  in  the  presence  of  the  testator, 
and  in  the  presence  of  each  other.  A  codicil  to  a  will 
must  be  made  and  executed  with  the  same  require- 
ments as  a  will,  regarding  declaration  of  its  character, 
sipiature,  and  witnesses.  Unwritten  or  nuncupative 
wills  are  legal  under  some  rare  circumstances,  as  in 
cases  of  sudden  dangerous  sickness  or  accident,  in  the 
presence  of  at  least  three  competent  witnesses,  and  at 
the  request  of  the  person  about  to  die.  Devises  and 
be(]uests  may  be  validly  made  for  charitable  and  re- 
ligious purposes  and  to  religious  societies. 

Cemeteries. — ^The  parochial  corporation  statute 
enables  church  corporations  to  hold  title  to  "burying 
places '',  and  the  Diocesan  Corporation  Act  of  1908 
makes  the  diocesan  corporation  "capable  unlimit- 
edly*'  of  acquiring  and  holding  "leases,  legacies,  de- 
vises, monevs,  donations,  goods  and  chattels  of  all 
kinds,  church  edifices,  school  houses,  college  buildings, 
seiQinaries,  parsonages,  Sisters'  houses,  hospitals,  or- 

Shan  asylums,  reformatories  and  all  other  kinds  of  re- 
^ous,  ecclesiastical,  educational  and  charitable  in- 
stitutions, and  the  lands  whereon  the  same  are,  or  may 
be  erectea,  and  cemeteries  or  burying  places  and  any 
lands,  tenements  and  hereditaments  suitable  for  any 
or  all  of  said  purposes,  in  any  place  or  places  in  any 
such  diocese;  ana  the  same,  or  anv  part  thereof,  to 
lease,  sell,  grant,  demise,  alien  and  dispose  of;  .  .  .to 
exercise  any  corporate  powers  necessary  and  proper  to 
the  carrying  out  of  the  above  enumerated  powers,  and 
to  the  carrying  out  of  the  purposes  of  such  corpora- 
tion and  its  institutions.'^ 

Education. — A  single  little  Dutch  school  in  Bergen 
(now  Jersey  City)  in  1662  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  free  public  school  system  in  New  Jersey.  Tnat 
was  almost  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  and  since 
that  time  the  schools  have  increased  gradually  in  num- 
ber and  size  until,  according  to  the  New  Jersey  School 
Report  of  1909,  there  are  now  2052  public  schools  in 
New  Jersey,  with  a  total  seating  capacity  of  426,719. 
The  total  value  of  the  school  property  is  estimated  at 
$33,900,466.00.  There  are  1 1,235  teachers  emploved, 
of  which  1250  are  men  and  9985  are  women.  These 
receive  an  average  yearly  salary  of  $718.40.  For  the 
school  year  1908-9  the  current  expenses  of  the  schools 
amounted  to  $11,583,201 ;  the  cost  of  permanent  im- 
provements was  $4,996,887,  and  the  special  appropri- 
ations equalled  $647,253.  These  amounted  to  a  total 
appropriation  of  $17,227,331.  The  total  enrollment 
of  pupils  for  the  same  year  was  424,534.  The  state 
^upenntendent,  at  the  head  of  the  state  department 
f  public  instruction,  exercises  a  general  supervision 
ver  the  public  school  system  of  the  state.  He  is  ap- 
ointed  by  the  governor,  as  also  is  the  state  board  of 


education,  which  oonsidts  of  two  members  from  ea<^ 
oongressional  district.  The  county  superintendents  of 
schools  are  appointed  by  the  state  board  of  education. 
This  board  also  exercises  supervision  over  the  different 
state  educational  institutions,  such  for  example  as  the 
normal  schools.  Each  of  the  many  school  districts, 
into  which  the  state  is  divided,  has  its  own  school  or 
schools,  controlled  by  the  officers,  whom  the  voters  of 
the  district  elect.  In  the  cities  and  large  towns  tha« 
are  superintendents  or  supervising  principals  and 
school-Doards,  appointed  by  the  mavor. 

New  Jersey  has  two  state  normal  schools — one  at 
Trenton  and  one  at  Montclair.  The  school  at  Tren- 
ton was  established  in  1855  by  an  Act  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, and  has  in  connexion  with  it  the  State  ^lodel 
School.  The  Montclair  State  Normal  School  was 
formally  opened  on  28  September,  1908.  The  in- 
creasing demand  for  professionally  trained  teachers, 
and  the  inability  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  Tren- 
ton to  meet  it,  had  made  another  normal  school  neces- 
sary. At  Beverlj  is  the  Famum  School,  a  prepara- 
tory school  associated  with  the  State  Normal  School; 
at  Trenton  is  the  State  School  for  Deaf  Mutes;  at 
Bordentown  the  Manual  Training  and  Industrial 
School  for  Colored  Youths;  and  connected  with  Rut- 
gers College  is  the  State  Agricultural  College.  The 
principal  institutions  for  hif^er  education  in  New  Jer- 
sey are  Princeton  University  at  Princeton  (founded 
1746) ;  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  at  Hoboken; 
Rutgers  College  at  New  Brunswick  (chartered  as 
Queens  College,  1766);  Bordentown  Female  CoUcge 
at  Bordentown;  Saint  Peter's  College,  Jersey  City; 
Saint  Benedict's  College,  Newaric;  Seton  Hall  Col- 
lege, South  Orange  (founded  1856).  The  three  last- 
naentioned  are  Catholic  institutions.  (For  full  statis- 
tics concerning  the  Catholic  schools,  see  the  articles  on 
the  Dioceses  of  Newark  and  Trenton.) 

SiTQKATBs,  Jlianual  ofL€g%^aH9€  PttuHct  (Tre&ton,  1836) :  Re- 
winon  of  Ntw  Jerty  (Trenton,  1877);  SupflemmiU  to  tht  IUwi$um 
of  N.  J.  (Trenton,  1886) ;  Gonoral  SlatuU*  of  N.  J.  (Trentoa. 
1895);  FmoB&4LD.  UoUlaiiwo  ManutU  (Trenton,  1886-1910); 
Thiriy^nonth  Annxial  liepori  of  Ike  Slate  Board  of  Agrindtur* 
(Trenton,  1909) ;  Qeclogioal  Swnoy  of  N.  J.  The  Clay  and  Clay 
induUry  of  N.  J.  (Trenton,  1903) ;  Mbxkbb,  Nme  Jermy  (Elisa- 
beth. 1906) :  WBrTwmTAD,Contrxhution9  of  the  Batiy  Hiotory  of  Path 
Amboy  and  Adjoininy  Country  (New  York,  1856);  Fltkk.  T%e 
CatKeiie  Chwdi  in  N.  J.  (Morristown,  1904) ;  Stphxb  axd  Apoax, 
Hitt.  of  N.  J.  (Philmdelphia.  1870);  Proeoedinoe  <^f  the  N.  J.  Hi»- 
torieal  Soeitty  (Newark,  1867-1900) ;  Zwobbudv,  RoUaian  u»  S«v 
Ndherland  (Rochester.  1910):  AreMMt  oftKoSUiU  ofN.  J.  (Nw 
ark.  1880—);  MuLrono.  CinL  and  Politieal  HiU.  of  N,  J,  (Phik- 
delphU.  1851) ;  Smitr.  Hiat.  of  the  Colony  of  AToaa  Caoarm  or  N.  J. 
(Burltncton,  New  Jersey.  1765) ;  Tannkb,  Pronnoe  of  N.  J.,  leei- 
1738  (Now  York.  1908):  Lbb.  Now  Jmroty  (New  York,  1902); 
Raxju,  HxH,  of  N.  J.  (PhUadelphiB,  1877). 

WiLUAM  J.   KfiABNS. 

Newman*  John  Hknrt  (1801-1890),  Cardinal- 
Deacon  of  St.  George  in  Velabro,  divine,  philosopher, 
man  of  letters,  leader  of  the  Tractarian  Movement,  and 
the  most  illustrious  of  English  converts  to  the  Church, 
b.  in  the  City  of  London,  21  Feb.,  1801,  the  eldest  of 
six  children,  three  boys  and  three  girls ;  d.  at  Edgbaston, 
Birmingham,  11  Aug.,  1890.  Over  his  descent  there 
has  been  some  discussion  as  regards  the  paternal  sade. 
His  father  was  John  Newman,  a  bimker,  his  mother 
Jemima  Fourdrinier,  of  a  Huguenot  family  settled  in 
London  as  engravers  and  pajjer-makers.  It  is  stated 
that  the  name  was  at  one  time  spelt  Newmann;  it 
is  certain  that  many  Jews^  Engli^  or  foreign,  have 
borne  it:  and  the  siujgestion  has  been  thrown  out 
that  to  nis  Hebrew  affinities  the  cardinal  owed,  not 
only  his  cast  ot  features,  but  some  of  his  decided 
characteristics — e.  g.,  his  remarkable  skill  in  music 
and  mathematics,  his  dislike  of  metaphysical  specu- 
lations, his  grasp  of  the  concrete,  and  his  nervous  tem- 
perament. But  no  documentary  evidence  has  been 
found  to  confirm  the  suggestion.  fiUs  French  pedigjee 
is  undoubted.  It  accounts  for  the  religious  traimne, 
a  modified  Calvinism,  which  he  received  at  his 
motiier's  knees;  and  perhaps  it  helped  towards  the 


NEWMAN 


796 


NEWMAN 


"lucid  concision"  of  his  phrase  when  dealing  with 
abstruse  subjects.  His  Drother  Francis  mlliam. 
also  a  writer,  but  wanting  in  literary  charm,  turned 
from  the  English  Church  to  Deism;  Charles  Robert, 
the  second  son,  was  veiy  erratic,  and  professed  Athe- 
ism. One  sister.  Mary,  died  voung;  Jemima  has  a 
glace  in  the  caroinal's  biography  dunng  the  crisis  of 
is  Anglican  career;  and  to  a  daughter  of  Harriet. 
Anne  Mozley,  we  are  indebted  for  his  "Letters  and 
Correspondence"  down  to  1845,  which  contains  a 
sequel  from  his  own  hand  to  the  "Apolosia". 

A  classic  from  the  day  it  was  completed,  the  "Apo- 
logia" will  ever  be  the  chief  authority  for  Newman's 
early  thoughts,  and  for  his  judgment  on  the  great 
relij^ous  revival  known  as  the  Oxford  Movement,  of 
which  he  was  the  guide,  the  philosopher,  and  the 
mart3rr.  His  immense  correspondence,  the  larger 
portion  of  which  still  awaits  publication,  cannot 
essentially  change  our  estimate  of  one  who,  though 
subtile  to  a  degree  bordering  on  refinement,  was  also 
impulsive  and  open  with  his  friends,  as  well  as  bold 
in  nis  confidences  to  the  public.  From  all  that  is  thus 
known  of  him  we  may  infer  that  Newman's  greatness 
consisted  in  the  union  of  originality,  amounting  to 
genius  of  the  first  rank,  with  a  deep  spiritual  temper, 
the  whole  manifestyig  itself  in  language  of  perfect 
poise  and  rhythm,  in  energy  such  as  often  has  crea,.ted 
sects  or  Churches,  and  in  a  personality  no  less  winning 
than  sensitive.  Among  the  literary  stars  of  his  time 
Newman  is  distinguished  by  the  pure  Christian  ra- 
diance that  shines  in  his  life  and  writings.  He  is 
the  one  Englishman  of  that  era  who  imheld  the  an- 
cient creed  with  a  knowledge  that  only  theologians 
possess,  a  Shakespearean  force  of  style,  and  a  fervour 
worthy  of  the  saints.  It  is  this  imique  combination  that 
raises  nim  above  lay  preachers  de  vanitate  mundi  like 
Thackeray,  and  which  gives  him  a  place  apart  from 
Tennyson  and  Browning.  In  comparison  with  him 
Keble  is  a  light  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  Pusey  but  a 
devout  professor,  Liddon  a  less  eloquent  Lacordaire. 
Newman  occupies  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  position 
recalling  that  of  Bishop  Butler  in  the  ei^teenth.  As 
Butler  was  the  Christian  champion  against  Deism,  so 
Newman  is  the  Catholic  apologist  m  an  epoch  of 
Agnosticism,  and  amid  theories  of  evolution.  He  is, 
moreover,  a  poet,  and  his  "Dream  of  Gerontius"  far 
excels  the  meditative  verse  of  modem  singers  by  its 
happy  shadowing  forth  in  symbol  and  dramatic 
scenes  of  the  world  behind  the  veil. 

He  was  brought  up  from  a  child  to  take  great  de- 
light in  reading  the  Bible;  but  he  had  no  formed  reli- 
gious convictions  until  he  was  fifteen.  He  used  to 
wish  the  Arabian  tales  were  true;  his  mind  ran  on  un- 
known influences;  he  thought  life  possiblv  a  dream, 
himself  an  angel^  and  that  his  fellow-angels  might  be 
deceiving  him  with  the  semblance  of  a  material  world. 
He  was  "very  superstitious",  and  would  cross  himself 
on  going  into  the  dark.  At  fifteen  he  underwent 
"conversion",  though  not  quite  as  Evangelicals 
practise  it :  from  works  of  the  school  of  Calvin  he 
gained  definite  dogmatic  ideas:  and  he  rested  "in  the 
thought  of  two  and  two  onlv  aosolute  and  luminously 
self-evident  beings,  myself  and  my  Creator".  In 
other  words,  personality  became  the  primal  truth 
in  his 'philosophy;  not  matter,  law,  reason,  or  the  ex- 
perience of  the  senses.  Henceforth,  Newman  was  a 
Christian  mystic,  and  such  he  remained.  From  the 
writings  of  Thomas  Scott  of  Aston  Sandford,  "to 
whom,  humanly  speaking",  he  sa3rs, "  I  almost  owe  my 
soul",  he  learned  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  support- 
ing each  verse  of  the  Athanasian  Creed  with  texts  from 
Scripture.  Scott's  aphorisms  were  constantly  on  his 
lips  for  years,  "Houness  rather  than  peace",  and 
"Growth  the  only  evidence  of  life".  Law's  "Serious 
Call "  had  on  the  youth  a  Catholic  or  ascetic  influence: 
he  was  bom  to  be  a  missionary:  thought  it  God's  will 
that  he  should  lead  a  single  fife ;  was  enamoured  of 


quotations  from  the  Fathers  given  in  Milner's  "  Church 
History",  and,  reading  Newton  on  the  Prophecies, 
felt  convinced  that  the  pope  was  Antichrist.  He  had 
been  at  school  at  Ealing  near  London  from  the  age  d 
seven.  Alwayv  thoughtful,  shy,  and  affectionate,  he 
took  no  part  in  bovs'  games,  began  to  exercise  his 
pen  early,  read  the  Waverley  Novels,  imitated  Gibbon 
and  Johnson,  matriculated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
Dec.,  1816,  and  in  1818  won  a  scholarship  of  £60 
tenaole  for  nine  years.  In  1819  his  father's  bank  sus- 
pended pavment,  but  soon  discharged  its  liabilities  in 
full.  Working  too  hard  for  his  degree,  Newman  broke 
down,  and  gamed  in  1821  only  third-class  honours. 
But  his  powers  could  not  be  hidden.  Oriel  was  then 
first  in  reputation  and  intellect  among  the  Oxford 
Colleges^  and  of  Oriel  he  was  elected  a  fellow,  12  April, 
1822.  He  ever  felt  this  to  be  "the  turning  point  in 
his  life,  and  of  all  days  most  memorable". 

In  1821  he  had  given  up  the  intention  of  studying 
for  the  Bar,  and  resolved  to  take  orders.  As  tutor 
of  Oriel,  he  considered  that  he  had  a  cure  of  souls;  he 
was  oraained  on  13  June,  1824;  and  at  Pusey's  sug- 
gestion became  curate  of  St.  Clement's,  Oxford,  where 
he  spent  two  years  in  parochial  activity.  And  here 
the  views  in  which  he  had  been  brought  up  disap- 
pointed him;  "Calvinism  was  not  a  key  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  human  nature  as  they  occur  in  the  world- " 
It  would  not  work.  He  wrote  articles  on  Cicero,  etc.. 
and  his  first  "Essay  on  Miracles",  which  takes  a 
strictly  Protestant  attitude,  to  the  prejudice  of  those 
alleged  outside  Scripture.  But  he  also  fell  under  the 
influence  of  Whateley,  afterwards  Anglican  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  who,  in  1825^made  him  his  vice- 
principal  at  St.  Mary's  Hall.  Whateley  stimulated 
nim  by  discussion,  taught  him  the  notion  of  Chris- 
tianity as  a  social  and  sovereign  organism  distinct  from 
the  State,  but  led  him  in  the  direction  of  "liberal" 
ideas  ana  nominahstic  logic.  To  Whateley's  once 
famous  book  on  that  subject  Newman  contributed. 
From  Hawkins,  whom  his  casting  vote  made  Provost 
of  Oriel,  he  gained  the  Catholic  doctrines  of  tradition 
and  baptismal  regeneration,  as  well  as  a  certain  pre- 
cision ^f  terms  which,  long  afterwards,  gave  rise^to 
Kingsley's  misunderstanding  of  Newman's  methods 
in  writing.  By  another  Oxford  clergyman  he  was 
taught  to  believe  in  the  Apostolic  succession.  And 
Butler's  "Analogy",  read  m  1823.  made  an  era  in 
his  religious  opimons.  It  is  probably  not  too  much 
to  say  that  this  deep  and  searching  book  became 
Newman's  guide  in  life,  and  gave  rise  not  onTy  to  the 
"Essay  on  Development"  but  to  the  "Grammar  of 
Assent".  In  particular  it  offered  a  reflective  account 
of  ethics  and  conscience  which  confirmed  his  earliest 
beliefs  in  a  lawgiver  and  judge  intimately  present  to 
the  soul.  On  another  line  it  suggested  the  sacramen- 
tal system,  or  the  "Economy",  of  which  the  Alexan- 
drians Clement  and  St.  Atnanasius  are  exponents. 
To  sum  up,  at  this  formative  period  the  sources 
whence  Newman  derived  his  principles  as  well  as 
his  doctrines  were  Anglican  and  Greek,  not  Roman  or 
German.  His  Calvinism  dropped  away;  in  time  he 
withdrew  from  the  Bible  Society.  He  was  growing 
fiercely  anti-Erastian :  and  Whateley  saw  the  elements 
of  a  fresh  party  in  tne  Church  leathering  round  one 
whom  Oriel  had  chosen  for  his  mtellectual  promise, 
but  whom  Oxford  was  to  know  as  a  critic  and  antag- 
onist of  the  "March  of  Mind". 

His  college  in  1828  made  him  Vicar  of  St.  Mary's 
(which  was  also  the  universitv  church),  and  in  its  pul- 
pit he  delivered  the  "Parochial  Sermons",  without 
eloquence  or  gesture,  for  he  had  no  popular  gifts,  but 
with  a  thrilling  earnestness  and  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature  seldom  equalled.  When  published,  it  was  said 
of  them  that  they  "beat  all  other  sermons  out  of  the 
market  as  Scott's  tales  beat  all  other  stories".  They 
were  not  controversial;  and  there  is  little  in  them  to 
which  Catholic  theology  would  object.    Their  ohaa- 


NEWMAN  796  NSWXAN 

lened  stvle,  f^ility  of  illustration,  and  short  sharp  vided  Church.  "Charles",  said  Newman,  "is  the 
energy,  have  lost  nothing  by  age.  In  tone  they  are  king,  Laud  the  prelate,  Oxford  the  sacred  city,  of  this 
severe  and  often  melancholy,  as  if  the  utterance  of  an  principle."  Patristic  study  became  the  order  of  the 
isolated  spirit.  Though  gracious  and  even  tender-  day.  Newman's  first  volume,  "The  Arians  of  the 
hearted,  Newman's  peculiar  tamper  included  deep  re-  Fourth  Century",  is  an  undigested,  but  valuable  and 
serve.  He  had  not  in  his  composition,  as  he  says,  a  characteristic,  treatise,  wholly  Alexandrian  in  tone, 
grain  of  conviviality.  He  was  always  the  Oxford  dealing  with  creeds  and  sects  on  the  lines  of  the"  Eoon- 
scholar,  no  democrat,  suspicious  of  p5pular  move-  omy".  As  a  history  it  fails;  the  manner  is  oonfuaed, 
ments;  but  keenly  interested  in  political  stiidies  as  the  style  a  contrast  to  his  later  intensity  and.  direct- 
bearing  on  the  fortunes  of  the  Church.  This  disposi-  ness  of  expression.  But  as  a  thinker  Newman  never 
tion  was  intensified  by  his  friendship  with  Keble,  travelled  much  beyond  the  "Arians"  (published 
whose  "Christian  Year"  came  out  in  1827,  and  with  1833).  It  implies  a  mystic  philosophy  controlled  by 
R.  Hurrell  Froude,  a  man  of  impetuous  thought  and  Christian  dogma,  as  the  Chiirch  expounds  it. 
self-denying  practice.  In  1832  he  quarrelled  with  Dr.  In  the  "Apologia"  we  find  this  key  to  his  mental 
Hawkins,  who  would  not  endure  the  pastoral  idea  development  dropped  by  Newman,  not  undesignedly, 
which  Newman  cherished  of  his  college  work.  He  "I  understood",  he  says,  "...  that  the  escterior 
resigned  his  tutorship,  went  on  a  long  voyage  round  world,  physical  and  historical,  was  but  the  manifesta- 
the  Mediterranean  with  Froude,  ana  came  back  to  tion  to  our  senses  of  realities  greater  than  itself.  Na- 
Oxford,  where  on  14  July,  1833,  Keble  preached  the  ture  was  a  parable,  Scripture  was  an  allegory;  pagan 
Assize  sermon  on  "National  Apostasy".  That  day,  literature,  philosophy,  and  m3rthology,  properly  un- 
the  anniversary  of  the  French  Revolution,  gave  birth  derstood,  were  but  a  preparation  for  the  Gospel.  The 
to  the  Oxford  Movement.  Greek  poets  and  sases  were  in  a  sense  prophets." 

l*fewman's  voyage  to  the  coasts  of  North  Africa,  There  had  been  a  "dispensation"  of  the  Gentiles  as 
Italy,  Western  Greece,  and  Sicily  (Dec,  1832- July,  well  as  of  the  Jews.  Both  had  outwardly  come  to 
1833)  was  a  romantic  episode,  of  which  his  diaries  nought;  from  and  through  each  had  the  evangeli- 
have  preserved  the  incidents  and  the  colour.  In  cal  doctrine  been  made  manifest.  Thus  room  was 
Rome  he  saw  Wiseman  at  the  English  College;  the  granted  for  the  anticipation  of  deeper  disclosures,  of 
city,  as  mother  of  religion  to  his  native  land,  laid  a  truths  still  under  the  veil  of  the  letter.  Holy  Church 
spell  on  him  never  more  to  be  undone.  He  felt  caUed  "will  remain  after  all  but  a  S3rmbol  of  those  neavenly 
to  some  high  mission;  and  when  fever  took  him  at  facts  which  fill  eternity.  Her  msrsteries  are  but  the 
Leonforte  in  Sicily  (where  he  was  wandering  alone)  he  expression  in  human  language  of  truths  to  which  the 
cried  out,  "I  shall  not  die,  I  have  not  sinned  against  human  mind  is  unequal  (  Apol."^  ed.  1895,  p.  27). 
jthe  light."  Off  Cape  Ortegal,  11  Dec.,  1832,  he  had  Such  was  the  teaching  that  "came  like  muac"  to  his 
{composed  the  first  of  a  series  of  poemsj  condensed,  inward  ear^  from  Athens  and  Alexandria.  Newman's 
;  passionate,  and  original,  which  prophesied  that  the  life  was  devoted,  first,  to  applying  this  magnificent 
Church  would  yet  reign  as  in  her  youth.  Becalmed  scheme  to  the  Church  of  England;  and  then,  when  it 
in  the  Straits  of  Bonifacio,  he  sought  guidance  through  would  not  suit  those  insular  cGmensions.  to  the  Church 
the  tender  verses,  "Lead,  Kindly  Lij^t",  deserveoly  of  the  centre,  to  Rome.  But  its  wide  implications 
treasured  by  all  the  English-speakinjg  races.  They  even  this  far^ancing  vision  did  not  take  in.  How- 
have  been  called  the  marching  song  oithe  Tractarian  ever^  it  substituted  a  dynamic  and  progressive  princi- 
host.  But  during  the  earlier  stages  of  that  journey  it  pie  m  Christianity  for  one  merely  static.  But  the 
was  not  clear,  even  to  the  leader  himself,  in  what  di-  Anglican  position  was  supposed  to  rely  on  Vincent  of 
recition  tl^^y  were  movin^^ — away  from  the  Revolution,  Lerins's  Ottod  •ubiquef  amnitting  of  no  real  develop- 
certainly^  Reform  was  m  the  air:  ten  Irish  bishoprics  ments;  its  divines  ur^ed  agaii^  Boasuet  the  "va- 
had  been  suppressed;  disestablishment  might  not  be  riations"  of  Catholicism.  From  1833  to  1839  the 
far  off.  There  was  need  of  resistance  to  the  enemies  Tractarian  leader  held  this  line  of  defence  without  a 
without,  and  of  a  second,  but  a  Catholic,  reformation  misgiving.  Suddenly  it  gave  way,  and  the  Via  Media 
within.  The  primitive  Church  must  somehow  be  re-  disappeajred. 
stored  in  England.  Meanwhile,  Oxford  was  shaken  like  Medicean  Flor- 

Others  met  in  committee  and  sent  up  an  address  to  ence  by  a  new  Savonarola,  who  made  disciples  on 
Canterbury;  Newman  began  the  "Tracts  for  the  every  hand;  who  stirred  up  sleepy  Conservatives 
Times",  as  he  teUs  us  with  a  smile,  "out  of  his  own  when  Hampden,  a  commonplace  don,  subiectcd 
head."..  To  him  Achilles  always  seemed  more  than  Christian  verities  to  the  dissolving  influence  of  Nom- 
the  host  of  the  Acha^ans.  He  took  his  motto  from  the  inalism ;  and  who  multiplied  books  and  lectures  deal- 
Iliad  :  "They  shall  know  the  difference  now."  Achil-  ing  with  all  religious  parties  at  once.  "The  Prophetic 
les  went  down  into  battle,  fought  for  eight  years,  won  Office"  was  a  formal  apology  of  the  Laudian  type;  the 
victory  upon  victory,  but  was  defeated  by  his  own  obscure,  but  often  beautiful,  "Treatise  .on  Justifica- 
weaporis  when  "Tract  90"  appeared,  and  retired  to  his  tion"  made  an  effort  "to  show  that  there  is  little  dif- 
tent  at  Littlemore,  a  broken  champion.  Neverthe-  ference  but  what  is  verbal  in  the  various  views,  found 
less,  he  had  done  a  lasting  work,  greater  than  Laud's  whether  among  Catholic  or  Protestant  divines"  on 
and  likely  to  overthrow  Cranmer's  in  the  end.  He  this  subject.  DoUinger  called  it  "the  greatest  master- 
had  resuscitated  the  Fathers,  brought  into  relief  the  piece  in  theology  that  England  had  produced  in  a  hun- 
sac^amental  system,  paved  the  way  for  an  astonishing  dred  years",  and  it  contains  the  true  answer  to  Puri- 
revival  of  long-forgotten  ritual,  and  given  the  clergy  a  tanism.  The  "University  Sermons",  profound  as 
hold  upon  thousands  at  the  moment  when  Erastian  their  theme,  aimed  at  determining  the  powers  and 
principles  were  on  the  eve  of  triumph.  "It  was  soon  limits  of  reason,  the  methods  of  revelation,  the  possi- 
after  1830",  says  Pattison  grimly,  "that  the  Tracts  bilities  of  a  real  theolorar.  Newman  wrote  so  much 
desolated  Oxford  life."  Newman's  position  was  des-  that  his  hand  almost  f»Ied  him.  Among  a  crowd  of 
ignated  the  Via  Media.  The  English  Church,  he  admirers  only  one  perhaps,  Hurrell  Froude,  could 
maintained,  lay  at  an  eaual  distance  from  Rome  and  meet  him  in  thought  on  fairly  equal  terms,  and  Froude 
Geneva.  It  was  Catholic  in  origin  and  doctrine:  it  passed  away  at  Dartington  in  1836.  The  pioneer  went 
anathematized  as  heresies  the  peculiar  tenets  whetner  his  road  alone.  He  made  a  bad  party-ie«der,  being 
of  Calvin  or  Luther;  it  could  not  but  protest  against  liable  to  sudden  gusts  and  personal  resolutions  which 
"Roman  corruptions",  which  were  excrescences  on  ended  in  catastrophe.  Butrrom  1839,  when  he  rdgned 
primitive  trutli.  Hence  England  stood  by  the  Fa-  at  Oxford  without  a  rival,  he  was  aiready  faltering, 
thers,  whose  teaching  the  Prayer  Book  handed  down;  In  his  own  language, he  had  seen  a  ghost — ^the shadow 
it  appealed  to  antiquity,  and  its  norm  was  the  undi-  of  Rome  overdouding  his  Anglican  compromise. 


JOHN  HENRY  CARDINAL  NEWMAN 

PAINTINQ-  BT   W,  W.   O0LK8S— BTCHINO   BY   p.-*.    ElAJON 


THE  NEW  YORK 

PUBLIC  LIL'RARY 


A^TOU,  L'N'OX  AND 
TI L D  hN  f  C  U  .\  UA  I  iO.N  r> 


J 


NBWBCAN  797  NEWMAN 

Two  names  are  associated  with  a  change  so  mo-  into  equal  parts — the  first  more  dramatic  and  its  per- 
mentous — Wiseman   and    Ward.    The    "Apologia"  spective  ascertained;  the  second  as  yet  imperfectly 
does  full  justice  to  Wiseman;  it  scarcely  mentions  told,  but  spent  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  «ii6 /uc6  ma- 
Ward  (see  Oxford  Movement).     Those  who  were  lignaf  under  suspicion  from  one  side  or  another,  his 
looking  on  might  have  predicted  a  colhsion  between  plans  thwarted,  his  motives  misconstrued.    Called  by 
the  Tractarians  and  Protestant  England,  which  had  Wiseman  to  Oscott,  ilear  Birmingham,  in  1846,  he  pro- 
forgotten  the  Caroline  divines.     This  came  about  on  ceeded  in  October  to  Rome,  and  was  there  ordained  by 
occasion  of  "  Tract  90  '* — in  itself  the  least  interesting  Cardinal  Fransoni.    The  pope  approved  of  his  scheme 
of  all  Newman's  publications.   The  tract  was  intended  for  establishing  in  England  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip 
to  keep  stragglers  from  Rome  bv  distin^shing  the  Neri:  in  1847  he  came  back,  and,  besides  setting  up  the 
corruptions  against  which  the  "fhirty-Nme  Articles  London  house,  took  mission  work  in  Birmingham, 
were  directed,  from  the  doctrines  of  Trent  which  they  Thence  he  moved  out  to  Ekigbaston,  where  the  corn- 
did  not  assail.   A  fiuious  and  universal  agitation  broke  munity  still  resides.    A  large  school  was  added  in 
out  in  consequence  (Feb^  1841).    Newman  was  de-  1869.    The  spacious  Renaissance  church,  consecrated 
nounced  as  a  traitor,  a  Guy  Fawkes  at  Oxford;  the  in  1909,  is  a  memorial  of  the  forty  years  during  which 
University  intervened  with  academic  maladroitness  Newman  made  his  home  in  that  place.    After  his 
and  called  the  tract   ''an   evasion".     Dr.  Bagot,  ''Sermons  to  Mixed  Congregations",  which  exceed  in 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  mildly  censured  it,  but  required  that  vigour  and  irony  all  others  published  by  him,  the 
the  tracts  shoula  cease.    For  three  years  condemna-  Oratorian  recluse  did  not  strive  to  gain  a  footing  in  the 
tions  from  the  bench  of  bishops  were  scattered  broad-  capital  of  the  Midlands.    He  always  felt  ''paucorum 
cast.     To  a  mind  constituted  like  Newman's,  imbued  hominiun  sum  " ;  his  charm  was  not  for  the  multitude, 
with  Ignatian  ideas  of  episcopacy,  and  unwilling  to  per-  As  a  Catholic  he  began  enthusiastically.    His  **  Lec- 
ceive  that  they  did  not  avail  in  tne  English  Establish-^,  tures  on  Anglican  Difficulties"  were  heard  in  London 
ment,  this  was  blu  ex  cathedra  judgment  against  him.*  by  large  audiences;  "Loss  and  Gain",  though  not 
He  stopped  the  tracts,  resigned  his  editorship  of  "The  much  of  a  story,  abounds  in  huipy  stroke^  and  per- 
British  Critic",  by  and  by  gave  up  St.  Mary^s,  and  re-  sonal  touches;  "Callista"  recalls  his  voyage  in  the 
tired  at  Littlemore  into  lay  conmiunion.    Nothing  is  Meditermnean  by  many  delightful  pages;  the  sermon 
clearer  than  that,  if  he  had  held  on  quietly,  he  would  at  the  Synod  of  Oscott  entitled  "The  second  Spring" 
have  won  the  day.    "Tract  90 "  does  not  go  so  far  as  has  a  rare  and  delicate  beauty.    It  is  said  that  Macau- 
many  Anglican  attempts  at  reconciliation  have  gone  lay  knew  it  by  heart.    "When  Newman  made  up  his 
since.    The  bishops  did  not  dream  of  coercing  nim  mind  to  ioin  the  Church  of  Rome",  observes  R.  H. 
into  submission.    But  he  had  lost  faith  in  himself.  Hutton,  "his  genius  bloomed  out  with  a  force  and  free- 
Reading  church  history,  he  saw  that  the  Via  Media"  dom  such  as  it  never  displayed  in  the  Anglican  com- 
was  no  new  thing.    It  had  been  the  refuge  6f^the  munion."    AD[d  again,    In  irony,  in  humour,  in  elo- 
Semiarians,  without  whom  Arianism  could  never  have,  .quence,:  in  ^aginative  force,  the  writings  of  the  latey 
flourished.    It  made  the  fortune  of  the  Monophysites^^ '  and,  as  we  may  call  it,  emancipated  portion  of  his  ca? 
thanks  to  whom  the  Church  of  Alexandria  had  sunk  reer  far  surpass  the  writings  of  his  theological  ap-^ 
into  heresy  and  fallen  a  prey  to  Mohammed's  legions,  prenticeship."    But  English  Catholic  literature  also 
The  analogy  which  Newman  had  observed  with  disr.  gained  a  persuasive  voice  and  a  classic  dignity  of 
may  was  enforced  from  another  side  by  ■VViseman/.  ..which  hitherto*  there  had  been  no  example, 
writing  on  the  Donatists  in  "The  Dubhn  Jieview".        His  owi^  secdssion^  preceded  by  that  of  Ward  (amid 
Wiseman  quoted  St.  Augustine^  "Securus  judicat  or-  conflicts  of  the  angnest  kind  at  Oxford),  and  followed 
bis  terrarum",  which  may  be  interpreted  "Catholic  by  many  others,  had  alarmed  Englishmen.    In  1850 
consent  is  the  judge  of  controversy'  .    Not  antiquity  came  the  "Papal  Aggression",  by  which  the  country 
studied  in  books,  not  the  bare  succession  of  bishops,  was  divid^  into  Catholic  sees,  and  a  Roman  cardinal 
but  the  living  Church  now  broke  upon  him  as  alone  announced  from  the  Flaminian  Gate  his  commission 
peremptory  and  infallible.    It  ever  had  been  so;  it  to  "govern"  Westminster.    The  nation  went  mad 
must  be  so  still.    Nicaea,  Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon  thus  with  excitement.    Newman  delivered  in  the  Corn  Ex- 
bore  witness  to  Rome.    Add  to  this  the  grotesoue  change^  Birmingham,  his  "Lectures  on  the  Position  of 
affair  of  the  Jerusalem  bishopric,  the  fruit  of  an  aJli-  Cathohcs"  (he  was  seldom  felicitous  in  titles  of  books), 
ance  with  Lutheran  Prussia,  and  the  Anglican  theory  and,  to  George  Eliot's  amazement,  they  revealed  him 
was  disproved  by  facts.  as  a  master  of  humorous,  almost  too  hvely  sketches, 
From  1841  Newman  was  on  his  death-bed  as  re-  witty  and  scornful  of  the  great  Protestant  tradition, 
garded  the  Anglican  Church.    He  and  some  friends  An  apostate  Italian  priest,  AchiUi,  was  haranguing 
Rved  together  at  Littlemore  in  monastic  seclusion,  against  the  Church.    Prompted  by  Wiseman,  the 
under  a  hard  rule  which  did  not  improve  his  delicate  Oratorian  gave  particulars  of  this  man's  infamous  ca- 
health.    In  February,  1843,  he  retracted  in  a  local  reer,  and  Achilli  brought  a  charge  of  libel.    Newman, 
newspaper  his  severe  language  towards  Rome;  in  Sep-  at  enormous  expense^  collected  evidence  which  fully 
tember  he  resigned  his  living.    With  immense  labour  justified  the  accusations  he  had  made.    But  a  no- 
he  composed  the  "Essay  on  the  Development  of  popery  jury  convicted  him.    He  was  fined  £100;  on 
Christian  Doctrine",  in  which  the  apparent  varisr  appeal,  the  verdict  was  quashed;  and  "The  Times" 
tions  of  dogma,  formerly  objected  by  him  against  the  admitted  that  a  miscarriage  of  justice  had  tiJ^en  place 
Catholic  Church,  were  explained  on  a  theory  of  evolu-  when  Newman  was  declared  gmlty.    Catholics  all  the 
tion,  curiously  anticipating  on  certain  points  the  great  world  over  came  to  his  relief.    His  thanks  are  on  rec- 
work  of  Darwin.    It  nas  many  most  original  passages,  ord  in  the  dedication  of  his  Dublin  "  Lectures".    But 
but  remains  a  fragment.    On  9  Oct.,  1845,  during  a  he  always  remembered  that  to  Wiseman's  haste  and 
period  of  excited  action  at  Oxford.  Newman  was  re-  carelessness  he  owed  this  trial, 
ceived  into  the  Church  by  Father  Dominic,  an  Italian        There  was  much  more  trouble  awaiting  him.    The 
Passionist,  three  days  after  Renan  had  broken  with  years  from  1851  to  1870  brou^t  disaster  to  a  series  of 
Saint-Sulpice  and  Catholicism.    The  event,  although  noble  projects  in  which  he  aimed  at  serving  religion 
long  in  prospect,  irritated  and  distressed  his  coimtry-  and  culture.    In  Ireland  the  bishops  had  been  com- 
men,  who  did  not  forgive  it  until  many  years  had  gone  pelled.  after  rejecting  the  "  Godless"  colleges  in  1847, 
by.    Its  importance  was  felt;  its  causes  were  not  to  undertake  a  university  of  their  own «    Neither  men 
known.    Hence  an  estrangement  which  only  the  ex-  nor  ideas  were  forthcoming;  the  State  would  not  sano- 
quisite  candour  of  Newman's  self-delineation  in  the  tion  degrees  conferred  by  a  private  body;  neverthe- 
"  Apologia"  could  entirely  heal.  less,  an  attempt  could  be  maae;  and  Newman  was  ap- 
His  conversion  divides  a  life  of  almost  ninety  years  pointed  rector,  November,  1851.    Three  years  passed 


t\T- 


( ^ 


NBWBCAN  799  MIWMAN 

3"  and  Lessing's  "Anti-Goeae".    It  annibi-  Under  these  impresalons  he  sent  to  his  bishop,  W.  B. 
'he  opponent  and  his  chaise.    Not  that  New-  UUathome,  a  confidential  letter  in  which  he  Branded, 
herish^  a  personal  animosity  against  Kingsley,  not  Uie  Fathers  of  the  Council,  but  the  journalists  ana 
he  had  never  met.    His  tone  was  determined  by  other  partisans  outside  who  were  abounding  in  violent 
<e  of  what  he  owed  to  his  own  honour  and  the  language,  as  "an  insolent  and  aggressive  faction '\ 
>lic  priesthood.    "Away  with  you,  Mr.  Kings-  The  letter  was  surreptitiously  made  public;  a  heated 
nd  dy  into  space '^  were  his  parting  words  to  a  controversy  ensued;  out  Newman  took  no  further  part 
whose  real  gitts  did  not  serve  mm  in  this  wild  en-  in  the  conciliar  proceedings.    Of  course  he  accepted 
^er.    Then  the  old  Tractarian  hero  told  the  story  the  dogmatic  dennitions;  and  in  1874  he  defended  the 
^life.    He  looked  upon  it  with  the  eve  of  an  artist,  Church  against  Gladstone's  charge  that  "Vatican- 
self-knowledge  like  that  of  Hamlet^  with  can-  ism"  was  equivalent  to  the  latest  fashions  in  religion 
,  and  pathos,  and  awe;  for  he  felt  a  gmding  power  (see  his  " Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk*'.), 
ag^out  which  had  brought  him  home.    The  hand-        Newman's  demeanour  towards  authority  was  ever 
was  unaffected,  the  portraits  of  Oxford  celebrities  one  of  submission;  but,  as  he  wrote  to  Phillips  de 
and  yet  kind;  the  orama  which  ended  in  his  re-  Lisle  in  1848,  "it  is  no  new  thing  with  me  to  feel  little 
ciation  of  place  and  power  at  St.  Mary's  moved  on  sympathy  with  parties^  or  extreme  opinions  of  any 
I  a  tragic  interest,    nis  brief  prologues  are  among  kind. "    In  recommendm^  the  Creed  he  would  employ 
jewels  of  English  prose.    A  word  from  St.  Angus-  "a  wise  and  gentle  minimism",  not  extenuating  what 
)  conv^ed  him,  and  its  poignant  effects  could  not  was  true  but  setting  down  nought  in  malice.    The- 
surpas^  in  the  "Confessions"  of  the  saint  him-  "Grammar  of  Assent"  illustrates  and  defends  this 
.    The  soliloquy,  as  we  may  term  it,  which  de-  method,  in  which  human  nature  is  not  left  out  of  ac- 
ibes  Newman's  attitude  since  1845,  presents  in  a  count.    It  is  curiously  Baconian,  for  it  eschews  ab- 
ty  view  his  apology,  which  is  not  a  surrender,  to  stractions  and  metaphysics,  being  directed  to  the 
dse  Catholics  who  mistrusted  him.    Though  he  problem  of  concrete  afl&mation,  its  motives  in  fact, 
.  ver  would  discuss  the  primary  problems  of  l^eism  and  its  relation  to  the  personality  of  the  individual. 
professOf  he  has  dwelt  on  the  apparent  chaos  of  hi»-  This  hitherto  unexplored  province  of  apologetics  lay 
ly,  goodness  defeated  and  mortal  efforts  futile,  with  dark,  while  the  objective  reasons  for  assent  had  en- 
piercing  eloquence  which  reminds  us  of  some  lament  grossed  attention;  we  might  term  it  the  casuistry  of 
i.^ch3rlus.  Me  met  Kingpsley's  accusations  of  double-  beUef.    Newman  brought  to  the  solution  a  profound 
ealing  proudly  and  in  detad.    But  by  the  time  he  acquaintance  with  the  human  heart,  which  was  his 
cached  them.  Englishmen — ^who  had  read  the  suo-  own;  a  resolve  to  stand  by  e^rience;  and  a  subtilty 
eesive  chapters  with  breathless   admiration — were  of  expression  corresponding  to  his  fine  analysis.    He 
.ompletely  brought  round.    No  finer  triumph  of  tal-  believed  in  "implicit"  logic,  varied  and  converging 
mt  in  the  service  of  conscience  has  been  put  on  record,  proofs,  indirect  demonstration  (ex  impossibili  or  ex 
BVom  that  day  the  Catholic  religion  may  date  its  re-  absurdo);  assent,  in  short,  in  not  a  mechanical  echo  of 
entrance  into  the  nationid  literature.    Instead  of  arid  the  syllogism  but  a  vital  act,  distinct  and  determined, 
polemics  and  technical  arguments,  a  living  soul  had  The  will,  sacrificed  in  many  schools  to  formal  intellect, 
revealed  in  its  journey  towards  the  old  faiui  wherein  recovers  its  power;  genius  and  common  sense  are  jua- 
lay  the  charm  that  drew  it  on.    Reality  became  more  tified.    Not  that  pure  logic  loses  its  rights,  or  truth  is 
fascinating  than  romance;  the  problem  which  stag-  merely  "that  which  each  man  troweth   ;  but  the 
gered  Protestants  and  modem  mind»— how  to  recon-  moral  being  furnishes  an  indispensable  premise  to  ar- 
cile  individual  genius  with  tradition,  private  judgment  guments  bearin|;  on  life,  and  all  that  is  meant  by  a 
with  authority — ^was   resolved  in  Newman's  great       pious  disposition"  towards  faith  is  marvellously 
example.  drawn  out.    As  a  sequel  and  crown  to  the  "Develop- 
Amid  acclamations  from  Catholics,  echoing  the  ment"  this  often  touching  volume  (which  reminds  us 
"avee  vehement"  of  the  world  outside,  he  turned  to  of  Pascal)  completes  the  author's  philosophy.    Some 
the  philosophy  which  would  justify  his  action.    He  portions  of  it  he  is  said  to  have  written  ten  times,  the 
began  the  ^'Grammar  of  Assent".    Still,  Manning,  last  chapter  many  times  more.    Yet  that  chapter  is 
now  archbishop,  Talbot,  chamberlain  of  Pius  IX,  already  m  part  antiquated.    The  general  descnption, 
Ward,  editor  of  the  "  Dublin  Review",  were  not  to  be  however,  oT  concrete  assent  appears  likely  to  survive . 
pacified.    Manning  thought  he  was  transplanting  the  all  objections.    How  far  it  bears  on  Kant  s"  Practical 
**  Oxford  tone  into  uie  Church  "  ^albot  describea  him  Reason  "  or  the  philosophy  of  the  will  as  developed  by 
as  "the  most  dangerous  man  in  England ";Wuil  used  Schopenhauer,  has  yet  to  be  considered.    But  we 
even  harder  terms.    In  1867  an  attack  by  a  Roman  must  not  tortiire  it  into  the  "pragmatism"  of  a  Uter 
correspondent  on  Newman  led  to  a  counter-move,  day.    As  Newman  held  bv  dogma  in  revelation,  so  he 
when  two  htmdred  distinguished  laymen  told  him,  would  never  have  denied  that  the  mind  enjoys  a  vision 
"Every  blow  that  touches  you  inflicts  a  wound  upon  of  truth  founded  on  reality.    He  was  a  mystic,  not  a 
the  Catholic  Church  in  this  country."    His  discnmi-  sceptic.    To  him  the  reason  by  which  men  guided 
nating  answer  on  the  cultusof  Our  Lady  to  Pusey's  themselves  was  "implicit"  rather  than  "explicit", 
"  Eirenicon"  had  been  taken  ill  in  some  quarters.   One  but  reason  nevertheless.    Abstractions  do  not  exist; 
of  his  Oratorians,  H.  I.  D.  Ryder,  was  bold  enough  to  but  the  world  is  a  fact;  our  own  personality  cannot  be 
cross  swords  with  the  editor  of  the  "Dublin",  who  in-  called  in  question;  the  will  is  a  true  cause;  and  God 
flicted  on  friend  and  foe  views  concerning  the  extent  reveals  ELimself  in  conscience.    Apologetics,  to  be 


of  papal  infallibility  which  the  Roman  authorities  did  persuasive,  should  address  the  individual;  for  real 

not  sanction;  and  Newman  rejoiced  in  the  assault.    In  sents,  however  multiplied,  are  each  single  and  sui  genr 

1870  the  "Grammer"  was  published.    But  its  ap-  erU,    Even  a  univeraal  creed  becomes  in  this  way  a 

pearance,  coinciding  with  the  Vatican  Council,  roused  private  acquisition.    As  the  "Development"  affords 

less  attention  than  the  author's  suspected  dislike  for  a  counterpart  to   Bossuet's   "Variations",   so  the 

the  aims  and  conduct  of  the  majority  at  Rome.    Years  "Grammar"  m&y  be  said  to  have  reduced  the  "per- 

before  he  had  proclaimed  his  belief  in  the  infallible  sonal  equation"  m  controversy  to  a  working  hypothe- 

pope.    His  "Cathedra  Sempitema"  rivals  in  fervour  sis,  whereas  in  Protestant  hands  it  had  served  the 

and  excels  in  genuine  rhetoric  the  passage  with  which  purpoeea  of  anarchy. 

de  Maistre  concluded  his  "  Du  Pape",  which  became  For  twenty  years  Newman  lay  under  imputations  at 

a  text  for  "ultramontane "  apologetics.   Yet  he  shrank  Rome,  which  misconstrued  his  teaching  and  his  char- 

from  the  perils  which  hun^  over  men  less  stable  than  aoter.    This,  which  has  been  called  the  ostracism  of  a 

himself,  snould  the  definition  be  carried.    He  would  siuntlv  gj^us,  undoubtedly  was  due  to  his  former 

b^ve  healed  the  breach  betweeQ  Rome  and  Munich.  frienoiBj  Ward  and  Manning.    In  February,  1878,